text:
Chaff (countermeasure)

Chaff, originally called Window or Düppel, is a radar countermeasure involving the dispersal of thin strips of aluminium, metallized glass fiber, or plastic. Dispersed chaff produces a large radar cross section intended to blind or disrupt radar systems.

Modern military forces use chaff to distract active radar homing missiles from their targets. Military aircraft and warships can be equipped with chaff dispensing systems for self-defense. During its midcourse phase, an intercontinental ballistic missile may release chaff along with its other penetration aids.

Contemporary radar systems can distinguish chaff from legitimate targets by measuring the doppler effect; chaff quickly loses speed after leaving an aircraft, and the resulting shift in wavelength of the radar return can be measured. To counter this, a chaff cloud can be illuminated by the defending vehicle with a doppler-corrected frequency. This is known as JAFF (jammer plus chaff) or CHILL (chaff-illuminated).

Second World War

The idea of using chaff developed independently in the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States and Japan. In 1937, British researcher Gerald Touch, while working with Robert Watson-Watt on radar, suggested that lengths of wire suspended from balloons or parachutes might overwhelm a radar system with false echoes and R. V. Jones had suggested that pieces of metal foil falling through the air might do the same. In early 1942, Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) researcher Joan Curran investigated the idea and came up with a scheme for dumping packets of aluminium strips from aircraft to generate a cloud of false echoes. An early idea was to use sheets the size of a notebook page; these would be printed so they would also serve as propaganda leaflets. It was found that the most effective version was strips of black paper backed with aluminium foil, exactly 27 × and packed into bundles each weighing 1 lb. The head of the TRE, A. P. Rowe, code-named the device "Window". In Germany, similar research had led to the development of Düppel. The German code name came from the estate where the first German tests with chaff took place, circa 1942. Once the British had passed the idea to the US via the Tizard Mission, Fred Whipple developed a system for dispensing strips for the USAAF, but it is not known if this was ever used.

The systems used the same concept of small aluminium strips (or wires) cut to a half of the target radar's wavelength. When hit by the radar, such lengths of metal resonate and re-radiate the signal. Opposing defences would find it almost impossible to distinguish the aircraft from the echoes caused by the chaff. Other radar-confusing techniques included airborne jamming devices codenamed Mandrel, Piperack, Jostle and Carpet. Mandrel was an airborne jammer targeted at the German Freya radars, while Carpet targeted the gun-laying Würzburg radar. Ignorance about the extent of knowledge of the principle in the opposing air force led planners to judge that it was too dangerous to use, since the opponent could duplicate it. The British government's leading scientific adviser, Professor Lindemann, pointed out that if the Royal Air Force (RAF) used it against the Germans, the Luftwaffe would quickly copy it and could launch a new Blitz. This caused concern in RAF Fighter Command and Anti-Aircraft Command, who managed to suppress the use of Window until July 1943. It was felt that the new generation of centimetric radars available to Fighter Command would cope with Luftwaffe retaliation.

Examination of the Würzburg radar equipment brought back to the UK during Operation Biting (February 1942) and subsequent reconnaissance revealed to the British that all German radars were operating in no more than three frequency ranges, making them prone to jamming. Arthur Travers "Bomber" Harris, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of RAF Bomber Command, finally got approval to use Window as part of Operation Gomorrah, the week long bombing campaign against Hamburg. The first aircrew trained to use Window were in 76 Squadron. Twenty-four crews were briefed on how to drop the bundles of aluminised-paper strips (treated-paper was used to minimise the weight and to maximise the time that the strips would remain in the air, prolonging the effect), one every minute through the flare chute, using a stopwatch to time them. The results proved spectacular. The radar-guided master searchlights wandered aimlessly across the sky. The anti-aircraft guns fired randomly or not at all and the night fighters, their radar displays swamped with false echoes, utterly failed to find the bomber stream. For over a week, Allied attacks devastated a vast area of Hamburg, resulting in more than 40,000 civilian deaths, with the loss of only 12 out of the 791 bombers on the first night. Squadrons quickly had special chutes fitted to their bombers to make chaff deployment even easier. Seeing this as a development that made it safer to go on operations, many crews got in as many trips as they could before the Germans found a counter-countermeasure.

Although the metal strips puzzled the German civilians at first, German scientists knew exactly what they were–Düppel—but had refrained from using it for the same reasons as Lindemann had pointed out to the British. For over a year the curious situation arose where both sides of the conflict knew how to use chaff to jam the other side's radar but had refrained from doing so for fear of their opponent replying in kind. Window rendered the ground-controlled Himmelbett (canopy bed) fighters of the Kammhuber Line unable to track their targets in the night sky and rendered the early UHF-band B/C and C-1 versions of the airborne intercept Lichtenstein radar (following the capture of a Junkers Ju 88R-1 night fighter by the British in May 1943 equipped with it) useless, blinding radar-guided guns and spotlights dependent on the ground-based radar. Oberst Hajo Herrmann developed Wilde Sau (Wild Boar) to cope with the lack of accurate ground guidance and led to the formation of three new fighter wings to use the tactic, numbered JG 300, JG 301 and JG 302. Ground operators would radio-direct single-seat fighters and night fighters to areas where the concentrations of chaff were greatest (which would indicate the source of the chaff) for the fighter pilots to see targets, often against the illumination from fires and searchlights below. A few of the single-seat fighters had the FuG 350 Naxos device to detect H2S radar (the first airborne, ground scanning radar system) emissions from the bombers.

Six weeks after the Hamburg raid, the Luftwaffe used Düppel in 80 × lengths during a raid on the night of 7/8 October 1943. In raids in 1943 and the "mini-blitz" of Operation Steinbock between February and May 1944, Düppel allowed German bombers again to attempt operations over London. Although theoretically effective, the small number of bombers, notably in relation to the large RAF night-fighter force, doomed the effort from the start. The British fighters were able to go aloft in large numbers and often found the German bombers in spite of Düppel. The Germans obtained better results during the air raid on Bari in Italy, on 2 December 1943, when Allied radars were deceived by the use of Düppel.

Following the British discovery of it in 1942 by Joan Curran, chaff in the United States was co-invented by astronomer Fred Whipple and Navy engineer Merwyn Bly. Whipple proposed the idea to the Air Force he was working with at the time. Early tests failed as the foil strips stuck together and fell as clumps to little or no effect. Bly solved this by designing a cartridge that forced the strips to rub against it as they were expelled, gaining an electrostatic charge. Since the strips all had a similar charge they repelled each other, enabling the full countermeasure effect. After the war, Bly received the Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award for his work.

In the Pacific Theatre, Navy Lieutenant Commander Sudo Hajime invented a Japanese version called Giman-shi, or "deceiving paper". It was first used with some success in mid 1943, during night battles over the Solomon Islands. Competing demands for the scarce aluminum necessary for its manufacture limited its use. On February 21, 1945, during the Battle of Iwo Jima, Giman-shi was successfully used prior to a Kamikaze attack on the USS Saratoga (CV-3).

Falklands War
British warships in the Falklands War (1982) made heavy use of chaff.

During this war, British Sea Harrier aircraft lacked their conventional chaff-dispensing mechanism. Therefore, Royal Navy engineers designed an improvised delivery system of welding rods, split pins and string, which allowed six packets of chaff to be stored in the airbrake well and be deployed in flight. It was often referred to as the "Heath Robinson chaff modification", due to its complexity.

Usage
Although chaff produces large amounts of scattered reflections potentially clogging a radar display it is easily filtered by virtue of it moving relatively slowly through the sky.

Radar can make use of the doppler effect to distinguish between chaff and target aircraft which are fast moving.

The doppler effect only occurs for the component of velocity parallel to the radar beam.

To overcome this in use large amounts of chaff are deployed and then the aircraft will turn so that it moves predominantly perpendicular to the radar source. It may also rotate to minimize its cross section exposed to the radar beam.

This leads to aircraft being more difficult to separate from the effectively stationary chaff and is known as "notching" as radar typically incorporate a notch of low sensitivity to frequencies associated with low velocity.

The effect is likely to be momentary against modern radar systems but can be prolonged by the use of Chill and Jaff as described below.

JAFF and CHILL
One of the important qualities of chaff is that it is lightweight, allowing large amounts to be carried. As a result, after release it quickly loses any forward speed it had from the aircraft or rocket launcher, and then begins to fall slowly to the ground. From the viewpoint of an enemy radar, the chaff quickly decays to zero relative velocity. Modern radars use the Doppler effect to measure the line-of-sight velocity of objects, and can thus distinguish chaff from an aircraft, which continues to move at high speed. This allows the radar to filter out the chaff from its display.

To counteract this filtering, the JAFF or CHILL technique has been developed. This uses an additional jammer broadcaster on the aircraft to reflect a signal off the chaff cloud that has the proper frequency to match that of the aircraft. This makes it impossible to use Doppler shift alone to filter out the chaff signal. In practice, the signal is deliberately noisy in order to present multiple false targets.

In essence, the JAFF technique is a low-cost offboard decoy, moving the jammers from the launcher platform to the decoy, and using the chaff as a reflector to provide angular separation.

