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Stittsville

Stittsville is a suburban community, part of the Canadian capital of Ottawa, Ontario. It is within the former Goulbourn Township. A part of the National Capital Region, Stittsville is immediately to the southwest of Kanata, adjacent to Richmond and about 20 km west of Downtown Ottawa. The urban part of the community corresponds to Stittsville Ward on Ottawa City Council and has been represented by Glen Gower since 2018. As of 2021, Stittsville ward had a population of 40,889.

Three school boards are represented in the area: Ottawa Catholic School Board, Ottawa-Carleton District School Board and Centre-East French Catholic School Board; Sacred Heart Catholic High School, Frederick Banting Secondary Alternate Program and École secondaire catholique Paul-Desmarais are the high schools.

Stittsville is home to multiple municipal services: Ottawa Fire Services' station 81, Ottawa Police Service 211 Huntmar station, the Stittsville branch of the Ottawa Public Library. It also has a branch of ServiceOntario.

Founded in 1854, the original location of the village was centred around Carp Road and Hazeldean Road; this area is now called Old Stittsville. In 1870, the Carleton Country Fire destroyed most of the buildings in the community. Villagers rebuilt around the newly constructed Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1990, the line was decommissioned, and its path is now part of the Trans-Canada Trail, running perpendicular to Stittsville Main Street, along Abbott Street East.

1800s
Goulbourn Township was founded in 1818 by Irish soldiers in a military settlement program after the War of 1812. The area continued to receive most of its settler population from Ireland. The village of Stittsville was officially founded in 1854 when its first post office was constructed. Jackson Stitt was chosen as its first postmaster, and the village became known as Stittsville.

By 1866, Stittsville was a post village with a population of 100, situated in the township of Goulbourn. The village contained one general store and one common school, with an average attendance of seventeen pupils. The Loyal Orange Lodge, No. 210, met in Orange Hall on the first Thursday of each month. The hall is now home to the Royal Canadian Legion branch in Stittsville. The citizens included John S Argue, general merchant and postmaster. This original location of the village is now known as "Old Stittsville" and was centred around current Carp Road and Neil Avenue.

The Carleton County Fire of 1870 destroyed almost all of Stittsville. It is believed the fire was started by brush burning for the construction of the Central Canadian Railway through the area. By this time, the village had 100 citizens. It had grown its community to include churches, a fairground, and multiple specialty tradespeople. Kemp's Tavern on Hazeldean road, built in 1868, which now houses "Cabotto's Restaurant" and a handful of other buildings were all that was left standing. This was an extremely large fire, encompassing over 250000 acre from Ottawa to Smiths Falls to Carleton Place.

On September 16, 1870, the first train passed through Stittsville as it was being rebuilt around the line. Most notably, the line would eventually serve as part of the Canadian Pacific Railway.

1900s
The last train to come through the town was a VIA rail passenger train headed for Western Canada on January 14, 1990. After the rail line was deconstructed, the path was turned into a section of the Trans-Canada Trail.

In 1898, a campground for the Holiness Movement was created in Stittsville. The local leader at the time was Bishop Ralph Horner. The campground was used by movement members every summer until 1974, when it closed permanently.

2000s
In 2001, the Regional Municipality of Ottawa–Carleton amalgamation took place. Goulbourn Township was included in the amalgamation, becoming a part of the City of Ottawa. Goulbourn Township included the town of Stittsville, making Stittsville a community within the new City of Ottawa.

On September 9, 2013, one of Stittsville's historic buildings was destroyed in a fire. Located at 1518 Stittsville Main Street, it was under renovation at the time of the fire.

Historic buildings
The Bradley/Craig barn and farmhouse are still in their original location. Historically designated Concession XI, Lot 29, they are currently located at 590 Hazeldean Road in Stittsville. The land was claimed in 1821 by Joshua Bradley, for which he received a Crown land grant in 1824. The barn was built in 1873 by John Cummings, a craftsman who worked in Goulbourn Township. The barn was built to house the family's dairy herd. Throughout the 1870s, the farmhouse was constructed by the Bradley family. Members of the family farmed the land until the 2000s. The Bradley family owned the property until 2007, when it was sold.

The building that was best known as Green's Hotel is located at 1510 Stittsville Main Street, Stittsville, historically designated Lot 23, Concession X. The building is believed to have been built in either 1890 or 1894 by John Cummings. The original owner was S.J. Butler, who named the building the Pacific Hotel as it served visitors coming to Stittsville on the Canadian Pacific Railway. It is believed that Butler sold the hotel after his daughter, Lala Butler, was struck and killed by a train at the crossing in Stittsville. George Green was the subsequent owner, from which the name Green's Hotel began.

Before 2013, the Alexander's Hotel stood beside Green's Hotel at 1518 Stittsville Main Street, Stittsville. It was built for William Alexander in 1870 or 1871 and ran as a hotel until 1919. It was then purchased by the Bradley family (discussed above), becoming Bradley's General Store and serving the community until 1960.

The Stittsville United Church is one of the oldest congregations in Stittsville. In 1824, the first Methodist congregation in the Township of Goulbourn officially began under the leadership of three residents: George Argue, James Wilson and Archibald Magee. The first log chapel of the congregation was built in 1845 on the same land the church continues to stand on. Multiple iterations of the chapel were built over time. Notably, in 1883, a brick chapel was built, which still constitutes part of the current church structures. The other current structures of the church were constructed in 1952, 1963, and 2006.

Media
Stittsville's community newspaper is The Stittsville & Richmond Community Voice distributed every second week by Canada Post. This newspaper was started in August 2019. It was formerly served by the weekly Stittsville News published by Metroland Media; its 2015 circulation was about 13,446. It was closed in January 2019 after being sold to Postmedia.

Stittsville was featured as one of the filming locations for the 1988 CBC TV Movie The Bobby Gimby Story.

The television series Stittsville on Patrol" was created by Christopher Redmond and stars "local Twitter hero" Ben Milks (aka bRian5or6). The show premiered in January 2021 to the highest ratings in Bell Fibe TV1 history. The series was renewed for a second season which aired in September 2021.

Notable residents

 * Erica Wiebe - Olympic Gold Medallist in Women's 75 kg. Freestyle Wrestling at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 * Kathleen Edwards - Juno winning musician
 * Paul MacLean - Hockey coach
 * Dave Cameron - Hockey coach
 * Guy Boucher - Hockey coach
 * Cody Ceci - Professional hockey player, Edmonton Oilers hockey club.
 * Matt Bradley - Retired professional hockey player, Washington Capitals hockey club. The Arena is named after Bradley.
 * Craig Anderson - Professional goalie, Washington Capitals hockey club National Hockey League
 * Julie Steggall - Member of 1994 Winter Olympics freestyle ski team

Neighbourhoods

 * Amberway
 * Amberwood Village
 * Bryanston Gate
 * Blackstone
 * Crossing Bridge
 * Deer Run
 * Fairwinds
 * Forest Creek
 * Fringewood
 * Granite Ridge
 * Jackson Trails
 * Old Stittsville
 * Poole Creek Village
 * Timbermere
 * Upcountry
 * West Ridge Estates
 * Westwind Farms
 * Wyldewood

title: Stittsville


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Champaign Park District

The Champaign Park District is the municipality association responsible for maintenance of public parks in the city of Champaign, Illinois. There are just over 650 acre of parkland within the city limits. As of the fiscal year 2011-2012, the park district had an operating budget of almost $11.5 million. Furthermore, the park district employees about 65 full-time staff and over 400 part-time and seasonal workers.

West Side Park

The 12.5 acre West Side Park is located in downtown Champaign, blocks away from the busy streets and within full view of City Hall. Originally zoned for the city square and future county courthouse (which was later sited in Urbana), it became in 1859 the first park in the system. Known as the commons when it was first created, it was in 1861 designated as a public cow pasture where any citizen might graze their cow for a fee of $0.35 per month.

Benjamin F. Johnson (1818–1894), an executive of the Illinois Central Railroad, donated $10,000 to the city for the building of a statue and bandstand in the commons. Sadly this was not completed until five years after his death. The statue "A Prayer for Rain" was sculpted by Edward Kemeys (1843–1907) and placed atop Johnson fountain. Both were dedicated to the project's benefactor in 1899.

Other notable monuments in what is now known as West Side park include the Lincoln Monolith, and several statues and plaques commemorating the Indian War.

Minor parks

 * Hessel Park, 26.9 acres of land obtained by the city in 1918, contains a free children's water park run by the city as well as a perimeter path totaling 0.6 mi.
 * Eisner Park, sandwiched between Church and University on the city's west side, boasts 2 age-appropriate playgrounds, ball courts, and a baseball diamond. A rec center building also sits on this property.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Champaign Park District


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Stanley Norman Cohen

Stanley Norman Cohen (born February 17, 1935) is an American geneticist and the Kwoh-Ting Li Professor in the Stanford University School of Medicine. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first scientists to transplant genes from one living organism to another, a fundamental discovery for genetical engineering. Thousands of products have been developed on the basis of their work, including human growth hormone and hepatitis B vaccine. According to immunologist Hugh McDevitt, "Cohen's DNA cloning technology has helped biologists in virtually every field". Without it, "the face of biomedicine and biotechnology would look totally different." Boyer cofounded Genentech in 1976 based on their work together, but Cohen was a consultant for Cetus Corporation and declined to join. In 2022, Cohen was found guilty of having committed fraud in misleading investors into a biotechnology company he founded in 2016, and paid $29 million in damages.

Early life
Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. He graduated from Rutgers University with a B.S. in 1956, and received his M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1960. Cohen then held internships and fellowships at various institutions, including Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, University Hospital in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Duke University Hospital in Durham, North Carolina. During a residency at the National Institute for Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, he decided to combine basic research with a clinical practice. In 1967 he was a postdoctoral researcher at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

Career
Cohen joined the faculty of Stanford University in 1968. He was appointed as a professor of medicine in 1975, and as a professor of genetics in 1977. In 1993, he became the Kwoh-Ting Li professor of genetics.

At Stanford he began to explore the field of bacterial plasmids, seeking to understand how the genes of plasmids could make bacteria resistant to antibiotics. At a conference on plasmids in 1972, he met Herbert W. Boyer and discovered that their interests and research were complementary. Plasmids were sent back and forth between Stanley Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, and others at Stanford, and Herbert Boyer and Robert B. Helling at the University of California, San Francisco. The Stanford researchers isolated the plasmids, and sent them to the San Francisco team, who cut them using the restriction enzyme EcoRI. The fragments were analyzed and sent back to Stanford, where Cohen's team joined them and introduced them into Escherichia coli. Both laboratories then isolated and analyzed the newly created recombinant plasmids.

