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Hannes Schneider

Johann "Hannes" Schneider (24 June 1890 – 26 April 1955) was an Austrian ski instructor of the first half of the 20th century, famous for pioneering the Arlberg technique of instruction. Many consider him the Father of Modern Day Skiing. A statue of him in North Conway, New Hampshire, states the very same claim.

Biography
Schneider was born in the town of Stuben am Arlberg in Austria, the son of a farmer who also kept a few cows that provided fresh milk for local cheesemakers. His father was also a road supervisor tasked with keeping the crucial Arlberg Pass open during the winter months. It was his father's hope that Hannes would become a cheesemaker.

Hannes first observed skiing in 1900 when Viktor Sohm visited the town of Stuben. Legend has it that Schneider made his first pair of skis from an old barrel; in reality, he took measurements of Sohm's skis and had a local barrel maker craft him a pair. Sohm took Schneider under his wing during his winter visits to the Arlberg region. Schneider became more proficient on his skis and soon gained a reputation for his skills, winning many local races.

In 1907, he was offered a spot as an apprentice cheesemaker, much to the delight of his parents. However, an offer to teach skiing at a hotel in Les Avants, Switzerland opened his family's eyes to the possibility that one could make a living skiing. At the time the hotel had a vibrant summer business but few visitors in the winter.

Word of the offer spread throughout the towns of the region and he was offered a similar arrangement at the Hotel Post in St Anton am Arlberg. Karl Schuler, owner of the Hotel Post, knew this was an opportunity to position St Anton as a major ski resort for the growing sport.

While at St Anton, Schneider developed the basics of ski instruction known as the "Hannes Schneider Arlberg Ski Technique and Method of Teaching", or simply the Arlberg technique. This technique is still used today as a foundation for teaching alpine skiing. Many of the early pioneers of alpine skiing passed through Schneider's school as instructors, including Luggi Foeger, Rudi Matt, Benno Rybizka, and Otto Lang, who went on to open Hannes Schneider ski schools in the United States at Mount Rainier, Mount Hood, and Mount Baker and ran the Sun Valley Ski School for many years.

Schneider was drafted into the Austrian Army in 1908, but was reassigned to the reserves after a few months. The town fathers of St Anton claimed that his ski school had become crucial in the Arlberg region. Schneider did serve as a ski instructor for the Austrian Army during the First World War, after which he returned to the Hotel Post. In 1920, he appeared in a documentary film based on the Arlberg technique, and formed a semi-independent ski school where by 1924 he had formalized his method of instruction. In 1928, he helped organize the international Arlberg-Kandahar alpine race at St. Anton.

In the interwar period he also appeared in several more of Dr. Arnold Fanck's ski films. The White Ecstasy, which helped make skiing widely popular, was filmed at the Arlberg in the winter of 1930–1931. Schneider also co-wrote a best-selling instructional book with Fanck, named Die Wunder des Schneeschuhs, which was translated into English as The Wonders of Skiing in 1931. Former students of Hannes Schneider include Otto Lang, Friedl Pfeifer, and Toni Matt.

In the events leading up to World War II, Germany and the Third Reich took control of Austria in 1938. Schneider (who was an outspoken critic of the Nazis), was stripped of his ski school and imprisoned. In 1939 the President of Manufacturers Trust Company (Harvey Gibson), negotiated the exoneration of Schneider and brought him to the US to re-open his ski school at his Cranmore Mountain in North Conway, New Hampshire. Schneider, recognized as the father of skiing, ran the ski school and the resort until his death in 1955. During the Second World War, he helped train the 10th Mountain Division of the U.S. Army, in which his son Herbert served.

Hannes Schneider died in New Hampshire in 1955, at the age of 64.

Legacy
Hannes was posthumously inducted into the U.S. Ski Hall of Fame in 1958. The New England Ski Museum hosts the Hannes Schneider Meister Skiing Cup in his memory every March at Cranmore Mountain Resort. In 2005, the New England Ski Museum featured an exhibit on the life of Hannes Schneider and his impact on the sport of skiing.

Selected filmography

 *  (1920)
 *  (1921)
 * Mountain of Destiny (1924)
 * The Holy Mountain (1926)
 * Hannes Schneider (1926) short film
 * Struggle for the Matterhorn (1928)
 * The White Ecstasy (1931)
 * The Scoundrel (1939)

title: Hannes Schneider


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Vicente Pernía

Vicente Alberto Pernía (born 25 April 1949 in Tandil, Buenos Aires Province), known as El Tano (the Italian, in lunfardo), is an Argentine former professional footballer who played as a defender. He then went on to a second career as a car racing driver.

Club career
El Tano started his football career with Estudiantes de La Plata in 1969, where he played until his transfer to Boca Juniors in 1973. During his time at Boca Pernía won a number of titles, including 3 league titles and 2 Copa Libertadores. Pernía played a total of 269 games for Boca in all competitions and still holds the record for the Boca player to have been sent off the most times with 13 red cards. After the chain of successes under coach Juan Carlos Lorenzo, he was sold to Vélez Sársfield at the end of 1981 after being left out of new coach Silvio Marzolini's plans.

Pernía retired from playing football in 1982. His son Mariano is also a football player and was a member of the Spain national football team for 2006 FIFA World Cup.

International career
Pernía was widely hailed as the best Argentine right defender of his time, but Argentina national team coach César Menotti chose not to call him to the 1978 FIFA World Cup squad, after some rude altercations in friendly matches, notably a friendly against Scotland played 18 June 1977, when he was sent off for repeated violent fouls against Willie Johnston.

For the main event, Menotti improvised fullback Jorge Olguín in the position. Olguín played both the 1978 and the 1982 FIFA World Cups. It was rumored that the personal preferences of some members of the military junta that ruled Argentina played a part in the decision.

In a popular sketch on TV, comedian Mario Sapag as Menotti would say that Pernía does not fit in his philosophy of play "because he is sad", and he'd rather have Olguín, whose name itself is funny.

Stock-car racing
In the 1980s, Pernía reinvented himself as a stock-car driver in Argentina's TC and TC2000 categories. He won a few races, obtaining in 1996 the Subchampionship of Turismo Carretera.

In 2005, Argentine football giants Boca Juniors and River Plate prepared their own racing teams for the Top Race V6 competition that starts in March 2005. Pernía will, after 14 years, dress again the blue-and-yellow colors of Boca Juniors, along with driving Guillermo Ortelli and Ernesto Bessone.

Another of Pernía's sons, Leonel races in TC2000 and the World Touring Car Championship.

Honours

 * Boca Juniors
 * Argentine Primera División: Metropolitano 1976, Nacional 1976, Metropolitano 1981
 * Copa Libertadores: 1977, 1978
 * Intercontinental Cup: 1977

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vicente Pernía


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User talk:Topbanana/Reports/This page contains a red link that may be due to a plural discrepancy

Have you seen User:Daniel_Quinlan/redirects, in particular User:Daniel_Quinlan/redirects5? A lot of this work has been done already... --HappyDog 06:25, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Is there a way you can automatically update your lists, e.g. User:Topbanana/Reports/This page contains a red link that may be due to a plural discrepancy/S-U ? Many of these are fixed, and it would be good to get an updated list without all the manual work. --Yogi de 08:05, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)


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Ellsworth P. Bertholf

Ellsworth Price Bertholf (7 April 1866 – 11 November 1921) was a Congressional Gold Medal recipient who later served as the fourth Captain-Commandant of the United States Revenue Cutter Service and because of the change in the name of the agency in 1915, the fourth Commandant of the United States Coast Guard. His leadership during his tenure as Commandant was critical to the U.S. Coast Guard's survival at a time when outside agencies wanted to either take it over or split its missions up among several agencies.

