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Emperor Wu of Liang

Emperor Wu of Liang (464 – 12 June 549 ), personal name Xiao Yan (蕭衍), courtesy name Shuda (叔達), childhood name Lian'er (練兒), was the founding emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty, during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. His reign, until its end, was one of the most stable and prosperous among the Southern dynasties. He came from the same Xiao clan of Lanling (蘭陵蕭氏) that ruled the preceding Southern Qi dynasty, but from a different branch.

Emperor Wu established universities and extended the Confucian civil service exams, demanding that sons of nobles (士族) study. He was well read himself and wrote poetry and patronized the arts. Although for governmental affairs he was Confucian in values, he embraced Buddhism as well. He himself was attracted to many Indian traditions. He banned the sacrifice of animals and was against execution. It was said that he received the Buddhist precepts during his reign, earning him the nickname The Bodhisattva Emperor. The Emperor is the namesake of the Emperor Liang Jeweled Repentance (梁皇寳懺), a widely read and major Buddhist text in China and Korea.

At the end of his reign, his unduly lenient attitude towards his clan's and officials' corruption and lack of dedication to the state came at a heavy price; when the general Hou Jing rebelled (侯景之亂), few came to his aid, and Hou captured the imperial capital Jiankang, holding Emperor Wu and his successor Emperor Jianwen under close control and plunging the entire Liang state into anarchy. After Emperor Wu was imprisoned, he was thirsty and asked Hou for honey, but Hou refused to give it to him. After shouting several times, the Emperor supposedly died of hunger and thirst.

Background
Xiao Yan was born in 464, during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of Song. His father Xiao Shunzhi (蕭順之), who claimed ancestry from the great Han Dynasty prime minister Xiao He, was a distant cousin of the Liu Song general Xiao Daocheng, and was part of Xiao Daocheng's close circle of advisors in Xiao Daocheng's eventual seizure of the Liu Song throne and establishment of Southern Qi (as its Emperor Gao) in 479. For Xiao Shunzhi's contributions, Xiao Daocheng created him the Marquess of Linxiang and made him a general. Xiao Yan was Xiao Shunzhi's third son, and his mother was Xiao Shunzhi's wife Zhang Zhirou (張至柔), who was also the mother of his older brothers Xiao Yi (蕭懿) and Xiao Fu (蕭敷), his younger brother Xiao Chang (蕭暢), and his younger sister Xiao Linyi (蕭令嫕). Lady Zhang died in 471, predating Xiao Shunzhi's becoming a marquess during Southern Qi.

Xiao Yan had six other brothers born of Xiao Shunzhi's concubines. One of them, Xiao Xiu (475–518) is now mainly remembered because of his comparatively well-preserved funerary statuary ensemble near Nanjing.

Around 481 or 482, Xiao Yan married Chi Hui (郗徽), the daughter of Liu Song official Chi Ye (郗燁) and the Princess Xunyang. They had three daughters—Xiao Yuyao (蕭玉姚), Xiao Yuwan (蕭玉婉), and Xiao Yuhuan (蕭玉嬛), but no sons.

Career as Southern Qi official and general
Xiao Yan was considered intelligent and handsome in his youth, and he started his career as a Southern Qi official by serving as military assistant for Emperor Wu's son Xiao Zilun (蕭子倫) the Prince of Baling, and later served on the staff of the prime minister Wang Jian. Wang was said to be impressed by Xiao Yan's talents and appearance, and he once said, "Mr. Xiao will be Shizhong [侍中, a high-level post] before he turns 30, and his honor will be innumerable after he turns 30." Xiao Yan also associated with Wang's successor as prime minister, Emperor Wu's son Xiao Ziliang (蕭子良) the Prince of Jingling, and became one of eight young officials talented in the literary arts particularly befriended by Xiao Ziliang—along with Fan Yun, Xiao Chen (蕭琛), Ren Fang (任昉), Wang Rong (王融), Xie Tiao (謝朓), Shen Yue, and Lu Chui (陸倕). After his father Xiao Shunzhi died in 490, he temporary left governmental service, but subsequently returned, and by 493 was serving on Xiao Ziliang's staff, but he did not join Wang Rong's plan to start a coup to have Xiao Ziliang made emperor when Emperor Wu grew ill in 493; the throne, instead, went to the crown prince, Emperor Wu's grandson Xiao Zhaoye. Xiao Yan subsequently was invited by the prime minister Xiao Luan to serve on his staff, and when Xiao Luan subsequently overthrew the frivolous Xiao Zhaoye in a coup, Xiao Yan was made a general and ordered to defend the important city Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui). When Xiao Luan later took the throne (as Emperor Ming), Xiao Yan was created the Baron of Jianyang. In 495, when Northern Wei forces invade, Xiao Yan was on the frontline fighting Northern Wei troops, and he distinguished himself under the command of Wang Guangzhi (王廣之). Later that year, when Emperor Ming suspected the general Xiao Chen (蕭諶) of treason and executed him, it was Xiao Yan that he sent to arrest and execute Xiao Chen's brother Xiao Dan (蕭誕) the governor of Si Province (司州, modern southeastern Henan).

In 497, with Northern Wei again attacking, Xiao Yan was one of the generals that Emperor Ming sent to aid the embattled Yong Province (雍州, modern southwestern Henan and northwestern Hubei). Even though both he and his commander, Cui Huijing (崔慧景), were subsequently defeated by Northern Wei forces in battle, in 498 Xiao Yan was made the governor of Yong Province and the defender of Yong Province's capital, the important city Xiangyang (襄陽, in modern Xiangfan, Hubei), and he continued in that post after Emperor Ming's death and succession by his son Xiao Baojuan. It was at Xiangyang that Xiao Yan's wife Chi Hui died in 499. Xiao Yan would not take another wife for the rest of his life, although he would have a number of concubines.

Civil war against Xiao Baojuan
When Xiao Baojuan became Southern Qi's emperor in 498 at age 15, his power was initially curbed by several high-level officials that his father Emperor Ming left in charge—including Emperor Ming's cousins Jiang Shi (江祏) and Jiang Si (江祀), Xiao Baojuan's own uncle Liu Xuan (劉暄), Xiao Baojuan's cousin Xiao Yaoguang (蕭遙光) the Prince of Shi'an, the senior official Xu Xiaosi (徐孝嗣), and the general Xiao Tanzhi (蕭坦之). The six officials each handled important matters of state according to their will and paid the young emperor little deference, drawing his ire. Xiao Yan, hearing that the young emperor had a reputation for being violent and frivolous, secretly prepared for eventual civil war at his post at Yong Province, but was unable to persuade his older brother Xiao Yi, who was then the acting governor of Ying Province (郢州, modern eastern Hubei), to do the same.

In 499, receiving report that the high-level officials were planning to, on account of his irrational behavior, remove him from the throne, Xiao Baojuan acted first and executed Jiang Shi and Jiang Si. Xiao Yaoguang, who wanted to be emperor himself and feared being the next target, started an unsuccessful coup and was soon defeated and killed. However, despite the contributions of Xiao Tanzhi, Xu Xiaosi, Liu Xuan, and the generals Shen Wenji (沈文季) and Cao Hu (曹虎) in defeating Xiao Yaoguang, Xiao Baojuan soon had all of them killed as well on suspicion of plotting coups, leading to widespread sense of terror among central government officials. This led to a rebellion by the senior general Chen Xianda (陳顯達) from his post at Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian), which was quickly defeated as well, fanning Xiao Baojuan's sense of invulnerability. In fear, the general Pei Shuye (裴叔業), who controlled Shouyang as the governor of Yu Province (豫州, modern central Anhui), surrendered Shouyang to Northern Wei in 500, despite Xiao Yan's counsel against it.

Xiao Baojuan sent Cui Huijing to try to recapture Shouyang. Cui Huijing, however, as soon as he left the capital Jiankang, turned his army around and marched on the capital, hoping to overthrow Xiao Baojuan and replace him with his brother Xiao Baoxuan (蕭寶玄) the Prince of Jiangxia. Cui was initially successful, surrounding Xiao Baojuan's troops inside the palace complex. However, Xiao Yi, upon hearing news of Cui's rebellion, marched troops under his command to relieve the palace siege. He routed Cui's forces, and Cui was killed while trying to escape. Xiao Baojuan made Xiao Yi the prime minister, but soon killed him as well, on 19 November 500. Upon hearing of Xiao Yi's death, Xiao Yan gathered his officers on 15 December 500 and revealed to them his intention to rebel; he officially rose in rebellion in January or February 501.

Xiao Baojuan sent an army commanded by the general Liu Shanyang (劉山陽) against Xiao Yan, but Xiao Yan convinced Xiao Yingzhou (蕭穎冑), the chief of staff of Xiao Baojuan's younger brother Xiao Baorong the Prince of Nankang, who was then governor of Jing Province (荊州, modern central and western Hubei), that Liu was intending to attack both Jing and Yong Province. Xiao Yingzhou therefore entered into an alliance with Xiao Yan, and Xiao Yingzhou surprised and killed Liu, and then declared that his and Xiao Yan's intent was to declare Xiao Baorong emperor, although he did not immediately have Xiao Baorong take the imperial title. (Privately, Xiao Yan's staff was distrustful of Xiao Yingzhou and wanted to seize Xiao Baorong by force, but Xiao Yan, not willing to create a division in the coalition at that moment, concentrated on advancing east against Xiao Baojuan rather than to seize Xiao Baorong.)

In spring 501, Xiao Yingzhou declared Xiao Baorong emperor (as Emperor He), a declaration that Xiao Yan recognized. Xiao Yingzhou had himself and Xiao Yan given equivalent titles, and Xiao Yingzhou remained at Jiangling (江陵, in modern Jingzhou, Hubei), the capital of Jing Province, with the new emperor, while Xiao Yan continued to advance against the old emperor Xiao Baojuan. With Xiao Baojuan having lost the love of his generals (and having to fight off several more coup attempts within Jiankang itself), Xiao Yan was able to win battle after battle, capturing Yingcheng (郢城, in modern Wuhan, Hubei) in summer 501, and then forcing the surrender of Chen Bozhi (陳伯之), the governor of Jiang Province, in fall 501. In winter 501, he reached Jiankang and quickly captured the outer city, and then put the palace under siege. Meanwhile, Xiao Yingzhou, unable to fend off attacks that the general Xiao Gui (蕭璝), loyal to Xiao Baojuan, was launching from the west, died in anxiety. Xiao Yan's brother Xiao Dan (蕭儋) quickly arrived in Jiangling to take over custody of Emperor He, along with Xiao Yingzhou's lieutenant Xiaohou Xiang (夏侯詳). From that point on, the control of the new emperor was no longer contested.

