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Joanna Quinn

Joanna Lisa Quinn is an English independent film director and animator.

Early life
Quinn was born in Birmingham, England and grew up in North London. She went to school at Highgate Wood Secondary School and completed a foundation course in art at Goldsmiths College, University of London before studying for a BA in Graphic Design at Middlesex University.

Career
Quinn's first film Girls Night Out was completed in 1987 and won three awards at the Annecy Film Festival. This film introduced the anti-heroine character of Beryl and follows her antics when she goes to see a male stripper. Beryl appeared in Quinn's next film Body Beautiful (1990) in which she is the factory union rep dealing with a macho workmate named Vince, voiced by Rob Brydon. In Dreams and Desires - Family Ties (2006), Beryl becomes obsessed with film making and is asked to video a friend's wedding. Affairs of the Art was written and produced by Les Mills and voiced by Brendan Charleson and Menna Trussler as Beryl. It was released in January 2021, and won Best Animation at its World Premiere in the Clermont-Ferrand Short Film Festival. Beryl is totally obsessed with drawing and her fixation dominates her life the entire household.

Quinn's other films include Elles (1992), Britannia (1993) — with voice talent of Christine Pritchard and music by Ben Heneghan and Ian Lawson, Famous Fred (1996) — with voice talent of Lenny Henry and Tom Courtenay — and Wife of Bath (1998) — with voice talent of Billie Whitelaw, Liz Smith and David Troughton.

In 1987 Quinn founded Beryl Productions International Ltd with producer/writer Les Mills. As well as personal films Beryl Productions International Ltd has produced commercials for the UK, US, Mexican and Canadian markets. Clients include Charmin, (which in the 2010 US industry magazine, Adweek, put the Charmin bear as one of the top 10 advertising icons of the decade), Whiskas, and United Airlines. Nearly all of these commercials have Quinn's distinctive drawing style, and were animated by hand, on paper. Quinn has been honoured with retrospectives of her work in all over the world including Rome, Rio de Janeiro, New York, Stuttgart, Zagreb, Hiroshima, Toronto, Montreal, Gothenburg, Bradford, Cordoba, Tampere, Ottawa, London, Valencia, Taiwan, and Moscow.

In 2008, her work was shown in an exhibition called 'Drawings that Move', curated by Michael Harvey at the National Media Museum in Bradford, England. This exhibition has since travelled to Valencia, Spain, Ljubljana, Slovenia, Teplice, the Czech Republic, and Amarante in Portugal.

Quinn has been awarded an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Arts from the University of Wolverhampton, an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Arts from Middlesex University, a Fellowship from the University of Wales, and has been made an Honorary Fellow of Royal College of Art, London. She became a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 2017.

Awards
Quinn has won over a hundred international awards, including 2 Emmy awards, 4 BAFTA awards and Jury prizes at all the major animation festivals. Two of her films, Famous Fred (1997) and Affairs of the Art (2021), each received an Academy Award nomination. The latter film has already won numerous international awards including 6 Audience prizes, 2 grand prix, and awards for best comedy, best director, best British and Best European film. In 1996 Quinn was invited to Buckingham Palace and awarded the Leonardo da Vinci International Art Award. In 2006 her film Dreams and Desires won Grand Prix at World Festival of Animated Film - Animafest Zagreb. In 2014, she was honoured with the ASIFA laureate. In 2021 she received the Crystal Pegasus —a lifetime achievement award, at the 2021 Animator Festival in Poznań.

Filmography

 * Girls Night Out (1987)
 * Body Beautiful (1990)
 * Elles (1992)
 * Britannia (1993)
 * Famous Fred (1996)
 * The Wife of Bath - The Canterbury Tales (1998)
 * Dreams and Desires – Family Ties (2006)
 * Affairs of the Art (2021)

title: Joanna Quinn


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Allan Nairn

Allan Nairn (born 1956) is an American investigative journalist. He was imprisoned by Indonesian military forces under United States-backed strongman Suharto while reporting in East Timor. His writings have focused on U.S. foreign policy in such countries as Haiti, Guatemala, Indonesia, and East Timor.

Biography and career
Nairn was born in Morristown, New Jersey to a Puerto Rican mother. In high school, he got a job with consumer activist Ralph Nader, working for him for six years. His book The Reign of ETS: the Corporation That Makes up Minds, an investigation of the SAT I exam and its creators, the Educational Testing Service, was printed as part of the Ralph Nader report in 1980.

In 1980 Nairn visited Guatemala in the middle of a campaign of assassination against student leaders amidst a chaotic counterinsurgency campaign against Marxist guerrillas active in both urban and rural areas. He interviewed United States corporate executives there, who endorsed the death squads, and he decided to further investigate death squad activities in that country and in El Salvador, also in the throes of civil war. Subsequently, Nairn became interested in East Timor and helped found the East Timor Action Network (ETAN), which was instrumental in bringing the independence movement in East Timor to international attention.

On November 12, 1991, covering developments in East Timor, Nairn and fellow journalist Amy Goodman were badly beaten by Indonesian soldiers after they witnessed a mass killing of Timorese demonstrators in what became known as the Santa Cruz Massacre. He was beaten with the butts of M16 rifles and had his skull fractured in the melee. Nairn was declared a "threat to national security" and banned from East Timor, but he re-entered several times illegally, and his subsequent reports helped convince the U.S. Congress to cut off military aid to Jakarta in 1993. In a dispatch from East Timor on March 30, 1998, Nairn disclosed the continuing U.S. military training of Indonesian troops implicated in the torture and killing of civilians. In 1999, Nairn was detained briefly by the Indonesian Army in East Timor, where he had chosen to remain after most other media had evacuated following East Timor's independence referendum.

In an article published in The Nation in 1994 Nairn revealed the U.S. government's role in establishing and funding the Haitian paramilitary, Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haiti (FRAPH) which was involved in human rights abuses.

On March 24, 2010, it was revealed that Nairn could be facing possible detention and criminal charges in Indonesia for revealing Indonesian military assassinations of civilian activists. An Indonesian Military spokesperson told the Jakarta Globe that the military is considering legal actions against Nairn's publication.

In June 2013 Nairn and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning.

A June 27, 2014 report indicated that Nairn had been threatened with arrest for revealing the role of Indonesian presidential candidate Prabowo Subianto in human rights abuses.

On April 19, 2017, the Intercept published an exposé researched and written by Nairn warning that a cadre of Indonesian military officers had joined forces with an ISIS-affiliated "vigilante street movement" in order to unseat President Joko Widodo.

Awards
In 1993 Nairn and Amy Goodman received the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial First Prize for International Radio award for their reporting on East Timor. In 1994, Nairn won the George Polk Award for Journalism for Magazine Reporting. Also in 1994, Nairn received the James Aronson Award for Social Justice Journalism for his writing on Haiti for The Nation magazine. He was a recipient of the 1994 Joe A. Callaway Award for Civic Courage.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Allan Nairn


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Connla Cáem

Connla Cáem ("the beautiful"), also known as Connla Cruaidchelgach ("bloody blade"), son of Irereo, was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland.

Biography
He came to power after he killed his predecessor, and his father's killer, Fer Corb, and ruled for four (or twenty) years, until he died in Tara, and was succeeded by his son Ailill Caisfiaclach. The Lebor Gabála Érenn synchronises his reign with that of Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt (221–205 BC). The chronology of Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn dates his reign to 319–315 BC, the Annals of the Four Masters to 463–443 BC.

title: Connla Cáem


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Ar Log

Ar Log (Welsh for "for hire") are a Welsh folk band. They have performed since the 1970s and are recognized as the first professional Welsh folk band. They perform instrumental music and songs in Welsh.

Career
The original 1976 members were Dave Burns (guitar), Dafydd Roberts (triple harp, flute), Gwyndaf Roberts (knee harp and bass) and Iolo Jones (fiddle). The four individuals were brought together by the Welsh Committee of the Lorient Festival who were eager that a Welsh traditional group should represent the nation at that year's Interceltique festival in Lorient. Here they met The Dubliners, who suggested that they should stay together and turn professional. When they arrived in Brittany they had to think of a name and to reflect their status they called themselves Ar Log which means 'For Hire'. During this period, the group released the first of several eponymous albums: Ar Log.

In 1978 Iolo Jones left, and then in 1979 Dave Burns left. This could have led to the break-up of the group but the group successfully advertised for a new guitarist (Geraint Glynne Davies) and fiddler (Graham Pritchard).

It is notable that Ar Log's members are drawn from across the diverse geographic and cultural regions of Wales - and from differing musical backgrounds. Dafydd and Gwyndaf were brought up in Llwyngwril, Merionethshire in the northwestern heartland of the Welsh language. They were immersed in the tradition of Welsh folk harping by their tutor, Nansi Richards ("Telynores Maldwyn", the harpist of Maldwyn). Nansi subsequently endorsed Ar Log's first album. Iolo Jones is originally from Caerphilly, a former coal mining town in south Wales. Iolo was originally a classically trained fiddler but succeeded in crossing over to the folk genre. Graham Pritchard was also successful in combining, throughout his career, the complex harmonies of Ar Log with the lighter fiddle style employed by Mynediad am Ddim of which he was also a member.