Early life and education
Bertholf was born in New York City to John J. Bertholf, an accountant, and Annie Frances Price Bertholf. When he was four, his family moved to Hackensack, New Jersey where he spent his school years. When he was sixteen, he received an appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy but was court-martialed and dismissed for allegedly participating in a hazing incident at the beginning of his second year. A year after his expulsion from the Naval Academy, he was appointed as a cadet at the Revenue Cutter Service School of Instruction at New Bedford, Massachusetts. He graduated from the School of Instruction on 18 October 1887 and was assigned to USRC Levi Woodbury on 15 December 1887. He was commissioned as a Third Lieutenant while serving on Levi Woodbury on 12 June 1889.

Atlantic area service
On 15 April 1890, Bertholf was transferred to USRC William H. Seward (1864), an American Civil War-era side-wheeler that was homeported in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. Seward patrolled the mouth of the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, removing hazards to navigation and watching for smuggling activity. In May 1891, he was assigned to the newer iron-hulled USRC Forward (1882), which was based in Mobile, Alabama. While serving on Forward, Bertholf was promoted to second lieutenant on 31 October 1892. In June 1893, Bertholf reported aboard USRC Hamilton (1871), which was undergoing an overhaul at Reeder and Sons Shipyard, Baltimore After overhaul, Hamilton returned to her homeport of Philadelphia for customs duty in the harbor and Delaware Bay. Returning to Forward on 5 May 1894, after only one year of service on Hamilton, he spent just a year assigned to Forward when he received orders to report 1 June 1895 to the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island as a student. He gained valuable experience in naval tactics and interacting with Navy officers and became the first Revenue Cutter Service officer to graduate from the Naval War College He graduated in October 1895 and was temporarily assigned as the executive officer on USRC Manhattan (1873), a harbor tug in New York City. Bertholf reported aboard USRC Salmon P. Chase (1878) in late November, 1895 as the executive officer of Chase and the Revenue Cutter Service School of Instruction. Chase was undergoing a major modifications in Baltimore to accommodate twice the cadets that it had in the past. After refit, Chase returned to duty as a training ship and spent most of the training year at sea, with only occasional visits in port for reprovisioning and repairs.

Alaska

In November 1897, Bertholf received orders assigning him to USRC Bear (1874) homeported in Seattle, Washington. USRC Bear was tasked with the Bering Sea Patrol and spent several months out of each year patrolling the Alaska coast. At the same time he reported to Bear, word was received that several whaling ships were trapped in the ice at Point Barrow. The Overland Relief Expedition was planned by the Secretary of the Treasury and Bear left for the Bering Sea facing the Arctic winter, a feat that had not been attempted before. Although Bear was built for working in icy waters, it was not an icebreaker and could not be expected to sail through pack ice to the trapped whalers. Near Nelson Island, the captain of Bear put ashore the executive officer, Lieutenant David H. Jarvis; the ship's surgeon, Dr. Samuel J. Call; and Bertholf with instructions to drive a herd of reindeer overland to the stranded whalers. The distance to Point Barrow overland from Cape Vancouver was roughly 1500 miles. Bear turned back and wintered over in Unalaska awaiting the spring thaw while the rescue party gathered dog sled teams and acquired the necessary number of reindeer. Because of a lack of trained dogs, Jarvis instructed Bertholf to continue searching the Inuit villages for sled teams while he and Call went ahead to Cape Prince of Wales where there were large numbers of domesticated reindeer. Bertholf caught up with Jarvis and Call and helped re-provision the relief mission. The party finally reached the whalers in early March, 1898, walking most of the distance and enduring temperatures as low as -45 degrees Fahrenheit. In 1902, Jarvis, Call and Bertholf were awarded Congressional Gold Medals in recognition of their heroic relief efforts for the 275 American whalers at Point Barrow in what became known as the Overland Relief Expedition. That expedition has been hailed as one of the most perilous rescue missions in maritime history.

After a short assignment aboard USRC Thetis undergoing repairs at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Bertholf was again assigned to Bear in May, 1899, but this time as the executive officer. During this assignment, the crew of Bear delivered more reindeer to Alaska from Russia, enforced Federal law, rescued stranded destitute gold miners from starvation, rescued whalers from a shipwreck and investigated two murders; the Revenue Cutter Service being the only law enforcement in Alaska at the time. During this time Bertholf took the examination for First Lieutenant and was promoted in June 1900. In January 1901, he was attached to the Department of Interior and sent to Russia to acquire more reindeer that were of hardier stock, for shipment to Alaska, for the relief of the Inuit. He was sent to the U.S. Embassy in St. Petersburg, Russia for consultation with Russian officials, and was advised to cross Russia by way of the Trans-Siberian Railroad and contact herdsmen near Okhotsk. After purchasing the reindeer and moving them to the port of Vladivostok, he was responsible for contracting for the ship to transport the reindeer to the Teller Reindeer Station near Port Clarence, Alaska. His next assignment was as executive officer of USRC Manning at Bremerton, Washington where he took part in the Bering Sea Patrol, participating in law enforcement, rescues and hydrographic surveys. He was detached from Manning in November 1902 and managed to squeeze in his marriage to Emilie Innes Sublett of Hackensack while on leave before reporting for his next assignment.

United States Life-Saving Service
In December 1902, Bertholf reported for duty as an assistant inspector for the U.S. Life-Saving Service in Atlantic City. It was common practice for Revenue Cutter Service officers to perform this duty. This was helpful to him because he could manage to stay close to home, now that he was married. He was responsible as an assistant inspector to examine and drill the surfmen at the 42 life saving stations along the New Jersey shore each month. He also had to investigate any shipwrecks along the coast to see if the rescues had been conducted properly by the life saving stations. This tour of duty with the Life Saving Service would be of valuable experience later in his career when the USLSS merged with the Revenue Cutter Service to form the United States Coast Guard.

