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Family Research Institute

The Family Research Institute (FRI), originally known as the Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality (ISIS), is an American socially conservative non-profit organization based in Colorado Springs, Colorado which states that it has "...one overriding mission: to generate empirical research on issues that threaten the traditional family, particularly homosexuality, AIDS, sexual social policy, and drug abuse". The FRI is part of a sociopolitical movement of socially conservative Christian organizations which seek to influence the political debate in the United States. They seek "...to restore a world where marriage is upheld and honored, where children are nurtured and protected, and where homosexuality is not taught and accepted, but instead is discouraged and rejected at every level." The Boston Globe reported that the FRI's 2005 budget was less than $200,000.

The FRI is led by Paul Cameron, who received a doctorate in psychology from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1966. Cameron founded the Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality in 1982, and this institute later became the FRI.

The Family Research Institute has been designated an anti-gay hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center since 2006 because of Cameron's discredited research and claims about LGBT people.

Founding
FRI (known then as ISIS) was founded in 1982 in Lincoln, Nebraska by psychologist Paul Cameron. In 1980, a local organization, the Lincoln Legion of Lesbians, had asked the Lincoln city government to outlaw discrimination based on sexual orientation. Cameron was vehemently opposed to legal protections for gay people, and presented his opposition as grounded in his psychological research. The opposition organization he formed was successful not only in defeating the proposed law, but in quickly becoming a major part of the nationwide anti-LGBT movement.

AIDS epidemic
Sociologist Sara Diamond of UC Berkeley states that the AIDS epidemic gave FRI a chance to oppose gay rights using "fear-mongering pseudoscience" before accurate scientific understanding of AIDS could be communicated to the public. Among other proposals, FRI advocated limiting AIDS by imprisoning "sexually active homosexuals" in concentration camps.

The organization's name was changed to the current one in 1987. It moved to Colorado Springs in 1992.

Reactions
In 1984, the Nebraska Psychological Association adopted a resolution stating that it "formally disassociates itself from the representations and interpretations of scientific literature offered by Dr. Paul Cameron in his writings and public statements on sexuality."

In 1986 the American Sociological Association (ASA) passed a resolution condemning Cameron for "consistent misrepresentation of sociological research" based on a report from the ASA's Committee on the Status of Homosexuals in Sociology, which summarized Cameron's inflammatory statements and commented, "It does not take great analytical abilities to suspect from even a cursory review of Cameron's writings that his claims have almost nothing to do with social science and that social science is used only to cover over another agenda. Very little of his work could find support from even a bad misreading of genuine social science investigation on the subject and some sociologists, such as Alan Bell, have been 'appalled' at the abuse of their work." In 1996, the board of directors of the Canadian Psychological Association approved a position statement disassociating the organization from Cameron's work on sexuality, stating that he had "consistently misinterpreted and misrepresented research on sexuality, homosexuality, and lesbianism".

Herek and others have also said that the FRI's research has been published in Psychological Reports. The Boston Globe says that the small journal charges authors to publish their studies, and that it has a non-standard peer-reviewing policy. Herek says that it has a "low rejection rate" and that Cameron's research "would have been rejected by more prestigious scientific journals"

Decline
The Christian right began to distance itself from FRI and Cameron in the mid-1990s. His acrimonious attacks on gays and lesbians were backfiring, according to journalist Wayne Besen; his attacks were responsible for a growing impression that Christianity was intolerant, and his claims appeared further removed from the truth as public understanding of AIDS grew. Focus on the Family denounced FRI, and moved on to associate itself with other pseudoscientific claims, such as conversion therapy, instead. However, FRI's claims are still cited in politics as of 2020.

Hate group designation
The Southern Poverty Law Center has listed FRI as an anti-gay hate group because of Cameron's discredited research and claims about LGBT people. According to the SPLC, Cameron's "continued demonization of LGBT people and the shoddy and suspect research methods he uses to advance his claims have earned his Family Research Institute (FRI) a place on the SPLC's anti-LGBT hate group list."

According to political scientist Barry J. Balleck, FRI continues to publish "pseudoscientific studies" as of 2019 that, Balleck says, "remain central to anti-LGBT groups on the extreme right of the political spectrum." Organizations that cite FRI's pseudoscientific research include the American Family Association, Coral Ridge Ministries, Concerned Women for America, Americans for Truth About Homosexuality, the Family Research Council. The Illinois Family Institute has also cited FRI's research, but no longer does.

title: Family Research Institute


text:
Talk:Elections in Cuba

Electoral System
I was able to find answers to most of my questions, and rewrote the "Electoral system" section of the 2023 Cuban parliamentary election. If someone is able to do it, please use this as a basis for reworking/reorganizing the "National elections" subsection on this article.--Criticalthinker (talk) 10:06, 24 May 2023 (UTC)

 * A lot of overwrought discussion about tone, but perhaps you all should spend more time on making sure you actually understand the system and update the article appropriately? Criticalthinker (talk) 23:05, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

Democracy demarcation problem
The set of democratic societies has a demarcation problem, where it's nearly impossible to create an objective standard that includes all countries considered democratic and does not include any non-democratic countries.

for example, it is often argued from outside and from within the U.S.A that it is in fact, not a democracy , or has only recently become a democracy.

for example, when using a first past the post voting system, a majority of people might not have voted for a candidate, but still be elected.

for example, the electoral college gives undue weight to certain peoples votes than others and unfairly biases certain outcomes.

therefore, a neutral point of view should not assert a country is or is not democratic, but by whom it is considered democratic, as it is often a case of geo-politics and subjective measures what a population considers a democratic nation or not.

therefore i propose adding "western commentators" to the "not democratic" assertion. Bart Terpstra (talk) 13:39, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * And as I have pointed out Cuba is in the west, the designation is meaningless and confusing. Also most (all?) are not "commentators" they are academics who study politics. Slatersteven (talk) 13:46, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * alright, how would you word it to reflect the fact that some think it's not a democracy but some think it is?
 * Assuming there are reliable sources to back-up that both positions are published. Bart Terpstra (talk) 13:49, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Well I would first ask for RS that say it is democratic. Slatersteven (talk) 13:51, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * What is considered reliable is subjective.
 * I can go through the work of finding reliable sources, but i would first like to get some consensus that there could be such a thing as a reliable source that asserts Cuba is democratic.
 * If people are of the opinion that "cuba is democratic" is not an opinion a reliable source would have, i would of course be unable to find a reliable source that reports that opinion. Bart Terpstra (talk) 13:53, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * If what Wikipedia considers to be a reliable source (WP:RS) isn't able to demonstrate that it's considered democratic then that would indicate that we shouldn't add caveats around the nationality of commentators who believe it's not. Instead it's simply that reliable sources are saying they're not a democracy. — Czello (music) 13:57, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * doesn't WP:RS outline that in matters of political bias, an in-line addition of the sources bias may be added?
 * The fact that the USA foreign policy relies on the argument that "Cuba is not democratic and the USA is democratic" would be sufficient cause for published sources from the USA to have this bias, no?
 * Would a published source in Cuba that makes the reverse argument with a similar level of due dilligence be considered a reliable source? Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:04, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * That would be the case if we were using US propaganda or government sources for this claim, but we're not; they're largely academic. Would a published source in Cuba that makes the reverse argument with a similar level of due dilligence be considered a reliable source? Probably not, because there isn't a free press in Cuba. Sources that come out of Cuba are going to be more curated by the Cuban government. — Czello (music) 14:14, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Why would something that makes the positive case be disregarded because the institutions in the same country generally don't publish the negative case?
 * by that same logic, the USA university sources should be removed, as americans generally don't publish the positive case for Cuban democracy and would meet heavy resistance if they tried. Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:21, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's odd to suggest that academics, the very people who are considered experts on the subject matter, would deliberately skew the truth. Of course if there are any individual academics who have been discredited then we can deem them unreliable, but in general academic works from nations with free speech or press are going to be considered reliable. Contrast this with Cuba where information is more regularly censored and regulated by the government. Ultimately what's going to come out of Cuba is more likely to be propaganda (unless there are specific sources that could be proven to be reliable). — Czello (music) 14:25, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Academics don't have to go out of their way to skew the truth, it is just a fact that there is such a thing as editorial bias and cultural pressures, etc etc.
 * For instance, people are less likely to write about or do things in research that does not bring money or prestige, either because they seek money or prestige or because the people above them do not consider them proper research topics or not notable or not the job of an academic.
 * There is also a negative stigma surrounding political writing and research, which limits the people who would want to do that research.
 * And i'm pretty sure the U.S. government funds think tanks to write and publish papers that support their foreign policy . Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:30, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * A lot of this appears to be assumption and opinion. If you can demonstrate there are reasons why the academics we cite shouldn't be considered reliable then great, but otherwise they're sources that are roundly determined to be reliable, as most academia is. Academia, by its definition, is usually the most rigorously peer-reviewed and scrutinised commentary you can find. Putting it on the same level as Cuban state propaganda just doesn't work. — Czello (music) 14:34, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * They are reliable, but biased, like all political commentary is.
 * It reasons from within it's own political ideology. Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:39, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I think it's important to be wary of what "propaganda" means in this context.
 * It is a text meant to convince you of something, it is not actually negative per say.
 * Any piece of polticial research that argues a case based on facts and observations should be considered, even if it comes from a source with a bias, because per definition, it is. if it was settled or objective, it wouldn't be political.
 * WP:NPOV argues for cancelling out subjective perspectives by mentioning all notable perspectives. Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:35, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Wouldn't any source that would argue Cuba is democratic from western academia would probably say "has democratic traits", as that is the editorial line and the way to stay out of the demarcation problem.
 * Would such a source be sufficient to make the view more balanced in the article? Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:22, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * And if you can find RS that say it, we must reflect it. So until you produce them I am not going to say sign a blank cheque. I have no idea if you will find any, and as you do not seem to be sure whether you will I will leave it until you either find some or admit you have not. Slatersteven (talk) 14:01, 1 June 2023 (UTC)
 * i do feel like i have to clarify i mean western commentators Bart Terpstra (talk) 14:41, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

