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Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway

The Buckley Railway was opened from Buckley to a connection with the Chester to Holyhead main line on 7 June 1862, to convey coal and finished brickworks products from the Buckley area. Numerous short tramroads had existed in the area from the 1700s. The line was steeply graded (1 in 28 between Northop Hall and Connah's Quay) and sharply curved.

The Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway (WM&CQR) was incorporated in 1862 to build a line from Wrexham to Buckley, continuing to the C&HR main line via the Buckley Railway, which it joined at Ashton's Branch Junction. It later bought the Buckley Railway. The WM&CQR had plans for extensions but was unable to raise money to bring all of them into being. Short branches to mineral workings around Brymbo were opened.

The WM&CQR allied itself with the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway (later the Great Central Railway) which provided the finance to cross the River Dee and connect to Chester and its own system over the Cheshire Lines Committee tracks.

The WM&CQR was dependent on the mineral workings, and when they declined so did the railway; but the main line from Wrexham to Hawarden Bridge (and on to Bidston) remains open to passenger and freight traffic as the Borderlands Line.

The Buckley Railway
The area of Flintshire, on the south bank of the River Dee near Buckley, had considerable deposits of coal, iron and also of other minerals. As these lay close to the surface, they were extracted from an early date. The proximity of the river for transport to market assisted in the prosperity of these workings. A large number of early wagonways were built to take the minerals to the river; the earliest were wooden railways, and in later years plateways were constructed. These lines were mostly short and were generally independent of other nearby lines.

In addition to coal and metals, there were deposits of good quality clay around Buckley. This had been dug since about 1750, but with the coming of the railway age, the demand for bricks had increased greatly and a means of conveying them to market was essential. In addition there was considerable manufacture of bricks and tiles, which were fragile and required careful handling. The existing tramroads were in effect a monopoly, and their failure to modernise limited the transport opportunities for new mineral works.

This prompted the formation of the Buckley Railway, which was conceived to connect claypits and other sites around Buckley to Connah's Quay Dock on the River Dee, by a locomotive railway. It would also have a direct connection to the Chester and Holyhead Railway, allied to the London and North Western Railway. The Buckley Railway was already in existence, as a gauge horse tramway. It got an Act of Parliament authorising this on 14 June 1860. The line was to be steeply graded and sharply curved.

The line opened on 7 June 1862, and was worked by the WM&CQR from 1863.

In 1866 the Buckley Railway secured parliamentary powers to operate passenger trains, but the powers were never used except for occasional excursion trains to Rhyl.

Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway
Getting mineral products away from Buckley was all very well, but there were much more important minerals further south-east in the North Wales coalfield. Several prospective companies were formed to transport these minerals, and the battle for authorisation in Parliament was reduced to a GWR-supported scheme, and the Whitchurch, Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway, promoted by Benjamin Piercy. The significance of Whitchurch was as an outlet to the London and North Western Railway there.

After considerable argument in Parliament, the WWM&CQR was passed, but reduced to the area from Wrexham northwards. It received the Royal assent on 7 August 1862, and recognising the reduction in geographical extent, its title was the Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway. It was authorised to purchase the Buckley Railway. It was to run from Wrexham broadly northwards through Caergwrle and crossing the Mold Railway (where south-to-west and north-to-west curves were authorised) to Hope, where it joined the Buckley Railway. The WM&CQR main line was to be 9 miles long, with a ruling gradient of 1 in 70.

The line opened for goods and mineral traffic on 1 January 1866; stations at first were Wrexham, Gwersyllt, Cefn-y-Bedd, Caergwrle, Hope Junction (later renamed Penyffordd), and Buckley. The south-to-west curve at Hope was constructed, even though running powers to Mold had been refused in Parliament. The authorised north-to-west curve there was started but never completed while the south to east curve was completed but had tracks removed almost immediately. There was never a North to East curve.

After improvements required by the Board of Trade inspecting officer, chiefly platforms on passing loops, the line opened for passengers on 1 May 1866. There were three passenger trains each way daily, with a connecting bus from Hope to Mold.

Mold was a significant market centre, and the WM&CQR negotiated with the LNWR (owner of the Mold Railway) to erect an exchange station on each line at the point of intersection. The facilities were basic, and there was no access from public roads to the stations. They were known as Hope Exchange, and opened in 1867. The Mold bus service was discontinued.

In the latter half of the decade, the WM&CQR attempted to obtain Parliamentary powers for extensions, notably into the Wirral. Some very short connections were approved, but the only significant approved line was to run to Whitchurch; this was approved, but the WM&CQR was unable to raise the capital needed to build it.

However, by Act of Parliament of 5 August 1873 the WM&CQR leased the Buckley Railway, which it had been working from 1866.

Extending the network
The WM&CQR directors continued to believe that the commercial success of their line lay in expanding the network, most particularly in crossing the River Dee and reaching Birkenhead. On 18 August 1882 powers were granted for part of that scheme: the Hawarden Loop. This was to be a new double track railway running to the Dee some distance east of the Buckley Railway route, to Shotton with a Deeside wharf there. The powers allowed crossing the Dee at this point to a new dock on the north shore. The company name was to be changed to the North Wales Railways and Docks Company, but this was never put into effect. A short extension eastward from the Wrexham station into the centre of the town was also allowed.

The Wrexham extension was opened on 1 November 1887; the station was named Wrexham Central and the former terminus was renamed Wrexham Exchange. There was a GWR station alongside at this point; for many years those two station were independent of one another. The branch was doubled in 1889.

Hawarden loop
On 31 March 1890 a further line was opened by the WMCQR: it had been authorised in 1883. The Hawarden Loop had a new station called Buckley Junction though it was never a junction for passenger trains. The old Buckley station near Drury was closed upon opening of Buckley Junction and the Hawarden Loop but after local complaints as it was further from the town centre, it was reopened from 1 June 1893. The reopening was not a success and the station closed permanently in February 1895. The Hawarden Loop by-passed the original Buckley Railway line, on a gentler gradient (1 in 52), although still a steep one, and gentler curvature. It deviated from the original line south of Buckley station and curved to the east, passing through Hawarden and reaching Shotton High Level (originally Connah's Quay and Shotton) where an exchange station was made with the C&HR. Connah's Quay Docks was served by a branch by a riverside line from Shotton High Level.

Brymbo branch
The four mile line opened from a triangular junction near Gwersyllt, to Moss & Pentre in 1882, to Plas Power, where it connected to the Wrexham and Minera line, in June 1864, and to Brymbo in 1887. Passenger operation started on 1 August 1889 and halts were opened in 1905 and 1906. A half-mile branch back from Brymbo to Vron colliery was opened on 8 October 1888.

The Dee Crossing
Notwithstanding the friendly relations with the London and North Western Railway, the WM&CQR turned to the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway for help from 1884. The Dee Crossing was authorised, but unaffordable for the WM&CQR, and the MS&LR agreed to build from Shotton High Level (on the south side of the Dee) into Chester. This took the form of the Chester and Connah's Quay Railway, authorised on 31 July 1885. This ran from the end of the Hawarden loop at Shotton to the Cheshire Lines Committee network at Chester Northgate. The MS&LR was a participant in the CLC and this gave the company access from the WM&CQR lines to its own network further east.

The Hawarden Bridge, a prodigious structure, was inaugurated on 3 August 1889 with an opening span for river traffic, and the line from Chester to Shotton High Level, crossing the bridge, was opened on 31 March 1890. A Chester Northgate to Wrexham passenger service of three trains a day was started, worked by the MS&LR.

Wrexham and Ellesmere Railway
The Wrexham and Ellesmere Railway had been conceived as a possible link in a chain of railways bringing South Wales minerals to the Wirral Peninsula. The plan never took off, but the line was opened on 2 November 1895.

Into the Wirral
At one stage a joint GWR and MS&LR railway to Birkenhead had been proposed, but nothing came of that. Instead the MS&LR and the WM&CQR built the line from Hawarden Bridge to Bidston, on the Wirral Railway. The line was titled the North Wales and Liverpool Railway. The WM&CQR could hardly afford the outlay for the 14 mile line, but it opened for goods trains on 16 March 1896. Passenger services followed on 18 May 1896, worked by the WM&CQR but using hired MS&LR locomotives.

Brymbo branches
The GWR and WM&CQR, (and its successor the Great Central) fought for traffic at Vron colliery, high in the hills about a mile from Brymbo. The GWR was first there, opening its branch in 1847. The WM&CQR constructing a short branch, opened in 1888, with a single platform passenger station.

The WM&CQR and GWR routes crossed at Plas Power.

This was one of the few branches on which the Great Central ran steam railmotors, but they did not provide the traffic hoped for and the service was withdrawn in 1917.

The WM & CQ branch closed for good in 1970, but not before several modifications. In 1954 a new connection was put in with the GWR branch at Plas Power and the link to Brymbo Works was re-opened to goods. It closed in 1958, only to enjoy a revival between 1965-70. The connection had allowed the lifting of the section from Plas Power to Brymbo Junction of the WM&CQR.

Receivership
In 1897 the WM&CQR went into receivership, brought about by financial manipulation by the MS&LR. The MS&LR had acquired a controlling interest in the WM&CQR after Piercy's death in 1889, when it acquired his shares.

The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway reorganised itself into the Great Central Railway in 1897, and in 1901 it acquired the WM&CQR as well as the Buckley Railway and the North Wales and Liverpool Railway. The acquisition was authorised by Act of 22 July 1904, effective on 1 January 1905.

Grouping and nationalisation
In 1923 the main line railways of Great Britain were “grouped” by Act of Parliament. The Great Central Railway was a constituent of the new London and North Eastern Railway and the WM&CQR lines and the Buckley Railway lines transferred to LNER ownership. The WM&CQR Vron branch became the most westerly branch of the LNER. The pit closed in 1930.

In 1948 the railways were nationalised and British Railways became the new owner.

Closures
The WM&CQR network was heavily dependent on mineral workings, and as those declined so inevitably did the success of the railway operation. On 1 March 1917 the GCR passenger service to Brymbo from Gwersyllt was closed. The northern part of the Buckley Railway from Northop Hall Coal Yard to Connah's Quay LNWR Junction and Docks closed in 1959 and the Buckley Junction to Northop Hall section 5/7/65 and the track removed over the following winter. The extremity of the Brymbo branch continued in use until 1970, served from the former GWR line and a new connecting spur.