Command at sea
In October 1905, Bertholf's tour of duty with the USLSS was completed and he reported aboard USRC Onondaga (1898) as executive officer. Although homeported in Philadelphia, the Onondaga patrolled the Atlantic coast assisting vessels in distress and destroying hazards to navigation. After one year, Bertholf moved across the harbor at Philadelphia to assume command of USRC Wissahickon (1904), a new 96 foot harbor tug. As a new commanding officer, Bertholf had to deal with the international shipping community and assist vessels entering the harbor with finding the proper berth as well as enforcing anchorage and port regulations. This experience in command of a small cutter would be necessary before he could assume command of the larger cutters in the Revenue Service and required tact and good judgment. In August 1907, he was promoted to captain, detached from duty in Philadelphia and assigned to be the temporary captain of USRC Seminole at Wilmington, North Carolina while the commanding officer was on a temporary assignment. During the short assignment, Bertholf was able to use his experiences at the Naval War College in fleet training exercises with several other USRCS cutters in the Atlantic Ocean. Landing exercises utilizing the crews of the cutters were performed at Yorktown, Virginia along with squadron formations and gunnery exercises at sea. After the commanding officer returned to the Seminole, Bertholf was expecting to return to his command on Wissahickon when he received the surprise of orders assigning him to the command of his old ship, Bear. This was a great honor and a great responsibility as the Bear was the most famous cutter in the Revenue Cutter Service. He reported aboard Bear as it was finishing a maintenance overhaul at Mare Island in December 1907 and he was required to move her to another shipyard in Oakland, California to have repairs completed. He was expecting to get underway in the spring for the annual Bering Sea Patrol; but instead received orders to escort the Great White Fleet into San Francisco Bay. Thousands of people came to the port call ceremonies and Bertholf and his crew had the responsibility of keeping hundreds of small craft out of the way of the battleships and cruisers as they made their way to moorings. The whole day came off without a collision or injury due to the diligence of the crew of Bear. Bear, like all of the cutters on the Bering Sea Patrol, had dealt with the problems of pelagic sealing for years by other nations ships in the coastal waters of Alaska. The problem was expected to get worse after the Russo-Japanese War ended and Japan turned its resources back to peacetime uses because Japan was not a signatory to any sealing treaties. During the summer of 1908, Bertholf and his crew were kept very busy; they confiscated two Japanese ships caught sealing within the three-mile limit, and had to transport the ships and crews to Unalaska and testify in federal court. After the trial, Bear was tasked with hauling the prisoners to jail in Valdez, Alaska and didn't make a return to its homeport in Sausalito, California until late November. Other assignments during the three-year tour of duty that Bertholf commanded Bear included hydrographic surveys, shipwreck rescues and transporting 143 destitute men and women from Nome to Seattle. This required a refit of the cutter to accommodate the extra passengers.

Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard
In December 1910, Bertholf's tour aboard USRC  Bear ended and he received orders assigning him to the command of USRC Morrill (1889), homeported in Detroit. Since Morrill was laid up for the winter, this gave him time to concentrate on his campaign to succeed Worth G. Ross as Captain-Commandant of the USRCS. Several senior captains were actively seeking the appointment and Bertholf was only 23rd on the seniority list. His dismissal from the Naval Academy was the lone black mark against him; however, his Congressional Gold Medal and service as commanding officer of Bear were all points in his favor. An endorsement by Walter Eli Clark, the district governor of Alaska, and Franklin MacVeagh, Secretary of the Treasury, finally helped him secure the nomination to the post. Bertholf was confirmed by the Senate on 15 June 1911 and became the fourth Captain-Commandant of the service. One of his first challenges was a reorganization of the RCS after the Treasury Secretary directed that operational control of the service's cutters be removed from the civilian Customs Collectors and assigned to the Revenue Cutter Service chain-of-command. This allowed Bertholf reorganize the RCS headquarters staff and to establish district offices in several cities on both coasts for better control of the cutters. In 1912, Bertholf was called to testify at the House Committee on Foreign Affairs hearings on implementation of the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911, a treaty designed to protect seals and otters from over hunting. His testimony dealt with the RCS role in enforcement of the treaty and how Bering Sea Patrol law enforcement would be made much easier by the inclusion of Russia and Japan and not just the United States and Great Britain.

Cleveland Commission and merger
In November 1911 the Cleveland Commission on Economy and Efficiency, chaired by Frederick A. Cleveland, President William Howard Taft's chief economic adviser, released a report that called for the dissolution of the RCS and its responsibilities distributed to other agencies in the Federal government. The report stated that the military responsibilities of the RCS should be turned over the Navy and other civilian duties should be shared by several other agencies for a savings of one million dollars a year. Bertholf was faced with the task of organizing a defense against the proposal and with the assistance of the Navy; who didn't want the non-military tasks that the RCS performed, or the 1700 RCS personnel; he started gathering facts about RCS operations that would justify its existence. Secretary of the Treasury MacVeagh disagreed with the conclusions in the Cleveland report and directed Bertholf to meet with Sumner Kimball, the head of the USLSS to come up with a plan to merge the two services. They drafted a bill using the strength of both services to form the U.S. Coast Guard from the two services and presented it to Secretary MacVeagh, who in turn, looked for friendly members of Congress to sponsor the bill. In April 1912 the RMS Titanic, a British passenger ship struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic and sank with great loss of life. To prevent another disaster an International Ice Patrol treaty was signed with several other countries naming the United States as the operator of the patrol. Because the Navy didn't want the non-military duty, the RCS was tasked with the job of insuring that icebergs were tracked each spring and notices radioed to maritime traffic in the North Atlantic. This additional responsibility coupled with the changing of presidential administrations and the beginning of World War I made the Bertholf-Kimball proposal look attractive to President Woodrow Wilson and he sent word to Congress that he wanted the legislation passed that would create the U.S. Coast Guard. Senate Bill 2337, "An Act to Create the Coast Guard" (Public Law 239) was signed into law on 28 January 1915. On 19 June 1915 Bertholf was reappointed for four more years as Captain-Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard.

World War I and the U.S. Navy
With the entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917, the operational control of the new U.S. Coast Guard was transferred to the Department of the Navy. Bertholf's responsibilities were to advise the Chief of Naval Operations about U.S. Coast Guard matters and he had administrative control of Department of the Treasury functions within the Coast Guard. An immediate problem he faced was the one-year enlistment period that enlisted personnel served under. Many of the sailors were foreign born and either deserted or were discharged at the end of their enlistment when the war broke out. Others chose to enlist in another armed service where the chances of promotion were better. In 1918 the enlistments were changed to the duration of the war but no longer than three years. The pay and rank differences between Navy and Coast Guard personnel were also a continuing problem for Bertholf during this time and were not completely solved during his tenure as Captain-Commandant. Projects that he had direct supervision over during the war included setting up land communications between shore installations on the Eastern seaboard, enforcement of the Espionage Act of 1917; port security, and establishment of a Coast Guard aviation branch. On 1 July 1918 he was promoted to Commodore, USCG.

Congressional Hearing, 6 February 1919.
 * --- Commodore-Commandant Ellsworth P. Bertholf, USCG,

After the war concluded the Navy found itself losing thousands of experienced officers and men to civilian life and did not have enough officers to fill its authorized billets. The Navy proposed to absorb the Coast Guard and its assets to solve this problem. It was noted by the Navy's Bureau of Operations that there was no source to replace officers except the Naval Academy and the Coast Guard. Since the officers of the two services had worked well together during the war, the Navy saw the opportunity to solve their manpower problems by absorbing the Coast Guard and its personnel leaving to the Treasury Department only the vessels necessary for customs duties and enforcement of navigation laws. Many Coast Guard officers supported the Navy's move to integrate the two services because they faced demotion from temporary ranks awarded by the Navy during the war as the Coast Guard returned to a normal operating tempo. On 14 December 1918 Representative Guy E. Campbell of Pennsylvania introduced a bill to permanently transfer the Coast Guard from the Treasury Department to the Navy Department. During hearings before the Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee in January 1919 two Coast Guard and two Navy officers testified in favor of the bill. Other testified about efficiencies gained by the transfer. Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels was in favor of the transfer because he realized that it was the best opportunity for the Navy to absorb the Coast Guard while it was still operating as a part of the Navy and he testified for the passage of the bill. During a second round of hearings before the committee held in February 1919, Bertholf finally got a chance to testify. Bertholf's testimony before the committee systematically rebutted every argument of those in favor of the bill and helped persuade some members to hold the bill in committee. With the bill stalled in committee, Bertholf retired from the Coast Guard on 30 June 1919. The question of whether the Navy would absorb the Coast Guard was settled when President Wilson issued Executive Order 3160 on 28 August 1919, thereby transferring the Coast Guard back to the Treasury Department.

