text:
Villena

Villena is a city in Spain, in the Valencian Community. It is located at the northwest part of Alicante, and borders to the west with Castilla-La Mancha and Murcia, to the north with the province of Valencia and to the east and south with the province of Alicante. It is the capital of the comarca of the Alto Vinalopó. The municipality has an area of 345.6 km² and a population of 34,144 inhabitants as of INE 2023.

There is evidence of settlement in the area from Middle Paleolithic. However, it is on dispute if the current city dates from visigothic times or before, though certainly it existed in the 11th century, during the Muslim period. After the Christian conquest, it became Seigneury, Principality, Duchy and finally Marquisate, until the people, encouraged by the Catholic Monarchs, revolted against the marquis. In 1525 Charles V conceded the title of City to Villena. This is the most economically prosperous period, as shown by the monuments that survived to nowadays. Although a railway station was inaugurated in 1858, economy kept being mainly agricultural until the rural exode that took place in the 1960s. Then, the economic model changed rapidly so that currently economy is based mainly on tertiary sector and industry, chiefly footwear, construction and furniture.

The historical city and surroundings contain an important group of historical remains, including two castles and several churches, hermitages, palaces and squares, as well as a number of museums, standing out the Archaeological Museum "José María Soler". Among the main cultural events are the Moors and Christians festival and the Concurso de Jóvenes Intérpretes "Ruperto Chapí" (Young Interpreters Contest).

Toponymy
The first known name of the area is Ad Turres, which appears in the Vascula Apollinaria and has been identified with some of the Roman villas or postae in the Via Augusta itinerary, at some point between Villena and Font de la Figuera. Near the latter there is evidence of an old Tower already ruined by the 14th century. As for the origin of the term Villena, there is some polemic. Menéndez Pidal proposed an evolution from a hypothetic antroponym Bellius or Vellius and the sufix -ana, as in Lucena (Lucius + -ana) or Maracena (Marcus + -ana), which would give the Roman word Belliana or Velliana. However, Belliana or Bellius have not been documented in Roman times, as well as the evolution from Belliana to Villena involves several phonetic difficulties. So, Domene Verdú indicates that the origin of the toponym would be the term بليانة Bilyāna, purely Arabic, meaning "the filled (by Allah)". This Arabic term, documented from the 11th century on, evolved in two ways. On the one hand, following the rules of Medieval Spanish, to Belliena, as is written in the Historia Roderici (around 1180). On the other hand, Belliena was replaced by the Aragonese term Billena after the Christian conquest, which was carried out mostly by Aragonese. The current spelling was consolidated around the 15th century, since Spanish had totally lost the distinction between [b] and [v] and writing was attracted by the word villa, meaning "town".

Symbols
The coat of arms of Villena has been used traditionally since at least 1477, but has never been made official. The castle in the first quarter comes from the symbol of the Crown of Castile, whereas the lion in the second quarter and the winged hand in the third are legacy of don Juan Manuel, second lord of the city. The three pinetrees and the pond in the fourth quarter refer to the Lagoon of Villena or the Fuente del Chopo, formerly big wealth sources for the city; the first as a salt evaporation pond and the second as a source of fresh water. The crown is a symbol of the marquisate of Villena. As the coat of arms has never made official, there are different versions according to the City Hall's terms of office, as well as certain polemic about the position of the second and third quarter.

Physical geography
Villena is placed northwest in the province of Alicante, in the comarca of Alto Vinalopó. It is in the middle of an important crossroad which links the Valencian Community, the Region of Murcia and Castile-La Mancha, in a natural corridor known as Villena's Corridor or Vinalopó's Corridor, since the river Vinalopó flows through the municipal territory of Villena. This corridor has been of capital importance since prehistoric times (this is the place where the Via Augusta led first into the Meseta Central), and, being at the middle of towns as Biar, Sax, Font de la Figuera, Yecla or Caudete made Villena an important transports junction. Villena's municipality, having an area of 345,6 km2 in the second widest in the province of Alicante.

History
Villena region played an important role during the Bronze Age, and in the development of early metallurgy.

Cabezo Redondo is an important archaeological site of the Bronze Age located on a hill 2 km from the town of Villena. It was a regional center inhabited between 1500 and 1100 BC, and probably belonged to Argaric culture.

After the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula the city was called Medina Bilyana (مدينة بليانة) and was one of the seven cities mentioned in the Treaty of Tudmir. Calatrava knights conquered the city by the king James I of Aragon. This caused some tensions between Castile and Aragon, since Villena should have been reserved to Castile under the treaties of Tudilén and Cazorla, so both crowns had to sign news treaties: The Treaty of Almizra, Torrellas and Elche.

After the Christian conquest, Villena becomes the capital of an important seigneury, later duchy, principality and marquisate, until the popular rebellion against the Marquis, instigated by the Catholic Monarchs.

Ancient gold hoards

The Cabezo Redondo gold hoard was an important archaeological find. It was made by the Spanish archaeologist José María Soler García. The treasure was found in 1959, and contains 35 items of jewelry, including a tiara, finger rings, bracelets, and pendants.

Treasure of Villena, another find that is much bigger, was also hidden in the Cabezo Redondo area, near Villena, by its ancient inhabitants. This was also found, in 1963, by José María Soler García. It is the most important ancient treasure find in the Iberian Peninsula and the second one in Europe, just behind that from the Royal Graves in Mycenae, Greece.

This find was not made at Cabezo Redondo, itself, but at the Rambla del Panadero, 5 km east of Villena. Nevertheless, it is believed that, based on its resemblance to the previous Cabezo Redondo hoard, the trove was buried by the ancient inhabitants of Cabezo Redondo.

Main sights

 * Castle of la Atalaya, built by the Moors in the 11th century.
 * Municipal Palace
 * Saint James Church, a late Gothic Catholic church.
 * Archaeological Museum. Founded by archaeologist José María Soler García, it contains the Treasure of Villena.

Events

Villena is home to the most crowded festival of Moros y Cristianos in Spain.

It is also home to one of the biggest rock / heavy metal festivals in Spain, Leyendas del Rock, which takes place every August.

Economy
The economy of the city is based on footwear (like in the neighbouring cities of Elda and Novelda), pottery, furnitures and wines.

Sport
Juan Carlos Ferrero, former world no. 1 tennis player, developed the Ferrero Tennis Academy, which has produced such players as Guillermo García-López and Carlos Alcaraz.

Transport
Villena is located close to Autovía A-31. It has two railway stations; Villena AV serving AVE high-speed rail services on the Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network, and Villena, which sees Renfe local and regional trains.

Famous citizens

 * Ambrosio Cotes, Reinassance composer.
 * José García Hidalgo, Baroque painter.
 * Joaquín María López, Spain's Prime Minister.
 * José María Soler, archaeologist.
 * Ruperto Chapí, zarzuela composer.
 * Juan Carlos Ferrero, tennis player.
 * Pablo Menor, jesuit priest.
 * Antonio Navarro Santafé, sculptor.
 * Carlos Alcaraz, tennis player.

