text:
List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach printed during his lifetime

Compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach printed during his lifetime (1685–1750) include works for keyboard instruments, such as his Clavier-Übung volumes for harpsichord and for organ, and to a lesser extent ensemble music, such as the trio sonata of The Musical Offering, and vocal music, such as a cantata published early in his career. Other works, such as several canons, were printed without an indication by which instruments they were to be performed.

No more than a few works by Johann Sebastian Bach were printed during his lifetime. Extended works for choir and instrumentalists were not printed very often in his day. Bach selected mostly keyboard compositions for publication, which conformed to such contemporary practices, and was instrumental in establishing him as a keyboard composer. His works not only circulated in print: also manuscripts were copied and transmitted. Whether or not a work was selected for print was independent of the quality of the music.

Context
Whereas earlier composers such as Palestrina, Monteverdi, Praetorius and Schütz had their works printed to ensure that the entire range of their music became more widely known, this was not the case with Bach, who only had a small proportion of his works printed. Christoph Wolff has suggested three reasons: firstly the financial support from municipal councils or noble patrons available to previous generations had diminished in Germany as a result of the Thirty Years War; secondly the expense of printing contrapuntal keyboard music which, at that time in Germany, was more often typeset than engraved; and lastly the low number of potential customers for works that were often technically difficult and unconventional.

Counting by BWV numbers, less than ten percent of the composer's output was printed during his lifetime. Especially the choral works, less than half a percent of over 400 BWV numbers, are under-represented. This was however not exceptional for Bach's time when larger works for chorus and orchestra were less often printed. Bach's own efforts to get his works printed concentrated mostly on his keyboard compositions, which contributed to the fact that, at least until the 19th-century Bach Revival, he was mainly regarded as a keyboard composer. Whether or not a work was selected for print was independent of the quality of the music.

Most of the prints of Bach's music which appeared during his lifetime were commissioned by the composer. Bach's personal copies, often containing handwritten corrections or additions, have been recovered for several of his printed works. The German expression for personal copy, Handexemplar, also appears in English-language Bach-scholarship, and is used in the list below when referring to prints once contained in the personal library of Johann Sebastian Bach.

During Bach's lifetime his compositions were mostly distributed amongst his immediate musical associates through manuscript copies. After his death in 1750, manuscript copies of keyboard and vocal works were made by professional copyists and distributed by musical publishing firms, especially Breitkopf (Leipzig), Traeg (Vienna) and Westphal (Hamburg). This in turn led to the appearance of printed editions of his works, beginning with the publication of Bach's four-part chorales in the second half of the eighteenth century. The fact that Bach had published representative samples of his music for keyboard instruments contributed to his fame, and to an increased demand for such works after his death.

In his 1732 Musicalisches Lexicon, Johann Gottfried Walther listed all keyboard compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach which had been printed up to that point, that is, the six partitas of Clavier-Übung I. In Bach's obituary, which was published four years after the composer's death, printed and unprinted works are listed separately: the list of engraved compositions contains eight items, all of them instrumental works, and concludes with The Art of Fugue, which had been printed shortly after the composer's death. A comparable list, starting with the same eight items, appeared half a century later in Johann Nikolaus Forkel's Bach-biography. In 1937 Georg Kinsky published an extensive study of Bach's original publications.

Printed music
The eight publications listed in Bach's obituary included The Art of Fugue which was in fact published shortly after the composer's death. Further, two publications with vocal music and two canons are extant.

Mühlhausen council election cantatas
Gott ist mein König, BWV 71, Bach's council election (Ratswahl) cantata composed for Mühlhausen in 1708, was printed that same year at the expense of the town council. Also in 1709 and 1710 Bach wrote the council election cantatas for Mühlhausen, which likewise would have been printed. These cantatas, BWV 1138.1 and 1138.2, are however lost: neither a print nor a manuscript survives.

 * Publication : The Mühlhausen council commissioned the publication of the Ratswahl cantatas. The parts and libretto of the Gott ist mein König cantata, printed in Mühlhausen in 1708, are extant.

 * Handexemplar : Mus. 11495 of the Berlin State Library, one of the surviving prints of the BWV 71 cantata, has a handwritten note by Bach on the front page.

Clavier-Übung I

Bach's Six Partitas, BWV 825–830, for harpsichord, were published in instalments from 1726 to 1730:
 * 1) Autumn 1726: Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, BWV 825.
 * 2) Easter 1727: Partita No. 2 in C minor, BWV 826.
 * 3) Michaelmas 1727: Partita No. 3 in A minor, BWV 827.
 * 4) 1728: Partita No. 4 in D major, BWV 828.
 * 5) 1730: Partita No. 5 in G major, BWV 829.
 * 6) 1730: Partita No. 6 in E minor, BWV 830.

In 1731 these partitas were collectively published as Clavier-Übung ("Keyboard Exercise").

 * Publication : According to an announcement published in May 1730, it was originally planned to publish seven suites.

 * Handexemplar : In 1774 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, son of Johann Sebastian, sold a print of Clavier-Übung I from his father's personal library to Johann Nikolaus Forkel. In 2008 Andrew Talle identified SH J. S. Bach 56 of the Austrian National Library as the Handexemplar that changed hands in 1774. Previously, Bach scholars had (tentatively) identified Bach's Handexemplar of Clavier-Übung I as either 3.3.B2 Case of the Music Division of the Library of Congress (e.g. Peter Wollny in 1996) or Hirsch III. 37 of the British Library (e.g. Walter Emery in 1952, and Richard D. P. Jones in 1978, 1988 and 1997).

Canon a 4
Bach's "Canon mit 4" (canon for four voices), BWV 1074, was published in Georg Philipp Telemann's Der getreue Music-Meister in 1728. This canon was also published with two solutions in Johann Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister in 1739, and with three solutions in Volume 3 of Lorenz Christoph Mizler's Musikalische Bibliothek in 1747.

Clavier-Übung II
The second volume of the Clavier-Übung was first published in 1735, soon followed by a reprint with several corrections. It contained two compositions, specified for performance on a two-manual harpsichord:
 * Concerto nach Italienischen Gusto (Italian Concerto), BWV 971
 * Ouvertüre nach Französischer Art (French Overture), BWV 831
 * Publication : Clavier-Übung II was printed in Nürnberg by Christoph Weigel. In the second printing pages 20 to 22 were replaced by new engravings.

 * Handexemplar : K.8.g.7 from the British Library was Bach's Handexemplar: it is a copy from the first print run with more than hundred corrections in Bach's hand.

Spiritual songs and arias from Schemelli's Musicalisches Gesang-Buch
Georg Christian Schemelli's Musicalisches Gesang-Buch (musical songbook), commonly known as Schemellis Gesangbuch, contains 954 song texts, 69 of which, BWV 439–507, are printed with a setting for singing voice and thoroughbass. Not all 69 melodies were composed by Bach, but he provided (or "improved") an accompaniment for all of them. Schemellis Gesangbuch was published in 1736, and contains some of Bach's probably least known compositions.

Clavier-Übung III

For organ, containing:
 * Prelude in E-flat major, BWV 552/i
 * German Kyrie and Gloria settings, BWV 669–677
 * Catechism chorales, BWV 678–689
 * Four duets, BWV 802–805
 * Fugue E-flat major, BWV 552/ii

The Prelude and Fugue were published separately as a pair by C. F. Peters in 1845 in Volume III of the Organ Works of J. S. Bach, with the fugue listed in the contents as the "St Annen-Fuge".

Clavier-Übung IV
In 1741 or 1742 another Clavier-Übung volume was published, the Aria with diverse variations for double manual harpsichord, later known as the Goldberg Variations, BWV 988. Not thus numbered in the print it was the fourth Clavier-Übung publication. This publication does not carry a reference to Johann Gottlieb Goldberg: the music was published over half a century before the perhaps exaggerated anecdote involving Goldberg was printed in Forkel's biography of Bach.

 * Publication : The work was published by Balthasar Schmid in Nürnberg.

 * Handexemplar : Ms. 17669 is at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF). It contains corrections by Bach as well as the autograph manuscript of the canons BWV 1087.

Canon triplex a 6
The Canon triplex a 6, BWV 1076, which had appeared on Elias Gottlob Haussmann's portrait of Bach in 1746, was printed in 1747.

Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her"

The Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her", BWV 769, for organ, were published on the occasion of Bach's admission to Mizler's "Society of the Musical Sciences" in 1747.

Musikalisches Opfer
The Musical Offering, BWV 1079, was published in 1747, after Bach's visit to Frederick the Great in Potsdam. The work contains a trio sonata for flute, violin and continuo.

Schübler Chorales
The Schübler Chorales, BWV 645–650, is a set of chorale preludes for organ, published around 1748 as Sechs Chorale von verschiedener Art (Six Chorales of Various Kinds) by Johann Georg Schübler.

