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Persian gardens

The tradition and style of garden design represented by Persian gardens or Iranian gardens is a style of "landscape" garden which emerged in the Achaemenid Empire. The paradise garden, an example of Persian garden, has influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the Alhambra show the influence of Persian garden philosophy and style in a Moorish palace scale, from the era of al-Andalus in Spain. Humayun's Tomb and the Taj Mahal have some of the largest Persian gardens in the world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.

Concept and etymology
From the time of the Achaemenid Empire, the idea of an earthly paradise spread through Persian literature and example to other cultures, both the Hellenistic gardens of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemies in Alexandria. The Avestan word pairidaēza-, Old Persian *paridaida-, Median *paridaiza- (walled-around, i.e., a walled garden), was borrowed into Akkadian, and then into Greek παράδεισος, then rendered into the Latin paradīsus, and from there entered into European languages, e.g., French paradis, German Paradies, and English paradise.

As the word expresses, such gardens would have been enclosed. The garden's purpose was, and is, to provide a place for protected relaxation in a variety of manners: spiritual, and leisurely (such as meetings with friends), essentially a paradise on earth. The Common Iranian word for "enclosed space" was *pari-daiza- (Avestan pairi-daēza-), a term that was adopted by Christian mythology to describe the garden of Eden or Paradise on earth.

The garden's construction may be formal (with an emphasis on structure) or casual (with an emphasis on nature), following several simple design rules. This allows maximisation, in terms of function and emotion, of what may be done in the garden.

History
Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000 BC, but it is clear that this tradition began with the Achaemenid dynasty around the 6th century BCE. Decorated pottery of that time displays the typical cross plan of the Persian garden. The outline of Pasargadae, built around 500 BC, is still viewable today. Classical Iranians were seen by the Greeks as the 'great gardeners' of antiquity; Cyrus II (known also as Cyrus the Younger) is alleged to have told the Spartan commander Lysander that he gardened daily when not campaigning, and had himself laid out the park at Sardis, which he called his 'paradise' (a Greek corruption of the Old Persian word for garden).

During the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire, under the influence of Zoroastrianism, water in art grew increasingly important. This trend manifested itself in garden design, with greater emphasis on fountains and ponds in gardens.

During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, the aesthetic aspect of the garden increased in importance, overtaking utility. During this time, aesthetic rules that govern the garden grew in importance. An example of this is the chahār bāgh (چهارباغ), a form of garden that attempts to emulate the Abrahamic notion of a Garden of Eden, with four rivers and four quadrants that represent the world. The design sometimes extends one axis longer than the cross-axis and may feature water channels that run through each of the four gardens and connect to a central pool.

"Under the Abbasid dynasty (8th century AD), this type of garden became an integral part of representational architecture." "The Persian garden is a landscape garden, designed individually and created intentionally as a space embedded in the aesthetic and spiritual context of its past and contemporary cultural, political, and social environment. Hallmarks of these formal gardens are a geometric layout following geometric and visual principles, implemented to nature by water channels and basins which divide the enclosed space into clearly defined quarters, a principle that has become known as Chahar Bagh (four gardens), waterworks with channels, basins, fountains and cascades, pavilions, prominent central axes with a vista, and a plantation with a variety of carefully chosen trees, herbs. and flowers. The old-Iranian word for such gardens 'pari-daizi' expresses the notion of an earthly paradise that is inherent to them. As such, they are a metaphor for the divine order and the unification and protection of the ones who do good. Their counterparts on earth fulfill a similar function. These principles are brought to perfection in the gardens of the emperor as the 'good gardener'." "Notwithstanding a formal standardization, the landscape gardens also reflect diversity and development, bound to function, regional and chronological characteristics, as well as technological, know how personal preferences, ambitions, and demands. Persian gardens are multi-functional: they not only serve contemplation and relaxation, but are also a representation and manifestation of power. Designing and implementing a garden demonstrates the occupation of land, holding audiences and celebrating victories or marriages in these gardens signal superiority, or social and political bonds. Starting from the 12th to 13th century, tombs for members of the royal family or important personalities were placed into such formal gardens, providing believers a chance to benefit from the spirituality of a venerated person and the particular aura of the garden."

The invasion of Persia by the Mongols in the thirteenth century led to a new emphasis on highly ornate structure in the garden. Examples of this include tree peonies and chrysanthemums. The Mongols then carried a Persian garden tradition to other parts of their empire (notably India).

The Mughal emperor Babur introduced the Persian garden to India, attempting to replicate the cool, refreshing aura of his homeland in the Ferghana Valley through the construction of Persian-style gardens, like those at other Timurid cities like Samarkand and Herat. Babur was a zealous gardener and personally designed and supervised at least ten gardens in his capital of Kabul in modern Afghanistan, such as the Bagh-e Babur, where he recorded the allure of the pomegranate, cherry and orange trees he had planted. Though his empire soon expanded as far as north-central India, he abhorred the stagnant heat and drab environment of the hot, dusty plains of India; he was thus interred at Bagh-e Babur in Kabul by his widow in 1544.

The Aram Bagh of Agra was the first of many Persian gardens he created in India itself. Mughal gardens have four basic requirements, symbolizing four allegorical essentials for the afterlife: shade, fruit, fragrance, and running water. This pattern was used to build many Persian gardens throughout the Indian subcontinent, such as the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, the Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh of Kashmir, and the Taj Mahal gardens. The Taj Mahal gardens embody the Persian concept of an ideal paradise garden, and were built with irrigation channels and canals from the Yamuna River. These gardens have recently been restored to their former beauty after decades of pollution by the Indian authorities, who cut down the fruit- and shade-bearing vegetation of the garden.

The Safavid dynasty (seventeenth to eighteenth century) built and developed grand and epic layouts that went beyond a simple extension to a palace and became an integral aesthetic and functional part of it. In the following centuries, European garden design began to influence Persia, particularly the designs of France, and secondarily that of Russia and the United Kingdom. Western influences led to changes in the use of water and the species used in bedding.

Traditional forms and style are still applied in modern Iranian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums, and affixed to the houses of the rich.

Elements of the Persian garden
Sunlight and its effects were an important factor of structural design in Persian gardens. Textures and shapes were specifically chosen by architects to harness the light.

Iran's dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which would be nearly unusable without it. Trees and trellises largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also structurally prominent in blocking the sun.

The heat also makes water important, both in the design and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation may be required, and may be provided via a form of tunnel called a qanat, that transports water from a local aquifer. Well-like structures then connect to the qanat, enabling the drawing of water. Alternatively, an animal-driven Persian well would draw water to the surface. Such wheel systems also moved water around surface water systems, such as those in the chahar bāgh style. Trees were often planted in a ditch called a juy, which prevented water evaporation and allowed the water quick access to the tree roots.

The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with outdoors through the connection of a surrounding garden with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architectural elements such as vaulted arches between the outer and interior areas to open up the divide between them.

Descriptions
An early description (from the first half of the fourth century BCE) of a Persian garden is found in Xenophon's Oeconomicus in which he has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his "paradise at Sardis". In this story Lysander is "astonished at the beauty of the trees within, all planted at equal intervals, the long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about them as they paced the park"

The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran from the west. These accounts include Ibn Battuta in the fourteenth century, Ruy González de Clavijo in the fifteenth century and Engelbert Kaempfer in the seventeenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made only passing references to gardens and did not describe their design, but Kaempfer made careful drawings and converted them into detailed engravings after his return to Europe. They show charbagh-type gardens that featured an enclosing wall, rectangular pools, an internal network of canals, garden pavilions and lush planting. There are surviving examples of this garden type at Yazd (Dowlatabad) and at Kashan (Fin Garden). The location of the gardens Kaempfer illustrated in Isfahan can be identified.

Styles
The six primary styles of the Persian garden may be seen in the following table, which puts them in the context of their function and style. Gardens are not limited to a particular style, but often integrate different styles, or have areas with different functions and styles.

Hayāt
Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout with heavy emphasis on aesthetics over function. Man-made structures in the garden are particularly important, with arches and pools (which may be used to bathe). The ground is often covered in gravel flagged with stone. Plantings are typically very simple - such as a line of trees, which also provide shade.

Privately, these gardens are often pool-centred and, again, structural. The pool serves as a focus and source of humidity for the surrounding atmosphere. There are few plants, often due to the limited water available in urban areas.

Meidān
This is a public, formal garden that puts more emphasis on the biotic element than the hayāt and that minimises structure. Plants range from trees, to shrubs, to bedding plants, to grasses. Again, there are elements such as a pool and gravel pathways which divide the lawn. When structures are used, they are often built, as in the case of pavilions, to provide shade.

Chahar Bāgh
These gardens are private and formal. The basic structure consists of four quadrants divided by waterways or pathways. Traditionally, the rich used such gardens in work-related functions (such as entertaining ambassadors). These gardens balance structure with greenery, with the plants often around the periphery of a pool and path based structure.

Boostān
Much like many other parks, the Persian park serves a casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of such places is relaxation and socialisation.

Bāgh
Like the other casual garden, the park, bāgh emphasizes the natural and green aspect of the garden. Unlike the park it is a private area often affixed to houses and often consisting of lawns, trees, and ground plants. The waterways and pathways stand out less than in the more formal counterparts and are largely functional. The primary function of such areas is familial relaxation.

World Heritage Sites

 * 1) Pasargad Garden at Pasargadae, Iran (WHS 1372-001)
 * 2) Eram Garden, Shiraz, Iran (WHS 1372-002)
 * 3) Chehel Sotoun, Isfahan, Iran (WHS 1372-003)
 * 4) Fin Garden, Kashan, Iran (WHS 1372-004)
 * 5) Abbasabad Garden, Abbasabad, Mazandaran, Iran (WHS 1372-005)
 * 6) Shazdeh Garden, Mahan, Kerman Province, Iran (WHS 1372-006)
 * 7) Dolatabad Garden, Yazd, Iran (WHS 1372-007)
 * 8) Pahlevanpour Garden, Iran (WHS 1372-008)
 * 9) Akbarieh Garden, South Khorasan Province, Iran (WHS 1372-009)
 * 10) Taj Mahal, Agra, India (WHS 252)
 * 11) Humayun's Tomb, New Delhi, India (WHS 232bis)
 * 12) Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, Pakistan (WHS 171-002)
 * 13) Generalife, Granada, Spain (WHS 314-001)

title: Persian gardens


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Amenukal

Amenukal (Berber: ⵎⵏⴾⵍ, ⴰⵎⵏⵓⴽⴰⵍ) is a title for the highest Tuareg traditional chiefs; the paramount confederation leader.