Twin cities

 * 🇪🇸 Escalona, Spain, since 1982, on the occasion of the 700 anniversary of the birth of don Juan Manuel, who was lord of Villena, Escalona and Peñafiel.
 * 🇪🇸 Peñafiel, Spain, since 1982, on the occasion of the 700 anniversary of the birth of don Juan Manuel, who was lord of Villena, Escalona and Peñafiel.

title: Villena


text:
Cleistocactus

Cleistocactus is a genus of flowering plants in the cactus family Cactaceae, native to mountainous areas - to 3000 m - of South America (Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia and Argentina). The name comes from the Greek kleistos meaning closed because the flowers hardly open.

Description
The plants of the genus are slender stem succulents that are tall, mostly slender and often many-branched up to about 3 m high. They usually form basally branching shrubs, rarely they branch higher and form small trees. The shoots stand upright and then often hang over as they get older; they usually lie down with their ends rising up; more rarely they grow hanging. They usually have many ribs, closely set areoles and spines. The areoles on the ribs usually have many fine, hair-like spines with a few firmer spines in between; the spines are rarely longer and coarse.

In most species, the flowers appear in large numbers individually from the areoles. The flowers are tubular and the tips hardly open with only the style and stamens usually protruding. In some species (from the earlier genera Borzicereus and Cephalocleistocactus) they appear from conspicuous zones of heavy bristle and hair formation. In adaptation to the pollinators (hummingbirds), the flowers are long, tubular with upright bracts, which are sometimes not or only slightly folded outwards at the tips and thus appear almost closed. They are often slightly zygomorphic due to an upward bend near the base and/or an oblique flower border (longer or straighter at the top, shorter or more folded at the bottom). The flower colors range from green to white, yellow, orange and red to violet, with shades of red predominating. The densely scaled fruits that emerge after fertilization are relatively small, but usually contain numerous seeds.

Species
Species of the genus Cleistocactus according to Plants of the World Online :

Synonyms
The following genera have been brought into synonymy with this genus:
 * Akersia Buining
 * Bolivicereus Cárdenas
 * Borzicactella H.Johnson ex F.Ritter
 * Borzicereus Fric & Kreuz. (orth. var.)
 * Cephalocleistocactus F.Ritter
 * Cleistocereus Fric & Kreuz. (orth. var.)
 * Clistanthocereus Backeb.
 * Demnosa Fric
 * Gymnanthocereus Backeb.
 * Hildewintera F.Ritter
 * Maritimocereus Akers
 * Pseudoechinocereus Buining (nom. inval.)
 * Seticereus Backeb.
 * Seticleistocactus Backeb.
 * Winteria F.Ritter
 * Winterocereus Backeb.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cleistocactus


text: Category:Welsh cuisine

title: Category:Welsh cuisine


text:
Flavin adenine dinucleotide

In biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox-active coenzyme associated with various proteins, which is involved with several enzymatic reactions in metabolism. A flavoprotein is a protein that contains a flavin group, which may be in the form of FAD or flavin mononucleotide (FMN). Many flavoproteins are known: components of the succinate dehydrogenase complex, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and a component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.

FAD can exist in four redox states, which are the flavin-N(5)-oxide, quinone, semiquinone, and hydroquinone. FAD is converted between these states by accepting or donating electrons. FAD, in its fully oxidized form, or quinone form, accepts two electrons and two protons to become FADH2 (hydroquinone form). The semiquinone (FADH·) can be formed by either reduction of FAD or oxidation of FADH2 by accepting or donating one electron and one proton, respectively. Some proteins, however, generate and maintain a superoxidized form of the flavin cofactor, the flavin-N(5)-oxide.

History
Flavoproteins were first discovered in 1879 by separating components of cow's milk. They were initially called lactochrome due to their milky origin and yellow pigment. It took 50 years for the scientific community to make any substantial progress in identifying the molecules responsible for the yellow pigment. The 1930s launched the field of coenzyme research with the publication of many flavin and nicotinamide derivative structures and their obligate roles in redox catalysis. German scientists Otto Warburg and Walter Christian discovered a yeast derived yellow protein required for cellular respiration in 1932. Their colleague Hugo Theorell separated this yellow enzyme into apoenzyme and yellow pigment, and showed that neither the enzyme nor the pigment was capable of oxidizing NADH on their own, but mixing them together would restore activity. Theorell confirmed the pigment to be riboflavin's phosphate ester, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) in 1937, which was the first direct evidence for enzyme cofactors. Warburg and Christian then found FAD to be a cofactor of D-amino acid oxidase through similar experiments in 1938. Warburg's work with linking nicotinamide to hydride transfers and the discovery of flavins paved the way for many scientists in the 40s and 50s to discover copious amounts of redox biochemistry and link them together in pathways such as the citric acid cycle and ATP synthesis.

Properties
Flavin adenine dinucleotide consists of two portions: the adenine nucleotide (adenosine monophosphate) and the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) bridged together through their phosphate groups. Adenine is bound to a cyclic ribose at the 1' carbon, while phosphate is bound to the ribose at the 5' carbon to form the adenine nucledotide. Riboflavin is formed by a carbon-nitrogen (C-N) bond between the isoalloxazine and the ribitol. The phosphate group is then bound to the terminal ribose carbon, forming a FMN. Because the bond between the isoalloxazine and the ribitol is not considered to be a glycosidic bond, the flavin mononucleotide is not truly a nucleotide. This makes the dinucleotide name misleading; however, the flavin mononucleotide group is still very close to a nucleotide in its structure and chemical properties.

FAD can be reduced to FADH2 through the addition of 2 H+ and 2 e−. FADH2 can also be oxidized by the loss of 1 H+ and 1 e− to form FADH. The FAD form can be recreated through the further loss of 1 H+ and 1 e−. FAD formation can also occur through the reduction and dehydration of flavin-N(5)-oxide. Based on the oxidation state, flavins take specific colors when in aqueous solution. flavin-N(5)-oxide (superoxidized) is yellow-orange, FAD (fully oxidized) is yellow, FADH (half reduced) is either blue or red based on the pH, and the fully reduced form is colorless. Changing the form can have a large impact on other chemical properties. For example, FAD, the fully oxidized form is subject to nucleophilic attack, the fully reduced form, FADH2 has high polarizability, while the half reduced form is unstable in aqueous solution. FAD is an aromatic ring system, whereas FADH2 is not. This means that FADH2 is significantly higher in energy, without the stabilization through resonance that the aromatic structure provides. FADH2 is an energy-carrying molecule, because, once oxidized it regains aromaticity and releases the energy represented by this stabilization.

The spectroscopic properties of FAD and its variants allows for reaction monitoring by use of UV-VIS absorption and fluorescence spectroscopies. Each form of FAD has distinct absorbance spectra, making for easy observation of changes in oxidation state. A major local absorbance maximum for FAD is observed at 450 nm, with an extinction coefficient of 11,300 M−1 cm−1. Flavins in general have fluorescent activity when unbound (proteins bound to flavin nucleic acid derivatives are called flavoproteins). This property can be utilized when examining protein binding, observing loss of fluorescent activity when put into the bound state. Oxidized flavins have high absorbances of about 450 nm, and fluoresce at about 515-520 nm.

Chemical states
In biological systems, FAD acts as an acceptor of H+ and e− in its fully oxidized form, an acceptor or donor in the FADH form, and a donor in the reduced FADH2 form. The diagram below summarizes the potential changes that it can undergo.

 * [[Image:Redox states of FAD.png|422px]]

Along with what is seen above, other reactive forms of FAD can be formed and consumed. These reactions involve the transfer of electrons and the making/breaking of chemical bonds. Through reaction mechanisms, FAD is able to contribute to chemical activities within biological systems. The following pictures depict general forms of some of the actions that FAD can be involved in.