Modern chaff
While foil chaff is still used by certain aircraft, such as the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bomber, this type is no longer manufactured. The chaff used by aircraft such as the Fairchild-Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, and McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet consists of aluminium-coated glass fibres. These fibre "dipoles" are designed to remain airborne for as long as possible, having a typical diameter of 1 mil, or 0.025 mm, and a typical length of 0.3 in to over 2 in. Newer "superfine" chaff has a typical diameter of 0.7 mil. The chaff is carried in tubular cartridges, which remain attached to the aircraft, each typically containing around 3 to 5 million chaff fibres. The chaff is ejected from the cartridge by a plastic piston driven by a small pyrotechnic charge.

Types of chaff
Chaff countermeasures come in two main types: continuous wave (CW) chaff, used against radar-guided missiles that operate on a continuous frequency, and pulsed chaff, used against missiles that operate on a pulsed frequency.

Environmental and health effects
There is not a lot of research on the public health and environmental effects of chaff. A U.S. Department of Defense-sponsored 1998 research review stated that the "widespread environmental, human and agricultural impacts of chaff as currently used in training are negligible and far less than those from other man-made emissions."

title: Chaff (countermeasure)


text:
Qitmir (dog)

In Islamic tradition, Qitmir (قطمير) was the dog that guarded the People of the Cave and stood by them all through their long sleep. His name, Qitmir, in Arabic is the name of a small membrane on separating a date from its seed. He is sometimes called Ar-Raqim (الرقيم), although narrations identify that Ar-Raqim was the name of the cave, or the name of a "brass plate, or stone table".

He is regarded as one of the most important animals of Islam. In Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Ibn Jurayj described Qitmir as lying outside the door on his stomach with his front legs stretched out. He was also said to be either the hunting dog of one of the Companions of the Cave, which is the more accepted view, or the dog of the king’s chef, who accepted the Ashābul-Kahf's religious views, and brought Qitmir with him.

In the Quran
In Al-Kahf, the following is mentioned: "And you would have thought they were awake, while they were actually asleep. And We turned them on their right and on their left sides, and their dog stretching forth his two forelegs at the entrance [of the Cave]. Had you looked at them, you would certainly have run away from them, and would certainly have been filled with awe of them."

Alleged skull
Arab archaeologist Rafiq Al-Dajani entered the Cave of the Seven Sleepers in Al-Rajib in 1963, where he allegedly found seven graves, and part of a dog's skull on the door of the cave.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Qitmir (dog)


text:
Cogenhoe

Cogenhoe is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Cogenhoe and Whiston, in the West Northamptonshire district, in the ceremonial county of Northamptonshire, England. The civil parish of Cogenhoe and Whiston had a population at the 2011 census of 1,436.

The village of Cogenhoe is some five miles (8 km) east of the county town, Northampton. Cogenhoe is situated on high ground overlooking the Nene Valley. It has grown into a large village with varied amenities including football, cricket and bowls clubs.

The village has a number of facilities including the sports clubs listed below. Other facilities include a village pub (the Royal Oak), a village shop (Londis), Cogenhoe and Whiston Village Hall and Playing Fields, the Church Rooms, the Cogenhoe Sports and Social Club and a primary school (Cogenhoe Primary School).

Civil parish
On 1 April 1935, the parish of Whiston was merged with Cogenhoe. On 21 January 1980, the new parish was renamed to "Cogenhoe & Whiston". In 1931 the parish of Cogenhoe (prior to the merge) had a population of 461.

History
In prehistory, the Nene valley was a system of braided channels with Neolithic and later, Bronze Age humans living in around the area. The main evidence from these periods is the many flint tools which have been found including arrow heads, scrapers, boring tools and an axe-head. On top of the hill towards Cogenhoe Firs, and almost halfway between Cogenhoe and Whiston (the nearest hamlet), one group of people were actively engaged in making these tools and possibly trading them.

Their little settlement looked north and down into the river valley where, over many years, they constructed a barrow cemetery of at least six large mounds, each presumably containing at least one grave of an important member of the community. Only one of these mounds has survived the plough and is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument and can be seen from the footpath to Earls Barton.

There were a number of Iron Age settlements in the Parish including one in Short Lane. A later settlement took root on the south side of Cogenhoe Firs and developed into an important Romano-British settlement which lasted for several hundred years. Apart from a villa with mosaic floors, there were many other buildings with a variety of uses. Iron slag suggests that they had learned to use the local ores for smelting and other materials included copper alloy and glass were also used. A large number of bronze coins were found over the years and a grave with a small child was discovered in 1959. The body had been buried with two small pewter dishes beside it.

Another Romano-British villa was built on the southern rim of the valley and east of Whiston. Still to be excavated, this villa had glass windows and other high status building materials. In Cogenhoe village, north of Station Road, a number of skeletons from the Romano-British period have been found. One group of three included two children and an adult with a snake’s head bracelet on their wrist. Another, decapitated skeleton was found with its head lying between its legs. Yet another skeleton, also decapitated was left to lie in peace in one of the gardens off Station Road and is still there to this day. One of the front gardens in Corn Kiln Close is home to the Roman corn drying kiln that lies preserved there and which gives the Close its name. When the E-shaped kiln was excavated in the early 1960s, a variety of finds included animal bones, antlers, quern stones (for grinding corn), a bronze brooch, a buckle and numerous coins were found. There were even carbonised grains of corn left by the Roman farmer.

Later pottery from the Dark Ages has been found west of Cogenhoe Church (St Peters). This may have belonged to the first Christians to worship there. Later Saxon pottery was also found further to the west and it was probably these people who gave Cogenhoe its name. The name, Cogenhoe, has two elements to it. The second, ...hoe, is easy to interpret – having a topographical origin. A hoe was a spur of land, usually overlooking a valley. Other Northamptonshire examples include Farthinghoe and Wadenhoe. The first part of the name is problematic. It could refer to a personal name – Cucga’s Hoe. A 19th century cleric believed that it was a corruption of the Latin word, gucken; if so it became Gucken Hoe or Spy Hill. Latin place names though are rare and it is more likely that it is a corruption of a Germanic word which may have the same or similar meaning – a lookout place (modern German gucken means "to watch").

At Cogenhoe, a medieval settlement north of the church which included narrow closes and a fishpond also became empty – probably by the early modern period. At Domesday, there was a third settlement or manor that was centred on the present Cotton Farm where a number of houses were shown on the later Cogenhoe map of 1630. These were in the field to the south of Cotton Farm but then seem to have disappeared soon after – possibly by fire. A large quantity of pottery and other finds have been discovered on this site, and a crudely made stone cross base was found in a wall on Cotton Hill in the 1960s.

Apart from agriculture the village has, over time, supported other industries. Until the 19th century, this was a woollen and textiles area, but from the mid 19th century until shortly after the Second World War, Cogenhoe became a boot and shoe village, with the Mann family first working from a converted cottage in Church Street, then to a purpose-built factory in Whiston Road. When that burnt down in 1909, a replacement factory was built in Short Lane which was used until the late 1940s, when production ceased and it became a bus garage. That too was destroyed by fire in the early 1970s.

Alongside the boot and shoe industry was the remains of the hand lace trade. It was a cottage-based industry with a lace school in Church Street where children might have been taught the basic 3Rs and the Catechism but also and more importantly, how to make bone lace. By the late 19th century, this ancient craft was gradually being driven into decline by the Nottinghamshire machine lace industry, but it still exists today as a hobby or past-time practised by very skilled craftspeople.

One of the most important factors in encouraging industrial growth in the area was the opening of the Blisworth to Peterborough Railway (the Northampton and Peterborough Railway) in 1845. Operated by the London and North Western Railway Company (LNWR), it became a very busy line with stations at Billing Road, west of Cogenhoe, and Castle Ashby (Castle Ashby & Earls Barton railway station), east of Whiston. Many local men worked on the line as plate-layers, signalmen and porters, and the busy goods yard at Billing dispatched agricultural produce and boots and shoes out to the larger centres and accepted coal, fertiliser and many other goods for local customers.

Cogenhoe was involved in the extractive industries. Digging for iron ore began at Cogenhoe in the late 1850s with opencast quarrying and mines – the latter of which, according to local lore, collapsed one lunchtime while the men were away having their midday meals. The mines were for whatever reason opened out in about 1868. The quarries continued up the hill towards the Firs. These quarries were connected to the main London and North Western Railway in the valley by way of narrow gauge and standard gauge private branch-lines. The narrow gauge line was cable worked taking the ore down to a tipping dock on the standard gauge branch. In about 1870, the operation moved west with a standard gauge line running through what is now the Pocket Park to the Ironstone field south of the Playing Fields. A short narrow gauge branch always worked by hand or horses connected that quarry to the standard gauge branch. The standard gauge line was originally operated by gravity and horses, the loaded wagons coasting down the gradient from the western end of the line to just south of the road near Roe Farm. However steam locomotives were introduced in 1880 or shortly afterwards.

As well as quarrying for limestone and operating lime kilns on the south side of Whiston Road, the iron ore industry at Cogenhoe was also associated with a brickworks west of Roe Farm. There, ‘commons’ and ‘facings’ were made from local clay – the latter bearing the legend, ‘COGENHOE’ in the frog. However, the economic depression of the late 1880s saw the end of both iron ore extraction and brick-making at Cogenhoe. The pond to the west of Roe Farm is the remains of a brick pit. After a lull of some 25 years, iron ore extraction started again, but this time on the Whiston side of the Firs. Stimulated by the need for iron and steel for war materials, the Whiston Pits were opened by J.W. Pain in 1914. As well as iron ore, the overlying limestone was removed and also ganister, a mineral used to line furnaces with.

