text:
Dromore, County Down

Dromore is a small market town and civil parish in County Down, Northern Ireland. It lies within the local government district of Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon. It is 19 mi southwest of Belfast, on the A1 Belfast–Dublin road. The 2011 census recorded a population of 6,395.

The town's centre is Market Square, which has a rare set of stocks. It is in the old linen manufacturing district. Dromore has the remains of a castle and earthworks, although these have modern buildings surrounding them, a large motte and bailey or encampment (known locally as "the Mound"), and an earlier earthwork known as the Priest's Mount on the Maypole Hill.

History
The name Dromore is an anglicisation of the Irish Druim Mór (modern Irish Droim Mór) meaning "large ridge", with historic anglicisations including Drumore, Drummore and Drummor.

The town features a well-preserved Norman motte and bailey that was constructed by John de Courcy in the early 13th century, shortly after the Norman invasion of Ireland. Known locally as "the Mound", the fort occupies a prominent site to the east of the town centre and has views along the valley of the River Lagan. Dromore remained under Anglo-Norman control until it was captured and destroyed by Edward Bruce during the Irish-Bruce wars of 1315.

It was the seat of the diocese of Dromore, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular attributed to Saint Colman in the 6th century. This was united in 1842 to the Diocese of Down and Connor. The diocese was then divided in 1945, with the Diocese of Connor being independent, and the Diocese of Down and Dromore remaining united.

The town and cathedral were wholly destroyed during the Irish Rebellion of 1641, and the present church was built by Bishop Jeremy Taylor in 1661, who is buried there. Also buried in the cathedral is Thomas Percy, another famous bishop of the diocese, who laid out the fine grounds of the palace. A monument to Thomas Percy stands in the Town Park.

Jacobites under command of Richard Hamilton, and rival Williamites fought a battle here on 14 March 1689. The battle took place about a mile out of the town on the Milebush Road and was known as the Break of Dromore. The Jacobites routed the Williamites and they fled in disorder, leaving 400 dead. After this Break of Dromore the Jacobites did not meet any resistance while advancing northwards and occupying Belfast.

Dromore had its own railway station from 1863 to 1956. The Banbridge, Lisburn and Belfast Junction Railway (BLB) through Dromore opened in 1863. Its line was a branch that joined the Ulster Railway main line Knockmore Junction, giving Dromore a direct link to Lisburn and Belfast Great Victoria Street. In 1876 the Ulster Railway became part of the new Great Northern Railway, which took over the BLB company in 1877. In 1953 the railway was nationalised as the GNR Board, which closed the line through Dromore on 29 April 1956.

On 23 July 1920, sectarian motivated riots occurred in Dromore. An estimated crowd of 500 attacked Catholic homes, businesses and the Catholic parochial house. During the rioting, one member of the Orange Order was shot dead, it was determined that the bullet had been fired by the police.

The Troubles
1976

7 April 1976 – William Herron (64), Elizabeth Herron (58) and their daughter, Noleen Herron (26), all Protestant civilians, were killed during a Provisional Irish Republican Army incendiary bomb attack on their drapery shop on Market Square, Dromore. They lived in the flat above the shop.

1988

6 July 1988 – Terence Delaney (31), a Catholic civilian, was shot dead by the Ulster Freedom Fighters, a cover name used by the Ulster Defence Association, while waiting for a lift to work.

Today

The Dromore Town Centre Development Plan, published in July 2003, outlined that of the 190 units within Dromore Town Centre, over one quarter were vacant. This is in spite of recent population growth in the town; a result of the proximity to the A1 road and resultant commuting access to Greater Belfast.

The green-field development in recent years has mostly been around the edges of the town, and the doughnut effect has led to these houses being disconnected from the town centre. The population of Dromore tends to travel to nearby Banbridge or Sprucefield to shop, which has caused the high levels of obvious dereliction however more local shops are opening thus the number of people travelling beyond the town to shop is decreasing.

The plan highlights the under use of the River Lagan as a resource in the town, as well as the poorly used public space around Dromore Town Hall in the Market Square. The square's 18th Century layout is protected, however it is identified as a traffic problem, which is exacerbated by poor parking provision and enforcement of parking restrictions. In 2008, some of the buildings in the Market Square were cleared to facilitate the construction of leisure space.

2021 census
On census day (21 March 2011) there were 6,395 people living in Dromore. Of these:

 * 68.9% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion and 16.51% belong to or were brought up in the Christian Catholic denomination
 * 62.47% indicated that they had a British national identity, 42.05% had a Northern Irish national identity and 10.34% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)

2011 census
On census day (27 March 2011) there were 6,003 people living in Dromore (2,439 households), accounting for 0.33% of the NI total. The population increased 20.8% from the 2001 census figure of 4,968. Of these:

 * 23.37% were aged under 16 years and 13.88% were aged 65 and over
 * 52.17% of the usually resident population were female and 47.83% were male
 * 75.81% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion and 15.89% belong to or were brought up in the Christian Catholic denomination
 * 70.10% indicated that they had a British national identity, 31.53% had a Northern Irish national identity and 7.08% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)
 * 36 years was the average (median) age of the population
 * 7.37% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots and 3.18% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic).