OK, can we have one quote from one source (RS, of course) saying that the USA is less democratic than Cuba (and see wp:v it must explicitly say it)? Slatersteven (talk)

Also can people please read wp:rs blogs are not RS, and opinion pieces are not RS. They are only RS if by acknowledged experts and must be attributed, not stated as facts. Slatersteven (talk) 10:07, 6 June 2023 (UTC)

 * oooooooooh, we had fundamentally different understandings of the sentence.
 * i meant to convey "less democratic than ideal/what is expected", not "less democratic than cuba". Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:16, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Then that is what you should have written, and "less democratic than ideal/what is expected" compared to what? And that still needs to pass wp:v, do these sources use those words to just say "not all that democratic"? Slatersteven (talk) 10:19, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * yes? you did skim them before you dismissed them as not containing the right info, right?
 * "The U.S. has never truly been a democracy" -NYT
 * "But it’s hard to claim that the United States, at any point in its history, has been a democracy in the rigorous sense of the word."
 * -NYT
 * "There is, of course, a more compelling argument that, facing domestic crisis, America would be arrogant to preach democracy to others and irresponsible to waste its resources doing so. But this misunderstands the history and logic behind democracy promotion. Indeed, there has always been a significant gap between America’s democratic rhetoric and the state of its democracy."
 * -foreignpolicy.com
 * I think the facts of the sentence have a good basis with these 2 sources and that the foreign policy article makes the argument that the foreign policy of selectively demanding democracy abroad while failing it at home is hypocritical, so it's not (wp:synth). Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:30, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes it is, as they do not say anything about Cuba. So saying "the US is "has never truly been a democracy"" tells us nothing about Cuba. It does not matter if the US is not " a democracy in the rigorous sense of the word.", what matters (for this article) is Cuba? Slatersteven (talk) 10:37, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * The embargo on Cuba is U.S. foreign policy with one of the primary reasons being promoting democracy abroad.
 * the foreign policy source says this stance is hypocritical for all countries the USA treats this way.
 * therefore, no explicit mention of Cuba has to be made by the source, as the argument covers the entire set. Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:40, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * please also note WP:NOTJUSTANYSYNTH Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:59, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I disagree, as Cuba can still not be democratic, even if the US stance is hypocritical elsewhere. What does any of this tell us about Cuba? Slatersteven (talk)

I have only just seen this edit. This appears to be WP:OR/WP:SYNTH, and a personal opinion not adequately reflected in the sources attached. Some sources don't mention Cuba at all, others aren't reliable. — Czello (music) 10:09, 6 June 2023 (UTC)
 * And this one [], which (ironically) is not that bad, just poorly sourced. I am sure better sourcing then this can be found for accusations of Ameican hypocrisy. Slatersteven (talk) 10:12, 6 June 2023 (UTC)

RFC on Lede Paragraph
Should the lede paragraph of Elections in Cuba be revised as follows? Robert McClenon (talk) 04:52, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

It currently reads:

Should this be changed to read:

Please answer Yes in favor of the change or No to oppose the change, followed by a brief statement, in the Survey. Do not reply to other editors in the Survey. Back-and-forth discussion is permitted in the Discussion section; that's what it's for.

Rationale for Yes (change to lede)
The lede should either introduce according to whom Cuba is not democratic or be more specific about the ways it is less democratic.

Democracy is a notoriously difficult subject to measure and also actively politicized to push narratives.

It is important to realize there are different, major points of view of what a democracy (a government by the people, for the people) should look like.

The goal of Wikipedia is to offer a neutral point of view, which tries to balance the major perspectives on any given topic.

Unconditionally calling Cuba not a democracy goes against the principle of Wikivoice to present facts as facts and opinions as opinions.

The current government is better described as a heavy compromise between the ideals of Democracy and the reality of the situation it is placed in.

Before you decide, I'd like you to also consider other democracies that are also a heavy compromise between the ideals of democracy and the reality of the situations they were placed in, and if they should then also be counted as democratic or not democratic by your own standard.

Rationale for No (leave lede as is)
We do not engage in wp:or or second-guess RS. If RS say it is undemocratic so do we. If RS do not draw conclusions or inferences, neither do we. We can only say what RS actually say (per wp:v)

wp:NPOV does not mean we have to have WP:FALSEBALANCE.

Survey
No, leave it as it is. The sources don't say liberally democratic, they simply say that Cuba is not a democracy. The addition of the Cuban constitution is somewhat irrelevant as it's a primary source - what they themselves say they does not take priority over independent sources. The rationale for "yes" are also faulty: it's not up to us as editors to introduce our own interpretations into the text (that democracy is difficult to define, therefore we must narrow it down for the reader, even though the sources don't say this); that's WP:OR. The rationale for "yes" seem to rely entirely on one user's disagreement with the conclusion of the sources and attempting to correct their definition for them. This is explicitly not what we do. Instead we simply present their conclusion, which is simply that Cuba is not a democracy. — Czello (music) 07:42, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

No per Czello. CJ-Moki (talk) 07:55, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

No Per above, also saying "I want something" is not the same as saying "I have Something". Slatersteven (talk) 08:26, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

Yes There are sources that say Cuba is democratic and the change is very modest because any evidence that Cuba could be considered a government by the people, for the people is thrown into doubt or not considered reliable because it says Cuba can be considered a kind of democracy, a form of begging the question. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bart Terpstra (talk • contribs)

No as per Czello. Bondegezou (talk) 13:39, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

No, leave it alone. I don't even know what "liberally democratic" means. Furthermore, sources say they are not democratic, so there is no reason to qualify it. Adoring nanny (talk) 00:46, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

No. To specify that Cuba's elections are not "liberally" democratic is to suggest that they are some other form of democracy. But the citations aren't saying that: they say that Cuba is not democratic, full stop. Inserting "liberally" in there is just a way to sneakily undermine the sources. If an editor wants to make the case that Cuba actually counts as an illiberal democracy or guided democracy, they can actually make that case rather than just winking at it. — Kawnhr (talk) 19:37, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

No as per Czello - this is reading more into things than we need to. SportingFlyer  T · C  23:58, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

No Per Cello and Kawnhr. Toa Nidhiki05 17:26, 26 June 2023 (UTC)

No per Czello. BilledMammal (talk) 21:14, 10 July 2023 (UTC)

Discussion
Can't believe Wikipedians would not realize writers from liberal democracies would treat that kind of democracy as the default and the ideal. Heck, even label that realization WP:OR. Major misjudgement on my part. Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:18, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, it is complete WP:OR to assume this, and as was pointed out at DRN misunderstands how WP:RS works. — Czello (music) 10:20, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's not at all. There are plenty of sources that show there are multiple kinds of democracy and it's part of regular editorial to see what biases a source might have. Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:43, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's WP:OR to assume they meant a specific kind of democracy even though the sources don't say that. There has also still been zero evidences the sources might be biased beyond "they're from a liberal democracy". — Czello (music) 10:45, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It's also WP:OR to assume they meant all kinds of democracy unconditionally, rather than democracy as Americans understand it. Bart Terpstra (talk) 10:49, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * You're again focussing on their nationality, which isn't how Wikipedia works (and, as explained before, even that's not correct - they're not all American). When they say "Cuba is not a democracy" the only way we are permitted to interpret that is "Cuba is not a democracy". Anything else you add onto that is WP:OR. I feel you're fundamentally misinterpreting how Wikipedia operates. — Czello (music) 10:51, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I think you misunderstand how language works and don't want to consider the possibility, rather than actually care about the evidence. Bart Terpstra (talk) 11:07, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * You've presented no evidence, that's the problem.
 * After being told by several editors this isn't how Wikipedia works I can see this is just going in circles. I urge you to read WP:OR in-depth. — Czello (music) 11:30, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * That belief is socially constructed, which is to say, self-justifying.
 * You have to use different arguments then "we think it is this way, therefore it is this way". Bart Terpstra (talk) 11:53, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Please read WP:NOTDUMB, we go by what wp:policybsays, and that means we go by what wp:rs say. We do not interpret RS, we do not second guess RS, we just report what they say. Slatersteven (talk) 11:57, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Alright, if no interpretation takes place, how is a source determined to be RS? Bart Terpstra (talk) 12:10, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * This is not the place to teach you basic policy, read wp:rs. Slatersteven (talk) 12:12, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I have, and it says there is an interpretation aspect. Bart Terpstra (talk) 12:13, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

Can we close this now? Slatersteven (talk) 10:14, 20 July 2023 (UTC)

 * Seems to be a decisive consensus; I would close it but I'm not sure if I'm able as I'm involved. — Czello (music) 18:54, 20 July 2023 (UTC)

Robert McClenon (talk) 04:52, 20 June 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Elections in Cuba


text:
K.A.S. Eupen

K.A.S. Eupen (short for Königliche Allgemeine Sportvereinigung Eupen, English: Royal General Sports Association Eupen, simply referred to as Eupen) is a Belgian professional association football club located in Eupen, Province of Liège, which currently plays in the Belgian Pro League, the top tier of Belgian football. The club was formed on 9 July 1945 through the merger of two older Eupen clubs, Jugend Eupen and FC Eupen 1920.

The club has been playing at the Kehrwegstadion in Eupen since its inaugural season. Eupen is the first Belgian club based in the German-speaking Community of Belgium to have played in the Belgian top division.

Foundation and early years
K.A.S. Eupen were formed on 9 July 1945 from the merger of Jugend Eupen and FC Eupen 1920, and played its first official match on 21 July during a festive tournament during a national holiday.

A few weeks later, the club would begin on its inaugural season in the Liège Provincial Division II. While the first stand was built in 1947 and lighting was installed the following year, and the infrastructure thus improved, the club could not avoid relegation to the Regional Division II. Under the leadership of player-coach Roger Burgers, Eupen won the first title in its history, which was then repeated the following year, enabling the club to reach national divisions for the first time in 1951.