Around the new year 502, Xiao Baojuan's generals Wang Zhenguo (王珍國) and Zhang Ji (張稷), fearful that Xiao Baojuan would kill them because they were unable to lift the siege, assassinated Xiao Baojuan and surrendered. Xiao Yan entered the palace triumphantly, and, making Xiao Zhaoye's mother Empress Dowager Wang Baoming titular regent, he had himself made the supreme commander and the Duke of Jian'an.

Establishment of the Liang dynasty
Xiao Yan soon conspired to gain the throne for himself. Consulting with his old friends Shen Yue and Fan Yun, he put his brothers and associates into important posts, while having Empress Dowager Wang grant him higher and higher honors and titles, while delaying Emperor He's return to the capital. He also began to execute Emperor He's brothers and cousins one by one, to eliminate the possibility of resisting his moves. (Emperor He's brother Xiao Baoyin the Prince of Poyang, however, would escape to Northern Wei, and for decades would pose a threat as a Northern Wei general.) He had himself created as Duke of Liang and then Prince of Liang, and given the nine bestowments, all signs of an impending takeover. Only with these preparations in place did he have Emperor He sent back toward the capital. In the spring of 502 however, while Emperor He had only reached Gushu (姑孰, in modern Ma'anshan, Anhui), Xiao Yan had him issue an edict giving the throne to Xiao Yan, ending Southern Qi and beginning the Liang Dynasty. Xiao Yan created Emperor He the Prince of Baling, but soon had him put to death, ending Emperor Ming's line (except for Xiao Baoyin, and Xiao Baoyi who was born disabled), although he treated Emperor Gao's and Emperor Wu's remaining progeny (most of those two emperors' progeny having been slaughtered by Emperor Ming) with honor and respect, making many of them his officials, reasoning that he and Southern Qi's imperial clan were of the same family. Emperor Wu created his infant son Xiao Tong, who was born of his concubine Consort Ding during the war against Xiao Baojuan, crown prince. (He had previously adopted his brother Xiao Hong (蕭宏)'s son Xiao Zhengde as his son, and Xiao Zhengde wanted to be crown prince; instead, after creating Xiao Tong crown prince, Emperor Wu rescinded the adoption and returned Xiao Zhengde to Xiao Hong's household, drawing Xiao Zhengde's resentment.)

Early reign
The early reign of Emperor Wu was considered to be Liang Dynasty's prime. He was considered diligent and frugal, and he tried to foster willingness for his officials to have different opinions than his. However, an immediate troubling sign for his reign, which would become increasingly serious as time went on, was how he appeared to be willing to tolerate corruption by his own family members, particularly his brother Xiao Hong the Prince of Linchuan, and those high-level officials who he felt contributed to his establishment of Liang.

Emperor Wu also became the first emperor in Southern Dynasties' history to explicitly grant prime ministerial authorities to designated officials who were not prime ministers in name. He first granted those authorities to Fan Yun, and after Fan's death in 503, granted those authorities to Zhou She and Xu Mian, even though neither officially carried a high rank until late in their careers.

Two immediate threats that Emperor Wu had to deal with upon ascending the throne were rebellions by Chen Bozhi, who did not feel secure in his position despite Emperor Wu's permitting him to remain as the governor of Jiang Province, and Liu Jilian (劉季連) the governor of Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing), who was similarly apprehensive. By winter 502, however, Chen had been defeated by Emperor Wu's general Wang Mao (王茂) and was forced to flee to Northern Wei. In spring 503, Liu surrendered to Emperor Wu's general Deng Yuanqi (鄧元起), and the realm was pacified.

However, in fall 503, Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei, with a mind of having Xiao Baoyin reestablish Southern Qi as a puppet state, commissioned Xiao Baoyin and Chen with armies, and further sent his father Emperor Xiaowen's cousin Yuan Cheng (元澄) the Prince of Rencheng to lead a force to attack Liang, starting a war that lasted several years. Both sides had victories. However, Liang lost the important border city Yiyang (義陽, in modern Xinyang, Henan) in fall 504, and in spring 505, the general Xiahou Daoqian (夏侯道遷) rebelled and surrendered another important border city, Nanzheng (南鄭, in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi) to Northern Wei. (It was in the aftermaths of Xiahou's rebellion that the first serious instance of Emperor Wu's refusal to punish a family member happened, as his nephew Xiao Yuanzao (蕭淵藻) the Marquess of Xichang, angry that when he rendezvoused with Deng Yuanqi that Deng took the best horses, assassinated Deng and falsely accused Deng of treason. While Emperor Wu discovered that Xiao Yuanzao's accusations were false and posthumously honored Deng, he took no punishment against Xiao Yuanzao other than demoting his rank.)  In 505, Emperor Wu launched a major counterattack, commanded by Xiao Hong, with Liang's best troops. However, the apprehensive Xiao Hong stopped his army at Luokou (洛口, in modern Bengbu, Anhui) and refused to advance, despite his generals' urging. Meanwhile, in spring 506, the general Wei Rui (韋叡) was able to capture Hefei (合肥, in modern Hefei, Anhui), taken by Northern Wei when Pei Shuye surrendered Shouyang to Northern Wei. In fall 506, Xiao Hong's army, stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing, had an attack of night terror, and Xiao Hong, in fear, fled, causing his army to collapse without a battle. When Northern Wei forces next attacked the fortress of Zhongli (鍾離, in modern Bengbu as well), however, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei and Cao Jingzong (曹景宗) in spring 507, allowing Liang to keep Zhongli and effectively ending the war. After the battle of Zhongli, there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large scale war for years.

In 511, when Emperor Wu received petition from an old peasant, who stopped him on the road when he was in the vicinity of Jiankang to offer sacrifices to heaven, that his criminal laws were too severe for the commoners (in particular, if one person committed a crime, the entire clan is punished), while being overly relaxing for officials and nobles, Emperor Wu considered revisions to the law. However, at the end, all he carried out was that criminals' clan members would not be required to undergo hard labor if they had seniors or children in their household, and he did not further reform his laws.

Starting in 514, Emperor Wu started carrying out a major construction project, downstream from Shouyang on the Huai River—a major dam that was intended to create a reservoir to flood Shouyang to allow Liang to capture the city. He started the project despite opposition from his engineers (who believed that the Huai River contained too much dirt in its water for a dam of the size necessary to be built). Despite engineering difficulties, however, the dam was successfully built by the general Kang Xuan (康絢) -- albeit at a major loss of life among the workers, due to the amount of work necessary and the diseases that occurred among them. (Zizhi Tongjian described the casualty rate to be at 70% to 80%.) Northern Wei's regent Empress Dowager Hu (who became regent over Emperor Xiaoming after Emperor Xuanwu's death in 515) sent armies commanded by Li Ping (李平) to attack Kang's escort forces, but could not damage the dam, which was finally completed in summer 516. it was described to be four and a half kilometers long, and the army pitched camp on the dam itself. Kang skillfully maintained the dam, and Shouyang began to be flooded. However, Emperor Wu recalled Kang to the capital and put the general Zhang Baozi (張豹子) in charge of the dam. Zhang, far less skillful and attentive than Kang, did not maintain the dam. With Huai River's water level greatly rising in winter 516, the dam collapsed, leading to more than 100,000 deaths downstream, and Shouyang was saved.

It is unclear when Emperor Wu began to be a devout Buddhist, but by 517 Buddhist influences on his policies began to be plain. That year, he ordered that imperial textile factories not weave gods and animals on clothes, because when the clothes undergo further manufacturing, the patterns might be damaged, showing disrespect to the gods and hurtfulness to the animals. In a further break from Confucian tradition, he considered making sacrifices to imperial ancestors vegetarian, instead of traditional animal sacrifices of goats, pigs, and cows, and the sacrifices were first changed to using dried meat, and then eventually to mock animals made from flour, vegetables, and fruits, and this change was despite popular opinion that this would bring displeasure from the ancestors.

Middle Reign
In 522, Emperor Wu's nephew Xiao Zhengde—whom he had previously adopted but then unadopted when Xiao Tong was born—resentful that he was not created crown prince, fled to Northern Wei, claiming to be the deposed crown prince and requesting Northern Wei aid. However, Northern Wei did not take his claim seriously, and in 523 Xiao Zhengde fled back to Liang. Instead of punishing Xiao Zhengde, however, Emperor Wu merely rebuked him tearfully, and in fact restored him to his title of Marquess of Xifeng.

In winter 523, with his state plagued by forgeries of its copper coins, Emperor Wu abolished copper coins and started minting iron coins. (The actual fiscal impact of this act was unclear, but traditional Chinese historians generally considered iron to be unsuitable to use for coinage.)

In 524, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Northern Wei's southern territory, with Northern Wei forces occupied with fighting agrarian rebellions to the north and west. Liang forces largely met little resistance. Further, in spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Xiao Zong (蕭綜), who suspected that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), in turn surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in the northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei.