History
Prior to the colonial period in the Maghreb and Sahel, the nomadic Tuareg federations chose a chief from among the wise men of their tribes to rule these confederacies.
 * In what is now Algeria, an Amenokal was at the head of the Kel Ahaggar Tuareg confederation since its establishment (c. 1750). It was maintained under colonial French suzerainty since 1903 but no longer recognized after the Algerian independence. It was finally abolished in 1977.
 * In the northern mountains of what is now Niger, in the early 15th century, a state called Aïr was founded by the Tuareg confederation there, under an amenokal, who was also designated by the Arabic Muslim title Sultan; hence, it is also called a Berber sultanate.

According to tradition, the first Tuareg chief was a woman, Tin Hinan, the founder of the Ahaggar community. Her monumental tomb is located at Abalessa in the Hoggar region.

Sources and references

 * Ilahiane, Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen), The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

 * WorldStatesmen article on Niger

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Bernard de Bury

Bernard de Bury or Buri (20 August 1720 – 19 November 1785) was a French musician and court composer of the late Baroque era.

Biography
Bernard de Bury was born at Versailles, a member of a family of musicians, many of whom had appointments to the French court, and was taught music as a young boy.

He wrote his first – and only – harpsichord book in 1737, at the age of seventeen, and dedicated it to his teacher, François Colin de Blamont, uncle of his future wife.

In 1741, he bought the charge of Claveciniste de la Chambre from Marguerite-Antoinette Couperin, which she had inherited from her father François Couperin as a survivance.

In 1743, he began a successful career with his opéra-ballet Les Caractères de la Folie ("Characters of Madness") which was performed at the Académie Royale de Musique. His works continued to be staged during the festivities given in Versailles, Sceaux, and Fontainebleau for more than thirty-five years. He also wrote several cantatas and motets, notably De profundis.

De Bury received a royal pension beginning in 1779, and was ennobled by Louis XVI in 1785, a few months before his death, which occurred at Versailles.

Harpsichord works

 * Premiere Livre de Pièces de Clavecin (First book of harpsichord pieces), 4 suites in A, C, G, and E (1736):
 * Première suite en la: La Minerve – Les Regrets – Les Grâces badines – La Tendre agitation – Le Plaidoyer de Cythère, 1er et 2e rondeaux.
 * Deuxième suite en do: La Belle Brune – La Prude – L'Enfantine – La Cythère.
 * Troisième suite en sol: Les Amusements, 1er et 2e rondeaux – La *** ou les sentiments – 1er Menuet: Zéphire – 2e Menuet: Flore – La Pythonisse – Loure – La Séduisante, 1er et 2e rondeaux .
 * Quatrième suite en mi: La Brillante – La Dampierre – La Michelon – La Jeunesse – Chaconne.

Operas and works for stage

 * Les Caractères de la Folie, opéra-ballet, prologue & 3 acts (C. P. Duclos), f.p. Paris, Opéra, 20 August 1743.
 * with new entrée Hylas et Zélie, f.p. Paris, Opéra, 6 July 1762.

 * Jupiter, vainquer des Titan, tragédie lyrique, (collab. Collin de Blamont), f.p. Versailles, 11 December 1745.
 * La nymphe de Versailles, divertissement, (Mlle de Lussan), f.p. Versailles, 19 March 1746.
 * Les fêtes de Thétis, ballet-héroique, prologue & 2 acts, (P. C. Roy), f.p. Versailles, 14 January 1750.
 * Titon et l'Aurore, pastorale-héroique, prologue & 1 act, (Abbé de La Marre & A. H. de Lamotte), f.p. Versailles, Théâtre des Petits Appartements, 14 January 1750.
 * La parque vaincue, divertissement in 1 act, (A. Tavenot), f.p. Versailles, Hôtel de Richelieu, 1751 (lost).
 * Palmyre, ballet-héroïque, (S. N. R. Chamfort), f.p. Fontainebleau, 24 October 1765.
 * Zénis et Amnasie, ballet-héroïque in 1 act, (Chamfort & Duc de Vallière, collab. with J. B. de La Borde), f.p. Fontainbleau, 2 November 1765.
 * Prologue for revival of: Persée by Jean-Baptiste Lully (1747), (collab. with Antoine Dauvergne, François Francoeur, & François Rebel), revival f.p. Versailles, 17 May 1770.

Doubtful works

 * Divertissements attributed to de Bury, cited by Fétis:

 * Les Bergers de Sceaux
 * Les Nymphes de la Seine

title: Bernard de Bury


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Solenoid bolt

A solenoid bolt is a type of electronic-mechanical locking mechanism. This type of lock is characterized by the use of a solenoid to throw the bolt. Sophisticated solenoid bolt locks may use microprocessors to perform voltage regulation, reduce power consumption, and/or provide access control. Depending on the strength of the solenoid, some models can provide a holding force on the order of 1000 kg. A solenoid bolt can be designed either to fail open (the lock opens on power loss) or to fail closed (the device is locked upon power loss). Some models may be suitable for high-security sites.

title: Solenoid bolt


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User:E=MC^2

  For anyone wondering when I'll turn this page into something deserving the title "Wikipedia User Page", the answer is when I get the time.

My Contributions – My talk – E-mail me – Leave me a message – My total number of edits Current Projects I am involved with:

WikiProject Judaism – WikiProject Stub Sorting

<Hello. I am user E=MC^2 on Wikibooks, and E=MC^2 on meta. I have decided to quit before I get into any major conflicts and end my involvement with Wikipedia. I can't bring myself to leave forever, I'm too addicted!

Wiki-Philosophies

 * I am an inclusionist. Every book by an important author and all books considered important deserve their own Wikipedia article. Would you like it if someone grouped you up with others, not giving you individual attention or ignored you like mergists or deletionists want to do?
 * I believe that admin status is fine just the way it is. We do not need stricter or more lenient criteria at this time. (However, with more and more users becoming long term contributors, we may need more stringent rules.)

Existence is…

 * The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything:
 * "6 by 9."
 * "42."
 * "That's it. That's all there is."

Things to do

 * Expand:
 * Exodus
 * Create:
 * My name is Asher Lev
 * In the Beginning
 * The Promise

title: User:E=MC^2


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Moussa Ag Amastan

Musa Ag Amastan (1867–1920) was the Chief (Amenokal) of the Kel Ahaggar Tuareg from 1905 to 1920. Based in the Ahaggar, he formed part of the Kel Ghela.

Reign
Many of the French who had met Moussa noted his religiosity. Maurice Benhazera confirmed Moussa's religious fervour.

There are indications that Moussa's life did undergo a considerable change when he was about 30 years old (that is, c. 1897) in the form of an enhanced religiosity, which can be attributed to the spiritual mentorship of Bay al-Kunti who resided in Téleya in the Adrar des Ifoghas.

In 1901 Musa ag Amastan was part of the Kel Ahaggar coalition leading a rezzu (invasion) against the Berabich of Azawad submitted to the French authorities in Timbuktu.

It was during the summer of 1910 that he travelled in France. Led officially by the captain Niéger and accompanied by the commander Laperrine, his journey then took the name of "Mission Touareg".

Quote
« Je ne pourrais pas vivre ici. Vous avez de la chance de les (toutes ces belles choses) posséder et de savoir vous en servir. Remerciez Dieu chaque jour. Il a été bon pour vous. ». (Translation: " I could not live here. You are lucky to have them (all these beautiful things) and know how to use them. Thank God every day. He has been good for you".

Legacy
Antonello Padovano wrote and directed the film "The Four Doors of the Desert" based on Moussa Ag Amastan life and his love for Dassine Oult Yemma and his friendship with Father Charles de Foucauld.

title: Moussa Ag Amastan


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User:D0t

Please leave a message on my talk page.

Hello.

title: User:D0t


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Drinking fountain

A drinking fountain, also called a water fountain or water bubbler, is a fountain designed to provide drinking water. It consists of a basin with either continuously running water or a tap. The drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Modern indoor drinking fountains may incorporate filters to remove impurities from the water and chillers to lower its temperature. Drinking fountains are usually found in public places, like schools, rest areas, libraries, and grocery stores.

Drinking fountains are an important source of clean water in urban infrastructure. Many jurisdictions require drinking fountains to be wheelchair accessible (by sticking out horizontally from the wall), and to include an additional unit of a lower height for children and short adults. The design that this replaced often had one spout atop a refrigeration unit.

History
Before potable water was provided in private homes, water for drinking was made available to citizens of cities through access to public fountains. Many of these early public drinking fountains can still be seen (and used) in cities such as Rome, with its many fontanelle and nasoni (big noses).

Nepal
In Nepal there were public drinking fountains at least as early as 550 AD. They are called dhunge dharas or hitis. They consist of carved stone spouts through which water flows uninterrupted from underground sources. They are found extensively in Nepal and some of them are still operational. Many people of Nepal rely on them for their daily water supply. The tutedhara or jahru is another type of old drinking fountain found in Nepal. This is a stone container that can be filled with water and has a tap that can be opened and closed. The oldest of these is dated 530 AD. Very few jahrus are in use today, but the remnants can be found in many places.

United Kingdom
In mid-19th century London, when water provision from private water companies was generally inadequate for the rapidly growing population and was often contaminated, a new law created the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, made water filtration compulsory, and moved water intakes on the Thames above the sewage outlets. In this context, the public drinking fountain movement began. It built the first public baths and public drinking fountains.

In 1859 the Metropolitan Free Drinking Fountain Association was established. The first fountain was built on Holborn Hill on the railings of the church of St Sepulchre-without-Newgate on Snow Hill, paid for by Samuel Gurney, and opened on 21 April 1859.