The club's stint in the national division was short-lived at first, but the club secured another promotion at the end of the 1955–56 season. The team was then led by Albert Bertrand. After a further descent two years later, the club returned with promotion before the 1961–62 season to stabilise in the higher divisions until 1969.

Having arrived at the club in 1966, Hubert Van Dormael took the team to a second-place finish in the 1967–68 season before taking a historic first promotion to the Belgian Third Division the following season, ahead of LC Bastogne and Herve FC in the standings. The club then decided to construct a new stand the following year. In the process, Van Dormael led the team to the Third Division title, which meant its first promotion to the Belgian Second Division. The title-winning team featured some of the most iconic players of the club's history, including Werner Pirard and Karl Franssen, the emblematic captain Günter Brüll, as well as goalkeeper Elmar Keutgen, future mayor of the City of Eupen and member of the Parliament of the German-speaking Community.

The Golden Five
Prior to their first season in the second tier of Belgian football, Eupen and their manager Paul Brossel were ambitious in the off-season: although considered one of the three best goalkeepers in the Bundesliga by the German sports press along with Sepp Maier and Manfred Manglitz, Gerhard Prokop signed from Alemannia Aachen before the 1970–71 season. Eupen lost their first home match against FC Malinois but won the next against Jean Nicolay's Daring Club Bruxelles, earning their first win in the second tier.

After surviving their first season in the second tier, the club recorded another big signing during the off-season as Philippe Garot arrived at the Kehrweg. A few weeks later, a second German player, Helmut Graf, signed from Bonner SC. Eupen survived in the second division once again, finishing in tenth place in the 1971–72 season. At the end of the season and after six years at the club, Hubert Van Dormael was replaced by Gerhard Prokop, who took over the reins as player-coach. But, lacking the funds, the club was forced to part with some key players at the end of the season, including Philippe Garot.

Paul Brossel once again chose to recruit players in Germany in the off-season, with Rot-Weiß Oberhausen top goalscorer Ulrich Kallius arriving in Eupen at the start of the 1972–73 season. Kallius would go down in club history as one of their best strikers, scoring 16 goals in 25 games that season. Despite this, Eupen had an average season, finishing only in thirteenth place.

Still in the throes of their financial woes, the club was once again forced to sell some of their best elements. Kallius and Graf joined Olympique Charleroi. To compensate for these departures, Paul Brossel managed to sign another German striker: using the money received for the sale of Kallius, he signed Rainer Gebauer, a striker from 1. FC Köln. The 1973–74 season also marked the return of Hubert Van Dormael, as coach, with Prokop regaining his status as a player. This proved a positive change, as the team occupied the top of the league standings in the fall. Slightly running out of steam, Eupen remained on course for promotion before the last matchday of the season against Lokeren. While Eupen were up 0–1 fifteen minutes before full-time, Lokeren scored on a penalty kick to equalise, before scoring a second goal at the very end of the match. This meant that Lokeren went past Eupen in the standings, and meant that they missed out on direct promotion. The Pandas then turned to the play-offs for a chance to win a historic promotion, but morale was gone and the team recorded six defeats in as many games.

To the sporting disappointment were added new financial problems which forced the club to once again sell its best players: Gebauer left for Charleroi, Taeter signed with Winterslag and Prokop with Aachen. The club, however, continued developing its infrastructure, creating its first board of directors and installing new lighting at the home ground. The team would struggle performance-wise the next few seasons, and suffered relegation to the Third Division at the end of the 1974–75 season.

Ups and downs
With René Irgel as new manager, Eupen won the title the following season, allowing them to return to the second division. This was, however, short-lived and the club relegated the following year.

After several seasons in the third tier, the club won promotion again at the end of the 1980–81 season. During this period, three major changes took place at the club: the club chose to focus its sports policy on training, the City of Eupen bought the club's facilities for a period of 30 years in May 1979, and the club changed its name to become the Allgemeine Sportvereinigung Eupen.

With mainly young players, Claude Siemianow won the club another title in 1984 on the final day of the season, beating Spouwen 5–1, while their main rivals for the championship, Alken, were beaten 2–0 by Mol. This title allowed Eupen to return to the third division. Top goalscorer in the league for the second consecutive year, Pierrot Thissen played an important part in this success.

The club remained in the third division until the end of the 1987–88 season. For a few seasons, Eupen played in the Belgian Fourth Division. It even took the providential return of club legend, Hubert Van Dormael, to save the club from relegation in the spring of 1989. From 1992, performances improved. In 1995, under the leadership of Tony Fagot, Eupen finished second in the league and once again reached the third division, this time through promotion play-offs. Among the key players of this period are local goalkeeper, Frank Neumann and Frank Mockel.

Behind the scenes, too, the club was recovering. In 1993, an agreement was struck between the club and the city for the construction of a brand new all-seater stand, including among others a cafeteria and a business section. On 26 March 1993, the old terracing stand was demolished. On 2 January 1994, the new structure was inaugurated during a friendly match between two renowned neighbouring clubs: Standard Liège and 1. FC Köln.

Back in the third division, the club celebrated its fiftieth anniversary on this occasion, obtaining the "Royal" prefix on 28 September 1995. On the pitch, the club returned to the top of the division under head coach Claudy Chauveheid, who arrived in 1996. During this period, primarily young players from the region represent the first team, including Marc Chauveheid, son of the coach and scorer of 90 goals during his career at Eupen. Thanks in particular to this father-son connection, the club won another title and returned to the second division for the first time since 1977. Surprisingly, the club pushed on for promotion to the First Division, which they were close to reaching in the 2002–03 season, before eventually losing in the play-offs.

After this run, Eupen's results worsened, and after the departure of Claudy Chauveheid, the club fell to the bottom of the second division in the winter of 2008. At that point, Italian investors, represented by Antonino Imborgia, took over at the Kehrweg. Many players from Italy and Switzerland, in particular, were signed to the club. The club started the spring season with Danny Ost as manager and managed to avoid relegation to the third tier. In the wake of this, the club started the 2009–10 season with increased ambitions and found themselves at the top of the second division a few rounds in. Eupen eventually qualified for the third time in its history to the play-offs for promotion to the Belgian Pro League (after 1974 and 2003). Although not deemed favourites before the play-offs, Eupen managed a historic promotion after a 2–1 victory over Mons to win in the final round. The promotion marked the first time, that a club from the German-speaking Community of Belgium reached the top tier.

First season in first division
Fully professionalised, requirement set by the Belgian First Division as part of the granting of the licence necessary to be able to play in the top division, notably involved the modernisation and expansion of the Kehrwegstadion. During construction, Eupen played their first home matches at Stayen in Sint-Truiden. Their start to life in the top tier was difficult, and the team suffered five defeats in five matches. Danny Ost was dismissed and replaced by Ezio Capuano. He only stayed in charge of the team for 19 days before resigning and being replaced by Albert Cartier. Under the French manager the team gradually improved. For their first home match at the rebuilt stadium, Eupen won their first match at top level in a 6–0 blowout over Sint-Truiden. The club quickly recorded other positive results, but would struggle against relegation for large parts of the 2010–11 season.

In the final matchday of the regular season, Eupen played away against another relegation candidate, Mechelen, while Lierse, themselves also fighting relegation, played away at Club Brugge. While Eupen lost their match 2–0, Lierse managed a 0–0 draw to heed themselves from relegation. Eupen then had to go through relegation play-offs where they managed to qualify for the final rounds, while direct competitor Charleroi were relegated. Eupen would, however struggle in the final round against teams from the second division, where Eupen finished dead last which meant relegation and a return to the second division.

Qatari ownership
In June 2012, the club was purchased by the government of Qatar and its Aspire Zone Foundation, who also own Paris Saint-Germain. Aspire Academy announced their intent to use the club as a launching pad into European football for its academy graduates from Africa, South America and Asia.

Eupen finished second in the 2015–16 Second Division, gaining promotion to the top flight of Belgian football for the second time in their history, staying up at the end of the season for the first time.

The 2017–18 season began with a major upheaval in the squad; the best scorers of the last season, Onyekuru and Sylla, were given up. Until the winter break, AS Eupen never got past third from last place and were bottom of the table from matchday 14 to 23 before they defeated the runners-up, Charleroi, 1–0 at home. In the meantime, head coach Jordi Condom was dismissed on 7 November 2017, and replaced by the former French international Claude Makélélé. KV Mechelen became their main relegation competitor. Before the last game day, both teams were tied in points. Eupen had a goal difference that was one goal worse, but scored more goals, so if both teams won or lost at the same time, they had to change goal difference in order to stay up.

On the last day of the regular competition Eupen played against Royal Excel Mouscron, whilst Mechelen played against Waasland-Beveren. At halftime, it was still 0–0 in both places. In the 51st minute, the hosts took a 1–0 lead in Mechelen and increased to 2–0 in the 59th minute. Now Eupen had to score three goals to stay in the league. Winter newcomer Yuta Toyokawa scored the first goal in the 73rd minute after a free-kick from captain Luis García, with another goal three minutes later by García 2–0. In the 79th minute, Toyokawa with his second goal increased the result to 3–0, which meant Eupen was "saved" at this point. Since nothing changed in the score in Mechelen, and Toyokawa even scored again 4–0 in the 89th minute, the "miracle of the Kehrweg" was perfect and Eupen stayed in the first division.

In the 2018–19 season, the club reached 12th place in the table. For the first time, Eupen was not involved in the relegation battle. Nevertheless, on 14 June 2019, the dismissal of Claude Makélélé was announced. Despite his statement that he will be available to the club as an ambassador for various projects, he resigned after a month and moved to Chelsea as a mentor for youth players.

On 24 June 2019, Beñat San José was announced as the new head coach with a contract term of two years. Stefan Krämer took over the managerial role in July 2021, but was dismissed in February 2022 following a streak of poor results.