The group's lead singers also provide contrasting styles. The original singer, Dave Burns, is from Cardiff, where one is likely to hear Irish session music as much as Welsh. Burns made the transition between Ar Log and the Hennessys, a south Wales group singing in the English language. In comparison, Geraint Glynne Davies is a Welsh speaker from the north. His main performing influence was the rock group Queen. Geraint played a 'roundback' guitar with a distinctive tinny edge. In the absence of drums or percussion, Geraint's energetic guitar style contributed at least as much to the rhythm as to the harmony of the group.

The quartet of Geraint, Graham, Dafydd and Gwyndaf recorded two albums, Ar Log II and Ar Log III. The former album contains perhaps the best example of the Roberts' brothers harping: "Merch Megan/Wyres Megan" and "Llydaw" are two classic triple harp arrangements. These contrast with sea shanties of J. Glyn Davies ("Fflat Huw Puw" and "Rownd yr Horn"). In 1983, Ar Log's horizons expanded substantially with the addition of Stephen ('Steffan') Rees (accordion, fiddle and keyboards). Ar Log's instrumental polymath, Stephen went on to lead an academic career in music. Rees played clarinet on one track ("Ciosg Talysarn"). Pritchard left in 1983.

By this time, Ar Log had become particularly associated with Dafydd Iwan, a long-standing figure in the Welsh national movement. In 1982 and 1983, Ar Log embarked on two tours with Iwan. The first tour 'Taith 700' was to mark the 700th anniversary of the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282. The tours produced two albums (Rhwng Hwyl a Thaith and Yma o Hyd). The synthesiser and accordion of Stephen Rees came to the fore for the first time on these two recordings. On some tracks, the synth would comprise simple, sustained background chords (e.g. "Dail y Teim"). On others, synth would be used to specific effect e.g. harpsichord sound ("Abergeni") or trumpet fanfare ("Yma o Hyd"). The accordion medley on the Yma o Hyd album with its proliferation of triplet notes remains perhaps the most complex set performed on Welsh accordion to date.

In 1983, the group recorded an all-instrumental album, Meillionen (=clover leaf), aimed primarily at the Welsh folk dance community. Dafydd Roberts is a skillful clog-dancer. The sleeve notes of the album also included a booklet of dance steps for the various sets on the album. Meillionen is the only non-eponymous album in the set.

Ar Log IV was recorded in 1984. Ar Log's ability to convert simple tunes into sophisticated harmonies is demonstrated in tracks such as "Cerrig y Rhyd".

By 1988, Iolo Jones had returned as a second fiddler. Ar Log V probably remains the group's most prominent album in terms of blending the synthesiser into the traditional elements. The group also rejoined Dafydd Iwan in 1988 for a celebration of the singer's quarter-centennial on the road. However, by now, Ar Log had essentially become a part-time operation, as the group's members had found full-time employment elsewhere.

In 1996, Ar Log celebrated its anniversary by recalling all of the group's members, past and present, to record. Ar Log VI. A book was compiled by Lyn Ebenezer to mark the group's anniversary. An enduring aspect of Ar Log VI was the adoption by Ar Log of a drummer and bassist in some selected concerts. The new style brings Ar Log into a more folk-rock style. Stephen Rees subsequently left the group and became a founder member of Crasdant. Geraint Cynan, a prolific composer and music arranger, joined on keyboards. Ar Log has taken Welsh music to over twenty countries on three continents and was the first professional Welsh traditional folk group. They are still gigging as a seven-piece and, in 2016, they celebrated 40 years with concerts in Wales, Germany and Ireland.

In August 2018, Ar Log released Ar Log VII at The National Eisteddfod in Cardiff - 40 years almost to the day after they released their first album, Ar Log at The National Eisteddfod in 1978.

In 2004, Dafydd Roberts became Chief Executive of the Welsh record label Sain, which had released several of Ar Log's albums.

title: Ar Log


text: User talk:70.48.244.53

title: User talk:70.48.244.53


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Caroline Leaf

Caroline Leaf (born August 12, 1946) is a Canadian-American filmmaker, animator, director, tutor and artist. She has produced numerous short animated films and her work has been recognized worldwide. She is best known as one of the pioneering filmmakers at the National Film Board of Canada (NFB). She worked at the NFB from 1972 to 1991. During that time, she created the sand animation and paint-on-glass animation techniques. She also tried new hands-on techniques with 70mm IMAX film. Her work is often representational of Canadian culture and is narrative-based. Leaf now lives in London, England, and is a tutor at The National Film and Television School. She maintains a studio in London working in oils and on paper and does landscape drawing with an iPad.

Biography and early work
Leaf was born in Seattle, Washington and lived in Boston. She attended Radcliffe College, Harvard University, and majored in architectural sciences and visual arts from 1964-1968. During her last year of studies, she enrolled in an animation class. The class was taught by Derek Lamb as a creative practice, not as a professional training. Lamb encouraged his students to focus on movement. Leaf worked with beach sand spread on a lightbox. This is when she created sand animation. Using this technique, she produced her first film Sand, or Peter and the Wolf and was awarded a scholarship from Harvard University. After graduation, she moved to Italy for a year to focus on her drawing. Returning to Harvard, she made her second animated film, Orfeo painting on glass (paint-on-glass animation.) She then did freelance work from a studio in Boston and made How Beaver Stole Fire. Leaf moved to Montreal to work as an animator/director for the National Film Board of Canada in 1972. She worked at the NFB in the French and English animation departments until 1991. She made 9 animated and live puppet films and a documentary film during those years.

Career
Leaf made her first film, Sand, or Peter and the Wolf, in 1969 at Harvard University. The short was made by pouring sand on a light box and manipulating the shapes frame-by-frame. Her second film at Harvard, Orfeo, was painted on glass under the camera. In 1972 she was invited to join the National Film Board of Canada's French Animation Studio. Her first film for the NFB was The Owl Who Married a Goose: An Eskimo Legend.

Making the film involved two trips to the Canadian arctic, first to collaborate on designs with the Inuit artist Nanogak and afterwards to record the sound effects for the film. Her most renowned short film was The Street, which was drawn directly under the camera with a mix of paint and glycerin. It was adapted from the short story by Mordechai Richler, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film at the 49th Academy Awards. It is also featured in the Animation Show of Shows.

Leaf co-directed an animated documentary film called Interview with Veronika Soul. She made a documentary film on the singers Kate and Anna McGarrigle, produced by Derek Lamb. In 1990, she made her first animation in nearly a decade by scratching into the emulsion of exposed black 70mm color film and reshooting it on 35mm film. She worked for 2 years using this technique on her film Two Sisters original version called Entre Deux Soeurs. The tone and story of this film is dark. Two Sisters won the award for best short film at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival in 1991.

Leaf worked as an animator/director at the NFB until 1991. In 1991 she left animation to establish herself as a fine arts artist working in oils. In 2004 she contributed animation to a film about the Underground Railroad produced by Acme Filmworks in Los Angeles called Suite for freedom. Her part was called Slavery.

Animation techniques and influence
Leaf discovered a spontaneous and artistic hand crafted way of animatingin her animation class at Harvard and developed it in her professional career, pioneering: Sand animation, Paint on glass, and hand etching on film stock. All of her techniques have been described as having "fluid transitions". She used different techniques to best tell the story of each of her films which showcased her narrative-based style. She created simple anecdotal and fictional stories based on literary works. Her films contain characters with relatable and complex issues. Her stories are mostly adaptations from literature and reflect her often dark narrative content. Every decision when I am animating is for the benefit of the story."

Leaf is also considered an influential Canadian filmmaker for her long standing service with the National Film Board of Canada and her representation of Canadian culture in her films. This can mainly be seen in her films The Street, The Owl who Married the Goose, and Kate and Anna McGarrigle.

Painting and drawing
Since 2000 Leaf has maintained a studio in London, England, and developed a personal style of painting in oils as well as drawings on paper. Her work is abstract and very much guided by mark-making and a personal search to create spaces a viewer is invited to enter. She has also developed a lively landscape style of direct observation from nature and works on field trips with paper and pencil and also iPad, using programs called Brushes and ProCreate.

Exhibitions
www.onlinegallery.site ‘Two Artists One Drawing’ 2022

www.onlinegallery.site ‘Spaces’ 2021

Playing with Perception, The Gallery, St. Martin-in-the-Fields, Trafalgar

Square, London, 2015

The Leper Chapel, Cambridge, England, 2008

The Shop Gallery, Vallance Road, London, 2006

The Corridor Gallery, London, 2004

Krakow Animation Festival, Krakow, Poland, 1998

Zagreb International Animation Festival, Zagreb, Croatia, 1996

Residencies
Michael Nock Foundation, Hong Kong, 2014

Abbaye de Fontevraud, France, 2014

Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity, residency, summer 1997

Other awards

 * 1994: Norman McLaren Award
 * 1996: Life Achievement Award, World Festival of Animated Film - Animafest Zagreb
 * 2017: Winsor McCay Award (Life Achievement, Annie Awards)
 * 2019: Dragon of Dragons Award, Krakow Film Festival

Nominations

 * 1977: Academy Award for The Street

title: Caroline Leaf


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High Energy Astronomy Observatory 1

HEAO-1 was an X-ray telescope launched in 1977. HEAO-1 surveyed the sky in the X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.2 keV – 10 MeV), providing nearly constant monitoring of X-ray sources near the ecliptic poles and more detailed studies of a number of objects by observations lasting 3–6 hours. It was the first of NASA's three High Energy Astronomy Observatories, HEAO 1, launched August 12, 1977 aboard an Atlas rocket with a Centaur upper stage, operated until 9 January 1979. During that time, it scanned the X-ray sky almost three times

HEAO included four X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy instruments, known as A1, A2, A3, and A4, respectively (before launch, HEAO 1 was known as HEAO A). The orbital inclination was about 22.7 degrees. HEAO 1 re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 15 March 1979.