Using more modern, steam-operated machinery, the quarrying eventually burst through into the old Cogenhoe workings. Brand new equipment was used, including a standard gauge steam locomotive made by Andrew Barclay Sons & Co. which was kept in a brick engine shed on the side of the Hill, just west of Whiston village. In 1917, the works were leased out, and they then changed hands several times before closing in about 1922. The engine was transferred to the Hunsbury Hill Furnaces who bought out the company. The little engine shed has long since gone, but the old workings and railway tracks can still be picked out in the landscape.

At Cogenhoe, the pre-war coach firm of York Brothers (George and Fred York) continued to flourish in the 1950s. They operated a stage carriage route between Wollaston and Northampton, via many of the local villages, but, also ran a travel company with coach excursions to all parts of the country. As their bus fleet grew, they swallowed up several of the smaller concerns and became not just an important local employer but also developed a national reputation for quality. Yorks, as part of a bigger concern, finally closed for business in 2012.

In the 1960s, Midland Capacitors established themselves in Church Street, making components for black and white televisions. For some time, every television in the country had parts made at Cogenhoe. The company lasted for some years and, like the boot and shoe factories before it, also provided a lot of out-work for local people.

Cogenhoe has undergone a major explosion of growth since the 1960s. Formerly a market gardening village, one by one the allotments and orchards have given way to new housing estates as the village has gradually transformed into a commuter settlement.

Cogenhoe is now largely a commuter village, with most people working in Northampton or further afield due to its road links with the A45 and M1 motorway.

St Peter’s Church
From at least the reign of Henry II when William de Cogenhoe erected a small church, and probably much earlier, a place of worship has stood on this spot in Church Street in the old part of the village.

Between 1225 and 1280 Nicholas de Cogenhoe, believed to be a Crusader, built a new church, and his effigy rests today in the South aisle of St. Peter’s. The son of Nicholas, William de Cogenhoe, opened up an arch on the north side of the chancel in AD 1320 and built a Chantry Chapel to Our Lady. About 20 years later William’s son, Giles de Cogenhoe, widened the nave and added the north and south aisles and a Founders’ Chapel in the south aisle.

The grandson of Giles was another William de Cogenhoe, who began building the clerestory about 1360. The south porch was added in 1380, and about this time William’s daughter, Agnes, built the tower as a memorial to her father. The registers of St. Peter’s dated from 1568 and include a census of the village taken in 1624. By the north door is a Blackletter King James Bible dated 1617.

Within the belfry hang six bells ranging from 3 cwts 3 qtrs to 8 cwts 3 qtrs (187 kg to 437 kg). Two were originally cast in 1678, while another was of unknown 14th-century origin. These three were recast and rehung with the additions in 1909. The bells were further turned and re-hung in 2003 by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, who operate the largest bell foundry in the world.

Architectural features of special interest include ten shields and nine heads on pillars and corbels. The church is grade II* listed.

The church is part of the United Benefice of Cogenhoe and Great Houghton and Little Houghton with Brafield on the Green, in the Peterborough Diocese.

Pocket Park
In 1984 Cogenhoe was one of the first Pocket Parks to be set up under Northamptonshire County Council's scheme and indeed one of the first in the country. The land is on the Compton Estate which adjoins Castle Ashby House in an area which could not be used for agriculture. The park is leased to the Cogenhoe and Whiston Parish Council and managed by the Cogenhoe Pocket Park Management Group.

Access to the park is via Short Lane off Station Road near the Royal Oak Pub. Previously the site was used for ironstone extraction for buildings in the village. The park contains a ford and the remains of the old ironstone railway.

Cogenhoe or Short Lane Pocket Park is a beautiful woodland with a stream and pond and is managed for the enjoyment of the public and the protection of wildlife.

The park is divided into two areas: A byway leading to farm buildings and fields, this passes through the ford and the banks are sometimes grazed by cows and a broad gully dominated by ash trees and to the southern end aspen and poplars.

In general the spinney has been left to its own devices, but maintained in such a way to allow safe access. A quarter of the spinney has been coppiced to allow for natural regeneration and replanted with trees typical of this part of Northamptonshire. The pond, which is popular with breeding amphibians is kept as natural as possible.

Butterflies including Speckled Wood, Fungi including Jew's ear, Stag's horn and Shaggy Parasol and two nationally rare beetles: Magdalis barbicornis and Kissophagus hederae have been identified in the park.

Sport
Despite Cogenhoe's size it manages to support a number of successful sporting ventures, attracting players and members from across Northamptonshire.

Cogenhoe United Football Club
Their early days were not documented and are now obscure. Inter-village friendlies gradually led to membership of the now extinct Central Village League. A variety of pitches were used until in 1950 the first game, against Northampton Yeomanry, was played on the then new playing field. United ceased to exist after 1958, and re-formed for the 1967-8 season, competing in the Central Northants Football Combination. By 1978 the club had progressed from the Second Division into the Premier Division. In a six-year period thirteen winners' and six runners-up trophies were won. Development of facilities became paramount for promotion into the United Counties Football League. A lease on 3.6 acre of agricultural land was obtained from the Marquis of Northampton. Compton Park was now on the map and purpose-built facilities were developed with a spectator stand and the team gained promotion into the UCFL for the season 1985-6.

Cogenhoe Cricket Club
The club currently (2018) play at Cogenhoe Playing Fields in Division 5 (1st XI) and Division 10 (2nd XI) of the Northamptonshire Cricket League.

Cogenhoe Bowls Club
The village also hosts a thriving mixed club, with approximately 70 members.

Community Life

 * 1st Cogenhoe Sea Scout Group
 * Cogenhoe and Whiston Heritage Society - study, record and stimulate interest in the history and heritage of the two villages
 * Ladies Fellowship - Ladies group connected to St Peters Church
 * Mature Movers - Gentle fitness classes aimed at improving overall fitness, flexibility, balance and coordination in the 50+ age group
 * Walking for Health Group - relatively short fortnightly walks

Notable residents
Former Blue Peter presenter Peter Purves lived for a number of years at the Old Rectory

The mystery writer Sheila Robinson, known for her work under the pseudonyms Sheila Radley and Hester Rowan, was from Cogenhoe.

title: Cogenhoe


text:
Off-label use

Off-label use is the use of pharmaceutical drugs for an unapproved indication or in an unapproved age group, dosage, or route of administration. Both prescription drugs and over-the-counter drugs (OTCs) can be used in off-label ways, although most studies of off-label use focus on prescription drugs.

Off-label use is very common and generally legal unless it violates ethical guidelines or safety regulations. The ability to prescribe drugs for uses beyond the officially approved indications is commonly used to good effect by healthcare providers. For example, methotrexate is commonly used off-label because its immunomodulatory effects relieve various disorders. However, off-label use can entail health risks and differences in legal liability. Marketing of pharmaceuticals for off-label use is usually prohibited.

Indications and labeling laws
An indication is when a drug is medically appropriate for a given condition; an approved indication is when a government drug regulatory agency formally agrees that the drug is medically appropriate for the named condition. Indications may depend not only upon the medical condition that is being treated, but also upon other factors, such as dose, the patient's age, size and sex, whether the patient is pregnant or breastfeeding, and other medical conditions. For example, aspirin is generally indicated for a headache, but it is not indicated for headaches in people with an allergic reaction to it.

When the drug's manufacturer has received a marketing authorisation from the government agency, then it is allowed to promote the drug for the specific, agreed-upon approved indications in that country. All legally approved indications are listed on the drug package insert or "label". Drug manufacturers are not legally permitted to encourage the use of regulated drugs for any indications that have not been formally approved by the country's government, even if significant scientific evidence exists for that unapproved indication, or if another country's drug agency has approved that indication.

However, healthcare providers are not required to limit prescriptions or recommendations to the indications approved by their country's drug regulatory body. In fact, the standard of care for many conditions involves off-label uses, either as first-line therapy or as a subsequent line. In other words, properly understanding why off-label use is common and usually appropriate, rather than rare and usually inappropriate, requires understanding that the distinction between regulatory-agency-approved use versus off-label use is not the same distinction as safe versus unsafe, tested versus untested, or good versus bad; it is a marker of increased certainty about a use being good (safe and effective), as opposed to less certainty—rather than a marker of good as opposed to bad. Regulatory approval for an indication requires a body of evidence that costs money to assemble, and as with evidence-based medicine generally, the desire for a vast, high-quality evidence base is an ideal that real-world practice can only aspire to and further approach, rather than completely match; there may not be enough resources to test every drug for every possible or logical indication to an exhaustive degree. Regulation of therapy freedom thus takes an approach in which anything not explicitly forbidden is allowed rather than an approach in which anything not explicitly allowed is forbidden, and it is accepted that drugs may be used in off-label ways as long as a competent professional prescribes them.

Frequency of off-label use
Off-label use is very common. Generic drugs generally have no sponsor as their indications and use expands, and incentives are limited to initiate new clinical trials to generate additional data for approval agencies to expand indications of proprietary drugs. Up to one-fifth of all drugs are prescribed off-label and amongst psychiatric drugs, off-label use rises to 31%.