Mechanisms 1 and 2 represent hydride gain, in which the molecule gains what amounts to be one hydride ion. Mechanisms 3 and 4 radical formation and hydride loss. Radical species contain unpaired electron atoms and are very chemically active. Hydride loss is the inverse process of the hydride gain seen before. The final two mechanisms show nucleophilic addition and a reaction using a carbon radical.

Biosynthesis
FAD plays a major role as an enzyme cofactor along with flavin mononucleotide, another molecule originating from riboflavin. Bacteria, fungi and plants can produce riboflavin, but other eukaryotes, such as humans, have lost the ability to make it. Therefore, humans must obtain riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, from dietary sources. Riboflavin is generally ingested in the small intestine and then transported to cells via carrier proteins. Riboflavin kinase (EC 2.7.1.26) adds a phosphate group to riboflavin to produce flavin mononucleotide, and then FAD synthetase attaches an adenine nucleotide; both steps require ATP. Bacteria generally have one bi-functional enzyme, but archaea and eukaryotes usually employ two distinct enzymes. Current research indicates that distinct isoforms exist in the cytosol and mitochondria. It seems that FAD is synthesized in both locations and potentially transported where needed.
 * [[Image:FAD Synthesis.png|250px]]

Function
Flavoproteins utilize the unique and versatile structure of flavin moieties to catalyze difficult redox reactions. Since flavins have multiple redox states they can participate in processes that involve the transfer of either one or two electrons, hydrogen atoms, or hydronium ions. The N5 and C4a of the fully oxidized flavin ring are also susceptible to nucleophilic attack. This wide variety of ionization and modification of the flavin moiety can be attributed to the isoalloxazine ring system and the ability of flavoproteins to drastically perturb the kinetic parameters of flavins upon binding, including flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).

The number of flavin-dependent protein encoded genes in the genome (the flavoproteome) is species dependent and can range from 0.1% - 3.5%, with humans having 90 flavoprotein encoded genes. FAD is the more complex and abundant form of flavin and is reported to bind to 75% of the total flavoproteome and 84% of human encoded flavoproteins. Cellular concentrations of free or non-covalently bound flavins in a variety of cultured mammalian cell lines were reported for FAD (2.2-17.0 amol/cell) and FMN (0.46-3.4 amol/cell).

FAD has a more positive reduction potential than NAD+ and is a very strong oxidizing agent. The cell utilizes this in many energetically difficult oxidation reactions such as dehydrogenation of a C-C bond to an alkene. FAD-dependent proteins function in a large variety of metabolic pathways including electron transport, DNA repair, nucleotide biosynthesis, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, amino acid catabolism, as well as synthesis of other cofactors such as CoA, CoQ and heme groups. One well-known reaction is part of the citric acid cycle (also known as the TCA or Krebs cycle); succinate dehydrogenase (complex II in the electron transport chain) requires covalently bound FAD to catalyze the oxidation of succinate to fumarate by coupling it with the reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol. The high-energy electrons from this oxidation are stored momentarily by reducing FAD to FADH2. FADH2 then reverts to FAD, sending its two high-energy electrons through the electron transport chain; the energy in FADH2 is enough to produce 1.5 equivalents of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Some redox flavoproteins non-covalently bind to FAD like Acetyl-CoA-dehydrogenases which are involved in beta-oxidation of fatty acids and catabolism of amino acids like leucine (isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase), isoleucine, (short/branched-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase), valine (isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase), and lysine (glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase). Additional examples of FAD-dependent enzymes that regulate metabolism are glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (triglyceride synthesis) and xanthine oxidase involved in purine nucleotide catabolism. Noncatalytic functions that FAD can play in flavoproteins include as structural roles, or involved in blue-sensitive light photoreceptors that regulate biological clocks and development, generation of light in bioluminescent bacteria.

Flavoproteins
Flavoproteins have either an FMN or FAD molecule as a prosthetic group, this prosthetic group can be tightly bound or covalently linked. Only about 5-10% of flavoproteins have a covalently linked FAD, but these enzymes have stronger redox power. In some instances, FAD can provide structural support for active sites or provide stabilization of intermediates during catalysis. Based on the available structural data, the known FAD-binding sites can be divided into more than 200 types.

90 flavoproteins are encoded in the human genome; about 84% require FAD, and around 16% require FMN, whereas 5 proteins require both to be present. Flavoproteins are mainly located in the mitochondria because of their redox power. Of all flavoproteins, 90% perform redox reactions and the other 10% are transferases, lyases, isomerases, ligases.

Carbon-nitrogen
Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an extensively studied flavoenzyme due to its biological importance with the catabolism of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. MAO oxidizes primary, secondary and tertiary amines, which nonenzymatically hydrolyze from the imine to aldehyde or ketone. Even though this class of enzyme has been extensively studied, its mechanism of action is still being debated. Two mechanisms have been proposed: a radical mechanism and a nucleophilic mechanism. The radical mechanism is less generally accepted because no spectral or electron paramagnetic resonance evidence exists for the presence of a radical intermediate. The nucleophilic mechanism is more favored because it is supported by site-directed mutagenesis studies which mutated two tyrosine residues that were expected to increase the nucleophilicity of the substrates.

 * [[Image:MAO mechanisms.png|700px]]

Carbon-oxygen
Glucose oxidase (GOX) catalyzes the oxidation of β-D-glucose to D-glucono-δ-lactone with the simultaneous reduction of enzyme-bound flavin. GOX exists as a homodimer, with each subunit binding one FAD molecule. Crystal structures show that FAD binds in a deep pocket of the enzyme near the dimer interface. Studies showed that upon replacement of FAD with 8-hydroxy-5-carba-5-deaza FAD, the stereochemistry of the reaction was determined by reacting with the re face of the flavin. During turnover, the neutral and anionic semiquinones are observed which indicates a radical mechanism.

 * [[Image:GOX mechanism.png|325px]]

Carbon-sulfur
Prenylcysteine lyase (PCLase) catalyzes the cleavage of prenylcysteine (a protein modification) to form an isoprenoid aldehyde and the freed cysteine residue on the protein target. The FAD is non-covalently bound to PCLase. Not many mechanistic studies have been done looking at the reactions of the flavin, but the proposed mechanism is shown below. A hydride transfer from the C1 of the prenyl moiety to FAD is proposed, resulting in the reduction of the flavin to FADH2. COformED IS a carbocation that is stabilized by the neighboring sulfur atom. FADH2 then reacts with molecular oxygen to restore the oxidized enzyme.

 * [[Image:Prenylcysteine lyase mechanism.png|650px]]

Carbon-carbon
UDP-N-acetylenolpyruvylglucosamine Reductase (MurB) is an enzyme that catalyzes the NADPH-dependent reduction of enolpyruvyl-UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (substrate) to the corresponding D-lactyl compound UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid (product). MurB is a monomer and contains one FAD molecule. Before the substrate can be converted to product, NADPH must first reduce FAD. Once NADP+ dissociates, the substrate can bind and the reduced flavin can reduce the product.