Over the years, Emperor Wu had increasingly given additional authorities to Xiao Tong the Crown Prince, and the relationship between father and son was dear. However, in 526, after the death of Xiao Tong's mother Consort Ding Lingguang (丁令光), the relationship would deteriorate. Xiao Tong sought out an appropriate place to bury Consort Ding, but while he was doing so, a land owner bribed the eunuch Yu Sanfu (俞三副) into convincing Emperor Wu that that piece of land would bring good fortune for the emperor, and so Emperor Wu bought the land and buried Consort Ding there. However, once Consort Ding was buried, a Taoist monk informed Xiao Tong that he believed that the land would bring ill fortune for Consort Ding's oldest son—Xiao Tong. Xiao Tong therefore allowed the monk to bury a few items intended to dissolve the ill fortune, such as wax ducks, at the position reserved for the oldest son. Later on, when one of Xiao Tong's attendants, Bao Miaozhi (鮑邈之), was squeezed out of Xiao Tong's inner circles by another attendant, Wei Ya (魏雅), he, in resentment, reported to Emperor Wu that Wei had carried out sorcery on Xiao Tong's behalf. When Emperor Wu investigated, waxed ducks were found, and Emperor Wu became surprised and angry, and wanted to investigate further. He only stopped the investigation when he was advised to do so by the prime minister Xu Mian, executing only the Taoist monk who had suggested the burial of wax ducks. Xiao Tong became humiliated in the affair, and was never able to clear himself completely in his father's eyes.

In 527, Emperor Wu made his first offering of himself to the service of Buddha (捨身, sheshen) at Tongtai Monastery (同泰寺), spending three days there.

In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu (after she killed her own son, Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei, with poison), a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue (元悅) the Prince of Ru'nan, Yuan Yu (元彧) the Prince of Linhuai, and Yuan Hao the Prince of Beihai, fled to Liang, and a number of other officials surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao the Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal—and commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陳慶之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (睢陽, in modern Shangqiu, Henan), Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approval, proclaimed himself the emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, with Northern Wei troops unable to stand up to Chen, Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei fled the Northern Wei capital Luoyang, and Yuan Hao took it. However, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang, and when Chen requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu Rong and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang. Emperor Wu, realizing the impossibility of the task he gave Chen, nevertheless created Chen the Marquess of Yongxing in recognition of his victories.

In fall 529, Emperor Wu made his second offering of himself to the service of Buddha at Tongtai Monastery—but contrary to the first time he did, when he simply spent three days at the monastery, he stripped himself of imperial clothing and wore those of monks, and spent all day carrying out monastic tasks, including daily chores and giving of lectures on the Nirvana Sutra. He spent 12 days at the monastery, and returned to the palace only after the imperial offices made a huge donation to it—formally, to ransom "the Emperor Bodhisattva."

In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei—by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.

Xiao Tong's Death
In 531, Xiao Tong who was the Crown Prince at the time died, and Emperor Wu personally attended his wake and buried him in a tomb appropriate for an emperor. He also summoned Xiao Tong's oldest son, Xiao Huan (蕭歡) the Duke of Huarong back to the capital Jiankang, preparing to create Xiao Huan crown prince to replace his father, as would be appropriate under Confucian principles of succession. However, still resentful over the wax duck affair, he hesitated for days without carrying out the creation, and finally did not do so. Instead, against popular opinion, he created Xiao Tong's younger brother, also by Consort Ding, Xiao Gang crown prince. To compensate Xiao Tong's three sons, he created the princes of large commandery—Xiao Huan the Prince of Yuzhang, Xiao Yu (蕭譽) the Prince of Hedong, and Xiao Cha the Prince of Yueyang, but his grandsons continued to resent him.

In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.

In 534, with Mars seen in the Dipper constellation—traditionally thought to be a sign that the emperor would be forced to leave the palace—Emperor Wu tried to divert the ill fortune by walking barefoot around his palace. However, he soon heard that Northern Wei's Emperor Xiaowu had fled Luoyang in a dispute with Gao splitting Northern Wei into two separate countries. Wu, both glad and embarrassed, stated, "Is it that even barbarians correspond to astrological signs?"

Late Reign
With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years. It had been the case throughout Emperor Wu's reign that he was overly lenient to his relatives and high-level officials, but the trend appeared to become more severe late in his reign. His sons, all imperial princes, also grew increasingly disobedient of central authority, often acting as de facto emperors within their provincial domains.

By 537, Emperor Wu was at a détente with Eastern Wei, and ambassadors from both states often visited the other. While there was no such formal arrangement with Western Wei, there appeared to be few border conflicts after this point. With Eastern Wei and Western Wei locked into war, Liang was largely at peace. With Zhou She having died in 524 and Xu Mian having died in 535, Emperor Wu largely entrusted the government to Zhu Yi and He Jingrong (何敬容). While He was known for integrity, he lacked political skills, and Zhu became the de facto prime minister, wielding great power and amassing wealth. While Zhu was skillful and capable, he was also regarded as corrupt and jealous of others. His hold on power was particularly increased when He was dismissed in 544 over a corruption scandal involving the brother of his concubine.

In 539, based on Zhu's recommendation, Emperor Wu carried out a reorganization of the provincial divisions, placing the provinces into five classes based on their sizes and populations. After the reorganization, there were 108 provinces in total (20 of the first class, 10 of the second class, eight of the third class, 23 of the fourth class, and 21 of the fifth class), with the smaller provinces often consisting of single villages in southern and southwestern border regions.

In 541, the Vietnamese people of Jiao Province (交州, roughly modern Hanoi, Vietnam), dissatisfied at the cruel rule of the governor Xiao Zi (蕭諮) the Marquess of Wulin (Emperor Wu's nephew), declared a rebellion, led by Lý Bôn. The Liang forces could not put down Lý Bôn's rebellion quickly, and Lý Bôn eventually declared himself emperor of Vietnam in 544, fighting a guerilla war with Liang. Liang forces would not be driven out until 550.

In 545, Emperor Wu's official He Chen (賀琛) wrote a submission Emperor Wu to correct four matters—the corruption of officials, the wastefulness in the luxurious style of living among officials and the population at large, the harshness of penal laws, and the overspending on construction projects (mostly temples). Emperor Wu was exceedingly angry and rejected He's suggestions. Commenting on this incident, the historian Sima Guang wrote the following about Emperor Wu:

 * The emperor was filially pious, loving, humble, frugal, knowledgeable, and good at writing. He extensively studied mysticism, astrology, horseriding, archery, music, calligraphy, and weiqi.  He worked hard, and even in the coldest winter times, he would get up at the fourth watch [between 3:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m.] to review important matters of state, and as his pen-wielding hand is exposed to the cold air, his skin would break.  Ever since the era of Tianjian [from 502 to 519], he became a Buddhist and ate only vegetarian meals, not meat, and his single daily meal only contained vegetables and rough rice grains.  Sometimes, when he was busy, he would flush his mouth and no longer eat after noon.  He wore cloth and used bed covers made of bombax ceiba.  Each hat he wore, he would use for three years, and each comforter he used, he would use for two years.  Within the palace, starting from Guifei [first-ranked consort], their skirts would not be long enough to reach the ground.  The emperor disliked alcohol, and unless he was offering sacrifices to the ancestors, feasting with the imperial officials, or holding Buddhist ceremonies, he used no music.  Even when he was alone in a dark room, he wore proper clothing and sat carefully.  No matter how hot the weather was, he would not peel up his sleeves or expose his arms.  He treated palace servants as honored guests.  However, he was overly lenient to the officials.  The provincial and commandery governors often extracted wealth from the people.  The messengers that he sent out to the locales often improperly pressured, criticized, or extorted from the locales.  He trusted evil people and liked to criticize people for minor faults.  He built many Buddhist towers and temples, inflicting great burdens on the government and the people.  The area south of the Yangtze River had long peace, and as a result became wasteful in lifestyle.  All of what He Chen said was true, but it was particularly because what he said was true that the emperor became angry.

In 546, Emperor Wu made his third offering of himself to the service of the Buddha. He spent more than a month at Tongtai Temple, before a fire that destroyed the temple tower caused him to return to the palace.

The Hou Jing disturbance and death
In 547, Gao Huan died, and was succeeded as the paramount authority in Eastern Wei by his son Gao Cheng. The Eastern Wei general Hou Jing, because he disliked the young Gao Cheng and considered himself superior, rebelled. He first surrendered the 13 provinces that he was in charge—all south of the Yellow River and north of the Huai River, to Western Wei, but believing that he would also not be tolerated by Western Wei's paramount general Yuwen Tai, Hou then surrendered nine of the 13 provinces (minus the four that he had turned over to Western Wei forces in exchange for help) to Liang.

Emperor Wu initially hesitated himself at whether to accept Hou's surrender, particularly because a number of his officials, including Xie Ju (謝舉), opposed, citing the long-standing peace with Eastern Wei. Zhu Yi, however, believing that approving of Hou's surrender would please Emperor Wu, argued that Hou should be accepted. Emperor Wu agreed, and he created Hou the Prince of He'nan, with acting imperial powers over the nine provinces. In the midst of this situation, Emperor Wu, while sending troops to aid Hou, offered himself to the service of the Buddha for the fourth time, spending 37 days at Tongtai Temple and only returning to the palace after his officials made another huge donation to Tongtai Temple.

Hou, with aid from Western Wei and Liang, initially stood Eastern Wei attacks. However, when Yuwen subsequently demanded that he proceed to the Western Wei capital Chang'an to greet Emperor Wen of Western Wei, Hou turned against Western Wei forces commanded by Wang Sizheng (王思政), although Western Wei largely held the cities that he had turned over. Meanwhile, Emperor Wu also commissioned a large army, commanded by his nephew Xiao Yuanming the Marquess of Zhenyang, to attack Eastern Wei to the east. By Emperor Wu's orders, Xiao Yuanming advanced to Hanshan (寒山), in Pengcheng's vicinity, to build a dam over the Si River (泗水) to use water to attack Pengcheng. Xiao Yuanming's lieutenant, the general Yang Kan (羊侃), quickly completed the dam, but when Yang advised Xiao Yuanming to attack Pengcheng, Xiao Yuanming hesitated. Meanwhile, Eastern Wei forces commanded by Murong Shaozong (慕容紹宗) arrived near Hanshan, and Yang advised Xiao Yuanming to attack them while they were still tired, but Xiao Yuanming failed to. Subsequently, when the armies engaged, the Liang forces were initially successful, but overextended themselves, and the Eastern Wei counterattack nearly destroyed the entire Liang army, capturing Xiao Yuanming and many of his officers.