The fountain became immediately popular, and was used by 7,000 people a day. In the next six years 85 fountains were built, with much of the funding coming directly from the association. The provision of drinking fountains in the United Kingdom soon became linked to the temperance movement; the same association in London drew support from temperance advocates. Many of its fountains were sited opposite public houses. The evangelical movement was encouraged to build fountains in churchyards to encourage the poor to see churches as supporting them. Many fountains have inscriptions such as "Jesus said whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again but whosoever drinketh of the water I shall give him shall never thirst". By 1877, the association was widely accepted and Queen Victoria donated money for a fountain in Esher. Many fountains, within London and outside, were called temperance fountains or would have a representation of the Greek mythical figure Temperance.

France
After many of the aqueducts were destroyed after the siege of Paris in the 1870s, the Parisian poor had no access to fresh water. Richard Wallace, an Englishman, used the money from an inheritance to fund the construction of 50 drinking fountains (ever after known as ‘Wallace fountains’). Designed by Charles-Auguste Lebourg with four caryatids atop a green cylindrical base, these fountains have become iconic symbols of Paris.

United States
Muddied and bad tasting drinking water encouraged many Americans to drink alcohol for health purposes, so temperance groups constructed public drinking fountains throughout the United States following the Civil War. The National Woman's Christian Temperance Union (NWCTU)'s organizing convention of 1874 encouraged its attendees to erect the fountains in their hometowns, as a means to discourage people from drinking in saloons. They sponsored temperance fountains in towns and cities across the United States.

The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in 1866, expressed concern about the difficulty of finding fresh water for work horses in urban areas. Combined drinking fountains with a bubbler for people, a water trough for horses and sometimes a lower basin for dogs, became popular. In particular, over 120 National Humane Alliance fountains were donated to communities across the United States between 1903 and 1913.

The original 'Bubbler' shot water one inch straight into the air, and the excess water ran back down over the sides of the nozzle. During World War I, company founder Halsey W. Taylor invented the "Double Bubbler" drinking fountain. This fountain dispensed two streams of water in an arc. Several years later the Bubbler adopted this more sanitary arc projection, which also allowed the user to drink more easily from it. At the start of the 20th century, it was discovered that the original vertical design was related to the spread of contagious diseases.

In the United States, segregation of public facilities including but not limited to water fountains due to race, color, religion, or national origin was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prior to this, racially segregated water fountains with those for black people in worse condition than those for white people were common.

Cleanliness
In recent studies, it has been found that some drinking fountains have been contaminated with pathogens such as bacteria. In one study, a virus commonly known to cause diarrhea in young children, known as the rotavirus, has been found on drinking fountains in child day care facilities. Due to cases in the past where children have fallen ill due to coliform bacteria poisoning, many governments have placed strict regulations on drinking fountain designs. The vertical spout design is now illegal in most US jurisdictions. Some governments even require water spouts to be as long as four inches to meet health standards. It is also recommended for young children to allow drinking fountains to run before drinking, as the water may also be contaminated with lead. This is especially common in older buildings with obsolete plumbing. In the 1970s, this fear of contamination in tap water was hyped by producers of bottled water, thereby changing attitudes to publicly provided water in drinking fountains, which began to disappear from city streets.

Terminology
The term bubbler is used in some regional dialects of the United States and in Australia. A survey of US dialects undertaken between 2002 and 2004 found the word bubbler is commonly used in southern and eastern Wisconsin and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The phrase drinking fountain was common in the rest of the inland north and in the west, while water fountain dominated other parts of the country.

The term bubbler is sometimes used in the Portland, Oregon, region where in the early 1900s former Wisconsin resident Simon Benson installed 20 fountains, which are now known in the Portland area as "Benson Bubblers". Currently, there are 52 of these iconic four-bowl drinking fountains still providing free-flowing water in downtown Portland.

Frost-resistant drinking fountains
Frost-resistant drinking fountains are used outdoors in cold climates and keep the control mechanisms below the frostline resulting in a delay for when water comes out.

Drinking fountains as public goods
Most drinking fountains are freely available, however there are exceptions. Many private individuals in Armenia install pulpulaks (Armenian name for drinking fountain) in their yards or neighborhoods for various reasons, which include honoring dead relatives/friends or giving back to the community.

In Nepal, the construction of water conduits like dhunge dharas, dug wells and tutedharas is considered a pious act. This applies to kings and other dignitaries as well as to ordinary citizens.

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Rex '84

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Joyous 01:17, Feb 9, 2005 (UTC)

Rex '84
Primary source; POV; possible copyvio. -- Curps 19:06, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Tothebarricades.tk 21:42, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't know if anything could be salvaged for purposes of Wikisource, but it certainly looks like just a grab bag of copyvios. Delete. --Idont Havaname 00:30, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I've located one potential source, out of several, and slapped a Copyvio notice over it. Uncle G 01:19, 2005 Feb 4 (UTC)
 * Delete, having gone back and read the article before copyvio, I'm not sure even a rewrite could save it. Conspiracy theory. Megan1967 05:23, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Rex '84


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2008 in film

The year 2008 involved many major film events. The Dark Knight was the year's highest-grossing film, while Slumdog Millionaire won the Academy Award for Best Picture (out of eight Academy Awards).

Evaluation of the year
2008 has been widely considered to be a very significant year for cinema.

The entertainment agency website IGN described 2008 as "one of the biggest years ever for movies." It stated, "2008 was the year when the comic book movie genre not only hits its zenith, but also gained critical respectability thanks to The Dark Knight. Animated films also proved a huge draw for filmgoers, with Pixar's WALL-E becoming not only the highest grossing toon but also the most lauded. Things got off on the right foot with the monster movie madness of Cloverfield. Marvel got down to business laying the groundwork for their superhero team-up The Avengers with the blockbuster hit Iron Man and their respectable attempt at rebooting The Incredible Hulk. The games-to-film genre took a hit this year, with only Max Payne proving to be a worthy adaptation of the source material. We also saw the highly anticipated big-screen returns of iconic characters like Batman, James Bond, and Indiana Jones – some were more successful than others."

The film industry and review website IndieWire described 2008 as "a stellar year for movies" that "gave us tons of unforgettable classics" such as The Wrestler, 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days and Che.

Highest-grossing films
The top 10 films released in 2008 by worldwide gross are as follows:

For 2008, the top ten films consisted of three superhero films, three animated films, three action films and one musical film.

Box office records

 * In the domestic box office, 2008 came very close in passing 2007 as the highest-grossing year, falling short by just $30 million.
 * On August 4, The Dark Knight reached a $400 million domestic gross in a record time of 18 days. The previous record was held by Shrek 2, which reached it in 43 days. On August 31, after 45 days in release, The Dark Knight reached $500 million domestically, becoming only the second film in history after Titanic to cross the half-billion-dollar domestic milestone, as well as the first film of the 2000s decade. Worldwide, it grossed $997 million on its initial release, and an IMAX reissue in 2009 saw it become the fourth film to gross $1 billion at the global box office. It also surpassed Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone as the highest-grossing film ever distributed by Warner Bros. until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in 2011.
 * Mamma Mia! became the highest-grossing film in UK history until it was surpassed by Avatar in 2010.
 * Slumdog Millionaire set several records. At the worldwide box office, it became the most successful British independent film of all time. At the UK box office, it became the highest-grossing British independent film (surpassing Four Weddings and a Funeral), the highest-grossing British film without US studio investment, and the biggest ever weekly "increase for a UK saturation release" (surpassing Billy Elliot).

By country/region

 * List of American films of 2008
 * List of Argentine films of 2008
 * List of Australian films of 2008
 * List of Bangladeshi films of 2008
 * List of Bengali films of 2008
 * List of Bollywood films of 2008
 * List of Brazilian films of 2008
 * List of British films of 2008
 * List of French films of 2008
 * List of Hong Kong films of 2008
 * List of Italian films of 2008
 * List of Japanese films of 2008
 * List of Mexican films of the 2000s
 * List of Pakistani films of 2008
 * List of Russian films of 2008
 * List of South Korean films of 2008
 * List of Spanish films of 2008
 * List of Kannada films of 2008
 * List of Malayalam films of 2008
 * List of Tamil films of 2008
 * List of Telugu films of 2008

By genre/medium

 * List of action films of 2008
 * List of animated feature films of 2008
 * List of avant-garde films of 2008
 * List of crime films of 2008
 * List of comedy films of 2008
 * List of drama films of 2008
 * List of horror films of 2008
 * List of science fiction films of 2008
 * List of thriller films of 2008
 * List of western films of 2008

Births

 * January 24 – Chlaui Malayao, Filipina child actress
 * March 14 – Abby Ryder Fortson, American actress
 * June 3 – Harshaali Malhotra, Indian actress
 * June 10 – Helena Zengel, German actress
 * June 14 – Giulia Benite, Brazilian actress
 * July 15 – Iain Armitage, American actor
 * July 31 – Banks Repeta, American actor
 * August 1 – Emma Berman, American actress
 * August 5 – Izzy G., American actress
 * August 31 – Milo Machado-Graner, French actor
 * September 18 – Jackson Robert Scott, American actor
 * November 23 – Asher Blinkoff, American actor
 * December 22 – Madeleine McGraw, American actress
 * December – Chloe Coleman, American actres

Film debuts

 * Caroline Amiguet – 2012: Doomsday
 * Chadwick Boseman – The Express: The Ernie Davis Story
 * Nerea Camacho – Camino
 * Jessica Chastain – Jolene
 * Boyd Holbrook – Milk
 * Felicity Jones – Flashbacks of a Fool
 * Nick Kroll – Adventures of Power
 * Jennifer Lawrence – Garden Party
 * Thom Michael Mulligan – A Gothic Tale
 * Javier Rey – 8 Dates
 * Martiño Rivas – The Blind Sunflowers
 * Margot Robbie – Vigilante
 * Gina Rodriguez – Calling It Quits
 * Blanca Suárez – Shiver
 * Jeremy Strong – Humboldt County
 * Sai Tamhankar – Black & White
 * Whitney Wegman-Wood – Nobody Gets Out Alive

title: 2008 in film


text:
Sabha, Libya

Sabha or Sebha (سَبْهَا) is an oasis city in southwestern Libya, approximately 640 km south of Tripoli. It was historically the capital of the Fezzan region and the Fezzan-Ghadames Military Territory and is the capital of the Sabha District. Sabha Air Base, south of the city, is a Libyan Air Force installation that is home to multiple MiG-25 aircraft.