 * [[Image:MurB ox half rxn.png|700px]]

Thiol/disulfide chemistry
Glutathione reductase (GR) catalyzes the reduction of glutathione disulfide (GSSG) to glutathione (GSH). GR requires FAD and NADPH to facilitate this reaction; first a hydride must be transferred from NADPH to FAD. The reduced flavin can then act as a nucleophile to attack the disulfide, this forms the C4a-cysteine adduct. Elimination of this adduct results in a flavin-thiolate charge-transfer complex.

 * [[Image:Reductive half-reaction of glutathione reductase.png|800px]]

Electron transfer reactions
Cytochrome P450 type enzymes that catalyze monooxygenase (hydroxylation) reactions are dependent on the transfer of two electrons from FAD to the P450. Two types of P450 systems are found in eukaryotes. The P450 systems that are located in the endoplasmic reticulum are dependent on a cytochrome P-450 reductase (CPR) that contains both an FAD and an FMN. The two electrons on reduced FAD (FADH2) are transferred one at a time to FMN and then a single electron is passed from FMN to the heme of the P450.

The P450 systems that are located in the mitochondria are dependent on two electron transfer proteins: An FAD containing adrenodoxin reductase (AR) and a small iron-sulfur group containing protein named adrenodoxin. FAD is embedded in the FAD-binding domain of AR. The FAD of AR is reduced to FADH2 by transfer of two electrons from NADPH that binds in the NADP-binding domain of AR. The structure of this enzyme is highly conserved to maintain precisely the alignment of electron donor NADPH and acceptor FAD for efficient electron transfer. The two electrons in reduced FAD are transferred one a time to adrenodoxin which in turn donates the single electron to the heme group of the mitochondrial P450.

The structures of the reductase of the microsomal versus reductase of the mitochondrial P450 systems are completely different and show no homology.

Redox
p-Hydroxybenzoate hydroxylase (PHBH) catalyzes the oxygenation of p-hydroxybenzoate (pOHB) to 3,4-dihyroxybenzoate (3,4-diOHB); FAD, NADPH and molecular oxygen are all required for this reaction. NADPH first transfers a hydride equivalent to FAD, creating FADH−, and then NADP+ dissociates from the enzyme. Reduced PHBH then reacts with molecular oxygen to form the flavin-C(4a)-hydroperoxide. The flavin hydroperoxide quickly hydroxylates pOHB, and then eliminates water to regenerate oxidized flavin. An alternative flavin-mediated oxygenation mechanism involves the use of a flavin-N(5)-oxide rather than a flavin-C(4a)-(hydro)peroxide.

 * [[Image:PHBH mechanism.png|700px]]

Nonredox
Chorismate synthase (CS) catalyzes the last step in the shikimate pathway—the formation of chorismate. Two classes of CS are known, both of which require FMN, but are divided on their need for NADPH as a reducing agent. The proposed mechanism for CS involves radical species. The radical flavin species has not been detected spectroscopically without using a substrate analogue, which suggests that it is short-lived. However, when using a fluorinated substrate, a neutral flavin semiquinone was detected.

 * [[Image:Chorismate synthase mech.png|850px]]

Complex flavoenzymes
Glutamate synthase catalyzes the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate into L-glutamate with L-glutamine serving as the nitrogen source for the reaction. All glutamate syntheses are iron-sulfur flavoproteins containing an iron-sulfur cluster and FMN. The three classes of glutamate syntheses are categorized based on their sequences and biochemical properties. Even though there are three classes of this enzyme, it is believed that they all operate through the same mechanism, only differing by what first reduces the FMN. The enzyme produces two glutamate molecules: one by the hydrolysis of glutamine (forming glutamate and ammonia), and the second by the ammonia produced from the first reaction attacking 2-oxoglutarate, which is reduced by FMN to glutamate.

Flavoprotein-related diseases
Due to the importance of flavoproteins, it is unsurprising that approximately 60% of human flavoproteins cause human disease when mutated. In some cases, this is due to a decreased affinity for FAD or FMN and so excess riboflavin intake may lessen disease symptoms, such as for multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency. In addition, riboflavin deficiency itself (and the resulting lack of FAD and FMN) can cause health issues. For example, in ALS patients, there are decreased levels of FAD synthesis. Both of these paths can result in a variety of symptoms, including developmental or gastrointestinal abnormalities, faulty fat break-down, anemia, neurological problems, cancer or heart disease, migraine, worsened vision and skin lesions. The pharmaceutical industry therefore produces riboflavin to supplement diet in certain cases. In 2008, the global need for riboflavin was 6,000 tons per year, with production capacity of 10,000 tons. This $150 to 500 million market is not only for medical applications, but is also used as a supplement to animal food in the agricultural industry and as a food colorant.

Drug design
New design of anti-bacterial medications is of continuing importance in scientific research as bacterial antibiotic resistance to common antibiotics increases. A specific metabolic protein that uses FAD (Complex II) is vital for bacterial virulence, and so targeting FAD synthesis or creating FAD analogs could be a useful area of investigation. Already, scientists have determined the two structures FAD usually assumes once bound: either an extended or a butterfly conformation, in which the molecule essentially folds in half, resulting in the stacking of the adenine and isoalloxazine rings. FAD imitators that are able to bind in a similar manner but do not permit protein function could be useful mechanisms of inhibiting bacterial infection. Alternatively, drugs blocking FAD synthesis could achieve the same goal; this is especially intriguing because human and bacterial FAD synthesis relies on very different enzymes, meaning that a drug made to target bacterial FAD synthase would be unlikely to interfere with the human FAD synthase enzymes.

Optogenetics
Optogenetics allows control of biological events in a non-invasive manner. The field has advanced in recent years with a number of new tools, including those to trigger light sensitivity, such as the Blue-Light-Utilizing FAD domains (BLUF). BLUFs encode a 100 to 140 amino acid sequence that was derived from photoreceptors in plants and bacteria. Similar to other photoreceptors, the light causes structural changes in the BLUF domain that results in disruption of downstream interactions. Current research investigates proteins with the appended BLUF domain and how different external factors can impact the proteins.

Treatment monitoring
There are a number of molecules in the body that have native fluorescence including tryptophan, collagen, FAD, NADH and porphyrins. Scientists have taken advantage of this by using them to monitor disease progression or treatment effectiveness or aid in diagnosis. For instance, native fluorescence of a FAD and NADH is varied in normal tissue and oral submucous fibrosis, which is an early sign of invasive oral cancer. Doctors therefore have been employing fluorescence to assist in diagnosis and monitor treatment as opposed to the standard biopsy.

title: Flavin adenine dinucleotide


text:
Talk:Qwghlm

Congolese pleiosaur
Why on Earth is there a link to a Congolese pleiosaur? If it can be justified, great...but I'll be tempted to delete it in a few days.--Polyparadigm 20:51, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Inner/Outer
"It is somewhat of a parody of Ireland and Northern Ireland, and their mutual dislike for the others' way of life and religion."--I don't believe this comparison holds up at all. Inner and Outer Qwghlm are not two halves of a nation divided in two by a tragic history, they are simply two geographical parts of the same entity, both part of the same Union, possessing a certain sibling rivalry. You might as well compare the Inner/Outer Qwghlm rivalry to the North Devon/South Devon rivalry in "Westward Ho!". It'd be silly, but it would be more accurate. I think, if we had to pin down exactly what the joke is here, we can only say that Stephenson is lampooning a tendency of people, especially in out-of-the-way parts of the world, to care a lot about microscopic parochial divisions that mean next to nothing to outsiders. Based on the description of Qwghlm, with its Runic alphabet, its isolation and small size, its rockyness and its specific non-Celticness, I often thought of Orkney or the Shetlands, or even the Isle of Man, but never Ireland.