This collaboration, in particular the 1973 publication of "Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro" by Cohen, Chang, Boyer and Helling, is considered a landmark in the development of methods to combine and transplant genes. Not only were different plasmids from E. coli successfully joined and inserted back into E. coli cells, but those cells replicated and carried forward the new genetic information. Subsequent experiments that transferred Staphylococcus plasmid genes into E. coli demonstrated that genes could be transplanted between species. These discoveries signaled the birth of genetic engineering, and earned Cohen a number of significant awards, beginning with the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1980 for "his imaginative and persevering studies of bacterial plasmids, for discovering new opportunities for manipulating and investigating the genetics of cells, and for establishing the biological promise of recombinant DNA methodology."

In 1976, Cohen co-authored a proposal for uniform nomenclature for bacterial plasmids (with Royston C. Clowes, Roy Curtiss III, Naomi Datta, Stanley Falkow and Richard Novick). From 1978 to 1986, Cohen served as chair of the Department of Genetics at Stanford.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Cohen was an active proponent of the potential benefits of DNA technology. He was a signatory of the "Berg letter" in 1974, which called for a voluntary moratorium on some types of research pending an evaluation of risk. He also attended the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA in 1975, and was reportedly uncomfortable with the process and tone of the meeting. He was vocal in the recombinant DNA controversy as the United States government attempted to develop policies for DNA research. Government efforts resulted in the creation of the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee and the publication of Recombinant DNA research guidelines in 1976, as well as later reports and recommendations. Cohen supported the Baltimore-Campbell proposal, arguing that recommended containment levels for certain types of research should be lowered on the grounds that little risk was involved, and that the proposal should be "a non-regulating code of standard practice."

Today, Cohen is a professor of genetics and medicine at Stanford, where he works on a variety of scientific problems involving cell growth and development, including mechanisms of plasmid inheritance and evolution. He has continued to study plasmid involvement in antibiotic resistance. In particular, he studies mobile genetic elements such as transposons which can "jump" between strains of bacteria. He has developed techniques for studying the behavior of genes in eukaryotic cells using "reporter genes".

Plasmid pSC101

Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer made what would be one of the first genetic engineering experiments, in 1973. They demonstrated that the gene for frog ribosomal RNA could be transferred into bacterial cells and expressed by them. First they developed a chemical cell transformation method for Escherichia coli, then they constructed a plasmid, which would be the vector, called pSC101. This plasmid contained a single site for the restriction enzyme EcoRI and a gene for tetracycline resistance. The restriction enzyme EcoRI was used to cut the frog DNA into small segments. Next, the frog DNA fragments were combined with the plasmid, which had also been cleaved with EcoRI. The sticky ends of the DNA segments aligned themselves and were afterwards joined using DNA ligase. The plasmids were then transferred into a strain of E. coli and plated onto a growth medium containing tetracycline. The cells that incorporated the plasmid carrying the tetracycline resistance gene grew and formed a colony of bacteria. Some of these colonies consisted of cells that carried the frog ribosomal RNA gene. The scientists then tested the colonies that formed after growth for the presence of frog ribosomal RNA.

Patents
Cohen and Boyer were not initially interested in filing patents on their work. In 1974 they agreed to file a joint patent application, administered through Stanford, and benefiting both universities. Three patents were eventually granted for the Boyer-Cohen process, one on the actual process (1980), one on prokaryotic hosts (1984) and one on eukaryotic hosts (1988). Licenses were granted non-exclusively for "a moderate fee". Four hundred seventy-eight companies took out licenses, making it one of the university's top five revenue earners. Thousands of products have been developed on the basis of the Boyer-Cohen patents. The Boyer-Cohen patents however were controversial due to its scope as they laid claim to the fundamental technology of gene splicing, and led to many challenges to the validity of the patents in the 1980s. The patents were unusual in that they dominated almost all other patents in the field of molecular biotechnology, and in no other industry have there been patents that had such an all-embracing impact. It also made other universities around the world become aware of the commercial value of the scientific work by their academic staff.

Nuredis fraud case
In 2018, Cohen was sued by Christopher Alafi for misleading investors in the biotechnology company Nuredis, and hiding details of the FDA disapproval of a drug Cohen had discovered for Huntington's disease. Upon losing a long court battle, Cohen was found guilty of "a species of actual fraud and ... deceit", and he admitted to providing wrong testimony in court, although he was not found guilty of intentionally misleading investors. The drug developed by Cohen had been withdrawn by the FDA in 1976, for its potentially lethal side effects, having led to the loss of limbs and death in some cases. As reparations, Cohen paid $29.2 million in damages.

Awards

 * 1979 elected to the National Academy of Sciences
 * 1980 Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
 * 1981 Wolf Prize in Medicine
 * 1988 National Medal of Science from President Reagan
 * 1989 National Medal of Technology (shared with Herbert Boyer) from President Bush
 * 1996 Lemelson–MIT Prize
 * 2001 National Inventors Hall of Fame
 * 2004 Albany Medical Center Prize (shared with Herbert Boyer)
 * 2004 Shaw Prize in Life Science and Medicine (shared with Herbert Boyer)
 * 2006 elected to the American Philosophical Society
 * 2009 Double Helix Medal
 * 2016 Biotechnology Heritage Award, from the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) and the Chemical Heritage Foundation

title: Stanley Norman Cohen


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Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse

Ernest Louis (Ernst Ludwig Karl Albrecht Wilhelm; 25 November 1868 – 9 October 1937) was the last Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, reigning from 1892 until 1918.

Early life
Ernest Louis was the elder son of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was named Louis after his father. His nickname was "Ernie". One of seven siblings, two of whom died in childhood, Ernest grew up with his four surviving sisters in Darmstadt. One of his younger sisters, Alexandra, would marry Tsar Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia, while another sister, Victoria Mountbatten, would be the mother of Queen Louise of Sweden, Louis Mountbatten and Princess Alice of Battenberg, who was the mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.

Ernest Louis grew up in a loving household, with parents who demonstrated their affection for their children, something not typical for that social stratum in those days. He grew much attached to his parents and siblings, and it was his misfortune that he was fated to witness several deaths among them during his childhood. When he was five, his only brother Prince Friedrich died. The two boys had been playing a game when the younger boy, who suffered from haemophilia, fell through a window onto the balcony twenty feet below. Ernest Louis was inconsolable. "When I die, you must die too, and all the others. Why can't we all die together? I don't want to die alone, like Frittie," he told his nurse. To his mother he said, "I dreamt that I was dead and was gone up to Heaven, and there I asked God to let me have Frittie again and he came to me and took my hand."

In 1878, when Ernest was ten, an epidemic of diphtheria swept through Darmstadt. His father and all the children, except Elisabeth, who was visiting her paternal grandmother, fell ill. Princess Alice cared for her sick husband and children, but on 16 November, the youngest of them, Princess Marie, died. Alice kept the news from her family for several weeks, until Ernest Louis, who was devoted to little Marie, asked for his sister. When his mother revealed Marie's death, Ernest Louis was overcome with grief. In comforting her grieving son, Alice kissed him. She fell ill within a week, and died on 14 December, the anniversary of her own father's death.

First marriage
On 19 April 1894, at Schloss Ehrenburg, Ernest Louis married his maternal first cousin, Princess Victoria Melita of Edinburgh nicknamed "Ducky", the daughter of his mother's brother, Prince Alfred. The match was actively encouraged by their mutual grandmother, Queen Victoria, who attended the wedding. At the wedding, Ernest's youngest surviving sister, Alix, became engaged to marry Tsarevich Nicholas of Russia, and the excitement of that imminent match threw the nuptial celebrations into the shade. Ernest and Victoria Melita had two children:
 * a daughter, Elisabeth (11 March 1895 – 16 November 1903). Her early death at age 8 of typhoid fever greatly devastated her father who wrote "My little Elisabeth" in his memoirs "was the sunshine of my life" 30 years after her death.
 * stillborn son on 25 May 1900.

Ernest and Victoria entertained in style, frequently holding house parties for young friends (anybody above 30 was deemed "too old" by Victoria), dispensing with formality on those occasions to indulge in fun and frolic; Victoria's cousin Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark remembered one stay with them as having been "the jolliest, merriest house party to which I have ever been in my life." These revelries were more in keeping with Victoria's inclinations than Ernest's. Their marriage was unhappy due to differences in temperament and attitude. Fond as she was of revelry, Victoria was less enthusiastic about fulfilling her public role. She avoided answering letters, put off visits to elderly relations whose company she did not enjoy, and talked to people who amused her at official functions while ignoring people of higher social or official standing whom she found boring. Victoria's inattention to her duties provoked quarrels with Ernest. The young couple had loud arguments which sometimes turned physical. The volatile Victoria shouted, threw tea trays, smashed china against the wall, and tossed anything that was handy at Ernest during their arguments.

Queen Victoria was saddened when she heard of the trouble in the marriage from Sir George Buchanan, her chargé d'affaires at Darmstadt, but because of their daughter, Elisabeth, she refused to consider permitting her grandchildren to divorce. Ernest also held off from divorce mainly for this reason. He adored his daughter to distraction and lavished his time and attention on her. The child reciprocated her father's affection, preferred the company of her father to that of her mother. Meanwhile, all efforts to rekindle the marriage failed; Victoria took to spending most of the year in the south of France, spending vast sums in expenses and at the card-tables in Monte Carlo. When Queen Victoria died in January 1901, significant opposition to the end of the marriage was removed. The couple were divorced 21 December 1901 on grounds of "invincible mutual antipathy" by a special verdict of the Supreme Court of Hesse. After the divorce had come through, Victoria told some close relatives that Ernest was a homosexual. Allegedly, she had caught her husband in bed with a male servant when, in 1897, she returned home from a visit to her sister Queen Marie of Romania. She did not make her accusation public, but told her sister that "no boy was safe, from the stable hands to the kitchen help. He slept quite openly with them all." Victoria later married another first cousin, this time on her mother's side, while Ernest married a woman from a mediatised family, Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich.