Sabha was where the erstwhile ruler of Libya, Muammar Gaddafi, grew up and received secondary education and where he also later became involved in political activism. After the Libyan Civil War and the resultant instability in the country, Sabha reportedly grew in importance as a slave auctioning town. However, an investigation by the National Commission for Human Rights in Libya (NCHRL) revealed that while there was illegal slavery, reports were exaggerated, as slave auctions were rare and not made public. The city was seized by forces loyal to the Libyan National Army (LNA) and its leader Khalifa Haftar in January 2019, but some politicians in the area switched their loyalty to the Government of National Accord (GNA) in May 2020.

History
In historical times, Sabha was a major centre of the Libyan caravan trade. Sabha Oasis, near Sabha, was the test site of OTRAG rockets, after launching was no longer possible in Shaba North in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo). On 1 March 1981, an OTRAG rocket with a maximum height of 50 km was launched. It was also a remote test site for the Soviet Space program from 1984 to 1991.

In a 2004 report by the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Sabha base was linked with Libya's nuclear weapons program. In September 2011, Anti-Gaddafi forces seized Sabha as part of the Fezzan campaign. No sign of a nuclear weapons program was found.

In April 2017, BBC reported that there was a slave market for African migrants in Sabha.

In January 2019, forces loyal to Libyan National Army (LNA) leader Khalifa Haftar launched an operation to take control of Sabha and were able to enter the city by the end of the month. On 29 January 2019, it was announced that Haftar successfully captured Sabha. In February 2019, Haftar's forces were spotted patrolling the city's neighborhoods. By May 2, 2020, politicians and activists loyal to the Tripoli-based government had announced their support of the GNA, and the city is currently under the control of pro-GNA municipal governments.

Climate
Sabha has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Summers are very hot, with temperatures reaching 40 °C regularly. Winters are mild with a high diurnal temperature variation. There is hardly any precipitation in the year with low (32%) humidity, and sunshine is abundant throughout the year.

Landmarks
Sabha is famous for the Fort Elena castle, which is the castle featured on the reverse of the ten dinars banknote of Libya. Fort Elena was previously known as Fortezza Margherita, built during the Italian colonial period. Currently the Italian-built fort is a military institution. Sabha University is situated in the city. It has been involved with field studies in the desert. There are numerous irrigation canals, which are used to provide freshwater for growing crops.

Transport
The city is served by Sabha Airport, which underwent expansion in the late 1970s. An 800 km long railway has been proposed from Sabha to the port of Misrata for iron ore transport.

Reports of slave auctions
In 2017, The United Nations Migration Agency reported that Sabha had turned into a modern-day slave auctioning town. Each slave (mostly migrants from countries to the south of Libya, especially Nigeria) was sold for around US$325, with reports up to 1000 such sales each month. While this aspect of Sabha had been kept under check during the reign of Muammar Gaddafi, it raised its head again due to the turbulence in Libya caused by the civil war. Most of the migrants came here escaping equally tragic conditions back home in Burkina Faso, Nigeria and other neighbouring African countries. However, the National Commission for Human Rights in Libya (NCHRL) revealed that the media reports of slavery were exaggerated and that slave auctions were not public, as suggested by CNN. The slave auctions which were discovered were revealed to be rare.

title: Sabha, Libya


text:
Jiroft

Jiroft is a city in the Central District of Jiroft County, Kerman province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. It is 230 km south of the city of Kerman, and 1375 km south of Tehran along Road 91.

In the past it was also called Sabzevaran, and on account of its being very fertile land it is famous as Hend-e-Koochak (the little India). The civilization found in Jiroft is one of the oldest human civilizations (according to some, the oldest) and the manuscripts obtained from this civilization are before the cuneiform discovered in Mesopotamia.

Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 95,031 in 19,926 households. The following census in 2011 counted 111,034 people in 25,589 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 130,429 people in 39,855 households.

Geography
Jiroft is in a vast plain, Halil River, on the southern outskirts of the Jebal Barez mountain chain, surrounded by two rivers. The mean elevation of the city is about 650 m above sea level. The weather of the city is sweltering in summer – it is one of the hottest places in Iran – but temperatures are moderate in winter.

There is a large dam (Jiroft Dam) upstream the city (40 km North-East of Jiroft) on the Halil River (Halilrood). It is under operation since 1992. Having a reservoir of more than 410 million cubic meters of water, irrigates 14200 hectares of the downstream and generates electricity.

Jiroft culture
A Jiroft culture has been postulated as an early Bronze Age (third millennium BC) archaeological culture, located in the territory of present-day Sistan and Kermān Provinces of Iran. The hypothesis is based on a collection of artifacts that were confiscated in Iran and accepted by many to have derived from the Jiroft area in south central Iran, reported by online Iranian news services, beginning in 2001.

The proposed type site is Konar Sandal, near Jiroft in the Halil River area. Other significant sites associated with the culture include; Shahr-e Sukhteh (Burnt City), Tepe Bampur, Espiedej, Shahdad, Tal-i-Iblis and Tepe Yahya.

The local language of Jiroft is Jirofti, also designated as Garmsiri. Garmsiri is a continuum of closely related dialects extending from the Halilrud river valley in the north down to the Strait of Hormuz in the south.

Recent finds
A report from Iran states that the Halil Rud region near "Jiroft became famous between 2002/2003 [when news of] thousands of confiscated burial goods, especially elaborated carved chlorite vessels from the necropolises of Halil Rud" were released to public.

Since February 2003, archaeologists have recovered a wealth of artifacts from the necropolis which they had named Mahtoutabad. For example, one grave contained "animal bones and food offerings, ceramics, and stone and copper items ... [indicating] a coherent cultural and chronological framework, around 2400–2200 BC".

Two nearby mounds were also excavated, named Konar Sandal South and North. A 2013 research paper about the South mound states that work during 2006 to 2009 "revealed the remains of three successive settlements dating to the fourth millennium BC".

Excavation re-commenced in 2014 and revealed art works of "complexity and beauty" and artifacts that proved that the society had several writing systems. According to National Geographic, the content of the mounds is significant: "They turned out to contain the remains of two major architectural complexes. The northern mound included a cult building, while in the southern one were the remains of a fortified citadel. At the foot of the mounds, buried under many feet of sediment, were the remains of smaller buildings. It’s believed that the two mounds had once formed part of a unified urban settlement that stretched many miles across the plateau ... [artifacts] 'have been dated to between 2500 and 2200 B.C. [They are said to be evidence of] the 'development of a complex civilization'."

Transportation
Jiroft is served by Jiroft Airport, located several kilometres to the northwest.

title: Jiroft


text:
Alexander Wood (physician)

Alexander Wood (10 December 1817 – 26 February 1884) was a Scottish physician. He invented the first true hypodermic syringe. He served as President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh from 1858 to 1861.

Life
The son of Dr John Wood and his wife Mary Wood (John' cousin), Alexander was born on 10 December 1817 in Cupar, Fife. The family moved to Edinburgh around 1825, where they lived at 19 Royal Circus in the Second New Town. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy from 1825 to 1832, and then studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh (MD 1839).

From qualification he worked at the Stockbridge Dispensary near his Edinburgh home. By 1840 he was working as a surgeon and living in his late father's house at 19 Royal Circus. From 1841 he lectured in medicine at the Extra Mural School connected to the University of Edinburgh.

In 1845 Wood was elected a member of the Harveian Society of Edinburgh and served as President in 1868.

In 1853, he invented the first hypodermic needle that used a true syringe and hollow needle. Wood referred to his invention as "subcutaneous" rather than "hypodermic". The term "hypodermic" was actually coined by the English doctor Charles Hunter, whose developments of Wood's invention and research into the method of administering pain relief angered Wood. Wood believed that injections should be directly into the area where pain was felt, because the effect could only be local, whereas Hunter argued that the injection could be given anywhere and had a general effect. The medical community supported Hunter's hypothesis, though it is Wood who has been better remembered subsequently.

Wood's biographer and brother-in-law, the Very Reverend Thomas Brown (1811–1893), wrote that Wood had taken the sting of the bee as his model. Brown also wrote, "At first this new hypodermic method was employed exclusively for the administration of morphia and preparations of opium, but it is important to note that, from the outset, Dr Wood pointed to a far wider application." In referring to the preface of a paper on 'New Method of Treating Neuralgia by Subcutaneous Injection', separately published in 1855, Brown quotes Wood as saying, "In all probability, what is true in regard to narcotics would be found to be equally true in regard to other classes of remedies."

Wood was elected President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1858.

In 1863 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposer being James David Forbes.

In later life Wood lived at 12 Strathearn Place in the Grange in southern Edinburgh.

Wood was buried with his wife, Rebecca Massey, in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The grave lies on an east-facing section of the obscured southern terrace. The gravestone corroborates a later date for his wife's death, on 6 February 1895.

Family
In 1842 he married Rebecca Massey.

It is a false rumour that Rebecca Massey, was the first known intravenous morphine addict and died of an overdose delivered by her husband's invention, however, Richard Davenport-Hines says, 'It is a myth: she outlived him, and survived until 1895.'

Recognition
The Very Rev Thomas Brown wrote a biography of Wood, entitled A Sketch of the Life and Work of Alexander wood MD FRCP in 1886.

title: Alexander Wood (physician)


text:
Talk:Tristar and Red Sector Incorporated

For a July 2005 deletion debate see Votes for deletion/Tristar and Red Sector Incorporated

Conflicting information
There is evidently some conflicting information as to how (or more appropriately, where) TRSI was formed. The opening paragraph states that the TRSI alliance/merger took place after meeting at KewL Party in Denmark (1990). Then further down it says that TRSI joined forces at the Red Sector and The Silents Summer Conference (1990).