Later life and death
Following his retirement from the U.S. Coast Guard in June 1919, Bertholf moved to New York City and became a vice president at the American Bureau of Shipping, becoming an influential figure at the institution. Since he had more leisure time after retirement, he developed an interest in genealogy and he researched and compiled a family history. He died of a heart attack at his residence at the Bretton Hall Hotel in New York City on 11 November 1921 and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

Legacy
Bertholf's contributions to the U.S. Coast Guard include preventing the dissolution of the service in 1911; his guidance in the merger of the USRCS and the USLSS into the U.S. Coast Guard in 1915; and in 1919, he was instrumental in successfully preventing a takeover by the U.S. Navy.

The U.S. Coast Guard has named the first cutter of the Legend-class maritime security cutters USCGC Bertholf (WMSL-750) in honor of their former commandant. The cutter is the first ship to be constructed as part of the Coast Guard's Deepwater program and was launched in 2006. Bertholf was commissioned on Coast Guard Day, 4 August 2008, and is currently homeported in Alameda, California.

title: Ellsworth P. Bertholf


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Paleo-Indians

Paleo-Indians were the first peoples who entered and subsequently inhabited the Americas towards the end of the Late Pleistocene period. The prefix paleo- comes from παλαιός. The term Paleo-Indians applies specifically to the lithic period in the Western Hemisphere and is distinct from the term Paleolithic.

Traditional theories suggest that big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from North Asia into the Americas over a land bridge (Beringia). This bridge existed from 45,000 to 12,000 BCE (47,000–14,000 BP). Small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 BCE (c. 18,500 BP), ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and valleys of North America. This allowed land animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the interior of the continent. The people went on foot or used boats along the coastline. The dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas remain subjects of ongoing debate. It is likely there were three waves of ancient settlers from the Bering Sea to the America continent.

Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Archeologists and anthropologists use surviving crafted lithic flaked tools to classify cultural periods. Scientific evidence links Indigenous Americans to eastern Siberian populations by the distribution of blood types, and genetic composition as indicated by molecular data, such as DNA. There is evidence for at least two separate migrations.

Paleoindians lived alongside and hunted many now extinct megafauna (large animals), with most large animals across the Americas becoming extinct towards the end of the Paleoindian period as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions. The potential role of human hunting in the extinctions has been the subject of much controversy.

From 8000 to 7000 BCE (10,000–9,000 BP) the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in a more sedentary lifestyle during the following Archaic Period.

Migration into the Americas
Researchers continue to study and discuss the specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled. The traditional theory holds that these early migrants moved into Beringia between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska 17,000 years ago, at a time when the Quaternary glaciation significantly lowered sea levels. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. An alternative proposed scenario involves migration, either on foot or using boats, down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would have been submerged by a sea-level rise of more than a hundred meters following the end of the Last Glacial Period.

The time range of the peopling of the Americas remains a source of substantial debate. Conventional estimates have it that humans reached North America at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago. However, some groups of humans may have reached South America as early as 25,000 years ago. One of the few areas of agreement is the origin from Siberia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, and more specifically after the end of the Last Glacial Maximum around 16,000 to 13,000 years before present.

Periodization
Sites in Alaska (eastern Beringia) exhibit some of the earliest evidence of Paleo-Indians, followed by archaeological sites in northern British Columbia, western Alberta and the Old Crow Flats region in the Yukon. The Paleo-Indians would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a wide geographical area; thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period's lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 60 members of an extended family. Food would have been plentiful during the few warm months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds and aquatic mammals. Nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a busy time because foodstuffs would have to be stored and clothing made ready for the winter. During the winter, coastal fishing groups moved inland to hunt and trap fresh food and furs.

Late ice-age climatic changes caused plant communities and animal populations to change. Groups moved and sought new supplies as preferred resources were depleted. Small bands utilized hunting and gathering during the spring and summer months, then broke into smaller direct family groups for the fall and winter. Family groups moved every 3–6 days, possibly traveling up to 360 km per year. Diets were often sustaining and rich in protein; clothing was made from a variety of animal hides that were also used for shelter construction. During much of the early and middle Paleo-Indian periods, inland bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct megafauna. Large Pleistocene mammals included the giant beaver, steppe wisent, giant muskox, mastodon, woolly mammoth and ancient reindeer.

The Clovis culture, appearing around 11,500 BCE (c. 13,500 BP) in North America, is one of the most notable Paleo-Indian archaeological cultures. It has been disputed whether the Clovis culture were specialist big-game hunters or employed a mixed foraging strategy that included smaller terrestrial game, aquatic animals, and a variety of flora. Paleo-Indian groups were efficient hunters and carried a variety of tools. These included highly efficient fluted-style spear points, as well as microblades used for butchering and hide processing. Projectile points and hammerstones made from many sources are found traded or moved to new locations. Stone tools were traded and/or left behind from North Dakota and Northwest Territories, to Montana and Wyoming. Trade routes also have been found from the British Columbia Interior to the coast of California.

The glaciers that covered the northern half of the continent began to gradually melt, exposing new land for occupation around 17,500–14,500 years ago. At the same time as this was occurring, worldwide extinctions among the large mammals began. In North America, camelids and equids eventually died off, the latter not to reappear on the continent until the Spanish reintroduced the horse near the end of the 15th century CE. As the Quaternary extinction event was happening, the late Paleo-Indians would have relied more on other means of subsistence.

From c. 10,500 BCE (c. 12,500 BP), the broad-spectrum big game hunters of the Great Plains began to focus on a single animal species: the bison (an early cousin of the American bison). The earliest known of these bison-oriented hunting traditions is the Folsom tradition. Folsom peoples traveled in small family groups for most of the year, returning yearly to the same springs and other favored locations on higher ground. There they would camp for a few days, perhaps erecting a temporary shelter, making and/or repairing some stone tools, or processing some meat, then moving on. Paleo-Indians were not numerous, and population densities were quite low.

Classification

Paleo-Indians are generally classified by lithic reduction or lithic core "styles" and by regional adaptations. Lithic technology fluted spear points, like other spear points, are collectively called projectile points. The projectiles are constructed from chipped stones that have a long groove called a "flute". The spear points would typically be made by chipping a single flake from each side of the point. The point was then tied onto a spear of wood or bone. As the environment changed with the ice age ending around 17–13 Ka BP on short, and around 25–27 Ka BP on the long, many animals migrated overland to take advantage of the new sources of food. Humans following these animals, such as bison, mammoth and mastodon, thus gained the name big-game hunters. Pacific coastal groups of the period would have relied on fishing as the prime source of sustenance.

Archaeologists are piecing together evidence that the earliest human settlements in North America were thousands of years before the appearance of the current Paleo-Indian time frame (before the late glacial maximum 20,000-plus years ago). Evidence indicates that people were living as far east as Beringia before 30,000 BCE (32,000 BP). Until recently, it was generally believed that the first Paleo-Indian people to arrive in North America belonged to the Clovis culture. This archaeological phase was named after the city of Clovis, New Mexico, where in 1936 unique Clovis points were found in situ at the site of Blackwater Draw, where they were directly associated with the bones of Pleistocene animals.