Second marriage
Ernest Louis remarried in Darmstadt, on 2 February 1905, to Princess Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (17 September 1871 – 16 November 1937). This marriage proved harmonious and happy. The couple had two sons:
 * Georg Donatus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse (1906–1937). He married Ernest's grand-niece, Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark, a sister of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and had issue. The couple and two of their young sons were killed in a plane crash in 1937, leaving behind a daughter who also died two years later, while yet a child.
 * Louis, Prince of Hesse and by Rhine (1908–1968), who married Margaret Campbell Geddes, daughter of Auckland Geddes, 1st Baron Geddes; no issue. Louis adopted Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse as his heir, thereby uniting the two lines of the Hesse family.

In addition to his marriage, Ernest Louis maintained a close friendship with the bisexual Karl August Lingner, the inventor of Odol, one of the first liquid mouthwashes. When Lingner died of tongue cancer, he bequeathed Tarasp Castle in Switzerland to Ernest Louis. However, the Hesse family never lived in it, and it was sold in 2016.

Grand Duke of Hesse
In 1892, Ernest Louis succeeded his father as grand duke.

Throughout his life, Ernest Louis was a patron of the arts, founding the Darmstadt Artists' Colony, and was himself an author of poems, plays, essays, and piano compositions.

Ernest Louis commissioned the New Mausoleum in 1903. It was consecrated on 3 November 1910, in the presence of the Grand Duke and his immediate family, that is to say, his wife Eleonore, Tsar Nicholas II and his two sisters, the Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia, Grand Duchess Elisabeth Feodorovna (Ella), Victoria, Princess Louis of Battenberg and her daughter, Louise, and Princess Heinrich of Prussia accompanied by her husband. The remains of Grand Duke Ludwig IV, Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine along with their children 'Frittie' and 'May' were re-interred in the New Mausoleum.

First World War
During World War I, Ernest Louis served as a general of the infantry at Kaiser Wilhelm's headquarters. In February, 1917, the February Revolution in Russia forced his brother-in-law, Tsar Nicholas II, to abdicate. Sixteen months later, in July 1918, his two sisters in Russia, Elizabeth, the widow of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, and Alexandra, the wife of Nicholas II, were murdered by the Bolsheviks, Alexandra dying alongside her husband and children. At the end of the war, he lost his throne during the revolution of 1918, after refusing to abdicate.

Death
In October 1937, Ernest Louis died after a long illness at Schloß Wolfsgarten, near Darmstadt. He received what amounted to a state funeral on 16 November 1937 and was buried next to his daughter, Elisabeth, in a new open air burial ground next to the New Mausoleum he had built in the Rosenhöhe park in Darmstadt.

Legacy
His former sister-in-law, Marie of Romania, described Grand Duke Ernest in her memoirs:"Ernie could be the gayest of companions, he was in fact full of almost feverish life. There was something effervescent about him, rather restless even; he was highly strung and had the artistic temperament developed to the highest degree. He enjoyed everything and could also be a clever inventor of varied amusements.[...] Ernie enjoyed himself as much as we did and, his vitality being infectious, he did Nando a lot of good. In his youth my husband had not the faculty of real enjoyment; he was too anxious and this gave him a somewhat protesting attitude that we did our best to overrule. The truth was he was too much in  awe of Uncle ; the fear of his “vetoes” was always with him, so he could never “let himself go” to complete enjoyment. Ernie, however, often helped him to overcome his inborn diffidence; the young brother-in-law, so to say, conquered Nando’s doubts with his much greater self-assurance."Felix Yusupov also described him in his memoirs: "I knew the Grand Duke of Hesse very well, for he had often stayed with us at Arkhangelskoye. He was a very good-looking fellow, gay and attractive. He had a passionate love of beauty and boundless imagination. Having taken it into his head one day that his white pigeons were not in keeping with the old stones of his palace, he had their feathers dyed skye blue. His marriage was not a happy one."

Honours
He received the following orders and decorations: • Hesse and by Rhine:
 * German honours

• * Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order

• * Grand Cross of the Merit Order of Philip the Magnanimous

• * Knight of the Golden Lion

• * Founder of the Order of the Star of Brabant, 14 June 1914

• Anhalt: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear

•  Baden:

• * Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1888

• * Knight of the Order of Berthold the First, 1888

•  undefined: Knight of St. Hubert, 1892

•  Brunswick: Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion

•    Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order

•  Mecklenburg: Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Crown in Ore

•  Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown and Collar

•  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon

•  undefined: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1892

•  Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1893

•  undefined:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, with Collar

• * Grand Cross of the Red Eagle

• * Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern

•  Hohenzollern: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class

•  Austria-Hungary: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1893
 * Foreign honours

•  undefined: Grand Cross of St. Alexander

• 🇬🇷 Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer

•  undefined: Knight of the Annunciation, with Collar, 4 September 1897

• * Parmese Ducal Family: Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George

•  undefined: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I

•  undefined: Grand Cross of the Star of Romania

•  undefined:

• * Knight of St. Andrew, February 1889

• * Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, February 1889

• * Knight of the White Eagle, February 1889

• * Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, February 1889

• * Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class, February 1889

• * Knight of St. Vladimir, 4th Class

• 🇹🇭 Siam: Grand Cross of the White Elephant

•  undefined: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 16 July 1910

•  undefined:

• * Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (civil), 21 June 1887 (expelled in 1915)

• * Knight of the Garter, 16 May 1892 (expelled in 1915)

• * Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain, 10 August 1902 (expelled in 1915)

title: Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse


text:
Mitsuki Saiga

Mitsuki Saiga (斎賀 みつき) is a Japanese voice actress affiliated with Ken Production. Her major roles include Maria Ross in Fullmetal Alchemist, Yoite in Nabari no Ou, Kuranosuke Koibuchi in Princess Jellyfish, Tiz Arrior in Bravely Default, and Morag in Xenoblade Chronicles 2. Her deep and rich voice make her a versatile and fluid actress. She won a Best Supporting Actress Award at the 2nd Seiyu Awards for her work in Moyasimon: Tales of Agriculture, Gurren Lagann, and Toward the Terra. She also won the Overseas Fan Award at the 4th Seiyu Awards for her portrayals of Wolfram in Kyo Kara Maoh! and Souji Okita in Peacemaker Kurogane. As the band '''Mitsuki Saiga feat. Just''', she released several albums and singles that have charted on Oricon.

title: Mitsuki Saiga


text:
Jakucho Setouchi

Jakucho Setouchi (瀬戸内 寂聴) (15 May 1922 – 9 November 2021; born Harumi Mitani (三谷 晴美) formerly known as Harumi Setouchi (瀬戸内 晴美) was a Japanese Buddhist nun, writer, and activist. Setouchi wrote a best-selling translation of The Tale of Genji and over 400 fictional biographical and historical novels. In 1997, she was honoured as a Person of Cultural Merit, and in 2006, she was awarded the Order of Culture of Japan.

Biography
Setouchi was born Harumi Mitani on 15 May 1922 in Tokushima, Tokushima Prefecture to Toyokichi and Koharu Mitani. Toyokichi was a cabinetmaker who made Buddhist and Shinto religious objects. In 1929, her family began using the surname Setouchi after her father was adopted by a family member.

Setouchi studied Japanese literature at Tokyo Woman's Christian University before her arranged marriage to scholar Yasushi Sakai in 1943. She moved with her husband after the Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent him to Beijing, and gave birth to their daughter in 1944. In 1945, her mother was killed in an air raid and a grandmother was also killed during the war. She returned to Japan in 1946, settled with family in Tokyo in 1947, and in 1948, left her husband and daughter for a relationship with another man.

1950 she divorced her husband and serialized her first novel in a magazine. She continued to have sexual relationships, including affairs with married men, and some of her novels were semi-autobiographical.

In 1957, she won her first literary award for her novel "Qu Ailing, the Female College Student". She then published Kashin ("Center of a Flower"), which was criticized for the sexual content, and to which she responded, "The critics who say such things all must be impotent and their wives frigid." Publishing her work was difficult for several years afterwards, and critics called her a "womb writer".

She began to shift her novel writing focus to historical female writers and activists, eventually including Kanoko Okamoto, Toshiko Tamura, Sugako Kanno, Fumiko Kaneko, and Itō Noe. In 1963, she was awarded The Women's Literature Prize (Joryu Bungaku Sho) for her 1962 book Natsu no Owari ("The End of Summer"), which became a best-seller. In 1968, she published the essay Ai no Rinri ("The Ethics of Love").

In 1973, Setouchi began training to become a Buddhist nun within the Tendai school of Buddhism, and received her name Jakuchō, which means "silent, lonely listening." From 1987 to 2005, she was the chief priestess at the Tendaiji temple in Iwate Prefecture. Setouchi was a pacifist and became an activist, including by participating in protests of the Persian Gulf War in 1991 and the 2003 invasion of Iraq as well as anti-nuclear rallies in Fukushima after the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, including an anti-nuclear hunger strike in 2012. She also opposed capital punishment.

She received the Tanizaki Prize for her novel Hana ni Toe ("Ask the Flowers") in 1992, and was named a Person of Cultural Merit in 1997. Her translation of The Tale of Genji from Classical Japanese took six years to complete and was published in ten volumes in 1998. She considered Prince Genji to be a plot device for the stories of the women of the court and used a contemporary version of Japanese for her translation. The novel sold more than 2.1 million volumes by mid-1999. After the book was published, she gave lectures and participated in discussion groups organized by her publisher for more than a year.

She received the Japanese Order of Culture in 2006. She also wrote under the pen name "Purple", and in 2008 revealed she had written a cell phone novel titled Tomorrow's Rainbow. In 2016, she helped found the nonprofit Little Women Project to support young women experiencing abuse, exploitation, drug addiction, or poverty. In 2017, she published her novel Inochi ("Life"), and then continued to publish her writing in literary magazines.

At the time of her death, her home temple was in the Kyoto Sagano area. Setouchi died of heart failure in Kyoto, Japan, on 9 November 2021 at the age of 99.