Murong then turned his attention against Hou, meeting Hou at Woyang (渦陽, in modern Bozhou, Anhui). Initially, Hou defeated Murong in battle, forcing him to flee, but Murong then regrouped. Meanwhile, Hou's food supplies began to dwindle. In spring 548, Hou's troops collapsed, and he approached Shouyang. When the Wei An (韋黯), the acting governor of Southern Yu Province (南豫州, modern central Anhui) welcomed Hou, Hou took him by surprise and seized Shouyang. He then sent an apology to Emperor Wu, and Emperor Wu, not having the heart of forcing Hou away from Shouyang, made him the governor of Southern Yu Province.

With Eastern Wei having recovered all nine of the provinces that Hou had surrendered to Liang, Gao Cheng now sent overtures to Emperor Wu, requesting that peace be reinstated, offering to return Xiao Yuanming and Hou's relatives. Hou opposed peace, suspecting Gao Cheng's intentions, and he also did not trust Emperor Wu's subsequent guarantees never to betray him. Hou's fears were further increased when Emperor Wu sent ambassadors to mourn Gao Huan. Hou decided to test Emperor Wu by forging a letter from Gao Cheng, offering to swap Xiao Yuanming for Hou—and when Emperor Wu then responded, "If you return Yuanming in the morning, I will return Hou Jing in the evening" against the advice of Fu Qi (傅岐), Hou was outraged. Hou made an overture to Xiao Zhengde, promising to support him as the new emperor, and Xiao Zhengde agreed. Emperor Wu's nephew Xiao Fan (蕭範) the Prince of Poyang, who believed that Hou was about to rebel, suggested a preemptory attack, but Zhu advised against it, and Emperor Wu took no action on Xiao Fan's recommendation. In summer 548, Hou finally declared a rebellion, claiming that his goal was to clear the court of evil officials—Zhu, Xu Lin (徐麟), Lu Yan (陸驗), and Zhou Shizhen (周石珍) -- all corrupt officials that the people hated.

Initially, Emperor Wu did not take Hou's rebellion seriously, and he made the comment, "I can break off a tree branch and kill him with it." He sent his son Xiao Guan (蕭綸) the Prince of Shaoling to command a four-pronged army, intending to trap Hou at Shouyang, but Hou, taking decisive action, marched toward Jiankang before Xiao Guan's forces could converge, and within a month, he crossed the Yangtze and approached Jiankang, catching the city unprepared. When Emperor Wu sent Xiao Zhengde to resist Hou, Xiao Zhengde turned against Emperor Wu and served as Hou's guide. Hou quickly surrounded Jiankang, and the populace of Jiankang, unaccustomed to war, panicked and collapsed. Emperor Wu and Xiao Gang put together the imperial guards to defend the palace, and initially, the defenses held, particularly because the key general, Yang Kan, was capable. In winter 548, Hou had Xiao Zhengde declared emperor and married Xiao Zhengde's daughter. When Hou's forces began to run out of food supply, he allowed his soldiers to pillage from the people, and the people began to starve in large numbers. (In the siege, the vegetables that Emperor Wu was accustomed to eat ran out, and Emperor Wu became forced to eat eggs.)

The provincial governors, led by Xiao Guan and Xiao Yi the Prince of Xiangdong, meanwhile, were beginning to put a relief force together, and Xiao Guan arrived around the new year 549, but was defeated by Hou and was unable to lift the siege. Meanwhile, Yang died, and the people inside the palace walls grew increasingly desperate. As the siege went on, however, more Liang provincial forces converged, and they supported Liu Zhongli (柳仲禮) the governor of Si Province (司州, modern southern Henan) as their commander. Liu initially had some successes against Hou's forces, but in spring 549, Hou made a surprise attack on Liu's forces, and both sides incurred heavy losses, with Liu himself nearly dying of his injuries—after which, Liu became extremely hesitant to engage Hou. Liu grew very arrogant as well, even treating Xiao Guan was disrespect. Further, Liu's forces were pillaging the people as much as Hou's forces, and therefore the people saw no incentive to assist them.

With Hou's forces tired, however, Hou sued for peace, stating that he was willing to return to Shouyang if Emperor Wu was willing to cede four provinces west of the Yangtze River to him and willing to send Xiao Gang's oldest son Xiao Daqi the Prince of Xuancheng as a hostage. Emperor Wu agreed—except for sending Xiao Daqi's younger brother Xiao Dakuan (蕭大款) the Duke of Shicheng instead of Xiao Daqi. Once the relief forces withdrew slightly (under Hou's demand) and Hou's forces had rested about 15 days and obtained some additional food supplies, however, Hou changed his mind and decided not to withdraw after all. He resumed sieging the palace, and yet Liu took no actions. In late spring 549, the palace fell to Hou's troops, and Hou met Emperor Wu, initially acting as if he were willing to remain a faithful subject. Hou remained formally deferential to Emperor Wu and Xiao Gang the Crown Prince, but meanwhile effectively put them under house arrest. He issued an edict in Emperor Wu's name, disbanding Liu's forces, and Liu did so. Hou also deposed Xiao Zhengde.

Meanwhile, Emperor Wu continued to resist some of Hou's demands, and when Hou requested that certain of his associates by named to high-level posts, Emperor Wu refused. Hou reacted by reducing Emperor Wu's supplies, and in summer 549, Emperor Wu died. (It is unclear whether he died from illness or from starvation.) It was recorded that as he was dying, his mouth was bitter, and he wanted honey, but no one responded to his request. Hou allowed Xiao Gang to take the throne (as Emperor Jianwen) to succeed him.

Buddhist legends
Emperor Wu is remembered by many Buddhists today for the many contributions he gave to the faith. There are a few stories that revolve around his involvement with Buddhism.

Emperor Wu features in the first case of the Blue Cliff Record. Imperial officials disapproved of the dialogue recited in the first case, viewing it as against the dignity of the throne.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Empress Wude, of the Xi clan of Gaoping (武德皇后 高平郗氏; 468–499), personal name Hui (徽)
 * Princess Yongxing (永興公主; d. 529), personal name Yuyao (玉姚), first daughter
 * Married Yin Jun (殷均)
 * Princess Yongshi (永世公主), personal name Yuwan (玉婉)
 * Married Xie Mo of Chen (陳郡 謝謨), a son of Xie Tiao
 * Married Wang Yin of Langya (琊瑯 王𬤇)
 * Princess Yongkang (永康公主), personal name Yuhuan (玉嬛)
 * Empress Dowager Mu, of the Ding clan (穆皇太后 丁氏; 484–526), personal name Lingguang (令光)
 * Xiao Tong, Emperor Zhaoming (昭明皇帝 蕭統; 501–531), first son
 * Xiao Gang, Emperor Jianwen (簡文皇帝 蕭綱; 503–551), third son
 * Xiao Xu, Prince Lulingwei (廬陵威王 蕭續; 506–547), fifth son
 * Empress Dowager Wenxuan, of the Ruan clan (文宣皇太后 阮氏; 477–542), personal name Lingying (令嬴)
 * Xiao Yi, Emperor Yuan (元皇帝 蕭繹; 508–555), seventh son
 * Shuyuan, of the Wu clan (敬淑媛 吳氏; d. 527), personal name Jinghui (景暉)
 * Xiao Zan, Prince Yuzhang (豫章王 蕭贊; 502–531), second son, adopted
 * Shuyi, of the Dong clan (淑儀 董氏)
 * Xiao Ji, Prince Nankangjian (南康簡王 蕭績; 505–529), fourth son
 * Xiurong, of the Ge clan (修容 葛氏)
 * Xiao Ji, Prince Wuling Zhenxian (武陵貞獻王 蕭紀; 508–553), eighth son
 * Chonghua, of the Ding clan (充華 丁氏)
 * Xiao Lun, Prince Shaolingxie (邵陵攜王 蕭綸; 507–551), sixth son
 * Unknown
 * Princess Anji (安吉公主), personal name Yuzhi (玉娡)
 * Married Wang Shi of Langya, Duke Jiancheng (琊瑯 王實)
 * Princess Fuyangdao (富陽悼公主), fourth daughter
 * Married Zhang Zuan of Fanyang (范陽 張纘; 499–549), and had issue (two sons, two daughters)
 * Princess Changcheng (長城公主), personal name Yuling (玉姈)
 * Married Liu Yan of Hedong (河東 柳偃; d. 550), and had issue (one child, Lady Liu)
 * Princess Yongjia (永嘉公主)
 * Married Wang Quan of Langya (琊瑯 王銓)

Genealogy

 * Xiao Zheng (萧整)
 * Xiao Juan (萧隽)
 * Xiao Lezi (萧乐子)
 * Xiao Chengzhi (萧承之)
 * Xiao Daocheng
 * Xiao Xia (萧辖)
 * Xiao Fuzi (萧副子)
 * Xiao Daoci (萧道赐)
 * Xiao Shunzhi (萧顺之)
 * Xiao Yan

title: Emperor Wu of Liang


text: Category:Explorers of Africa

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Explorers of Africa


text:
Pretectal area

In neuroanatomy, the pretectal area, or pretectum, is a midbrain structure composed of seven nuclei and comprises part of the subcortical visual system. Through reciprocal bilateral projections from the retina, it is involved primarily in mediating behavioral responses to acute changes in ambient light such as the pupillary light reflex, the optokinetic reflex, and temporary changes to the circadian rhythm. In addition to the pretectum's role in the visual system, the anterior pretectal nucleus has been found to mediate somatosensory and nociceptive information.

Location and structure
The pretectum is a bilateral group of highly interconnected nuclei located near the junction of the midbrain and forebrain. The pretectum is generally classified as a midbrain structure, although because of its proximity to the forebrain it is sometimes classified as part of the caudal diencephalon (forebrain). Within vertebrates, the pretectum is located directly anterior to the superior colliculus and posterior to the thalamus. It is situated above the periaqueductal grey and nucleus of the posterior commissure.

Several nuclei have been identified within the pretectum, although their borders can be difficult to define and there has been debate over which regions should be included and their precise names. The five primary nuclei are: the olivary pretectal nucleus (ON), the nucleus of the optic tract (NOT), and the anterior (NPA), medial (NPM), and posterior (NPP) pretectal nuclei. The NOT consists of relatively large cells and is located between the superior colliculi. The ON is located medial to the NOT and has a tail that extends between the NOT and NPP, which is ventral to the ON. Two additional nuclei have also been identified: the posterior limitans (PLi) and the commisural pretectal area (CPA). While these two regions have not been examined to the same extent as the five primary nuclei, research has shown both the PLi and CPA to receive retinal input, which suggests a role in processing visual information.