National

 * Belgian Second Division
 * Runners-up (3): 2002–03, 2013–14, 2015–16
 * Belgian Third Division
 * Winners (3): 1969–70, 1975–76, 2001–02
 * Belgian Fourth Division
 * Winners (2): 1968–69, 1983–84
 * Runners-up (2): 1967–68, 1994–95

Regional

 * Liège First Provincial
 * Winners (1): 1955–56

Staff and management

 * As of 28 June 2021.

title: K.A.S. Eupen


text:
Mons Gruithuisen Gamma

Mons Gruithuisen Gamma (γ) is a lunar dome that lies to the north of the crater Gruithuisen at the western edge of the Mare Imbrium.

This massif is shaped as a rounded dome in the surface, occupying a diameter of 20 km and climbing gently to a height of over 1500 meters. At the crest is a small crater.

This formation appears foreshortened when viewed from the Earth, and it has been described by Antonin Rukl as resembling an "upturned bathtub".

To the east lies the similar Mons Gruithuisen Delta (δ). Together they are often informally called the Gruithuisen domes. To the south of the Gruithuisen domes is a portion of Oceanus Procellarum that was named Sinus Viscositatis by the IAU in December 2022.

The Gruithuisen domes differ from typical mare domes in that they're more mountain-like in their proportions, with a higher albedo and a rougher surface texture. The lava they're composed of might be the key to why they're different. It's thought to have a higher silica content, making it thicker, slower moving and faster cooling, enabling it to pile up into these structures. Such silicic volcanism is rare on the Moon, and it's still unclear how it can occur there at all, as on Earth it requires the presence of water and plate tectonics - factors absent on the Moon. This makes the region a compelling target for exploration.

Mons Gruithuisen Gamma was expected to be the landing site for Peregrine Mission One, which launched on January 8, 2024, on the maiden flight of the Vulcan Centaur rocket, the mission failed due to a leaky valve, precluding any attempt at landing.

title: Mons Gruithuisen Gamma


text: User:Marskell

title: User:Marskell


text:
Lex Papia Poppaea

The Lex Papia et Poppaea, also referred to as the Lex Iulia et Papia, was a Roman law introduced in 9 AD to encourage and strengthen marriage. It included provisions against adultery and against celibacy after a certain age and complemented and supplemented Augustus' Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus of 18 BC and the Lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis of 17 BC. The law was introduced by the suffect consuls of that year, Marcus Papius Mutilus and Quintus Poppaeus Secundus, although they themselves were unmarried.

History
Tacitus mentions several leges Iuliae (Julian Laws) pertaining to morals and marriage, and the Lex Papia Poppaea as a separate later law, refining the Julian Laws (Annals, 3.25)

Some writers conclude from the passage in Suetonius (Suet. Aug. 14) that the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus of 18/17 BC was rejected, and add that it was not enacted until 4 AD. In the year 9 AD, and in the consulship of Marcus Papius Mutilus and Quintus Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti), another law was passed as a kind of amendment and supplement to the former law, and hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea by which these two laws are often quoted. It has been inferred from the two laws being separately cited that they were not made into one.

The 6th-century Digest only mentions the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus (Dig. 38 tit.11; Dig. 23 tit.2).

Various titles are used according as reference is made to the various provisions; sometimes the reference is to the Lex Julia, sometimes Papia Poppaea, sometimes Lex Julia et Papia, sometimes Lex de maritandis ordinibus, from the chapter which treated of the marriages of the senators (Gaius, i.178; Ulp. Frag. xi.20; Lex Marita, Hor. Carm. Sec.), sometimes Lex Caducaria, Decimaria, etc. from the various chapters (Ulp. Frag. xxviii tit.7; Dion Cass. liv.16, lvi.1, &c.; Tacit. Ann. iii.25). (see References)

There were many commentaries on these laws or on this law by the Roman jurists, of which considerable fragments are preserved in the Digest: Gaius wrote 15 books, Ulpian 20, and Paulus 10 books at least on this law. The law contained at least 35 chapters (Dig. 22 tit.2 s19); but it is impossible to say to which of the two laws included under the general title of Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea, the several provisions as now known to us, belong. Attempts have been made both by J. Gothofredus and Heineccius to restore the law, on the assumption that its provisions are reducible to the two general heads of a Lex Maritalis and Lex Caducaria.

Suitability of the match
The provisions of these laws forbade the marriage of a senator or a senator's sons with a manumitted slave (libertina); with a woman whose profession made her infamis, such as a stage performer; or with a prostitute. A senator's daughter could not marry a libertinus.

If an hereditas or a legatum (inheritance) was left to a person on condition of not marrying, or on conditions which in effect prevented marriage, the conditions were illegal, and the gift was unconditional. The condition, however, might be not to marry a certain specified person or certain specified persons; or it might be to marry a particular person, but then the person must be such a one as would be a suitable match, otherwise the condition would be, in effect, a condition not to marry, and therefore void (Dig.35 tit.1 s63).

Promotion of marriage
In order to promote marriage, various penalties were imposed on those who lived in a state of celibacy after a certain age.  Caelibes could not take an hereditas or a legacy (legatum); but if a person was caelebs at the time of the testator's death, and was not otherwise disqualified (jure civili), he might take the hereditas or legatum, if he obeyed the law within one hundred days, that is, if he married within that time (Ulp. Frag. xvii.1).

If he did not comply with the law, the gift became caducum (subject to escheat). The Lex Julia allowed widows a term of one year (vacatio) from the death of a husband, and divorced women a term (vacatio) of six months from the time of the divorce, within which periods they were not subject to the penalties of the lex: the Lex Papia extended these periods respectively to two years, and a year and six months (Ulp. Frag. xiv).

A man, when he attained the age of sixty, and a woman, when she attained the age of fifty, were not included within certain penalties of the law (Ulp. Frag. xvi); but if they had not obeyed the law before attaining those respective ages, they were perpetually bound by its penalties by a Senatus-consultum Pernicianum. A Senatus-consultum Claudianum so far modified the strictness of the new rule as to give a man who married above sixty the same advantage that he would have had if had married under sixty, provided he married a woman who was under fifty; the ground of which rule was the legal notion that a woman under fifty was still capable of having children (Ulpian, Frag. xvi; Sueton. Claud. 23). If the woman was above fifty and the man under sixty, this was called Impar Matrimonium, and by a Senatus-consultum Calvitianum it was entirely without effect as to releasing from incapacity to take legata and dotes. On the death of the woman, therefore, the dos became caduca.

By the Lex Papia Poppaea a candidate who had several children was preferred to one who had fewer (Tacit. Ann. xv.19; Plin. Ep. vii.16). Freedmen who had a certain number of children were freed operarum obligatione (Dig. 38 tit.1 De Operis Libertorum); and libertae, who had four children, were released from the tutela of their patrons (Ulp. Frag. tit.29). Those who had three children living at Rome, four in Italy, and five in the provinces, were excused from the office of tutor or curator (Inst. 1 25; Dig.27 1). After the passing of this law, it became usual for the senate, and afterwards the emperor (princeps) to give occasionally, as a privilege, the same advantage that the law secured to those who had children. This was called the Jus Liberorum. Pliny says (Ep. ii.13) that he had lately obtained from the emperor, for a friend of his, the Jus Trium Liberorum (see also Ep. x.95, 96; and Dion Cass. lv.2, and the note of Reimarus). This privilege is mentioned in some inscriptions, on which the abbreviation I. L. H. (jus liberorum habens) sometimes occurs, which is equivalent to jura parentis habere. The emperor M. Antoninus provided that children should be registered by name within thirty days after their birth with the Praefectus Aerarii Saturni (Capitol. M. Ant. c9; compare Satire IX of Juvenal, line 84).

The law also imposed penalties on orbi, that is, married persons who had no children (qui liberos non habent, Gaius, ii.111) from the age of twenty-five to sixty in a man, and from the age of twenty to fifty in a woman. By the Lex Papia, orbi could only take one half of an hereditas or legatum which was left to them (Gaius, ii.286). It seems that an attempt had been made to evade this part of the law by adoptions, which a Senatus-consultum Neronianum declared to be ineffectual for the purpose of relieving a person from the penalties of the law (Tacit. Ann. xv.19).

As a general rule a husband and wife could only leave to one another a tenth part of their property; but there were exceptions in respect of children either born of the marriage or by another marriage of one of the parties, which allowed of the free disposal of a larger part. This privilege might also be acquired by obtaining the Jus Liberorum (Ulp. Frag. tit.xv, xvi).

title: Lex Papia Poppaea


text:
K.A.A. Gent

Koninklijke Atletiek Associatie Gent (, English: Royal Athletic Association Ghent), often simply known as Gent or by their nickname  (The Buffalos), is a Belgian professional sports club, based in the city of Ghent, East Flanders. Their football team is the best known section within the club and has been playing in the Belgian First Division A since the 1989–90 season. They won the national league once, in 2014–15, in addition to four Belgian Cup victories. Gent played their home matches in the Jules Ottenstadion in Gentbrugge from 1920 until 2013, when they moved to the Ghelamco Arena. Their team colours are blue and white. The principal sponsor is Baloise.

The field hockey and track and field divisions were founded in 1864, making it one of the oldest sports clubs in Belgium. The club was then known under its French name La Gantoise (and it is still referred to as such in the French-speaking part of Belgium). They changed their name to the current Dutch version in 1971. The football division opened in 1900. The nickname of the club is , a term coined after a visit of the original Buffalo Bill and his Wild West circus to the city in the early 20th century.

Gent enjoyed its first spell at the highest level in Belgian football between 1913–14 and 1928–29, and a second one from 1936–37 to 1966–67. In the 1970s and 1980s, the club had several promotions and relegations between the first and second divisions, before returning to the highest level in 1989. The club reached the quarter-finals of the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, which is their best achievement ever in European competitions.

Aside from football, Gent also have other sports sections in track and field and field hockey.