Geography
The location mentioned is wrong, as is the comparison to the Hebrides. In the chapter, "Seeky," in the section written from the point of view of Captain Bischoff, which begins on page 513 of the paperback edition, in the third paragraph of that section, it says that if Qwghlm were the center of a clock, England would be at 5 and 6, Ireland at 7, Norway due east at 3. and Denmark at 4. This description only works if the islands Qwghlm is based on are Orkney and Shetland islands, with Orkney being Inner Qwghlm and Shetland being Outer Qwghlm. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ggurman (talk • contribs) 08:46, 24 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Which book? A quote and citation for the geography is appropriate methinks. Sadads (talk) 14:19, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

The book he refers to is CRYPTONOMICON by Neal Stephenson, 1999 by Avon Books, New York - German translation by Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag 2001 - in the german edition the location is described on page 536 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Altratus (talk • contribs) 11:06, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

Source
Is there an encyclopedic way to mention that the name Qwghlm is made of two-letter pairs on a normal QWERTY keyboard? --AnotherDoth 18:42, 14 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Considering that the name is in fact not made of two-letter pairs, there's probably no encyclopedic way to say that it is....

 * On a standard QWERTY keyboard, L and M are on different rows, and not even diagonally adjacent; they're separated by a "knight's move." --76.205.215.155 (talk) 11:33, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

Redirect
This article does not claim and does not provide evidence this character has received significant third-party coverage independent from the work in which it appears. Furthermore, the article lacks any sort of sourcing. The article has undergone negligible improvement in the near-year since it's AfD. I am redirecting it to the main work. --EEMIV (talk) 23:16, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Qwghlm


text:
BLF

BLF may refer to:

 * Bangladesh Liberation Front, also called Mujib Bahini
 * Baluch Liberation Front
 * Billboard Liberation Front
 * Biographical Dictionary of Finland abbreviated BLF in Swedish from Biografiskt lexikon för Finland
 * British Lung Foundation
 * Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, forerunner of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen in North America
 * Bruce Lee Foundation
 * Builders Labourers Federation in Australia
 * Mercer County Airport (West Virginia); IATA airport code BLF
 * Buol language of Indonesia (ISO code: blf)
 * Black First Land First a pan-Africanist and revolutionary socialist political party in South Africa
 * Blf, short for "Bluff"; a Street suffix as used in the US

title: BLF


text: Category talk:Golfers

title: Category talk:Golfers


text:
CPRT

CPRT may refer to:

 * Cancer Prevention Research Trust
 * Copart, auction company based in Texas
 * Cypriot syllabary, ISO 15924 code

title: CPRT


text:
Matthew 1:8

Matthew 1:8 is the eighth verse of the first chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament. The verse is part of the section where the genealogy of Joseph, the legal father of Jesus, is listed.

Content
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
 * And Asa begat Josaphat;
 * and Josaphat begat Joram;
 * and Joram begat Ozias;

The World English Bible translates the passage as:
 * Asa became the father of Jehoshaphat.
 * Jehoshaphat became the father of Joram.
 * Joram became the father of Uzziah.

For a collection of other versions see BibleHub Matthew 1:8.

Analysis
The first part of this verse coincides with the list of the Kings of Judah that is present in a number of other parts of the Bible. According to William F. Albright, Asa of Judah ruled from 913 BC to 873 BC. His son Jehoshaphat ruled from 873 BC to 849 BC. His son Jehoram ruled from Jehoshaphat's death until 842 BC. However the other lists have Jehoram's son being Ahaziah while Uzziah is a monarch who comes several generations later.

This means that Matthew's genealogy skips Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoash, and Amaziah. Those who believe in the inerrancy of the Bible contend that the genealogy was never meant to be complete and the author of Matthew deliberately dropped those who were not needed from the list. Simply dropping unnecessary figures from genealogies was a common practice, and this is also done in several points in the Old Testament. One theory is that they were dropped because of their wickedness, but the even more unpleasant Manasseh is left in the list. All four were also murdered, but so was Amon, who also remains in place. Their reigns were also relatively short, but again there are other monarchs with shorter reigns included. Another theory says that names were omitted to achieve multiples of seven.

Robert H. Gundry supports the popular theory that these monarchs were left out because they were all descendants of Ahab, King of Israel through his daughter Athaliah. Ahab's descendants, the Omrides, were said to have been punished for four generations. Gundry also believes their removal was because the author was trying to divide the genealogy into the three lists of fourteen as mentioned in Matthew 1:17.

Albright and Mann have a different theory. They believe that the author, or a later scribe, confused Achaziah and Uzziah due to the similarity of the two rulers' names. In a common scribal transcription error, known as homoioteleuton, Uzziah was given Achaziah's position as the son of Jehoram but remained as father of Jotham. Under this theory the triple-fourteen parallelism was only created after this error appeared. Thus the comment in Matthew 1:17 would have had to have been added by a later editor and not the original author. Harold Fowler rejects this view, arguing that the error was so obvious when checked against the Old Testament that if the change would quickly have been reversed if it were not deliberate.

title: Matthew 1:8


text:
Matthew 1:9

Matthew 1:9 is the ninth verse of the first chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the Bible. The verse is part of the non-synoptic section where the genealogy of Joseph, the legal father of Jesus, is listed, or on non-Pauline interpretations the genealogy of Jesus. The purpose of the genealogy is to show descent from the line of kings, in particular David, as the Messiah was predicted to be the son of David (,, among others), and descendant of Abraham.

Content
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
 * And Ozias begat Jotham;
 * and Joatham begat Achaz;
 * and Achaz begat Ezekias;

The World English Bible translates the passage as:
 * Uzziah became the father of Jotham.
 * Jotham became the father of Ahaz.
 * Ahaz became the father of Hezekiah.

For a collection of other versions see BibleHub Matthew 1:9.

Greek text
The Koine Greek Byzantine text or majority text, and the textus receptus both read:

 * οζιας δε εγεννησε τον ιωαθαμ ιωαθαμ δε εγεννησε τον αχαζ αχαζ δε εγεννησε τον εζεκιαν.

Constantin von Tischendorf gives rather Οζειας for the first king.

Westcott-Hort offers the main reading and also a variant αχας for the third king. Nestle-Aland has εγεννησεν instead of εγεννησε.

Vulgate (Latin) text
The Latin Vulgate of Jerome gives:

Ozias autem genuit Ioatham Ioatham autem genuit Achaz Achaz autem genuit Ezechiam.

Peshitta text
The Peshitta text is substantially different, translated it is:
 * Awazea fathered Yoram Yoram fathered Yahoshapat fathered Khizaqea.