A1: Large-Area Sky Survey instrument

The A1, or Large-Area Sky Survey (LASS) instrument, covered the 0.25–25 keV energy range, using seven large proportional counters. It was designed, operated, and managed at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) under the direction of Principal Investigator Dr. Herbert D. Friedman, and the prime contractor was TRW. The HEAO A-1 X-Ray Source Catalog included 842 discrete X-ray sources.

A2: Cosmic X-ray Experiment
The A2, or Cosmic X-ray Experiment (CXE), from the Goddard Space Flight Center, covered the 2–60 keV energy range with high spatial and spectral resolution. The Principal Investigators were Dr. Elihu A. Boldt and Dr. Gordon P. Garmire.

A3: Modulation Collimator instrument
The A3, or Modulation Collimator (MC) instrument, provided high-precision positions of X-ray sources, accurate enough to permit follow-up observations to identify optical and radio counterparts. It was provided by the Center for Astrophysics (Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Harvard College Observatory, SAO/HCO). Principal Investigators were Dr. Daniel A. Schwartz of SAO and Dr. Hale V. Bradt of MIT.

A4: Hard X-Ray / Low-Energy Gamma-ray experiment
The A4, or Hard X-ray / Low Energy Gamma-ray Experiment, used sodium iodide (NaI) scintillation counters to cover the energy range from about 20 keV to 10 MeV. It consisted of seven clustered modules, of three distinct designs, in a roughly hexagonal array. Each detector was actively shielded by surrounding CsI scintillators, in active-anti-coincidence, so that an extraneous particle or gamma-ray event from the side or rear would be vetoed electronically, and rejected. (It was discovered in early balloon flight by experimenters in the 1960s that passive collimators or shields, made of materials such as lead, actually increase the undesired background rate, due to the intense showers of secondary particles and photons produced by the extremely high energy (GeV) particles characteristic of the space radiation environment.) A plastic anti-coincidence scintillation shield, essentially transparent to gamma-ray photons, protected the detectors from high-energy charged particles entering from the front.

For all seven modules, the unwanted background effects of particles or photons entering from the rear was suppressed by a "phoswich" design, in which the active NaI detecting element was optically coupled to a layer of CsI on its rear surface, which was in turn optically coupled to a single photomultiplier tube for each of the seven units. Because the NaI has a much faster response time (~0.25 μs) than the CsI (~1 μs), electronic pulse shape discriminators could distinguish good events in the NaI from mixed events accompanied by a simultaneous interaction in the CsI.

The largest, or High Energy Detector (HED), occupied the central position and covered the upper range from ~120 keV to 10 MeV, with a field-of-view (FOV) collimated to 37° FWHM. Its NaI detector was 5 in in diameter by 3 in thick. The extreme penetrating power of photons in this energy range made it necessary to operate the HED in electronic anti-coincidence with the surrounding CsI and also the six other detectors of the hexagon.

Two Low Energy Detectors (LEDs) were located in positions 180° apart on opposite side of the hexagon. They had thin ~3 mm thick NaI detectors, also 5 in in diameter, covering the energy range from ~10–200 keV. Their FOV was defined to fan-shaped beams of 1.7° x 20° FWHM by passive, parallel slat-plate collimators. The slats of the two LEDs were inclined to ±30° to the nominal HEAO scanning direction, crossing each other at 60°. Thus, working together, they covered a wide field of view, but could localize celestial sources with a precision determined by their 1.7° narrow fields.

The four Medium Energy Detectors (MEDs), with a nominal energy range of 80 keV — 3 MeV, had 3 in dia by 1 in thick NaI detector crystals, and occupied the four remaining positions in the hexagon of modules. They had circular FOVs with a 17° FWHM.

The primary data from A4 consisted of "event-by-event" telemetry, listing each good (i.e., un-vetoed) event in the NaI detectors. The experiment had the flexibility to tag each event with its pulse height (proportional to its energy), and a one or two byte time tag, allowing precision timing of objects such as gamma-ray bursts and pulsars.

Results of the experiment included a catalog of the positions and intensities of hard X-ray (10–200 keV) sources, a strong observational basis for extremely strong magnetic fields (of order 1013 G) on the rotating neutron stars associated with Her X-1 and 4U 0115+634, a definitive diffuse component spectrum between 13 and 200 keV, discovery of the power-law shape of the Cygnus X-1 power density spectrum, and discovery of slow intensity cycles in the X-Ray sources SMC X-1 and LMC X-4, resulting in approximately 15 Ph.D theses and ~100 scientific publications.

The A4 instrument was provided and managed by the University of California at San Diego, under the direction of Prof. Laurence E. Peterson, in collaboration with the X-ray group at MIT, where the initial A4 data reduction was performed under the direction of Prof. Walter H. G. Lewin.

title: High Energy Astronomy Observatory 1


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EM-2 rifle

The EM-2, also known as Rifle, No.9, Mk.1 or Janson rifle, was a British assault rifle. It was briefly adopted by British forces in 1951, but the decision was overturned very shortly thereafter by Winston Churchill's incoming government in an effort to secure NATO standardisation of small arms and ammunition. It was an innovative weapon with the compact bullpup layout, built-in carrying handle and an optical sight.

The gun was designed to fire one of the first purpose-designed entirely new intermediate cartridges, designed to a 1945 requirement as a result of combat experience and German advances in weapons design during World War II. The round, the .280 British, was designed to replace the .303 round, which dated to the late 19th century. The EM-2 was intended to replace the Lee-Enfield bolt-action rifles and various submachineguns, while the TADEN would replace the Bren gun and Vickers machine gun.

As part of NATO standardization efforts, the United States claimed the .280 British round was too weak for use in rifles and machine guns, and instead favoured the much more powerful 7.62×51mm NATO round. A bullpup layout for a British service rifle was finally adopted some years later in form of the SA80 assault rifle, which remains in service today.

Post-war weapons
The British Army entered World War II with infantry weapons based on the .303 British round, including the Lee-Enfield bolt-action rifle, Vickers machine gun and the Bren gun. The .303 had been developed near the end of the 19th century, and had several problems when used in modern designs, notably, the rimmed cartridge design that made it more difficult to use in a magazine. Although the Army had intended to replace the .303 on several occasions dating from before World War I, these efforts were repeatedly put off due to one crisis after another. There had been some consideration of a less powerful cartridge just prior to the start of WWII, using a 7.92 mm bullet, but in the aftermath of the Dunkirk evacuation, any interest in this development ended.

In the immediate post-war period, Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield began the development of a series of designs firing German rounds. Polish designer Roman Korsak was producing a new light machine gun firing the 7.92×57mm Mauser round using a mechanism similar to the FG 42 known as the EM-1, while Jeziorański was designing an infantry weapon firing the StG 44's 7.92×33mm Kurz, the EM-2. A second infantry weapon was developed by Metcalf, the EM-3, but was not successful.

Intermediate cartridge
As the war ran down, in 1945 the Army formed the Small Arms Calibre Panel (SACP) to develop a new standard calibre for future weapons. Military intelligence suggested that it would be ten years before the Soviets would be ready for another major war, so the time frame for re-equipping was the mid-to-late 1950s. This gave the Panel ample time to test a number of options.

Experience during the war led to demands for a smaller "intermediate" sized cartridge that would allow fully automatic fire from a rifle-sized weapon. The Army demanded a high degree of accuracy due to the emphasis on marksmanship, so the new round was designed to meet the performance of the .303 (7.7 mm) at 1,000 yd but at the reduced range of 600 yd. After testing a variety of designs, they selected a bullet of about .270 in calibre and 1 in long, with a mass of 130 gr.

With the release of the SACP reports, interest in the original series of EM weapons ended and a call for weapons based on the new round went out in September 1947. By this time, Korsak had left the original EM-1 program and Kazimierz Januszewski had replaced him and had adopted the anglicized name Stefan Kenneth Janson. Janson's new design was given the name EM-2, in spite of being more closely related to the original EM-1. A new EM-1 was developed by Stanley Thorpe while Eric Hall developed an EM-3. Perhaps due to the confusing re-use of the names, these weapons are often referred to by their designer's names, becoming the "Thorpe EM-1", "Janson EM-2" and "Hall EM-3". As if this were not confusing enough, code names were also assigned, the EM-1 "Cobra", EM-2 "Mamba", while the EM-3 did not proceed and did not receive a name, as was the case for an entry from Dennis Burney as the EM-4.

Both the EM-1 and EM-2 were bullpup-style weapons; the magazine and chamber are placed behind the trigger and pistol grip, leading to a shorter overall length (by about 20%) and a better ratio between barrel length and weapon length. The overall length of the EM-2 is 9.5 in less than the US M14 in spite of its barrel being 2.5 in longer. Both EM-1 and EM-2 used 20-round magazines with "charger" reloads (the charger guide was later omitted from the magazines on EM2s), included the Universal Optical Sight (unit sight) due to the inability to add more traditional sights onto the rifle, had a carrying handle built into the top, could fire semi-automatic or fully automatic and the .280 (7 mm) round was accurate to about 800 yd.