Works

 * Joshidaisei Chui Airin ("Qu Ailing, the Female College Student") (1957)
 * Natsu no owari ("The End of Summer") (1962), translated by Janine Beichman ISBN 978-4-77001-746-8
 * Kashin ("Center of a Flower") (1963)
 * Miren ("Lingering Affections") (1963)
 * Kiji ("Pheasant") (1963) translated by Robert Huey in ISBN 978-4-77002-976-8
 * Hana ni toe ("Ask the Flowers") (1992)
 * Beauty in Disarray (1993), translated by Sanford Goldstein and Kazuji Ninomiya ISBN 978-0-80483-322-6
 * The Tale of Genji (1998)
 * Basho ("Places") (2001)

Honours and awards

 * 1957 Shinchosha Coterie Magazine Award for Joshidaisei Chui Airin
 * 1963 Women's Literature Prize (Joryu Bungaku Sho) for Natsu no Owari
 * 1992 Tanizaki Prize for Hana ni Toe
 * 1997 Person of Cultural Merit
 * 2001 Noma Prize in literature for Basho
 * 2006 Order of Culture of Japan
 * 2006 International Nonino Prize

title: Jakucho Setouchi


text:
Richmond District

Richmond District may refer to:

 * Richmond District, San Francisco, a neighborhood in the city of San Francisco
 * Richmond District, Pennsylvania, a former area of the city of Philadelphia

title: Richmond District


text:
Robert Cooke (physician)

Robert Anderson Cooke (1880–1960), was an American immunologist and allergist.

In 1916 Cooke and Albert Vandeveer demonstrated the role of heredity in the origins of allergy. According to Cooke, 48% of his allergic patients had allergies in their family history. While the trait of allergy is transmitted through heredity, parents and children may be allergic to different substances.

In 1918, Dr. Cooke suggested a mechanism of action for allergen injections as a "desensitization or hyposensitization," analogous to tolerance achieved in experimental anaphylaxis induced in animals. This concept suggested that the injections of an increasing amount of allergen or antigen slowly neutralized those antibodies responsible for the allergic reaction.

title: Robert Cooke (physician)


text:
Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse

Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (Großherzog Ludwig III von Hessen und bei Rhein; 9 June 1806, Darmstadt – 13 June 1877, Seeheim) was Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine from 1848 until his death in 1877.

Biography
He was the son of Grand Duke Louis II of Hesse and his consort, Princess Wilhelmine of Baden. He succeeded as Grand Duke in 1848 upon the abdication of his father during the March Revolution in the German states.

During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Louis sent word more than once to Queen Victoria, mother-in-law of his nephew and successor Louis, appealing to her to reason on his behalf with the King of Prussia, "in the same sense I had already written before, but it would be utterly useless."

He was succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV, on 13 June 1877, as his brother Charles (Louis' father) had already died three months previously, in March.

Marriages
In Munich, on 26 December 1833, he married Princess Mathilde Caroline of Bavaria, eldest daughter of Ludwig I of Bavaria. The marriage produced no children. Princess Mathilde Caroline died in 1862, and in 1868 the Grand Duke remarried, morganatically, to Magdalene Appel who was created Baroness of Hochstädten.

Honours and awards
• Baden:

• * Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1806

• * Grand Cross of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, 1833

•  Electorate of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Order of the Golden Lion, 19 February 1827

•  Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 3 May 1830

• * Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, 25 April 1871

•  Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen, 1830

•  Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert, 1833

•  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon, 3 October 1840

•  Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis, with Golden Crown, 11 October 1840

•  Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown, 1841

•  Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown, 1845

•  Kingdom of Hanover:

• * Knight of the Order of St. George, 1851

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1851

•  Duchy of Modena and Reggio: Grand Cross of the Order of the Eagle of Este, 1856

•  Nassau: Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau, December 1858

•  undefined: Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 6 April 1863

• 🇲🇨 Monaco: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles, 23 April 1865

•  undefined: Stranger Knight of the Order of the Garter, 17 June 1865

title: Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse


text:
Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse

Louis II (26 December 1777 – 16 June 1848) was Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine from 6 April 1830 until 16 June 1848. He was the son of Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Before his reign
He studied at Leipzig University. Thereafter, he lived mostly in Darmstadt. 1804 he represented his father at the coronation of Napoleon in Paris. He took part in the Congress of Erfurt and the Congress of Vienna and attended the coronation of Louis XVIII in Paris.

Based on the 1820 Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, he was a member of the First Chamber of Parliament until becoming sovereign in 1830. He was not really active in parliament apart from defending the constitution against any attempts to amend it.

He was not really interested in governmental affairs, despite most cabinet ministers trying to include and brief him on current matters.

Reign
He began his reign on April 6, 1830. He provoked a conflict with parliament as he demanded that his large personal debt be taken over by the state. Due to his reactionary positions, he was in conflict with parliament almost his entire reign.

Shortly after becoming sovereign, he had to deal with uprisings in Upper Hesse, which he left to his brother Prince Emil. Emil and Prime Minister Karl du Thil were the actual government of the Grand Duchy at the time.

Resignation and death
The German revolutions of 1848–1849 showed his inability to govern. On March 5, 1848, he named his son Louis III as co-regent.

Following his death shortly afterwards, he was at first buried in the Stadtkirche Darmstadt, before his body was moved to the Old Mausoleum in Park Rosenhöhe in 1910.

Marriage and issue
On 19 June 1804, in Karlsruhe, he married his first cousin Princess Wilhelmine of Baden, youngest daughter of Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden, and his wife, Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Due to Louis's affairs, the union proved an unhappy one, and the couple separated after the birth of their third child, who was his second surviving child.

Wilhelmine had four children in the 1820s, but it was widely rumored that their real father was her chamberlain August von Senarclens de Grancy. Louis II nonetheless acknowledged them, and they were considered legitimate Princes and Princesses of Hesse and by Rhine by the nobles of Europe. Two of them lived to adulthood.

 * Prince Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt (9 June 1806 – 13 June 1877); (the future Grand Duke).
 * Stillborn son (18 August 1807).
 * Prince Karl Wilhelm Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt (23 April 1809 – 20 March 1877).
 * Princess Amalia Elisabeth Luise Karoline Friederike Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt (20 May 1821 – 27 May 1826).
 * Stillborn daughter (7 June 1822).
 * Prince Alexander Ludwig Georg Friedrich Emil of Hesse-Darmstadt (15 July 1823 – 15 December 1888)
 * Princess Maximiliane Wilhelmine Auguste Sophie Marie of Hesse-Darmstadt (8 August 1824 – 3 June 1880); the future Empress consort of Alexander II of Russia.

title: Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse


text:
User talk:JBo

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Meelar (talk) 08:06, Feb 7, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:JBo


text:
Saint Petersburg Bede

The Saint Petersburg Bede (Saint Petersburg, National Library of Russia, lat. Q. v. I. 18), formerly known as the Leningrad Bede, is an Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscript, a near-contemporary version of Bede's 8th century history, the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People). Although not heavily illuminated, it is famous for containing the earliest historiated initial (one containing a picture) in European illumination. It is so named because it was taken to the Russian National Library of Saint Petersburg in Russia at the time of the French Revolution, by Peter P. Dubrovsky.

Dating
Traditionally, the Saint Petersburg Bede is attributed on palaeographic grounds to Bede's monastery at Wearmouth-Jarrow. It is also traditionally dated to 731/732 × 746 on the basis of the so-called Memoranda, a series of retrospective dates found in the margins of Bede's recapitulo in Book V Chapter 24. The validity of these Memoranda (and similar notes in the Moore Bede) as evidence for the precise year in which the manuscript was copied has been vigorously challenged. While it may not be possible to assign the manuscript to a specific year, it seems unlikely that it was copied much after the middle of the eighth century.

Physical description
The manuscript is written on parchment. It contains 162 folios (numbered 161, but with f. 51 repeated—the correct foliation is given on the last folio in the bottom right corner). Pages average approximately 270 × 190 mm (Writing Space: 230 × 150 mm in two columns of 27 lines). The pages have been trimmed at some point. The manuscript has been copied by four hands, with textual "accessories" (colophons, chapter numbers, and the like) in a fifth (Parkes 1982, 6-11).

The opening three letters of Book 2 of Bede are decorated, to a height of 8 lines of the text, and the opening h contains a bust portrait of a haloed figure carrying a cross and a book. This may be intended to be St. Gregory the Great, although a much later hand has identified the figure as St. Augustine of Canterbury in the halo. The figure is identified as a saint, rather than Christ, by his clerical tonsure. Although the letter decoration is essentially Insular in style, the figure shows Mediterranean influence, as do other elements of the illuminations, such as the foliate decoration filling in the B shown above.

Contents
The Saint Petersburg Bede contains one of the two oldest surviving examples of the "m-type" text of the Latin Historia ecclesiastica (Colgrave and Mynors 1969, xliv). The manuscript also contains one of two copies of the vernacular text of the Northumbrian aelda recension of Cædmon's Hymn in the bottom margin of "f. 107r" (actually f. 108r; see Cædmon's Hymn). The poem has been copied in the fourth hand of the main Latin text (Parkes 1982, 6).

title: Saint Petersburg Bede


text:
Herb Klein (politician)

Herbert C. Klein (June 24, 1930 – November 24, 2023) was an American businessman, attorney, and politician who represented New Jersey in the United States House of Representatives for one term from 1993 to 1995.

Early life and education
Klein was born in Newark, New Jersey on June 24, 1930, the son of Fae (Sackin) and Alfred Klein, an accountant. His family were Jewish emigrants from Hungary and Russia. He received his BA from Rutgers University in 1950 and a JD from Harvard Law School in 1952, as well as an LLM from New York University in 1958.

Klein served in the United States Air Force from 1954 to 1956, where he was assigned to the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. Admitted to the bar in 1953, he commenced the practice of law in Passaic, New Jersey, and in 1961 founded the First Real Estate Investment Trust of New Jersey.

Political career
After defeating incumbent Joseph Scancarella in 1971, Klein served as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly from 1972 to 1976. There, he authored the law that created the New Jersey Economic Development Authority. In the Assembly, was co-counsel on a bond issue for New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority, and worked for the introduction of state income tax. He also served as Executive Director of the Passaic County Democratic Committee from 1977 to 1981. He was elected as a Democrat to the 103rd United States Congress in 1992 to succeed retiring eleven-term incumbent Robert Roe in the historically Democratic eighth district.

Tenure in Congress
During his tenure in the United States House of Representatives, Klein was a leader on the House Banking Committee, where he was responsible for several legislative initiatives. He co-authored the bills that authorized interstate branch banking and was the architect of the provision which sparked passage of the legislation that ended the problems in the savings and loan industry.

Klein also served on the House Science Committee, where he co-authored the National Competitiveness Act which helped to strengthen American industry. Klein was defeated for re-election by Clifton city councilman and Passaic County freeholder Bill Martini, making him one of 54 Democrats to lose their seats in the 1994 Congressional Elections.

Business and legal career
Klein obtained one of the largest civil verdicts on behalf of a plaintiff in New Jersey in Laganella v. Braen.