Recent data from a series of archaeological sites throughout the Americas suggest that Clovis (thus the "Paleo-Indians") time range should be re-examined. In particular, sites such as Cooper's Ferry in Idaho, Cactus Hill in Virginia, Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, Bear Spirit Mountain in West Virginia, Catamarca and Salta in Argentina, Pilauco and Monte Verde in Chile, Topper in South Carolina, and Quintana Roo in Mexico  have generated early dates for wide-ranging Paleo-Indian occupation. Some sites significantly predate the migration time frame of ice-free corridors, thus suggesting that there were additional coastal migration routes available, traversed either on foot and/or in boats. Geological evidence suggests the Pacific coastal route was open for overland travel before 23,000 years ago and after 16,000 years ago.

South America
In South America, the site of Monte Verde indicates that its population was probably territorial and resided in their river basin for most of the year. Some other South American groups, on the other hand, were highly mobile and hunted big-game animals such as gomphotheres and giant sloths. They used classic bifacial projectile point technology, such as Fishtail points.

The primary examples are populations associated with El Jobo points (Venezuela), fish-tail or Magallanes points (various parts of the continent, but mainly the southern half), and Paijan points (Peru and Ecuador) at sites in grasslands, savanna plains, and patchy forests.

The dating for these sites ranges from c. 14,000 BP (for Taima-Taima in Venezuela) to c. 10,000 BP. The bi-pointed El Jobo projectile points were mostly distributed in north-western Venezuela; from the Gulf of Venezuela to the high mountains and valleys. The population using them were hunter-gatherers that seemed to remain within a certain circumscribed territory. El Jobo points were probably the earliest, going back to c. 14,200 BP and they were used for hunting large mammals. In contrast, the fish-tail points, dating to c. 11,000 B.P. in Patagonia, had a much wider geographical distribution, but mostly in the central and southern part of the continent.

Archaeogenetics
The haplogroup most commonly associated with Amerindian genetics is Haplogroup Q-M3. Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This allows the historical pattern of mutations to be easily studied. The pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes: first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial layover on Beringia for the founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations, however, exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations that are distinct from other Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.

Evidence from full genomic studies suggests that the first people in the Americas diverged from Ancient East Asians about 36,000 years ago and expanded northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with a different Paleolithic Siberian population (known as Ancient North Eurasians), giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas.

Debate about megafauna extinction
Due to the evidence that Paleoindians hunted now extinct megafauna (large animals), and that following a period of overlap, most large animals across the Americas became extinct as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions, it has been argued by many authors that hunting by Paleoindians was an important factor in the extinctions, though this suggestion is controversial, with other authors placing the blame on climatic change. In a 2012 survey of archaeologists in The SAA Archaeological Record, 63% of respondents said that megafauna extinctions were likely the result of a "combination of factors".

Transition to archaic period

The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer, more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally. Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization like the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty, Dalton, and Plano traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, and a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables, and harvested plant foods. Many groups continued to hunt big game but their hunting traditions became more varied and meat procurement methods more sophisticated. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status in some groups.

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Third plague pandemic

The third plague pandemic was a major bubonic plague pandemic that began in Yunnan, China, in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents, and ultimately led to more than 12 million deaths in India and China (and perhaps over 15 million worldwide ), and at least 10 million Indians were killed in British Raj India alone, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history. According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1960, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. Plague deaths have continued at a lower level for every year since.

The name refers to the third of at least three known major plague pandemics. The first began with the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire and surrounding areas in 541 and 542; the pandemic persisted in successive waves until the middle of the 8th century. The second began with the Black Death, which killed at least one third of Europe's population in a series of expanding waves of infection from 1346 to 1353; this pandemic recurred regularly until the 19th century.

Casualty patterns indicate that waves of this late-19th-century/early-20th-century pandemic may have come from two different sources. The first was primarily bubonic and was carried around the world through ocean-going trade, through transporting infected persons, rats, and cargoes harboring fleas. The second, more virulent strain, was primarily pneumonic in character with a strong person-to-person contagion. This strain was largely confined to Asia.

Origins
The bubonic plague was endemic in populations of infected ground rodents in Central Asia and was a known cause of death among the migrant and established human populations in that region for centuries. An influx of new people because of political conflicts and global trade led to the spread of the disease throughout the world from Asia to the rest of Europe, to reach Africa and the Americas.

A natural reservoir or nidus for plague is in western Yunnan: it is still a health risk. The third pandemic of plague originated in the area after a rapid influx of Han Chinese to exploit the demand for minerals, primarily copper, in the second half of the 19th century. By 1850, the population had exploded to over 7 million people. Increasing transportation throughout the region brought people in contact with plague-infected fleas, the primary vector between the yellow-breasted or buff-breasted rat (Rattus flavipectus) aka Rattus tanezumi and humans. People brought the fleas and rats back into growing urban areas, where small outbreaks sometimes reached epidemic proportions. The plague spread further and began to appear in the Pearl River delta, including Canton and Hong Kong. Although William McNeil and others believe the plague to have been brought from the interior to the coastal regions by troops returning from battles against the Muslim rebels, Benedict suggested evidence to favor the growing and lucrative opium trade, which began after about 1840.

In the city of Canton, beginning in March 1894, the disease killed 80,000 people in a few weeks. Daily water-traffic with the nearby city of Hong Kong rapidly spread the plague. Within two months, after 100,000 deaths, the death rates dropped below epidemic rates, but the disease continued to be endemic in Hong Kong until 1929.

Global distribution
The network of global shipping ensured the widespread distribution of the disease over the next few decades. Recorded outbreaks included the following:

 * Yunnan, Qing China 1860–1870.
 * Beihai, Qing China 1882.
 * Guangzhou, Qing China 1894.
 * British Hong Kong 1894.
 * Japanese Taiwan, Empire of Japan 1896 (until 1923 Great Kantō earthquake).
 * Bombay Presidency, India, 1896–1898.
 * Calcutta, India, 1898.
 * French Madagascar, 1898.
 * Kobe, 1898.
 * Khedivate of Egypt, 1899.
 * Manchuria, China 1899.
 * Paraguay, 1899.
 * Porto, Portugal, 1899.
 * South Africa, 1899–1902.
 * Republic of Hawaii, 1899–1900.
 * Glasgow, United Kingdom, 1900.
 * San Francisco, United States, 1900.
 * Manila, 1900.
 * Australia, 1900–1905.
 * Russian Empire/Soviet Union, 1900–1927.
 * Fujian, China 1901.
 * Thailand, 1904.
 * British Burma, 1905.
 * French Tunisia, 1907.
 * Trinidad, Venezuela, Peru and Ecuador, 1908.
 * Bolivia and Brazil, 1908.
 * Freston, Suffolk, United Kingdom, 1910 (disputed)
 * Manchurian plague, 1911–1912.
 * Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1912.

Each of the areas, as well as Great Britain, France, and other areas of Europe, continued to experience plague outbreaks and casualties until the 1960s, although extremely few of these occurred after 1950. The last significant outbreak of plague associated with the pandemic occurred in Peru and Argentina in 1945.

1894 Hong Kong plague
The 1894 Hong Kong plague was a major outbreak of the third global pandemic from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. The first case, discovered in May 1894, was a hospital clerk who had just returned from Canton. The hardest hit was the mountainous area in Sheung Wan, the most densely-populated area in Hong Kong, characterised by Chinese-style buildings. From May to October 1894, the plague killed more than 6,000 people, leading to the exodus of one third of the population. In the 30 years starting in 1926, the plague occurred in Hong Kong almost every year and killed more than 20,000 people. Through maritime traffic, the epidemic spread to the rest of the country after 1894 and eventually spread to British Raj India where about ten million Indians were killed.