 * Publication : There is some doubt whether Bach commissioned the publication, which mainly, perhaps even exclusively, consists of arrangements of cantata movements which he had composed a few decades earlier. The work was published in Zella Melsi, and the engraver apparently prepared the print unsupervised by the composer. It is likely that Bach at least chose the six pieces, determined their sequence in the publication, and gave some instruction on the organ registration to be employed.

 * Handexemplar : Bach's Handexemplar is part of the Scheide Library at Princeton University Library. It contains several corrections by Bach, but misses the title page and the first page of music.

Kunst der Fuge
In preparation for print when the composer died (1750): The Art of Fugue, BWV 1080. The printed versions (1751 and 1752) contain BWV 668a, a variant of the chorale prelude "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein", BWV 668.

Music prints

 * – facsimile: Mus. 11495 R at Berlin State Library (D-B Mus. 11495 at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: D-LEb Peters PM 1402 at Bach Digital website; Kenny 2274 at Baldwin Wallace University; 2 B122p 1731 at Juilliard School; Mus.2405.T.46 at SLUB.
 * – facsimile (2nd printing, c. 1736): DMS 224676(2) at Berlin State Library (D-B DMS 224676 (2) Rara at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: D-LEb Peters PM 1403 and US-PRu M 3.1. B2 C5. 1739q (Ex.) at Bach Digital website; SA.82.F.15 at Austrian National Library (A-Wn SA.82.F.15 at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: MS-17669 at Gallica (Handexemplar, ); D-LEb Peters PM 1400 at Bach Digital website; Kenny 548 at Baldwin Wallace University.
 * Facsimile: MS64460-4° R/XVIII/Bach/2 at Austrian National Library (A-Wn MS 64460 at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: Am.B. 80 at Berlin State Library; M3.3 .B118v at University of Rochester; Kenny 1512 at Baldwin Wallace University; mu 6406.1830 H. & Fr. Rungs Musik-Arkiv No 1535, U 20 and mu 6407.2832 Weyses Samling, U 20 at Royal Library, Denmark; Ohki N-7 (4) at Nanki Music Library, Tokyo.
 * – facsimiles: Am.B 73 at Berlin State Library (D-B Am.B 73, Fascicle 1 and Fascicle 2 at Bach Digital website); Am.B 74 at Berlin State Library (D-B Am.B 74 at Bach Digital website); BWV 1079 at Baldwin Wallace University.
 * – facsimiles: D-LEb Peters PM 5694 at Bach Digital website; DMS O. 80758 at Berlin State Library (D-B DMS O. 80758 Rara at Bach Digital website); SH.J.S.Bach.40 at Austrian National Library (A-Wn SH J. S. Bach 40 at Bach Digital website).
 * (first edition, 1751) and (second edition, with preface by Marpurg, 1752) – facsimiles: mu 6406.2030 H. & Fr. Rungs Musik-Arkiv No 226A, U 315 at Royal Library, Denmark (1751 edition, DK-Kk mu 6406.2030 H. & Fr. Rungs Musik-Arkiv No 226A, U 315 at Bach Digital website); Mus. O. 17364 at Berlin State Library (1752 edition, D-B Mus. O. 17364 Rara at Bach Digital website); BWV 1080 at Baldwin Wallace University (1752 edition, US-BER Kenney 1814, Vault: M 24.B2 at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: 1077430 Liturg. 1372 o at Bavarian State Library; szMJMq_zmygC at Google Books;.
 * . – facsimiles: VM7-3878 at Gallica ; Mus.2392.B.1 at SLUB; M B/4987 at Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg. Der getreue Music-Meister
 * – facsimiles: Am.B 73 at Berlin State Library (D-B Am.B 73, Fascicle 1 and Fascicle 2 at Bach Digital website); Am.B 74 at Berlin State Library (D-B Am.B 74 at Bach Digital website); BWV 1079 at Baldwin Wallace University.
 * – facsimiles: D-LEb Peters PM 5694 at Bach Digital website; DMS O. 80758 at Berlin State Library (D-B DMS O. 80758 Rara at Bach Digital website); SH.J.S.Bach.40 at Austrian National Library (A-Wn SH J. S. Bach 40 at Bach Digital website).
 * (first edition, 1751) and (second edition, with preface by Marpurg, 1752) – facsimiles: mu 6406.2030 H. & Fr. Rungs Musik-Arkiv No 226A, U 315 at Royal Library, Denmark (1751 edition, DK-Kk mu 6406.2030 H. & Fr. Rungs Musik-Arkiv No 226A, U 315 at Bach Digital website); Mus. O. 17364 at Berlin State Library (1752 edition, D-B Mus. O. 17364 Rara at Bach Digital website); BWV 1080 at Baldwin Wallace University (1752 edition, US-BER Kenney 1814, Vault: M 24.B2 at Bach Digital website).
 * – facsimiles: 1077430 Liturg. 1372 o at Bavarian State Library; szMJMq_zmygC at Google Books;.
 * . – facsimiles: VM7-3878 at Gallica ; Mus.2392.B.1 at SLUB; M B/4987 at Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg. Der getreue Music-Meister
 * – facsimiles: 1077430 Liturg. 1372 o at Bavarian State Library; szMJMq_zmygC at Google Books;.
 * . – facsimiles: VM7-3878 at Gallica ; Mus.2392.B.1 at SLUB; M B/4987 at Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg. Der getreue Music-Meister

Other

 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon
 * Musicalisches Lexicon


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Interference proceeding

An interference proceeding, also known as a priority contest, is an inter partes proceeding to determine the priority issues of multiple patent applications. It is a proceeding unique to the patent law of the United States. Unlike in most other countries, which have long had a first-to-file system, until the enactment of the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (AIA) in 2011, the United States operated under a first-to-invent. The interference proceeding determines which of several patent applications had been made by the first inventor.

The AIA switched the US to a first-to-file regime effective March 16, 2013, and interferences apply only to patent applications with an effective filing date prior to that change.

Definition
An interference proceeding is an administrative proceeding conducted by a panel of administrative patent judges (administrative law judges sitting on the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences) of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to determine which applicant is not entitled to the patent if both claimed the same invention in:
 * 1) two or more pending patent applications, or
 * 2) at least one pending patent application and at least one patent issued within a year of the pending application's filing date.

A panel, composed of judges on the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, a quasi-judicial body in the USPTO, hears an interference contest. Its final judgment adjudicating one party as an earlier inventor is called a priority award, or simply an award. Appeals from this tribunal are heard before either the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit or the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. See,.

Parties
At least two parties are involved in an interference proceeding: the inventor(s) or applicant(s) who filed an earlier patent application are called the "senior party", and the other inventor(s) or applicant(s) are called the "junior party". Both parties can be referred as "contestants", but that term is currently more likely to be used to describe the junior party.

 * Senior party: Merely being the first to file the application does not grant a party legal protection. It counts only as prima facie evidence that he or she is the first inventor. A senior party can also file a "motion to dissolve interference" to request the dismissal of challenges to its priority.
 * Junior party: A party other than the senior party bears the burden of proving that he is the first inventor. The proceeding's administrator considers certain factors, such as the invention's conception date and the inventor's diligence in reducing the invention to practice. Until the 1960s, a junior party was frequently called an "interferant".

Presumptions
Presumptions are stated in 37 C.F.R. 41.207(a):

 * (1) Order of invention. Parties are presumed to have invented interfering subject matter in the order of the dates of their accorded benefit for each count. If two parties are accorded the benefit of the same earliest date of constructive reduction to practice, then neither party is entitled to a presumption of priority with respect to the other such party.

 * (2) Evidentiary standard. Priority may be proved by a preponderance of the evidence, except a party must prove priority by clear and convincing evidence if the date of its earliest constructive reduction to practice is after the issue date of an involved patent or the publication date under 35 U.S.C. 122(b) of an involved application or patent.

Leahy-Smith America Invents Act
On September 16, 2011, President Obama signed the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act into law. Part of the Act changed the U.S. patent system from a first-to-invent system to a first-to-file system. As such, interference proceedings for any patent application with an effective filing date on or after March 16, 2013, were eliminated from U.S. patent law. Derivation proceedings are replacing interference proceedings in the patent statutes, but the dispute surrounding a derivation proceeding is unrelated to that of an interference proceeding.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Interference proceeding


text:
Ribeira Seca (Ribeira Grande)

Ribeira Seca (Portuguese for dry river) is a civil parish in the municipality of Ribeira Grande in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. The population in 2011 was 2,950, in an area of 12.59 km2. It is located near the north coast of the island. It contains the localities Bandejo, Morro de Cima and Ribeira Seca.