Among use of antipsychotic medications in the United States, a shift occurred from typical agents in 1995 (84% of all antipsychotic visits) to atypical agents by 2008 (93%). Atypical use has grown far beyond substitution for the now infrequently used typical agents.

A 2009 study found that 62% of U.S. pediatric office visits from 2001 to 2004 included off-label prescribing, with younger children having a higher chance of receiving off-label prescriptions. Specialist physicians also prescribed off-label more frequently than general pediatricians. In 2003, passage of the Pediatric Research Equity Act gave the FDA power to require pharmaceutical companies to perform clinical trials in all age groups in which clinical use is reasonably foreseeable. By some estimates, the number of clinical trials performed in children from 2002 to 2012 exceeded that in the prior 50 years.

In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a statement regarding off-label use of pharmaceuticals in children. The article recommends to pediatricians that "Off-label use is neither incorrect nor investigational if based on sound scientific evidence, expert medical judgment, or published literature" and that "Evidence, not label indication, remains the gold standard from which practitioners should draw when making therapeutic decisions for their patients." The statement further advocates additional support and additional incentives for clinical testing of drugs in children, and publication of all results irrespective of positive outcome.

A study published in 2006 found that off-label use was the most common in anticonvulsants. The study also found that 73% of off-label use had little or no scientific support.

By default, use of non-approved drugs is common in obstetrics. By 2010, during almost five decades of activity, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had approved only two drugs for obstetrical indications, namely oxytocin and dinoprostone. A small market and the high risk of medicolegal action, as exemplified by the Bendectin case, may explain the reluctance to develop drugs for approval.

Some drugs are used more frequently off-label than for their original, approved indications. A 1991 study by the U.S. General Accounting Office found that one-third of all drug administrations to cancer patients were off-label, and more than half of cancer patients received at least one drug for an off-label indication. A 1997 survey of 200 cancer physicians by the American Enterprise Institute and the American Cancer Society found that 60% of them prescribed drugs off-label. In some cases, patients may perceive the efficacy of treatments for off-label purposes to be higher than for their indicated purpose. Frequently, the standard of care for a particular type or stage of cancer involves the off-label use of one or more drugs. An example is the use of tricyclic antidepressants to treat neuropathic pain. This old class of antidepressants is now rarely used for clinical depression due to side effects, but the tricyclics are often effective for treating pain (e.g. neuropathy), as well as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) particularly in adults.

Society and culture
Drug manufacturers market drugs for off-label use in a range of ways. Marketing practices around off-label use have caused various of lawsuits and settlements about inappropriately promoting drugs. Some of those lawsuits have ended granting the largest pharmaceutical settlements in the world.

In the United States in 2017, the government is considering allowing direct-to-consumer advertising to promote off-label drug use. The appointment of Scott Gottlieb to become head of the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) furthered discussion, as this person advocates to allow that sort of promotion.

Regulation in the United States
In the United States, once a drug has been approved for sale for one purpose, physicians are free to prescribe it for any other purpose that in their professional judgment is both safe and effective, and are not limited to official, FDA-approved indications. Pharmaceutical companies are not allowed to promote a drug for any other purpose without formal FDA approval. Marketing information for the drug will list one or more indications, that is, illnesses or medical conditions for which the drug has been shown to be both safe and effective.

This off-label prescribing is most commonly done with older, generic medications that have found new uses but have not had the formal (and often costly) applications and studies required by the FDA to formally approve the drug for these new indications. However, there is often extensive medical literature to support the off-label use.

A leading example of how regulatory agencies approach off-label use is provided by the FDA's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, which reviews a company's New Drug Application (NDA) for clinical trial data to see if the results support the drug for a specific use or indication. If satisfied that the drug is safe and effective, the drug's manufacturer and the FDA agree on specific language describing dosage, route of administration, and other information to be included on the drug's label. More detail is included in the drug's package insert.

The FDA approves a drug for prescription use, and continues to regulate the pharmaceutical industry's promotional practices for that drug through the work of the Office of Prescription Drug Promotion (OPDP, formerly the Division for Drug Marketing, Advertisement and Communication (DDMAC). The FDA does not have the legal authority to regulate the practice of the medicine, and the physician may prescribe a drug off-label. Contrary to popular notion, it is legal in the United States and in many other countries to use drugs off-label, including controlled substances such as opiates. Actiq, for example, is commonly prescribed off-label even though it is a Schedule II controlled substance. While it would be legal for a physician to independently decide to prescribe a drug such as Actiq off-label, it is illegal for the company to promote off-label uses to prescribers. In fact, Cephalon, the maker of Actiq, was fined for illegal promotion of the drug in September 2008. Under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) at U.S.C. 21 §§301-97, manufacturers are prohibited from directly marketing a drug for a use other than the FDA-approved indication. However, in December 2012, the United States Second Circuit Court found that promotion of off-label uses by a company sales representative was considered to be protected speech per the First Amendment. In addition, the Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 created an exception to the prohibition of off-label marketing, allowing manufacturers to provide medical practitioners with publications on off-label uses of a drug, in response to an unsolicited request. In 2004, the federal government and whistleblower David Franklin reached a $430 million settlement in Franklin v. Parke-Davis to resolve claims that Warner-Lambert engaged in off-label promotion of Neurontin in violation of the FDCA and the False Claims Act. At the time, the settlement was one of the largest recoveries against a pharmaceutical company in U.S. history, and the first off-label promotion settlement in U.S. history.

Litigation around the marketing of ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid (E-EPA, branded as "Vascepa") by Amarin Corporation led to a 2015 court decision that has changed the FDA's approach to off-label marketing. E-EPA was the second fish oil drug to be approved, after omega-3 acid ethyl esters (GlaxoSmithKline's Lovaza which was approved in 2004 ) and sales were not as robust at Amarin had hoped. The labels for the two drugs were similar, but doctors prescribed Lovaza for people who had triglycerides lower than 500 mg/dL based on some clinical evidence. Amarin wanted to actively market E-EPA for that population as well which would have greatly expanded its revenue, and applied to the FDA for permission to do so in 2013, which the FDA denied. In response, in May 2015 Amarin sued the FDA for infringing its First Amendment rights, and in August 2015 a judge ruled that the FDA could not "prohibit the truthful promotion of a drug for unapproved uses because doing so would violate the protection of free speech". The ruling left open the question of what the FDA would allow Amarin to say about E-EPA, and in March 2016 the FDA and Amarin agreed that Amarin would submit specific marketing material to the FDA for the FDA to review, and if the parties disagreed on whether the material was truthful, they would seek a judge to mediate.

Regulation in the United Kingdom
Physicians in the United Kingdom can prescribe medications off-label. According to General Medical Council guidance, the physician must be satisfied that there is sufficient evidence or experience of using the medicine to demonstrate safety and efficacy. Prescribing may be necessary when no suitably licensed medicine is available to meet the patient's need (or when the prescribing is part of approved research).

Veterinary medicines
The veterinarian has a much smaller pharmacopeia available than does the human practitioner. Therefore, drugs are more likely to be used "off-label" – typically, this involves the use of a human medication in an animal, where there is no corresponding medication licensed for that species. This problem is compounded in "exotic" species (such as reptiles and rodents) where there are very few, if any licensed medications. In addition, especially in Europe, equine veterinarians are forced to use many drugs off-label, as the horse is classified as a "food-producing animal" and many veterinary drugs are labeled specifically not for use in animals intended for human consumption.

In the United States, this practice is permitted by the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-396). The FDA specifically prohibits extralabel use of a number of antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs and hormones in food producing animals. FDA also tightly controls the use of certain veterinary-prescribed drugs when administered in the feed of food-producing animals.

title: Off-label use


text:
Talk:Ulladulla, New South Wales

Copyediting
moved chatty personal observations here, this needs to be copyedited and rewritten in an encyclopedic style and personal asides removed:

 * The most notable surf location is off the old 9 hole golf course in Mollymook (Viewable from Golf road). The surf spot is called of course, Golf course and is an off shore solid left hand break, that ends in a small bay. The other side of the bay is called Collis, named after the private beach on the bay (Collis Beach). Collis has right hand breaks that break closer to the rocks, and are a much slimer wave. If your a beginner, you surf Mini Collis which is continuation of the collis break into the bay.

definately not collers.its collers or colliers by the way(depends on preference). its maybe potholes(off a dirt track just south of Dolphin Point), guillotines(just north of Bawley Point) or lobster jacks(just south of ulladulla harbour). it depends on what type of wave you like and your experience. definately not collers. i live in ulladulla and i know. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.229.1.152 (talk) 09:24, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Diving is good just about everywhere. Beginner dives can be done on most rock hop sights with the Bannister Head site being the most popular as it has a very pretty and well fish stocked Bommy about 80 meters off shore. The water is always divable in all but cyclone conditions. Boat dives can be done from the towns single dive shop, at several locations and even includes a few wrecks that sit about 80ft of water. The visability is usually about 30ft, varying usually out to about 50. Occasionally the 'ocean blue' currents come in and the visability goes out to 100ft.

 * There are two golf courses in the area, both in Mollymook. The original is off golf road, and is an easy 9 hole. The other is accessed off Ocean Street, and is an 18 hole course, with a much harder PAR. Both courses are spectacular in their situations surrounded by nature.