Analysis
This part (the second section - David to the Babylon Removal - as summarized in Matthew 1:17) of the list of Jesus' ancestry coincides with the list of the Kings of Judah that can be constructed from Old Testament records of Bible. Unlike other parts of Matthew's genealogy this list is fully in keeping with the other Jewish sources. Thomas Long sees this as Matthew's method to disclose the true identity of Jesus to his Jewish-Christian readers, that Jesus is 'the culmination of Israel's history', and 'the embodiment of their hunger for a true and perfect king'. Uzziah, was King of Judah (809 BC - 759 BC) (Amos 1:1). According to William F. Albright, Jotham ruled from 742 BC until 735 BC and his son Ahaz ruled from his death until 715 BC, whereas Ahaz's son Hezekiah ruled from 715 BC to 687 BC. Hezekiah was the king whose actions prompted the Babylonians to take the Jews into captivity, as prophesied in Isaiah 38 and mentioned in the genealogy at Verse 11. Hezekiah had fifteen years added to his lifespan by God, due to his piety.

These kings are also listed in 2 Kings 14-16, together with narrative about their reigns.

The kings in Matthew 1:9
The people mentioned in this section of the genealogy are all Kings of Judah.

Archaeology
In the mid-1990s a bulla, .4 in wide, was found with an inscription: "Belonging to Ahaz (son of) Yehotam, King of Judah." This so-call "King Ahaz's Seal" is regarded to be authentic.

The Tiglath-Pileser III annals mentions tributes and payments he received from Ahaz, king of Judah and Menahem, king of Israel.

There are extra-biblical sources that specify Hezekiah by name, along with his reign and influence, that "[h]istoriographically, his reign is noteworthy for the convergence of a variety of biblical sources and diverse extrabiblical evidence often bearing on the same events. Significant data concerning Hezekiah appear in the Deuteronomistic History, the Chronicler, Isaiah, Assyrian annals and reliefs, Israelite epigraphy, and, increasingly, stratigraphy". Hezekiah's story is one of the best to cross-reference with the rest of the Mid Eastern world's historical documents.

In 2015 in a dig at the Ophel in Jerusalem, Eilat Mazar discovered a royal bulla of Hezekiah, that reads "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah", and dates to between 727 - 698 BC. This is the first seal impression of an Israelite or Judean king to come to light in a scientific archaeological excavation. The impression on this inscription was set in ancient Hebrew script.

A lintel inscription, found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to his secretary, Shebnah. LMLK stored jars along the border with Assyria "demonstrate careful preparations to counter Sennacherib's likely route of invasion" and show "a notable degree of royal control of towns and cities which would facilitate Hezekiah's destruction of rural sacrificial sites and his centralization of worship in Jerusalem". Evidence suggests they were used throughout his 29-year reign (Grena, 2004, p. 338). There are some Bullae from sealed documents that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself (Grena, 2004, p. 26, Figs. 9 and 10). There are also some that name his servants (ah-vah-deem in Hebrew, ayin-bet-dalet-yod-mem).

Archaeological findings like the Hezekiah seal led scholars to surmise that the ancient Judahite kingdom had a highly developed administrative system. The reign of Hezekiah saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state. At this time Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian-Egyptian frontier. There were increases in literacy and in the production of literary works. The massive construction of the Broad Wall was made during his reign, the city was enlarged to accommodate a large influx, and population increased in Jerusalem up to 25,000, "five times the population under Solomon," Archaeologist Amihai Mazar explains, "Jerusalem was a virtual city-state where the majority of the state's population was concentrated," in comparison to the rest of Judah's cities (167).

The Siloam Tunnel was chiseled through 533 meters (1,750 feet) of solid rock in order to provide Jerusalem underground access to the waters of the Gihon Spring or Siloam Pool, which lay outside the city. The Siloam Inscription from the Siloam Tunnel is now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. It "commemorates the dramatic moment when the two original teams of tunnelers, digging with picks from opposite ends of the tunnel, met each other" (564). It is "[o]ne of the most important ancient Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered." Finkelstein and Mazar cite this tunnel as an example of Jerusalem's impressive state-level power at the time.

Archaeologists like William G. Dever have pointed at archaeological evidence for the iconoclasm during the period of Hezekiah's reign. The central cult room of the temple at Arad (a royal Judean fortress) was deliberately and carefully dismantled, "with the altars and massebot" concealed "beneath a Str. 8 plaster floor". This stratum correlates with the late 8th century; Dever concludes that "the deliberate dismantling of the temple and its replacement by another structure in the days of Hezekiah is an archeological fact. I see no reason for skepticism here."

During the revolt of king Hezekiah against Assyria, city of Lachish was captured by Sennacherib despite determined resistance (see Siege of Lachish). As the Lachish relief attests, Sennacherib began his siege of the city of Lachish in 701 BC. The Lachish Relief graphically depicts the battle, and the defeat of the city, including Assyrian archers marching up a ramp and Judahites pierced through on mounted stakes. "The reliefs on these slabs" discovered in the Assyrian palace at Nineveh "originally formed a single, continuous work, measuring 8 feet ... tall by 80 feet ... long, which wrapped around the room" (559). Visitors "would have been impressed not only by the magnitude of the artwork itself but also by the magnificent strength of the Assyrian war machine."

Sennacherib's Prism was found buried in the foundations of the Nineveh palace. It was written in cuneiform, the Mesopotamian form of writing of the day. The prism records the conquest of 46 strong towns and "uncountable smaller places," along with the siege of Jerusalem during Hezekiah's reign where Sennacherib says he just "shut him up...like a bird in a cage," subsequently enforcing a larger tribute upon him.

The Hebrew Bible states that during the night, the angel of Jehovah (YHWH Hebrew) brought death to 185,000 Assyrians troops, forcing the army to abandon the siege, yet it also records a tribute paid to Sennacherib of 300 silver talents following the siege. There is no account of the supernatural event in the prism. Sennacherib's account records his levying of a tribute from Hezekiah, the king of Judea, who was within Jerusalem, leaving the city as the only one intact following the exile of the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel due to idolatry. (2 Kings 17:22,23; 2 Kings 18:1-8) Sennacherib recorded a payment of 800 silver talents, which suggests a capitulation to end the siege. However, Inscriptions have been discovered describing Sennacherib’s defeat of the Ethiopian forces. These say: “As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities. . . and conquered (them). . . Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage.” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 288) He does not claim to have captured the city. This is consistent with the Bible account of Hezekiah’s revolt against Assyria in the sense that neither account seems to indicate that Sennacherib ever entered or formally captured the city. Sennacherib in this inscription claims that Hezekiah paid for tribute 800 talents of silver, in contrast with the Bible’s 300, however this could be due to boastful exaggeration which was not uncommon amongst kings of the period. Furthermore, the annals record a list of booty sent from Jerusalem to Nineveh. In the inscription, Sennacherib claims that Hezekiah accepted servitude, and some theorize that Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler. The campaign is recorded with differences in the Assyrian records and in the biblical Books of Kings; there is agreement that the Assyrian have a propensity for exaggeration.

One theory that takes the biblical view posits that a defeat was caused by "possibly an outbreak of the bubonic plague". Another that this is a composite text which makes use of a 'legendary motif' analogous to that of the Exodus story.

title: Matthew 1:9


text:
Forward price

The forward price (or sometimes forward rate) is the agreed upon price of an asset in a forward contract. Using the rational pricing assumption, for a forward contract on an underlying asset that is tradeable, the forward price can be expressed in terms of the spot price and any dividends. For forwards on non-tradeables, pricing the forward may be a complex task.