Road

Dromore is well served by the Translink Goldline Express bus service 238, running between Belfast and Newry. Translink Ulsterbus service 38 links the town with Belfast, Banbridge and Lisburn (bypassed by express services). However the 38 can stop at all urban and rural bus stops, adding roughly an extra thirty minutes to the Belfast bound journey.

It is a short drive from Dromore to Belfast (about 20–25 minutes off-peak), Lisburn and Banbridge due to the high-quality A1 road/M1 motorway. Belfast International Airport is about 40 minutes away using the A26 (Moira-Antrim road) while Dublin Airport is around seventy to eighty minutes away using the A1/M1. The town, which has been on the main Belfast to Dublin route for centuries, was bypassed in 1972.

The area is also linked with Lurgan and Ballynahinch by the B2 Lurgan Road and B2 Ballynahinch Road respectively. Surrounding villages, such as Kinallen, Dromara and Donaghcloney, are served by unclassified rural routes.

In 2009 a grade-separated junction featuring an underpass was constructed at the junction of the B2 Banbridge Road, A1 dual-carriageway and the Rowantree Road. It was one of four junctions that were grade separated along the route as part of £30 million of safety improvements. It followed the successful construction of a similar style junction at the B2 Hillsborough Road/A1 junction on the northern end of the town.

Rail
Dromore was situated on the Banbridge, Lisburn and Belfast Junction Railway, part of the Great Northern Railway, which ran from Knockmore Junction to Banbridge.

Immediately to the west of Dromore Railway Station is the Dromore Viaduct, which once carried trains across the River Lagan. At 74 ft tall and 7 arches long, the eye-catching viaduct was the most noteworthy piece of engineering on the line.

Having opened on 13 July 1863, Dromore Station, along with the rest of the line via Dromore to Banbridge and Newcastle, was closed under the auspices of the Ulster Transport Authority on 30 April 1956.

Communications
The dialling code for Dromore, like the rest of Northern Ireland, is 028. Local landline numbers typically appear in the format 028 9269 xxxx. The town's local telephone exchange falls under the Lisburn telephone exchange code, which prior to the Big Number Change in 2000, used area code 01846.

Townlands
Dromore sprang up within the townland of the same name. The following is a list of townlands that are now within the town's urban area, alongside their likely etymologies:

 * Balleny, historically Ballyeany
 * Ballymacormick
 * Ballymaganlis, historically Ballymagarly
 * Ballyvicknacally
 * Drumbroneth, historically Drumbrony, Drumfrony
 * Lurganbane

People
Past and present notable residents include:

 * Sir Jeffrey Donaldson, Northern Ireland politician, MP for Lagan Valley and former leader of the DUP
 * Harry Ferguson (1884–1960), inventor who made the tractor practical
 * Sir Clarence Graham, Bt., former Ulster Unionist Party politician
 * Melissa Hamilton, ballet dancer
 * Tyrone Howe, Irish rugby international and former local UUP Councillor
 * David Humphreys, Irish rugby international
 * John Leslie (1814–1897), first-class cricketer
 * Drew Nelson (1956–2016), former Grand Secretary of the Orange Order
 * Sam Ferris, Olympic marathon runner
 * John Frazer (1827 – 1884), Irish-born Australian businessman and politician.

Education
formerly Dromore Secondary Intermediate School
 * Primary Schools
 * Dromore Central Primary School: opened 1938
 * St. Colman's Primary School
 * Secondary Schools
 * Dromore High School: opened 1958.

Sport
Despite the town's small population, Dromore has a multitude of sport teams and venues.

The most prominent sports in the town are association football and rugby union, with cycling, hockey, lawn bowls, and athletics having some popularity also.

Cycling
Dromore has a number of cycling clubs in the local area including Dromore Cycling Club, West Down Wheelers, and Dromara Cycling Club. The town is also home to a number of former national and international event winning cyclists including Terry Mackin, double silver medalist at the National Track Championships and a bronze medal in the Kilometre Time Trial event in the UCI World Masters Track Championships, Gareth Rogers, two time All Ireland Hill Climb Champion.

Seamus Downey competed in the individual road race event at the 1984 Summer Olympics, his son Sean Downey winning a bronze medal in the 2010 Commonwealth Games in the team pursuit as part of the Northern Ireland team and riding for the An Post–Chain Reaction team between 2012 and 2015, and Mark Downey competing at the 2015 UEC European Track Championships in the points race and team pursuit. Mark won the gold medal at the 2016–17 UCI Track Cycling World Cup, Round 2 in Apeldoorn in the points race. He also won the third round of the World Cup points race held in Cali, Colombia and picked up a Silver in the Madison with his teammate Felix English. Mark concluding his 2017 World Cup campaign by winning the Madison in Los Angeles Round 4 and was overall series winner in the points race.