 * If you visit the towns tourist centre you can track down some of the old coastal railways that are rusted remains now. Pidgeon House mountain is about 40 mins drive from Ulladulla and presents about a 4 hour walk up and back, with views that are breath taking. The entire track has been imacularly paved by the local forestry, and even your granny could get up there. Make sure you sign the visitors book, and take some water and food with you. If your brave and have a guide, or a good map and compass, you can visit the Castle. Thats a 12 hour return walk, so you need to be in that carpark by sunrise, as you get back and sun down. Take some smart clothes as weather can change quickly. There are some spectacular views in that particular range, all accessable by dirt roads and preferably a 4wd. The views rival that from the Lord of the Rings movie. I know, I grew up there :-)

look i live in ulladulla and the mean temperatures are soooooo wrong. i went onto Bureau of Meteorology and looked it up. i edited it but someone keeps changing it back.LOOK AT THESE WEBSITES!IT WILL TELL YOU! http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/cgi_bin_scripts/annual-monthly-minmax-temperature.cgi http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/cgi_bin_scripts/annual-monthly-minmax-temperature.cgi i have lived here all my life and it has NEVER gone into the minus range! please fix it up!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.229.1.152 (talk) 09:07, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

—The preceding unsigned comment was added by Clarkk (talk • contribs) 22:42, 27 February 2005   (UTC+11 hours)

title: Talk:Ulladulla, New South Wales


text: Template:BEL

title: Template:BEL


text:
Zhuxian, Henan

Zhūxiān is a town located at the southwest of the city of Kaifeng in eastern Henan province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Xiangfu District. The Gulu River runs through the town. In ancient times, the river was a large tributary of the Huai River, and one could reach Yangzhou of Jiangsu via the waterways. From the Tang dynasty to Republican China, the town was in an important strategic position for land and riverborne communications. During the Southern Song dynasty, general Yue Fei won an important battle against the Jin at nearby Yancheng and advanced to Zhuxian. Along with Foshan, Jingde, and Hankou, Zhuxian is regarded as one of the "four ancient towns of Qing dynasty China". In 2007, Zhuxian was included in the list of 10 most beautiful village-towns in China.

title: Zhuxian, Henan


text:
User:Geni/3RR

Three revert rule
You have been blocked for 24 hours under the three revert rule. If you wish to appeal please contact another administrator or the mailing list.

title: User:Geni/3RR


text:
Cottingham, Northamptonshire

Cottingham is a village and civil parish in North Northamptonshire in the English Midlands that can trace its history back to Roman times. Cotingeham is listed in the Domesday Book and is also mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It is located north-west of the town of Corby and is administered as part of that town's borough. At the time of the 2001 census, Cottingham parish's population was 912, reducing slightly to 906 at the 2011 census.

The village's name means 'Homestead/village of Cott's/Cotta's people'.

Cottingham had a football club called New Cottingham F.C., which was established in 2009, but it folded in 2015. Although it was based in Corby. It won the Fred Deeley Memorial Trophy in 2011 and was the runnerup in the same competition a year later. It also won the Bob Quincey Shield for the first time in its history in 2013 and the Thornton Cup in 2015. The club was managed by Adam Muir (2009–10), Neil Jarman (2010-2013) and Neil Woollacott (2013-2015).

The village has a community-run Village Store and Cafe that opened in September 2011. The project has been backed by more than 180 shareholders, who have invested more than £11,000 in the venture.

The village is served by the Rutland Flyer and Welland Wanderer bus routes.

title: Cottingham, Northamptonshire


text:
Aleman

Aleman may refer to:

Places

 * Aleman, Iran, a village in Gilan Province
 * Aleman, New Mexico a locale along the Jornada del Muerto in Sierra County, New Mexico

Other uses

 * Aleman (surname)
 * A member of the Alamanni, a German tribe

title: Aleman


text:
George Hitchcock (artist)

George Hitchcock (September 29, 1850 – August 2, 1913) was an American painter, born in Providence, Rhode Island, and was mostly active in Europe, notably in the Netherlands.

Biography
Hitchcock graduated from Brown University, and from Harvard Law School in 1874. Hitchcock began his formal art education at the Heatherley's School of Fine Art in London in 1879. He then turned his attention to art and became a pupil of Gustave Boulanger and Jules-Joseph Lefebvre at the Académie Julian in Paris in 1882.

He attracted notice in the Paris Salon of 1885 with his Tulip Growing, of a Dutch garden he painted in the Netherlands. For years he had a studio in that country near Egmond aan Zee, where he started his "Art Summer School" that later resulted in a group of returning summer artists, including Gari Melchers, that informally became the Egmondse School (1890-1905). He received these students and guests at his "Huis Schuylenburgh", a large estate in Egmond aan den Hoef.

He became a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour and a member of the Vienna Academy of Arts, the Munich Secession Society, and other art bodies, and is represented in the Dresden gallery, the imperial collection in Vienna, the Chicago Art Institute, and the Detroit Institute of Arts. In 1909, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician.

Hitchcock married Henrietta Walker Richardson on July 6, 1881. He divorced her on July 31, 1905, and nine days later married Cecil Jay, a student at the Art Summer School who was thirty-three years his junior. The newlyweds moved to Paris, effectively ending the summer school.

At the time of his death in 1913, he was living in a houseboat in the harbor of Marken, Netherlands.

title: George Hitchcock (artist)


text:
Safeguard

In international trade law, a safeguard is a restraint to protect home or national industries from foreign competition. In the World Trade Organization (WTO), a member may take a safeguard action, such as restricting imports of a product temporarily to protect a domestic industry from an increase in imports causing or threatening to cause injury to domestic production.

Background
Within the WTO, safeguard measures were available under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (Article XIX). However, they were infrequently used, and some governments preferred to protect their industries by "grey area" measures ("voluntary" export restraint arrangements on products such as cars, steel and semiconductors). As part of the WTO deal, members gave up the "grey area" measures and adopted a specific WTO Safeguards Agreement to discipline the use of safeguard measures.

Safeguards are usually seen as responses to economic development and trade processes that align with international law, as opposed to negative practices, such as dumping or subsidies.

In the context of world trade, they are supposed to be used only in very specific circumstances, with compensation, and on a universal basis. For example, a member restricting imports for safeguard purposes would have to restrict imports from all other countries. However, exceptions to the nondiscriminatory rule are provided for in the Agreement on Safeguards itself as well as in some ad hoc agreements. In the last respect, it is worthwhile to note that the People's Republic of China accepted that discriminatory safeguards may be imposed on its exports to other WTO members until 2013.

Examples
Some safeguard measures can be resorted to in the area of services, as provided for in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).

Regional trading arrangements have their own rules relating to safeguards. One example of a safeguard being used successfully was when Liechtenstein used a safeguard measure in the EEA Agreement with the European Union to limit immigration from the EU until a more permanent agreement was put in place to limit immigration.

Article 16 of the Northern Ireland Protocol is a more wide ranging safeguard measure affecting the relationship of Northern Ireland, the United Kingdom and the European Union after Brexit.

title: Safeguard


text: Template:CYP

title: Template:CYP


text:
Cottingham

Cottingham may refer to:

Places

 * Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire, England
 * Cottingham railway station, a railroad station in Cottingham
 * Cottingham High School, a secondary school in Cottingham
 * Cottingham, Northamptonshire, England

Buildings

 * Cottingham Castle (disambiguation), two castles in Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire, England
 * Cottingham House, a house built in 1907 in Louisiana, USA

Other

 * Cottingham Phoenix, an English rugby team
 * Cottingham Springboard Festival, an annual grassroots music festival in Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire

People with the surname

 * Bob Cottingham (born 1966), American Olympic fencer
 * Cicely Cottingham, American artist
 * Edward B. Cottingham (1928–2021), American politician
 * Henry Cottingham (17th century), Anglican priest
 * John Cottingham (born 1943), British philosopher
 * Kathryn L. Cottingham, American ecologist and environmentalist
 * Laura Cottingham (born 1959), American art critic, curator and visual artist
 * Lewis Nockalls Cottingham (1787–1847), British architect
 * Mike Cottingham (fl. 1930), Irish folklorist
 * Richard Cottingham (born 1946), American serial killer
 * Robert Cottingham (born 1935), American photorealist painter
 * Thomas de Cottingham (c. 1300–1370), English cleric and judge
 * Walter H. Cottingham (1866–1930), Canadian businessman
 * William McOuat Cottingham (1905–1983), Canadian politician

title: Cottingham


text:
Salome Dadiani

Princess Salomé Dadiani (სალომე დადიანი; 13 October 1848 – 23 July 1913) was a Georgian princess, the only sister of Niko Dadiani, the last Prince of Mingrelia.

Early life
Salomé was born on 13 October 1848. She was a daughter of David Dadiani, Prince of Mingrelia and Princess Ekaterine Chavchavadze. Her older brother was Prince Niko and her younger brother was Prince Andria.

Her paternal grandfather was Levan V Dadiani. Her maternal grandparents were Princess Salomé Orbeliani and Prince Alexander Chavchavadze, a noted Georgian general and godson of Catherine the Great of Russia. Her grandmother was a great-granddaughter of Erekle II of Eastern Georgia. Her aunt, Princess Nino married the Russian playwright, composer and diplomat Aleksandr Griboyedov, while another aunt, Princess Sophie, married Count Alexandr Nikolai, the minister of education of Imperial Russia.