History
In 1864, an association called the 'Société Gymnastique la Gantoise', which was tasked with promoting gymnastics, was founded. Some branches quickly became independent and in 1891 the team merged with the Association Athlétique, which was in itself a merger of younger teams, such as Racing Club, Running Club and Red Star. The new merger team was called Association Athlétique La Gantoise, and aside from gymnastics, the activities were broadened to athletics, boxing, cricket, cycling, fencing, hockey, swimming and tennis. In this context, the athletics team KAA Gent was founded.

In the last decade of the 19th century, organized football was introduced in Ghent. Different small teams were founded and some merged into Racing Club Gantois on 1 April 1899, which would later become the biggest challenger of KAA Gent. Only in 1900, a football section was founded by the students of the College of Melle, which is a place close to Ghent. The first president of the team was doctor Hector Priem. The games were played on the Carpentierplein, which was situated at the crossroads of the Kortrijksesteenweg, the Clementinalaan, the Oostendestraat and the Astridlaan. Initially, the colours black and white were chosen, but by 31 October 1900, when the team became an official member, the colours were changed to blue and white. On 15 November 1900, the first regular game was played, against Omnium Sporting Club. In January 1901, the team played against Racing Club Gantois, which was, at that time, the larger of the two. KAA Gent lost the game with 10–0. Nevertheless, at the end of the 19th century the team already became a member of the UBSSA (Union Belge des Sociétés de Sports Athlétiques or the Belgian Union of the Athletic Sports Society, and although Racing Club Gantois was the elder team in the city, KAA Gent would receive a lower matricule number than Racing Club, which would receive 11. In 1901 AA La Gantoise played its first games in the lower divisions.

For the first few years, the team mostly played in the Belgian Second Division, and later on in the First Division. In 1904 the team moved to the Mussenstraat. In 1913, the World Exposition was held at that place, and the team moved once more, this time to the Albertlaan. Over there, a football pitch, training fields, tennis courts, an athletics court, galleries and other accommodations were being built. At 9 December 1915, during the First World War, the stadium completely burned down. In 1912–13, AA La Gantoise became champion in the Second Division. In 1914, the team received the royal title and was called Association Royale Athlétique La Gantoise, which was abbreviated to ARA La Gantoise. During the world exposition, the team organized several sporting events. The first season in the First League, 1913–14, was nevertheless very difficult for the team and only by means of a test match against Standard Club Liégois, relegation was avoided.

In 1920, the team moved again, this time to Gentbrugge, where the Jules Ottenstadion was built. La Gantoise fell back to the Second Division and it was not until 1936 it managed to win the promotion play-offs and return to the First Division. In the mid-fifties, the team played their strongest football yet. In 1953–54 it ended third with an equal total of points as KFC Malinois and only one point behind the champions Anderlecht. The next season, La Gantoise was alone on the second spot, this time with three points less than the champions. In 1964 it won the Belgian Cup (Beker van België), which was the first major tournament victory for the team. Because of their cup win, it became the first Belgian team to participate in the European Cup Winners' Cup. La Gantoise was defeated in the first round by West Ham United. In 1967, the club relegated once more, after three decades of playing in the First Division. It did, however, only take them one year to clinch promotion again.

In 1971, the name of the team was translated into Flemish, as it became "Koninklijke Atletiek Associatie Gent" (commonly known as KAA Gent or AA Gent). The 1970–71 season was the start of a bad decade for Gent. They were relegated to the Second Division six games before the season's ending, after the defeat to Club Brugge. In 1974, they even relegated to the Third Division. Gent had ended last and couldn't assure its promotion to the Second Division in the final round. After one season, they would return to the Second Division and remained there until 1980, when the team returned to the First Division. The 1980s would become a much better period for the team. In 1984 they won the Belgian Cup again, and during that period the team played in European competitions four times. In 1986–87, Gent reached the Third round in the UEFA Cup. In 1988 the team fell back to the Second Division for a short while, but thanks to the promotion play-offs, they were able to return to First Division after one season. A crucial role was played by a member of the Board of Directors, Marc Mortier, who consulted the Prime Minister of Belgium, Wilfried Martens, in order to establish an organisation named Foot Invest, to get the team financially back on track. Marc Mortier gathered more than 50 million Belgian francs (1.25 million euros) in sponsoring in a couple of months and introduced VDK Spaarbank as the main sponsor of the team.

In 1990–91, the team played at the top of the standings for a long time, under the guidance of René Vandereycken and players such as Frank Dauwen, Eric Viscaal and Erwin Vandenbergh, but finally it ended on the third spot. So instead of competing in the UEFA Champions League, the team played in the UEFA Cup in 1991. After defeating Lausanne-Sport, Eintracht Frankfurt and Dynamo Moscow, Gent played the quarter finals against Ajax. The following years, Gent fell back to the lower places in the standings. From 1994 until 1997, they finished just above the relegation places in the league. By the end of the 1990s the results improved again, and with coach Trond Sollied, KAA Gent qualified for European football once more in 1999–00. In these series, Gent lost heavily against Ajax, under new coach Henk Houwaart. The next season, Gent reached the UEFA Intertoto Cup, where they would reach the semi-finals against PSG. The following seasons, league results varied between lower sub-top places and top four finishes.

In 2004, Gent signed coach Georges Leekens. In his first season, the team ended at the sixth spot in competition. With Leekens as a coach, KAA Gent made some impressive performances, such as the 4–1 victory over rival Club Brugge on 1 April 2006. In 2006–07, despite a weak start of the competition, the team managed to reach the fourth place in the Belgian Pro League. It repeated that achievement the following year.

The next season, coach Georges Leekens left the club and joined Lokeren. Trond Sollied, the Norwegian trainer who had been very successful seven years before, succeeded him. Under his guidance, KAA Gent played its third Cup Final, in which it only lost at the end from Anderlecht. Sollied left Gent again after one season, this time for Heerenveen. Michel Preud'homme, who had just become champion of the Jupiler Pro League with Standard Liège, signed a contract for three seasons, together with his colleagues Manu Ferrera and Stan van den Buys. In 2008–09, the team ended at the fourth spot, after a strong comeback in the second part of the competition, with an equal number of points as Club Brugge, who had won one more game and ended third.

In 2009–10, there was a heavy battle for second place in the Belgian Pro League between Gent and Club Brugge and the Champions League ticket that came with it. They played each other on 8 May 2010. Gent won by a convincing 6–2 score to earn Champions League football. One week later, Gent also won the Belgian Cup for the first time in 26 years, defeating the other Bruges Pro League team, Cercle Brugge.

On 17 July 2013, the club officially inaugurated their new stadium, the Ghelamco Arena, with a 2–0 win over VfB Stuttgart in a gala match.

On 21 May 2015, Gent clinched their first Belgium League title by defeating Standard Liège 2–0 at home, automatically qualifying for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League. Gent were drawn in Group H, against Russian champions Zenit Saint Petersburg, the Spanish team Valencia and the French Lyon. The Belgian champions were able to perform better than expected. On matchday 1, Gent draw 1–1 with Olympique Lyon at Ghelamco Arena, securing their first point in Champions League group stages, after Milićević scored to bring the score to a tie, conceding Jallet's goal. In matchday 2, they were beaten by Zenit 1–2 at Petrovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg, Russia; they were led 0–1 with a goal by Dzyuba and managed to bring the score to a 1–1 tie with a goal by Matton, but Russian international Shatov scored for Gent's first Champions League group stage defeat. On matchday 3, they lost again 1–2 against Valencia on Mestalla, Valencia, Spain; they hold Valencia in a 1–1 tie before the half break, but Mitrović's own goal in the 71st minute put an end to their hopes for a draw. On matchday 4, at Ghelamco Arena, Gent beat Valencia 1–0, after Kums successfully converted a penalty kick in the 49th minute to obtain their historical first Champions League victory. On matchday 5, at Stade de Gerland, Lyon, France, Gent beat Lyon 2–1; Ferri's 0–1 goal was conceded when Milićević brought the score to a tie, only for substitute Coulibaly to score the most dramatic goal of winners with the last touch of the match, in the 95th minute as Gent earned qualification in either Champions League or Europa League knockout phases. In order to qualify for the Champions League knock-out phases, Gent needed a victory against group leaders Zenit, as it could qualify even if Valencia would win at Lyon thanks to their away goal. On marchday 6, Gent won 2–1 against Zenit, finishing the group on second place and becoming only the second Belgian team to advance to the Champions League knockout phase, as Lyon beat Valencia, after Anderlecht in 2000–01. In the round of 16, they were drawn against Wolfsburg. In the first leg at Ghelamco Stadium, Gent were defeated 2–3 by Wolfsburg, after being led with 0–3 and managing to score two goals in the last ten minutes. The second game, this time in Wolfsburg, ended 1–0, setting an end to Gent's European tournament. However, It was the best European season for them. In the 2016/17 season, they played Europe League. They faced Tottenham Hotspur, first winning at home in the Ghelamco Arena and then drawing in Wembley, thus advancing on aggregate. Around 8000 KAA Gent fans attended the match in the away-end, after they were awarded an extra 1000 tickets for their excellent reputation. In the next round they faced fellow Belgian side KRC Genk, this time on the losing end. That set an end for their 2nd best European season.

Rivalries
KAA Gent have a fierce rivalry with Club Brugge, in what is dubbed as the "Battle of Flanders" in the media as it is between Flanders' two cultural capitals (Antwerp having been historically a part of the Duchy of Brabant). There are also many Club Brugge supporters in the city of Ghent due to internal migration from West Flanders to the city, while KAA Gent pride themselves on their local identity. The nickname that KAA Gent fans give to the Club Brugge fans is the Flemish word "boeren" ("peasants"), mainly because of the agricultural background of West-Flanders but also because of the insolence that Club Brugge fans have displayed in the past.