Affiliations
Klein served continuously as a Trustee of the First Real Estate Investment Trust of New Jersey from 1961 onwards, leading the Trust as President from 1991 to 1993. He was once a member of the Board of Trustees of Rutgers University, likewise once President of the Board of Trustees of Beth Israel Hospital, as well as a member of the Governor's Committee for the New Jersey Development Council, a member of the Board of Overseers of the Rutgers University Foundation, a member of the Executive Committee of the board of directors of the Rutgers University Foundation, Chairman of the President's Council of the Rutgers University Foundation, a member of the Board of Trustees of the Montclair Art Museum, and a member of the board of directors of multiple philanthropic organizations.

Personal life and death
Klein married Jacqueline Krieger in 1952, and had a son and a daughter. His wife died in 2017. Herb Klein died on November 24, 2023, at the age of 93, and was buried in King Solomon Memorial Park in Clifton, New Jersey on November 26. Eulogies were delivered by New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy and Congressman Bill Pascrell among others.

On November 28, 2023, the United States House of Representatives held a moment of silence in honor of Klein.

title: Herb Klein (politician)


text:
Éric Chahi

Éric Chahi is a French computer game designer and programmer, best known as the creator of Another World (also known as Out of This World in North America) and Heart of Darkness.

Career
Éric Chahi started programming on Oric Atmos and Amstrad in 1983 for the company Loriciels. He worked on games such as Jeanne d'Arc and Voyage au centre de la Terre published for Chip. In 1989 Éric Chahi quit Chip to join Delphine Software International to work on the graphics for Future Wars, a game designed by Paul Cuisset. After this, over a period of two years, Chahi developed Another World (released in 1991) on his own, only soliciting help for the music score. Another World went on to receive critical acclaim for its atmosphere and minimalism, becoming a cult classic.

After leaving Delphine, Chahi founded Amazing Studio and became one of several designers that were working on Heart of Darkness, a side-scrolling game. It suffered numerous delays, and was in development for six years. When Infogrames finally published it in 1998, it was negatively received by critics due to its short length and by-then dated graphics, though the graphics of the PlayStation port were praised.

Chahi disappeared from the game industry for some years but returned to making games with Ubisoft in the 2010s. In April 2005 he released a free Game Boy Advance version of Another World. It was created in collaboration with programmer Cyril Cogordan, who originally started it as a fan project. It can be played using a GBA flash cartridge or emulator.

A version of Another World for mobile phones was made with the help of developer Magic Productions and released in 2005. On April 14, 2006, Chahi and Magic Productions released an updated PC version of Another World which featured remade graphics and ran on modern versions of Microsoft Windows. This HD version was ported to Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PS Vita, 3DS and Wii U in June 2014 as a 20th-anniversary edition.

On June 14, 2010, a trailer for Chahi's new game named From Dust was shown at E3. The game was released on July 27, 2011, on Xbox Live Arcade as part of the 2011 Summer of Arcade, is described as a mix between Populous and Black and White. It was also released on the PC later on August 17, 2011, and later was released for the Chrome web browser.

In December 2012, Another World was added to the collection of the New York Museum of Modern Art.

In November 2014, he made a 3D Interactive Lava Simulator for the Volcano Museum La Cité du Volcan on Réunion Island near Madagascar.

In 2016, he created the indie video game studio Pixel Reef in Montpellier, France to work on a new title Paper Beast, a title set to be released on PlayStation VR in 2019 and PlayStation 4 in 2020. This project came out of the work he did for the Réunion Volcano Museum while studying the island's Piton de la Fournaise volcano for these simulations. Chahi started Pixel Reef, along with Sahy and two others after the museum project was finished to work on this game, and as of 2019, the team now numbers 16.

Paper Beast went on to release for PlayStation 4 on March 24, 2020 and on July 24, 2020 for Windows.

Games

 * 1983 Frog (Oric 1; ASN diffusion)
 * 1983 Carnaval (Oric 1; ASN diffusion)
 * 1984 Le Sceptre d'Anubis (Oric 1; Micro Programmes 5)
 * 1984 Doggy (Oric 1; Loriciels)
 * 1985 Infernal Runner (Amstrad CPC; Loriciels)
 * 1986 Le Pacte (Loriciels)
 * 1987 Danger Street (Amstrad CPC; Chip)
 * 1988 Journey to the Center of the Earth
 * 1989 Joan of Arc: Siege & the Sword
 * 1989 Future Wars (original French title: Les voyageurs du temps, Interplay)
 * 1991 Another World (title in North America: Out of this World, Interplay)
 * 1998 Heart of Darkness (Interplay)
 * 2004 Amiga Classix 4 (magnussoft)
 * 2011 From Dust (Ubisoft)
 * 2020 Paper Beast (Pixel Reef)

title: Éric Chahi


text:
Edvin Biuković

Edvin Biuković (22 June 1969 – 5 December 1999) was a Croatian comics artist.

Biography
Biuković made his debut in 1987 with the strip Dokaz published in the third issue of Croatian magazine Patak. He spent several more years working on comic projects in Croatia and collaborated with his good friend Darko Macan on the pages of German magazine Gespenster Geschichten. Most of those stories were later translated to Croatian (and collected into one volume titled Citati), as well as English (reprinted in various issues of Caliber's Negative Burn).

His big break came in 1994 when Dark Horse published Grendel Tales: Devils and Deaths, his another collaboration with Macan. The pair were subsequently asked back to do a four-issue sequel, Devil's Choices. In 1995, Biuković was nominated in the Best Penciller/Inker category and awarded the Russ Manning Best Newcomer Award in 1995.

In December 1999, he died suddenly of a brain tumor in his hometown Zagreb, two weeks after it was initially diagnosed. Edvin Biuković was thirty years old. Prior to his death, he was working on yet another project with Macan titled Silver Sun as well as a short story that was posthumously released in Vertigo's Weird War Tales Special.

Many people have cited Biuković as their influence, including My Chemical Romance singer and comic book writer Gerard Way (The Umbrella Academy, The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys) as well as fellow Croatian artist Goran Sudžuka (Outlaw Nation, Wonder Woman).

Covers only

 * Strange Adventures vol. 2 #3 (Vertigo, 2000)
 * Flinch #10 (Vertigo, 2000)

title: Edvin Biuković


text:
Charles Molnar

Charles Edwin Molnar (1935–1996) was a co-developer of one of the first minicomputers, the LINC (Laboratory Instrument Computer), while a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1962. His collaborator was Wesley A. Clark.

The LINC originated decades before the advent of the personal computer. Its development was the result of a National Institutes of Health (NIH) program that placed 20 copies of an early LINC prototype in selected biomedical research laboratories nationwide. Later, the LINC was produced in greater numbers by Digital Equipment Corporation and other computer manufacturers. Later he was on the faculty of Washington University in St. Louis.

Charlie Molnar was also well known as a pioneer in the modeling of the auditory system, especially numerical models of the function of the cochlea (the inner ear).

When he died in 1996, he was working at Sun Microsystems on asynchronous circuits with Ivan Sutherland.

Molnar received a bachelor's degree (1956) and a master's degree (1957) in electrical engineering from Rutgers University, where he was a member of the Cap and Skull Society, and received a doctoral degree (1966) from MIT in electrical engineering.

Important publications
Molnar's significant publications included the following:

 * Clark, W.A. and C.E. Molnar, 1964, "The LINC," Anal. New York Academy of Sciences, Vol 115, pp. 653–658.
 * Clark, W.A. and C.E. Molnar, 1965, "A Description of the LINC," Computers in Biomedical Research, Vol II, B.D. Waxman and R. Stacey, eds, Academic Press, New York, NY.
 * Model for the Convergence of Inputs Upon Neurons in the Cochlear Nucleus, D.Sc. Thesis, MIT, 1966.
 * Chaney, T.J. and C.E. Molnar, "Anomalous Behavior of Synchronizer and Arbiter Circuits," IEEE Trans. on Computers, Vol. C-22, No. 4, pp. 421–422, Apr. 1973.
 * Kim, D.O., C.E. Molnar, and R. R. Pfeiffer, 1973, "A system of nonlinear differential equations modeling basilar-membrane motion," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54(6):1517–29 Dec. 1973.
 * Clark, W.A. and C.E. Molnar, 1974, "Macromodular Computer Systems," Computers in Biomedical Research, pp. 45–85, Vol IV, B.D. Waxman and R. Stacey, eds, Academic Press, New York, NY.
 * Kim, D.O. and C.E. Molnar: Cochlear mechanics: Measurements and models, in The Nervous System, Vol. 3, Human Communication and Its Disorders, edited by DB Tower (Raven, New York) 1975; pp 57–68
 * Sproull, R.F., I.E. Sutherland, and C.E. Molnar, 1994, "The Counterflow Pipeline Architecture," IEEE Design and Test of Computers, Vol. 11, no.3, pp. 44–59.

title: Charles Molnar


text:
Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse

Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse (14 June 1753 in Prenzlau – 6 April 1830 in Darmstadt) was Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (as Louis X) and later the first Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine.

Louis was the son of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, and succeeded his father in 1790. He presided over a significant increase in territory for Hesse-Darmstadt during the imperial reorganizations of 1801–1803, most notably the Duchy of Westphalia, hitherto subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. Allied to Napoleon I of France, Louis in 1806 was elevated to the title of a Grand Duke of Hesse and joined the Confederation of the Rhine, leading to the dissolution of the Empire. At the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15, Louis had to give up his Westphalian territories, but was compensated with the district of Rheinhessen on the left bank of the Rhine. Because of this addition, he amended his title to Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine.

Early life
Louis was born on 14 June 1753 as the third child and eldest son of the later Landgrave Louis IX of Hessen-Darmstadt, and his spouse Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken, a daughter of Christian III, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken. He was born in the town of Prenzlau in Brandenburg, where his father, who was in Prussian military service, was stationed. The children grew up with the mother in the town of Buchsweiler, which had previously been the residence of the Counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg, while the father stayed mainly in the town of Pirmasens to attend his military career. In 1766, when Louis was 13, his mother's court moved from Buchsweiler to Darmstadt. At the death of his grandfather on 17 October 1768, his father succeeded as landgrave, and Louis himself became heir to the landgraviate with the title of hereditary prince.