Forward price formula
If the underlying asset is tradable and a dividend exists, the forward price is given by:

 * $$ F = S_0 e^{(r-q)T} - \sum_{i=1}^N D_i e^{(r-q)(T-t_i)} \,$$

where

 * $$F$$ is the forward price to be paid at time $$T$$
 * $$e^x$$ is the exponential function (used for calculating continuous compounding interests)
 * $$r$$ is the risk-free interest rate
 * $$q$$ is the convenience yield
 * $$S_0$$ is the spot price of the asset (i.e. what it would sell for at time 0)
 * $$D_i$$ is a dividend that is guaranteed to be paid at time $$t_i$$ where $$0< t_i < T.$$

Proof of the forward price formula
The two questions here are what price the short position (the seller of the asset) should offer to maximize his gain, and what price the long position (the buyer of the asset) should accept to maximize his gain?

At the very least we know that both do not want to lose any money in the deal.

The short position knows as much as the long position knows: the short/long positions are both aware of any schemes that they could partake on to gain a profit given some forward price.

So of course they will have to settle on a fair price or else the transaction cannot occur.

An economic articulation would be:

 * (fair price + future value of asset's dividends) − spot price of asset = cost of capital
 * forward price = spot price − cost of carry

The future value of that asset's dividends (this could also be coupons from bonds, monthly rent from a house, fruit from a crop, etc.) is calculated using the risk-free force of interest. This is because we are in a risk-free situation (the whole point of the forward contract is to get rid of risk or to at least reduce it) so why would the owner of the asset take any chances? He would reinvest at the risk-free rate (i.e. U.S. T-bills which are considered risk-free). The spot price of the asset is simply the market value at the instant in time when the forward contract is entered into. So OUT − IN = NET GAIN and his net gain can only come from the opportunity cost of keeping the asset for that time period (he could have sold it and invested the money at the risk-free rate).

let
 * K = fair price
 * C = cost of capital
 * S = spot price of asset
 * F = future value of asset's dividend
 * I = present value of F (discounted using r )
 * r = risk-free interest rate compounded continuously
 * T = length of time from when the contract was entered into

Solving for fair price and substituting mathematics we get:

 * $$ K = C + S - F \,$$

where:

 * $$C = S(e^{rT} - 1) \,$$

(since $$ e^{rT} = 1 + j \,$$ where j is the effective rate of interest per time period of T )

 * $$ F = c_1 e^{r(T - t_1)} + \cdots + c_n e^{r(T - t_n)} $$

where ci is the ith dividend paid at time t i.

Doing some reduction we end up with:

 * $$ K = (S - I)e^{rT}. \,$$

Notice that implicit in the above derivation is the assumption that the underlying can be traded. This assumption does not hold for certain kinds of forwards.

Forward versus futures prices
There is a difference between forward and futures prices when interest rates are stochastic. This difference disappears when interest rates are deterministic.

In the language of stochastic processes, the forward price is a martingale under the forward measure, whereas the futures price is a martingale under the risk-neutral measure. The forward measure and the risk neutral measure are the same when interest rates are deterministic.

title: Forward price


text:
Portal talk:United Kingdom/Archive featured picture list

A selection of UK-related pictures from Featured pictures for Portal:United Kingdom. Items in italics were featured on the date listed.

Note this list hasn't been updated in some time.

Archaeology

 * Sunrise over Stonehenge at Stonehenge by Solipsist (28 July 2005)

Architecture

 * British Museum Great Court at British Museum by Solipsist
 * British Museum Reading Room Panorama at British Museum Reading Room by Diliff
 * Falkirk Wheel at Falkirk Wheel by SeanMack (May 2006)
 * Leadenhall Market at Leadenhall Market by Diliff
 * Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral at Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral by chowells (September 2006)
 * London Eye at Twilight at London Eye by Diliff (December 2006)

Artwork

 * Another Place at Another Place, by User:Chowells  (October 2006)
 * Reclining figure at Henry Moore by Solipsist (14 April 2005)

Culture

 * Circle of Lebanon in Highgate Cemetery, taken by MykReeve (February 2006)
 * Gravestone at Castle Ashby by User:Brookie
 * Hansom cab at Hansom cab by Solipsist (August 2006)
 * Horse and Plough at Plough by Marcela
 * Pitstone Windmill at Windmill by MykReeve (24 February 2005)
 * Round Hay Bale at Dawn at Hay by Fir0002

Drawings and diagrams

 * Diagram of traffic flow at a left-hand-drive roundabout at Roundabout intersection by Fredrik, original by Mintguy (27 May 2005)
 * Enigma rotor at Enigma machine by Wapcaplet (December 2005)

Entertainment and lifestyle

 * Bentley badge and hood ornament at Bentley, by Rdsmith4 (April 2006)

Animals

 * Large White caterpillar at Large White, by Sannse

Daytime

 * New Scotland Yard at Scotland Yard by User:ChrisO. (November 2005)
 * Radcliffe Camera at Radcliffe Camera by MykReeve (15 June 2005)
 * London Millennium Bridge at London Millennium Bridge, taken by Paul Lomax (9 February 2005)

Nighttime

 * City Hall (London) (see City Hall (London)) by User:ChrisO. (29 March 2005)
 * London National Gallery (see National Gallery, London) by MykReeve (19 September 2005)
 * Palace of Westminster at Palace of Westminster by Andrew Dunn (January 2006)

Panorama

 * Tower Bridge at Tower Bridge, by Diliff

Lakes

 * Loch Lomond at Loch Lomond, by Abubakr Hussain (July 2006)

Artwork

 * Thomas More by Hans Holbein the Younger in Thomas More, uploaded by Neutrality (17 March 2005)
 * Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels from Lindisfarne Gospels

Drawings and diagrams

 * Flea at Flea by Robert Hooke (14 February 2005)

Animals

 * Red Fox with prey (sharpened) at Red Fox (November 2006)

People

 * Landing at Normandy (see Battle of Normandy), by U.S. Army's First Division (June 2006)

Aerial

 * Passchendaele at Passchendaele, photo credit Imperial War Museum (February 2006)

Daytime

 * Chateau Wood Ypres 1917 (see Trench warfare and Passchendaele) by James Francis Hurley

Panorama

 * Tamar and Brunel Bridges on Tamar Bridge and Royal Albert Bridge (10 May 2005)


text:
Joseph Gwilt

Joseph Gwilt (11 January 1784 – 14 September 1863) was an English architect and writer.

He was the son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark. George Gwilt the Younger, was his elder brother.

He was educated at St Paul's School, and after a short course of instruction in his father's office was in 1801 admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the same year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches, and in 1815 he was elected FSA.

After a visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 Notitia architectonica italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings and Architects of Italy. In 1825 he published an edition of Sir William Chambers's Treatise on Civil Architecture; and among his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession are a translation of the Architecture of Vitruvius (1826), a Treatise on the Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical (1826), and his valuable Encyclopaedia of Architecture (1842), which was published with additions by Wyatt Papworth in 1867.

In recognition of Gwilt's advocacy of the importance to architects of a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a member of the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in philology and music, and was the author of Rudiments of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (1829), and of the article "Music" in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana.

His principal works as a practical architect were Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St Thomas's Church (1849–1850) at Charlton in Kent (today part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich) and the tower of St Thomas, Clapton Common (1829).

Gwilt was also associated (c. 1813–1830) with a flawed and short-lived attempt to rebuild the mediaeval predecessor of today's St Margaret's Church in Lee. When it became clear that the foundations of the old church were incapable of supporting a new building, a new church was commissioned, from another architect, on land nearby.