For example, at http://www.trsi.org/WELCOME/history.asp it states:
 * "In Summer 1990 Those cool Dudes from Tristar like Flynn, Nutribrains (both), Beermacht, Delaware, Wizler, Double Trouble decided to drive to da KewL Party held by Silents in cold Denmark. [...] After 3 days without many sleep ,too many beers and da real tuff stuff we founded one of the best ever founded co-operation called Tristar & Red Sector Inc., later on these two groups merged into one powerful group which is still one of the best ever groups from europe."

Yet at Amiga Scenery (http://exotica.fix.no/info/scenery/online/t.html) it states:
 * "TRSI was born 29.06 1990, when Tristar and Red Sector Inc decided to join forces on the Red Sector and The Silents Summer Conference 1990."

So, which is it? —RaD Man (talk)  19:51, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)

its the same party in summer 1990 held by the silents dk

Keep the article
RSI (especially with their "MegaDemo" was a huge milestone in the development of the Amiga demoscene.

Deleting this article would mean (at least for me) deleting what a large piece of what "Amiga capabilities" meant to a lot of people a decade ago.

Greetings, cavac

TRSI Redirect
I am wondering if there is not a problem with having this redirect lead to Tristar and Red Sector Incorporated. Can't it also lead to The RightStuf International? In fact most of the people I know think TRSI first for the RightStuf and might get confused finding it lead to another site and not The Right Stuf International or at least a choice between the two. Ryokosha 15:27, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

never heard of it.....right what....

Cleanup from Aug 05
Finally completed it would seem. Qaanaaq 11:46, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Cleanup needed
Some more cleanup is needed. Some very non-neutral words are used like "legendary", "ruled", and "rocked". Maybe some TRSI members are editing the page. Also, the lists of BBSes and members are a bit ungainly - they could at least go in collapsible tables. --Vossanova o< 15:05, 5 October 2009 (UTC) More neutral words were chosen at the appropriate spaces, thanks for the remarks! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.191.34.218 (talk) 15:18, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

Way too long
This article looks more like a propaganda (and bragging IMHO) page than like an encyclopedic article. The history part is way to long and elaborate, especially with all the name dropping. I couldn't endure to read all of it even though I am very interested in the scene. And does it really need to mention almost each year separately? I'd suggest some early-years, rise to fame (or something) and recent activity paragraphs instead. A bit like it can be seen (and i'd consider good practice) on articles covering bands and the likes. Pauli 79.193.219.88 (talk) 11:18, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Agree. Another big problem is all the direct extern links within the article. This is Wikipedia, not the Internet at large and direct extern links like that are highly discouraged. The whole article needs to be waded through and all the direct extern links made into refs or removed completely. Reading just the lead, however, I can't see why we even have this article. Why are they notable? Why should we care? — Frεcklεfσσt | Talk 13:41, 25 March 2014 (UTC)

10 orbyte cracktro, loaded from space
I think this article needs to be updated with some details about the 10 orbyte demo. This was quite a technical achievement (building and sending a cracktro to space on a femto satellite) and then executing it on a c64 at a demoparty loaded from space. As far as I know unique. For details see this video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NLrF_2aS_hI — Preceding unsigned comment added by 118.211.81.194 (talk)

 * Please note that for Wikipedia to cover something, it needs to be verifiable -- the information needs to be covered by a reliable source. So for anyone to add it to the article, it has first to be established that RetroDemoScene qualifies for WP:RS. This already has very bad sourcing, let's not make it worse. -- intgr [talk] 13:40, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 7 external links on Tristar and Red Sector Incorporated. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120323074206/http://www.cracktros.com/screens/r/RedSector_tr02.png to http://www.cracktros.com/screens/r/RedSector_tr02.png
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090207001034/http://medianostra.net/inside/ to http://www.medianostra.net/inside
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100605062925/http://blog.zdf.de/3sat.neues/2010/05/trsi-demo-fur-android.html to http://blog.zdf.de/3sat.neues/2010/05/trsi-demo-fur-android.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130509023233/http://pouet.net/nfo.php?which=60784 to http://www.pouet.net/nfo.php?which=60784
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120402004956/http://www.defacto2.net/organisation/tristar-and-red-sector-inc./thumb/-/releaseAdvert/title/100/1 to http://www.defacto2.net/organisation/tristar-and-red-sector-inc./thumb/-/releaseAdvert/title/100/1
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120226102502/http://www.defacto2.net/organisation/tristar-and-red-sector-inc. to http://www.defacto2.net/organisation/tristar-and-red-sector-inc.
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051103045942/http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/info/www/dirs/aminet/demo/mag/rom4.lha to http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/info/www/dirs/aminet/demo/mag/rom4.lha

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text:
Azawad

Azawad, or Azawagh (Tuareg: Azawaɣ, or Azawad; أزواد), was a short-lived unrecognised state lasting between 2012 and 2013. Azawagh (Azawaɣ) is the generic Tuareg Berber name for all Tuareg Berber areas, especially the northern half of Mali and northern and western Niger. The Azawadi declaration of independence was declared unilaterally by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) in 2012, after a Tuareg rebellion drove the Malian Armed Forces from the region.

Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, comprised the Malian regions of Timbuktu, Kidal, Gao, as well as a part of Mopti Region, encompassing about 60 percent of Mali's total land area. Azawad borders Burkina Faso to the south, Mauritania to the west and northwest, Algeria to the north and northeast, and Niger to the east and southeast, with undisputed Mali to its southwest. It straddles a portion of the Sahara and the Sahelian zone. Gao is its largest city and served as the temporary capital, while Timbuktu is the second-largest city, and was intended to be the capital by the independence forces.

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, Bilal Ag Acherif, the secretary-general of the movement, signed the Azawadi declaration of independence, which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" could be formed. The proclamation was never recognised by any foreign entity, and the MNLA's claim to have de facto control of the Azawad region was disputed by both the Malian government and Islamist insurgent groups in the Sahara. At this time, a rift was developing with the Islamists. The Economic Community of West African States, which refused to recognise Azawad and called the declaration of its independence "null and void", warned it could send troops into the disputed region in support of the Malian claim.

Tuareg military leader Moussa Ag Acharatoumane, affiliated with the Movement for the Salvation of Azawad (Movement pour le Salut de l'Azawad), was interviewed by the French language news outlet TV5Monde, during its "Le journal Afrique" or "African Journal" segment, about hostile events that occurred between the MNLA and other separatist groups against jihadi extremists in 2012. He claimed that jihadi groups, and the Ansar Dine in particular, had been in the region of Azawad for 10 years before the circumstances which led to the Azawadi declaration of independence. Locals had heard of their extremist views in respect to sharia then subsequently distanced themselves from the jihadis.

Ag Acharatoumane further asserted that the death of Muammar Gaddafi destabilised the political landscape for Sahelians from Mali and Niger to such a degree that it was described as "disastrous." The Tuareg rebels allegedly went into a "survival mode" for five years after his death which were fraught with socio-political and socioeconomic crises. Disorganised and unaware of moderate militias, some joined jihadi groups but left when acquainted with better options; they aimed to join movements that were "good" in nature and organised for humanitarian causes for the betterment of Azawad. When asked about the speculated alliance between the MNLA and the Ansar Dine, Ag Acharatoumane said he "personally did not know of the alliance" and referred back to the distance Azawadi locals kept from them.

On 14 February 2013, the MNLA renounced its claim of independence for Azawad and asked the Malian government to start negotiations on its future status. The MNLA ended the ceasefire in September of the same year after government forces reportedly opened fire on unarmed protesters.

Name
According to the Scottish explorer and scientist Robert Brown, Azawad is an Arabic corruption of the Berber word Azawagh, referring to a dry river basin that covers western Niger, northeastern Mali, and southern Algeria. The name translates to "land of transhumance".

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared the independence of Azawad from Mali. In this Azawad Declaration of Independence, the name Independent State of Azawad was used (État indépendant de l'Azawad, دولة أزواد المستقلة, Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah). On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact in which they would merge to form an Islamist state; according to the media the new long name of Azawad was used in this pact. But this new name is not clear – sources list several variants of it: the Islamic Republic of Azawad (République islamique de l'Azawad), the Islamic State of Azawad (État islamique de l'Azawad ), the Republic of Azawad. Azawad authorities did not officially confirm any change of name. Later reports indicated the MNLA had decided to withdraw from the pact with Ansar Dine. In a new statement, dated on 9 June, the MNLA used the name State of Azawad (État de l'Azawad). The MNLA produced a list of the 28 members of the Transitional Council of the State of Azawad (French: Conseil de transition de l'État de l'Azawad, CTEA) serving as a provisional government with President Bilal Ag Acherif to manage the new State of Azawad.

Gao, Mali and Songhay empires
The Gao Empire owes its name to the town of Gao. In the ninth century AD, it was considered to be the most powerful West African kingdom.

In the early 14th century, the southern part of the region came under the control of the Mali Empire. King Musa I peacefully annexed Timbuktu in 1324, as he returned from his famous pilgrimage to Mecca.

With the power of the Mali Empire waning in the first half of the 15th century, the area around Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although the Maghsharan Tuareg had a dominant position. Thirty years later, the rising Songhay Empire expanded in Gao, absorbing Timbuktu in 1468 or 1469 and much of the surrounding area. The city was led, consecutively, by Sunni Ali Ber (1468–1492), Sunni Baru (1492–1493) and Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528). Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Timbuktu after its conquest.

Askia Mohammad I created a golden age for both the Songhay Empire and Timbuktu through an efficient central and regional administration that allowed sufficient leeway for the city's commercial centers to flourish. With Gao as the capital of the empire, Timbuktu enjoyed a relatively autonomous position. Merchants from Ghadames, Awjilah, and numerous other cities of North Africa gathered there to trade gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza, and North African cloth and horses. The Askia dynasty held leadership of the empire until 1591, when internal fights weakened the dynasty's grip.

Moroccan expedition
Morocco attacked the region in 1591. The Saadi ruler of Morocco, Ahmad I al-Mansur, sent the Morisco General Judar Pasha into the area. Searching for gold, he led an expedition of 4,000 Andalusian Moriscos, 500 mercenaries and 2,500 auxiliaries, including slaves, dubbed the Arma. Following the Battle of Tondibi in a village just north of Gao, Pasha and his forces captured Gao on 30 May 1591. Pasha was born into a family of Spanish Muslims in Morocco, who were banished by the Spanish Crown following the failed Alpujarras uprising of 1568–71.