The Bidston line from Wrexham, and the Wrexham Central line, continues in use at present (2019). Colliery branches operated as follows: From Ffrwyd Junction: Ffrwyd colliery 1866 – 1930; Ffosygo Colliery 1869 – 1912; Brynmally Colliery 1867 – 1935; Westminster Colliery 1884 – 1925. From Brymbo Junctions: North Curve 1882 – 1966; South Curve 1884 – 1925; Gatewen Colliery 1882 – 1991; Plas Power goods: 1884 – 1956; From Brymbo: Vron Colliery 1888 – 1970.

Locomotives
This is not a complete list:

 * No.1 Wheatley, 0-6-0ST, ex-Buckley Railway, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1861
 * No.2 Kenyon, 0-6-0ST, ex-Buckley Railway, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1862
 * No.3 Chancellor, 0-6-0, ex-St. Helens Railway no.11 Tyne, builder unknown
 * No.4 Lord Richard, 0-6-0T, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1863, rebuilt as 0-4-2T in 1889
 * No.5 Sir Stephen, 0-6-0T, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1863
 * No.6 Queen, ex-London and North Western Railway, built as 0-6-0 by Sharp, Roberts and Company 1846, rebuilt as 0-6-0ST at Crewe 1858, purchased by WM&CQR 1872, rebuilt as 0-8-0ST 1880, rebuilt as 0-6-2ST 1888, rebuilt as 0-8-0ST 1903
 * No.7 (later No.3), ex-South Staffordshire Railway, built as 0-6-0 by Robert Stephenson and Company 1851, rebuilt at Crewe as 0-6-0ST, purchased by WM&CQR 1874, rebuilt as 0-6-2 in 1882, rebuilt as 2-6-0T in 1899
 * No.7 Duke, 0-4-0ST, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1878
 * No.8 Premier, 0-6-0ST, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1880
 * No.9 Dee, 0-4-0ST, ex-Thomas Butlin & Co, Wellingborough, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1871, purchased by WM&CQR 1881
 * No.10 Emily, ex-Broughton Coal Co., built by Beyer Peacock 1882
 * No.11 0-4-0ST, built by Hudswell Clarke in 1885
 * No.12 0-6-2T, built by Beyer Peacock 1885
 * No.13 0-6-2T, built by Beyer Peacock 1885
 * No.14 0-4-0T, ex-Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway, built by Dodds 1854, rebuilt as 0-4-2T 1860, purchased by WM&CQR 1887
 * No.15 0-6-2ST, built by Beyer Peacock 1888
 * No.16 0-6-2ST, built by Beyer Peacock 1888
 * Nos.17-26 0-6-2T, built by Beyer Peacock 1896-98 (actually owned by the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway, but carried WM&CQR numbers and livery to enable them to exercise running powers over the Wirral Railway.)

Buckley Railway
Closed from Connah's Quay to Northop in 1962; from Northop to Buckley Junction closed in 1965; the curve to the Holyhead line at Connah's Quay closed in 1954. The Mountain Colliery branch was opened from 1892 to 1965. The Dumpling Colliery branch was open from 1896 to 1902.

WM&CQR Original line

 * Buckley; opened 1 May 1866; closed 31 March 1890; reopened June 1893; closed February 1895.
 * Buckley Junction; opened 31 March 1890; renamed Buckley 1974; still open.
 * Hope Passenger Exchange; opened 18 November 1867; later Hope Exchange; renamed Hope 1953.
 * Hope curve connecting towards Mold closed in 1984. The Mold Railway closed to passengers in 1962 and to goods traffic in 1970. From 1970 to 1984 a tinplate works west of Mold was served from Wrexham over the Hope Curve.
 * Hope Junction; opened 1 May 1866; renamed Penyffordd 1877; still open.
 * Caergwrle; opened 1 May 1866; renamed Hope Village 1899; renamed Hope 1974; still open.
 * Bridge End; opened 1 March 1873; later renamed Caergwrle (named Caergwrle for Castle and Wells until 1960s) ; still open.
 * Cefn-y-Bedd; opened 1 May 1866; still open.
 * Ffrwd Junction.
 * Gwersyllt; opened 1 May 1866; sometimes Gwersyllt & Wheatsheaf; still open.
 * Brymbo North Junction.
 * Brymbo South Junction.
 * Rhosddu; opened July 1906; closed 1 March 1917, but workmen's usage until 1923 or later.
 * Wrexham Exchange; opened 1 May 1866; amalgamated with adjacent Wrexham General station under that name 1 June 1981; still open.
 * Wrexham Central; opened 1 November 1887; still open; the Wrexham and Ellesmere Railway beyond here was open from 1895 to 1962, but a stub as far as Abenbury was retained until 1981 serving a brickworks there.

Hawarden loop
NOTE MAP ERROR...the Borderlands Line passes OVER the North Wales Coast Line and there are joint stations at Shotton currently both open.
 * (Shotton end-on junction with MS&LR)
 * Connah's Quay and Shotton; opened 1 October 1891; renamed Shotton High Level 1953; renamed Shotton 23 August 1972 (after reopening ceremony 17/8/72).
 * Hawarden; opened 31 March 1890; still open.
 * Buckley Junction; above.

Brymbo branch

 * Brymbo; opened 1 August 1889; closed 1 March 1917.
 * Plas Power; opened 1 August 1889; closed 1 March 1917.
 * New Broughton Road; opened May 1905; closed 1 March 1917.
 * Moss & Pentre; opened 1 August 1905; closed 1 March 1917.
 * Highfield Road Halt; opened May 1905; closed 1 March 1917.
 * Brymbo West Junction.
 * Brymbo North Junction.

Gradients
The Buckley Railway was on a falling gradient towards the River Dee almost all the way; 1 in 40 and 1 in 33 were the dominant gradients. The profile of the post 1890 WM&CQR route shows a climb at 1 in 80 from Gwersyllt to Ffrwd Junction, then falling at 1 in 86. After some undulations there is a climb at 1 in 84 from Caergwrle to a summit at Buckey Junction, then falling continuously at 1 in 53 to Connah's Quay.

The Brymbo branch fell from the terminus toward the main line at 1 in 35, 1 in 44. The colliery branches all fell from the colliery to their respective junctions at gradients as steep as 1 in 27.

title: Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway


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Lawra

Lawra is a small town and is the capital of Lawra district, a district in the Upper West Region of Ghana.

Location
The town is located in the North western part of Ghana. Its distance from Wa, the Regional capital by road is 88.55 Kilometers (55.02 miles).

Politics
Lawra is in the Lawra constituency headed by Hon. Anthony Nyoh-Abeyifaa Karbo of the New Patriotic Party. He succeeded  Hon. Samson Abu of the National Democratic congress.

Tourism
Lawra is known for its musical instrument manufacture, and for the Kobine harvest festival with important dancing and musical events.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lawra


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Navrongo

Navrongo is a town and the capital of Kassena-Nankana District in the Upper East Region of northern Ghana, adjacent to the border with Burkina Faso. Navrongo is the capital of Kassena-Nankana District – which is within the Upper East Region of northern Ghana. Navrongo has a 2012 settlement population of 27,306 people.

Navrongo is an important market town, known for its cathedral and its grotto. It houses the Navrongo Solar Power Station, Ghana's first solar plant. Navrongo is located at 10.88472°N, -1.09028°W. Navrongo's population in 2005 was estimated to be 25,470, and its population in 2012 was estimated to be 27,306. The terrain is flat and the ecology is typical of the Sahel – arid grassland with occasional shrubbery.

History
The town was founded around 1740 by Butu, a Nankane speaking hunter from Zecco (present day southern Burkina Faso), who initially settled in Pungu (a Kasem speaking community further south of Zecco). During the 19th century, the town became an important staging post on the Sahel caravan route. At the beginning of the 20th century the British established a base at Navrongo.

A Catholic mission was established in 1906 - the White Fathers ("Pères Blancs"), a French group made up of French Canadians. They came to Upper East region from Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) due to French anti-clerical laws (the Fathers believed they would be expelled from Upper Volta). The British allowed them to set up in Navrongo on condition that the school that they were to establish used English only. Despite a rocky beginning (the Fathers had learnt the wrong local language and only attracted 5 students in the first 18 months), the school eventually became a success – a British official in 1927 said that it was the best school (of only 5) in the north of Ghana. Following Ghana's 1957 liberation from British colonial authority, Navrongo was designated as the district capital of the Kassena/Nankani district.

Climate
Navrongo has a tropical savanna climate (Aw according to the Köppen climate classification) with the temperature being hot year-round, although there is a wet season and a dry season. On 26 March 2017, Navrongo recorded a temperature of 43.8 C, which the highest temperature to have ever been recorded in Ghana.

Economy
Navrongo has a fast-developing Economy. Coupled with the existence of The Tono Irrigation Project, Naara Bank, GCB Bank, ADB Bank, Hospitals, Navrongo Health Research Centre, radio stations and PIO TV station, and several other companies, there is a lot of the population who are teachers, nurses and subsistence level farmers in crops and rearing (goats, sheep, cattle, poultry). There are also several institutions including, the C.K Tedam University, St John Bosco teacher training college, Nursing training college, Navrongo SHS (NAVASCO), Notre Dame SHS, Our Lady of Lourdes Girls SHS etc.

Navrongo Cathedral
Navrongo Cathedral, as it is now known, was built in 1906 and expanded in 1920. Originally called "Our Lady of Seven Sorrows", the construction was overseen by the White Fathers. The walls are of mud (therefore it is also called "Mud Cathedral"), and wooden beams form the roof. On the inside, the walls are decorated with animal forms, scenes of everyday life, and Christian themes such as the Last Supper and the Bethlehem scene in the entrance area. The site also contains a grotto and accommodation facilities.

Etymology of name
The word "Navrongo" is an Anglicization of the name navrongo which is in Nankane, which combines the word naare (meaning foot or leg in Nankane) with vorongo (the term given to the sound of stepping onto muddy soil) or "voro" which is the Kasem term for same. This is why Kasena call the town "Navoro" while Nankana call it "Navorongo."

title: Navrongo


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Norwich Cathedral

Norwich Cathedral, formally the Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, is a Church of England cathedral in the city of Norwich, Norfolk, England. The cathedral is the seat of the bishop of Norwich and the mother church of the diocese of Norwich. It is administered by its dean and chapter, and there are daily Church of England services. It is a Grade I listed building.