The two designs were superficially similar but were internally very different in design and construction, with no parts in common other than sights. The EM-1 used 0.04 in thick steel plate pressings for simpler manufacture, a roller locked short recoil mechanism, and was somewhat heavier at about 10 lbs with an empty magazine. With uncommon flapper locking and a gas piston above the barrel, EM-2 was similar to Gewehr 43 in its mechanics, although it used a long stroke instead of a short stroke. A fifth design was commissioned from the BSA company, who built prototypes of a more conventional rifle using the same round, the BSA 28P.

The EM-2 was eventually selected as the better design, and was adopted as the British Army's new rifle on 25 April 1951 as the Rifle, Automatic, Calibre .280, Number 9, the designation by which it had been known in the War Office since the American weapons tests of 1950.

In common with other 20th century British designs such as the P14 and SA80, the EM-2 was designed to achieve a high degree of accuracy due to the tradition of British Army emphasis on marksmanship.

NATO standardisation
With the creation of NATO in 1949, there was a clear preference that NATO forces would have commonality of weapons and ammunition, so weapons designs had to meet with the approval of more than one government, and it was hoped, would be adopted by the organisation as a whole. It was at this point that the US put forth its own designs for NATO standardisation, using the 7.62×51mm NATO round in their prototype T25 and T44 rifles. Matters came to a head in 1951 in a shoot-off conducted at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, with the US claiming the British round was underpowered, and the British claiming the US round was too powerful to be used in a rifle in full-automatic mode. At the same trials the Belgian .280 FN FAL was also tested.

A series of lengthy debates followed, which were finally settled in an unlikely fashion when Canada stated they would use the British .280 round, but only if the US did as well. It was clear this would never happen. Winston Churchill felt a NATO standard was more important than any qualities of the weapon itself and overturned the decision by the previous Labour Minister of Defence, Manny Shinwell, who had already announced an intention to move to the .280 and the EM-2. During this time, prototype EM-2s were built in several different calibres: Chambons built two for the 7×49mm "Second Optimum" cartridge and another two for the 7.62×51mm NATO. One of the Chambon prototypes was even rebuilt for the US .30-06 cartridge. RSAF-Enfield and BSA built 15 and 10 prototypes for the 7.62×51mm, respectively. Canadian Arsenals Limited also built 10 rifles for the 7×51mm "Compromise" cartridge.

It was clear the EM-2 could not be easily adapted to the powerful 7.62×51mm NATO round, so the only realistic alternative was to adopt a licensed version of the FN FAL from Fabrique Nationale. Created by Dieudonné Saive, the FAL was itself a re-designed version of FN's own design for an intermediate cartridge rifle using the .280 round (the first prototypes had used the 7.92×33mm Kurz German round from the StG44). However, the FAL was more easily adaptable to handle the more powerful, longer round.

It grew in weight and length as a consequence. Churchill had hoped that with the British Commonwealth and other NATO countries adopting the FN FAL the US Army would do so as well, however the US adopted the T44 (an updated version of the M1 Garand) as the M14, which had won US trials against a more radical experimental rifle, the T25.

In time, the British position on intermediate cartridges was vindicated, the 7.62×51mm proving to be too powerful to be controllable in rifles using automatic mode, smaller cartridges being deemed necessary for that application. Due to combat experience in Vietnam in the mid-1960s, the US adopted the AR-15 as the M16. Chambered for the 5.56×45mm NATO intermediate cartridge, the M16 replaced the M14 which had been adopted little more than a decade earlier.

Some years afterwards, NATO also agreed to move to a smaller round more suitable for full-automatic fire and lighter weapons, ultimately adopting the 5.56×45mm. Prior to committing to the 5.56mm, the British Army conducted additional intermediate cartridge research.

Around 1970, a pair of the original .280 EM-2 were re-barrelled for an experimental 6.25×43mm cartridge. However, the revival of the EM-2 was short-lived as the 6.25mm was dropped for an even smaller 4.85mm cartridge in a completely new rifle, the L64/65 which evolved into the 5.56mm SA80 currently used by the British Army. In spite of having a similar appearance due to its bullpup layout the SA80 is mechanically unrelated to the EM-2; rather it is essentially a bullpup adaptation of the AR-18/SAR-87. However, the concept of an Infantry Personal Weapon which led to the design of the EM-2 was reflected in the SA80 system.

title: EM-2 rifle


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All the Pretty Horses (novel)

All the Pretty Horses is a novel by American author Cormac McCarthy published by Alfred A. Knopf in 1992. It was a bestseller, winning both the U.S. National Book Award and the National Book Critics Circle Award. It is the first of McCarthy's "Border Trilogy".

The book was adapted as a 2000 film starring Matt Damon and Penélope Cruz and directed by Billy Bob Thornton.

Plot summary
The novel tells of John Grady Cole, a 16-year-old who grew up on his grandfather's ranch in San Angelo, Texas. The boy was raised for a significant part of his youth, perhaps 15 of his 16 years, by a family of Mexican origin who worked on the ranch; he is a native speaker of Spanish and English. The story begins in 1949, soon after the death of John Grady's grandfather when Grady learns the ranch is to be sold. Faced with the prospect of moving into town, Grady instead chooses to leave and persuades his best friend, Lacey Rawlins, to accompany him. Traveling by horseback, the pair travel southward into Mexico, where they hope to find work as cowboys.

Shortly before they cross the Mexican border, they encounter a boy of about 13 who says he is named Jimmy Blevins. Blevins' origins and the authenticity of his name are never quite clarified. Blevins rides a huge bay horse that is far too fine a specimen to be the legal property of a runaway boy, but Blevins insists it is his. As they travel south through a severe thunderstorm, Blevins' horse runs off, and he loses his pistol.

Blevins persuades John Grady and Rawlins to accompany him to the nearest town to find the horse and his distinctive vintage Colt pistol. They find both but have no way to prove Blevins' ownership. Against his companions' better judgment, Blevins steals back the horse. As the three are riding away from the town they are pursued, and Blevins separates from Rawlins and John Grady. The pursuers follow Blevins, and Rawlins and Grady escape.

Rawlins and John Grady travel farther south. In the fertile oasis region of Coahuila known as the Bolsón de Cuatro Ciénegas, they find employment at a large ranch. There, John Grady first encounters the ranch owner's beautiful daughter, Alejandra. As Rawlins pursues work with the ranch hands, John Grady's skill with horses catches the eye of the owner, who brings him into the ranch house and promotes him to a more responsible position as a horse trainer and breeder. At this time, John Grady begins an affair with Alejandra, which attracts the attention of Alejandra's great aunt, an intelligent and strong-willed widow who in her younger days defied social convention by being involved with Mexican revolutionaries. She tells John Grady about the consequences in Mexican society of a woman losing her honor, and how Alejandra can ill afford to be seen in the presence of John Grady due to its potential impact on her reputation. The aunt recounts her own story of love and loss, and says, though it might seem she would be sympathetic to her own grandniece's desire, it, in fact, has the opposite impact; she opposes their involvement.

As John Grady and Alejandra secretly become more deeply involved, a group of Mexican Rangers visit the ranch and then ride off without explanation. Alejandra returns to Mexico City, where she is in school, and John Grady plans to ask her to admit her true feelings for him upon her return. When he confides this to a senior ranch hand who has been kind to him, John Grady is surprised to learn Alejandra has returned to the ranch without coming to see him.

Somewhat later, the Rangers return and arrest Rawlins and John Grady. They are brought to a dismal holding cell where they discover Blevins is also in custody. They learn Blevins had escaped his pursuers but subsequently returned to the village where he had recovered his horse, this time to retrieve the Colt pistol. In the process of getting the pistol, he shot and killed a man.

The three boys are interrogated and beaten, and a crooked police captain threatens them. While they are being transferred from their small jail to a larger prison, the captain and police officers detour to a remote ranch. Blevins is led off while Rawlins and John Grady watch powerlessly; then they hear gunshots as Blevins is executed.

The two friends are brought to the larger prison, where the inmates test the two boys by attacking them relentlessly over a period of days. They barely survive and try to figure out how to get out of prison; an inmate with special privileges, who seems to command the respect of the other inmates, takes an interest in their situation and suggests money might solve their problem. They decline this offer of protection because they have no money, and Rawlins is soon severely wounded by a knife-wielding inmate and is taken away; John Grady is not sure if Rawlins has survived. Soon afterward, John Grady is wounded while defending himself from a cuchillero and kills the man.

After a long recovery from his near-fatal stabbing, John Grady is released and finds Rawlins has also survived and been freed. They discover that Alejandra's aunt has interceded to free them, but on the condition that Alejandra undertakes never to see John Grady again.

Rawlins returns to the United States and John Grady tries to see Alejandra again. In the end, after a brief encounter, Alejandra decides she must keep her promise to her family and refuses John Grady's marriage proposal. John Grady, on his way back to Texas, kidnaps the captain at gunpoint, forces him to recover the horses and guns that were taken from him, Rawlins, and Blevins, and flees across the country. He is severely wounded in the escape and cauterizes a serious gunshot wound using his pistol barrel heated in a fire.

He considers killing the captain but encounters a group of Mexicans who call themselves "men of the country," who take the captain as a prisoner. John Grady eventually returns to Texas and spends months trying to find the owner of Blevins' horse. He gains legal possession of the horse in a court hearing where he recounts the entire story of his journey across the border, and the judge later tries to absolve John Grady of his guilt both for killing the prisoner who attacked him and for being unable to prevent Blevins being murdered.