Architecture
The parish has a rich combination of modern and historical patrimony, in addition to natural spaces, such as the northern beach of Santa Bárbara, popular with surfers and watersports enthusiasts. These include:

Civic

 * Manorhouse of Mafoma (Solar da Mafoma)

Military

 * Casamates of Santa Bárbara (Casamatas ao Areal de Santa Bárbara)

Religious

 * Church of São Pedro (Igreja Paroquial de Ribeira Seca/Igreja de São Pedro)
 * Hermitage of Mãe de Deus (Ermida de Mãe de Deus)
 * Hermitage of Nossa Senhora da Paciência (Ermida de Nossa Senhora da Paciência/Ermida do Senhor da Paciência/Ermida do Ecce Homo)
 * Hermitage of Nossa Senhora da Quietação (Ermida de Nossa Senhora da Quietação)
 * Hermitage of Bom Sucesso (Ermida do Bom Sucesso/Ermida de Nossa Senhora do Bom Sucesso)

Culture
The parish is traditionally the seat of the Cavalhadas de São Pedro, an event that occurs every 29 June, and celebrates the elevation oe Ribeira Grande to the status of the city, with associated festivities. During the statutory holiday, the local residents prepare the Alâmpadas de São Pedro that decorate the roads and homes of the parish during this period. Preceding these events, on 28 June, is the Marchas de São Pedro, (Marches of St. Peter) that attract hundreds of participants, who parade through the parish.

title: Ribeira Seca (Ribeira Grande)


text:
Graham Island (Nunavut)

Graham Island is an uninhabited island in Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada. A member of the Queen Elizabeth Islands and Arctic Archipelago, it is located in Norwegian Bay off the coast of Ellesmere Island. Located at 77°25'N 90°30'W it has an area of 1378 km2, 55 km long and 40 km wide. It was named in 1910.

Variation
There is a second, much smaller (about 2.0 × 0.5 km), Graham Island, also in Nunavut, off Boothia Peninsula. It was named in 1966.

title: Graham Island (Nunavut)


text:
Talk:Lewis Turco

Biography assessment rating comment
WikiProject Biography Summer 2007 Assessment Drive

The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- Yamara 17:04, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

Why does head rhyme redirect here?
There's no mention of "head rhyme" in the page text at all. 4pq1injbok (talk) 22:29, 4 August 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Lewis Turco


text:
Kosmos 419

Kosmos 419 (Космос 419 meaning Cosmos 419), also known as 3MS No.170 was a failed Soviet spacecraft intended to visit Mars. The spacecraft was launched on 10 May 1971, however, due to an upper stage malfunction, it failed to depart low Earth orbit.

Background
In 1971, Mars was at its closest to Earth since 1956, and in May of that year, both the Soviet Union and the United States made new attempts to reach the Red Planet. Kosmos 419 was intended to overtake the United States probes, Mariner 8 and Mariner 9, with the aim of becoming the first Mars orbiter. As it was, Mariner 8 was lost in a launch failure two days before Kosmos 419 was launched, and Mariner 9 went on to become the first spacecraft to orbit Mars.

Launch
Kosmos 419 was one of three Mars spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union in 1971, the others being Mars 2 and Mars 3; launched days after Kosmos 419. Unlike the 4M spacecraft, Mars 2 and 3, Kosmos 419 was a 3MS spacecraft which consisted only of an orbiter, with no lander. It was the ninth Soviet spacecraft launched to Mars.

Orbit
A Proton-K carrier rocket successfully put the spacecraft and a Blok D upper stage into a low earth parking orbit with an apogee of 174 km and a perigee of 159 km and an inclination of 51.4 degrees. The Blok D's ignition timer was incorrectly set, resulting in it failing to ignite; the timer had been set so that the stage would ignite 1.5 years after launch rather than the intended 1.5 hours. Due to its low orbit, which quickly decayed, Kosmos 419 reentered the Earth's atmosphere on 12 May 1971, two days after launch.

The designation Kosmos 419 was a generic name given to Soviet spacecraft operating in Earth orbit; at the time, Soviet planetary spacecraft which failed to depart Earth orbit would be given designations in the Kosmos series to disguise the failure. Had it departed Earth orbit, Kosmos 419 would have become Mars 2, a designation which was used instead for the next mission, 4M No.171.

== Scientific Instruments ==

 * 1) Fluxgate Magnetometer
 * 2) Infrared Radiometer
 * 3) Infrared Photometer
 * 4) Spectrometer
 * 5) Photometer
 * 6) Radiometer
 * 7) Ultraviolet Photometer
 * 8) Cosmic-ray detector
 * 9) Charged particle spectrometer
 * 10) Imaging System
 * 11) Stereo antenna

title: Kosmos 419


text:
Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy (from Greek πλείων pleion, 'more', and τρόπος tropos, 'way') occurs when one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits. Such a gene that exhibits multiple phenotypic expression is called a pleiotropic gene. Mutation in a pleiotropic gene may have an effect on several traits simultaneously, due to the gene coding for a product used by a myriad of cells or different targets that have the same signaling function.

Pleiotropy can arise from several distinct but potentially overlapping mechanisms, such as gene pleiotropy, developmental pleiotropy, and selectional pleiotropy. Gene pleiotropy occurs when a gene product interacts with multiple other proteins or catalyzes multiple reactions. Developmental pleiotropy occurs when mutations have multiple effects on the resulting phenotype. Selectional pleiotropy occurs when the resulting phenotype has many effects on fitness (depending on factors such as age and gender).

An example of pleiotropy is phenylketonuria, an inherited disorder that affects the level of phenylalanine, an amino acid that can be obtained from food, in the human body. Phenylketonuria causes this amino acid to increase in amount in the body, which can be very dangerous. The disease is caused by a defect in a single gene on chromosome 12 that codes for enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, that affects multiple systems, such as the nervous and integumentary system.

Pleiotropic gene action can limit the rate of multivariate evolution when natural selection, sexual selection or artificial selection on one trait favors one allele, while selection on other traits favors a different allele. Some gene evolution is harmful to an organism. Genetic correlations and responses to selection most often exemplify pleiotropy.

History
Pleiotropic traits had been previously recognized in the scientific community but had not been experimented on until Gregor Mendel's 1866 pea plant experiment. Mendel recognized that certain pea plant traits (seed coat color, flower color, and axial spots) seemed to be inherited together; however, their correlation to a single gene has never been proven. The term "pleiotropie" was first coined by Ludwig Plate in his Festschrift, which was published in 1910. He originally defined pleiotropy as occurring when "several characteristics are dependent upon ... [inheritance]; these characteristics will then always appear together and may thus appear correlated". This definition is still used today.

After Plate's definition, Hans Gruneberg was the first to study the mechanisms of pleiotropy. In 1938 Gruneberg published an article dividing pleiotropy into two distinct types: "genuine" and "spurious" pleiotropy. "Genuine" pleiotropy is when two distinct primary products arise from one locus. "Spurious" pleiotropy, on the other hand, is either when one primary product is utilized in different ways or when one primary product initiates a cascade of events with different phenotypic consequences. Gruneberg came to these distinctions after experimenting on rats with skeletal mutations. He recognized that "spurious" pleiotropy was present in the mutation, while "genuine" pleiotropy was not, thus partially invalidating his own original theory. Through subsequent research, it has been established that Gruneberg's definition of "spurious" pleiotropy is what we now identify simply as "pleiotropy".

In 1941 American geneticists George Beadle and Edward Tatum further invalidated Gruneberg's definition of "genuine" pleiotropy, advocating instead for the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis that was originally introduced by French biologist Lucien Cuénot in 1903. This hypothesis shifted future research regarding pleiotropy towards how a single gene can produce various phenotypes.

In the mid-1950s Richard Goldschmidt and Ernst Hadorn, through separate individual research, reinforced the faultiness of "genuine" pleiotropy. A few years later, Hadorn partitioned pleiotropy into a "mosaic" model (which states that one locus directly affects two phenotypic traits) and a "relational" model (which is analogous to "spurious" pleiotropy). These terms are no longer in use but have contributed to the current understanding of pleiotropy.

By accepting the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, scientists instead focused on how uncoupled phenotypic traits can be affected by genetic recombination and mutations, applying it to populations and evolution. This view of pleiotropy, "universal pleiotropy", defined as locus mutations being capable of affecting essentially all traits, was first implied by Ronald Fisher's Geometric Model in 1930. This mathematical model illustrates how evolutionary fitness depends on the independence of phenotypic variation from random changes (that is, mutations). It theorizes that an increasing phenotypic independence corresponds to a decrease in the likelihood that a given mutation will result in an increase in fitness. Expanding on Fisher's work, Sewall Wright provided more evidence in his 1968 book Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: Genetic and Biometric Foundations by using molecular genetics to support the idea of "universal pleiotropy". The concepts of these various studies on evolution have seeded numerous other research projects relating to individual fitness.