Construction of the building was begun in 1096 at the behest of the first bishop of Norwich, Herbert de Losinga. When the crossing tower was the last piece of the Norman cathedral to be completed; measuring 461 ft and 177 ft wide, the cathedral was the largest building in East Anglia. The cathedral close occupied a tenth of the total area of the medieval city.

The present structure of Norwich Cathedral is primarily Norman, being made of flint and mortar and faced with a cream-coloured Caen limestone. The cathedral was damaged during the riots of 1272; repairs were completed in 1278. The cloisters, begun in 1297, are the second largest cloisters in England. The present spire—the second tallest in England at 315 ft—is a stone structure built in 1480, that replaced one made of wood. In about 1830, the south transept was remodelled by the architect Anthony Salvin. A new hospitality and education facility by Hopkins Architects was opened by Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in 2010.

Norwich Cathedral once had the earliest astronomical clock in England. The cathedral's bosses are one of the world's greatest mediaeval sculptural treasures, having survived the iconoclasm of the Tudor and English Civil War periods.

Origins
In the year 672, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus, divided the Kingdom of East Anglia into two dioceses: one covering Norfolk with its episcopal see at Elmham; the other covering Suffolk with its see at Dunwich. During much of the 9th century, because of the Danish incursions, there was no bishop at Elmham; in addition the see of Dunwich was extinguished and East Anglia became a single diocese once more. Following the Norman Conquest, sees were moved to more secure urban centres, that of Elmham being transferred to Thetford in 1072, and finally to Norwich in 1094. The new cathedral was dedicated to the Holy and Undivided Trinity. As with the Norman cathedrals at Bath, Winchester, Worcester, Canterbury, Rochester, Durham, and Ely, it incorporated a priory of Benedictine monks.

Norman period
The structure of the cathedral is primarily in the Norman style, having been constructed at the behest of the first bishop of Norwich, Herbert de Losinga, who had bought the bishopric for £1,900 before its transfer from Thetford. It still retains the greater part of its original stone structure. An Anglo-Saxon settlement and two churches were demolished to make room for the buildings and a canal cut to allow access for the boats bringing the stone and building materials which were taken up the River Wensum and unloaded.

Later Medieval period
The cathedral was damaged after riots in 1272, which resulted in the city paying heavy fines levied by Henry III, king of England The cathedral was re-consecrated in the presence of Edward I of England on Advent Sunday, in 1278.

The Norman spire was blown down in 1362. Its fall damaged the east end of the building. In 1463 the spire was struck by lightning, causing a fire to rage through the nave which was so intense it turned some of the cream-coloured Caen limestone a pink colour. In 1480 the bishop, James Goldwell, ordered the building of a new spire which is still in place today.

16th and 17th centuries
The composer and 'singing man' Osbert Parsley worked at Norwich Cathedral for 50 years, until his death in 1585.

The cathedral was partially in ruins when John Cosin was at Norwich School in the early 17th century and the former bishop was an absentee figure. In 1643 during the Civil War, an angry Puritan mob invaded the cathedral and destroyed all Roman Catholic symbols. The building, abandoned the following year, lay in ruins for two decades. Norwich bishop Joseph Hall provides a graphic description from his book Hard Measure: "It is tragical to relate the furious sacrilege committed under the authority of Linsey, Tofts the sheriff, and Greenwood: what clattering of glasses, what beating down of walls, what tearing down of monuments, what pulling down of seats, and wresting out of irons and brass from the windows and graves; what defacing of arms, what demolishing of curious stone-work, that had not any representation in the world but of the cost of the founder and skill of the mason; what piping on the destroyed organ-pipes; vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had been newly sawed down from over the greenyard pulpit, and the singing-books and service-books, were carried to the fire in the public market-place; a lewd wretch walking before the train in his cope trailing in the dirt, with a service-book in his hand, imitating in an impious scorn the tune, and usurping the words of the litany. The ordnance being discharged on the guild-day, the cathedral was filled with musketeers, drinking and tobacconing as freely as if it had turned ale-house."

The mob also fired their muskets. At least one musket ball remains lodged in the stonework. Only at the Restoration in 1660 would the cathedral be restored.

19th and 20th centuries
In the 1830s the south transept was remodelled by the English architect Anthony Salvin. In 1930–1932 a new Lady Chapel, designed by Charles Nicholson, was built at the east end, on the site of its 13th-century predecessor, which had been demolished during the late 16th century.

The cathedral is included as one of the "Norwich 12", a list of the city's most iconic buildings produced as part of an initiative launched in 2008 by the Norwich Heritage Economic and Regeneration Trust.

Modern works
In 2004 the new refectory (winner, National Wood Awards 2004), by Hopkins Architects and Buro Happold, opened on the site of the original refectory on the south side of the cloisters. Work on the new hostry, also by Hopkins Architects, started in April 2007 after the 'Cathedral Inspiration for the Future Campaign' had reached its target of £10 million. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 4 May 2010. The new hostry has become the main entrance to the cathedral. Space has been provided within the hostry for temporary art exhibitions.

Helter-skelter
In July 2019, a 17 m high helter-skelter was constructed inside the cathedral, partly for the purpose of attracting more visitors and also giving people a better vantage point for viewing the roof bosses. Reaction to the installation of the slide was mixed, Gavin Ashenden, former chaplain to the Queen, described it as "poisoning the medicine" a church offered. In August 2019, Jonathan Meyrick, the Bishop of Lynn, gave a sermon and sang Words by the Bee Gees from halfway down.

Dean and chapter
As of 3 February 2023:
 * Dean of Norwich – Andrew Braddock (since 28 January 2023 institution)
 * Canon Librarian & Vice-Dean – Peter Doll (canon since 14 March 2009 installation)
 * Canon Precentor – Aidan Platten (since 24 September 2017 installation)
 * Canon for Mission & Pastoral Care – Andy Bryant (since 29 March 2015 installation)

Dates, styles and architects
Building of the cathedral started from the east end in 1096, with the nave being completed by around 1120. The entire cathedral was completed by 1145, when the crossing tower was built. The cathedral was constructed from flint and mortar and faced with cream-coloured Caen limestone.

The present spire, a stone structure that replaced one made of wood and covered with lead, was added in 1480.

Following the riots of 1272, repairs to the building were completed in 1278. Some of the windows were replaced with ones in the Gothic style during the 13th century.

The cloisters was begun in 1297 and finally finished in 1430 after the Black Death had plagued the city. The system of building remained the same over this period, though the details, in particular the tracery of the openings facing the cloister garth, did change.

Following the destruction caused by the collapse of the spire, the clerestory of the choir was rebuilt in the Perpendicular style.

In the 15th century, the cathedral's flat timber ceilings began to be replaced with stone vaults; the nave was vaulted under Walter Hart (bishop, 1446–1472), the choir and the Bauchun Chapel (on the east side of the south transept) under James Goldwell (bishop, 1472–1499) and the transepts after 1520. The system of vaulting is of a tierceron vault with Lierne ribs forming patterns of lozenges and stars along the ridge. The vaulting was carried out in a spectacular manner with hundreds of ornately carved, painted and gilded bosses studding the liernes.

Plan
Measuring 461 ft and 177 ft wide at completion, Norwich Cathedral was the largest building in East Anglia. The ground plan remains entirely as it was in Norman times, except for that of the easternmost chapel. The cathedral has an unusually long nave of 14 bays. The transepts are without aisles and the east end terminates in an apse with an ambulatory. From the ambulatory there is access to two chapels of unusual shape, the plan of each being based on two intersecting circles. This allows more correct orientation of the altars than in the more normal kind of radial chapel.

Exterior
The tower, the most ambitious of all the Norman towers to have survived in England, is decorated with geometrical circles, lozenges and interlaced arcading.

The spire is of brick faced with stone, supported on brick squinches built into the Norman tower. At 315 ft high, the spire is the second tallest in England; only that of Salisbury is taller at 404 ft.

Norwich Cathedral has the second largest cloisters in England, only exceeded by those at Salisbury Cathedral. It has two-storeys, the only example of its kind in England and nearly 400 carved stone ceiling bosses.

Interior
The eastern end of the cathedral, near to the sanctuary, is in the form of an apse The tribune (the vaulted area within the apse) is unusually tall, and contains piers with large capitals.

Norwich no longer has its rood screen, which would have been used to support the great crucifix. It was located one bay west of the pulpitum (the screen that separated the nave from the choir). The aisles are vaulted in stone, but lack ribs.

The Anglican cathedrals at Norwich, Salisbury, and Ely are the only ones that have no ring of bells. The astronomical clock at Norwich Cathedral was one of the earliest mechanical timekeepers made in England.

Stained glass
The medieval stained glass windows in the cathedral, which was largely destroyed during the English Reformation, sustained further damage during the English Civil War.

The glass in the west window was designed by George Hedgeland, and was installed in 1854.

Bosses
The bosses of Norwich Cathedral are one of the world's greatest mediaeval sculptural treasures, and certainly a near miraculous survival of the iconoclasm from the Tudor and English Civil War periods. They have been described by the church historian Charles John Philip Cave as "undoubtedly the most important series in the country". There are over 1,000 bosses; the earliest subjects are natural, mostly flowers and foliage. Then come figural representations such as foliate men, acrobats, mythical animals, hunting scenes and single bosses which show a story such as events from the lives of the saints. Then there are narratives which tell a story in a sequence of bosses. The nave vault shows the history of the world from the creation. Later bosses revert to foliage or formal subjects such as coats of arms. The bosses can be seen most clearly in the cloisters, where they are lower than those elsewhere. The east range has much foliage, and a sequence of the Passion of Jesus. The north range has the Resurrection and scenes of Mary, mother of Jesus and the saints. The south and west walk have the Apocalypse, as well as the Annunciation and Herod's Feast. Catalogues of the cloister bosses have been published by M.R. James (1911), with drawings of the bosses of the north walk.

Misericords
During the Middle Ages, the monks assembled eight times daily for the canonical hours, and the greater part of their services was recited while standing. In time, some monasteries fitted stalls with ledges for the monk to lean against. The so-called 'misericords' were literally an act of mercy. Most of the misericords are carved with a central subject and two supporters positioned on either side.