John Grady briefly reunites with Rawlins to return his horse and learns that his own father has died (something he has already intuited). After watching the burial procession of one of his family's lifelong employees (an elderly Mexican woman who had helped care for three generations of his family from their infancy), the last strong link to his family and his past, John Grady rides off into the West with Blevins' horse in tow.

title: All the Pretty Horses (novel)


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Mopra Telescope

The 22-metre Mopra Radio Telescope, located near Coonabarabran, New South Wales, is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, operated by CSIRO. The name hails from the location of the facility close to Mopra Rock a geological formation overlooking the telescope. It is also close to the Siding Spring optical observatory in the Warrumbungle National Park.

For use as a single-dish, it has niche equipment allowing large bandwidths to be observed at millimeter-wavelengths. Being a part of the Australia Telescope, it is often used in conjunction with other AT antennas (e.g., the Australia Telescope Compact Array at Narrabri, and the 64-metre Parkes dish) to form a Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) array.

Commissioned in 2006 was the Mopra Spectrometer (MOPS) "backend" which has a maximum instantaneous bandwidth of 8 GHz, it also has special zoom-modes which allow high resolution studies of up to 16 138 MHz bands over any 8 GHz. It is especially tuned to the high-performance millimeter-wavelength receivers. The main specialty of the instrument is the response of the 3-mm receiver which nominally can observe between 75–115 GHz. New downconversion equipment fine-tuned the 3-mm system while it also received a 12-mm receiver package early-2006.

Until 2006, the telescope was operated on-site by visiting users. The default mode shifted to remote operation from the ATCA, Narrabri in the winter of 2006. On January 13, 2013, the telescope was threatened by the Coonabarabran bushfire but survived with only the on-site building suffering significant damage.

On the 27 May 2014, The Age newspaper reported that the telescope would be closed by CSIRO as a result of the 2014 Federal Budget.

On 16 September 2015, A group of scientists successfully used crowdfunding to raise $65,000 to temporarily delay the telescope's closure.

title: Mopra Telescope


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Coat of arms of Lviv

The coat of arms of the city of Lviv features a golden lion beneath a city gate in a blue field. The current version of the symbol was adopted by the city council in 1990. Based on the principles of the blazoning it features a lion passant Or, beneath a castle gate Or, in an azure field.

History
The lion was a traditional symbol of the city throughout the ages. The first such depictions occurred on 13th-century seals of dukes Andrew and Leo of Volhynia, rulers of medieval Ruthenian duchy of Halych-Volynia. The earliest known emblem of the city features a lion passant through a city gate pointed with three towers. It was featured on a city council seals, used by the magistrate in 1359 and later.

In 1526 Polish king Sigismund the Old of Poland formally accepted the coat of arms. To underline that the city belongs to the crown, a royal crown was added in the coronet. In later ages, although the colours and shapes of all the charges varied, their number remained the same. In 1586 bishop Jan Dymitr Solikowski, royal diplomat and a bishop of Lwów, as the city was then called, was accepted on an audience by the Pope Sixtus V. In the effect, the city was granted with a privilege of adding the papal coat of arms to its own. Thus the shape of the lion was modified. The lion passant was replaced with a lion rampant, with the papal emblem (three helmets and an 8-pointed star) in one of the legs. During the partitions of Poland, after the city got annexed by Austria, on November 6, 1789, the coat of arms was again confirmed by the highest authorities - this time by Emperor Joseph II of Austria.

During the Galician period the city emblem remained unchanged. After the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1919-1920, the city became once again a part of Poland. After the Polish-Ukrainian War of 1918, the city was awarded with the Virtuti Militari medal, the highest Polish military decoration. Since 1936, the medal was also featured in the emblem's compartment. In addition, the city's motto semper fidelis was also featured.

After World War II the city was annexed by Soviet Union. On July 15, 1967, a new, simplified coat of arms was approved by the Soviet authorities. It featured a lion rampant Or, below a three-towered city gate proper, with a hammer and sickle in the centre Or, on azure.

After Ukraine declared independence, on 5 July 1990 the city council passed a new coat of arms, modelled after the initial emblem from the times of Ruthenia. The new coat of arms was designed by Andriy Grechylo, Ivan Svarnyk, Ivan and Volodymyr Turetskyi.

title: Coat of arms of Lviv


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311 Claudia

Claudia (minor planet designation: 311 Claudia) is a typical Main belt asteroid.

It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on 11 June 1891 in Nice. The name was suggested to Charlois by the amateur astronomer Arthur Mee of Cardiff, Wales, to commemorate Mee's wife, Claudia.

311 Claudia is one of the Koronis family of asteroids. A group of astronomers, including Lucy D'Escoffier Crespo da Silva and Richard P. Binzel, used observations made between 1998 through 2000 to determine the spin-vector alignment of these asteroids. The collaborative work resulted in the creation of 61 new individual rotation lightcurves to augment previous published observations.

title: 311 Claudia


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312 Pierretta

Pierretta (minor planet designation: 312 Pierretta) (A891 QA) is a 46 km main-belt asteroid discovered on 28 Aug 1891 by Auguste Charlois at Nice.

title: 312 Pierretta


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Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics

The Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA, formerly named ASTRO-D) was the fourth cosmic X-ray astronomy mission by JAXA, and the second for which the United States provided part of the scientific payload. The satellite was successfully launched on 20 February 1993. The first eight months of the ASCA mission were devoted to performance verification. Having established the quality of performance of all ASCA's instruments, the spacecraft provided science observations for the remainder of the mission. In this phase the observing program was open to astronomers based at Japanese and U.S. institutions, as well as those located in member states of the European Space Agency.

X-ray astronomy mission
ASCA was the first X-ray astronomy mission to combine imaging capability with a broad passband, good spectral resolution, and a large effective area. The mission also was the first satellite to use CCDs for X-ray astronomy. With these properties, the primary scientific purpose of ASCA was the X-ray spectroscopy of astrophysical plasmas, especially the analysis of discrete features such as emission lines and absorption edges.

ASCA carried four large-area X-ray telescopes. At the focus of two of the telescopes is a gas imaging spectrometer (GIS), while a solid-state imaging spectrometer (SIS) is at the focus of the other two. The GIS is a gas-imaging scintillation proportional counter and is based on the GSPC that flew on the second Japanese X-ray astronomy mission, Tenma. The two identical charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras were provided for the two SISs by a hardware team from MIT, Osaka University and ISAS.

Significant contributions
The ASCA was launched by ISAS (Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences), Japan.

The sensitivity of ASCA's instruments allowed for the first detailed, broad-band spectra of distant quasars to be derived. In addition, ASCA's suite of instruments provided the best opportunity at the time for identifying the sources whose combined emission makes up the cosmic X-ray background.

It performed over 3000 observations, and produced over 1000 publications in refereed journals so far. The ASCA archive contains significant amounts of data for future analyses. Furthermore, the mission is termed highly successful when reflecting on what scientists in many counties have accomplished using ASCA data up to this time.

The U.S. contributed significantly to ASCA's scientific payloads. In return, 40% of ASCA observing time was made available to U.S. scientists. (ISAS also opened up 10% of the time to ESA scientists as a good-will gesture.) In addition, all ASCA data enter the public domain after a suitable period (1 year for U.S. data, 18 months for Japanese data) and become available to scientists worldwide. The design of ASCA was optimized for X-ray spectroscopy; thus it complemented ROSAT (optimized for X-ray imaging) and RXTE (optimized for timing studies). Finally, ASCA results cover almost the entire range of objects, from nearby stars to the most distant objects in the universe.

Mission end
The mission operated successfully for over 7 years until attitude control was lost on 14 July 2000 during a geomagnetic storm, after which no scientific observations were performed. ASCA reentered the atmosphere on 2 March 2001 after more than 8 years in orbit.

The primary responsibility of the U.S. ASCA GOF was to enable U.S. astronomers to make the best use of the ASCA mission, in close collaboration with the Japanese ASCA team.


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313 Chaldaea

Chaldaea (minor planet designation: 313 Chaldaea) is a large Main belt asteroid. It is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of carbonaceous material. It was discovered by Johann Palisa on 30 August 1891 in Vienna. It was named in honor of the Chaldeans, considered the founders of astrology.

In 2003, the asteroid was detected by radar from the Arecibo Observatory at a distance of 1.07 AU. The resulting data yielded an effective diameter of 96 ± 14 km.

title: 313 Chaldaea


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314 Rosalia

Rosalia (minor planet designation: 314 Rosalia) is a large Main belt asteroid. It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on 1 September 1891 in Nice.

Photometric observations of this asteroid collected during 2006 show a rotation period of 20.43 ± 0.02 hours with a brightness variation of 0.21 ± 0.02 magnitude.

title: 314 Rosalia


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L64/65

The L64 (also called the Enfield Individual Weapon) was an intermediate calibre British bullpup layout prototype assault rifle developed in the 1970s. At one time it was known as the 4.85 Individual Weapon, a reference to the calibre of the bullet it fired.

Development
The British Army had considered bullpup designs with intermediate calibre rounds in the 1950s, and officially adopted one of these as .280 British in 1951 in the EM-2 and Taden gun. However, US intransigence during NATO standardization efforts, and Winston Churchill's interest in standards above all, led to the adoption of the 7.62×51mm NATO round. This was significantly more powerful than the .280, and could not be easily adapted to the existing weapons. Instead, the British and Canadian armies adopted the L1A1 SLR, a licensed version of the FN FAL, itself originally designed for the .280.