In 1957 evolutionary biologist George C. Williams theorized that antagonistic effects will be exhibited during an organism's life cycle if it is closely linked and pleiotropic. Natural selection favors genes that are more beneficial prior to reproduction than after (leading to an increase in reproductive success). Knowing this, Williams argued that if only close linkage was present, then beneficial traits will occur both before and after reproduction due to natural selection. This, however, is not observed in nature, and thus antagonistic pleiotropy contributes to the slow deterioration with age (senescence).

Mechanism
Pleiotropy describes the genetic effect of a single gene on multiple phenotypic traits. The underlying mechanism is genes that code for a product that is either used by various cells or has a cascade-like signaling function that affects various targets.

Polygenic traits
Most genetic traits are polygenic in nature: controlled by many genetic variants, each of small effect. These genetic variants can reside in protein coding or non-coding regions of the genome. In this context pleiotropy refers to the influence that a specific genetic variant, e.g., a single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP, has on two or more distinct traits.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and machine learning analysis of large genomic datasets have led to the construction of SNP based polygenic predictors for human traits such as height, bone density, and many disease risks. Similar predictors exist for plant and animal species and are used in agricultural breeding.

One measure of pleiotropy is the fraction of genetic variance that is common between two distinct complex human traits: e.g., height vs bone density, breast cancer vs heart attack risk, or diabetes vs hypothyroidism risk. This has been calculated for hundreds of pairs of traits, with results shown in the Table. In most cases examined the genomic regions controlling each trait are largely disjoint, with only modest overlap.

Thus, at least for complex human traits so far examined, pleiotropy is limited in extent.

Models for the origin
One basic model of pleiotropy's origin describes a single gene locus to the expression of a certain trait. The locus affects the expressed trait only through changing the expression of other loci. Over time, that locus would affect two traits by interacting with a second locus. Directional selection for both traits during the same time period would increase the positive correlation between the traits, while selection on only one trait would decrease the positive correlation between the two traits. Eventually, traits that underwent directional selection simultaneously were linked by a single gene, resulting in pleiotropy.

The "pleiotropy-barrier" model proposes a logistic growth pattern for the increase of pleiotropy over time. This model differentiates between the levels of pleiotropy in evolutionarily younger and older genes subjected to natural selection. It suggests a higher potential for phenotypic innovation in evolutionarily newer genes due to their lower levels of pleiotropy.

Other more complex models compensate for some of the basic model's oversights, such as multiple traits or assumptions about how the loci affect the traits. They also propose the idea that pleiotropy increases the phenotypic variation of both traits since a single mutation on a gene would have twice the effect.

Evolution
Pleiotropy can have an effect on the evolutionary rate of genes and allele frequencies. Traditionally, models of pleiotropy have predicted that evolutionary rate of genes is related negatively with pleiotropy – as the number of traits of an organism increases, the evolutionary rates of genes in the organism's population decrease. This relationship has not been clearly found in empirical studies for a long time. However, a study based on human disease genes revealed the evidence of lower evolutionary rate in genes with higher pleiotropy.

In mating, for many animals the signals and receptors of sexual communication may have evolved simultaneously as the expression of a single gene, instead of the result of selection on two independent genes, one that affects the signaling trait and one that affects the receptor trait. In such a case, pleiotropy would facilitate mating and survival. However, pleiotropy can act negatively as well. A study on seed beetles found that intralocus sexual conflict arises when selection for certain alleles of a gene that are beneficial for one sex causes expression of potentially harmful traits by the same gene in the other sex, especially if the gene is located on an autosomal chromosome.

Pleiotropic genes act as an arbitrating force in speciation. William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert (1993) conclude that the observed prezygotic isolation in their studies is a product of pleiotropy's balancing role in indirect selection. By imitating the traits of all-infertile hybridized species, they noticed that the fertilization of eggs was prevented in all eight of their separate studies, a likely effect of pleiotropic genes on speciation. Likewise, pleiotropic gene's stabilizing selection allows for the allele frequency to be altered.

Studies on fungal evolutionary genomics have shown pleiotropic traits that simultaneously affect adaptation and reproductive isolation, converting adaptations directly to speciation. A particularly telling case of this effect is host specificity in pathogenic ascomycetes and specifically, in venturia, the fungus responsible for apple scab. These parasitic fungi each adapts to a host, and are only able to mate within a shared host after obtaining resources. Since a single toxin gene or virulence allele can grant the ability to colonize the host, adaptation and reproductive isolation are instantly facilitated, and in turn, pleiotropically causes adaptive speciation. The studies on fungal evolutionary genomics will further elucidate the earliest stages of divergence as a result of gene flow, and provide insight into pleiotropically induced adaptive divergence in other eukaryotes.

Antagonistic pleiotropy
Sometimes, a pleiotropic gene may be both harmful and beneficial to an organism, which is referred to as antagonistic pleiotropy. This may occur when the trait is beneficial for the organism's early life, but not its late life. Such "trade-offs" are possible since natural selection affects traits expressed earlier in life, when most organisms are most fertile, more than traits expressed later in life.

This idea is central to the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis, which was first developed by G.C. Williams in 1957. Williams suggested that some genes responsible for increased fitness in the younger, fertile organism contribute to decreased fitness later in life, which may give an evolutionary explanation for senescence. An example is the p53 gene, which suppresses cancer but also suppresses stem cells, which replenish worn-out tissue.

Unfortunately, the process of antagonistic pleiotropy may result in an altered evolutionary path with delayed adaptation, in addition to effectively cutting the overall benefit of any alleles by roughly half. However, antagonistic pleiotropy also lends greater evolutionary "staying power" to genes controlling beneficial traits, since an organism with a mutation to those genes would have a decreased chance of successfully reproducing, as multiple traits would be affected, potentially for the worse.

Sickle cell anemia is a classic example of the mixed benefit given by the staying power of pleiotropic genes, as the mutation to Hb-S provides the fitness benefit of malaria resistance to heterozygotes as sickle cell trait, while homozygotes have significantly lowered life expectancy—what is known as "heterozygote advantage". Since both of these states are linked to the same mutated gene, large populations today are susceptible to sickle cell despite it being a fitness-impairing genetic disorder.

Albinism
Albinism is the mutation of the TYR gene, also termed tyrosinase. This mutation causes the most common form of albinism. The mutation alters the production of melanin, thereby affecting melanin-related and other dependent traits throughout the organism. Melanin is a substance made by the body that is used to absorb light and provides coloration to the skin. Indications of albinism are the absence of color in an organism's eyes, hair, and skin, due to the lack of melanin. Some forms of albinism are also known to have symptoms that manifest themselves through rapid-eye movement, light sensitivity, and strabismus.

Autism and schizophrenia
Pleiotropy in genes has been linked between certain psychiatric disorders as well. Deletion in the 22q11.2 region of chromosome 22 has been associated with schizophrenia and autism. Schizophrenia and autism are linked to the same gene deletion but manifest very differently from each other. The resulting phenotype depends on the stage of life at which the individual develops the disorder. Childhood manifestation of the gene deletion is typically associated with autism, while adolescent and later expression of the gene deletion often manifests in schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. Though the disorders are linked by genetics, there is no increased risk found for adult schizophrenia in patients who experienced autism in childhood.

A 2013 study also genetically linked five psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and autism. The link was a single nucleotide polymorphism of two genes involved in calcium channel signaling with neurons. One of these genes, CACNA1C, has been found to influence cognition. It has been associated with autism, as well as linked in studies to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These particular studies show clustering of these diseases within patients themselves or families. The estimated heritability of schizophrenia is 70% to 90%, therefore the pleiotropy of genes is crucial since it causes an increased risk for certain psychotic disorders and can aid psychiatric diagnosis.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A common example of pleiotropy is the human disease phenylketonuria (PKU). This disease causes mental retardation and reduced hair and skin pigmentation, and can be caused by any of a large number of mutations in the single gene on chromosome 12 that codes for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which converts the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine. Depending on the mutation involved, this conversion is reduced or ceases entirely. Unconverted phenylalanine builds up in the bloodstream and can lead to levels that are toxic to the developing nervous system of newborn and infant children. The most dangerous form of this is called classic PKU, which is common in infants. The baby seems normal at first but actually incurs permanent intellectual disability. This can cause symptoms such as mental retardation, abnormal gait and posture, and delayed growth. Because tyrosine is used by the body to make melanin (a component of the pigment found in the hair and skin), failure to convert normal levels of phenylalanine to tyrosine can lead to fair hair and skin. The frequency of this disease varies greatly. Specifically, in the United States, PKU is found at a rate of nearly 1 in 10,000 births. Due to newborn screening, doctors are able to detect PKU in a baby sooner. This allows them to start treatment early, preventing the baby from suffering from the severe effects of PKU. PKU is caused by a mutation in the PAH gene, whose role is to instruct the body on how to make phenylalanine hydroxylase. Phenylalanine hydroxylase is what converts the phenylalanine, taken in through diet, into other things that the body can use. The mutation often decreases the effectiveness or rate at which the hydroxylase breaks down the phenylalanine. This is what causes the phenylalanine to build up in the body.