Honours

 * Belgian First Division
 * Winners (1): 2014–15
 * Runners-up (3): 1954–55, 2009–10, 2019–20
 * Belgian Cup
 * Winner (4): 1963–64, 1983–84, 2009–10, 2021–22
 * Runners-up (2): 2007–08, 2018–19
 * Belgian Super Cup
 * Winners (1): 2015
 * Runners-up (3): 1983–84, 2010, 2022
 * UEFA Intertoto Cup
 * Runners-up (2): 2006, 2007

European record

 * Accurate as of 24 August 2022

Legend: GF = Goals For. GA = Goals Against. GD = Goal Difference.

Matches

 * Notes
 * 1R: First round
 * 2R: Second round
 * 3R: Third round
 * QR: Qualifying round
 * 2Q: Second qualifying round
 * 3Q: Third qualifying round
 * PO: Play-off round
 * KPO: Knockout round play-offs
 * R32: Round of 32
 * R16: Round of 16
 * QF: Quarter-finals

Well-known former players of the team
Six players of AA Gent held top scorer positions in the UEFA: Maurice Willems (1956–57, 28 games, 35 goals), Ronny Martens (1984–85, 34 games, 23 goals), Erwin Vandenbergh (1990–91, 34 games, 23 goals) and Ole Martin Arst (1999–00, 33 games, 30 goals), Jonathan David (2019–20, 29 games, 18 goals), Hugo Cuypers (2022–23, 39 games, 27 goals).

The Belgian player Roland Storme, central defender of KAA Gent in 1958–59, received the Golden Shoe award. Three other AA Gent players were presented with awards and honors: René Vandereycken got the award for trainer of the year 1991. Frédéric Herpoel was chosen as the best goalkeeper in 2004.

Mbark Boussoufa received multiple awards and honors including: pro-player of the year, best young player and the award of the 12th man, as well as the Ebony Shoe. Another AA Gent player, the Egyptian Ahmed "Mido" Hossam was also presented with the Ebony Shoe 8 years earlier in 2001.

Maurice Willems has scored more goals than any other KAA Gent player, with 185 goals between 1952 and 1962.

Armand Seghers holds the record of the most games played in the first team of KAA Gent: 507 between 1949 and 1960.

Marc Van Der Linden was in the national selection of Belgium for the 1990 World Cup in Italy.

Richard Orlans holds the most selections for the Belgium National Team, more than any other KAA Gent player. He was selected 21 times from 1955 – 1958.

Frédéric Herpoel was four times honoured with the Jean-Claude Bouvy Trophy for "most valuable player of the season" between 2002 – 2005.

Tore André Dahlum was a Norwegian international who played one year for Gent.

Congolese player Leon Mokuna was the first African player in Belgian competition, in 1957. Compatriot Pierre Mwana Kasongo would join the club in 1965 and Kiyika Tokodi would do so in 1980.

Jean-Claude Bouvy Trophy
The Jean-Claude Bouvy Trophy is an award that is annually handed out to the most valuable player of Belgian football club K.A.A. Gent. It was established in 1979 and later named after Jean-Claude Bouvy, a player of Gent who died in a car crash in 1986.

Coaching history

 * 🇧🇪 Hector Priem (1901–09)
 * 🇧🇪 Van Steenkiste (1909–10)
 * 🇧🇪 Horta (1910–12)
 * 🇧🇪 Bunyan (1912–22)
 * 🇧🇪 De Rijke (1922–31)
 * 🇧🇪 Staff [sic] Pelsmaecker (1931–41)
 * 🇧🇪 Hugi Fenichel (1941–42)
 * 🇦🇹 Willibald Stejskal (1942–43)
 * 🇧🇪 Fons Ferchyér (1943–45)
 * 🇫🇷 Edmond Delfour (1945–51)
 * 🇦🇹 Karl Mütsch (1951–52)
 * 🇫🇷 Jules Vandooren (1952–56)
 * 🇫🇷 Edmond Delfour (1956–59)
 * 🇫🇷 Jacques Favre (1959–60)
 * 🇧🇪 Louis Verstraeten (1960–64)
 * 🇩🇪 Max Schirschin (1964–65)
 * 🇧🇪 Julien Labeau (1965–66)
 * 🇫🇷 Jules Bigot (1966–67)
 * 🇫🇷 Jules Vandooren (1967–71)
 * 🇭🇺 István Sztani (1971–73)
 * 🇧🇪 Omer Van Boxelaer (1973–74)
 * 🇧🇪 Richard Orlans (1974–76)
 * 🇧🇪 Freddy Qvick (1976)
 * 🇧🇪 Roland Storme (1976 –77)
 * 🇷🇴 Norberto Höfling (1977–78)
 * 🇧🇪 Léon Nollet (1978 – September 80)
 * 🇳🇱 Han Grijzenhout (1980–81)
 * 🇧🇪 Robert Goethals (1981 – January 83)
 * 🇧🇪 Erwin Vanden Daele (1983 – November 83)
 * 🇳🇱 Han Grijzenhout (1984 – December 86)
 * 🇳🇱 Gérard Bergholtz (1987)
 * 🇳🇱 Ab Fafié (1987 – April 88)
 * 🇧🇪 Erwin Vandendaele (1988–89)
 * 🇧🇪 René Vandereycken (31 March 1989 – 28 February 1993)
 * 🇳🇱 Hans Dorjee (1993)
 * 🇧🇪 Walter Meeuws (1 July 1993 – 30 June 1994)
 * 🇧🇪 Lei Clijsters (1994–96)
 * 🇳🇱 Johan Boskamp (30 November 1996 – 30 September 1998)
 * 🇧🇪 Herman Vermeulen (interim) (1998 – December 98)
 * 🇳🇴 Trond Sollied (1 January 1999 – 30 June 2000)
 * 🇳🇱 Henk Houwaart (1 July 2000 – 30 September 2000)
 * 🇫🇷 Patrick Rémy (1 July 2000 – 30 June 2002)
 * 🇧🇪 Herman Vermeulen (interim) (2001–02)
 * 🇳🇱 Jan Olde Riekerink (1 July 2002 – 3 November 2003)
 * 🇧🇪 H. Vermeulen (interim) (5 November 2003 – 17 May 2004)
 * 🇧🇪 Georges Leekens (18 May 2004 – 30 June 2007)
 * 🇳🇴 Trond Sollied (1 July 2007 – 30 June 2008)
 * 🇧🇪 Michel Preud'homme (1 July 2008 – 30 June 2010)
 * 🇧🇪 Francky Dury (1 July 2010 – 30 June 2011)
 * 🇳🇴 Trond Sollied (1 July 2011 – 23 October 2012)
 * 🇧🇪 Manu Ferrera (interim) (23 October 2012 – 1 November 2012)
 * 🇧🇪 Bob Peeters (1 November 2012 – 3 January 2013)
 * 🇧🇪 Manu Ferrera (interim) (January 2013)
 * 🇪🇸 Víctor Fernández (9 January 2013 – 30 September 2013)
 * 🇷🇴 Mircea Rednic (1 October 2013 – 9 April 2014)
 * 🇧🇪 Peter Balette (interim) (9 April 2014 – 1 July 2014)
 * 🇧🇪 Hein Vanhaezebrouck (2014 – 27 September 2017)
 * 🇧🇪 Yves Vanderhaeghe (October 2017 – 9 October 2018)
 * Jess Thorup (10 October 2018 – 20 August 2020)
 * 🇷🇴 László Bölöni (20 August 2020 – 14 September 2020)
 * 🇧🇪 Wim De Decker (14 September 2020 – 4 December 2020)
 * 🇧🇪 Hein Vanhaezebrouck (4 December 2020 – present)

title: K.A.A. Gent


text:
Paul Cameron

Paul Drummond Cameron (born November 9, 1939) is an American psychologist. While employed at various institutions, including the University of Nebraska, he conducted research on passive smoking, but he is best known today for his claims about homosexuality. After a successful 1982 campaign against a gay rights proposal in Lincoln, Nebraska, he established the Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality (ISIS), now known as the Family Research Institute (FRI). As FRI's chairman, Cameron has written contentious papers asserting unproven associations between homosexuality and the perpetration of child sexual abuse and reduced life expectancy. These have been heavily criticized and frequently discredited by others in the field.

In 1983, the American Psychological Association expelled Cameron for non-cooperation with an ethics investigation. Position statements issued by the American Sociological Association, Canadian Psychological Association, and the Nebraska Psychological Association accuse Cameron of misrepresenting social science research. Cameron has been designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as an anti-gay extremist.

Early life and career
Cameron was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S., on November 9, 1939. His family moved shortly afterwards to Florida. He received a BA from Los Angeles Pacific College in 1961, an MA from Los Angeles State College (now California State University, Los Angeles) the following year and a PhD from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1966. He held posts as an assistant psychology professor at University of Wisconsin–Stout (1966–67) and Wayne State University (1967–68), before becoming an associate professor at the University of Louisville (1970–73) and the Fuller Graduate School of Psychology (part of the Fuller Theological Seminary) (1976–79). In 1979, he became an associate professor of Marriage and Family Therapy at the University of Nebraska.

During this period, Cameron conducted research on a variety of topics, including the effects of passive smoking and the relation between pet ownership and happiness. In his 1978 book Sexual Gradualism, he supported a middle ground between liberal and conservative Christian attitudes to sexuality, arguing that teenagers should avoid intercourse while experimenting with lower "levels" of sexual intimacy.

In 1980, Cameron left the University of Nebraska and took up private practice as a psychologist in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1982, when the Lincoln city council asked residents to vote on a proposal to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation, Cameron led the opposition as chairman of the committee to Oppose Special Rights for Homosexuals. Despite his earlier moderate position on teenage relationships, Cameron had come to take a hard-line stance on the topic of homosexuality. He has stated that his approach, emphasizing the harms he believed to be caused by homosexual behavior and its acceptance, was influenced by his work on the "lethal" behavior of smokers.