During the 1960s the US found that, as the British had suggested, the 7.62 NATO round was far too powerful to be used in a fully automatic rifle. After considerable wrangling, the US Army eventually adopted the M16 rifle, firing the .223 Remington cartridge of much lower power than even the .280. With standardization "broken", the British Army once again started researching lighter rounds in the 1970s. These efforts suggested that a round of similar weight as the M16s, but firing a smaller diameter bullet, would offer the same recoil patterns while having much better penetration and ballistics. The result was the .190-inch (4.85 mm) round fitted in "necked down" but otherwise standard 5.56 mm cartridges from the M16.

The Royal Small Arms Factory developed a rifle to fire the new round. The new L64/65 "Individual Weapon" was outwardly similar to the earlier EM-2, but adopted a firing mechanism very similar to ArmaLite's latest AR-18 design, which was manufactured in Britain under license by the Sterling Armaments Company from 1975 to 1983. The first examples were available in 1972.

By 1976, NATO was ready to standardize on a small calibre round, and testing of the various rounds head-to-head started in 1977. As designed, the British round performed well, but NATO concluded that the Fabrique Nationale's entry based on the 5.56 mm, the "SS-109" gave the "best all-round performance" and was selected.

The L64 pattern was later developed into the SA80 family of weapons, which entered service with the UK in the 1980s.

Overview
The L64/65 is a gas operated, 4.85mm calibre bullpup assault rifle. It uses an AR18 type operation with an SVT40 type gas piston. The SUSAT sight is robust and reliable.

title: L64/65


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315 Constantia

Constantia (minor planet designation: 315 Constantia) is a stony background asteroid from the inner region of the asteroid belt, approximately 6.5 km in diameter. It was discovered by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at the Vienna Observatory on 4 September 1891. The asteroid is a member of the Flora family. It is spinning with a rotation period of $5.345 hours$ and shows a brightness variation of $0.57$ in magnitude.

title: 315 Constantia


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316 Goberta

Goberta (minor planet designation: 316 Goberta) is a mid-sized Themistian asteroid that was discovered by French astronomer Auguste Charlois on 8 September 1891 in Nice.

The light curve of 316 Goberta shows a periodicity of 8.605 ± 0.01 hours, during which time the brightness of the object varies by 0.20 ± 0.05 in magnitude.

title: 316 Goberta


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Talk:Social Liberal Movement

Just started creating the page!

title: Talk:Social Liberal Movement


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317 Roxane

Roxane (minor planet designation: 317 Roxane) is an asteroid from the asteroid belt approximately 19 km in diameter. It was discovered by Auguste Charlois from Nice on September 11, 1891. The name was chosen by F. Bidschof, an assistant at the Vienna Observatory, at Charlois' request; Bidschof chose to name it after Roxana, the wife of Alexander the Great, and at first used the spelling "Roxana".

In 2008, a team identified Roxane as the closest known spectroscopic match for the Peña Blanca Spring meteorite that landed in a swimming pool in Texas in 1946. There is a possibility, therefore, that 317 Roxane is from the same parent object as this meteorite.

Satellite
In 2009, a team using the Gemini North adaptive optics telescope discovered a moon orbiting Roxane. The moon is named Olympias, after the mother of Alexander the Great who was the king of Macedonia and husband of Roxana. Prior to its naming, the moon was provisionally named. It measures 5 km in diameter and orbits 245 km from Roxane, completing one orbit every 13 days.

title: 317 Roxane


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Parish register

A parish register, alternatively known as a parochial register, is a handwritten volume, normally kept in the parish church of an ecclesiastical parish in which certain details of religious ceremonies marking major events such as baptisms (together with the dates and often names of the parents), marriages (with the names of both partners), and burials (within the parish) are recorded. Along with these events, church goods, the parish's business, and notes on various happenings in the parish may also be recorded. These records exist in England because they were required by law and for the purpose of preventing bigamy and consanguineous marriage.

The information recorded in registers was also considered significant for secular governments’ own recordkeeping, resulting in the churches supplying the state with copies of all parish register entries. A good register permits the family structure of the community to be reconstituted as far back as the sixteenth century. Thus, these records can be distilled for the definitive study of the history of several nations’ populations. They also provide insight into the lives and interrelationships of parishioners.

England and Wales
Parish registers were formally introduced in England and Wales on 5 September 1538 shortly after the formal split with Rome in 1534, when Thomas Cromwell, chief minister to Henry VIII, acting as his Vicar General, issued an injunction requiring that in each parish of the Church of England registers of all baptisms, marriages, and burials be kept. Before this, a few Roman Catholic religious houses and parish priests had kept informal notes on the baptisms, marriages, and burials of the prominent local families and obituaries of holy persons. This injunction was addressed to the rector or vicar of every church parish in England. By contrast, surviving Roman Catholic communities were discouraged from keeping similar records, as they needed their names to remain hidden in a country now hostile to the Church of Rome. Cromwell's order had, however, nothing to do with religious doctrine or the papacy, but rather indicated the desire of the central government to have better knowledge of the population of the country. Church historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has suggested that the measure may have been introduced as a means to identify infiltration into England by members of the outlawed Anabaptist sects: their adherents did not baptise infants, due to their doctrine that only active believers could be baptised, thereby excluding "dumb" or "unmindful" children. The book was to be kept in a "sure coffer" with two locks and keys, one held by the parish priest and one by the churchwardens. A fine of 3 shillings, 4 pence was to be levied for failure to comply. Many parishes ignored this order as it was commonly thought that it presaged a further tax.

Finally, in 1597, both Queen Elizabeth I and the Church of England's Convocation reaffirmed the injunction, adding that the registers were of permagnus usus and must be kept in books of parchment leaves. They mandated the keeping of duplicate registers or bishop's transcripts, ordering that annually copies of every parish's records of baptism, marriage, and burial be sent into the diocesan bishop's registrar. These records survive sporadically from this date and may make up for some gaps in the regular parish register due to war, carelessness, and loss due to other causes (fire, etc.). At the same time, all previous parish records (most found in a less durable form) had to be copied into the new sturdier books. The parish clerk was paid to copy the old records into a new parchment book in order to keep the record up to date.

During the English Civil War (1643–1647), and in the following periods of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, when the Church of England was suppressed and bishops abolished and replaced by Calvinist ministers under the Directory, records were poorly kept and many went missing after being destroyed (bored by beetles, chewed by rats or rendered illegible by damp) or hidden by the displaced Anglican clergy. Instead, for a brief period a civil official, confusingly also called the parish register, was elected locally and approved by two local justices of the peace. Often a semi-literal layman of Puritan hue, he was charged with keeping civil records of birth, marriage, and death in each parish for the balance of the Interregnum, and, in some cases, he even wrote his records into the old parish register. In the course of this passage from Anglican safekeeping to civil hands, however, many records were lost. The old format was re-adopted by the restored Church of England when the monarchy was restored in May 1660. Centuries later, this parsimony and neglect was belatedly remedied by depositing the surviving registers in county record offices where they were better safeguarded, conserved, and made accessible mostly on microfilm as that technology became available. On the other hand, the accurate parish registers of New France were rarely damaged by external events such as war, revolution, and fire. Thus, 300,000 entries were available for the time period 1621 to 1760.

In 1812 England, an "Act for the better regulating and preserving Parish and other Registers of Birth, Baptisms, Marriages, and Burials, in England" was passed It stated that "amending the Manner and Form of keeping and of preserving Registers of Baptisms, Marriages, and Burials of His Majesty's Subjects in the several Parishes and Places in England, will greatly facilitate the Proof of Pedigrees of Persons claiming to be entitled to Real or Personal Estates, and otherwise of great public Benefit and Advantage". Separate, printed registers were to be supplied by the King's Printer, and used for baptisms, marriages and burials. These are more or less unchanged to this day.

United States
In the United States, at least the parishes in the Roman Catholic dioceses maintained a similar practice of recording baptisms, marriages, burials, and often also confirmations and first communions. From the earliest pioneer churches ministered by itinerant priests, the records were written in ecclesiastical Latin. But after the Second Vatican Council and its reforms that included translating the Mass into local languages, most register entries gradually came to be written in English. In Protestant communions with stronger similarities to Roman Catholicism, parish registers are also important sources that document baptisms, marriages, and funerals. In Protestant and Evangelical churches, individual ministers often kept records of faith-related events among the congregation, but under much less guidance from any central governing body.

Italy
The parish register became mandatory in Italy for baptisms and marriages in 1563 after the Council of Trent and in 1614 for burials when its rules of compilation were as well normalised by the Church. Prior to 1563, the oldest registers of baptisms are preserved since 1379 in Gemona del Friuli, 1381 in Siena, 1428 in Florence or 1459 in Bologna.

France
In France, parish registers have been in use since the Middle Ages. The oldest surviving registers date back to 1303 and are posted in Givry. Other existing registers prior to orders of civil legislation in 1539 reside in Roz-Landrieux 1451, Paramé 1453, Lanloup 1467, Trans-la-Forêt 1479 and Signes 1500.