Sickle cell anemia

Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease that causes deformed red blood cells with a rigid, crescent shape instead of the normal flexible, round shape. It is caused by a change in one nucleotide, a point mutation in the HBB gene. The HBB gene encodes information to make the beta-globin subunit of hemoglobin, which is the protein red blood cells use to carry oxygen throughout the body. Sickle cell anemia occurs when the HBB gene mutation causes both beta-globin subunits of hemoglobin to change into hemoglobinS (HbS).

Sickle cell anemia is a pleiotropic disease because the expression of a single mutated HBB gene produces numerous consequences throughout the body. The mutated hemoglobin forms polymers and clumps together causing the deoxygenated sickle red blood cells to assume the disfigured sickle shape. As a result, the cells are inflexible and cannot easily flow through blood vessels, increasing the risk of blood clots and possibly depriving vital organs of oxygen. Some complications associated with sickle cell anemia include pain, damaged organs, strokes, high blood pressure, and loss of vision. Sickle red blood cells also have a shortened lifespan and die prematurely.

Marfan syndrome
Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an autosomal dominant disorder which affects 1 in 5–10,000 people. MFS arises from a mutation in the FBN1 gene, which encodes for the glycoprotein fibrillin-1, a major constituent of extracellular microfibrils which form connective tissues. Over 1,000 different mutations in FBN1 have been found to result in abnormal function of fibrillin, which consequently relates to connective tissues elongating progressively and weakening. Because these fibers are found in tissues throughout the body, mutations in this gene can have a widespread effect on certain systems, including the skeletal, cardiovascular, and nervous system, as well as the eyes and lungs.

Without medical intervention, prognosis of Marfan syndrome can range from moderate to life-threatening, with 90% of known causes of death in diagnosed patients relating to cardiovascular complications and congestive cardiac failure. Other characteristics of MFS include an increased arm span and decreased upper to lower body ratio.

"Mini-muscle" allele
A gene recently discovered in laboratory house mice, termed "mini-muscle", causes, when mutated, a 50% reduction in hindlimb muscle mass as its primary effect (the phenotypic effect by which it was originally identified). In addition to smaller hindlimb muscle mass, the mutant mice exhibit lower heart rates during physical activity, and a higher endurance. Mini Muscle Mice also exhibit larger kidneys and livers. All of these morphological deviations influence the behavior and metabolism of the mouse. For example, mice with the Mini Muscle mutation were observed to have a higher per-gram aerobic capacity. The mini-muscle allele shows a mendelian recessive behavior. The mutation is a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in an intron of the myosin heavy polypeptide4 gene.

DNA repair proteins
DNA repair pathways that repair damage to cellular DNA use many different proteins. These proteins often have other functions in addition to DNA repair. In humans, defects in some of these multifunctional proteins can cause widely differing clinical phenotypes. As an example, mutations in the XPB gene that encodes the largest subunit of the basal Transcription factor II H have several pleiotropic effects. XPB mutations are known to be deficient in nucleotide excision repair of DNA and in the quite separate process of gene transcription. In humans, XPB mutations can give rise to the cancer-prone disorder xeroderma pigmentosum or the noncancer-prone multisystem disorder trichothiodystrophy. Another example in humans is the ERCC6 gene, which encodes a protein that mediates DNA repair, transcription, and other cellular processes throughout the body. Mutations in ERCC6 are associated with disorders of the eye (retinal dystrophy), heart (cardiac arrhythmias), and immune system (lymphocyte immunodeficiency).

Chickens
Chickens exhibit various traits affected by pleiotropic genes. Some chickens exhibit frizzle feather trait, where their feathers all curl outward and upward rather than lying flat against the body. Frizzle feather was found to stem from a deletion in the genomic region coding for α-Keratin. This gene seems to pleiotropically lead to other abnormalities like increased metabolism, higher food consumption, accelerated heart rate, and delayed sexual maturity.

Domesticated chickens underwent a rapid selection process that led to unrelated phenotypes having high correlations, suggesting pleiotropic, or at least close linkage, effects between comb mass and physiological structures related to reproductive abilities. Both males and females with larger combs have higher bone density and strength, which allows females to deposit more calcium into eggshells. This linkage is further evidenced by the fact that two of the genes, HAO1 and BMP2, affecting medullary bone (the part of the bone that transfers calcium into developing eggshells) are located at the same locus as the gene affecting comb mass. HAO1 and BMP2 also display pleiotropic effects with commonly desired domestic chicken behavior; those chickens who express higher levels of these two genes in bone tissue produce more eggs and display less egg incubation behavior.

title: Pleiotropy


text:
User talk:DonIncognito

Infoboxes
Don, the generation infoboxes need to be in the same section of the generation they are discussing. The heading for the section needs to be above the generation infobox. See, the way you aranged them, there are line-wraps and the top of the genertaion infoboxes are above the section heading. I know how the infoboxes in most car articles look - because I put many of them there. Please beleive me, the infobox needs to be placed below the heading and the technical specifications are blocking the view of the introductory paragraph- this table needs to be moved to the bottom. If you'd like further reference please look at some car articles that have made it onto the Wiki 1.0 such as the Lincoln Town Car and Ford Taurus, as you will see the generation boxes in all of them are within their section. Also, in terms of esthetics it is important to remember that the text should look contious. There should not be any large blank spaces breaking up the text. Thank you for your contributions. I moved the generation infoboxes below the section heading and the technical specification table should be placed at the end as it otherwise breaks apart the text. Regards,  Signature brendel  16:42, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Brendel, the method of arranging infoboxes that I used is used in many articles in order to keep the infobox together with the section. It is especially useful if there is very little text per generational section, so that each generational infobox is paired with its corresponding generational section instead of having the infoboxes pile up on the right and the corresponding sections in a different part of the article. I won't change the Lexus LS article again because there is enough text to keep the sections and infoboxes synchronized. Also, in my browser, there are no issues with tables blocking text—I use the latest version of Safari, which is fully standard-compliant.
 * Regarding aesthetics, I disagree with you a bit; I think that it is preferable to have corresponding infoboxes and sections together—again, this is not significant in the Lexus LS article, but more evident in articles where the infoboxes are longer than the section text. See, for example, the Lexus GS article before and after to see what I mean about the aesthetic aspect. In such cases, having the infobox above the generational heading is necessary from a syntax perspective to achieve the desired appearance.
 * Let me know what you think. I appreciate your input and maybe we work on a way to standardize the way infoboxes are displayed in automotive articles. DonIncognito 18:31, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with you, infoboxes need to be in the correct section and yes when the infobox is longer than the text, there is a problem. For me that's the standard, the infobox in the right section. It used to be that infoboxes were just listed below the main infobox without any regards for the article's sections, so the sections and infoboxes wouldn't match. Then I and other editors changed that. So, yes in an article with short sections and long infoboxes you did the right thing, but as you said in articles such as the Lexus LS or Lincoln Town Car it isn't neccesary. Whenever possible we try to place the gen infoboxes under the heading. Also, I understand about different browser settings, that's why I do my editing in the standard Microsoft Internet Explorer and not Mozilla, because most of our readers have the Internet Explorer and while editing it's important to consider how the average user with his MS IExplorer is going to see the text. Otherwise than you for your valuable contributions. Regards,  Signature brendel  20:44, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

Resolution and Infoboxes
I just set my monitor to 1280X1024 and see what you mean. I found that at 1156X864 the infoboxes seemed to fit in their sections again. While the infobox displacement is quite bad at 1280X1024, I think few useres use that high of a resolution, I usually edit with 1024X768 as I think that that's what most people have their screens set to. But I am open to the ides of changing the infobox mark-up, especially since this isn't the only car article with that problem. What did you have in mind?  Signature brendel  19:31, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Article merge
Greetings, I noticed that you contributed to the discussion on merging the Lexus SC and Toyota Soarer articles back in May, it appears that it has been suggested again. It says in the history "consensus not to merge" -- I have agreed with this and suggested it on the Talk:Toyota Soarer page, although it appears that my comments and that of the merge advocate are the only ones there. Was there any additional detail regarding the consensus not to merge? I found the talk page empty when I added to it. Any contributions would be appreciated. Enigma3542002 09:41, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Image:Chrysler Newport 1977.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Chrysler Newport 1977.jpg. I notice the 'image' page specifies that the image is being used under fair use, but its use in Wikipedia articles fails our first fair use criterion in that it illustrates a subject for which a freely licensed image could reasonably be found or created that provides substantially the same information. If you believe this image is not replaceable, please:

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Wikiproject Automobiles Notification
Hi DonIncognito, you were on the list of members at WikiProject Automobiles and we are introducing a new way of listing members, as the old list was becoming too long. Our new method involves having all of our members in a category.