Ludwig studied at the University of Leiden from 1769 and subsequently undertook his Grand Tour to London and Paris. In France he met, among others, the French philosophers Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Denis Diderot, who were some of the prominent figures of the Age of Enlightenment, and editors of the first modern encyclopedia. In 1773 he traveled with the German-born French writer and critic Friedrich Melchior Grimm to the court of Frederik the Great in Prussia, where his sister Frederica Louisa was married to the heir presumptive Frederick William. Finally, he traveled on to Russia, where in 1773 he attended the wedding of his second sister Wilhelmina Louisa in St. Petersburg to the heir to the Russian throne, Grand Duke Paul. As a Russian general Ludwig fought in 1774 in the Russo-Turkish War, and the same year he became freemason in the lodge "To the crowned flag "in Moscow.

Marriage
In 1776, he became engaged to Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg, eldest daughter of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg. The engagement was broken off so that Sophia Dorothea could marry Louis's recently widowed brother-in-law Tsarevich Paul Petrovich, son and heir of Catherine II "the Great", Empress of Russia. He received a monetary compensation when the engagement was broken.

After this humiliating incident, Louis spent the summer at his sister Louise's court in the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, where he associated with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Even after the stay, Louis was in correspondence with the Weimar court and Goethe, and also with Friedrich von Schiller. Louis married his cousin Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of his uncle Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt, on 19 February 1777 in Darmstadt. The couple lived alternately in Darmstadt and in Fürstenlager Auerbach. They had six children.

Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt
Louis succeeded as Landgrave of Hessen-Darmstadt on the death of his father in 1790. He presided over a significant increase in territory for Hesse-Darmstadt during the imperial reorganizations of 1801–1803, most notably the Duchy of Westphalia, hitherto subject to the Archbishop of Cologne.

Grand duke of Hesse
Allied to Napoleon I of France, Louis was elevated to the title of a Grand Duke of Hesse in 1806 and joined the Confederation of the Rhine, leading to the dissolution of the Empire. At the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15, Louis had to give up his Westphalian territories, but was compensated with the district of Rheinhessen, with his capital Mainz on the left bank of the Rhine. Because of this addition, he amended his title to Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine.

Grand Duke Louis I died at the age of 76 on 6 April 1830 in his capital Darmstadt. He was succeeded as Grand Duke by his eldest son Louis II.

In 1844, a 33-meter column called Langer Ludwig (meaning Long Louis), was set up in his commemoration in the middle of the Luisenplatz, the largest square of Darmstadt.

Marriage and family
On 19 February 1777, Louis married his first cousin, Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (15 February 1761 – 24 October 1829), a daughter of Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt. Together, they had eight children:

 * Louis, later Grand Duke Louis II of Hesse (26 December 1777 – 16 June 1848). Married his first cousin Wilhelmine of Baden and had issue.
 * Louise (16 January 1779 – 18 April 1811). Married Louis of Anhalt-Köthen and had issue.
 * Ludwig Georg Karl Friedrich (31 August 1780 – 17 April 1856). Married, morganatically, Caroline Török de Szendrö and had issue.
 * Friedrich August Karl (14 May 1788 – 16 March 1867)
 * Stillborn twin daughters (11 May 1789).
 * Emil (3 September 1790 – 30 April 1856)
 * Ferdinand Gustav Wilhelm Friedrich (18 December 1791 – 30 January 1806)

title: Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse


text: Category:Land art

title: Category:Land art


text:
Peanut butter cup

A peanut butter cup is a molded chocolate with a peanut butter filling. Peanut butter cups are one of the most popular kinds of candy in America. They can be made at home, but like most candies, they are commonly mass-produced. They may also be available in candy shops, produced by local or regional candymakers.

The diameter, thickness, and the relative proportion of its two major components vary according to the desires of the maker. Any type of chocolate may be used for the shell, but milk chocolate is most common. Fillings are usually smooth, creamy peanut butter, but crunchy peanut butter, or peanut butter mixed with other flavors, is also used.

Brands

The most popular brand of peanut butter cup is the Reese's Peanut Butter Cups (sold as Reese in Canada), always featuring Hershey's chocolate, and now a Hershey brand. The heavily roasted peanuts are a trademark flavor. The Reese's Peanut Butter Cup is considered the "finest creation" of Harry Burnett "H. B." Reese, a former employee of Hershey's, who set up his own candy-manufacturing business in the 1920s. Ironically, peanut butter cups were not Reese's favorite candy. He did, however, claim that he owned a trademark on the name "peanut butter cups" and repeatedly threatened legal action against other manufacturers and sellers who made peanut butter cups. Originally sold in bulk, sales of their individual "penny cups" began in 1941, in response to sugar rationing during WWII. The famous slogan "Two great tastes that taste great together" originated in a marketing campaign for this candy in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Another brand is Palmer, which specializes in holiday-themed peanut butter cups. There are various forms that the peanut butter cups take for the different seasons. Each holiday has a different color of foil for the season. They can also come in different shapes, such as hearts or Christmas trees, during holiday seasons.

Many regional candy companies also have versions of the peanut butter cup, including Boyer Candies in Altoona, Pennsylvania.

Variations

Peanut butter cups are made with different variations, such as using white chocolate, dark chocolate, or chocolate-flavored peanut filling. The first variation marketed by Reese's used crunchy peanut butter in 1976. Some have been one-time thematic variations, such as Reese's banana-flavored Elvis Special Edition in 2007.

Notes and references
Reese's Peanut Butter Cups

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Zhi Qian

Zhi Qian (fl. 222–252 CE) was a Chinese Buddhist layman of Yuezhi ancestry who translated a wide range of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. He was the grandson (or according to another source, the son) of an immigrant from the country of the Great Yuezhi, an area that overlapped to at least some extent with the territory of the Kushan Empire. According to the Chinese custom of the time, he used the ethnonym "Zhi" as his surname, to indicate his foreign ancestry.

Life
Born in north China, at an early age Zhi Qian became a disciple of Zhi Liang, who in turn had been a disciple of the famous translator of Mahāyāna scriptures, Lokakṣema (fl. c. 168–189 CE), who was likewise of Yuezhi ancestry. Toward the end of the Han dynasty, as chaos spread throughout the north, Zhi Qian migrated with several dozens of his countrymen to the southern Wu kingdom. Settling first at Wuchang, then in Jianye after 229 CE. According to the earliest extant biography, contained in Sengyou's Chu sanzang ji ji, completed c. 518 CE, the Wu ruler, Sun Quan was so impressed with Zhi Qian's abilities that he appointed him tutor to the crown prince.

Toward the end of his life Zhi Qian became an upāsaka, taking the five lay precepts and retiring to a monastic environment in the mountains. When he died at the age of sixty (in 252 CE or shortly after), the Wu ruler of the time, Sun Liang, is said to have written a letter to the monastic community mourning his death.

Works
Though it seems likely that Zhi Qian had already begun translating Buddhist texts while in the northern capital of Luoyang, the bulk of his translation activity was carried out in the south. His translations—of which more than two dozen are extant today—span a wide range of genres and include both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna scriptures. Among them are a number of āgama texts (i.e., non-Mahāyāna sūtras corresponding to scriptures found in the sutta section of the Pāli canon), didactic verses (including a version of the Dharmapada and of the *Arthapada, corresponding to the Pāli Aṭṭhakavagga), a biography of the Buddha, and several Mahāyāna sūtras, of which some of the most famous are the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (dealing with the Pure Land of Amitābha), the Shorter Perfection of Wisdom scripture (corresponding to the Sanskrit Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā), and an early version of what subsequently became the Buddhāvataṃsaka.

It is extremely difficult to characterize Zhi Qian's translation style, for the corpus of his authentically attributed works ranges from elegant literary creations, in which most foreign names and terms are translated into Chinese, to much more cumbersome productions which bristle with multisyllabic transcriptions of Indian words. It seems likely that translations of the latter type, which resemble those produced by Lokakṣema, may have been produced early in his career when Zhi Qian was still an active member of the circle of Lokakṣema's heirs; the more literary works in Zhi Qian's corpus appear to have been produced after his move to the south, and they share many stylistic features with the work of his Wu-kingdom contemporary, Kang Senghui (fl. 247–280 CE). In particular, both Zhi Qian and Kang Senghui freely included indigenous Chinese religious terminology in their work. An additional factor in Zhi Qian's case was the fact that he revised a number of translations produced by his predecessors (especially Lokakṣema), which—together with his own apparent preference for variety—may have contributed to the inconsistencies in his vocabulary and style.

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title: User:Agriculture


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David A. Morse

David Abner Morse, né David Abner Moscovitz (31 May 1907 – 1 December 1990) was an American bureaucrat who headed the International Labour Organization.

Background
Born David Abner Moscovitz in New York on May 31, 1907, Morse graduated from Rutgers University in 1929, where he was a member of the Cap and Skull Society, and from the Harvard Law School in 1932. He was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1932. In 1937 Moscovitz changed his surname to Morse, "motivated by instances of anti-Semitic resentment he had experience[d] in both his private and professional life." Morse married Mildred Edna Hockstader on May 13, 1937.

Career
Morse later became Special Assistant to the United States Attorney General, Chief Counsel of the Petroleum Labour Policy Board in the US Department of the Interior 1933-1935, and Regional Attorney for the National Labour Relations Board in the metropolitan area of New York (1936-1937).

When war broke out, he gave up his law practice to join the army. From June 1943 to April 1944, Morse served as Captain in North Africa, Sicily and Italy, where he was appointed Chief of the Labor Division of the Allied Military Government (1945). He drafted and put into effect the labour policy and programme in Sicily and Italy for the British and United States Governments and armies. As Chief of the Labor Section of the US Group Control Council for Germany under Generals Eisenhower and Clay, he prepared the labor policy and program for Germany. Promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel, he was awarded the Legion of Merit for his army services in 1946.

After his discharge from the Army in 1945, Morse was appointed general counsel of the National Labor Relations Board. On July 1, 1946, President Truman named him Assistant Secretary of Labor, and Morse devoted his activities to the creation of the Department's programme of international affairs; he served as Acting Secretary from June 9 to August 2, 1948.

Morse had been a delegate to the International Labour Organization (ILO) on two occasions and served as the United States Government representative on the Governing Body. In June 1948, he was named chief of the United States delegation to the International Labour Conference. At the 105th session of the Governing Body in San Francisco in June 1948, he was unanimously elected director-general for a ten-year term. He was unanimously re-elected for five-year terms in May 1957, in March 1962, and in February 1967. In 1969 the ILO was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. He resigned in February 1970. As Director-General, he was preceded by Edward J. Phelan and succeeded by C. Wilfred Jenks.