A portrait of him is part of the permanent collection at the National Portrait Gallery in London.

In his Encyclopaedia of Architecture, he informs us that standing stones predated all other forms of architecture, that the Druids were the world’s first race of civilised people, and that at one time the language and alphabet of the entire ancient world from Ireland to India was the same - that of  the Irish Druids.

Writings

 * An Encyclopaedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical, 1859,

title: Joseph Gwilt


text: User talk:68.83.134.207

title: User talk:68.83.134.207


text:
DDF

DDF may refer to:

Biology and medicine

 * Digestive Disorders Foundation, a British medical research charity
 * (N,N- d imethyl-amino)-benzene d iazonium- f luoroborate, a photoaffinity probe that competes with acetylcholine for receptor binding
 * Sulfoxone, an anti-leprosy drug sold under “DDF” brand

Technology

 * Digital distribution frame, a device which terminates digital data streams, allowing arbitrary interconnections to be made
 * 4,4'-Dinitro-3,3'-diazenofuroxan, an experimental high explosive
 * Disk Data Format, a structure describing how data is formatted across disks in a RAID group

Other uses

 * Demographic Development Fund, Georgian think tank
 * Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, a Rome-based Catholic institution
 * Drop Dead Fred, a 1991 fantasy comedy film
 * Dubai Duty Free, a duty-free retailer

title: DDF


text:
User:Brookie/Nom de Wiki

A name used for a user of the Wikepedia family as their public user name. There is a long tradition of Wikipedians not using their birth names as their nom-de-Wiki: indeed many habitual Wikipedians are rumoured to have actually forgotten their "proper" names through over use of their Nom-de-Wiki. Those people using their normal names are an insignificant minority.

Boffy Research Request
It would make an interesting study for the real names of the Wikepidans to be analysed and compared to their nom-de Wiki - any offers?

Some interesting Noms de Wiki

 * User:Quercusrobur - he obviously likes Oak Trees!
 * User:MyRedDice - hopefully the cream will help!
 * User:Radicalsubversiv - something we can all relate to!
 * User:DropDeadGorgias - he's probably not that gorgeous!
 * User:Sir Paul - he almost certainly has too much hair ro be the real one!
 * User:KellyCoinGuy - who knows!
 * User:Saulisagenius - a modest one!
 * User:Jewbacca - A cool photo!
 * User:Patteroast - pure silliness!

Types of Name

 * Anonymous name - but their user page tells you who they really are - cf :User:Talrias

 * Ordinary name - no shame! cf : user:Mike Garcia

 * Fake name - and no information on the Wikipedian - but splendidly silly photo: cf: User:Brookie

WIP
  Talk - Articles - My Wiki Connections - Favourites - Tecky - Licence

A little by little we move forward, learning, coping, smiling, loving

My Featured Article My Featured Picture

title: User:Brookie/Nom de Wiki


text:
Coffer

A coffer (or coffering) in architecture is a series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault. A series of these sunken panels was often used as decoration for a ceiling or a vault, also called caissons ("boxes"), or lacunaria ("spaces, openings"), so that a coffered ceiling can be called a lacunar ceiling: the strength of the structure is in the framework of the coffers.

History
The stone coffers of the ancient Greeks and Romans are the earliest surviving examples, but a seventh-century BC Etruscan chamber tomb in the necropolis of San Giuliano, which is cut in soft tufa-like stone reproduces a ceiling with beams and cross-beams lying on them, with flat panels filling the lacunae. For centuries, it was thought that wooden coffers were first made by crossing the wooden beams of a ceiling in the Loire Valley châteaux of the early Renaissance. In 2012, however, archaeologists working under the Packard Humanities Institute at the House of the Telephus in Herculaneum discovered that wooden coffered ceilings were constructed in Roman times. Experimentation with the possible shapes in coffering, which solve problems of mathematical tiling, or tessellation, were a feature of Islamic as well as Renaissance architecture. The more complicated problems of diminishing the scale of the individual coffers were presented by the requirements of curved surfaces of vaults and domes.

A prominent example of Roman coffering, employed to lighten the weight of the dome, can be found in the ceiling of the rotunda dome in the Pantheon, Rome.

Coffered ceilings were used in cathedrals starting with St Mark's Basilica and Santa Maria Maggiore. They spread following the reforms of the Council of Trent, as the improved acoustics and opportunity to include statues, apostolic heraldry and other religious elements in compositions with versatile shapes was thought to enhance the doctrinal purpose of a cathedral.

Asian architecture
In ancient Chinese wooden architecture, coffering is known as zaojing.

title: Coffer


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fuck the dead cat

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. jni 14:23, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Fuck the dead cat
A grand total of...no Google hits (alright, there's a few in groups, but nothing particularly clear). Fuck this dead cat already. sjorford// 21:02, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

''It looks like I forgot to list this on the main VFD page, so I'm relisting it on today's subpage. sjorford →•← 12:08, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)'' This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * It is absolutely ridiculous to suggest this article is worthy of deletion. "Fuck the dead cat" is part of Australia's rich cultural heritage, to suggest it is fit for deletion is an outrage and an insult.
 * Delete Australia's cultural heritage is indeed 'rich' but sadly we must delete. --Lee Hunter 21:10, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Fuck this dead article. (um, delete...)  Postdlf 21:30, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete with extreme deceased feline intercoursal prejudice. Sockpuppets, neologisms...will they never learn?  Postdlf and Sjorford pretty much summed up my feelings on the matter. - Lucky 6.9 21:44, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Transwiki So I may be a sock puppet but this is NOT a neologism, it is an actual phrase used countless times every single day, a definition is needed if only so the tourists are less stunned when they hear it in use.
 * Well, how about giving us a verifiable reference? A slang dictionary... a newspaper item... a quotation in an Australian novel in which a character uses the phrase... Dpbsmith (talk) 02:51, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. jni 12:13, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Must be localised slang I've never heard before. Longhair 13:30, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete not even one instance on Google suggests that this is NOT an even remoretely widespread term, and even widespread dicdefs shouldn't be kept anyway. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 14:49, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * This has been in use possibly for a hundred years? Yeah right. Delete. Radiant! 16:47, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No notable references cited from linguists or news sources. Zzyzx11 20:22, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Do not transwiki.  RickK 22:23, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable. Megan1967 23:34, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I think the cat is dead. Delete. Tygar 07:24, Feb 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * With no verifiability, delete this dead cat. I have never heard this term, ever - David Gerard 13:56, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, unless good, verifiable evidence of significant use is presented prior to expiration of VfD. This article has no references at all. The information is given on the authority of the contributor. Earlier VfD discussants performed due diligence and failed to find any evidence of significant use. This isn't Schrödinger's cat; it's unambiguously dead. Dpbsmith (talk) 02:51, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * It's not pining, it's passed on. This cat is no more. It has ceased to be. It's expired and gone to meet its maker. This is a late cat. It's a stiff. Bereft of life, it rests in peace. If you hadn't nailed it to the perch it would be pushing up the daisies. It’s run down the curtain and joined the choir invisible!! This is an ex-cat. Delete Jayjg (talk)  21:52, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Dicdef. Miss Pippa 22:08, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Is it a Norwegian Blue...? Way to go, Jayjg!  Thanks for the laugh.  No change of vote, though.  :^)  - Lucky 6.9 18:55, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)