After her father's death in 1853, her mother assumed the responsibilities of the Prince and was recognized by Nicholas I of Russia as regent of Mingrelia on behalf of her brother Prince Niko. Nicholas assigned her mother a regency council which included her uncles, Prince Grigol Dadiani and Prince Konstantin Dadiani.

Personal life
She accompanied her mother in her visit to Paris in 1868. While in Paris, she married Prince Charles Louis Napoléon Achille Murat (1847–1895) on 13 May 1868. Prince Achille, a son of Lucien, 3rd Prince Murat, was a younger brother of Joachim, 4th Prince Murat and a grandson of Marshal of France and King of Naples Joachim Murat and Caroline Bonaparte (the youngest sister of Emperor Napoleon). Together, they were the parents of:

 * Prince Lucien Charles David Napoléon (1870–1933), who married Marie Augustine de Rohan-Chabot on 27 February 1895. She was a daughter of Alain de Rohan-Chabot, 11th Duke of Rohan. Her older sister, Marie-Joséphine de Rohan-Chabot, was the wife of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord (grandson of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord and nephew of Boson de Talleyrand-Périgord). After the Prince's death in 1933, his widow married French writer and diplomat Count Charles de Chambrun.
 * Prince Louis Napoléon Achille Charles (1878–1943), major general in the Russian Army, who died in Nice, France in 1943.
 * Princess Antoinette Caroline Catherine (1879–1954).

The couple moved to Algiers after Murat was posted there on a military command, moving back to Paris in 1870, where they remained until the fall of Napoleon III. They then moved to a Dadiani family estate in Samegrelo, grew grapes and established a winery.

She returned with her children to Paris after the death of her husband in 1895, dying there in 1913.

title: Salome Dadiani


text: Template:CZE

title: Template:CZE


text:
Talk:Saluda cymbals

Saluda Cymbals manufactures cymbals mostly in B20 bronze but some of their prototypes can be in different alloys. Their Columbia, SC location is set up to make B8 Cymbals but they do not offer a B8 cymbal line. According to a conversation with a Saluda worker, while visiting their two facilities, they hope to release a b8 Cymbal line in the near future.

As of September 2011, they have a shared metal foundry located near Orangeburg, SC. The drum shells and drums are also done at this facility.

Saluda specializes in custom sounds, unique shapes, new creations, and designer finishes.

Aaron Wells 11:58

title: Talk:Saluda cymbals


text: Template:EST

title: Template:EST


text: Template:FIN

title: Template:FIN


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Economics superstition

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Rossami (talk) 03:19, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Economics superstition
I can almost understand what the author is trying to say, but not quite. "Economics is related to human life.It is expected to be a science with logic. But many times human behaviour is not based on proved logics . Groups of people or individual do have various superstitions ..." Etcetera. I'm not sure this qualifies as patent nonsense, so I'm listing it here instead of tagging it CSD. --Plek 11:57, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, the contributor has misunderstood the purpose of wikipedia. This article is original research with no references, and wikipedia articles are not discussion forums. Kappa 12:22, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Incoherent nonsense. jni 06:53, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Confused original research. Jayjg (talk) 20:48, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and cleanup. Economic superstitions exist, they are part of behavioral economics, and they deserve their own article, even if this one doesn't seem really to tackle economic superstitions, which is an everyday thing for consumers, investors, produceres, etc, but superstitions related to the choice between econonomic theories. --Pgreenfinch 08:03, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete -- the final graf is just an invitation to editorializing. The grafs prior to that are unept summaries of behavioral economics, which already has an article. --Christofurio 13:51, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * Shift & link to behavioral economics, Currently behavioral economicspage's shows link for individual biases & social biases but does not have a created page yet for the same.

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Template:DEU

title: Template:DEU


text:
Lazic War

The Lazic War, also known as the Colchidian War or in Georgian historiography as the Great War of Egrisi, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire for control of the ancient Georgian region of Lazica. The Lazic War lasted for twenty years, from 541 to 562, and ended with the Fifty-Year Peace Treaty, which obligated the Byzantine Empire to pay tribute to Persia each year for the recognition of Lazica as a Byzantine vassal state by Persians. The Lazic War is narrated in detail in the works of Procopius and Agathias.

Lazica
Lazica, situated on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and controlling important mountain passes across the Caucasus and to the Caspian Sea, had a key strategic importance for both empires. For Byzantines, it was a barrier against a Persian advance through Iberia to the coasts of the Black Sea. Persians on the other side hoped to gain access to the sea, and control a territory from which Iberia, which was by now under their firm domination, could be threatened.

Lazica featured a difficult terrain and was surrounded by naturally impregnable borders. Besides, it was protected by strong fortresses, including Petra, Archaeopolis, Sarapanis, Skande, Phasis, Rhodopolis, Uchimerion, Kotayon, Onoguris, Trachea, Sebastopolis and Pitius.

Background
The Persian Sasanians recognized Lazica (Egrisi) as part of the Roman/Byzantine sphere of influence by the "Eternal Peace" Treaty of 532. By that time, in order to foster their influence over the local monarchy, the Byzantines had insisted on the conversion of the king, Tzath I: he received both baptism and royal attributes in Constantinople from Emperor Justin I (Justinian's predecessor) in 522/3. Byzantine garrisons were stationed in Lazica and in neighboring Abasgia, mostly in the coastal cities of Poti, Sebastopolis and Pitius. The kingdom's capital, Archaeopolis, was fortified, as well as the southern access to the kingdom on the coastal road at Petra (present-day Tsikhisdziri, north of Batumi). In 536, however, the Byzantine presence turned into a full protectorate, as the king lost many powers to the new magister militum per Armeniam John Tzibus. When Tzibus curtailed the freedom of trade of Lazic tradesmen to advance Byzantine interests, the popular dissatisfaction led to a full-scale uprising in 541, and the weakened king, Gubazes II, secretly sought Persian assistance against the Byzantines.

War

Those calls were answered that year by the Persian king Khosrow I, who entered Lazica, captured the Byzantine main stronghold of Petra, and established another protectorate over the country. Khosrow I retreated to Persia a year later after an abortive invasion of Commagene. In 543, a Roman invasion of Armenia was defeated by a small Persian force at Anglon, and Khosrow I unsuccessfully besieged Edessa in Mesopotamia a year later. A peace treaty was signed in 545.

In Lazica, Khosrow I's attempt to establish direct Persian control over the country and the missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused discontent in Christian Lazica and King Gubazes revolted in 548, this time against the Persians. Gubazes II requested aid from Emperor Justinian I and allied with the Alans and Sabirs. Justinian sent 7,000 Roman and 1,000 Tzani (relatives of the Lazes) auxiliaries under Dagisthaeus to assist Gubazes and besieged the fortress of Petra but faced tough resistance from its heavily outnumbered garrison. Persian reinforcements under Mihr-Mihroe defeated a small Byzantine force guarding the mountain passes and then relieved the besieged Petra. Lacking enough supplies, Mihr-Mihroe garrisoned 3,000 men in the fortress and marched to Armenia leaving 5,000 soldiers to supply Petra. This force was destroyed by Dagisthaeus at the Phasis river in 549. The next Persian offensive also proved to be unsuccessful with the commander Chorianes killed in a decisive battle at the river Hippis (now the Tskhenistskali). Nevertheless, the Persians manage to resupply Petra. The new Byzantine commander Bessas quelled a pro-Persian revolt of the Abasgi tribe, took and dismantled the fort of Petra after a lengthy siege and fierce fighting as Mihr-Mihroe did not arrive in time. The latter unsuccessfully diverted his force against Archaeopolis in 551 as many of his men were lost due to a lack of supplies. However, the latter was unopposed elsewhere in the field and managed to capture Cotais and the fortress of Uthimereos, blocking the important roads to the highland regions of Scymnia and Souania, which were also captured by him later. In the summer of 555, he dislodged a superior Byzantine-Lazic force at Telephis and Ollaria by stratagem and forced them to retreat to Nesos. Mihr-Mihroe died of illness shortly after and was replaced by Nachoragan.

King Gubazes quarreled with Byzantine commanders Bessas, Martin, and Rusticus, complaining to emperor Justinian. Bessas was recalled, but Rusticus and his brother John eventually murdered Gubazes. To redress this with a victory on the battlefield, the Byzantine generals launched a full-scale assault at Onoguris, which was repulsed by a small force under Nachoragan, who momentarily took and destroyed the main Byzantine base at Archaeopolis, which Mihr-Mihroe had twice tried and failed to take. These defeats and the murder of the Lazic king caused a bitter feud between the Lazic and Byzantine generals. The Lazi people got the Emperor to nominate Tzathes, the younger brother of Gubazes, as their new king, and Senator Athanasius investigated the assassination. Rusticus and John were arrested, tried, and executed. In 556, the allies retook Archaeopolis and routed Nachoragan in his abortive attack on Phasis. In the autumn and winter of the same year, the Byzantines suppressed a rebellion staged by the mountain tribe of the Misimians, and finally made peace.