Inputs
The pretectum receives significant binocular input from photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. In primates these afferents are bilateral while in rodents they project from the contralateral retina. The majority of these retino-pretectal projections go to the ON and NOT while other pretectal nuclei receive minor retinal input in mammals including the posterior, medial, and anterior pretectal nuclei.

The NOT receives input from several regions. From the thalamus the NOT receives inhibitory projections from GABA-producing neurons in the ipsilateral lateral geniculate nucleus and bilateral intergeniculate leaflets. The ipsilateral superficial suprachiasmatic nucleus and the medial, dorsal, and lateral terminal nuclei in the midbrain project onto the NOT. Fibers also project to the NOT from the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in the medulla, the contralateral NOT, and from various cortical regions.

Outputs
Many pretectal nuclei share targets of efferent projections. All pretectal nuclei, except for the ON, project to nuclei in the thalamus, subthalamus, superior colliculus, reticular formation, pons, and inferior olive. Both the ON and the CPA have efferent projections to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. The NPP and NPA both project to the pulvinar, the lateral posterior nucleus of the thalamus, and several precerebellar nuclei.

The NOT has efferent projections to the zona incerta of the subthalamus, several nuclei of the pons, medulla, intralaminar nuclei, midbrain, and dorsal and ventral thalamic nuclei. Its bilateral inhibitory projections to the accessory optic system include connections to the lateral and medial terminal nuclei. Projections to the subthalamus are target toward the lateral geniculate nucleus and pulvinar. The NOT projects bilaterally to the superior colliculus, although the ipsilateral connections appear to be more dominant. In addition to these projections, the NOT projects to the vestibular and vestibulocerebellar relay nuclei.

Function
As part of the subcortical visual system, neurons within the pretectal nuclei respond to varying intensities of illuminance and are primarily involved in mediating non-conscious behavioral responses to acute changes in light. In general, these responses involve the initiation of optokinetic reflexes, although the pretectum can also regulate nociception and REM sleep.

Pupillary light reflex
The pupillary light reflex is mediated by the pretectum. This reflex is responsible for the constriction of the pupils upon light's entering the eye. Several pretectal nuclei, in particular the ON, receive illuminance information from the ipsilateral side of the retinas of both eyes via the optic tract. Nuclei in the ON are known to gradually increase in activation in response to increasing levels of illuminance. This information is then relayed directly to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which proceeds to relay the command to constrict the pupils to the pupillary sphincter via the ciliary ganglion.

Smooth pursuit
Pretectal nuclei, in particular the NOT, are involved in coordinating eye movements during smooth pursuit. These movements allow the eye to closely follow a moving object and to catch up to an object after an unexpected change in direction or velocity. Direction-sensitive retinal slip neurons within the NOT provide ipsiversive horizontal retinal error information to the cortex through the inferior olive. During the day, this information is sensed and relayed by neurons with large receptive fields, whereas parafoveal neurons with small receptive fields do so in the dark. It is through this pathway that the NOT is able to provide retinal error information to guide eye movements. In addition to its role in maintaining smooth pursuit, the pretectum is activated during the optokinetic nystagmus in which the eye returns to a central, forward-facing position after an object it was following passes out of the field of vision.

Accommodation reflex
Part of the pretectum, particularly the NOT and NPP, are implicated in the accommodation reflex by which the eye maintains focus. Proprioceptive information from the retina reaches the pretectum via the occulomotor nerve and the trigeminal nerve. From that point, the mechanism by which the eye maintains focus through muscular contractions of the retina is similar to that of the pupillary light reflex.

Antinociception
The NPA participates in the active diminishing of the perception of pain stimuli (antinociception). Although the mechanism by which the NPA alters an organism's response to painful stimuli is not fully known, research has shown that activity in the ventral NPA triggers cholinergic and serotonergic neurons. These neurons activate descending pathways that synapse in the spinal cord and inhibit nociceptive cells in the dorsal horn. In addition to its direct antionociceptive mechanism, the NPA projects onto brain regions that, through connections to the somatosensory cortex, regulate the perception of painful stimuli. Two of these regions that the NPA is known to project to are the zona incerta and posterior thalamic nucleus. Regions of the NPA may be specialized to respond to different types of pain. Research has found that the dorsal NPA best diminished the perception of brief pain whereas the ventral NPA reduced the perception of chronic pain. Because of its role in the reduction of chronic pain, abnormal activity of the NPA is thought to be implicated in central pain syndrome.

REM sleep
Multiple pretectal nuclei may be involved in regulating REM sleep and sleep behaviors. Research has shown that the pretectum, in conjunction with the superior colliculus, may be responsible for causing non-circadian changes in REM sleep behaviors. Pretectal nuclei receiving retinal input, in particular the NOT and the NPP, have been shown to be partially responsible for initiating REM sleep in albino rats. The discovery of projections from the pretectum to several thalamic nuclei involved in cortical activation during REM sleep, to be specific the projection to the superchiasmatic nucleus, which is part of a known REM sleep regulatory mechanism, supports this hypothesis.

title: Pretectal area


text:
User talk:Mary Calm

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

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Self-promotion
Please do not add commercial links to Wikipedia. Wikipedia is not a vehicle for advertising or a mere collection of external links. See the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. -- Rhobite 06:23, Feb 15, 2005 (UTC)

 * Again, please stop using Wikipedia for promotional purposes. Rhobite 06:39, Feb 15, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mary Calm


text:
Our Hero

Our Hero is a Canadian teen comedy-drama television series. It ran for 26 episodes over two seasons on CBC and WTN from October 5, 2000, until January 20, 2002, and was syndicated in the United States on WAM!, in the United Kingdom on Channel 5, and in Finland on Yle TV1.

Premise
The series resolves around 17-year old Canadian Kale Stiglic (Cara Pifko) who creates a zine about her life in suburban Toronto with her friends Ross Korolus (Justin Peroff), Mary-Elizabeth Penrose (Jeanie Calleja), and Dalal Vidya (Vik Sahay). Each episode was named after an "issue" of her zine. Similar to Disney's Lizzie McGuire, plot segments were interspersed with animated sequences narrated by Kale, with the animation reflecting the illustrations used in that issue's zine.

Cast

 * Cara Pifko as Kale Stiglic, the protagonist who writes a zine about her life.
 * Jeanie Calleja as Mary Elizabeth Penrose, Kale's best friend since childhood and Dalal's girlfriend. She lives in a strict Catholic family.
 * Justin Peroff as Ross Korolus, Kale's friend, who discovers he is gay during the course of the series. He is of Ukrainian descent.
 * Michael George as Ethan Stiglic, Kale's older brother and an aspiring comedian.
 * Vik Sahay as Dalal Vidya, Mary E's boyfriend and Kale and Ross's friend.
 * Christopher Ralph as Malachi, an environmentalist and zine writer who dates Kale in season 2.
 * Jesse Nilsson as Rollins, who Kale has a crush on.
 * Robert Bockstael as Joey Stiglic, Kale and Ethan's father.
 * Mimi Kuzyk as Mila Stiglic, Kale and Ethan's mother.
 * Daniel Enright as Bill Fisher, who works at the photocopying shop Kale uses to print copies of her zine.
 * Tory Cassis as Gordon, Kale's friend who uses a wheelchair after having cancer. He dies in "The Last Laugh Issue".
 * Erin Hickock as Shana, a teen mother who works at the health food store with Kale briefly.

Production
Our Hero was created by John May and Suzanne Bolch who also had writing credits on all but two episodes. May also directed a number of episodes. Along with Karen Lee Hall the three formed Heroic Film Company, a Toronto production company that is mainly focused on creating youth oriented television programming.

The series was filmed in the Canadian Broadcasting Centre at Front St and John St in Toronto, Ontario. To save time and money, there were always two episodes shot at once.

Some still and Super 8 photography for the zine sequences was shot with a very small crew along the city's streets.

Wins

 * 2003 – Writers Guild of Canada Award for Writing ("The Karma Issue")
 * 2002 – Writers Guild of Canada Award for Writing ("The Unresolved Issue")
 * 2001 – Writers Guild of Canada Award for Writing ("The Shallow Issue")

Nominations

 * 2002 – Canadian Comedy Awards – Best Performance by a Female - Television for Jeanie Calleja
 * 2002 – Canadian Comedy Awards – Best Performance by a Male - Television for Vik Sahay
 * 2002 – Canadian Comedy Awards – Writing for TV Series for Suzanne Bolch & John May
 * 2002 – Gemini Awards – Best Children's or Youth Fiction Program or Series
 * 2002 – Gemini Awards – Best Writing in a Children's or Youth Program and Series
 * 2001 – Gemini Awards – Best Original Music Score for a Dramatic Series

title: Our Hero


text:
Meramec Caverns

Meramec Caverns is the collective name for a 4.6 mi cavern system in the Ozarks, near Stanton, Missouri. The caverns were formed from the erosion of large limestone deposits over millions of years. Pre-Columbian Native American artifacts have been found in the caverns. Currently the cavern system is a tourist attraction, with more than fifty billboards along Interstate 44 and is considered one of the primary attractions along former U.S. Highway 66. Meramec Caverns is the most-visited cave in Missouri with some 150,000 visitors annually.

History
The Meramec Caverns have existed for the past 400 million years, slowly forming through deposits of limestone. In centuries past, Native Americans used the cavern system for shelter. The first cave west of the Mississippi River to be explored by Europeans, it was first visited in 1722 by a French miner.

During the 18th century, the cave was used for extracting saltpeter for the manufacture of gunpowder. In the Civil War era, the Union Army used the caves as a saltpeter plant, but the plant was discovered and destroyed by Confederate guerrillas, likely including the future infamous outlaw Jesse James. According to local legend, James and his brother and partner in crime Frank used the caves as a hideout in the 1870s. However, there is scant historical evidence to support this tradition. One legend in particular claims that a sheriff tracking the Jameses sat in front of the cave, waiting for Jesse and his gang to emerge; however, they had found another exit.