There were likely to have once been 70 choir-stalls at Norwich, which were allotted to the bishop and his senior clerics, and 60 monks. There are 64 surviving choir-stalls, of which all but four have misericords dating from the early 15th century onwards; it is possible that the more senior clergymen were able to choose the theme for the carving on their own misericord. The elbow rests were also intricately carved. Many of the supporters in Norwich's choir-stalls are connected with their central subject, as in the case of the misericord for Bishop Richard Courtenay, which is a seated monk who supporters are a bishop tending sheep, and by a representation of the bishop as Chancellor of Oxford. The fire of 1463 at Norwich damaged many of the stalls, whose replacements were given new misericords.

The misericords in Norwich Cathedral can be categorised by their designs. A group known as Wakering's have ledges that are curved and ribbed, battlement patterns, and are carved with the coats of arms of the patrons who helped to pay for the rebuilding of the choir. The so-called Goldwell misericords have more rounded ledges and a pair of lobes. The two Nykke misericords have characteristically carved seat edges. The subjects chosen appear to be random in nature, with a wide selection of real and legendary animals, tasks, events, people (both actual and imaginary), representations of the seven deadly sins, and stories (mostly non-Biblical) being carved.

Despenser Reredos
In St Luke's Chapel, behind the altar, is a late 14th century altarpiece, known as the Despenser Retable or Despenser Reredos. It was named after the Bishop of Norwich, Henry le Despenser (1369–1406). During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, Despenser's forces successfully contained the revolt in Norfolk, and the reredos may have been commissioned as an act of thanksgiving. Shields in the border of the painting are associated with others who led the defence against the peasants. The reredos was rediscovered in a damaged state in 1847, having been reversed and used as part of a table.

Other features
The copper baptismal font, standing on a moveable base in the nave, was fashioned from bowls previously used for making chocolate in the Norwich Rowntree's factory, and was given to the cathedral after the factory closed in 1994.

Since 2013, the Norfolk Medieval Graffiti Survey (NMGS) has recorded a large amount of medieval graffiti, including organ music inscribed on two four-line staves, on the interior stone surfaces of the cathedral.

Organ and organists
Norwich Cathedral's organ is one the largest in the UK. It was built by local builder Norman and Beard in 1899, but was later damaged in a fire in April 1938. A Cymbelstern with six bells and a rotating star was added to the organ in 1969. In 2017 the dean, the Very Rev Dr Jane Hedges, revealed that the cathedral was planning to spend £2 million on rebuilding the organ and supporting its existing choirs. In 2022–23 the Durham-based company of Harrison & Harrison carried out a major rebuild of the organ, which was inaugurated in November 2023.

Most of the records of the organists at Norwich Cathedral have survived. The earliest organist recorded is Adam the Organist, who was employed in 1333. Notable organists have included the composers Thomas Morley, and Heathcote Dicken Statham.

Cathedral choirs
Norwich Cathedral's choirs are directed by the Master of the Music, Ashley Grote. There are places for around 20 boys aged from 7 to 13, attend Norwich School and its Lower School, with at least half of their school fees being paid by the Norwich Cathedral Endowment Fund.

Girls were introduced to the choir in 1995. There are places for 24 girls, aged from 11 to 18, who are drawn from across Norfolk. They sing evensong once a week (alternately on their own and with the men) and at least one Sunday Eucharist a term.

The choir has 12 men, six of whom are choral scholars; the others are professional singers. The men sing with the boy choristers at five services a week, and often more at special times of year such as Easter and Christmas.

Bells
The cathedral church's five bells are hung in the central tower; four are engraved with the medieval merchant mark of Brasyers of Norwich. The bells, which are tuned to a minor key, were used for the regular services, whilst an additional group of five so-called 'greater' bells were hung in a detached bell tower; these were used to celebrate important religious festivals. They were heavier than those hung in the cathedral church.

As with similar large churches, the tower was close to the entrance of the lay citizens' cemetery, and was surrounded by craft shops. It is possible that the bell tower was built to enable the citizens of Norwich to hear the bells being rung during a festival or a funeral. The tower was targeted during the Norwich riots of 1272, who captured it and fired arrows and missiles down upon their enemies. After being rebuilt using limestone during the 1310s, and a lead spire was added. The location of the building, which was demolished by 1569, was lost until 1956, when masonry was accidentally exposed after the area was dug up for a new water main.

The cathedral's mediaeval records state that one of the central tower bells was named 'Blessed Mary', and that.the largest bell in the tower was called 'Lakenham'. The locations of two other named bells, called 'Stratton' and 'Stockton', are unknown.

The Close
The precinct, or cathedral close, is enclosed within the limits of the former monastery. It is bordered by the Tombland area (the Anglo-Saxon market place) and the Wensum. It contains buildings from the 15th to the 19th centuries, including the remains of an infirmary. The close has an area of 85 acre and is notable for being located within the city's defensive walls. In medieval times it occupied a tenth of the total area of the city.

The grounds also house many of the buildings of Norwich School, as well as statues of the leading military and political figure, the Duke of Wellington and the British Naval officer Admiral Nelson, and the grave of the British nurse Edith Cavell, who was executed for helping Allied soldiers escape from German-occupied Belgium during World War I.

There are two gates leading into the cathedral grounds, both on Tombland. The Ethelbert Gate takes its name from a Saxon church that stood nearby. The original gate was destroyed in the riot of 1272, and its replacement was built in the early 14th century. It has two storeys, the upper originally a chapel dedicated to Saint Ethelbert and decorated with flushwork. In 1420 Thomas Erpingham, benefactor to the city, had the gate which bears his name built, sited opposite the west door of the cathedral and leading into the close.

Documentaries
The cathedral and other churches in the diocese were featured in the 1974 BBC documentary A Passion for Churches, presented by the English poet and writer John Betjeman. In 2012, the cathedral and the adjacent Bishop's Palace were featured in the BBC Four documentary The Medieval Mind: How to Build a Cathedral.

The cathedral was featured in the 2016 BBC Four documentary The Search for the Lost Manuscript: Julian of Norwich.

Use as a location
Norwich Cathedral was used as a location for the 1971 BBC Christmas ghost story The Stalls of Barchester, based on the story by M. R. James. It was also used as a location for the 2013 film Jack the Giant Slayer, and in the 2017 feature film Tulip Fever.

title: Norwich Cathedral


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MVP Arena

MVP Arena (originally Knickerbocker Arena, and then the Pepsi Arena and Times Union Center) is an indoor arena located in Albany, New York. It is configurable and can accommodate from 6,000 to 17,500 people, with a maximum seating capacity of 15,500 for sporting events.

The building, designed by Crozier Associates and engineered by Clough Harbour & Associates, was built by Beltrone/MLB at a cost of $69.4 million.

History
The arena was opened on January 30, 1990, as the Knickerbocker Arena with a performance by Frank Sinatra.

The naming rights of the arena were sold to Pepsi in 1997 and it was known as Pepsi Arena from 1997 to 2006. In May 2006, the naming rights were sold to the Times Union, a regional newspaper, and the name of the arena became the Times Union Center on January 1, 2007. In October 2021, the Times Union relinquished naming rights. On November 15, 2021, it was announced that health care provider MVP Health Services had successfully acquired the naming rights. The Times Union, which is the largest newspaper for the Albany area, had declined to renew its naming rights, leading to MVP Arena's renaming. The new name took effect on January 1, 2022.

The building is managed by ASM Global.

The New York State Democratic Convention nominated then-First Lady Hillary Clinton as its U.S. Senate candidate at their statewide convention at Times Union Center on May 16, 2000. Her husband, President of the United States Bill Clinton, attended the event.

When the New Jersey Devils' AHL franchise relocated to this arena in the summer of 2010, the arena received a new scoreboard, LED ribbons above the luxury suites and new outside lighting, as well as an upgraded home team locker room.

The arena is home to the Siena Saints men's basketball of the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference since the arena opened in 1990, the Albany Firebirds of the Arena Football League beginning in 2024 and the Albany FireWolves of the National Lacrosse League since late 2021.

Sports
The Siena College's men's basketball team has been a major tenant of the arena.

Previous tenants have included the Albany Firebirds (formerly Albany Conquest) of af2, the original Albany Firebirds of the AFL, the Albany Empire of the AFL, the Albany Patroons of the CBA, the Albany Choppers of the IHL, the Albany River Rats of the AHL, the Albany Attack of the NLL and the New York Kick of the NPSL II.

MVP Arena also regularly hosts exhibition games of major sports leagues. The NBA, WNBA and NHL have all played games at the arena.

Andre Agassi played John McEnroe just three days after Agassi won the US Open in 1994.

The arena also hosts Monster Jam and Hot Wheels Monster Trucks Live.

In addition, the arena has hosted the Professional Bull Riders premier tour in 2008 and again in 2022, with another in 2023 in conjunction with the 2024 PBR season.

Ice hockey
MVP Arena was home to the American Hockey League from 1993, when the Albany River Rats became the building's primary tenant until 2017. The River Rats won the Calder Cup championship in 1994–95.

On April 24, 2008, one of the longest games in the history of the American Hockey League took place at the arena. Ryan Potulny scored the winning goal for the Philadelphia Phantoms at 2:58 of the fifth overtime period after 142 minutes and 58 seconds of hockey, played over 5 hours and 38 minutes. In the process, River Rats goaltender Michael Leighton set a modern-day record by making 98 saves.

Following the River Rats' relocation to Charlotte, N.C., in 2010, the Albany Devils began play in the AHL.

It was announced on January 31, 2017, that the Devils would relocate to Binghamton following the completion of the 2016–17 season ending 24 years of AHL hockey in the arena. At the time of the relocation, the Devils were drawing the lowest average attendance in the league.

WWE
MVP Arena has hosted many live events and televised shows for the WWE. Notable events include the 1992 Royal Rumble, where Ric Flair won the 30-man over the top rope match to become the new WWF Champion. The 2000 No Mercy was also held here and is the third No Mercy professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the WWF. This event was notable for the return on Stone Cold Steve Austin after a neck injury sidelined him for the better part of a year and for Kurt Angle winnin the WWF championship for the first time in his career. In 2006, at WWE New Year's Revolution, Edge cashed in the first ever Money in the Bank contract to defeat John Cena for the WWE Championship after Cena retained his title in an Elimination Chamber match. On May 20, 2019, the WWE 24/7 Championship was introduced by Mick Foley to the WWE Universe on the Monday Night Raw with Titus O'Neil becoming the Inaugural champion. It was also here on March 22, 1999, that Steve Austin drove to the ring in a beer truck and gave a "beer bath" to Vince McMahon, Shane McMahon and The Rock.