There were several reasons for the rapid outbreak and spread of the plague. Firstly, in the early days, Sheung Wan was a Chinese settlement. Houses — in the mountains — had no drainage channels, toilets, or running water. The houses were small and the floors were not paved. Secondly, during the Ching Ming Festival in 1894, many Chinese living in Hong Kong returned to the countryside to tend to family graves, which coincided with the outbreak of the epidemic in Canton and the introduction of bacteria into Hong Kong. Thirdly, in the first four months of 1894, rainfall decreased and soil dried up, accelerating the spread of the plague.

The main preventive measures were setting up plague hospitals and deploying medical staff to treat and isolate plague patients; conducting house-to-house search operations, discovering and transferring plague patients, and cleaning and disinfecting infected houses and areas; and setting up designated cemeteries and assigning a person responsible for transporting and burying the plague dead.

Disease research
Researchers working in Asia during the "Third Pandemic" identified plague vectors and the plague bacillus. In 1894, in Hong Kong, Swiss-born French bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin isolated the responsible bacterium (Yersinia pestis, named for Yersin) and determined the common mode of transmission. His discoveries led in time to modern treatment methods, including insecticides, the use of antibiotics and eventually plague vaccines. In 1898, French researcher Paul-Louis Simond demonstrated the role of fleas as a vector.

The disease is caused by a bacterium usually transmitted by the bite of fleas from an infected host, often a black rat. The bacteria are transferred from the blood of infected rats to flea (Xenopsylla cheopis). The bacillus multiplies in the stomach of the flea, blocking it. When the flea next bites a mammal, the consumed blood is regurgitated along with the bacillus into the bloodstream of the bitten animal. Any serious outbreak of plague in humans is preceded by an outbreak in the rodent population. During the outbreak, infected fleas that have lost their normal rodent hosts seek other sources of blood.

The British colonial government in India pressed medical researcher Waldemar Haffkine to develop a plague vaccine. After three months of persistent work with a limited staff, a form for human trials was ready. On January 10, 1897, Haffkine tested it on himself. After the initial test was reported to the authorities, volunteers at the Byculla jail were used in a control test. All inoculated prisoners survived the epidemics, while seven inmates of the control group died. By the turn of the century, the number of inoculees in India alone reached four million. Haffkine was appointed the Director of the Plague Laboratory (now called the Haffkine Institute) in Bombay.

Medical procedures implemented by new international health communities
In the early 1900s, despite the increasing knowledge of germ theory and the rapid growth of scientific communities around the prevention of major disease, there was little the international communities could do other than create standard protocols for how to deal with an outbreak of the plague. In 1897 and 1903, two conventions were held known as International Sanitary Conferences; the first in Venice and the second in Paris, to help deal with threat of the new outbreaks of the bubonic plague. From these conventions was formed an international disease convention supervised by the Office International d'Hygiene Publique (OIHP) in Paris which would be one of the major predecessors of the League of Nations health organization. From these conventions came the standard Protocols used in dealing with the bubonic plague throughout the early 1900s. These protocols were often old fashioned and were generally summarized as the 3 "I's": Isolation, Incineration, and Inoculation. Isolation is a standard protocol of many modern disease outbreaks, but the usage of incineration was a protocol of disease control used most uniquely for dealing with the bubonic plague. Burning was used often to deal with the Plague as it was believed to be the most effective way to eliminate strains of the disease from places inhabited by the infected. But it was also a problematic technique as it led to the creation of many out-of-control fires that devastated communities, the most notable being the great fire in Honolulu which devastated the Chinatown community there. Inoculation was the usage of newly invented plague vaccines, with some in India being recorded to have an efficacy of over 50%.

Social implications of the third plague pandemic
In many instances, the third plague pandemic either revealed or exacerbated major social conflicts and racial inequalities. Many of the ports infected during the plague were at the time in British colonies. Because of this, the British authorities often ended up enforcing western hygiene and medical practices and radical quarantine measures in countries and provinces such as India, South Africa and Hong Kong.

In India harsh quarantines were initially implemented by the British governments, leading to Indian resentment of quarantine measures. In South Africa, when the plague broke out in Cape Colony, the colonial government forced a large group of Black South Africans to move out of a supposed slum into areas on the outskirts of the city, which historians have argued as a racially-motivated move by White South Africans to segregate Blacks into other parts of the city. In Hong Kong the British enforced many locally unfamiliar medical practices, such as floating plague victims out on boats onto the water and cooling plague victims with ice, which scared many Chinese residents of Hong Kong and led to their migrating back to mainland China, which was then even more badly affected by the plague.

Another instance of social harm caused by the response to the plague is the "great fire of Honolulu" in 1900, in which much of Chinatown in Honolulu was burned by the Honolulu Board of Health in order to control the plague, rendering over 7,000 Chinese and Japanese residents homeless. In America when the plague reached San Francisco, the medical board of the city implemented a strict quarantine of the entire Chinatown district after discovering only one case of the plague; this has led historians to question whether this measure was motivated by racial bias among medical professionals.

title: Third plague pandemic


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Talk:Third plague pandemic

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 8 February 2021 and 21 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Dirisio117. Peer reviewers: Nashley12, Eruss5.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:18, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Began
Began this page as an extension of bubonic plague. Please see that article and the talk page. Related pages are the Black Death and the Plague of Justinian. Dissension on the topic is both scientific and historical. Some of the written references listed in the articles contain information on both sides. Comments welcome. WBardwin 06:31, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

A significant amount of new material particularly on worldwide outbreaks was added. Comments welcome. WBardwin 07:14, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Err, the World Distribution of Plague map is supposedly up through 1998, though it still has a line between East and West Germany.

Why "third"?
This may be better clarified if there is an explanation of what were considered the 'first' and 'second' pandemics even if naming this a 'third' pandemic was inaccurate.

L. Greg 23:44, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I added the heading in the Bubonic Plague page. There are three total pandemics.  Benjwong 05:24, 29 May 2007 (UTC)
 * That entry has since been moved to Plague (disease). As to the accuracy, it's only possibly accurate if this pandemic is described as "the third pandemic of Yersinia pestis", because there was at least one non-Yersinia pestis pandemic that came before: Antonine Plague.  Even then, it would be even more correct to describe it as "the third known pandemic of Yersinia pestis", since it's not unlikely that pandemics in ancient history or prehistory occurred but evidence was lost.  At the same time though, the further one goes back in time, "international trade" diminishes and disappears (e.g. Egypt↔India trade began ~3000BCE), reducing the opportunity for widespread dispersion.  --Underpants 18:20, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

Modern Public Health in India
Yogesh Khandke - I based that sentence on a couple of brief extracts, one from Echenberg, Myron J. Pestis Redux: The Initial Years of the Third Bubonic Plague Pandemic, 1894-1901 Journal of World History - Volume 13, Number 2, Fall 2002, pp. 429-449. But I would like to read that whole article before we decide to keep the section. Do you think I incorporated your work into the article correctly? Please feel free to change or shuffle things about. WBardwin (talk) 22:45, 2 September 2009 (UTC)