During the campaign in Lincoln, Cameron delivered a speech at the University of Nebraska Lutheran chapel. This drew much attention after he stated that a four-year-old boy had suffered a brutal homosexual assault in a local mall. Police were unable to confirm the incident, and Cameron acknowledged that he had heard the story only as a rumor. On May 11, Lincoln voters rejected the proposed measure by a 4–1 margin.

Family Research Institute
In 1982, Cameron co-founded the Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality in Lincoln. Believing that earlier sex surveys, including those conducted by Playboy magazine, had overestimated the prevalence of homosexuality, Cameron set out in 1983 to conduct what he described as "a fair sexuality poll, not one based on volunteers." His expectation was that the results would support his case for a ban on homosexual acts throughout the United States. Funding, according to Cameron, was provided by businessmen including several Nebraska chief executives. The 1983 ISIS Survey, an "extensive self-administered questionnaire", was offered to 9,129 adults in five U.S. cities, and 4,340 responses were received. In 1984, these were supplemented with data from 824 adults from Dallas. Under the banner of ISIS, Cameron produced a number of "lurid pamphlets about the supposed social ills associated with homosexuality", containing numerous false or unverifiable claims.

ISIS was shortly afterwards renamed the Family Research Institute (FRI) and moved to Washington, D.C. In 1995, FRI changed location again, this time to Colorado Springs, Colorado, where it remains based. In his capacity as FRI's chairman, Cameron has authored pamphlets and scientific articles on the topic of homosexuality. The cover photograph for Cameron's pamphlet Child Molestation and Homosexuality depicted "a young boy being pulled into a men's bathroom," while Murder, Violence and Homosexuality showed "a little girl cowering beneath an arm wielding an ax." Many of Cameron's scientific articles have been based on the 1983–1984 ISIS survey, including a 1996 paper that concluded based on participants' answers concerning their teachers that homosexual teachers could influence their students to become homosexual.

Another of Cameron's conclusions, based partly on his studies of obituaries in gay newspapers, is that homosexuals as a group have a median age of death about 20 years lower than that of heterosexuals. After analyzing official data from Denmark, which allowed same-sex unions in 1989, and Norway, which allowed same-sex marriage in 2009, Cameron reported in 2007 that "married lesbians lived to age 56 and married gay men to age 52." Cameron states that many victims of child sexual abuse are the same sex as their abusers – one FRI study on sexual abuse by foster parents in Illinois reported that 34% of perpetrators were guilty of same-sex abuse – and concludes that "there is a strong, disproportionate association between child molestation and homosexuality."

Cameron has asserted that 75 percent of gay men regularly ingest feces and that 70 to 78 percent have had a sexually transmitted disease, that all are promiscuous, and that homosexuals commit proportionately more homicides than non-homosexuals. He has been quoted in Rolling Stone as saying that homosexual sex was more pleasurable than most heterosexual sex, and as a result, if homosexuality were tolerated then it would become predominant within a few generations.

Cameron's publications have been cited as support by some groups who oppose same-sex marriage and allowing homosexuals to become foster or adoptive parents, including the Traditional Values Coalition. Cameron testified in the case Baker v. Wade (1985). In 1992, Gale Norton, then the Attorney General of Colorado, employed Cameron as a consultant when defending a law preventing the extension of civil rights legislation to homosexuals. Cameron's testimony went unused, and the law was struck down by the Supreme Court. Cameron campaigned against a gay-rights initiative in Maine in 2000, testified in favor of the failed Virginia Anti-Gay Adoption Bill in 2005, and opposed a 2007 Colorado bill intended to allow cohabiting couples to adopt. He was tricked into appearing in Sacha Baron Cohen's 2009 mockumentary film Brüno. Southern Poverty Law Center has classed the Family Research Institute as a hate group.

Family
Cameron is married and has three children. His son, Kirk (not to be confused with the actor of the same name), has been involved with the Family Research Institute since 1983.

From professional organizations
The American Psychological Association (APA) launched an investigation into Cameron after receiving complaints about his work from members. The APA President Max Seigel sent Cameron a letter on December 2, 1983, stating that the Board of Directors had decided to drop him from membership for failure to cooperate with their investigation. FRI has contended that Cameron had already resigned from the organization in November 1982, citing correspondence from before his formal expulsion. In a letter published in the March 1983 edition of the APA Monitor, Cameron stated that his reasons for leaving included his opinion that the organization was becoming more of a "liberal PAC" than a professional society. The APA, however, does not allow the resignation of a member who is the subject of an ethics investigation. An APA spokesperson told The Boston Globe in 2005, "We are concerned about Dr. Cameron because we do believe that his methodology is weak."

In 1984 the Nebraska Psychological Association issued a statement disassociating itself "from the representations and interpretations of scientific literature offered by Dr. Paul Cameron." In 1986 the American Sociological Association passed a resolution stating, "The American Sociological Association officially and publicly states that Paul Cameron is not a sociologist, and condemns his consistent misrepresentation of sociological research." This was based on a report from the ASA's Committee on the Status of Homosexuals in Sociology, which summarised Cameron's inflammatory statements and commented, "It does not take great analytical abilities to suspect from even a cursory review of Cameron's writings that his claims have almost nothing to do with social science and that social science is used only to cover over another agenda. Very little of his work could find support from even a bad misreading of genuine social science investigation on the subject and some sociologists, such as Alan Bell, have been 'appalled' at the abuse of their work." In 1996, the board of directors of the Canadian Psychological Association approved a position statement disassociating the organisation from Cameron's work on sexuality, stating that he had "consistently misinterpreted and misrepresented research on sexuality, homosexuality, and lesbianism."

In March 2015, Cameron sued the Polish gay rights organisation 'Pracownia Różnorodności' for calling him a 'homophobic liar'.

From individuals
After Cameron submitted affidavits to the U. S. District Court of Dallas in Baker v. Wade (1985), Judge Buchmeyer wrote in his opinion that Cameron had engaged in "fraud" and "misrepresentations to this Court" noting that, "His sworn statement that 'homosexuals are approximately 43 times more apt to commit crimes than is the general population' is a total distortion of the Kinsey data upon which he relies – which, as is obvious to anyone who reads the report, concerns data from a non-representative sample of delinquent homosexuals (and Dr. Cameron compares this group to college and non-college heterosexuals)." Buchmeyer's decision was reversed by the Fifth Circuit on other grounds, without mentioning Buchmeyer's finding that Cameron had made misrepresentations. FRI has disputed Judge Buchmeyer's assessment of Cameron's affidavits.

Epidemiologists Morten Frisch and Henrik Brønnum-Hansen argue that Cameron was wrong to infer reduced life expectancy from the fact that deaths among homosexually married partners in Denmark and Norway occurred at a lower median age than those among heterosexually married partners: "Because the age distribution among persons in same-sex marriages was considerably younger than that of people who had ever been heterosexually married, the average age at death among those who actually died during the observation period was, not surprisingly, considerably younger in the population of same-sex married persons." Their own analysis found that excess mortality in Danish same-sex marriages since 1995 was "restricted to the first few years after a marriage, presumably reflecting preexisting illness at the time of marriage". Similarly, critics have argued that obituaries in gay-themed newspapers, which Cameron used to estimate homosexual mortality, do not provide a representative sample of deaths and ignore surviving members of the same generation.

Cameron has also been criticized for placing responsibility for same-sex child sexual abuse on "homosexuals"; Scientists say someone who carries out such abuse need not have a homosexual orientation with respect to other adults. Gregory M. Herek, a psychologist specializing in prejudice against sexual minorities, charges that Cameron misrepresented the literature he had reviewed and cited to support his claims, such as a Groth and Birnbaum (1978) study in which none of the participating child molestors actually identified as homosexuals, and none of those who were bisexual claimed to prefer men over women. Furthermore, while Cameron assumed all the same-sex molestations were perpetrated by homosexuals, he did not assume all the opposite-sex molestations were perpetrated by heterosexuals; he included a "bisexual correction" only for opposite-sex molestations that effectively increased the number of perpetrators described as "homosexual" without changing the number described as "heterosexual".

Herek noted that most of the Cameron group's academic publications in the past 15 years have been based on a survey study conducted in 1983 and 1984. The main survey was completed in seven U.S. cities and towns in 1983. Data were later added from a 1984 Dallas (TX) sample. Most of the Cameron group's papers have reported data from the combined samples. According to Herek, a critical review of the Cameron group's sampling techniques, survey methodology, and interpretation of results reveals at least six serious errors in their study. Herek concludes, "an empirical study manifesting even one of these six weaknesses would be considered seriously flawed. In combination, the multiple methodological problems evident in the Cameron group's surveys mean that their results cannot even be considered a valid description of the specific group of individuals who returned the survey questionnaire. Because the data are essentially meaningless, it is not surprising that they have been virtually ignored by the scientific community." "The Cameron group has published its empirical research in academic journals with low prestige and, at least in the case of Psychological Reports, with a low rejection rate. Other than the Cameron group itself, researchers have not cited their empirical studies as a source of ideas for new research on sexual orientation. Nor have scientists cited the group's papers to support assertions about the dangers to society posed by homosexuals."

In a widely publicized interview with Midweek Politics with David Pakman, Cameron compared homosexuality to drug use, a comparison that drew criticism from several gay rights blogs, websites, and The Huffington Post.