College sports
MVP Arena hosted the ECAC Hockey championships each March from 2003 until 2010, when the league announced the tournament was moved to Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey; and is often home to the annual Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference basketball tournament (1990–96, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008–10, and 2015–19). In 2003, MVP Arena hosted the NCAA basketball East Regional, which was won by Syracuse University on their way to their first national championship. The arena also hosted the first and second rounds of the 1995 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament as the Knickerbocker Arena.

In 2008, MVP Arena hosted the NCAA ice hockey East Regional tournament. The arena hosted ice-hockey regionals in even-numbered years from 2004 through 2010, which was the eighth time the East Regional has been held at the site.

In 2000, MVP Arena hosted a regional quarterfinal between St. Lawrence University and Boston University, which went into quadruple overtime. The game was the longest in the history of the tournament and, at the time, the second longest game in Division I men's college hockey history.

MVP Arena also hosted the Frozen Four on two occasions, in 1992 (as Knickerbocker Arena) when Lake Superior State University defeated Wisconsin for the national championship, and again in 2001 as the Pepsi Arena when Boston College defeated North Dakota.

The venue hosted the NCAA women's basketball tournament from March 28 to 31, 2015, and six games of the NCAA Women's Albany 1 and Albany 2 Regionals (Sweet 16 and Elite 8) from March 29 to April 1, 2024. The NCAA hockey East Regional for the ninth time was hosted from March 25 to 27, 2016. MVP Arena once again hosted the 1st and 2nd Rounds Of the 2023 Men's Basketball Tournament on March 17 and March 19, 2023.

High school sports
MVP Arena has been a regular host of the NYSPHSAA Wrestling Championships since 2005 and has won a bid to host the annual event each year through 2018. According to the Albany County Convention and Visitors Bureau, the wrestling state tournament annually contributes more than $1.5 million into the Capital Region economy, and in 2011 it was the second-largest sporting event in Albany County.

Arena Football
Albany has had a long history of Arena Football. The Albany Firebirds were the first Arena Football team in Albany in 1990. They were successful, as they won ArenaBowl XIII in 1999. Then, after the team moved in 2000 they got an AF2 team called the Albany Conquest in 2002. They were not as successful as their predecessors, only making the playoffs a few times. In 2009, they rebranded back to the Albany Firebirds and made the playoffs, but lost in the first round. After 8 years, it was announced that the Albany Empire would be entering the Arena Football League in 2018 and they made the #1 seed in the playoffs in back-to-back seasons. In 2019, MVP Arena hosted ArenaBowl XXXII which Albany beat the Philadelphia Soul 45-27 and it was the final game ever played in the Arena Football League's second iteration. In 2020, it was announced that the National Arena League would be bringing a new team to Albany, and it brought back the Albany Empire name. The new Empire would win back-to-back NAL championships in 2021 and 2022.

Music
The first-ever event at the arena was a Frank Sinatra concert on January 30, 1990.

In 1990, the Grateful Dead recorded their 1996 release, Dozin' at the Knick, at the arena.

Whitesnake played at the arena during their Slip of the Tongue world tour in 1990. The concert took place February 15, and there were many empty seats due to a blizzard keeping many fans from getting to the arena.

Gloria Estefan played at the arena on August 30, 1991, during her 1991-1992 “Into The Light World Tour.”

Metallica played at MVP Arena, then known as the Knickerbocker Arena, on February 28, 1992, during their Wherever We May Roam Tour. Their second show at the arena was on April 6,1997 for their Poor Touring Me Tour, the opening act was Corrosion of Conformity The band again played at the Arena, then known as the Pepsi Arena, on October 9, 2004, during their Madly in Anger with the World tour. Metallica played at the arena on November 12, 2009, during their World Magnetic Tour.

U2 played at the arena in 1992 and again in 2001.

Phish has played the arena 13 times, most recently during the fall tour of 2018.

Demi Lovato played at the arena on September 7, 2014, as part of their Demi World Tour.

On March 18, 2019, Ariana Grande opened her Sweetener World Tour at the arena.

Celine Dion returned to the arena after 21 years on December 7, 2019, as part of her Courage World Tour. Dion's first performance at the arena took place on December 1, 1998, as part of her Let's Talk About Love World Tour.

Notable sellouts

 * The Rolling Stones – September 17, 2005
 * Paul McCartney, Out There Tour – July 5, 2014; sold out in 28 minutes on April 14, 2014.
 * Philadelphia Soul at Albany Empire on April 14, 2018. First home game for the Empire.

title: MVP Arena


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Tongo, Ghana

Tongo is a small town near the Upper East region capital of Bolgatanga, and Tongo is the capital of Talensi District, a district in the Upper East Region of Northern part of Ghana. Tongo is known for the "Tengzug shrine", and for its sowing and harvest festivals.

Another visitor's sight in the town is the Tongo Whistling Rocks. Located 10 kilometers (6 mi.) from Bolgatanga, these granite rocks jut dramatically from the terrain. The rocks also make a strange whistling sound during November and December, when the harmattan wind blow the Sahara throughout the Northern Region.

title: Tongo, Ghana


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Bolga

Bolga is an island in the municipality of Meløy in Nordland county, Norway. The 2.4 km2 island has a population (2017) of 105. It is located west of the islands of Meløya and Åmøya, just off the coast of the Helgeland region. The highest point on the island is the 339 m tall Bolgtinden. Most of the population of the island lives along the eastern shore in the village that is also known as Bolga. It is the only village on the island. There are regular ferry connections from Bolga to the islands of Meløya to the east and to Vassdalsvik and Ørnes on the mainland.

title: Bolga


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Oriental hornet

The Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) is a social insect species of the family Vespidae. It can be found in Southwest Asia, Northeast Africa, the island of Madagascar (but no reports have been made of its presence on the island for many years), the Middle East, Central Asia, and parts of Southern Europe. Oriental hornets have also been found in a few isolated locations such as Mexico and Chile due to human introduction. The Oriental hornet lives in seasonal colonies consisting of caste system dominated by a queen. The hornet builds its nests underground and communicates using sound vibrations. The hornet has a yellow stripe on its cuticle (exoskeleton), which can absorb sunlight to generate a small electrical potential, and this might help supply energy for digging. The adult hornet eats nectar and fruits and scavenges for insects and animal proteins to feed to its young. Because they are scavengers, the hornets may also serve as a transmitter of disease following consumption of infected plants. The hornets are a primary pest to honey bees, attacking bee colonies to obtain honey and animal proteins. The sting of an Oriental hornet can be quite painful to humans and some humans are allergic to stings.

Taxonomy and phylogeny
The Oriental hornet (V. orientalis) belongs to the family Vespidae, which consists of wasps, hornets, and yellowjackets. It is a member of the genus Vespa, which constitutes true hornets. V. orientalis has unique adaptations to arid climates, which has made it difficult to assess its phylogenetic relationship to other species of the genus Vespa, based on morphological data alone. Thus, only recently has the use of molecular phylogenetics given evidence that V. orientalis is most closely related to Vespa affinis and Vespa mocsaryana. While a history exists of recognizing subspecies within many of the hornets, including V. orientalis, the most recent taxonomic revision of the genus treats all subspecific names in the genus Vespa as synonyms, effectively relegating them to no more than informal names for regional color forms.

Description and identification
The adult hornet has two pairs of wings and a body measuring between 25 and 35 mm long. Drones and workers are smaller in size than the queen. V. orientalis is a reddish-brown color and has distinctive thick yellow bands on the abdomen and yellow patches on the head between the eyes. It has very strong jaws and will bite if provoked. Females (workers and the queen) have an ovipositor, which is a specialized organ shaped like a tube that is used for laying eggs. The ovipositor extends from the end of the abdomen and is also used as a stinger. Males (drones) can be distinguished from workers by the number of segments on their antenna. Drones have 13 segments, while workers only have 12. The Oriental hornet looks similar to the European hornet (V. crabro) and should not be confused with the Asian giant hornet (V.  mandarinia) of East Asia.

Distribution
Oriental hornets can be found in Central Asia, southwestern Asia from Armenia and Turkey to India and Nepal, throughout the Middle East, in Northeast Africa, in some Afrotropical countries such as Ethiopia and Somalia, and in parts of Southern Europe: Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Spain, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Sicily and the southern half of peninsular Italy. Oriental hornets have been introduced by humans into additional locations, including Chile, Madagascar, Mexico, and Xinjiang, China, as well as the occasional introduction via fruit into Belgium and the United Kingdom. The Oriental hornet is the only member of the genus Vespa that can be found in desert climates such as those in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of southwestern Asia.

Nests
The Oriental hornet typically lives in nests that it digs underground. On the roof base of each comb cell one or more mineral granules of polycrystalline material is attached. A nest contains multiple combs in which the colony lives. While nests are most commonly found under ground, some paper nests are constructed in protective hollows such as inside hollow trees, in shipping containers, parked vehicles, and aircraft. To construct the paper nests, the workers strip the bark from twigs, tree branches, and shrubs to collect fiber.

Colonies
Oriental hornets live in seasonal colonies that are formed every year in the spring by a single queen that mated during the previous fall. During the fall, the queen of an established colony lays eggs which will develop into new queens and drones. After mating, the drones die off, while the newly fertilized queens seek hideouts in which to hibernate for the winter. The newly founded colony grows throughout the spring and summer until the population and activity of the colony peaks in the late summer and early fall. The peak size of the colony is several thousand individuals and a colony typically contains three to six combs, each containing 600-900 individual cells.

Behavior
V. orientalis is a type of social wasp. Individuals live collectively in colonies with one queen and thousands of workers. Social wasps are unusual in their practice of altruism in which nonreproductive individuals work for the benefit of the colony. This occurs because all individuals in a colony are closely related.