Recent deletion
Your recent deletion regarding "Disease research" seems to be a matter of opinion. You assert that the deleted statement was erroneous, citing Bidel, David J., and T. H. Chen. “Diagnosis of plague: An analysis of the Yersin-Kitasato controversy.” Bacteriological Reviews 40, no. 3. The current material in the article is supported in :  Orent, Wendy. "Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease". ( New York: Free Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7432-3685-8) as well as other recent work. Perhaps we should contrast the two points of view in this paragraph. WBardwin (talk) 01:57, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Map
Umm... this plague is supposed to be from 1855-1953, why does that map show 1970-1998? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.60.117.200 (talk) 21:33, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

 * The map does not show the outbreak of the disease. The Third Pandemic, with its ever widening episodes of plague, distributed the disease through the early modern transportation system. Showing the modern location of the disease causing agent, the map illustrates the fact that the plague bacillus is now a world wide potential threat.  WBardwin (talk) 21:10, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Death stat discrepancy
Early paragraph says that 12 million total people in China and India died from 1855-1959, but the later section on India says that 12.5 million people died in India alone. Don't have time to delve into the sources right now, but I thought I should point it out in case I don't get back to it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.24.18.102 (talk) 03:45, 1 November 2012 (UTC)

Rm commentary
Removed POV/OR commentary about how disease occurred "in spite of" a prophecy of Mohammed. –Roscelese (talk ⋅ contribs) 18:45, 18 February 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Third plague pandemic


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Red-legged honeycreeper

The red-legged honeycreeper (Cyanerpes cyaneus) is a small songbird species in the tanager family (Thraupidae). It is found in the tropical New World from southern Mexico south to Peru, Bolivia and central Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, and on Cuba, where possibly introduced. It is also rarely found in southern Texas.

Taxonomy
The red-legged honeycreeper was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Certhia cyanea. Linnaeus based his description on "The Black and Blue Creeper" that had been described and illustrated in 1760 by the English naturalist George Edwards from a specimen collected in Suriname. The red-legged honeycreeper is now placed in the genus Cyanerpes that was introduced in 1899 by the American ornithologist Harry C. Oberholser. The specific epithet cyaneus is a Latin word meaning "dark-blue".

Eleven subspecies are recognised:
 * C. c. carneipes (Sclater, PL, 1860) – east Mexico to Panama
 * C. c. pacificus Chapman, 1915 – west Colombia and w Ecuador
 * C. c. gigas Thayer & Bangs, 1905 – Gorgona Island (off west Colombia)
 * C. c. gemmeus Wetmore, 1941 – extreme north Colombia
 * C. c. eximius (Cabanis, 1851) – north, north-central Colombia to north Venezuela
 * C. c. tobagensis Hellmayr & Seilern, 1914 – Tobago
 * C. c. cyaneus (Linnaeus, 1766) – Trinidad, east Venezuela, the Guianas and north Brazil
 * C. c. dispar Zimmer, JT, 1942 – southeast Colombia and southwest Venezuela to northeast Peru
 * C. c. violaceus Zimmer, JT, 1942 – southeast Peru and west Brazil to central Bolivia
 * C. c. brevipes (Cabanis, 1851) – central Brazil
 * C. c. holti Parkes, 1977 – east Brazil

Description
The red-legged honeycreeper is on average 12.2 cm long, weighs 14 g and has a medium-long black, slightly decurved, bill. The male is violet-blue with black wings, tail and back, and bright red legs. The crown of its head is turquoise, and the underwing, visible only in flight, is lemon yellow. After the breeding season, the male moults into an eclipse plumage, mainly greenish with black wings.

Females and immatures are mainly green, with paler, faintly streaked underparts. The legs are red-brown in the female, and brown in young birds.

The call of red-legged honeycreeper is a thin, high-pitched tsip.

Several subspecies are known. Differences are generally slight, with the Tobago race  C. c. tobagensis being slightly larger than the mainland forms for example.

The purplish honeycreeper (Chlorophanes purpurascens), a bird from Venezuela known only from the type specimen, is considered to be an intergeneric hybrid between the green honeycreeper and either the red-legged honeycreeper or the blue dacnis.

Distribution and habitat
This is a species of forest edge, open woodland, and cocoa and citrus plantations. The red-legged honeycreeper is often found in small groups. It feeds on insects and some seeds, fruit and nectar. It responds readily to the (easily imitated) call of the ferruginous pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum).

Breeding
In Costa Rica red-legged honeycreepers generally breed between April and June. The nest is built entirely by the female and is placed in a shrub or tree several meters above the ground. The cup-shaped nest has thin side walls and is formed of stiff fibres. It is attached to the supporting twigs with cobwebs. The clutch consists of two eggs that are laid in early morning on consecutive days. They are 13.4 x in size and have a white background with brown speckles forming a ring around the larger end. The female incubates the eggs for 12 or 13 days. When they first hatch the nestlings have their eyes closed and are covered with tuffs of grey down. They are brooded by the female but fed by both parents. They fledge after around 14 days.

A specimen studied in the Parque Nacional de La Macarena of Colombia was found to be free of blood parasites.

Common and widespread, the red-legged honeycreeper is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN.

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Talk:Peter Dasent

Untitled
Does anybody pay attention to the "discussion page". If so, why? OK, my contribution is that we need more depth to Peter Dasent's bio. He seems a bit one-dimentional. Sounds like an art class critique. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Peter Dasent (talk) 06:34, 25 February 2005 (UTC)

There is only a stub article there, linked to a commercial site as I didn't find anything quickly that was better. If you want to expand the page, please do so. Cheers, Ross-c — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ross-c (talk • contribs) 09:47, 18 March 2005 (UTC)

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Miles of Plancy

Miles of Plancy (died 1174), also known as Milon or Milo, was a noble in the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem who served under King Almaric I, who was Seneschal of Jerusalem and ruled as Lord of Oultrejordain from 1173 until his death in 1174.

He was born in Plancy-l'Abbaye, Champagne and came to the east in the 1160s, where he served King Amalric I, to whom he was distantly related. Amalric made him seneschal of Jerusalem, and in 1167 he participated in Amalric's expedition to Egypt. He encouraged Amalric to make a treaty with Egypt rather than capturing it by force and submitting it to plunder; after Amalric returned home, Egypt quickly fell under the control of Nur ad-Din Zangi and his commander Shirkuh. This event would eventually lead to the union of Egypt and Syria under Saladin, an inauspicious outcome for the crusader kingdom.

In 1170 a fortress was built at Gaza by the Knights Templar, to defend against attacks from Egypt. Miles would not allow the unarmed inhabitants of the city to take shelter inside and many of them were killed when the city was attacked. In 1173 he married Stephanie of Milly, daughter of Philip of Milly and widow of Humphrey III of Toron. Through his marriage to Stephanie, he became lord of the castle of Montréal and Lord of Oultrejordain. The inheritance of Montréal was, however, to prove controversial: Stephanie had gained it on the death of her young niece, Beatrice Brisebarre. Beatrice's father, Walter III Brisebarre, had previously been forced to exchange his lordship of Beirut for a money fief; he was compensated for his sister-in-law's inheritance of Montréal with the much-inferior fief of Blanchegarde. The resentment of the Brisebarres may have been a significant factor in Miles's eventual murder.

In 1174 Amalric died, and Miles acted as an unofficial regent for his son and successor Baldwin IV, who, although stricken with leprosy, was crowned king in his own right. The chronicler William of Tyre did not like him, calling him "a brawler and a slanderer, ever active in stirring up trouble", and Miles insulted the other barons of the kingdom, especially those who were native easterners, by refusing to consult them on any matter. Count Raymond III of Tripoli came to Jerusalem and claimed the regency as Baldwin's nearest male relative. Raymond was supported by the other powerful native barons, including the king's stepfather Reginald of Sidon, Humphrey II of Toron (grandfather of Miles' stepson), and the brothers Baldwin of Ibelin and Balian of Ibelin.