Outcome
In 557, a truce ended the hostilities between the Byzantines and Persians. By the "Fifty Years Peace" of Dara of 562, the Byzantine Empire was obliged to pay tribute to Persia each year for the recognition of Lazica as a Roman vassal state. Although no clear winner emerged from the conflict, the Sasanian Empire thus held a slight advantage since Rome was required to pay a set amount to Persia annually.

title: Lazic War


text: Template:GRC

title: Template:GRC


text:
Signal lights

Signal lights may refer to:

 * Traffic light, signal lights controlling automotive & pedestrian traffic flow
 * Turn signals, signal lights indicating automotive change of direction
 * Railway signalling, use of signal lights to control train traffic flow
 * Signal lamp, a device for communicating between ships with flashing lights.

title: Signal lights


text: Template:HUN

title: Template:HUN


text: Template:IRL

title: Template:IRL


text:
Duston

Duston is a suburb of Northampton and a civil parish in West Northamptonshire, England.

History
Archaeological remains found in the area suggest that Duston has roots in Prehistoric and Roman settlements. However, development in the area has meant that it is now difficult to find further remains.

Duston has been a settlement since at least Roman times, and grew as a village in Anglo-Saxon times. In the Domesday Book, The name "Duston" derives from Old English words meaning either farmstead on a mound or farmstead with dusty soil. Duston was recorded as a farming community. St Luke's Church was built in the 12th century and has many medieval features. The old village was built up around this and has gradually moved westwards along Main Road.

From 1876 to 1995 Duston was home to St Crispin's Hospital, a county-owned and subsequently NHS mental hospital. During the First World War it was turned into Duston War Hospital for convalescent soldiers.

Since the 1950s, the historical village has been engulfed by the expansion of Northampton. Most development in Duston has been residential, but the original village still contains many of its old buildings within its nucleus and is now a conservation area. The civil parish population was 1 at the 2011 census and has changed to 1.57 million

A major housing development, Dallington Grange, is planned to extend Duston northwards towards Harlestone. The development will include a new secondary school, two new primary schools, and 3,000 homes.

Industrial history
Iron ore was first quarried in the district in 1854 and 1855 to the east of the village on land leased from Viscount Palmerston and from Duston Church (St Luke's.) At that time the ore was quarried mostly to the south of the Northampton to Daventry road, but also on the other side. The quarry was connected by railway to the Northampton branch of the canal, close to Duston Mill where the ore trucks were emptied into canal boats for transport to an ironworks elsewhere. The trucks descended when full by gravity and when emptied were hauled back to the quarry by horses. The quarry was re-opened in 1859 and the railway was extended under the road as the quarry was extended on that side. Steam locomotives were used on the railway from 1861 onwards. Quarrying finished on the south side of the road in 1905 and on the north side of the road in 1908.

There was also a limestone quarry to the north side of Bants Lane which closed by 1901. It was connected to the railway by a narrow gauge tramway. Limestone trucks were emptied into standard gauge trucks in the iron ore quarry.

A branch of the railway connected with a claypit and brickworks and an iron foundry in the St James district of Northampton. By 1883 the sidings next to the canal were closed and the line extended across the canal to sidings on the Northampton to Blisworth railway, close to the Hunsbury Ironworks. The iron ore quarry site is now built on, being the site of an industrial and retail estate. Most of the course of the railway southwards was obliterated when the area was dug for gravel in the 1960s and by the construction of the Northampton Town football ground in the 1990s. The bridge over the canal (altered) is still there. A quarry face still remains close to Duston Road.

Part of the limestone quarry was incorporated into the British Timken site in 1941, when a "shadow factory" was built in 1941 on a green-field site in Main Road, Duston, to produce roller bearings for the war effort. At its peak over 4,000 people were employed in the factory, and the company was a major employer in Duston until the site's closure. In 2002 the works were closed and the site cleared for housing with production moving to Poland. The building was demolished a few years later, but the iron gates at the entrance to the works were preserved and still stand on Main Road.

Present economy
Besides shops and a pub in the village area Duston benefits from its proximity to the Sixfields Leisure retail park, which includes a Cineworld cinema and the Sixfields Stadium – home to the Northampton Town Football Club ("the Cobblers") – a Sainsbury's supermarket and several restaurants and pubs. Blacks Leisure Group (owner of Blacks and Millets) is based on an industrial estate on Mansard Close. On the north-eastern side of the area lies the Lodge Farm industrial estate, where major employers include builders merchants Travis Perkins, XPO Logistics, and a Debenhams distribution centre.

Education
There are a mixture of both secondary and primary schools in Duston. In addition to the secondary school, there are five primary schools located within the Duston boundary. Duston Eldean Primary School lies between the northern section of Main Road and Firsview Drive. Millway Primary School is situated in the south-eastern end of the parish on Millway near to the Sixfields retail park and Stadium. Hopping Hill Primary School is another community primary school, situated on Pendle Road close to the Duston Library and Limehurst Square shopping precinct. Chiltern Primary School is positioned on the north-east of the area on Chiltern Way. The St Luke's CEVA Primary School, while connected to the St Luke's church on Main Road, is actually located outside of Duston and instead in the neighbouring St Crispin area.

There is one all-through school in the civil parish, The Duston School, located towards the south-western end on Berrywood Road. Formerly named Duston Upper School prior to the abolition of middle schools in Northamptonshire, the school is co-educational and serves a teaching school for student teachers. In addition to its 4-16 provision, the Duston School also contains a small sixth form centre offering A-Levels, BTECs and other vocational courses. Outside of the parish, there are a number of nearby schools parents may send their children to in Northampton and the villages.. The fee paying Quinton House School is located nearby in the Upton area, directly south of Duston.

title: Duston


text: Template:LUX

title: Template:LUX


text:
Jorge Bagration of Mukhrani

Jorge de Bagration y de Mukhrani or Giorgi Bagration-Mukhraneli or George Bagration of Mukhrani (გიორგი (ხორხე) ბაგრატიონ-მუხრანელი; 22 February 1944 – 16 January 2008) was a Spanish racing car driver of Georgian descent and a claimant to the headship of the Bagrationi dynasty and to the historical throne of Georgia.

Early life
Jorge was born in Rome, Italy in 1944, the eldest son of émigré Prince Irakli Bagration-Mukhrani, head of the Mukhraneli branch of the Bagration royal family of Georgia. His father, Prince Irakli Bagration-Mukhrani, had gone into exile in Italy following the Bolshevik Revolution, but retained his claim to the throne of Georgia.

His Italian mother, Maria Antonietta Pasquini (1911–1944), daughter of Ugo, Count di Costafiorita, died giving birth to him. In 1946, the widowed Prince Irakli married Princess María de las Mercedes de Baviera y Borbón (1911–1953), daughter of Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria (who had been naturalised as a Spanish infante) and granddaughter of King Alfonso XII of Spain, thus bringing the Bagrationis into the marital and social orbit of the dynasties of Western Europe. Giorgi's cousin, Maria Vladimirovna, Grand Duchess of Russia is, like him, a royal pretender.

Racing career
He started his motor sport career in 1959, firstly with motorcycles and from 1963 in cars, racing in various series. He made two attempts at Formula One, firstly at the 1968 Spanish Grand Prix with a Lola, but his entry was refused.

His second attempt to enter a Grand Prix was again in Spain, at the 1974 Spanish Grand Prix, but his efforts fell victim to a very unusual set of circumstances. He had bought a Surtees TS16 for this race, and he was included on the entry list. Unfortunately this entry list was mislaid as the outgoing president of the Spanish Motor Sport Federation cleared his office. When a new entry list was drawn up, in the light of some sponsorship problems that de Bagration was experiencing, he was omitted from it. Whether or not he would have been able to race with his reduced backing, he should still have been included on the list of entrants. Thus ended his hopes of competing at motor sport's highest level.

He turned later to rallying, and his best result was winning the Spanish Rally Championship in 1979 and 1981 with a Lancia Stratos HF. He retired from motor sport in 1982.

Head of the Royal House of Georgia
Known as "Giorgi" in Georgia, the prince became a claimant to the Headship of the Georgian royal family in exile upon the death of his father on 30 October 1977, and as such used the style of Royal Highness. The House of Bagrationi is one of the oldest Christian dynasties in Europe, and reigned over the kingdom of Kartli and Kakheti until 1801, when Giorgi's ancestral realm was annexed to the Russian Empire by Tsar Alexander I of Russia in violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk. Many of the Bagrationi were then deported to Russia, and many fled both Georgia and Russia following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Today there is a small but politically active monarchist movement in Georgia.

Giorgi was recognised in 1991 by the Georgian government and parliament as head of the former royal family despite rival claims by other branches of the Bagrationi dynasty. He inherited from his father the titles Duke of the Lasos, Prince of Kakhetia, Kartalia and Mukhraneli. He was also Grand Master of the Order of the Eagle of Georgia and the Tunic of Our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Protector Egregio of Divisa of the Old Cavalry and Devotion of San Miguel the Milagroso.

Prince Giorgi made his first visit to his ancestral homeland to bury his father's ashes in 1995. He lived in Marbella, Spain most of his life, but moved to Georgia, where his sons David and Irakli lived. He died in Tbilisi on 16 January 2008 from complications of hepatitis. He was interred among his ancestors, the kings of Georgia, in the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta on 20 January 2008.