To add yourself to the category just add the userbox to your user page by putting   where you want the userbox. Alternatively if you don't like the userbox you can add   to your userpage.

If you no longer wish to be a member of the project, simply don't add the userbox or category, there's no pressure. Thanks for your time, James086Talk 05:05, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

Civility
Civility is a requirement, not an option, at Wikipedia. Calling another editor a "liar" is not appropriate. Rather, simply say, "you were incorrect when you wrote...." This is project runs on consensus and so we try to maintain a collegial atmosphere. Thanks, -Will Beback · † · 00:27, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

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title: User talk:DonIncognito


text:
Wang Chong

Wang Chong (27 – c. 97 AD), courtesy name Zhongren (仲任), was a Chinese astronomer, meteorologist, naturalist, philosopher, and writer active during the Eastern Han dynasty. He developed a rational, secular, naturalistic and mechanistic account of the world and of human beings and gave a materialistic explanation of the origin of the universe. His main work was the Lunheng (論衡, "Critical Essays"). This book contained many theories involving early sciences of astronomy and meteorology, and Wang Chong was even the first in Chinese history to mention the use of the square-pallet chain pump, which became common in irrigation and public works in China thereafter. Wang also accurately described the process of the water cycle.

Unlike most of the Chinese philosophers of his period, Wang spent much of his life in non-self-inflicted poverty. He was said to have studied by standing at bookstalls, and had a superb memory, which allowed him to become very well-versed in the Chinese classics. He eventually reached the rank of District Secretary, a post he soon lost as a result of his combative and anti-authoritarian nature.

Life
Wang was born into a poor family in modern Shangyu, Zhejiang. Born a son of Wang Song, he was admired in his local community for his filial piety and devotion to his father. With the urging of his parents, Wang travelled to the Eastern Han capital at Luoyang to study at the Imperial University. It was there that Wang became acquainted with the prestigious historian Ban Biao (3–54), the latter who initiated the Book of Han. He also befriended Ban Gu (32–92), the son of Ban Biao who made further contributions to the Book of Han. Since he was poor and lacked enough money to purchase proper texts of study, Wang had to resort to frequent visits to bookshops to acquire knowledge. Rafe de Crespigny writes that during his studies Wang was most likely influenced by contemporary Old Text realists such as Huan Tan (d. 28). Due to his humble origins, Wang became resentful of officials who were admired simply because of their wealth and power and not for any scholarly abilities.

Wang returned to his home commandery where he became a local teacher. He was elevated as an Officer of Merit, but due to his critical and quarrelsome nature he decided to resign from this position. Following this was a period of isolated retirement when Wang composed essays on philosophy, his Jisu ("On Common Morality"), Jeiyi ("Censures"), Zheng wu ("On Government"), and Yangxing shu ("On Macrobiotics"). About eighty of these essays were later compiled into his Lunheng ("Discourses Weighed in the Balance").

Despite his self-imposed retirement, he eventually accepted an invitation of Inspector Dong Qin (fl. AD 80–90) of Yang province to work as a Headquarters Officer. However, Wang soon resigned from this post as well. Xie Yiwu, a friend of Wang Chong's and a long-standing inspector and official, made an official recommendation to the court requesting that Wang serve as a senior scholar under Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88). Emperor Zhang accepted this and summoned Wang Chong to appear at his court, yet Wang claimed ill health and refused to travel. Wang later died at home around the year 100.

Although Wang's rationalistic philosophy and criticism of so-called New Text Confucianism were largely ignored during his lifetime, the prominent official and later scholar Cai Yong (132–192) wrote of his admiration for Wang's written works. The politician Wang Lang (d. 228) acquired a copy of Wang's Lunheng and brought it with him on his trip in 198 to the Han court established at Xuchang by Prime Minister Cao Cao (155–220). As some of the questionable tenets of the philosophy of New Text Confucianism fell out of use and repute, Rafe de Crespigny states that the rationalist philosophy of Wang Chong became much more influential in Chinese thought.

Work and philosophy
Wang Chong reacted to the state that philosophy had reached in China. Daoism had long ago changed into a religious and magic way, and Confucianism had been the state religion for some 150 years. Confucius and Laozi were worshipped as gods, omens were seen everywhere, belief in ghosts was almost universal, and fengshui had begun to rule people's lives. Wang derided all this and made a vocation of giving a rational, naturalistic account of the world and the human place in it.

At the centre of his thought was the denial that Heaven has any purpose for us, whether benevolent or hostile. To say that Heaven provides us food and clothing is to say it acts as our farmer or tailor — an obvious absurdity. Humans are insignificant specks in the universe and cannot hope to effect changes in it, and it is ludicrous arrogance to think that the universe would change itself for us.

Wang insisted that the words of previous sages should be treated critically, and that they were often contradictory or inconsistent. He criticized scholars of his time for not accepting this, as well as what he called the popular acceptance of written works. He believed that the truth could be discovered, and would become obvious, by making the words clear, and by clear commentary on the text.

One example of Wang's rationality is his argument that thunder must be caused by fire or heat, and is not a sign of the heavens being displeased. He argued that repeatable experience and experiment should be tried before adopting the belief that divine will was involved.

He was equally scathing about the popular belief in ghosts. Why should only human beings have ghosts, he asked, not other animals? We are all living creatures, animated by the same vital principle. Besides, so many people have died that their ghosts would vastly outnumber living people; the world would be swamped by them. He never, however, explicitly denies the existence of ghosts (gui 鬼) or spirits (shen 神), he simply separates them from the notion that they are the souls of the dead. He seems to believe that the phenomena exist, but whatever they may be, they have no relation to the deceased.

"People say that spirits are the souls of dead men. That being the case, spirits should always appear naked, for surely it is not contended that clothes have souls as well as men. (Lunheng)"

Wang was just as rational and uncompromising about knowledge. Beliefs require evidence, just as actions require results. Anyone can prattle nonsense, and they'll always be able to find people to believe it, especially if they can dress it up in superstitious flummery. Careful reasoning and experience of the world are needed.

The Swedish linguist and sinologist Bernhard Karlgren called his style straightforward and without literary pretensions; in general, modern Western writers have noted that Wang was one of the most original thinkers of his time, even iconoclastic in his opinions. They note that he gained popularity in the early 20th century because his ideas correspond to those that later evolved in Europe. His writing is praised for being clear and well ordered. But, because there was no functioning scientific method or larger scientific discourse in his time, his formulations can seem alien to the modern eye — to some readers, even as peculiar as the superstitions that he was rejecting. But despite this barrier to his work, he gained some fame, though mostly after his death. He had an effect on what Karlgren called, the 'neo-Daoism' — a reformed Daoist philosophy with a more rational, naturalistic metaphysics, without much of the superstition and mysticism into which Daoism had fallen.

Meteorology
With his acute rationale and objective approach, Wang Chong wrote many things that would be praised by later modern sinologists and scientists alike as being modern-minded. For example, much like Greek polymath Aristotle's 4th century BC Meteorology portrayed the water cycle, Wang Chong wrote the following passage about clouds and rain:

"The Confucians also maintain that the expression that the rain comes down from heaven means that it actually does fall from the heavens (where the stars are). However, consideration of the subject shows us that rain comes from above the earth, but not down from heaven."

"Seeing the rain gather from above, people say that it comes from the heavens — admittedly it comes from above the earth. How can we demonstrate that the rain originates in the earth and rises from the mountains? Gongyang Gao's [i.e. Gongyang Zhuan] commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says; 'It evaporates upwards through stones one or two inches thick, and gathers. In one day's time it can spread over the whole empire, but this is only so if it comes from Thai Shan.' What he means is that from Mount Tai rain clouds can spread all over the empire, but from small mountains only over a single province — the distance depends on the height. As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew. When the garments (of those travelling on high mountain passes) are moistened, it is not the effect of the clouds and mists they pass through, but of the suspended rain water." "Some persons cite the Shujing, which says, 'When the moon follows the stars, there will be wind and rain,' or the Shijing, which says, 'The approach of the moon to Pi hsiu [the Hyades] will bring heavy rain showers.' They believe that according to these two passages of the classics, heaven itself causes the rain. What are we to say to this?" "When the rain comes from the mountains, the moon passes the (other) stars and approaches Pi hsiu. When it approaches Pi hsiu there must be rain. As long as it does not rain, the moon has not approached, and the mountains have no clouds. Heaven and earth, above and below, act in mutual resonance. When the moon approaches above, the mountains steam below, and the embodied qi meet and unite. This is (part of the) spontaneous Tao of Nature. Clouds and fog show that rain is coming. In summer it turns to dew, in winter to frost. Warm, it is rain, cold, it is snow. Rain, dew, and frost, all proceed from the earth, and do not descend from the heavens."