In 1933, the extended cave system was discovered, revealing the present 4.6 mi, and was introduced to the public as a tourist attraction in 1935 by Lester B. Dill, who invented the bumper sticker as a means of promoting the caverns.

In 1960, Meramec Caverns rented billboard space in the caverns. The owners claimed this was the only underground billboard in the world. In midsummer of 1972, Meramec Caverns provided the cave settings for Tom Sawyer, a musical film which was released to theaters that following year. In the 1998 movie Deep Impact (film) a reference is made to the limestone caves of Missouri as the location of the ARC shelter.

Wine Room
The fifth level of Meramec Caverns includes a "Wine Room." The Wine Room is home to the world's rarest cave formation, The Wine Table. The onyx table stands six feet high and is supported on three natural legs. Known as an aragonite formation, this structure was composed almost entirely underwater. The Wine Room and the Wine Table are adorned with grape-like clusters called botryoids. Originally called the Wine Room because of these grape clusters, the cave now claims that it is called that because of the "whining" that visitors do when they learn that the room is accessible only after climbing numerous stairs (a total of 58 steps).

"Greatest Show Under the Earth"
The Cavern also contains a massive sheet wall of formations formed during the past several thousand years, which the cave calls its "stage curtain" and which is also used for displaying the light and sound show called "Greatest Show Under the Earth".

"Hollywood"
A room within the cavern was used for Hollywood productions, most notably Tom Sawyer (1973). In the particular movie, the site was used as the cave system where Tom Sawyer (Johnny Whitaker) and Becky Thatcher (Jodie Foster) got lost in a cave, as well as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn (Jeff East) find the hidden gold. An episode of Lassie was also filmed in this part of the cave.

Mirror Room
The Mirror Room is a room within the cavern that contains a stream of water about 1.5 ft deep. However, when a group of lights are turned on, the depth of the water is perceived by many to be as great as 50 ft, due to the reflection of the cavern's roof on the undisturbed water.

Ballroom
First used in 1890, The Ballroom is a room in the cavern system that was used in earlier times as a room for square dances and other community events. It is now one of the first stops on the tour and is used for a few annual concerts by the Lester Family.

title: Meramec Caverns


text:
Talk:Béjaïa Province

I don't understand the sentence: "this canid has a severely restricted and disjunctive range". The Barbary Macaque is a primate, not a canid. Am I missing something? 195.75.10.196 (talk) 23:29, 11 November 2009 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Béjaïa Province


text:
Béchar Province

Béchar (ولاية بشار) is a province (wilaya) in Algeria, located on the border with Morocco in the Algerian Sahara. It is the second least-densely populated province in Algeria. Its capital and biggest city is Béchar.

History
The greater part of the province is dry plains (hamadas) suitable for grazing but with insufficient surface water to support agriculture. Most settlements are therefore concentrated in oases along the Saoura valley and its tributaries. Natural resources include coal deposits in the north around Bechar and Kenadsa.

The oases' traditional economic basis was agriculture, notably growing date palms and grain. The inhabitants of several oases, notably Ouakda, Lahmar and Boukais, speak Berber languages, while the rest speak Arabic. Many of the oases had significant populations of shurfa or Haratin peoples. There is a notable zaouia (traditional religious school) at Kenadsa. The region also supported a substantial mainly Arab pastoralist nomadic population, notably the Doui-Menia and Ouled Djerir; most or all have settled in the oases.

Trans-Saharan trade routes passing through this region played an important role in its economy in pre-modern times, but have at present been superseded. A small tourism industry exists, focused particularly on Taghit. Béchar, whose growth from a minor village began only in the early 20th century, has become the principal urban and administrative centre.

The region has a distinctive musical scene influenced by sub-Saharan African rhythms, whose best known representative is the Gnawi singer Hasna El Becharia. Another locally well-known group is El Sed, from Kenadsa.

Disagreements between Morocco and Algeria over their mutual border in this province and Tindouf led to conflict after Algeria's independence, the so-called Sand War.

The province was created from the Saoura department in 1974. In 1984 Tindouf Province was carved out of its territory. In 2019 Béni Abbès Province followed.

Administrative divisions
The province is made up of 6 districts and 11 municipalities.

The districts are:

 * 1) Abadla
 * 2) Béchar
 * 3) Béni Ounif
 * 4) Kénadsa
 * 5) Lahmar
 * 6) Taghit

The municipalities are:

 * 1) Abadla
 * 2) Béchar
 * 3) Beni Ounif
 * 4) Boukais
 * 5) Erg Ferradj
 * 6) Kenadsa
 * 7) Lahmar
 * 8) Mechraa Houari Boumedienne
 * 9) Meridja
 * 10) Mogheul
 * 11) Taghit

title: Béchar Province


text:
Dain City, Ontario

Dain City is a small suburb at the southernmost part of Welland, Ontario, Canada. At one time, it was a mostly self-contained rural community at the junction of two significant rail lines, part of the Township of Humberstone, and was called Welland Junction. The name was changed to Dain City after it was annexed to the city of Welland in the mid-1950s. Dain City was built for, and by, the Marshall Dain Manufacturing Company (Now known as John Deere), the area's main employer, as a "company town".

In September 2008, John Deere announced it would be close its plant with a loss of 800 jobs and relocate to Wisconsin and Mexico by the end of 2009.

The geography and character of Dain City is largely a factor of its proximity to the Welland Canal, the only shipping channel between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie in the Great Lakes system. For many years, the canal ran along Dain City's western side and through the city of Welland itself, with numerous bends and bridges along the way. Those included two lift bridges in Dain City, However, in April 2019, The Forks Road Bridge (Bridge 18.) was removed, Only the Train Bridge (Bridge 17) Remains. The completion of the Welland By-Pass in 1973, a massive six-year excavation project to by-pass the whole city of Welland with a wider and straighter channel, significantly altered and isolated Dain City, turning it into a peninsula with the new canal on its eastern side and the old and new canals meeting at its southern tip.

Dain City's lift bridge's lift capabilities were removed in the 1980s, although it is still in use by vehicular traffic.

Notably, Dain City was once home to a large drive-in theater, the Welland Drive-In, located on the south side of Forks Road between the old rail line and the new canal, constructed in 1954 and torn down in 1981.

Dain City contains four housing subdivisions: "Glennwood Park", "Regatta Park", "Seaway Village", and "Welland Junction". The old canal, renamed the Welland Recreational Waterway, hosts international rowing regattas and dragon boat races annually, and also the South Niagara Rowing Club, which is affiliated with area high schools.

Geography
Dain City, in the south of the city of Welland where the Welland Recreational Waterway and the Welland By-Pass meet, is separated by the massive approaches to the Townline Tunnel required to provide the low grade for the rail lines that use the tunnel. Technically, both the east side of Welland and Dain City are peninsulas, surrounded by the waters of the old and new channels of the Welland Canal and connected to "solid" ground only by the relatively small plug in the old canal along the Townline Tunnel approaches.

title: Dain City, Ontario


text:
Taggerty

Taggerty is a town in central Victoria, Australia. It is located at the intersection of Maroondah Highway and Thornton Road. The Acheron River also crosses the highway at Taggerty. At the, Taggerty had a population of 405.

A pastoral run called Taggerty Run was established in 1846. The homestead of the run was called Taggerty House. Gold was discovered along the Acheron River in 1870, which led to the establishment of two settlements, named Acheron Lower (now known as Acheron) and Acheron Upper (now known as Taggerty). The Post Office opened on April 15, 1876 and was renamed Taggerty in 1893. Acheron Upper Primary School opened in 1875. The general store opened in 1891, as did a butter factory, reflecting the area's shift from gold mining towards dairy farming. The town was given the name Taggerty in 1890 to avoid confusion with Acheron Lower.

Today Taggerty remains a small township, with a general store, primary school (closed 2017), a town hall, a caravan park, and several bed and breakfasts.

title: Taggerty


text:
Biskra Province

Biskra (ولاية بسكرة, Berber: ⴱⴻⵙⴽⵔⴰ) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria. Its capital is Biskra. It is located on the northern edge of the Algerian Sahara, south of the Atlas Mountains.

Geographically, Biskra Province is arid, but oases and rivers can be found, such as the Djedi River which flows through the province. The mountainous Aurès region also extends into the province.

Biskra Province is home to the district of Tolga, which is well-known internationally for its high-quality Deglet Nour dates. Other localities include Lichoua, Sidi Okba, Sidi Khaled, El-Kantara and Ouled Djellal.

Berber tribes
The Biskra area has been inhabited since at least the 3rd millennium BC, when the Gaetuli, an ancient Berber tribe, arrived in North Africa. They settled in the Aurès region, where they posed problems to Roman infiltration in the 3rd century BC as they were stellar horsemen and became dreaded in combat. Eventually, Roman politician Gaius Marius negotiated exploration of the South against concessions of agricultural land around Cirta and Setifis (at the time under Roman rule), and dispersed them and diminished their strength.

Roman occupation
The Biskra area experienced many violent wars during Roman colonization, including the resistance war led by the Berber leader Tacfarinas, followed by his successor, the militant Jugurtha "Youghorta". With the help of the inhabitants of the city of Biskra, who provided human and material support, Jugurtha destroyed the Roman army at the end of the so-called Numidia region.

The Romans also established the city of Tolga and during their rule in the second century A.D, Syrian archers guarding the town of El Kantara were thought to have planted the first date palm grove in the region.

Post-independence
The province was created from parts of Oasis department and Batna (département) in 1974.

In 1984 El Oued Province was carved out of its territory.