Social structure
Within a colony, the caste system is dominated by the queen that is the only reproductive female in the colony. Subordinate to the queen are the workers (daughters) and drones (sons). Like the queen, drones solely serve reproductive roles. The workers are responsible for the rest of the labor. Workers specialize in the performance of different tasks. Workers are responsible for foraging for food, providing shelter, defending the colony, and caring for the colony's brood, which consist of the queen's offspring.

Communication
Oriental hornets communicate through sound vibrations. The three main types of vibrations used to communicate are taps to the queen, awakening taps, and larval hunger signals. When workers tap while facing the queen, three effects are noted: the queen starts to search the combs for vacant cells in which to lay her eggs in, the workers go back to performing their typical duties, and hunger signals by larvae cease immediately and are not resumed for at least 30 minutes. The main purpose of these taps seem to be to encourage the queen to lay more eggs. Awakening taps by workers cause a general intensification of activities in the colony. The effects are minimal during the day. At night, however, the vibrations wake the whole colony, which causes the larvae commence their hunger signals and the workers to go forage for food to feed the larvae. Larval hunger signals produce no detectable changes in larval activity during the daytime. The workers, however, pay more attention and give more food to the cells that are in the vicinity of where the vibrations originated. At night, the larvae emulate each other's hunger signals and awake the whole nest.

Kin selection and altruism
V. orientalis hornets live in colonies in which the workers are all daughters of the queen, so the workers are all sisters. Social wasps are haplodiploid, which means that males are all haploid and develop from unfertilized eggs, while females are diploid and develop from eggs fertilized by drones. Queens commonly mate with only one drone. Each drone has only one set of chromosomes to pass on to its offspring. Thus, sister workers that share paternity are unusually closely related to each other. Each received 100% its father's genes and 50% of its mother's genes, so each is on average 75% related to its sisters and only 50% related to the queen. Thus, a worker is benefited by looking after the queen and her colony to best ensure the survival of its genes. An individual acting in the interests of others and not just itself it is known as altruism.

Diet
Oriental hornets capture other insects such as grasshoppers, flies, honey bees, and vespids with which they feed the colony's brood. They will also collect other animal proteins for their young such as pieces of fresh or spoiled meat and fish. The adults eat carbohydrates such as nectar, honeydew, and fruits.

Conflict with bees
The best place for hornets to find a combination of animal proteins (bees or larvae) and carbohydrates (honey) are bee hives. Oriental hornets have been known to cause serious damage to bee colonies. They are the primary pest that attacks honey bee colonies in many countries.

Antibacterial effect of venom
The venom of V. orientalis was tested on Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis, and Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Venom extract was shown to be effective in inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. The venom is therefore regarded as a potential therapeutic agent.

Solar energy harvesting
Unlike most wasps which are most active during the early morning, V. orientalis is unique in showing a peak of activity during the middle of the day. Oriental hornets dig their nests underground by picking up soil in their mandibles, flying a short distance, dropping the soil, and returning to the nest to continue digging. The hornet's digging is correlated with insolation (solar energy). The more insolation, the more active the hornet. This daytime digging behavior of V. orientalis may be possible because of the ability of its cuticle to harvest solar energy.

Cuticle
The cuticle of the Oriental hornet contains yellow pigment that protects the cuticle from harmful UV radiation from the sun. The brown segments of the hornet's body contain melanin, which serves a similar purpose. The brown cuticle is composed of about 30 layers, the thickness of which increases from interior to exterior. The brown melanin pigment is found in these layers. The yellow cuticle is composed of 15 layers that contain yellow pigment. The yellow stripe contains xanthopterin in barrel-shaped granules. Both the brown and yellow cuticle absorbs 99 per cent of the visible light falling on them. The surface structure of the brown cuticles act as a diffraction grating, trapping more light inside the cuticle layers.

Electric potential
Enzyme activity in the layer of yellow xanthopterin granules was demonstrated to be higher in hornets kept in dark environments and lower in those exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. Measuring the electric voltage between the hypocuticle and the exocuticle of the yellow stripe shows a negative electric potential at the hypocuticle with respect to the positive exocuticle. If the yellow stripe is exposed to light, the potential difference between light and dark conditions increases. In dark conditions, the stripe decreases in electric potential. Pterins have a role in photoreception and phototransduction of near-UV light to blue light and pterins may play a role in photosynthesis. Some of the same researchers speculate that this is the energy for the heat organ (see below).

Also, the silk has shown to have similar electric properties when exposed to light.

Thermoregulatory organ
There is a thermoregulatory organ in the thorax of V. orientalis. It maintains at 6 C-change higher than the rest of the body, and 9 C-change above ambient. (Specifically it is located in the dorsal part of the thorax, inward from the meso-scutal plate of the prothorax. This organ is near the median notal suture. It is 1 mm in diameter and butterfly-shaped. The uppermost, hindmost side abuts the base of the forewings.) The authors speculate that this heat generation is powered by the (above) that some of the same authors have previously discovered and investigated.

Zero gravity experiment
The Israeli Space Agency Investigation About Hornets (ISAIAH) was a project from Tel-Aviv University initiated in 1984 to explore the effects of near-zero gravity on oriental hornets, their development, and their nest-building instincts. The experiments were funded by the Israel Space Agency with the goal of discovering ways to prevent astronauts from suffering headaches, nausea, and vomiting during the missions. The sample of 230 Oriental hornets, flight hardware, and measuring instruments were all packed onto the Space Shuttle Endeavour, mission STS-47, in 1992, while a control group was kept on the ground for comparison.

During the launch, 202 hornets died as a result of a malfunction in the water system that caused an abnormal increase in humidity. The surviving hornets lost their sense of direction, and unlike the control unit hornets, were unable to climb on the walls or stay in clusters. Instead, they stayed motionless and apart from each other. Roughly 3 to 4 days after returning to earth, the hornets started climbing on the walls again and building a nest. The surviving hornets lived for an average of 23 days, compared to an average survival of 43 days for the control group hornets.

title: Oriental hornet


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Liverpool, Crosby and Southport Railway

The Liverpool, Crosby and Southport Railway was a British railway company, which opened a line in 1848 between Southport and Waterloo, extending into Liverpool in 1850. The company was acquired by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in 1855. The line is still open.

Formation and opening
Liverpool was thriving in the 1840's and growing fast, the number of ships using the port almost doubled from 1830 to 1840, and the tonnage they carried more than doubled. it was not surprising that the stretch of sandy coast north along the Mersey attracted wealthier residents and holiday-makers. The principal places in the area were Bootle, Crosby and Southport.

A project for a railway between Liverpool, Crosby and Southport was proposed in 1846, surveys were undertaken and parliamentary notices given. The Liverpool, Crosby and Southport Railway (LC&SR) received parliamentary approval on 2 July 1847 and the company was incorporated, the first directors' meeting on 26 July 1847 elected William Blundell as chairman.

The Act enabled the building of an 18 mi line from a junction with the Liverpool and Bury Railway to Southport.

The company engineer reported there should be no difficulty in building the 12 mi single-track line, although the ground work was constructed to take a double-track, from Waterloo (about 5 mi north of Liverpool) to Southport by June 1848. Construction was undertaken by McCormick & Holme starting in March 1848 and the line finished within three months. The single-track line was hastily built, with light track on sand foundation.

It was inspected and passed on 17 July 1848, formally opened on 21 July with public traffic starting on 24 July 1848.

Early services
When the railway opened in 1848 there were three services each way on Tuesdays to Fridays, four each way on Mondays and Saturdays and two each way on Sundays, this improved slightly in 1849 when four trains went each way Monday to Saturday with two on Sundays.

In February 1855 there were five services each way along the whole line with an additional seven each way between Liverpool and Waterloo (three and three on Sundays).

Stations
The original, temporary, Southport terminus was at Southport Eastbank Street until 22 August 1851 when the line was extended half a mile (800 metres) into Southport station, a road-bridge was constructed to carry Eastbank Street over the railway.

The initial southern terminus was at Waterloo, then a part of Lancashire, omnibuses operated by Mr Busby under contract, were used to complete the journey into Liverpool.

The intermediate stations that opened with the line were Crosby (later Blundellsands & Crosby), Hightown and Formby and Altcar (later Formby), Ainsdale and Gilbert's Crossing (later Birkdale Park, and then Birkdale). Freshfield station opened in 1854.

On 1 October 1850 the line was extended using double-track from Waterloo to Liverpool where it joined the East Lancashire Railway (ELR) and Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) joint line at Sandhills junction, the railway then used their lines into their terminus at Tithebarn Street/Liverpool Exchange station, upon payment of a toll to do so.

The extension opened with only one intermediate station at Seaforth (later Seaforth & Litherland), but shortly after the line opened further stations were provided at Miller's Bridge, Bootle Village and Marsh Lane (later Marsh Lane & Strand Road then Bootle New Strand). The L&YR opened Liverpool North Docks station (later North Docks then Sandhills) on their section of the line in 1854.

The traffic levels between Liverpool and Crosby were quite high and the section of line from Sandhills junction to Crosby was double-tracked, at the same time a new station was constructed at Crosby that could function partly as a terminus for the suburban traffic, the station opened on 1 June 1852, the remainder of the line was doubled by September 1852.

Leasing and amalgamation
In August 1850 the LC&SR had been authorised to lease, sell or transfer its railway to the L&YR, in October 1850 an agreement was reached with the L&YR for them to take on a lease starting on 10 October 1850, the L&YR took over the working of the line from this date and the LC&SR locomotives and stock were passed over to the L&YR.

The lease was renewed at least once before being re-negotiated in January 1854 which involved some of the locomotives being returned to the LC&SR with some remuneration to cover the depreciation. The LC&SR then ran the railway itself from March 1854 until on 14 June 1855 the L&YR purchased and took over the LC&SR.

Locomotives
The company's first three locomotives were outside cylinder 0-4-2s purchased from Charles Tayleur and Company for delivery in July 1848, they cost £2,150 each and were named Sefton, Formby and Blundell.

Two more locomotives were acquired in August 1848, they were outside cylinder 2-2-2s purchased for £1,500 each from the Norfolk Railway where they had been used by their contractor Samuel Peto. These locomotives had been built in 1844 by Robert Stephenson, they were named Waterloo and Southport and numbered 4 and 5, although which was which was not clear. These locomotives were modified in 1850, the nature of the modification is unknown, at which point they were renamed Antelope and Gazelle, which became which was still unclear.