In October 1174, Miles was assassinated in Acre. The Regni Iherosolymitani Brevis Historia, a continuation of the Annals of Genoa, blamed the killing on Walter III Brisebarre, former lord of Beirut, and his brother Guy. As noted above, Walter had been married to Helena of Milly, older sister of Miles's wife Stephanie, and it may be that the murder was a result of the private family feud over the fief of Montréal. It is also possible, as William of Tyre hinted, that the Brisebarre brothers, already aggrieved, had been further incited by Miles's political opponents. There is no direct evidence that Raymond was involved, but he was certainly the chief beneficiary. William of Tyre also reported that the assassination occurred because Miles was so fiercely loyal to Baldwin IV: he had refused to grant away crown lands.

Within days, the Haute Cour officially designated Raymond regent. Stephanie married Raynald of Châtillon, the widower of Constance of Antioch, in 1176.

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File:The-monkey-wrench-gang.jpg

Summary
Book cover of The Monkey Wrench Gang, by Edward Abbey, Dream Garden Press hardcover.

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User:Nemecode

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Ojinaga Municipality

Ojinaga Municipality (formally:  Manuel Ojinaga ) is one of the 67 municipalities of Chihuahua, in northern Mexico. The municipal seat lies at Ojinaga, a rural bordertown on the U.S.-Mexico border. The municipality has an area of 9,500.50 km2.

Geography
Ojinaga, named after Juarista governor Manuel Ojinaga, reported a 2010 census population of 22,744 people in the town, which serves as municipal seat of the municipality of 26,304 inhabitants. The municipality includes numerous very small outlying communities, the largest of which are El Oasis and Nueva Holanda.

Towns and villages
The municipality has 108 localities. The largest are:

Adjacent municipalities and counties

 * Manuel Benavides Municipality – southeast
 * Camargo Municipality – south
 * Julimes Municipality – southwest
 * Aldama Municipality – southwest
 * Coyame del Sotol Municipality – west
 * Guadalupe Municipality – northwest
 * Presidio County, Texas – north and northeast

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Comparables

Comparables (or comps) is a real estate appraisal term referring to properties with characteristics that are similar to a subject property whose value is being sought. This can be accomplished either by a real estate agent who attempts to establish the value of a potential client's home or property through market analysis or, by a licensed or certified appraiser or surveyor using more defined methods, when performing a real estate appraisal.

Factors
Five factors are usually considered when determining comparables:

 * Conditions of Sale: Did the comparable recently transact under conditions (e.g. arm's length, distress sale, estate settlement) which are consistent with the standard of value under which the appraisal is being performed?
 * Financing Conditions: Was the comparable transaction influenced by non-market or other favorable (or even unfavorable) financing terms? For example, if the comparable sold with a below-market interest rate provided by the seller, and if the standard of value (e.g. market value) assumes no such abnormal financing, then the appraiser may need to adjust the comparable price by an amount equal to the estimated impact of the favorable financing.
 * Market Conditions: This is often referred to as the time adjustment and accounts for changing prices over time.
 * Locational Comparability: Are the comparable and the subject property influenced by the same locational characteristics? For example, even two houses in the same neighborhood may have different views, which cause one to be more valuable than the other.
 * Physical Comparability: This includes such factors as size, condition, quality, and age.

Use in appraisals
A real estate appraisal is like any other statistical sampling process. The comparables are the samples drawn and measured, and the outcome is an estimate of value—called an "opinion of value" in the terminology of real estate appraisal. In most statistical sampling processes, a single best estimator is sought. However, since real estate markets are known to be highly inefficient, and market transaction data is subject to significant error, the appraisal process generally relies on multiple simultaneous approaches to value, with a judgmental reconciliation as the final step to arrive at the appraiser's opinion. Thus, comparable data is used in all the appraisal approaches.

Cost approach
This approach estimates the construction cost of the improvements, as if new, and deducts factors for depreciation, disutility, and external obsolescence. To this is added the value of the site and site improvements. The result is the value via the cost approach. Comparable data is used to estimate the site value, and may also be useful in estimating construction costs and other factors. In practice, however, most appraisers use standard costing services for cost estimates and use an age-life method for depreciation.

The cost approach was historically prepared as a part of most commercial real estate appraisals. However, the compunction to include the cost approach (when it was not relevant) has dissipated over the last 20 years.

The principle of substitution is the technical basis for employing the cost approach. According to the principal of substitution, a prudent buyer would not pay more than the cost to build a like property. In other words, one would not spend $2,000,000 to purchase a new apartment complex if they could build it for 1,500,000.

The cost approach value is the sum of the market value of the land, depreciated replacement cost and entrepreneurial effort. Land is typically valued using the sales comparison approach. The replacement cost is the cost to build a building of the same quality and functional utility as the subject property. (Reproduction cost is the cost to build an exact duplicate. This approach is used occasionally for old buildings built using materials and or types of craftsmanship not currently used.)

External obsolescence occurs when circumstances outside the subject property's boundaries negatively impact its value. For example, an office building in New York would suffer from external obsolescence if Manhattan office occupancy fell from 93% to 75%. A mansion built next to a slaughterhouse is another example of external obsolescence.

Entrepreneurial profit is the amount of compensation necessary to induce someone to organize the site, investors, debt, architecture, construction and leasing necessary to plan and build a property. The appropriate amount of entrepreneurial profit depends on factors such as competition, the difficulty of the project, market conditions and the wisdom of the developer's plan. In some cases, external or functional obsolescence prohibit entrepreneurial profit.

Following is a summary of the cost approach:

Market Value of Land + Replacement cost new of improvements - All forms of depreciation + Entrepreneurial Profit = Market Value via the Cost Approach

Sales comparison approach
This is the approach most commonly associated with the use of comparables. The appraiser seeks enough comparables (as few as three in a residential analysis, many more in a non-residential appraisal) and makes adjustments to the comparables' selling prices according to the various factors of comparison. For example, if a subject residence is 1000 sqft, but a comparable is 1,100, then the selling price of the comparable will be adjusted downward to account for this difference in value. The downward adjustment may be very small, since marginal prices of comparable factors are usually much lower than average prices over small ranges of values.

Income approach
This approach relies on discounted or capitalized estimates of future cash flows. Often, these future cash flows must be estimated using comparable income generating properties. Discount rates and capitalization rates are frequently estimated using recent sales of comparable properties, with appropriate adjustments to account for differential risk between the comparable and the subject.

Special situations
Appraisers are often called upon to estimate the impact of specific factors, such as contamination, an easement, or a construction defect. Appraisers who specialize in such work usually maintain databases of comparable transactions, case studies, or academic studies on which adjustments can reasonably be based.

Comp checks
Comparables may also be used when performing a "Comp Check", which slang for a simple analysis, usually performed by a real estate agent or broker, to estimate a potential range of selling prices or values. It is important to note that an actual real estate appraisal is usually performed in accordance with a set of standards, most commonly in the U.S. the Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice, or USPAP for short. There also are tools that can help home buyers or sellers estimate the value of their real estate property, but for a complete and comprehensive analysis of their property, potential clients should always rely on a licensed or certified appraiser's analysis.

title: Comparables