The parish register became mandatory in France for baptisms with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts signed into law by Francis I of France on August 10, 1539, then for marriages and burials with the Ordinance of Blois in 1579. They had to be sent every year to the bailiwick or sénéchaussée in the south of France. In April 1667, the Ordinance of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ordered a copy to be kept by the parish clergy as before the ordinance. By decree of the National Assembly of September 20, 1792, the keeping of the civil registers was given to mayors and the old parish registers went then to the public records of the archives communales, and the old bailiwick registers to the archives departementales created in 1796. But from 1795, the parish again kept some private registers, like the registres de catholicité for the Catholic Church which are also made in duplicate, one for the parish and one for the diocesan archives. The legalization of these documents, functioning both as a means of census as well as civil documentation, has in some cases been used to restore official acts of civil status such as after the downfall of the Paris commune and the reconstruction of Le Palais de Justice after the fires of 1871.

New France
The first Europeans to settle in North America continued the practice of establishing parish registers. Shortly after the establishment of Habitation, the arrival of Jesuit priests in 1615 facilitated the earliest beginnings of the parish register in New France.These earliest accounts entered into the register were recorded primarily within the Jesuits personal logs, and accounted exclusively for the number of deaths in the early settlement period of Quebec. However, over time the growing French population propagated the development and detailing of the parish register. Entries detailing births, marriages, baptisms and deaths were recorded and kept in the church of Notre Dame-de-la-Recouvrance. Unfortunately, in 1640 the church burned along with all parish records from 1620 to 1640. After the church burned, the parish priest commissioned at Notre Dame-de-la-Recouverance reconstructed the destroyed register entries from memory by recording the rather limited number of births, baptisms and marriages to take place within the colony during this 20-year period. Deaths however, were not recorded in the reconstructed registers and as a consequence there is no recorded account of the death of Samuel de Champlain who died in 1635.

Although the creating and maintaining parish registers in Europe had been in practice since the Middle Ages, legislation regarding the widespread and legal use of parish registers in France was officially passed into law with the signing of the Ordnance of Villers-Cotterets in 1539. However, it was not until 1666 where after perceiving the immense advantages to be gained through civil registration that King Louis XIV revitalized the parish registration system in France and her colonies. This edict, set forth by the king, made it compulsory for individuals to register within their parish communities. Moreover, in 1667 the king revealed the Ordonnance de Saint Germain en Laye, a piece of legislation which required parish priests to produce a duplicate of all registers so that all copies may be stored in emerging records offices. In New France, these duplicates were stored in Quebec and Montreal’s Courts of Justice official records office and listed New France’s Roman Catholic population exclusively. It was only until after cession and the British conquest of New France in 1760 that parish registers began to more openly include Protestants within the registry, and as civil subjects of Quebec.

Sweden
Parish registers have been kept for each parish by the Church of Sweden for some Swedish counties (Västmanland and Dalarna) since the 1620s, and generally for the whole Sweden since the 1670s. The church was ordered to keep even more detailed church books in king Charles XI's Church Law from 1686. The primary motivation was to keep track of the number of soldiers that were taken out from each parish, and that were financed by each parish, through the allotment system that was introduced in 1682. Another motivation was to keep track of religious knowledge, literacy and health among the population. The church books constitute of birth, death, marriage and moving in/out records, all of which were linked to the parish catechetical book, which was replaced in 1895 by the parish book. In country side parishes, each village or industrial town had its own section in the catechetical book, each farmyard its own page, and each person its own row. For city parishes, the book was divided into districts. The majority of church records are still preserved in the state archives, and available electronically over the Internet.

Contents and examples from England
The contents have changed over time, not being standardised in England until the Acts of 1753 and 1812. The following are among what you can expect to find in later registers, though in the earlier ones it is quite common to find only names recorded. Early entries will be in some form of Latin, often abbreviated.

Baptisms

 * Date of baptism
 * Date of birth (but this is often not recorded)
 * Child's forename
 * Child's surname (though normally omitted as father's name is assumed)
 * Father's name — blank if illegitimate
 * Mother's name (but this is often not recorded)
 * Father's occupation or rank
 * Place of birth (for large parishes)
 * Examples:
 * 1) Baptised 21 August 1632 William son of Francis Knaggs
 * 2) Baptism 5 January 1783 Richard son of Thomas Knaggs, farmer, and his wife Mary, born 6 December 1782

Marriages

 * Date of marriage
 * For both man and woman
 * Forename and Surname
 * Whether bachelor or spinster, widower or widow
 * Age
 * Whether of-this-parish or of some other place
 * Occupation (normally man only)
 * Father's forename, surname and occupation or rank
 * Signature
 * Whether by Banns or by Licence
 * Witness(es) signature(s)
 * Note: from 1837, the information contained in parish records is the same as that on a civil marriage certificate.
 * Examples:
 * 1) Married 2 May 1635 Francis Ducke and Anne Knaggs
 * 2) Married 16 May 1643 Leonard Huntroids yeoman of Brafferton and Lucy Knaggs widow of this parish
 * 3) [1643 Marriages] Alexander Mackree et Anna Hancocke undecimo die men(sis) Julii nupti fuerent Annoq(ue) predicto
 * 4) Married 11 August 1836 Richard Knaggs the younger, age 20, bachelor, farmer of Kilham and Elizabeth Wilson, age 25, spinster of this parish, by licence and with the consent of those whose consent is required

Burials

 * Date of burial
 * Name of deceased
 * Age of deceased
 * Occupation, rank or relationship of deceased
 * Normal place of abode of deceased
 * Examples:
 * 1) Buried 6 January 1620 Richard Knags
 * 2) Buried 4 November 1653 stillborn daughter of Raiph Knaggs of Ugthorpe
 * 3) Buried 25th Dec 1723 Mr George Knaggs, gent of Pollington, aged 74
 * 4) Buried 19 July 1762 Thomas Knaggs, son of Thomas tailor of Byers Green and Elizabeth, age 13, drowned, double fees

Dade and Barrington Registers
Dade and Barrington Registers are detailed registers that contain more information than standard contemporary baptism and burial registers. They usually commence in the late eighteenth century, but come to an end in 1812, when they were superseded by the requirements of George Rose's 1812 Act, which required more information to be recorded than in normal registers, but actually required less information to be recorded than in Dade and Barrington Registers. There are examples of a few parishes continuing to keep Dade or Barrington Registers after 1813. In some cases, two registers were kept, for example in the Co Durham parish of Whickham both Barrington and Rose Registers were kept for the period 1813–1819, after which the former were discontinued.

William Dade, a Yorkshire clergyman of the 18th century, was ahead of his time, in seeing the value of including as much information on individuals in the parish register as possible. In 1777 Archbishop William Markham decided that Dade's scheme of registration forms should be introduced throughout his diocese. The resulting registers, and some that are related, are now known as "Dade registers". The baptismal registers were to include child's name, seniority (e.g. first son), father's name, profession, place of abode and descent (i.e. names, professions and places of abode of the father's parents), similar information about the mother, and mother's parents, the infant's date of birth and baptism. Registers of this period are a gold-mine for genealogists, but the scheme was so much work for the parish priests that it did not last long.

In 1770 Dade wrote in the parish register of St. Helen's, York: "This scheme if properly put in execution will afford much clearer intelligence to the researches of posterity than the imperfect method hitherto generally pursued." His influence spread and the term Dade register has come to describe any parish registers that include more detail than expected for the time.

The application of this system was somewhat haphazard and many clergymen, particularly in more populated areas, resented the extra work involved in making these lengthy entries. The thought of duplicating them for the Bishop's Transcripts put many of them off and some refused to follow the new rules.

Barrington Registers
From about 1783, as Lord Bishop of Salisbury, the Rt Rev. Shute Barrington instigated a similar system somewhat simpler than Dade's, and followed this in Northumberland and Durham from 1798, when he was transferred to the diocese of Durham.

Transcriptions and indices
Most registers in the world have been deposited in diocesan archives or county record offices. Where these have been filmed, copies are available to scan from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints through the Family History Library. Microfiche copies of parish registers, along with transcriptions, are usually available at larger local libraries and county record offices.

England
Since Victorian times, amateur genealogists have transcribed and indexed parish registers. Some societies have also produced printed transcripts and indexes — notably the Parish Register Society, the Harleian Society and Phillimore & Co. The Society of Genealogists, in London, has a very large selection of such transcripts and indexes. The Family History Library in Salt Lake City also has a vast collection of films of original registers.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has also produced an index (the IGI), of very many register entries — mostly baptisms and marriages. The IGI is available as an online database and on microform matter at local "Family History Centers". Like all transcripts and indexes, the IGI should be used with caution, as errors can occur in legibility of the original or microfilm of the original, in reading the original handwriting, and in entering the material to the transcription. "Batch entries" are generally more reliable than "individual submissions."

title: Parish register


text:
318 Magdalena

Magdalena (minor planet designation: 318 Magdalena) is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun. It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on 24 September 1891 in Nice. It may be named for Mary Magdalene, who in legend travelled to Southern Gaul and is the patron saint of Provence.

On April 15, 2005, UT Magdalena occulted a 10.7 mag star in the constellation Scutum for observers along a path across Australia.

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title: 318 Magdalena


text:
Bishop's College (Sri Lanka)

Bishop's College in Colombo, Sri Lanka, is a private girls' school founded by the Anglican Church of Ceylon in February 1875.

Description
Bishop's College is a private fee-levying Anglican girls' school in Sri Lanka with about 1900 students in all grades from kindergarten to Grade 14. It is located at 15 Boyd Place, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. The current principal is Chemali G. Herath.