A new "off-the-shelf" 2-2-2 was ordered from Sharp Brothers in 1849, this was delivered in July 1849 and became number 6 Firefly.

Engine number 3 was sold in January 1850 and was replaced by a 2-2-2 locomotive built by Forrester of Liverpool to a McConachie & Claude patent design. This locomotive, named Firefly was taken into service just two days before the L&YR took the lease for the railway and therefore became responsible for the running of the line. This engine was apparently built as a four-wheeled engine and then had two centre wheels, without flanges added to make it a 2-2-2.

A further 'light tank' locomotive was purchased in September 1850 from George England of Hatcham Ironworks, this was named England.

In January 1854, the lease having been re-negotiated, the L&YR retained three of the LC&SR locomotives, Blundell, Formby and Firefly and returned the other four. The L&YR sold Blundell and Formby by the end of the year.

In October 1854 the LC&SR ordered three light well-tank 2-2-2WT engines from William Fairbairn which were delivered in January 1855, when a further locomotive of this type was ordered and promptly delivered, a further 2-4-0 locomotive was also ordered but was not delivered before the L&YR took over, it was sold on elsewhere. Two other locomotives were purchased second-hand from the L&NWR in February 1855, they were ex-Grand Junction Railway locos, 0-4-2 number 3 Sirius built in 1838 and rebuilt in 1844 and 2-2-2 number 8 Wildfire, built in 1837 and rebuilt in 1844–1845.

Shortly before the final taking over of the LC&SR by the L&YR the locomotive fleet passed into the hands of the L&YR, the following table summarises the situation.

Rolling stock
Little is known about the lines rolling stock with the exception of a newspaper report about the opening of the railway that reported "the comparative ease with which the carriages traversed the line. There was none of that uncomfortable shaking which is experienced in most railways, especially in the carriage furthest from the engine".

Engine sheds
An engine shed was opened at Waterloo in August 1848, when the line was extended into Southport another shed was built to the west of the running lines just before Chapel Street station.

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway
The line was busy enough to require four-tracks between Bank Hall and Seaforth and Litherland which were installed in 1886–1887.

Later stations
There were numerous additions, alterations, renamings and closings of stations during the L&YR ownership years including:
 * Sandhills was re-sited in 1881.
 * Hightown Siding opened in 1862 (later Hightown New Siding then Hightown Rifle Station and later Altcar Rifle Station before finally becoming Altcar Rifle Range and closing in 1929).
 * Bank Hall opened in 1870 between Sandhills and Miller's Bridge.
 * Hall Road opened in 1874.
 * Miller's Bridge and Bootle Village were replaced in 1876 by a new station built between their sites at Bootle Oriel Road.

Electrification
In 1902 the L&YR decided to electrify the line, a contract for the entire work, except the carriage bodies that were constructed in-house, was let to Dick, Kerr & Co. and work began in 1903. By the end of the year it was possible make an experimental run with the first train, and a partial service was introduced from 22 March 1904, the service was interupted in April due to subsidence at the power station, and a full service was provided from 13 May.

The system adopted was 650V DC initially using a four rail system, with an outside rail providing the power, the return circuit using a fourth rail between the running rails, the running rails and the fourth rail were all bonded together with the return circuit being made through the wheels, that is there was no return shoe contacting the fourth rail.

Subsequently the fourth rail was removed and the return circuit was made through the running rails.

Electric train service
The electric trains introduced followed the American design pattern, they were open saloons with centre aisles, the first batch had clerestory roofs. The trains had gangway connections so it was possible to walk through the train, but they were not of the multiple unit type so they could not be coupled together and driven from the front cab.

There were 56 vehicles provided for the service constructed at the L&YR Newton Heath works using electrical equipment supplied by Dick, Kerr & Co. 28 motor coaches seated 69 third-class passengers on rattan-covered reversible seats, whilst 28 first-class trailers each seated 66 on tapestry covered seats. Each vehicle was 60 ft long and 10 ft wide, making them the widest railway vehicles in the country. The trains usually comprised a motor coach at each end with two trailer coaches between.

In 1905 two additional motor coaches and twelve third-class trailers seating 80 were introduced and five-car trains became the rule. Traffic growth led to the provision in 1910 of a further eight motor and twelve trailers coaches, six first and six third-class. In 1913–1914 a further six third-class motor coaches were introduced, most of these later vehicles were built to a longer length of 63 ft. Stock variations and levels got more complicated after this time as the L&YR electrified other lines and stock was shared.

Later modifications and newer stock were fitted for multiple unit control, had end gangways so it was possible to move from one unit into another and had dome roofs. They were finished in two-tone brown with gilt lining and lettering.

The electric train service provided for more capacity, prior to their introduction there were approximately 36 through trains and a similar number terminating at Crosby each weekday. Once the electric service was fully operational the through service increased to approximately 50 with an additional 56 services terminating at Hall Road, which had replaced Crosby as the local service terminus.

Electric trains became the norm on passenger services on the line but there were still steam locomotives to cater for the goods and coal traffic. Some Barton-Wright 0-4-4 and Aspinall 2-4-2T locomotives that had been used for general traffic before the electrification stayed for these duties. One passenger service on the line did remain steam hauled, the through carriages for the daily Southport to London Euston which went via Bootle junction (between Bootle Oriel Road and Bank Hall) onto the L&NWR line and were attached to other trains at either Liverpool Lime Street or Edge Hill.

After the L&YR
The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway amalgamated with the London and North Western Railway on 1 January 1922 and in turn was Grouped into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) in 1923.

The London, Midland and Scottish Railway opened Hillside station on 1 May 1926. The LMS introduced new stock onto the line in 1940 (they later became BR Class 502) and all the early stock was withdrawn by 1942.

Nationalisation followed in 1948.

The line was destined for closure under the 1963 Beeching plan but was reprieved by the Minister of Transport Ernest Marples and it survived.

From 1978, Class 507 units began to arrive on the network and the 502s, which by now were considered life-expired, were gradually withdrawn. Their final regular passenger service was on 1 September 1980, the last set was withdrawn in November 1980.

In 1978 the station became part of the Merseyrail network's Northern Line (operated by British Rail until privatised in 1995).

title: Liverpool, Crosby and Southport Railway


text:
Songs to Fan the Flames of Discontent

Songs to Fan the Flames of Discontent is the second full-length album by Swedish hardcore punk band Refused. It was released in 1996 through Victory Records, Startrec and We Bite on CD, tape and 12" vinyl; and reissued by Burning Heart Records and Victory in 1997. A remastered version of the album was released in 2004.

The album is the band's first where Dennis Lyxzén uses screamed vocals as opposed to the shouting vocals he used on the debut This Just Might Be... the Truth and features several metal influences. The techniques, motives and musical ideas found on this album in their rudimentary form developed into what was heard on their next album, The Shape of Punk to Come. The name of the album is taken from an early edition of the Little Red Songbook published by a committee of Spokane, Washington locals of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1909, which included songs by Sweden-born IWW activist Joe Hill.

Personnel

 * Refused
 * Dennis Lyxzén – vocals
 * Kristofer Steen – guitar, bass guitar
 * Jon Brännström – guitar
 * David Sandström – drums
 * Magnus Björklund – bass guitar

 * Production
 * Eskil Lövström – recording, intro on "Rather Be Dead"
 * Pelle Henricsson – recording
 * Pelle Gunnerfeldt – production
 * D. Erixon – Cover Graphics
 * Eilert Andersson – Band photo
 * Published by Startrec Music/Songs and Stories Publishing

title: Songs to Fan the Flames of Discontent


text:
File:Guidon Royal Canadian Mounted Police.JPG

guidon Royal Canadian Mounted Police


text:
User talk:Maud~enwiki

heej everybody im doing a project for english that is due the monday we come back from break! i wanna finish it this week so that i dont have to do it during break:P bye kisses

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Maud. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Maud~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 01:42, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 16:05, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Maud~enwiki


text:
Hunter Rouse

Hunter Rouse (March 29, 1906 – October 16, 1996) was a hydraulician known for his research on the mechanics of fluid turbulence.

Rouse was a faculty member at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, from 1929 until 1933, when he moved to Columbia University. He was at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena (1936–1939), and in 1939 he joined the staff of the University of Iowa, Iowa City, where he was dean of the college of engineering from 1966 to 1972. His work includes hydraulic studies of similitude, efflux and overflow, jet diffusion, boundary roughness, and sediment suspension.

Among his written works are Fluid Mechanics for Hydraulic Engineers (1938), Elementary Mechanics of Fluids (1946), Basic Mechanics of Fluids (1953), and History of Hydraulics (1957).

Hunter's eldest son Richard Rouse is one of the world's foremost specialists in Western European History in the Middle Ages.

title: Hunter Rouse


text:
User talk:Brother Larrys cousin

Vandalism
Greetings. I've noticed some vandalism coming from your IP address. Any further vandalism will be reverted. Please cease to continue your atrocious behavior, or your IP address will be recorded on the Vandalism in progress page. Website defacement is a crime in numerous countries, and you can rest assured that if you do not stop vandalizing pages after being warned, you will likely be blocked. Trying to evade this IP block to continue vandalising is useless, since somebody will report you to your internet service provider.

We've all worked hard to make Wikipedia what it is today. A study by IBM showed that the majority of vandalism on wikipedia is repaired within the next 5 minutes, so your actions are feckless, and only serve to put you at risk. If you have any questions, feel free to leave a note on my talk page.