Wang's reference to Gongyan Gao's (i.e. Gongyan Zhuan's) commentary perhaps demonstrates that Gongyan's work, compiled in the 2nd century BC, explored the topic of the hydrological cycle long before Wang wrote about the process. The British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham asserts that: "As to the seasonal lunar and stellar connections, the thought of Wang Chong (about 83 AD) is that in some way or other the cyclical behavior of the qi on earth, where water is distilled into mountain clouds, is correlated with the behavior of the qi in the heavens, which brings the moon near to the Hyades at certain times." Thus, Wang Chong was uniting classical Chinese thought with radically modern ways of scientific thinking in his day.

Astronomy
Similar to Han dynasty polymath contemporary Zhang Heng (78–139) and Chinese scholars before him, Wang discussed theories about the causation of eclipses, with solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. However, Wang Chong's theory went against the correct 'radiating influence' theory supported by Zhang Heng (that the light of the rounded Moon was simply a reflection of the light emanating from the rounded Sun). Writing little more than a century before Zhang Heng, the mathematician and music theorist Jing Fang (78–37 BC) wrote in the 1st century BC:

"The moon and the planets are Yin; they have shape but no light. This they receive only when the sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the sun as round like a crossbow bullet, and they thought the moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them recognized the moon as a ball too. Those parts of the moon the sun illuminates look bright, those parts it does not, remain dark."

Zhang Heng wrote in his Ling Xian (Mystical Laws) of 120 AD:

"The sun is like fire and the moon like water. The fire gives out light and the water reflects it. Thus the moon's brightness is produced from the radiance of the sun, and the moon's darkness is due to (the light of) the sun being obstructed. The side that faces the sun is fully lit, and the side that is away from it is dark. The planets (as well as the moon) have the nature of water and reflect light. The light pouring forth from the sun does not always reach the moon owing to the obstruction of the earth itself—this is called 'anxu', a lunar eclipse. When (a similar effect) happens with a planet (we call it) an occultation (xingwei); when the moon passes across (the sun's path) then there is a solar eclipse (shi)."

Going against the grain of the accepted theory, and thinking more along the lines of the 1st century BC Roman philosopher Lucretius, Wang Chong wrote:

"According to the scholars, solar eclipses are brought about by the moon. It has been observed that they occur at times of new moon (lit. on the last days and first days of months), when the moon is in conjunction with the sun, and therefore the moon can eclipse it. In the Spring and Autumn period there were many eclipses, and the Chun Qiu says that at such and such a month at new moon there was an eclipse of the sun, but these statements do not imply that the moon did it. Why should (the chroniclers) have made no mention of the moon if they knew that it was really responsible?"

"Now in such an abnormal event the Yang would have to be weak and the Yin strong, but (this is not in accord with) what happens on earth, where the stronger subdue the weaker. The situation is that at the ends of the months the light of the moon is very weak, and at the beginnings almost extinct; how then could it conquer the sun? If you say that eclipses of the sun are due to the moon consuming it, then what is it that consumes (in a lunar eclipse) the moon? Nothing, the moon fades of itself. Applying the same principle to the sun, the sun also fades of itself."

"Roughly speaking, every 41 or 42 months there is a solar eclipse, and every 180 days there is a lunar eclipse. The reason why the eclipses have definite times is not (as the scholars say) that there are (recurring) abnormal events due to the periods (of the moon's cycle), but because it is the nature of the qi (of the sun) to change (at those times). Why should it be said that the moon has anything to do with the times of (changing of) the sun('s qi) at the first and last days of the months? The sun should normally be full; if there is a shrinkage it is an abnormal event (and the scholars say that) there must be something consuming (the sun). But in such cases as landslides and earthquakes, what does the consuming then?"

"Other scholars say that when the sun is eclipsed, the moon covers it. The sun is further away (lit. above) but the moon being nearer (lit. below), then the moon could not cover the sun. But since the opposite is true, the sun is obstructed, its light is covered by that of the moon, and therefore a solar eclipse is caused. Just as, in gloomy weather, neither sun nor moon can be seen. When the edges contact, the two consume each other; when the two are concentric they face each other exactly covered and the sun is nearly extinguished. That the sun and moon are in conjunction at times of new moon is simply one of the regulatories of the heavens."

"But that the moon covers the light of the sun in solar eclipses — no, that is not true. How can this be verified? When the sun and the moon are in conjunction and the light of the former is 'covered' by the latter, the edges of the two must meet at the beginning, and when the light reappears they must have changed places. Suppose the sun is in the east and the moon is in the west. The moon falls back (lit. moves) quickly eastwards and meets the sun, 'covering' its edge. Soon the moon going on eastwards passes the sun. When the western edge (of the sun), which has been 'covered' first, shines again with its light, the eastern edge, which was not 'covered' before, should (now) be 'covered'. But in fact we see that during an eclipse of the sun the light of the western edge is extinguished, yet when (the light) comes back the western edge is bright (but the eastern edge is bright also). The moon goes on and covers the eastern (inner) part as well as the western (inner) part. This is called 'exact intrustion' and 'mutual covering and obscuring'. How can these facts be explained (by astronomers who believe that the moon covers the light of the sun in solar eclipse)."

"Again, the scholars assert that the bodies of the sun and moon are quite spherical. When one looks up at them, their shape seems like that of a ladle or a round basket, perfectly circular. They are not the qi of a light seen from far off, for qi could not be round. But (my opinion is) that in fact the sun and moon are not spherical; they only appear to be so on account of the distance. How can this be verified? The sun is the essence of fire, the moon the essence of water. On earth, fire and water never assume spherical forms, so why should they become spherical only in the heavens? The sun and moon are like the five planets, and these in turn like the other stars. Now the other stars are not really round, but only appear to be so in their shining, because they are so far away. How do we know this? In the Spring and Autumn period, stars fell down (upon the earth) at the capital of the State of Song. When people went near to examine them, it turned out that they were stones, but not round. Since these (shooting) stars were not round, we may be sure that the sun, the moon, and the planets are not spherical either."

Although Wang Chong was certain of his ideas about eclipses (without the knowledge of how gravity forms naturally large spherical bodies in space), his ideas on this would not be later accepted in China. Although there were some figures like Liu Chi, writing in his Lun Tian (Discourse on the Heavens) of 274 AD that supported Wang's theory by arguing the inferior Yin (Moon) could never obstruct the superior Yang (Sun), Liu was still outside of the mainstream accepted Confucian tradition. The Song Dynasty (960–1279) polymathic scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) supported the old theory of a spherical Sun and Moon by using his own reasoning about eclipses, which he explained were due to the Moon and the Sun coming into obstruction of one another. The Song dynasty Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200) also supported this theory in his writing. Although Wang Chong was right about the water cycle and other aspects of early science, his stern opposition to mainstream Confucian thought at the time made him a skeptic of all their theories, including eclipses (the Confucian-accepted model being correct).

title: Wang Chong


text:
Danané

Danané is a city in the far west of Ivory Coast. It is a sub-prefecture of and the seat of Danané Department in Tonkpi Region, Montagnes District. Danané is also a commune. The city is 25 kilometres east of the border with Liberia, 30 kilometres south of the border with Guinea, and 45 kilometres southeast of the Guinea–Ivory Coast–Liberia tripoint.

Because Danané is close to the Guinean and Liberian borders, it became a destination for refugees during the Liberian Civil War. By the end of 1999, the town of Danané had overgrown its boundaries and swallowed up a number of small villages around it. Many Liberians who were resettled around the world resided in Danané for a period of time.

In 2021, the population of the sub-prefecture of Danané was 131,586.