Origins (1857–1875)
Bishop's College started in 1857 as one of the earliest mission schools of the Church of England in Ceylon, and it was first known as Bishopsgate School. The Bishop of Colombo, the Rt. Rev. James Chapman (1845–1862), and his wife Frances were instrumental in setting up the school. Frances Chapman had set her heart on setting up a school for Christian girls with funds collected while on furlough in England. In 1857 she established a school in their own residence in Mutwal called Bishopsgate, with the 20 pupils she desired. The principal was a Mrs Long, who had served earlier at the Church Missionary School in Nallur, Jaffna. However, in May 1859, Frances Chapman returned to England due to ill health, Mrs Long died in 1861 and the school had to be temporarily closed. No reference to its reopening is available in the Diocesan Archives.

Reopening (1875–1887)

Bishop's College dates its beginning to 1875, when the school with 13 pupils was established at Fairfield House in Darley Road, under the same name - Bishopsgate School. Fairfield House is the present site of Link Holdings Ltd. Even today the word "Bishopsgate" stands engraved at the entrance to the building. The first principal to come out was Georgiana Down, who married Harry Drew, the son of Joseph Drew and music director at the nearby S. Thomas' College. Among the first girls enrolled were Minnie Von Possner, Hilda Obeysekera, Dorah Aserappah and Caroline Peiris. The first boys to enter the kindergarten were James and Donald Obeysekera and Leslie de Saram. Monthly expenses in running the school were about Rs. 300/- which included rent, salaries, and the hire of a piano. The income in fees in the first month totalled Rs. 302/50! In 1882 the school had twenty-one pupils, four of them in the school boarding. But the income was not sufficient to make ends meet. Even with the sale of the furniture, the debts could not be settled. Mrs. Drew resigned in April 1882, and with her departure the school had to be closed again. Mrs. Drew returned to England with her husband and four children.

Sisters of St. Margaret (1887–1955)
In 1887, three sisters from St Margaret's Convent in East Grinstead, England, came to Ceylon on missionary work. Their Society of Saint Margaret was a sorority founded by John Mason Neale in 1855, which had now expanded to an overseas mission. After a short location at Green Path, they established their convent in Polwatte, Kollupitiya.

One of them, Sister Joanna Mary, was asked to help in the running of the school. Principals and teachers who came to Ceylon to fulfil the goals of Christian mission often had to leave due to ill health, the rigours of the tropical climate or personal reasons. The answer seemed to be with the Sisters of St Margaret, and Sister Angela was the first sister to be principal of Bishopsgate School. The school was to be an institution to promote educational advancement, and also a finishing school for the daughters of Christian families. Subjects taught directed them to the Cambridge local examinations: French, drawing, singing, and piano playing were also on the curriculum.

In 1890, the then Bishop of Colombo, Reginald Copleston, purchased the Maradatin Cinnamon Gardens bordering Boyd Place, Colpetty. The school moved from Darley Road to these premises in 1892 and was renamed Bishop's College. Although the Sisters of St Margaret had by now for some years been associated with the running of the school, it was now with this shift that the school was passed into their care. Proximity to St Margaret's Convent at Polwatte was of great significance. For an unbroken period of sixty years from 1895 to 1955 these sisters guided the students of Bishop's College: not only in their mental development, but in the levels of charity, community spirit and public service, and upholding of the school motto "Non Sibi Sed Omnibus" (Not for Self, but for All).

There were twelve sisters who were principals or acting principals of the school in this period of 60 years. They were, in the order of their principalship: Sister Bridget Margaret, Sister Bertha Mary, Sister Letitia, Sister Eva, Sister Mary Kathleen (acting), Sister Marguerite, Sister Ada Mary (acting), Sister Geraldine Mary, Sister Mary Kathleen, Sister Mabel, Sister Celestine and Sister Gabriel.

A close bond was established between Bishop's College and St Margaret's Convent, Polwatte, which remains up to now. The sisters are revered guests at all school functions; Bishop's College participates in all their special occasions and upholds the motto they gave the school by helping to the convent in fund-raising at their annual fair and in many other ways.

The number of students when the school moved to Boyd Place, was 70. As early as 1896 an association of past pupils, known then as the Bishop's College Association, was set up. As Bishop's College entered the 20th century the school chapel was dedicated to St Agnes, the Roman virgin and martyr of the 4th century.

The school faced Boyd Place on the south, a property known as Arncliffe on the east, a building known as Edgecote on the west, and a government reservation adjoining the Beira Lake on the north. The property on which the school was located was held in trust by the bishop of the Diocese of Colombo with a board of three members. As the numbers on the school increased, additional staff had to be recruited and accommodation organised. The adjoining building, Edgecote, was rented out to house the kindergarten. Buildings within the premises were expanded. In due course the school built its own Kindergarten block and Edgecote was given up in 1929. Elscourt, a magnificent building on Turret Road, opposite the Victoria Park, at one time the site of the Orient Club, was gifted to the school by a loyal past pupil, Maude Peiris, mother of Harold Peiris.

After much deliberation, and with the donor's approval, it was decided not to open a unit of the school at Elscourt as it was considered too far from the building at Boyd Place. Elscourt was sold and with funds realised. Arncliffe, the building adjoining the school with two road frontages - Boyd Place and General's Lake Road - was purchased. It was renamed Peiris House as a tribute to the generosity of Maude Peiris. With World War II entering the Asian zone, Bishop's College evacuated to "Fernhill" in Bahirawakanda, Kandy, with 37 students. Since the building could not house all the classrooms, Kandy Girls' High School generously shared their building. Those students who were left behind in Colombo were joined by those of Ladies College who had also not evacuated to form "Lake School" in the Bishop's College premises. Some of the buildings were taken over by the military, so the space was limited. In 1943, the danger from the war removed, the two branches of Bishop's College were reunited at Boyd Place. The number on the roll at the re-establishment was 100.

With the end of the war, the country was moving towards independence, and Bishop's College had in 1943 introduced Sinhala and Tamil as the media of instruction in the kindergarten, while they were being taught as a subject. Although the school had been established as a Christian missionary school, the Sisters of St Margaret had, as early as 1909, adopted a pluralist approach to religion. Of the 114 students at that time, 22 were non-Christian. In 1938 a Buddhist student was appointed head prefect.

Moving into the future (1955–2000)
In 1955 the sisters, due to the non-availability of personnel, gave up guiding the school. The school thereafter had its policy determined by a board of governors with the Bishop of Colombo as chairman. L. Y. Pode was appointed principal. In 1959 Bishop's College had the first Ceylonese principal, A. C. B. (Amabel) Jayasuriya, and with her came a new identity to the school. With a focus on national culture, she introduced the practice that the students of other faiths should commence their day with their own religious observance, as the Christians did, and have their own societies and celebrate their own festivals. She had a school song composed in Sinhala and set to oriental music. A Hewisi Band was trained to complement the Western Band. The activities of societies were in Sinhala, and in Tamil as the Tamil stream came up the school were on par with the English which had been a long-established tradition.

In 1959 Geoffrey Bawa and Ulrik Plesner were engaged to design a new three-storey classroom block for the school. The classrooms are located on the first and second floors with an open ground level, which is used as a covered activity and play area. The design is influenced by Scandinavian modernism with its "white cubic architecture" "sharped edged prismatic forms and brise soleil facades". The interior of the classroom block is protected by perforated external wall panels which are supported on a concrete portal frame and inserted between the exposed beam-ends to give an impression of extreme lightness and delicacy. A heavy horizontal eaves beam is hung out to protect the facade and to mask the pitched roof, thus accentuating the horizontality and modernist credentials of the design. When the building was nearing completion Bawa commissioned Lydia Duchini, an Italian sculptor, to create a sculpture of the bishop. The life sized gold leaf encrusted statue stands at the foot of the main staircase.

The school opted to be a free-levying private school and had to find its own financial resources. The school passed on after 19 years to the principalship of Gwen Dias Abeysinghe, a past pupil. She added to the standards inherited, and Bishop's College came to produce theatrical performances; including The Gondoliers with a combined cast of girls from Bishop's and boys from the brother school at S. Thomas' College.

The Past Pupils' Association, which has grown in strength, has always been supportive and assisted with money raising for buildings. Since the school hall, impressive in its day, was totally inadequate for present needs, the PPA was anxious to gift an auditorium to their Alma Mater, and with land leased out from the Government, laid the foundation in 1985. With the rising costs in construction, the project was spread out longer than envisaged but was commissioned for use in 1994. The school, the PPA and Parent-Teacher Association all contributed to make this a reality.

This last decade has seen the school steered by Lindley Jayasuriya, earlier vice-principal. Hemamali Bibile was the principal from 2003-2011. Sharmila Gunatilleke is the current principal.

Houses
The house system is an integral part of Bishop's College. Every student and staff member is placed into one of the four houses. Students who aren't first-generation Bishopians get placed into the same house as their kindred. Each house elects a Captain, Vice Captain and Games Captain at the start of the year both in primary and secondary school. The four houses compete throughout the year in various sports and arts categories, with the main competitive event being the Annual Inter-House Athletics Meet (also known as, The Annual Sports Meet), which is held in February. House points are marked throughout the year based on discipline which are then added or deducted during the Athletics Meet. The four houses are:

title: Bishop's College (Sri Lanka)