Administrative divisions
The province is made up of 12 districts and 33 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Biskra
 * 2) Djemourah
 * 3) Foughala
 * 4) El Kantara
 * 5) El Outaya
 * 6) M'Chouneche
 * 7) Ouled Djellal
 * 8) Ourlal
 * 9) Sidi Khaled
 * 10) Sidi Okba
 * 11) Tolga
 * 12) Zeribet El Oued

Communes

 * 1) Aïn Naga
 * 2) Aïn Zaatout
 * 3) Biskra
 * 4) Bordj Ben Azzouz
 * 5) Bouchagroune
 * 6) Branis
 * 7) Chetma
 * 8) Djemorah
 * 9) Doucen
 * 10) El Feidh
 * 11) El Ghrous
 * 12) El Hadjeb
 * 13) El Haouch
 * 14) El Kantara
 * 15) El Outaya
 * 16) Foughala
 * 17) Khenguet Sidi Nadjil
 * 18) Lichana
 * 19) Lioua
 * 20) M'Chouneche
 * 21) Mekhadma
 * 22) Meziraa
 * 23) M'Lili
 * 24) Ouled Djellal
 * 25) Ouled Harkat
 * 26) Ouled Rahma
 * 27) Ouled Sassi
 * 28) Oumache
 * 29) Ourlala
 * 30) Sidi Khaled
 * 31) Sidi Okba
 * 32) Tolga
 * 33) Zeribet El Oued

title: Biskra Province


text:
Macintosh clone

A Macintosh clone is a computer running the Mac OS operating system that was not produced by Apple Inc. The earliest Mac clones were based on emulators and reverse-engineered Macintosh ROMs. During Apple's short lived Mac OS 7 licensing program, authorized Mac clone makers were able to either purchase 100% compatible motherboards or build their own hardware using licensed Mac reference designs.

Since Apple's switch to the Intel platform, many non-Apple Wintel/PC computers are technologically so similar to Mac computers that they are able to boot the Mac operating system using a varying combination of community-developed patches and hacks. Such a Wintel/PC computer running macOS is more commonly referred to as a Hackintosh.

Background
The Apple II and IBM PC computer lines were "cloned" by other manufacturers who had reverse-engineered the minimal amount of firmware in the computers' ROM chips and subsequently legally produced computers that could run the same software. These clones were seen by Apple as a threat, as Apple II sales had presumably suffered from the competition provided by Franklin Computer Corporation and other clone manufacturers, both legal and illegal. At IBM, the threat proved to be real: most of the market eventually went to clone-makers, including Compaq, Leading Edge, Tandy, Kaypro, Packard Bell, Amstrad in Europe, and dozens of smaller companies, and in short order IBM found it had lost control over its own platform.

Apple eventually licensed the Apple II ROMs to other companies, primarily to educational toy manufacturer Tiger Electronics in order to produce an inexpensive laptop with educational games and the AppleWorks software suite: the Tiger Learning Computer (TLC). The TLC lacked a built-in display. Its lid acted as a holster for the cartridges that stored the bundled software, as it had no floppy drive.

Emulators
Long before true clones were available, the Atari ST could emulate a Mac by adding the third-party Magic Sac emulator, released in 1985, and, later, the Spectre, Spectre GCR, and Aladin emulators. The first three of those emulators required that the user purchase a set of Mac ROMs sold as system upgrades to Macintosh users. Later, multiple emulators were released for the Amiga.

Starting with the sales of PowerPC Macs, a CPU emulator to run 68000 applications was built into the Mac OS. By the time 68060 processors were available, PowerPC Macs became so powerful that they ran 68000 applications faster than any 68000-based computer, including any Amiga, Atari ST or Sharp X68000. This means even a 68060-upgraded Atari ST clone or Amiga, which avoid CPU emulation, were always slower, on top of causing some programs not to work thanks to imperfect virtualization of the Mac system and remaining machine components.

Connectix also released another 68k emulator for Macs, replacing the original, called Speed Doubler, supposedly reported to be even faster than Apple's. As the years went by, the emulator wasn't updated to work with later versions of the original Mac OS, however, supposedly because Apple's own 68k emulator eventually surpassed it in performance, and the OS itself relied further on native PowerPC code with each new Mac OS update.

There was also a software emulator for x86 platforms running DOS/Windows and Linux called Executor, from ARDI. ARDI reverse-engineered the Mac ROM and built a 68000 CPU emulator, enabling Executor to run most (but not all) Macintosh software, from System 5 to System 7, with good speed. The migration from 68000 to PowerPC, and the added difficulties of emulating a PowerPC on x86 platforms, made targeting the later Mac OS versions impractical.

Unlicensed clones
Wary of repeating history and wanting to retain tight control of its product, Apple's Macintosh strategy included technical and legal measures that rendered production of Mac clones problematic. The original Macintosh system software contained a very large amount of complex code, which embodied the Mac's entire set of APIs, including the use of the GUI and file system. Through the 1980s and into the 1990s, much of the system software was included in the Macintosh's physical ROM chips. Therefore, any competitor attempting to create a Macintosh clone without infringing copyright would have to reverse-engineer the ROMs, which would have been an enormous and costly process without certainty of success. Only one company, Nutek, managed to produce "semi-Mac-compatible" computers in the early 1990s by partially re-implementing System 7 ROMs.

This strategy, making the development of competitive Mac clones prohibitively expensive, successfully shut out manufacturers looking to create computers that would directly compete with Apple's product lines. However, companies like Outbound Systems, Dynamac and Colby Systems, were able to sidestep the Mac cloning process by targeting high-end, high-profit market segments without suitable product offerings from Apple and offering Mac conversions instead.

In the early 1980s, Brazil's military dictatorship instituted trade restrictions that prohibited the importation of computers from overseas manufacturers, and these restrictions were not lifted until 1993. A Brazilian company called Unitron (which had previously produced Apple II clones) developed a Macintosh clone with specifications similar to the Mac 512K, and proposed to put it on sale. Although Unitron claimed to have legitimately reverse-engineered the ROMs and hardware, and Apple did not hold patents covering the computer in Brazil, Apple claimed the ROMs had simply been copied. Ultimately, under pressure from the US government and local manufacturers of PC clones the Brazilian Computer and Automation Council did not allow production to proceed.

Hackintosh
When Apple migrated to the PC-Intel platform in the mid 2000s, Apple hardware was more or less the same as generic PC hardware from a platform perspective. This theoretically allowed for installation of Mac OS X on non-Apple hardware. Hackintosh is the term appropriated by hobbyist programmers, who have collaborated on the Internet to install versions of Mac OS X v10.4 onwards – dubbed Mac OSx86 –   to be used on generic PC hardware rather than on Apple's own hardware. Apple contends this is illegal under the DMCA, so in order to combat illegal usage of their operating system software, they continue to use methods to prevent Mac OS X (now macOS) from being installed on unofficial non-Apple hardware, with mixed success. At present, with proper knowledge and instruction, macOS installation is more or less straightforward. Several online communities have sprung up to support end-users who wish to install macOS on non-Apple hardware. Some representative examples of these are Dortania and InsanelyMac.

Psystar Corporation
In April 2008, Psystar Corporation based in Miami, Florida, announced the first commercially available OSx86, a Wintel/PC computer with Mac OS X Leopard pre-installed partially with software from the OSx86 community project. Apple immediately sued in July 2008 and a protracted legal battle followed, ending in November 2009 with a summary judgement against Psystar. In May 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court denied Psystar's appeal, closing the case for good.

Licensed clones
In 1992, Macworld published an editorial stating that Apple clones were coming, and that the company should license its technology to others so it would benefit as the overall Macintosh market grew.

By 1995, Apple Macintosh computers accounted for around 7% of the worldwide desktop computer market. Apple executives decided to launch an official clone program in order to expand Macintosh market penetration. Apple's Mac OS 7 licensing program entailed the licensing of the Macintosh ROMs and system software to other manufacturers, each of which agreed to pay a flat fee for a license, and a royalty (initially US$50 1995) for each clone computer they sold. This generated quick revenues for Apple during a time of financial crisis.

From early 1995 through mid-1997, it was possible to buy PowerPC-based clone computers running Mac OS, most notably from Power Computing and UMAX. However, by 1996 Apple executives were worried that high-end clones were cannibalizing sales of their own high-end computers, where profit margins were highest.

A total of 75 distinct Macintosh clone models are known to have been introduced during the licensee era.

The following companies produced licensed Mac clones:

Jobs ends the official program
Soon after Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, he personally tried to renegotiate licensing deals more favorable to Apple five times over the course of three weeks and in his words each time was "basically told to pound sand". This response caused him to halt negotiations of upcoming licensing deals with OS licensees that Apple executives complained were still financially unfavorable.

Because the clone makers' licenses were valid only for Apple's System 7 operating system, Apple's release of Mac OS 8 left the clone manufacturers without the ability to ship a current Mac OS version and effectively ended the cloning program. Apple bought Power Computing's Mac clone business for US$100000000 1997 and gave their users free Mac OS 8 upgrade disks, ending the clone era. Only UMAX ever obtained a license to ship Mac OS 8 and get Mac OS 8 upgrade disks, which expired in July 1998 (Power Computing also got Mac OS 8 disks by their acquisition by Apple).

All other manufacturers had their Macintosh clone contract terminated by late 1997 and either continued their brands as PC clones or discontinued them altogether. Some of the clone manufacturers even went out of business. Reportedly, a heated telephone conversation between Jobs and Motorola CEO Christopher Galvin resulted in the contentious termination of Motorola's clone contract, and the long-favored Apple being demoted to "just another customer" mainly for PowerPC CPUs.

In 1999, Jobs had discussions with Ben Rosen, Chairman and interim CEO of Compaq at the time, for the world's then-largest Wintel PC manufacturer to license Mac OS, which would have been a coup for Apple. However no agreement was reached, as Apple had second thoughts about licensing its "crown jewel", while Compaq did not want to offend Microsoft, which it had partnered with since its founding in 1982. By 2007, five years after Compaq merged with HP, Rosen told Jobs he had switched to being a Mac user.

In 2001, Jobs reportedly had a meeting with Sony executives, saying he was "willing to make an exception" for Sony VAIO to run Mac OS X, although the negotiations later fell through.

Since Apple transitioned the Macintosh to an Intel platform in 2006, and subsequent to a major increase in visibility and a gain in computer market share for Apple with the success of the iPod, large computer system manufacturers such as Dell have expressed renewed interest in creating Macintosh clones. While various industry executives, notably Michael Dell, have stated publicly that they would like to sell Macintosh-compatible computers, Apple VP Phil Schiller said the company does not plan to let people run Mac OS X (macOS) on other computer makers' hardware. "We will not allow running Mac OS X on anything other than an Apple Mac," he said.