The sacking of Gao marked the effective end of the Songhai as a regional power and its economic and intellectual decline. The increasing trans-Atlantic trade, which transported African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu, marginalised Gao and Timbuktu's roles as trade and scholarly centers. The Moroccan expedition resulted in the formation of the Pashalik of Timbuktu. While initially controlling the Morocco – Timbuktu trade routes, Morocco soon cut its ties with the Arma. Subsequent pashas lost their grip on Timbuktu. By 1630, the colony was independent and the leadership had become indigenised through intermarriage and local alliances. Songhay never regained control and smaller taifa kingdoms were created.

The Tuareg temporarily took control in 1737. During the remainder of the 18th century, various Tuareg tribes, Bambara and Kounta briefly occupied or besieged the city. During this period, the influence of the Pashas, who by then had mixed with the Songhay through intermarriage, never completely disappeared.

The Massina Empire took control of Timbuktu in 1826, holding it until 1865, when they were driven away by El Hadj Umar Tall's Toucouleur Empire. Sources conflict on who was in control when the French colonizers arrived: a 1924 article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg, the historian Elias N. Saad in 1983 suggests the Soninke Wangara, while the Africanist John Hunwick wrote in 2003 that several states competed for power 'in a shadowy way' until 1893.

Under French rule
After European powers formalized the scramble for Africa in the Berlin Conference, the French assumed control of the land between the 14th meridian and Miltou, South-West Chad, bounded in the south by a line running from Say, Niger to Baroua. Although the Azawad region was French in name, the principle of effectivity required France to hold power in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with local chiefs, setting up a government, and making use of the area economically, before the claim would be definitive. On 15 December 1893, Timbuktu, by then long past its prime, was annexed by a small group of French soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux. The region became part of French Sudan (Soudan Français), a colony of France. The colony was reorganised and the name changed several times during the French colonial period. In 1899 the French Sudan was subdivided and the Azawad became part of Upper Senegal and Middle Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In 1902 it was renamed as Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie et Niger), and in 1904 this was changed again to Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger). This name was used until 1920 when it became French Sudan again.

Under Malian rule

French Sudan became the autonomous state of Mali within the French Community in 1958, and Mali became independent from France in 1960. Four major Tuareg rebellions took place against Malian rule: the First Tuareg Rebellion (1962–64), the rebellion of 1990–1995, the rebellion of 2007–2009, and a 2012 rebellion.

In the early twenty-first century, the region became notorious for banditry and drug smuggling. The area has been reported to contain great potential mineral wealth, including petroleum and uranium.

Independence War
On 17 January 2012, the MNLA announced the start of an insurrection in Northern Mali against central government, declaring that it "will continue so long as Bamako does not recognise this territory as a separate entity". After the first attack took place in the town of Ménaka, further fighting was reported in different parts of the north, including Aguelhok, Tessalit, Léré, and Niafunké. Contradictory reports on military gains and losses from Malian military, were strongly denied by the Malian government. On 24 January, the MNLA won control of the town of Aguelhok, killing around 160 Malian soldiers and capturing dozens of heavy weapons and military vehicles. In March 2012, the MNLA and Ansar Dine took control of the regional capitals of Kidal and Gao along with their military bases. On 1 April, Timbuktu was captured. After the seizure of Timbuktu on 1 April, the MNLA gained effective control of most of the territory they claim for an independent Azawad. In a statement released on the occasion, the MNLA invited all Tuaregs abroad to return home and join in constructing institutions in the new state.

Unilateral declaration of independence
The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) declared Northern Mali an independent state that they named Azawad on 6 April 2012 and pledged to draft a constitution establishing it as a democracy. Their statement acknowledged the United Nations charter and said the new state would uphold its principles.

In an interview with France 24, an MNLA spokesman declared the independence of Azawad:

"Mali is an anarchic state. Therefore, we have gathered a national liberation movement to put in an army capable of securing our land and an executive office capable of forming democratic institutions. We declare the independence of Azawad from this day on."

In the same interview, Assarid promised that they would respect the colonial frontiers that separate the region from its neighbours; he insisted that Azawad's declaration of independence had international legality.

No foreign entity recognised Azawad. The MNLA's declaration was immediately rejected by the African Union, who declared it "null and no value whatsoever". The French Foreign Ministry said it would not recognise the unilateral partition of Mali, but it called for negotiations between the two entities to address "the demands of the northern Tuareg population [which] are old and for too long had not received adequate and necessary responses". The United States also rejected the declaration of independence.

The MNLA was estimated to have up to 3,000 soldiers. ECOWAS declared Azawad "null and void", and said that Mali is "one and [an] indivisible entity". ECOWAS said that it would use force, if necessary, to put down the rebellion. The French government indicated it could provide logistical support.

On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact to merge to form an Islamist state. Later reports indicated the MNLA withdrew from the pact, distancing itself from Ansar Dine. MNLA and Ansar Dine continued to clash, culminating in the Battle of Gao and Timbuktu on 27 June, in which the Islamist groups Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa and Ansar Dine took control of Gao, driving out the MNLA. The following day, Ansar Dine announced that it was in control of Timbuktu and Kidal, the three biggest cities of northern Mali. Ansar Dine continued its offensive against MNLA positions and overran all remaining MNLA held towns by 12 July with the fall of Ansongo.

In December 2012, the MNLA agreed on Mali's national unity and territorial integrity in talks with both the central government and Ansar Dine.

Northern Mali conflict
In January 2013, a minor insurgency began when Islamist fundamentalist groups attempted to take control of all of Mali. France and Chad sent troops in support of the Malian army. The whole Northern region was captured within a month prior to the Islamists offensive against the South. The rebels' main presence centered around their headquarters in Kidal. Islamists began slowly regrouping in the Adrar des Ifoghas mountains until the French and African coalition launched an offensive to eliminate the Islamist leadership and recover foreign hostages being held by them. Tuareg nomadic groups such as the MNLA, an Azawadi separatist group, helped retake several main towns in the North, but stayed neutral in fighting between the Islamists and the Malian army. The MNLA co-operated with the French troops, providing guides and logistical services and renting space in their military bases. However, no Malian army presence was allowed by MNLA authorities, due to accusations of Malian crimes against the Tuareg people. Despite this, the Islamists targeted MNLA checkpoints and other military installations with suicide bombers in retaliation. In-fighting also occurred when Chadian intervention forces were accused of firing upon Tuareg civilians.

Peace deal
A peace deal was reached in June 2013 between the MNLA and the Malian government. It gave the military lease over Tuareg rebel-held land and provided Tuareg with greater autonomy which was requested after the MNLA revoked their Independence claim. This allowed the northern part of the country to participate in the Malian presidential elections the same month. The ceasefire didn't last long before Malian troops clashed with rebels in skirmishes.

Continued insurgency
In February 2014, a massacre of a Malian general's family who were ethnic Tuareg led to an ethnic conflict between Fulani Islamists and Tuareg MNLA separatists. A massacre deliberately targeting Tuareg majority civilians was carried out by Islamists killing over 30 unarmed men.

2017
There was a referendum scheduled for 2017 on gaining autonomy and renaming the northern regions into "Azawad". However, Mali's President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita shelved the plans for the referendum on constitutional reforms that were met with opposition and ignited regular street protests.

Geography
The local climate is desert or semi-desert. Reuters wrote of the terrain: "Much of the land is the Sahara desert at its most inhospitable: rock, sand dunes and dust scored by shifting tracks." Some definitions of Azawad also include parts of northern Niger and southern Algeria, adjacent areas to the south and the north though in its declaration of independence, the MNLA did not advance territorial claims on those areas.

Traditionally, Azawad has referred to the sandplains north of Timbuktu. In geological terms, it is a mosaic of river, swamp, lake, and wind-borne deposits, while aeolian processes have proven the most imprinting.

About 6500 BC, Azawad was a 90,000-square kilometres marshy and lake basin. The area of today's Timbuktu was probably permanently flooded. In the deeper parts of Azawad, there were large lakes, partly recharged by rainfall, partly by exposed groundwater. Seasonal lakes and creeks were fed by overflow of the Niger River. The annual Niger flood was diffused throughout the Azawad by a network of palaeochannels spread out over an area of 180 by 130 kilometres. The most important of these paleochannels is the Wadi el-Ahmar, which is 1 200 metres wide at its southern end, at the Niger bend, and winds 70 to 100 kilometres northward. These long interdunal indentations that are framed by Pleistocene longitudinal dunes, characterise the present landscape.

Politics

The MNLA in its declaration of independence announced the first political institutions of the state of Azawad. It included:
 * An executive committee, directed by Mahmoud Ag Aghaly.
 * A revolutionary council, directed by Abdelkrim Ag Tahar.
 * A consultative council, directed by Mahamed Ag Tahadou.
 * The general staff of the Liberation Army, directed by Mohamed Ag Najem.

Although the MNLA claimed responsibility for managing the country "until the appointment of a national authority" in their declaration of independence, it has acknowledged the presence of rival armed groups in the region, including Islamist fighters under Ansar Dine, the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). The MNLA did not establish a formal government, though it pledged to draft a constitution establishing Azawad as a democracy. The main government building is called the Palace of Azawad by the MNLA. It is a heavily guarded building in central Gao that served as the office of the Gao Region's governor prior to the rebellion.

The military wing of Ansar Dine rejected the MNLA's declaration of independence hours after it was issued. Ansar Dine vowed to establish Islamic sharia law over all of Mali. At a conference, the Azawadis voiced their disapproval of radical Islamic groups, and asked all foreign fighters to disarm and leave the country.

According to a Chatham House Africa expert, Mali was not to be considered "definitively partitioned". The peoples who constitute a major share of the population of northern Mali, such as Songhai and Fulani, considered themselves to be Malian and had no interest in a separate Tuareg-dominated state. On the day of the declaration of independence, about 200 Malian northerners staged a rally in Bamako, declaring their rejection of the partition and their willingness to fight to drive out the rebels. A day later, 2,000 protesters joined a new rally against separatism.