Death
David Abner Morse died in New York on December 1, 1990.

title: David A. Morse


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History of the Jews in Algeria

The history of Jews in Algeria goes back to Antiquity, although it is not possible to trace with any certainty the time and circumstances of the arrival of the first Jews in what is now Algeria. In any case, several waves of immigration helped to increase the population. There may have been Jews in Carthage and present-day Algeria before the Roman conquest, but the development of Jewish communities is linked to the Roman presence. Jewish revolts in Israel and Cyrenaica in the 1st and 2nd centuries certainly led to the arrival of Jewish immigrants from these regions. The vast majority of scholarly sources reject the notion that there were any large-scale conversions of Berbers to Judaism.

The Muslim conquest of North Africa, which was completed in Algeria in the 8th century, brought North Africa into the realm of Islamic civilization and had a lasting impact on the identity of local Jewish communities, whose status was henceforth governed by the dhimma.

New immigrants later strengthened the Algerian Jewish community: Jews fled Spain during the Visigothic persecutions of the 5th and 6th centuries, and again during the persecutions linked to the Spanish Reconquista of the 14th and 16th centuries. Many Jews from the Iberian Peninsula settled in Algeria, mixing with the local Jewish population and influencing its traditions. In the 18th century, other Jews, the Granas of Livorno, were few in number, but played a role as commercial intermediaries between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. Later in the 19th century, many Jews from Tetouan arrived in Algeria, strengthening the ranks of the community.

After the French colonization of Algeria in 1830, Algerian Jews, like other Algerians, faced discrimination by the colonial state. Like Muslims, they were given the status of "indigéne" (indigenous) and were barred from gaining French citizenship unless highly specific conditions were met. However, the dhimma was abolished, and Jews became equal to Muslims under French law. Indeed, the Muslim law that governed the country put the former at a distinct disadvantage to the latter, especially in the legal sphere and their treatment as inhabitants of the country. Having become French citizens following the Crémieux Decree of 1870, the Algerian Jews increasingly identified with metropolitan France, and despite their forced return to second-class indigenous status during World War II, they opted en masse to be repatriated to France on the eve of Algerian Independence, with a minority choosing Israel. This exile virtually put an end to more than 2,000 years of presence on Algerian soil. A few dozen very discreet Jews still live in Algeria.

Early Jewish history in Algeria
There is evidence of Jewish settlements in Algeria since at least the Roman period (Mauretania Caesariensis). Epitaphs have been found in archaeological excavations that attest to Jews in the first centuries CE. Berber lands were said to welcome Christians and Jews very early from the Roman Empire. The destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by Titus in 70 CE, and thereafter by the Kitos War in 117, reinforced Jewish settlement in North Africa and the Mediterranean. Early descriptions of the Rustamid capital, Tahert, note that Jews were found there, as they would be in any other major Muslim city of North Africa. Centuries later, the letters found in the Cairo Geniza mention many Algerian Jewish families.

Muslim dominance era
In the 7th century, Jewish settlements in North Africa were reinforced by Jewish immigrants that came to North Africa after fleeing from the persecutions of the Visigothic king Sisebut and his successors. They escaped to the Maghreb, which was at the time still part of the Byzantine Empire. It is debated whether Jews influenced the Berber population, making converts among them. In that century, Islamic armies conquered the whole Maghreb and most of the Iberian peninsula. The Jewish population was placed under Muslim domination in constant cultural exchanges with Al Andalus and the Near East.

Later many Sephardic Jews were forced to take refuge in Algeria from the persecutions in Spain of Catalonia, Valencia and Balearic Islands in 1391 and the Spanish Inquisition in 1492. Together with the Moriscos, they thronged to the ports of North Africa, and mingled with native Jewish people. In the 16th century there were large Jewish communities in places such as Oran, Bejaïa and Algiers. Jews were also present in the cities of the interior such as Tlemcen and Constantine and as far spread as Touggourt and M'zab in the south, with the permission of the Muslim authorities. Some Jews in Oran preserved Ladino language—which was a uniquely conservative dialect of Spanish—until the 19th century.

Jewish merchants did well financially in late Ottoman Algiers. The French attack on Algeria was provoked by the Dey's demands that the French government pay its large outstanding wheat debts to two Jewish merchants. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, richer Jews from Livorno in Italy started settling in Algeria. Commercial trading and exchanges between Europe and the Ottoman Empire reinforced the Jewish community. Later again in the 19th century, many Sephardic Jews from Tetouan settled in Algeria, creating new communities, particularly in Oran.

French Algeria
In 1830, the Algerian Jewish population was between 15,000 and 17,000, mostly congregated in the coastal area. Some 6,500 Jews lived in Algiers, where they made up 20% of the population; 2,000 in Oran; 3,000 in Constantine; and 1000 in Tlemcen. While Muslims resisted the French occupation, some Algerian Jews aided in the conquest, serving as interpreters or suppliers. After their conquest, the French government rapidly restructured the Ottoman millet system.

At the time, the French government distinguished French citizens (who had national voting rights and were subject to French laws and conscription) from Jewish and Muslim "indigenous" peoples, who each were allowed to keep their own laws and courts. By 1841, the Jewish batei din "religious courts" were placed under French jurisdiction, linked to the Israelite Central Consistory of France. Regional Algerian courts or consistoires were put in place, operating under French oversight.

In 1845, the French colonial government reorganized communal structure, appointing French Jews, who were Ashkenazi Jews, as chief rabbis for each region, with the duty "to inculcate unconditional obedience to the laws, loyalty to France, and the obligation to defend it". Such oversight was an example of the French Jews' attempt to "civilize" Jewish Algerians, as they believed their European traditions were superior to Sephardic practices.

This marked a change in the Jewish relationship with the state. They were separated from the Muslim court system, where they had previously been classified as dhimmis, or a protected minority people. As a result, Algerian Jews resisted those French Jews attempting to settle in Algeria; in some cases, there was rioting, in others the local Jews refused to allow French Jewish burials in Algerian Jews' cemeteries. In 1865, the Senatus-Consulte liberalized rules of citizenship, to allow Jewish and Muslim "indigenous" peoples in Algeria to become French citizens if they requested it. Few did so, however, because French citizenship required renouncing certain traditional mores. The Algerians considered that a kind of apostasy.

The French government granted the Jews, who by then numbered some 33,000, French citizenship in 1870 under the Crémieux Decree, while maintaining an inferior status for Muslims who, though technically French nationals, were required to apply for French citizenship and undergo a naturalization process. For this reason, they are sometimes incorrectly categorized as pieds-noirs. The decision to extend citizenship to Algerian Jews was a result of pressures from prominent members of the liberal, intellectual French Jewish community, which considered the North African Jews to be "backward" and wanted to bring them into modernity.

Within a generation, despite initial resistance, most Algerian Jews came to speak French rather than Arabic or Judaeo-Spanish, and they embraced many aspects of French culture. In embracing "Frenchness," the Algerian Jews joined the colonizers, although they were still considered "other" to the French. Although some took on more typically European occupations, "the majority of Jews were poor artisans and shopkeepers catering to a Muslim clientele." Moreover, conflicts between Sephardic Jewish religious law and French law produced contention within the community. They resisted changes related to domestic issues, such as marriage.

After the 1882 conquest of the M'zab, the French government in Algeria legally categorized southern Algerian Jews, like the Muslims, as "indigènes", and thus subject to restricted and decreased rights under the indigénat compared to their northern Jewish counterparts, who were still French citizens under the Crémieux Decree of 1870. In 1881, there were only about 30,000 Mozabite Jews in Southern Algeria. They established, in Southern Algeria, “local civil status” laws, with rabbis overseeing legal issues. The French government recognized Jewish laws pertaining to domestic issues, such as marriage and inheritance. While these laws allowed for Jews to be structured under halakha, it prevented southern Jews from accessing “elite” opportunities, as their indigenous status established them as lesser citizens.

French antisemitism set down strong roots among the expatriate French community in Algeria, where every municipal council was controlled by anti-Semites, and newspapers were rife with xenophobic attacks on the local Jewish communities. Much of this was encouraged by the French colonial administration, in particular by the militant antisemitic Max Régis. In Algiers when Émile Zola was brought to trial for his defense in an 1898 open letter, J'Accuse…!, of Alfred Dreyfus, sympathy for whom was widespread in the Arabic press, over 158 Jewish owned shops were looted and burned and two Jews were killed, while the army stood by and refused to intervene (see 1898 Algerian riots). Hannah Arendt was to comment later that,'that pogroms against Jews in Algeria were carried out not, as it was claimed, by “‘backward Arabs’” but by “thoroughly sophisticated officers of the French colonial administration” and by the mayor of Algiers, Max Régis.'

Under French rule, some Muslim anti-Jewish riots still occurred, as in 1897 in Oran.

In 1931, Jews made up less than 2% of Algeria's total population. This population was more represented in the largest cities: Algiers, Constantine and Oran, which each had Jewish populations of over 7%. Many smaller cities such as Blida, Tlemcen and Setif also had small Jewish populations. By the mid-thirties, François de La Rocque's extremist Croix-de-Feu and, later, the French Social Party movements in Algeria proved active in trying to turn Muslims against Algerian Jews by publishing tracts in Arabic, and were responsible for inciting the 1934 Constantine Pogrom, in which 25 Jews were killed and some 200 stores were pillaged.

Holocaust in Algeria, under the Vichy regime
One of the first moves of the pro-German Vichy regime was to revoke the effects of the Crémieux Decree, on October 7, 1940, thereby abolishing French citizenship for Algerian Jews, affecting some 110,000 Algerians. Under Vichy rule in Algeria, even Karaites and Jews who had converted to another religion were subject to anti-semitic laws, known collectively as Statut des Juifs. The Vichy regime's laws ensured that Jews were forbidden from holding public office or other governmental positions, as well as from holding jobs in industries such as insurance and real estate. In addition, the Vichy regime set strict limitations on Jewish people working as doctors or lawyers.

The Vichy regime also limited the number of Jewish children in Algeria's public school system, and eventually terminated all Jewish enrollment in public schools. In response, Jewish professors who had been forced from their jobs set up a Jewish university in 1941, only for its forced dissolution to occur at the end of that same year. The Jewish communities of Algeria also set up a system of Jewish primary schools for children, and by 1942 some 20,000 Jewish children were enrolled in 70 elementary and 5 secondary schools all over Algeria. The Vichy government eventually created legislation allowing the government to control school curriculum, and schedules, which helped dampen efforts to educate young Jews in Algeria.