If you decide to change your behavior, your contributions will be greatly appreciated- regardless of what your previous behavior was. -Frazzydee|✍ 19:08, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Brother Larrys cousin


text:
David Slowinski

David Slowinski is a mathematician involved in prime numbers. His career highlights have included the discovery of several of the largest known Mersenne primes: He has also written several textbooks on the subject.
 * 244497−1 (M27) (with H. L. Nelson) on April 8, 1979
 * 286243−1 (M28) on September 25, 1982
 * 2132049−1 (M30) on September 19, 1983
 * 2216091−1 (M31) on September 1, 1985
 * 2756839−1 (M32) (with P. Gage) on February 17, 1992
 * 2859433−1 (M33) (with P. Gage) on January 4, 1994
 * 21257787−1 (M34) (with P. Gage) on September 3, 1996

Slowinski was a software engineer for Cray Research.

title: David Slowinski


text:
Talk:Prototype theory

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 20 August 2019 and 7 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Sophieroth21. Peer reviewers: BlandK, Davmca97, JBalcita.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 07:22, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Contradiction
This article states, "Prototype Theory is a model of graded categorization in Cognitive Science, where all members of a category do not have equal status." But this point is directly denied by Lakoff, citing Rosch, in the article "Cognitive Models and Prototype Theory" in Concepts: Core Readings, MIT Press, 1999. There, he clearly states that goodness-of-example ratings (a prototype effect) do not reflect degree of category membership. He cites Rosch on the same point. The whole article seems to be based on a misunderstanding. Or maybe the problem is just with the ambiguous phrase 'equal status'. Is this referring to category membership or merely degree of prototypicality? --Mediaphd 22:40, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

stereotypes
In cognitive linguistics, a prototype is not the same as a conventional stereotype. Not even close. Rosch has defined the word prototype quite rigorously and exhaustively, resulting in a specific definition bearing little resemblence to the common idea of a stereotype. Someone please fix this blatant error.

 * OK, could you be more specific, please, concerning the difference? Or, are you splitting hairs?--Wiglaf 19:57, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Broken formatting
Er, the article formatting is broken; I'd try fixing it myself, except I'm not sure what it's supposed to look like. WindAndConfusion 07:06, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

Sentence structure problem
I could not understand the following sentence and am not sure what the author meant it say but there seem to be more than one grammatical error so I'd request the author to re-write rather than someone guessing what it was supposed to say: "Molesworth, Bowler, and Hampton (2005) found signs of the prototype effect is children with autism and Asperger syndrome showed signs of prototype effects, yet the effects were not diminished from children without autism or Asperger syndrome."--AnthonyTF 13:44, 2 March 2017 (UTC)

Possible critique?
Personally, I am a big fan of prototype theory but I think this entry could be enriched by adding a section on critique. Anyone want to add that? The article "Prospects and Problems with Prototype Theory" by Dirk Geeraerts (2016) might be one place to start?--AnthonyTF 13:47, 2 March 2017 (UTC)

Addition of problems with Prototype theory section
It might be beneficial to consider creating a new section detailing some of the issues with prototype theory and/or other cognitive theories.

Sources to consider:

Laurence, Stephen & Margolis, Eric (1999). Concepts and Cognitive Science. In Eric Margolis & Stephen Laurence (eds.), _Concepts: Core Readings_. MIT Press. pp. 3-81.

Putnam, Hilary (1975). Mind, Language, and Reality. Cambridge University Press. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Magsmundt (talk • contribs) 18:54, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prototype theory


text: Category:611 deaths

title: Category:611 deaths


text: Category:Elections in Norfolk Island

title: Category:Elections in Norfolk Island


text:
Gheorghe Popescu (footballer, born 1967)

Gheorghe "Gică" Popescu (born 9 October 1967) is a Romanian former professional football player who played as a defender.

He notably played in La Liga where he is a former captain of FC Barcelona. He played for a string of European clubs in that period, including a four-year stint at PSV Eindhoven and winning the UEFA Cup with Galatasaray. He also played in the Premier League with Tottenham Hotspur, in Serie A with Lecce and in the Bundesliga with Hannover 96. In his native country he played for Universitatea Craiova, Steaua București and Dinamo București. In addition to his defensive skills, he was also capable of starting attacks deep from his own half.

His tactical knowledge as a defender made him a valuable team member in top European competitions until he reached his late-thirties. He was a key part of the Romania national team in the 1990s and earned 115 caps, scoring 16 goals. He was present at 1990 World Cup, 1994 World Cup, Euro 1996, 1998 World Cup and Euro 2000. He is the brother-in-law of fellow Romanian international Gheorghe Hagi.

Club career
After playing six seasons for Universitatea Craiova, Popescu was loaned to Romanian giants Steaua Bucharest reaching the semi-finals of the European Cup during their 1987–88 campaign. He moved abroad to the Netherlands in 1990, and signed for PSV Eindhoven at the request of Sir Bobby Robson, helping them to keep among the top Dutch sides, until he was transferred to Tottenham Hotspur in the Premier League on 9 September 1994 for a fee of £2.9million. He played 23 times in the Premier League and scored three goals as Spurs (who changed manager from Ossie Ardiles to Gerry Francis a few weeks after Popescu arrived) finished seventh in the league – their highest finish for five years. He also helped them to reach the FA Cup semi-finals, where they lost 4–1 to eventual cup winners Everton. However, after less than a year in England, he left Tottenham to sign for the Spanish club Barcelona for £3million, succeeding Ronald Koeman in the team. He was made captain of the Catalan club, contributing to their Copa del Rey (domestic cup) glory in his first season and their UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph in his second.

After leaving Barcelona during the summer of 1997, he was transferred to Galatasaray of Turkey, where he spent four years and won several major trophies, including the UEFA Cup in May 2000 – where Galatasaray defeated Arsenal, key rivals of his old club Tottenham, on penalties after a goalless draw in open play and he scored the final penalty shot in the penalty shootout. He spent the 2001–2002 season in Italy with Serie A club Lecce, before returning to his native Romania for a brief spell with Dinamo Bucharest, before winding up with a season in Germany with Hannover 96.

Popescu was never outside the top four in the Romanian Footballer of the Year awards for 13 years from 1989 until 2001. He was recently voted into Romanian footballs all-time World Cup team.

International career
At international level, Popescu is Romania's all-time third most capped players with 115, in which he scored 16 goals. He played for his country in the 1990, 1994, and 1998 World Cups, Euro 1996 and Euro 2000. He also entered the symbolic but exclusive circle of players with a century of caps.

Personal life
He is the brother-in-law of fellow Romanian international Gheorghe Hagi.

Tax evasion and imprisonment
On 4 March 2014, Popescu and seven others, among them Mihai Stoica, were convicted by a Romanian appeals court of money laundering and tax evasion in connection with the transfer of football players from Romania to other countries. Popescu was sentenced to a jail term of three years and one month. He was released for good conduct on 4 November 2015, after serving half of his sentence, the books he wrote and published during his imprisonment also helping towards his reduced sentence as customary for Romanian law.

International

 * Scores and results list Romania's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Popescu goal.

Honours
Steaua București
 * Divizia A: 1987–88
 * Cupa României: 1987–88

PSV
 * Eredivisie: 1990–91, 1991–92
 * Johan Cruijff Shield: 1992

Barcelona
 * Copa del Rey: 1996–97
 * Supercopa de España: 1996
 * UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1996–97

Galatasaray
 * 1.Lig: 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–2000
 * Turkish Cup: 1998–99, 1999–2000
 * Turkish Super Cup: 1997
 * UEFA Cup: 1999–2000
 * UEFA Super Cup: 2000

Individual
 * Romanian Footballer of the Year: 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996


text:
Arvid Storsveen

Arvid Kristian Storsveen (9 July 1915 – 27 April 1943) was a Norwegian Military Officer and organizer of the secret agency XU, the main intelligence gathering organisation within occupied Norway during World War II.

Biography
Arvid Kristian Storsveen was born in Aker, Norway. Storsveen studied engineering at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim. After graduation in 1939, he was employed at the Norwegian Water Resources and Electricity in Oslo, Norway.

Lt. Storsveen took part in the Norwegian Campaign against the Nazi German invasion forces in the spring of 1940. Following the Norwegian surrender, he soon saw the value of an intelligence-gathering organisation for the Allies. This organisation, called 'XU', was started as early as July 1940 and became a reliable source of information for the Supreme Allied Commander in London. Many of the members were obtained from science students at the University of Oslo. After two years of dangerous work, Storsveen was forced to escape to neutral Sweden in July 1942, successfully evading the German units who were tracking him down.

He returned to Oslo in the spring of 1943, but due to an accident he was found and killed by the Gestapo on 27 April. Storsveen carried false documentation on his person; even after his death, the Gestapo never realised the true identity of the man they had killed and so his organisation was able to recover from the incident. Øistein Strømnæs assumed the leadership of XU when Storsveen was killed. 1st Lt. Storsveen was posthumously awarded Norway's highest decoration for military gallantry, the War Cross with sword. He was buried at Vestre gravlund in Oslo.

Legacy
Arvid Storsveens plass is a small park with playground at Blindern in the district Nordre Aker in Oslo. A memorial to Storsveen has been unveiled at the site.

title: Arvid Storsveen


text: Category:802 deaths

title: Category:802 deaths


text: Category:676 deaths

title: Category:676 deaths


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bandorbon

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. dbenbenn | talk 18:10, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Bandorbon
Tagged by Mr Tan, but not put on VFD or sub-page created--procedural. 19 hits. Part of the Arvumi series (above). Niteowlneils 19:14, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, stubby article does not establish notability, dictionary definition. Megan1967 07:05, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, inept dicdef with zero context. Wyss 20:59, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Important geographic region of Bangladesh. 9900 Google hits for alternate spelling "Bandarban". Wile E. Heresiarch 07:59, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Category:674 deaths

title: Category:674 deaths


text:
The E.P. Compilation

The E.P. Compilation is a compilation album by Swedish band Refused, originally released in 1997. The album, which consists of songs from Refused's EPs, was reissued in 1999 as This Album Contains Old Songs & Old Pictures, Vol. 1. A different edition was released in 2002 and reissued in 2004.

Overview
The 2002 and 1997 versions are very different. Although they both contain most of Refused's singles, the 1997 version contains many rarities, such as the Misfits cover "Bullet," to which Epitaph was unable to secure the rights for 2002 re-release.

Track listing
Tracks 1-4 taken from The New Noise Theology E.P. (1998), tracks 5-9 taken from the Rather Be Dead E.P. (1996), tracks 10-16 taken from the Everlasting E.P. (1995)

Personnel

 * Refused
 * Dennis Lyxzén – lead vocals
 * Kristofer Steen – guitar, bass
 * Jon Brännström – guitar, backing vocals, synthesizer
 * Magnus Björklund – bass
 * David Sandström – drums

 * Additional
 * Thomas Di Leva – additional vocals on "Jag Äter Inte Mina Vänner"
 * Pelle Gunnerfeldt – producer, engineer
 * Pelle Henricsson – engineer, mastering
 * Fred Estby – engineer
 * Eskil Lövström – engineer
 * Tomas Skogsberg – engineer

title: The E.P. Compilation