Macintosh conversion
Unlike Mac clones that contain little or no original Apple hardware, a Mac conversion is an aftermarket enclosure kit that requires the core components of a previously purchased, genuine Apple Mac computer, such as the Macintosh ROM or the motherboard, in order to become a functional computer system. This business model is most commonly used in the car industry, with one of the most famous examples being the Shelby Mustang, a high performance variant of the Ford Mustang, and is protected in the U.S. by the First-sale doctrine and similar legal concepts in most other countries.

While Mac clones traditionally aim to compete directly with Apple's solutions through lower prices, Mac conversions target market segments that lack dedicated solutions from Apple, and where the need for a Mac solution is high enough to justify the combined cost of the full price of the Mac donor computer plus the price of the conversion kit & labor.

The following companies produced Mac conversions:

title: Macintosh clone


text:
Bouïra Province

Bouïra (ولاية البويرة, Wilaya de Bouira) is a province (wilaya) in the Kabylie region (also known as Tazwawa) in Algeria.

History
The province was created from parts of Médéa (département) and Tizi-Ouzou department in 1974.

Administrative divisions
It is made up of 12 districts and 45 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn Bessem
 * 2) Bechloul
 * 3) Bir Ghbalou
 * 4) Bordj Okhriss
 * 5) Bouïra
 * 6) El Hachimia
 * 7) Haïzer
 * 8) Kadiria
 * 9) Lakhdaria
 * 10) M'Chedellah
 * 11) Souk El Khemis
 * 12) Sour El Ghozlane

Communes

 * 1) Aïn Bessem
 * 2) Ahnif
 * 3) Aghbalou
 * 4) Aïn El Hadjar
 * 5) Ahl El Ksar
 * 6) Ain Laloui
 * 7) Ath Mansour Taourirt
 * 8) Aomar
 * 9) Aïn Turk (Ain el Turc)
 * 10) Ait Laziz
 * 11) Bouderbala
 * 12) Bechloul
 * 13) Bir Ghbalou
 * 14) Bouiche
 * 15) Boukram
 * 16) Bordj Okhriss
 * 17) Bouira
 * 18) Dechmia
 * 19) Dirrah
 * 20) Djebahia
 * 21) El Asnam
 * 22) El Hakimia
 * 23) El Hachimia
 * 24) El Adjiba
 * 25) El Khabouzia
 * 26) El Mokrani
 * 27) Guerrouma
 * 28) Haizer
 * 29) Hadjera Zerga
 * 30) Kadiria
 * 31) Lakhdaria
 * 32) M'Chedallah
 * 33) Mezdour
 * 34) Maala
 * 35) Maamora
 * 36) Oued El Berdi
 * 37) Ouled Rached
 * 38) Raouraoua
 * 39) Ridane
 * 40) Saharidj
 * 41) Sour El Ghouzlane
 * 42) Souk El Khemis
 * 43) Taguedit
 * 44) Taghzout
 * 45) Zbarbar

Notable people

 * Mohamed Aïchaoui, journalist, militant and martyr

title: Bouïra Province


text:
Talk:Conjugate base

Untitled
I've merged the content into conjugate acid and created an appropriate redirect, since there was going to be serious duplication between the two articles, or one would be a permanent stub. --TenOfAllTrades | Talk 05:12, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conjugate base


text:
Chlef Province

Chlef (ولاية الشلف, Berber: ⴰⴳⴻⵣⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵛⵍⴻⴼ) (formerly known as El Asnam) is a province (wilaya) in Algeria. Its capital and biggest city is Chlef. It is the 8th most populous province in the country, having just over 1 million inhabitants.

Chlef Province is an important agricultural region, as it is located on the plain of the Middle Chelif Basin and has access to an abundance of water resources. 65.43% of the province is dedicated to agriculture. Other notable industries in the province include breeding, glass production, and plastic processing. As well as these industries, Chlef Province is also home to two dams.

Being located in the Atlas Mountains, Chlef also has a sizeable seismic risk, being struck by a 6.7 magnitude earthquake in 1954 and a 7.1 magnitude earthquake in 1980.

History
The province was originally named El Asnam until 1980 when it became known at Ech Chéliff, later known as Chlef.

In 1980, a 7.1 magnitude earthquake struck the province, killing up to 5,000 and displacing 300,000.

In 1984, Aïn Defla Province was carved out of its territory.

Location
The province of Chlef is located at the Western Tell 200 km west of Algiers.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 13 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 35 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Abou El Hassan ( دائرة أبو الحسن )
 * 2) Aïn Merane ( دائرة عين مران )
 * 3) Béni Haoua ( دائرة بني حواء )
 * 4) Boukadir ( دائرة بوقادير )
 * 5) Chlef ( دائرة شلف )
 * 6) El Karimia ( دائرة الكريمية )
 * 7) El Marsa ( دائرة المرسى )
 * 8) Oued Fodda ( دائرة وادي الفضة )
 * 9) Ouled Ben Abdelkader ( دائرة اولاد بن عبد القادر )
 * 10) Ouled Farès ( دائرة اولاد فارس )
 * 11) Taougrit ( دائرة تاوقريت )
 * 12) Ténès ( دائرة تنس )
 * 13) Zeboudja ( دائرة زبوجة )

title: Chlef Province


text:
Balagtas (disambiguation)

Francisco Balagtas (1788–1862) was a Filipino national poet.

Balagtas may also refer to:

 * Balagtas, Bulacan
 * Balagtas (crater)
 * Irving Reef (or Balagtas Reef), a coral reef in the Spratly Islands
 * Balagtasan, an art form

People with the surname

 * Jose Balagtas
 * Maricar Balagtas

title: Balagtas (disambiguation)


text:
Djelfa Province

Djelfa (ولاية الجلفة) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria. Its capital is Djelfa. It was first established by the administrative reorganization of 1974, and is home to over 1.2 million inhabitants. Localities in this province include Tadmit, El Khemis, and Selmana.

History
The province was created from parts of Batna (département), Médéa (département), Oasis department and Tiaret department in 1974.

Administrative division
The province is made up of 12 districts, which are further divided into 36 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn El Ibil
 * 2) Aïn Oussera
 * 3) Birine
 * 4) Charef
 * 5) Dar Chioukh
 * 6) Djelfa
 * 7) El Idrissia
 * 8) Faidh El Botma
 * 9) Had Sahary
 * 10) Hassi Bahbah
 * 11) Messaâd
 * 12) Sidi Ladjel

title: Djelfa Province


text:
El Oued Province

El Oued (ولاية الوادي, ⴻⵍ oⵓⴻⴷ) is a Saharan province of Algeria (n° 39) dominated by Oued Souf. It was named after its eponymous capital. Notable towns include El Oued itself and Guemar.

Physical geography
El Oued Province lies in the Sahara desert in northeast Algeria. The mostly uninhabited southern half of the province is covered by the Grand Erg Oriental, a vast region of uninterrupted sand dunes. The northern half of the province is a mixture of sandy desert with scarce vegetation, scattered oases, and salt lakes. The most notable oases are the Oued Souf region, upon which the capital El Oued and neighbouring towns are built, as well as oases located near the towns of El M'Ghair and Djamaa, both of which support extensive palm plantations. Chott Melrhir, a large endorheic salt lake, lies in the north-central part of the province, while Chott Felrhir is a smaller salt lake to its southwest, near El M'Ghair. These salt lakes, and the surrounding areas, lie as much as 30 m below sea level; nearby towns and villages including Hamraia, Méguibra, Dendouga and Aïn Cheikh are also below sea level.

Climate
El Oued Province experiences a hot desert climate. Winters are mild, with average temperatures around 11 C in January, but summers are hot with average temperatures around 32 C, average maxima around 40 C and the hottest days approaching 50 C. Precipitation is very low throughout the province, but somewhat more rain does fall in the north, particularly during the winter and adjacent months.

Neighbouring districts
El Oued Province is bordered to the northeast by Tébessa Province, to the north by Khenchela Province, to the northwest by Biskra Province, to the west by El M'Ghair Province to the south and southwest by Ouargla Province, to the southeast by Tunisia's Tataouine Governorate, and to the east by Tunisia's Tozeur and Kebili Governorates.

History
The province was created from Biskra Province in 1984.

Administrative divisions
The province is made up of 10 districts, which are divided into 22 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Bayadha
 * 2) Debila
 * 3) El Oued
 * 4) Guemar
 * 5) Hassi Khelifa
 * 6) Magrane
 * 7) Mih Ouensa
 * 8) Reguiba
 * 9) Robbah
 * 10) Taleb Larbi

Communes

 * 1) Bayadha
 * 2) Ben Guecha
 * 3) Debila
 * 4) Douar El Ma
 * 5) El Ogla
 * 6) El Oued
 * 7) Guemar
 * 8) Hamraia
 * 9) Hassani Abdelkrim
 * 10) Hassi Khelifa
 * 11) Kouinine
 * 12) Magrane
 * 13) Mih Ouensa
 * 14) Nakhla
 * 15) Oued El Alenda
 * 16) Ourmes
 * 17) Reguiba
 * 18) Robbah
 * 19) Sidi Aoun
 * 20) Taghzout
 * 21) Taleb Larbi
 * 22) Trifaoui

title: El Oued Province


text:
El Taref

El Taref (الطارف) is a city in Algeria. It is the capital of El Taref Province. El Kala is a port town near El Taref. El Taref is 700 kilometers east of Algiers. In 1998, it had a population of around 20,300.

General Electric and Iberdrola are building a power station in El Taref, beginning in mid-2008, a project which will increase Algeria's energy capacity by 18%.

title: El Taref


text:
El Bayadh

El Bayadh (البيض) is a municipality of Algeria. It is the capital of El Bayadh Province.

History
This town was known as Géryville during the French colonization of Algeria.

Geography
The Ksour Range is a mountainous area extending between Figuig and El Bayadh. The record of 51.3 °C degrees, which was on 2 September 1979, is disputed.

title: El Bayadh