According to Ramtane Lamamra, the African Union's peace and security commissioner, the African Union has discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali. He said that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out, but negotiations with other armed factions were still open.

Administrative divisions
Azawad, as proclaimed by the MNLA, includes the regions of Gao, Timbuktu, Kidal, and the northeast half of Mopti; until 1991, when the new Kidal Region was created, it formed the northern portion of Gao Region. As such, it includes the three biggest cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal.

Demographics

Northern Mali has a population density of 1.5 people per square kilometre. The Malian regions claimed by Azawad are listed hereafter (apart from the portion of Mopti Region claimed and occupied by the MNLA). The population figures are from the 2009 census of Mali, taken before Azawadi independence was proclaimed. Since the start of the Tuareg rebellion in January 2012, an estimated 250,000 former inhabitants have fled the territory.

Ethnic groups
The area was traditionally inhabited by the settled Songhay, and the nomadic Tuareg, Arabs, and Fulas (Fulɓe; Peul). The ethnic composition of the regions in 1950 (at that time, Kidal Region was a part of Gao Region) and in 2009 is shown in the adjacent diagrams.

Languages

The languages of Northern Mali include Hassaniya Arabic, Fulfulde and Songhay, Tamashek. French, though not spoken natively, is widely used as a lingua franca, as well as negotiations with the government of Mali and foreign affairs.

Religion
Most are Muslims, of the Sunni orientations. Most popular in the Tuareg movement and northern Mali as a whole is the Maliki branch of Sunnism, in which traditional opinions and analogical reasoning by later Muslim scholars are often used instead of a strict reliance on hadith as a basis for legal judgment.

Ansar Dine follows the Salafi branch of Sunni Islam. They strongly object to praying around the graves of Malikite 'holymen', and burned down an ancient Sufi shrine in Timbuktu, which had been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Most of the 300 Christians who formerly lived in Timbuktu have fled to the South since the rebels captured the town on 2 April 2012.

Humanitarian situation
The people living in the central and northern Sahelian and Sahelo-Saharan areas of Mali are the country's poorest, according to an International Fund for Agricultural Development report. Most are pastoralists and farmers practicing subsistence agriculture on dry land with poor and increasingly degraded soils. The northern part of Mali suffers from a critical shortage of food and lack of health care. Starvation has prompted about 200,000 inhabitants to leave the region.

Refugees in the 92,000-person refugee camp at Mbera, Mauritania, described the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims." The Islamists in Timbuktu have destroyed about a half-dozen historic above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to Shariah. One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians among the invading forces.

title: Azawad


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Baborów

Baborów (Bauerwitz) is a town in Gmina Baborów, Głubczyce County, Opole Voivodeship, southern Poland. The town has an area of 11.86 sqkm, and as of June 2022 it has a population of 2,852. Baborów lies on the river.

History
The first mention of the town comes from 1296 in which a wójt Jarosław is mentioned. The town was most likely founded by a Bohemian magnate, Bavor (Babor). Later it was part of an independent duchy, Habsburg-ruled Bohemia, the Kingdom of Prussia and from 1871 and 1945 also Germany. After the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II it became part of Poland. It was granted town rights before 1340, although deprived of them from 1575 to 1718. In the 18th century, Baborów belonged to the tax inspection region of Prudnik.

According to the German census of 1890, the town had a population of 2,707, of which 2,220 (82%) were Czechs. It marked the 19th-century linguistic border between German, Polish, and Czech.

During World War II, the town, then known as Bauerwitz, was the base for two working parties (E288 and E398) of British and Commonwealth prisoners of war, under the administration of the German Stalag VIII-B/344 POW camp at Łambinowice (then known as Lamsdorf). In January 1945, as the Soviet armies resumed their offensive and advanced from the east, the prisoners were marched by the Germans westward in the so-called Long March or Death March. Many of them died from the bitter cold and exhaustion. The lucky ones got far enough to the west to be liberated by the allied armies after some four months of travelling on foot in appalling conditions. The town's German population was interned in Łambinowice camp, and expelled.

Notable people

 * (1946–2019), Polish geographer and politician, member of the Polish Sejm.

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Baborów.

title: Baborów


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Kidal

Kidal (Tuareg Berber: ⴾⴸⵍ, KDL, Kidal) is a town and commune in the desert region of northern Mali. The town lies 285 km northeast of Gao and is the capital of the Kidal Cercle and the Kidal Region. The commune has an area of about 9910 km2 and includes the town of Kidal and 31 other settlements.

History
On 30 March 2012, Kidal and its military base were captured by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad as part of the Tuareg rebellion for the independence of Azawad. A spokesman for the Malian military junta said "To preserve the life of the people of Kidal, the military command decided not to prolong the battle". Gao and Timbuktu were captured within the next 48 hours, and on 6 April, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad declared the independence of Azawad from Mali. In the course of the conflict the MNLA lost their control to Islamist militias. On 30 January 2013 French and Malian forces moved into the town to bring it back under government control.

On 14 December 2013, a car bombing in Kidal killed two United Nations peacekeepers.

On 21 May 2014, MNLA forced government troops in Kidal to retreat after heavy fighting, capturing the military base.

On 13 February 2020 Mali government forces returned to Kidal after six years.

Historical population
The population of the city of Kidal has grown from 11,159 in 1998 to 25,969 in 2009, raising its percentage in the Kidal Region from 26.3% to 38.3%.

Languages
Kidal city is mainly Tamasheq speaking with 79.13% of the city speaking it in 2009. The second most spoken language in Kidal city is Songhai with 7.18% of the city speaking it. Other minority languages include Bambara spoken by 5.51% of the city, Arabic spoken by 3.78% of the city, and other minority languages spoken by 4.4%.

Notable Inhabitants
Musician Ahmed Ag Kaedy comes originally from Kidal.

Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies it climate as hot desert (BWh), with extremely hot weather most of the year.

title: Kidal


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Isabelle de Charrière

Isabelle de Charrière (20 October 1740 – 27 December 1805), known as Belle van Zuylen in the Netherlands, née Isabella Agneta Elisabeth van Tuyll van Serooskerken, and [Madame] Isabelle de Charrière (married name) elsewhere, was a Dutch and Swiss writer of the Enlightenment who lived the latter half of her life in Colombier, Neuchâtel. She is now best known for her letters and novels, although she also wrote pamphlets, music and plays. She took a keen interest in the society and politics of her age, and her work around the time of the French Revolution is regarded as being of particular interest.

Early life
Isabelle van Tuyll van Serooskerken was born in Zuylen Castle in Zuilen near Utrecht in the Netherlands, to Diederik Jacob van Tuyll van Serooskerken (1707–1776), and Jacoba Helena de Vicq (1724–1768). She was the eldest of seven children. Her parents were described by the Scots author James Boswell, then a student in law in Utrecht and one of her suitors, as "one of the most ancient noblemen in the Seven Provinces" and "an Amsterdam lady, with a great deal of money." In winter they lived in their house in the city of Utrecht.

In 1750, Isabelle was sent to Geneva and travelled through Switzerland and France with her French-speaking governess Jeanne-Louise Prevost, who was her teacher from 1746-1753. Having spoken only French for a year, she had to relearn Dutch on returning home to the Netherlands. However, French would remain her preferred language for the rest of her life, which helps to explain why, for a long time, her work was not as well known in her country of birth as it otherwise might have been.

Isabelle enjoyed a much broader education than was usual for girls at that time, thanks to the liberal views of her parents who also let her study subjects like mathematics, physics and languages including Latin, Italian, German and English. By all accounts, she was a gifted student. Always interested in music, in 1790 she began studying with composer Niccolò Zingarelli.

At the age of 14 years she fell in love with the Roman Catholic Polish count Peter Dönhoff. He was not interested in her. Disappointed, she left Utrecht for 18 months. As she grew older, various suitors appeared on the scene only to be rejected because they promised to visit her, but did not, or to withdraw themselves because she was superior. She saw marriage as a way to gain freedom but she also wanted to marry for love.

Invited specially by Anne Pollexfen Drake and also her husband lieutenant general George Eliott to come to their London home in Curzon Street, Mayfair, Isabelle did come by boat from Hellevoetsluis to Harwich 7 November 1766 accompanied by her brother Ditie, her maid Doortje and her valet Vitel.

Later life
In 1771, she married Charles-Emmanuel de Charrière de Penthaz (1735–1808) and was then known as Isabelle de Charrière. M. de Charriére, born in Colombier (near Neuchâtel), Switzerland had been the private tutor of her brother Willem René abroad from 1763 to 1766. The couple settled at Le Pontet in Colombier, bought by his grandfather Béat Louis de Muralt, with her father-in-law François (1697–1780) and her two unmarried sisters-in-law Louise (1731–1810) and Henriette (1740–1814). The Canton of Neuchâtel was then ruled by Frederick the Great as prince of Neuchâtel in personal union with Prussia. Neuchâtel enjoyed freedom of religion which resulted in the arrival of many refugees including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Béat Louis de Muralt and David Wemyss, Lord Elcho. The couple also spent significant amounts of time in Geneva and Paris.

De Charrière became rich by modern standards in 1778 by partly inheriting the fortunes of her parents, including for nearly 40% investments in the colonial compagnies such as the Dutch West India Company (WIC), Dutch East India Company (VOC), the British East India Company and the South Sea Company depending on profitable overseas slavery in plantations. According to the opinion of Drieënhuizen and Douze in their publication of 2021 in her letters and in her novel Trois Femmes (Three Women, 1795–1798) De Charrière mentioned slavery uncritically. However, the opposite was the case while she wrote about what she called the horrors (horreurs) in the colonies in a letter (number 1894, of 1798, so she was not indifferent to excesses of slavery, as was detailed by the editor of her correspondence Suzan van Dijk. Within five years after her inheritance De Charrière sold 70% of her colonial investments.

Correspondence
Isabelle de Charrière kept up an extensive correspondence with numerous people, including intellectuals like David-Louis Constant d'Hermenches, James Boswell, Benjamin Constant and her German translator Ludwig Ferdinand Huber.