Claims of linkage between homosexuality and child sex abuse
Cameron's claim of homosexuals being more apt to sexually abuse and molest children rests on the fallacious assumption that for all children who are sexually molested or abused by the perpetrators of the same sex as that of victim, the perpetrators are homosexuals who are mainly attracted to adults of same sex. While any coercive sex between and adult and minor of same sex is homosexual act, the conclusion that the perpetrator is homosexual in orientation towards adults is not necessarily correct. (See page 62 of ref ) James Cantor mentions that the extremist groups take advantage of confusing terminologies. Pedophilia is primary sexual attraction towards children whereas teleiophilia refers to sexual attraction towards adults. Homosexuality or homosexual in the context of pedophilia refers to homosexual pedophiles (those who are primarily sexually attracted to children of same sex), whereas homosexuality or homosexuals in the context of civil rights or equality or prevalence of homosexuality in general population refers to homosexual teleiophilia (those who are attracted towards of adults of same sex). Analogous terms like heterosexual pedophilia, heterosexual teleiophilia are also present. Some literature use term androphiles for sexual attraction towards adult males (homosexual teleiophile males and heterosexual teleiophile females) whereas the term gynephiles is used for sexual attraction towards females (homosexual teleiophile females and heterosexual teleiophile males). These terminologies are well accepted in the scientific community. It is known that fraction of male homosexual pedophiles among male pedophiles is considerably more than fraction of male homosexual teleiophiles among male teleiophiles. However competent scientific studies have documented that it is not sensible to compare homosexual pedophiles with homosexual teleiophiles. Homosexual teleiophiles are not any more likely to sexually abuse children than heterosexual teleiophiles. Scientific, medical and psychiatric bodies across the world do not consider homosexuality to be a disease or a particular risk factor for physically or sexually abusive behavior, and advocate acceptance of LGBT citizens.

Cameron has misinterpreted some scientific literature which he says supports the idea that homosexuals are more likely to molest children. Freund et al. 1992 state that while fraction of male homosexual pedophiles among male pedophiles is considerably more than fraction of androphile males (homosexual teleiophile males) among teleiophile males,  these findings would not imply that androphilic males (homosexual teleiophiles)  have more propensity to sexually abuse children than gynephilic males (heterosexual teleiophiles), the conclusion which runs contrary to Cameron's understanding. Another paper from Archives of Sexual Behavior by Erickson et al. 1988 has been misinterpreted by Cameron. The paper found that roughly 70% of child sex offenders had abused girls, 25% had abused boys and 5% had abused both. Over 86% of those who had offended against boys were homosexual (i.e. around 26% of total child sex offenders). However what Cameron misses is that the keywords provided by authors in the same paper include homosexual pedophilia and pedophilia. The paper is speaking about homosexual pedophiles It does not have homosexual teleiophilia or androphilia (sexual attraction towards adult males) in its keywords. Usage of homosexuality/homosexuals in context of pedophilia to refer to homosexual pedophiles (which has nothing to do with adult sexual orientation) is widely prevalent in scientific literature. Nicholas Groth wrote a letter to Nebraska Board of Examiners of psychologists on August 21, 1984, and accused him of misrepresentation of his own work and disgracing his profession.

Apart from self-citations by Cameron's group their work on linking homosexuality with child sex abuse have mostly been cited by other scientists either to counteract it or only to quantify the prevalence of sexual abuse of children by adults of same sex. While sexual abuses in which the perpetrator and victims are of same sex are termed as homosexual molestation but it does not necessarily mean that the perpetrator was homosexual in orientation towards adults. Cameron's work on this topic have not influenced scientific consensus on absence of harms possessed by homosexuals to children and society.

title: Paul Cameron


text:
Dennis Hart Mahan

Dennis Hart Mahan (Mă-hăn) [məˈhæn] (April 2, 1802 – September 16, 1871) was a noted American military theorist, civil engineer and professor at the United States Military Academy at West Point from 1824–1871. He was the father of American naval historian and theorist Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan.

A native of New York City, Mahan was raised and educated in Norfolk, Virginia. He was an 1824 graduate of the United States Military Academy; ranked first in class, Mahan's high academic standing earned him appointment to the United States Army Corps of Engineers. Mahan's mathematical and engineering skills were recognized by his instructors and the superintendent, Sylvanus Thayer, and he began teaching courses as an acting assistant professor during his third year as a student.

Mahan received advanced training in engineering during an extended trip to Europe, including attendance at the French engineer and artillery school in Metz. He resigned his commission in 1832 to become chairman of West Point's Engineering Department, and he remained on the faculty until his death. Mahan taught many of the military leaders who served on each side during the American Civil War, and his extensive writings on military engineering, fortifications, and strategy became required reading among military professionals through World War I.

In 1871, West Point's board of overseers recommended that he be retired because he was in ill health. On September 16, 1871, Mahan was aboard a Hudson River steamboat on his way to New York City to visit his doctor when he became distraught over the thought of retiring and committed suicide by jumping into the boat's paddlewheel. Mahan was buried at West Point Cemetery.

Early life
Mahan was born in New York City on April 2, 1802, the son of Irish Catholic immigrants John Mahan and Mary (Cleary) Mahan. He was raised and educated in Norfolk, Virginia, and in 1820 received an appointment to the United States Military Academy from U.S. Representative Thomas Newton Jr. Mahan graduated in 1824, first in his class. His academic acumen was recognized while he was still a student, and in his third year at West Point superintendent Sylvanus Thayer appointed him acting assistant professor of mathematics. After graduation, he continued to serve on the faculty.

Start of career
In 1826, Mahan went to Europe to study advanced engineering, and from 1829 to 1830 he was a student at France's school of engineers and artillery in Metz. Upon returning to West Point in 1830, he was promoted to professor of civil and military Engineering. He resigned his second lieutenant's commission in 1832 to become chairman of West Point's Engineering Department, and he remained on the faculty until his death. Mahan was subsequently appointed dean of the faculty and became a recognized authority on engineering. In addition to becoming a member of several scientific and professional societies, he also carried out special appointments that took advantage of his technical skills. In 1828, he was elected to membership in France's Société de Géographie. In 1850, Governor John B. Floyd of Virginia appointed Mahan to the board that recommended a route for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad to run from Cumberland, Maryland to a terminus in Wheeling, West Virginia, which was then part of Virginia. In 1863, Mahan was an original incorporator of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1871, he was appointed to the board of overseers for the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College.

Mahan founded the Napoleon Club at West Point. In the club's seminars, which reviewed the engagements of the Napoleonic Wars, advanced undergraduates studied and discussed the great European battles, including the campaigns of Napoleon and Frederick the Great. Participants included Robert E. Lee, John F. Reynolds, George Henry Thomas and George B. McClellan. As an author, Mahan promoted military professionalism and wrote extensively on strategy and tactics, fixed fortifications, and field fortifications. His writings became standard textbooks for the armies of several countries, and remained required reading from the time they were written until after World War II.

Continued career
Mahan was largely responsible for disseminating ideas of European military theorists throughout the United States, particularly Antoine-Henri Jomini, and his lectures and writings were instrumental to U.S. actions in every conflict from the Mexican–American War and American Civil War to World War I and World War II. A proponent of a disciplined professional army in an era when the United States relied on a small standing army augmented with minimally trained volunteers and militia, Mahan strongly advocated providing discipline and training for militia and volunteers as a means of improving their performance on the battlefield.

The theories Mahan advocated included the use of combined arms to defeat an enemy, rather than relying on infantry with the other arms only in support. In his writings, Mahan emphasized the use of artillery, infantry, and cavalry in concert to attack the enemy’s decisive point. A cautious man who was never seen without his umbrella, he taught the tactical offensive, but not in an unqualified manner. "Great prudence must be shown in advancing, as the troops engaged are liable at any moment to an attack on their flank", he wrote. He advocated a practical, flexible approach to military operations, blending French doctrine from the battles of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars as espoused by Jomini with the realities of warfare in North America, especially the differences between European and American geography and terrain. As a strategist, Mahan advocated for bold measures in battle rather than limited warfare, believing that once a country committed its military to war, the object was to gain an advantageous peace, which could be done only by decisive action.

Death and burial
In his later years, Mahan began to suffer from ill health, which negatively affected his ability to teach. As a result, in 1871, the West Point Board of Visitors recommended that he retire. On September 16, 1871, Mahan began a Hudson River steamboat trip to New York City, where he intended to consult with his doctor. Increasingly distraught at the prospect of retirement, he committed suicide by leaping into the boat's paddlewheel. He was buried at West Point Cemetery.

Honors and awards
In 1837, Mahan received the honorary degree of Master of Arts from Brown University and Princeton University. He received honorary Legum Doctor (LL.D.) degrees from the College of William & Mary and Brown University in 1852, and from Dartmouth College in 1867.

Fort Mahan Park, in northeast Washington, D.C. was originally Fort Mahan, a Civil War defensive work named for Mahan. Built in 1861, Fort Mahan was constructed in order to provide defense of the Benning's Bridge entry to the city. The site of Fort Mahan is now part of the National Park Service's Civil War Defenses of Washington, and is located at Benning Road and 42nd Street, NE.

Mahan Hall at the United States Military Academy at West Point was named in his honor. Built in 1971, it houses the Academy's Departments of Civil & Mechanical Engineering (CME) and Systems Engineering.

Family
In 1839, Mahan married Mary Helena Okill. They were married until his death and were the parents of six children.

 * Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914)
 * Mary Mahan (1842-1891)
 * Helen Candace Mahan (1843-1846)
 * Frederick Augustus Mahan (1847-1918)
 * Dennis Hart Mahan (1849-1925)
 * Jane Leigh Mahan (1852-1945)

Books by Mahan
Mahan's published works included:

 * A Treatise on Field Fortification (1836)
 * Elementary Course of Civil Engineering (1837; revised 1868)
 * Elementary Treatise on Advanced-Guard, Out-posts, and Detachment Service of Troops, and the Manner of Posting and Handling Them in Presence of an Enemy (colloquially known as "Out-posts", 1847; revised, 1862)
 * Summary on the Cause of Permanent Fortifications and of the Attack and Defense of Permanent Works (1850)
 * Elementary Treatise on Industrial Drawing (1853)
 * Editor, with additions, the American edition of Mosely's Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture (1856)
 * Descriptive Geometry, as applied to the Drawing of Fortifications and Stereometry (1864)
 * An Elementary Course on Military Engineering Field Fortifications, Military Mining, and Siege Operations (1865)
 * Permanent Fortifications (1867)

title: Dennis Hart Mahan