Family
Jorge married, firstly, María de las Mercedes Zornoza y Ponce de León (14 August 1942, Madrid – 17 March 2020, Villafranca del Castillo). Their children were:
 * Princess María Antonieta Bagrationi-Mukhraneli (born 21 June 1969), wed in 1994 to Jaime Gaixas Marcet. They have a son, Jaime Gaixas Bagration (born 15 September 1995).
 * Prince Irakli Bagrationi-Mukhraneli (born 26 August 1972), unmarried and without issue, who renounced the succession in favour of his brother.
 * David Bagration of Mukhrani (born 24 June 1976), who wed Ana Bagration-Gruzinsky (born 1976), daughter of the head of the Kakhetian branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, Prince Nugzar Bagration-Gruzinsky, on 8 February 2009 at the Tbilisi Sameba Cathedral, in Tbilisi. Prince David and Princess Anna's son, Giorgi Bagration Bagrationi was born in 2011.

Jorge married, secondly, fellow race car driver Nuria Llopis y Oliart (born 14 November 1953 in Barcelona). They had one child:
 * Prince Gourami Ugo Bagration (born 14 February 1985), wed civilly on 19 November 2022, Niki "Nekia" Lane, at Benahavís, Province of Málaga, Spain.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

title: Jorge Bagration of Mukhrani


text: Template:LTU

title: Template:LTU


text:
Levan Varshalomidze

Levan Varshalomidze (ლევან ვარშალომიძე) (born 17 January 1972) is a Georgian politician and the Chairman of the Government of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara from 2004 to 2012. He assumed office on 20 July 2004, following the resignation of Aslan Abashidze—who had run the region in defiance to the central government of Georgia—during the 2004 Adjara crisis.

Education and early career
Varshalomidze was born in Batumi. He graduated with a degree in law in 1994 from the Kiev State University, where he befriended a fellow Georgian student, Mikheil Saakashvili. He obtained a PhD from the same institution in 1999 and joined the ranks of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia. In 2000, when Saakashvili was the minister of justice of Georgia, he appointed Varshalomidze to head one of its bureaus. After a brief service with the Ministry of Finance of Georgia in 2002, he retired to a private sector. After Georgia's November 2003 Rose Revolution, which brought Saakashvili to power, Varshalomidze was appointed Director of the Georgian Railways in January 2004.

Government of Adjara
Varshalomidze returned to politics following the departure of Aslan Abashidze, a longtime Adjara strongman, who resigned following a showdown with Saakashvili's government on 6 May 2004. His family has been associated with the region's politics since the 1990s. His father, Guram Varshalomidze (died 2020), an erstwhile ally of Abashidze, chaired the Supreme Council of Adjara in the mid-1990s, later headed the region's statistics office and would lead the Georgian Oil Corporation from July 2004 to 2005.

After Abashidze's ouster, Levan Varshalomidze was appointed by Saakashvili as a chairman of a special twenty-member Presidential Interim Council charged with handling the transition. On 20 July 2004, Varshalomidze was approved by the Supreme Council of Adjara as the chairman of the republic's government.

Varshalomidze has been seen as a close ally of President Saakashvili and a member of the young reformist team which came into the Georgian politics after the 2003 Rose Revolution. Critics have accused him of amassing personal wealth, pressuring the media, and nepotism.

During his tenure, Varshalomidze became a key figure behind the massive redevelopment of Adjara and particularly its capital, Batumi. He has stated he is trying to develop it, beyond being a summer tourist center, into an international financial hub.

In April 2010, Varshalomidze publicly accused Nika Gilauri, Prime Minister of Georgia, and the central government, of ignoring his requests for delegating "technical functions" to the local authorities in Adjara. Following a meeting with the members of the central government in Tbilisi, Varshalomidze said the differences were resolved.

On 14 January 2012, Varshalomidze was awarded by President Saakashvili the Presidential Order of Excellence for his contributions to the efforts that led to release of Georgian sailors from captivity of Somali pirates.

On 30 October 2012, following the defeat of Saakashvili-led United National Movement party in the nationwide and regional legislative elections in favor of the opposition Bidzina Ivanishvili – Georgian Dream coalition, the Supreme Council of Adjara elected Archil Khabadze, a candidate nominated by Georgia's new Prime Minister Bidzina Ivanishvili, as the new head of Adjara's government. Varshalomidze became the leader of a regional cell of the now-opposition United National Movement party.

Post-2012
After his retirement from government, Levan Varshalomidze founded the LVP Project Management and Consulting company. In 2015, Varshalomidze became an adviser to the Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko and led a team of Georgian experts, aiming at facilitating reforms in Ukraine. He returned to Adjara in July 2016 and launched a campaign for the upcoming regional and national legislative elections scheduled for October 8.

title: Levan Varshalomidze


text:
James Holman

James Holman FRS (15 October 1786 – 29 July 1857), known as the "Blind Traveller," was a British adventurer, author and social observer, best known for his writings on his extensive travels. Completely blind and experiencing pain and limited mobility, he undertook a series of solo journeys that were unprecedented both in their extent of geography and method of "human echolocation". In 1866, the journalist William Jerdan wrote that "From Marco Polo to Mungo Park, no three of the most famous travellers, grouped together, would exceed the extent and variety of countries traversed by our blind countryman." In 1832, Holman became the first blind person to circumnavigate the globe. He continued travelling, and by October 1846 had visited every inhabited continent.

Life and travels
Holman was born in Exeter, the son of an apothecary. He entered the British Royal Navy in 1798 as first-class volunteer, and was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In 1810, while on the Guerriere off the coast of the Americas, he was invalided by an illness that first affected his joints, then finally his vision. At the age of 25, he was rendered totally and permanently blind.

In recognition of the fact that his condition was duty-related, he was in 1812 appointed to the Naval Knights of Windsor, with a lifetime grant of care in Windsor Castle. This position demanded he attend church service twice daily as his only duty in return for room and board, but the quietness of such a life harmonized so poorly with his active habits and keen interests, physically making him ill, that he requested multiple leaves of absence on health grounds, first to study medicine and literature at the University of Edinburgh, then to go abroad on a Grand Tour from 1819 to 1821 when he journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland, the parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the Netherlands. On his return he published The Narrative of a Journey through France, etc. (London, 1822).

He again set out in 1822 with the incredible design of making the circuit of the world from west to east, something which at the time was almost unheard of by a lone traveller, blind or not - but he travelled through Russia as far east as the Mongolian frontier of Irkutsk. There he was suspected by the Czar of being a spy who might publicize the extensive activities of the Russian American Company should he travel further east, and was conducted back forcibly to the frontiers of Poland. He returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia and Hanover, when he then published Travels through Russia, Siberia, etc. (London, 1825).

Shortly afterwards he again set out to accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an account of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes in 1834–1835, under the title of A Voyage Round the World, including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, etc., from 1827 to 1832.

His last journeys were through Spain, Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, Syria and Turkey. Within a week of finishing an autobiography, Holman's Narratives of His Travels, he died in London on 29 July 1857 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery. This last work was never published, and likely has not survived.

Recognition
Holman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (UK), and of the Linnaean Society (UK). Charles Darwin, in The Voyage of the Beagle, cited Holman's writings as a source on the flora of the Indian Ocean. On Fernando Po Island, now part of Equatorial Guinea, the British Government named the Holman River in his honour, commemorating his contributions to fighting the slave trade in the region during the 1820s.

Holman Prize
Since 2017 the San Francisco-based LightHouse for the Blind and Visually Impaired has awarded an annual Holman Prize, named in Holman's honour. Three blind people are each given up to $25,000 to support them in an adventurous project.

title: James Holman


text: Template:LVA

title: Template:LVA


text:
Tengiz Sigua

Tengiz Sigua (9 November 1934 – 21 January 2020) was a Georgian politician who served as Prime Minister of Georgia from 1992 to 1993.

Sigua was an engineer by profession and entered politics on the eve of the Soviet Union's collapse. In 1990 he led an expert group of the bloc "Round Table-Free Georgia". Following the first multiparty elections in Georgia, he was elected Chair of the Ministers' Council of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic on 14 November 1990.

He was the prime minister in Zviad Gamsakhurdia's government from 15 November 1990 to 18 August 1991. However, he resigned in August 1991 after disagreements with the president. He later remarked that the newspapers used to call Gamsakhurdia "Caucasian Saddam Hussein". Along with the National Guard leader Tengiz Kitovani and the paramilitary leader Jaba Ioseliani, he became a leader of the uneasy opposition which launched a violent coup against the President in December 1991-January 1992. After Gamsakhurdia's fall, he became Prime Minister in the Georgian interim government (Military Council, later transformed into the State Council) which was joined by Eduard Shevardnadze) on 6 January 1992. He was reappointed Prime Minister on 8 November 1992 by the newly elected Parliament.

He resigned on 6 August 1993 after the Parliament rejected the budget submitted by the government. He remained as an MP, led the National Liberation Front opposition party and backed a military solution of the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict.

In an interview with the Russian news agency Ria Novosti, Sigua accused the Georgian side of starting the 2008 war: "We started the war in 2008. We started to shell Tskhinvali and this, after the death of Russian peacekeepers, gave Russian troops the right to actively interfere".

title: Tengiz Sigua


text: Template:ITA

title: Template:ITA