Under Admiral Darlan and General Giraud, two French officials who administered the French military in North Africa, the antisemitic legislation was applied more severely in Algeria than France itself, under the pretext that it enabled greater equality between Muslims and Jews and considered racial laws a condition sine qua non of the armistice. Under the Vichy regime in Algeria, an office called the "Special Department for the Control of the Jewish Problem" handled the execution of laws applying to Algeria's Jewish population. This was unique in French North Africa, and as such the laws covering the status of Jews were governed much more harshly in Algeria than in Morocco or Tunisia. A bureau for "Economic Aryanization" was also installed in order to eradicate the Jewish community's significance in the economy, mostly by taking control of Jewish businesses.

On March 31, 1942, the Vichy government issued a decree demanding the creation of a local Jewish government called the Union Générale des Israélites d’Algérie (UGIA). The UGIA was intended to be a body of Jews that would execute the Vichy regulations within Jewish communities, and was seen by much of the Jewish population as collaboration with the government. In response, many young Jews joined the Algerian resistance movement, which itself had been founded by Jews in 1940. On November 8, 1942, the Algerian resistance to the Vichy government took part in the takeover of Algiers in preparation for the Allied liberation of North Africa, known as "Operation Torch." Of the 377 resistance members who took Algiers, 315 were Jewish. In November 1942, Allied forces landed and took control of Algiers and the rest of Algeria. However, Jews were not returned all of their former civil rights and liberties, nor their French citizenships until 1943. This can partially be explained by the fact that Giraud himself, along with the Governor-General Marcel Peyrouton, in promulgating the cancellation of Vichy statutes on March 14, 1943, after the allies landed in North Africa, retained exceptionally the decree abolishing citizenship rights for Algerian Jews, claiming that they did not wish to incite violence between the Jewish and Muslim communities in Algiers. It was not until the arrival of Charles De Gaulle in October 1943 that Jewish Algerians finally regained their French citizenship with the reinstatement of the Crémieux Decree.

In addition to the discriminatory and antisemitic laws faced by Jews all over Algeria, some 2,000 Jews were placed in concentration camps at Bedeau and Djelfa. The camp at Bedeau, near Sidi-bel-Abbes, became a place for the concentration of Jewish Algerian soldiers, who were forced to perform hard labor. These prisoners formed the "Jewish Work Group," and worked on a Vichy plan for a trans-Saharan railroad; many died from hunger, exhaustion, disease, or beatings.

After WWII
During the Algerian War, most Algerian Jews took sides with France, out of loyalty to the Republic which gave them French citizenship, against the indigenous Independence movement, though they rejected that part of the official policy which proposed independence for Algeria. Some Jews did join the FLN fighting for independence, but a larger group made common cause with the OAS, secret paramilitary group.

The FLN published declarations guaranteeing a place in Algeria for Jews as an integral constituent of the Algerian people, hoping to attract their support. Algerian Muslims had assisted Jews during their trials under the Vichy régime in WW2, when their citizenship rights under the Crémieux Degree had been revoked.

Some Algerian Jews responded positively to the call from the FLN, joining with local militias or making financial contributions. For these Jews, they recognized a common attachment to Algeria and the antisemitism prevalent among the French. For others, memories of the 1934 pogrom, and incidents of violent Muslim assault on Jews in Constantine and Batna, together with arson attacks on the Batna and Orleanville synagogues, played a role in their decisions to turn down the offer.

In 1961, with the French National Assembly Law 61-805, the Mozabite Jews, who had been excluded from the Cremieux Decree, were also given French citizenship.

Between late 1961 and late summer 1962, 130,000 of Algeria's approximately 140,000 Jews left for France, while about 10,000 of them emigrated to Israel. Moroccan Jews who were living in Algeria and Jews from the M'zab Valley in the Algerian Sahara, who did not have French citizenship, as well as a small number of Algerian Jews from Constantine, also emigrated to Israel at that time.

Following a 1961 referendum, the 1962 Évian Accords secured Algerian independence. Some Algerian Jews had joined the Organisation armée secrète, which aimed to disrupt the process of independence with bombings and assassination attempts, targets including Charles de Gaulle and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Independent Algeria
By 1969, fewer than 1,000 Jews were still living in Algeria. By 1975 the government had seized all but one of the country's synagogues and converted them to mosques or libraries.

Since 2005, the Algerian government has attempted to reduce discrimination against the Jewish population, by establishing a Jewish association, and passing a law that recognized freedom of religion. They also allowed a relaunching of Jewish pilgrimage, to the most holy Jewish sites in North Africa. In 2014, the Minister of Religious Affairs Mohammed Eissa announced that the Algerian government would foster the reopening of Jewish synagogues. However, this never came to fruition, with Eissa stating that it was no longer the interest of Algerian Jews. In 2017, there were an estimated 50 Jews remaining in Algeria, mostly in Algiers. In 2020, there are an estimated 200 Jews in Algeria.

Traditional dress

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, "A contemporary [1906] Jewess of Algiers wears on her head a 'takrita' (handkerchief), is dressed in a 'bedenor' (gown with a bodice trimmed with lace) and a striped vest with long sleeves coming to the waist. The 'mosse' (girdle) is of silk. The native Algerian Jew wears a 'ṭarbush' or oblong turban with silken tassel, a 'ṣadriyyah' or vest with large sleeves, and 'sarwal' or pantaloons fastened by a 'ḥizam' (girdle), all being covered by a mantle, a burnus (also spelled burnoose), and a large silk handkerchief, the tassels of which hang down to his feet. At an earlier stage the Algerian Jewess wore a tall cone-shaped hat resembling those used in England in the fifteenth century."

Notable Algerian Jews

 * Jean-Pierre Barda, singer, actor, make up artist
 * José Aboulker, member of the anti-Nazi resistance
 * Alon Abutbul, an actor
 * Franck Amsallem, jazz pianist and composer
 * Françoise Atlan, French singer
 * Yvan Attal, film director, actor (Algerian born parents)
 * Jacques Attali, economist, writer
 * Danny Ayalon, politician
 * Jean-Pierre Bacri, actor
 * Myriam Ben, activist and novelist
 * Baruj Benacerraf, immunologist, Nobel prize (1980) (Algerian Jewish mother)
 * Paul Benacerraf, philosopher (Algerian Jewish mother)
 * Maurice Benayoun, artist
 * Jean Benguigui, actor
 * Éric Benhamou, businessman, CEO of 3Com, venture capitalist, philanthropist
 * Michel Benita, double bass player
 * Daniel Bensaïd, philosopher and trotskyist (Jewish Algerian father)
 * Richard Berry, actor
 * Lili Boniche, musician
 * Eliyahu Zini, Algerian-born rabbi and head of a Hesder Yeshiva in the Israeli town of Haifa and doctor of mathematics from the Technion.
 * Patrick Bruel, singer, actor
 * Alain Chabat, actor
 * André Chouraqui, writer
 * Élie Chouraqui, French film director and scriptwriter
 * Hélène Cixous, feminist writer
 * Robert Cohen, boxer: World Bantamweight Champion
 * Annie Cohen-Solal, academic and biographer of Jean-Paul Sartre
 * Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, physicist, Nobel prize (1997)
 * Jean-François Copé, (Algerian Jew mother), President of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) Group in the French National Assembly
 * Abraham Daninos, author, wrote the first theatre play in Arabic (1847)
 * Gérard Darmon, actor
 * Jacques Derrida, post-structuralist philosopher
 * Pascal Elbé, actor
 * Jean-Pierre Elkabbach, journalist
 * David Foenkinos, French born author and screenwriter.
 * Eva Green, actress (mother was of Algerian Jewish descent)
 * Alphonse Halimi, boxer: World Bantamweight Champion
 * Roger Hanin, film actor & director
 * Marlène Jobert, actress
 * Judah Kalaẓ, cabalist and moralist
 * Oded Kattash, Israeli basketball player, a superstar in Israel and Greece, currently head coach of Israel's national team and Panathinaikos
 * Haim Korsia, Chief Rabbi of France (Algerian parents)
 * Claude Lelouch, film director (Algerian Jew father)
 * Bernard-Henri Lévy, philosopher
 * Reinette L'Oranaise, singer
 * Enrico Macias, singer
 * Elissa Rhaïs, novelist
 * Martial Solal, jazz pianist and composer
 * Benjamin Stora, historian
 * Avraham Tal, Israeli singer
 * Patrick Timsit, humorist, actor
 * Shmuel Trigano, sociologist and philosopher
 * Éric Zemmour, journalist
 * Claude Zidi, film director

Genetics
The largest study to date on the Jews of North Africa has been led by Gerard Lucotte et al. in 2003. Sephardi population studied is as follows: 58 Jews from Algeria, 190 from Morocco, 64 from Tunisia, 49 from the island of Djerba, 9 and 11 from Libya and Egypt, respectively, which makes 381 people. This study showed that the Jews of North Africa showed frequencies of their paternal haplotypes almost equal to those of the Lebanese and Palestinian non-Jews when compared to European non-Jews.

The Moroccan/Algerian, Djerban/Tunisian and Libyan subgroups of North African Jewry were found to demonstrate varying levels of Middle Eastern (40-42%), European (37-39%) and North African ancestry (20-21%), with Moroccan and Algerian Jews tending to be genetically closer to each other than to Djerban Jews and Libyan Jews. According to the study:"'distinctive North African Jewish population clusters with proximity to other Jewish populations and variable degrees of Middle Eastern, European, and North African admixture. Two major subgroups were identified by principal component, neighbor joining tree, and identity-by-descent analysis—Moroccan/Algerian and Djerban/Libyan—that varied in their degree of European admixture. These populations showed a high degree of endogamy and were part of a larger Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish group. By principal component analysis, these North African groups were orthogonal to contemporary populations from North and South Morocco, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. Thus, this study is compatible with the history of North African Jews—founding during Classical Antiquity with proselytism of local populations, followed by genetic isolation with the rise of Christianity and then Islam, and admixture following the emigration of Sephardic Jews during the Inquisition.'"

In culture

 * The Rabbi's Cat — A 2011 French animated film directed by Joann Sfar and Antoine Delesvaux, based on volumes one, two and five of Sfar's comics series with the same title. It tells the story of a cat, who obtains the ability to speak after swallowing a parrot, and its owner who is a rabbi in 1920s Algeria.

title: History of the Jews in Algeria


text: Category:Communes of Pyrénées-Orientales