In 1760, Isabelle met David-Louis Constant d'Hermenches (1722–1785), a married Swiss officer regarded in society as a Don Juan. After much hesitation, Isabelle's need for self-expression overcame her scruples and, after a second meeting two years later, she began an intimate and secret correspondence with him for about 15 years. Constant d'Hermenches was to be one of her most important correspondents.

The Scottish writer James Boswell met her frequently in Utrecht and in Castle Zuylen in 1763-1764, when he studied law at the Utrecht University. He called her Zélide, like in her self portrait. He became a regular correspondent for several years after leaving the Netherlands, going on Grand Tour. He wrote her that he was not in love with her. She replied: "We agree, because I have no talent for subordination". In 1766 he did send a conditional proposal to her father after meeting her brother in Paris, but the fathers did not agree to a marriage.

In 1786, Mme de Charrière met Constant d'Hermenches' nephew, the writer Benjamin Constant, in Paris. He visited her in Colombier several times. There they wrote an epistolary novel together, and an exchange of letters began that would last until the end of her life. She also had an interesting correspondence with her young friends Henriette L'Hardy and Isabelle Morel. Huber's young stepdaughter Therese Forster lived with her from 1801 until Isabelle de Charrière's death.

Works
Isabelle de Charrière wrote novels, pamphlets, plays, and poems and composed music. Her most productive period came only after she had been living in Colombier for a number of years. Themes included her religious doubts, the nobility and the upbringing of women.

Her first novel, Le Noble, was published in 1763. It was a satire against the nobility and although it was published anonymously, her identity was soon discovered and her parents withdrew the work from sale. Then she wrote a portrait of herself for her friends: ''Portrait de Mll de Z., sous le nom de Zélide, fait par elle-même. 1762. In 1784 she published two fictional works, Lettres neuchâteloises and Lettres de Mistriss Henley publiées par son amie''. Both were epistolary novels, a form she continued to favour. In 1788, she published her first pamphlets about the political situation in the Netherlands, France and Switzerland.

An admirer of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, she assisted in the posthumous publication of his Confessions in 1789. She also wrote her own pamphlets on Rousseau around this time.

The French Revolution caused a number of nobles to flee to Neuchâtel and Mme de Charrière befriended some of them. But she also published works criticising the attitudes of the aristocratic refugees, most of whom she thought had learned nothing from the Revolution.

Her musical works are in volume 10 of her Œuvres complètes; these include Six minuets pour deux violons, alto et basse [i.e., string quartet], dédiés à Monsieur le Baron de Tuyll de Serooskerken Seigneur de Zuylen (la Haye et Amsterdam: B. Hummel et fils, 1786); 9 Sonates voor klavecimbel, and 10 Airs et Romances (Paris: chez M. Bonjour, 1788–1789) for which she wrote both poetry and music. Most of her music was performed in the private circle of her salon at Le Pontet. An opéra-bouffe, a Dutch adaptation of her scandalous novel Le noble titled De Deugd is den Adel waerdig (Vertu vaut bien noblesse) was performed in the Fransche Comedie theater in The Hague on 2 March 1769, her only stage work performed during her lifetime. Both libretto and music are considered lost. She sent a libretto of Les Phéniciennes to Mozart Salzburg, while he was living in Vienna, hoping that he'ld writing music to it, but no reply is known.

Critical publications of the original texts

 * Œuvres complètes, Édition critique par J-D. Candaux, C.P. Courtney, P.H. Dubois, S. Dubois-de Bruyn, P. Thompson, J. Vercruysse, D.M. Wood. Amsterdam, G.A. van Oorschot, 1979–1984. Tomes 1-6, Correspondance; tome 7, Theatre; tomes 8-9, Romans, Contes et Nouvelles; tome 10, Essais, Vers, Musique. ISBN 9789028205000
 * Die wiedergefundene Handschrift: Victoire ou la vertu sans bruit. Hrsg. Magdalene Heuser. In: Editio. Internationales Jahrbuch für Editionswissenschaft. 11 (1997), p. 178–204.
 * 'Early writings. New material from Dutch archives''. Ed. Kees van Strien, Leuven, Éditions Peeters, 2005. VI-338 p. ISBN 978-90-429-1646-3
 * Correspondances et textes inédits. Ed. Guillemette Samson, J-D. Candaux, J. Vercruysse et D. Wood. Paris, Honoré Champion, 2006 423 p. ISBN 978-2-7453-1310-2

Translations

 * Letters written from Lausanne. Translated from the French. Bath, printed by R. Cruttwell and sold by C. Dilly, Poultry, London, 1799. 2 vols. viii, 175 p. + 200 p.
 * Four tales by Zélide. Translated [and abridged] by S[ybil]. M[arjorie]. S[cott-Cuffe] with an introduction by Geoffrey Scott. [The Nobleman, Mistress Henley, Letters from Lausanne, Letters from Lausanne-Caliste]. London, Constable, 1925. xxix, 263 p. Reprint by Books for Libraries Press, Freeport, New York, 1970. Reprint by Turtle Point Press, Chappaqua, New York, 1997. 304 p.
 * Letters from Mistress Henley published by her friend. Translation Philip Stewart and Jean Vaché. Introduction, notes and bibliography by Joan Hinde Stewart & Philip Stuart. New York, The Modern Language Association of America, 1993. xxix, 42 p.
 * Letters from Switzerland. [Letters from Neuchatel, Letters from Mistress Henley, Letters from Lausanne, Letters from Lausanne-Caliste]. Ed., translation and biography James Chesterman. Cambridge U.K., Carole Green Publishing, 2001. xii, 276 p. ISBN 9781903479032
 * Three women. A novel by the abbé de la Tour. Translation Emma Rooksby. New York, The Modern Language Association of America, 2007. xii, 176 p. ISBN 9780873529419
 * The Nobleman and Other Romances. [The Nobleman; Letters from Neuchâtel; Letters from Mistress Henley Published by Her Friend; Letters from Lausanne: Cécile; Eaglonette and Suggestina, or, On Pliancy; Émigré Letters; Fragments of Two Novels Written in English: A Correspondence, Letters from Peter and William; Constance's Story; Saint Anne], Translated, introduction and notes Caroline Warman. Cover ill. Joanna Walsh. New York, Penguin Classics, 2012. XXXIII, 439 p. ISBN 978-0-14-310660-9
 * Honorine d'Userche [a novella by Abbé de la Tour], translator Caroline Omolesky, e-book, Messidor Press, 2013.

Correspondence

 * Boswell in Holland, including his correspondence with Belle de Zuylen (Zélide). Ed. Frederick Pottle. 428 p. London: William Heinemann, 1952.
 * Letter of Isabelle de Charrière to James Boswell 27 March 1768. Published in The General Correspondence of James Boswell (1766–1769), ed. Richard Cole, Peter Baker, Edinburgh University Press, 1993, vol.2, p. 40-41.
 * There are no letters like yours. The correspondence of Isabelle de Charrière and Constant d'Hermences. Translated, with an introduction and annotations by Janet Whatley and Malcolm Whatley. Lincoln NE, University of Nebraska Press, 2000. xxxv, 549 p.

Le Noble, conte moral, 1763
Belle van Zuylen published this short early novel anonymously when she was 22 in a French-language magazine with the Amsterdam publisher Evert van Harrevelt. Van Zuylen's parents bought the entire book edition in 1763, in order to prevent further distribution of this satire on the nobility. But this "moral tale" nevertheless found its way into Europe, because the German poet and statesman Johann Wolfgang Goethe reviewed the German translation Die Vorzüge des alten Adels on 3 November 1772 in the "Frankfurter Gelehrten Anzeigen".

A quote from the fable Education about two dogs by Jean de La Fontaine opens the novel:

Miscellany

 * The asteroid 9604 Bellevanzuylen was named in her honour in 1991 by Eric Walter Elst.
 * The film Belle van Zuylen - Madame de Charrière was directed by Digna Sinke in 1993.
 * The Belle van Zuylen Chair of Utrecht University, Netherlands, was held by Cecil Courtney (1995), Monique Moser-Verrey (April 2005), Nicole Pellegrin-Postel (October 2005)
 * The annual Belle van Zuylen Lecture, on themes relating to literature and society in general, is part of the International Literature Festival Utrecht (ILFU), formerly called City2Cities, delivered by contemporary authors such as Hans Magnus Enzensberger (2006), Jeanette Winterson (2007), Azar Nafisi (2009) and Paul Auster (2012), Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (2020) and Margaret Atwood (2021). Since 2020 they receive a little sculpture called the Belle van Zuylenring.

Discography

 * Belle van Zuylen / Mme de Charrière: Een Muzikaal Verhall ("A Musical Journey"). Muziek van Belle van Zuylen, Frederik II van Pruisen, Anna Amalia van Pruisen, Jean Jacques Rousseau. Contents: Six menuets pour deux violons, alto et basse; Sonate voor Klavecimbel Opus 3 No. 1 in C-groot; Sonate voor Klavecimbel Opus 3 No. 2 Deel 1 in F-groot; et 8 Airs et Danses avec accompagnement de clavecin—Romance "Arbre Charmant"; "Pauvre Agneau"; "De la ville et des champs" (aria met twee violen en continuo); "Lise aimoit"; "Timarette s'en est allée" (aria met twee violen en continuo); autre air pour "Lise aimoit"; Air "Tout Cède A La Beauté"; Air "Douce Retraite." Utrechts Barok Consort m.m.v. Wilke te Brummelstreete. Utrecht: Slot Zuylen CD 423206, 2005.
 * Belle van Zuylen (Madame de Charrière) and Contemporaries. Madelon Michel, soprano; Fania Chapiro, pianoforte. Contents: Sonata in C major Op. 2 No. 2; Airs et Romances: "L'an passé," "De la ville et des champs,", "Pauvre Agneau," "L'amour est un enfant trompeur," "Timarette s'en est allée," "Lise aimoit," autre air pour "Lise aimoit" "Arbre charmant," "Douce retraite," "Tout cède à la beauté d'Elise." (Contemporaries: Rameau, Sarti, Rousseau, and Cimarosa.) Rotterdam: Erasmus Muziek Producties, ©1994.

title: Isabelle de Charrière


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title: User talk:65.96.109.117