Villages
The fifty four villages of the sub-prefecture of Danané and their population in 2014 are: • # Blizreu (531)

• # Bouagleu (833)

• # Bouleu (1 180)

• # Danané (60 645)

• # Déagbaloupleu (527)

• # Déamangbeupleu (1 091)

• # Diotouo (1 285)

• # Dongouiné (1 866)

• # Dougouéleu (657)

• # Drongouiné (1 736)

• # Ganhiba (1 135)

• # Gloaleu (554)

• # Gopieu (179)

• # Kinneu (1 353)

• # Koyatrogbeupleu (265)

• # Kpakièpleu (667)

• # Sogalé (750)

• # Soueupleu (180)

• # Tieukpolopleu (818)

• # Tintouo (286)

• # Trodélépleu (603)

• # Trouimpleu (1 000)

• # Trozandépleu (491)

• # Yoleu (1 625)

• # Youdépleu (485)

• # Zoleu (1 099)

• # Zoueupleu (449)

• # Béatro (147)

• # Bieupleu 2 (80)

• # Bouimpleu (482)

• # Déahouépleu (1 477)

• # Dietta (972)

• # Dohouapleu (182)

• # Gahapleu (411)

• # Gballeu (1 104)

• # Gbangatouo (195)

• # Gbéadapleu (259)

• # Gbeunta (2 108)

• # Goleu (722)

• # Gouotro (820)

• # Guiapleu (882)

• # Guin-Houyé (2 434)

• # Kanapleu (544)

• # Kédéré (341)

• # Kpanguidouopleu (447)

• # Ligbeupleu (233)

• # Mouatouo (603)

• # Ouyaleu (85)

• # Pépleu 2 (924)

• # Saleupleu (769)

• # Salleu (1 404)

• # Sioba (1 394)

• # Trokolimpleu (2 398)

• # Yipleu (965)

title: Danané


text:
WWE Night of Champions

WWE Night of Champions was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) and livestreaming event produced by WWE, a Connecticut-based professional wrestling promotion. The inaugural event took place in June 2007 and was a crossover with Vengeance titled Vengeance: Night of Champions. In 2008, Vengeance was dropped in favor of Night of Champions and it took over the June PPV slot. The event then moved to July in 2009 before becoming the annual September PPV beginning in 2010. The original concept of Night of Champions was that every championship promoted on WWE's main roster was contested. In 2016, Night of Champions was replaced by the similarly themed Clash of Champions which was discontinued after its final use in 2020. After eight years, Night of Champions was revived to be held in May 2023 as WWE's ninth event in Saudi Arabia. Although the 2023 event was based around championship matches, not all of WWE's main roster championships were contested.

To coincide with the original WWE brand extension (2002–2011), the events from 2007 to 2010 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The events from 2007 to 2009 also featured the ECW brand before that brand was dissolved in early 2010. During the first brand extension, these three brands were considered WWE's main roster. The brand extension ended in August 2011, but was reinstated in July 2016 with Raw and SmackDown again representing the main roster.

Under the event's original concept (2007–2015), 10 different WWE championships were contested at Night of Champions. Only four of these 10 championships were contested at every event during this time. These were the WWE Championship (called the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at the 2014 and 2015 events), the WWE Intercontinental Championship, the WWE United States Championship, and the WWE Tag Team Championship, the latter of which was renamed to Raw Tag Team Championship in 2016 to coincide with the second brand extension that began that year. Although the 2023 event did not retain this original concept, four newer championships were contested, bringing the total number of different championships contested at Night of Champions to 14, and in turn making the Intercontinental and Raw Tag Team Championship the only two titles defended at every event thus far—the reigning WWE Champion competed at the event but instead of defending the title, he challenged for the tag team championship.

History
On June 24, 2007, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) held its annual Vengeance pay-per-view (PPV) under the title Vengeance: Night of Champions. As per its subtitle, all of WWE's championships at the time were contested at the event. The following June, Vengeance was dropped in favor of Night of Champions, which subsequently became an annual PPV and continued the championship theme. The event was then moved to July in 2009 before becoming the annual September PPV beginning in 2010. To coincide with the WWE brand extension, the events from 2007 to 2009 featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands. ECW was disbanded in early 2010, thus the 2010 event just featured Raw and SmackDown before the first brand split was dissolved in August 2011.

In April 2011, the "WWE" acronym became an orphaned initialism. In February 2014, WWE launched its livestreaming service, the WWE Network, with Night of Champions becoming available on the service in addition to traditional PPV. In 2016, after the reintroduction of the brand split between Raw and SmackDown, Night of Champions was replaced on the PPV schedule by the similarly themed Clash of Champions.

In March 2023, WWE announced that they would be reviving the King of the Ring event, but rebranded as "King and Queen of the Ring", which would also replace the Hell in a Cell event. However, on April 13, it was revealed that WWE decided to scrap that revival and would instead hold Night of Champions, thus reviving the Night of Champions event. According to Mike Johnson of PWInsider, this was a creative choice to revive and bring Night of Champions to an international market. It was also reported that the change was to please business partners in Saudi Arabia and add intrigue to the show with the crowning of a new world champion. The event was scheduled for Saturday, May 27, 2023, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia as the ninth event WWE held in Saudi Arabia in support of Saudi Vision 2030 under a partnership that began in 2018. This was also the first Night of Champions to livestream on Peacock in the United States due to the American version of the WWE Network merging under Peacock in March 2021. This was subsequently the first Night of Champions to be held in Saudi Arabia, the first held on a Saturday, and the first held in May.

Concept
The original concept of Night of Champions was that every championship promoted on WWE's main roster was contested. This distinction of main roster championships came in 2012 after the establishment of NXT that year as the promotion's developmental territory, which introduced its own set of championships. In 2010, non-title matches began to be included on the card as less championships became available due to WWE unifying several titles that eventually led to the dissolution of the first brand extension in August 2011; after the final title unification in December 2013, WWE had just five titles on the main roster through the 2015 event.

With the revival of the event in 2023, this concept was not retained, as the WWE Championship, WWE Universal Championship, WWE United States Championship, and WWE Women's Tag Team Championship were not defended. WWE Champion Roman Reigns, who held the title together with the Universal Championship as the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship, competed at the event, but instead of defending his undisputed championship, he challenged for the Undisputed WWE Tag Team Championship, the umbrella term for the Raw Tag Team Championship (formerly WWE Tag Team) and SmackDown Tag Team Championship being held and defended together. The 2023 event instead was a celebration for the crowning of a new World Heavyweight Champion as well as marking the 1,000th day for Reigns as Universal Champion. The event also saw the Raw Women's Championship and SmackDown Women's Championship defended. These two titles, as well as the Universal, SmackDown Tag, and Women's Tag, were introduced during the second brand split that began in 2016.

The following table shows all championships that were contested at Night of Champions under its original concept from 2007 to 2015. In total, 10 different WWE championships were contested during these years. Although the 2023 event did not retain the original concept, it raised the total number of different championships defended at Night of Champions to 14.

 * Notes
 * The 2007 event, which was titled Vengeance: Night of Champions, was the only Night of Champions event to feature the original WWE Cruiserweight Championship, as the title was deactivated in September that same year.
 * The WWE Divas Championship was established shortly after the 2008 event. At the 2010 event, the original WWE Women's Championship was unified into the Divas Championship, thus retiring the Women's Championship in favor of continuing the lineage of the Divas Championship, which very briefly became known as the Unified WWE Divas Championship. The Divas Championship itself was then retired in 2016 and replaced by a new WWE Women's Championship, which was renamed Raw Women's Championship with the reintroduction of the brand split that year, which also saw the introduction of the SmackDown Women's Championship.
 * In 2009, the World Tag Team Championship and WWE Tag Team Championship were unified as the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship, but remained independently active until the World Tag Team Championship was decommissioned just before the 2010 event in favor of continuing the lineage of the WWE Tag Team Championship, which dropped the "unified" moniker. With the reintroduction of the brand split in 2016, the WWE Tag Team Championship was assigned to Raw and renamed Raw Tag Team Championship. The SmackDown Tag Team Championship was also introduced, and the two titles would become held together as the Undisputed WWE Tag Team Championship in 2022.
 * In February 2010, the ECW brand was disbanded, deactivating the ECW Championship along with it.
 * In December 2013, the original World Heavyweight Championship was unified into the WWE Championship, retiring the World Heavyweight Championship while the WWE Championship became known as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. With the reintroduction of the brand split in 2016, the title reverted to being called the WWE Championship, and in 2023, a new World Heavyweight Championship was introduced.

title: WWE Night of Champions


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sexual offenders

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. jni 15:50, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Sexual offenders
No google hits, nothing on allmusic.com. Gamaliel 18:02, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Speedy Delete #3, vandalism. Wyss 19:48, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, can't verify it on google either --nixie 02:50, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, band vanity. Megan1967 03:30, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. nn. band cruft. jni 09:29, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete and redirect to sex crime. -Sean Curtin 02:39, Feb 16, 2005 (UTC)


text:
User talk:JonWolfson

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! Spinboy 18:03, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
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title: User talk:JonWolfson


text:
Danane

Danane (Danaane, دنانه) is a coastal town in the southern Lower Shebelle province of Somalia. It is located approximately 109 km to the southwest of the nation's capital Mogadishu.

History
In the past the Italians set a concentration camp in the town for people that resisted the Italian colonial leaders in Ethiopia. Many Ethiopians were detained in Danane.

Demographics
Danane is the traditional territory and primarily inhabited Bimal clan

title: Danane