Football
The town has one intermediate football team, Dromore Amateurs F.C., who compete in a regional league and play home matches at Ferris Park.

Dromore also has its very own grassroots football set-up: Dromore Amateurs Youth Football Club, which coaches kids from all over the surrounding district. Having only recently formed in 2005/06, the club has continued to grow from strength to strength and now cater for an impressive 200+ kids from ages 5 to 17.

The club currently runs a number of youth football teams. For the 2011/2012 season they have teams from the Under 8s and Under 9s playing in the Mid Ulster Youth League Games Development League, teams at Under 10s, Under 11s and Under 12s playing in the George Best Youth League, teams at Under 13s, Under 14s, Under 15s and Under 17s playing in the Mid Ulster Youth League plus a team at Under 16s playing in the Carnbane Youth Football League. The club is also affiliated to the 'Northern Ireland Boys Football Association' and enters teams into the N.I.B.F.A. Cup each season.

Football is also very popular as a social sport, with many groups playing on a daily basis at both municipal sports facilities at Ferris Park and Dromore Community Centre.

Rugby
Rugby union is represented through Dromore Rugby Football Club, who have had some success in recent years. The club are based on Barban Hill in the town and have three rugby pitches and a clubhouse on that site. The club's 1st XV team presently compete in the Ulster Branch of the IRFU's Qualifying League.

Ladies' hockey
The town is represented on a provincial level in ladies field hockey by Dromore Ladies Hockey Club, whose 1st XI competed in the Ulster Women's Hockey Union Senior One league for the 2010/11 season, having won the Ulster Women's Hockey Union "Club of the Year" title in 2007/8. The club have six senior teams and junior teams at all age levels, playing home matches and training at Ferris Park.

Gaelic Games
The Gaelic games of hurling and camogie are catered for at the Ballela Club in the nearby village of Ballela.

Facilities
The main sports facility in the town is Dromore Community Centre (also known as Holm Park), which offers two grass soccer pitches, two tennis courts and a bowling green. In addition to this, the main building contains a gymnasium, an indoor multipurpose hall and two squash courts (the squash courts are now closed for re-purposing). The secondary facility is Ferris Park, named after local Olympian Sam Ferris, which provides a full-sized sand-based floodlit hockey pitch, two floodlit tennis courts, a grass soccer pitch and a changing pavilion. Both are maintained by Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council.

Churches

 * St Colman's Catholic Church
 * Banbridge Road (Ban Road) Presbyterian Church
 * Dromore Elim Pentecostal Church
 * Dromore Reformed Presbyterian Church
 * Dromore Methodist Church
 * Dromore Free Presbyterian Church
 * The Cathedral Church of Christ the Redeemer, Dromore (Church of Ireland (Anglican/Episcopal))
 * Dromore Baptist Church
 * Dromore Non-Subscribing Presbyterian Church
 * First Dromore Presbyterian Church

title: Dromore, County Down


text:
Wikipedia:Peer review/Force Dynamics/archive2

Force Dynamics
Did you ever see the relation between trying to open a jammed door and arguing with a stubborn person? Well, the cognitive linguistic theory of Force Dynamics has something to say about it. Read this article and post your thoughts here. Non-experts are especially invited to comment. Is it clear enough? What can be improved? What is missing? Thank you for reviewing this article! — mark ✎ 15:19, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Earlier request at Peer review/Force Dynamics/archive1. Resubmitting because last time it was here for a month and no-one looked at it, except for User:MIT Trekkie, who did an awesome EAL copyedit.

 * I like this; a clear and, as far as I can tell, comprehensive enough overview of a complex area, though my expertise is limited. I've made a couple of small edits, mostly layout. I would ask why the list is both bulleted and lettered. Filiocht 15:58, Mar 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Good point. The letters refer to the elements in Figure 2. I've removed the bullets and indented the list items.  — mark ✎ 16:24, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * It seems faily clear overall. A few terms could benefit from wikilinks to articles that explain them: for instance, "semantic category", "closed-class", "open-class".  Also, you might add some external links if you can find anything sufficiently relevant and helpful.  You'd be a better judge than I of whether this, this, this, this, or any of the links returned by these searches would be relevant or useful.  --Jim Henry 19:28, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Clever searches :). It's a good idea to add external links. I'll review your suggestions and add the ones that suit best (and I have some in stock myself). As for the wikilinks: another good idea — I have added some wikilinkage as per your suggestion (incidentally, 'closed-class' and 'open-class' are slightly problematic because those notions are used in another sense than the traditional linguistic notions of Open class word and Closed-class word). Thanks for reviewing!  — mark ✎ 21:23, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * In the context of the section Context does nominals mean nouns/noun phrases? --Theo (Talk) 17:44, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Yep. I changed it; nouns is more common indeed.  — mark ✎ 18:34, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Interesting and unusual subject! The article is written in a simple, clear, helpful style, but I'm still barely able to get my mind round it, as the ideas are so unfamiliar compared with the few outdated linguistic concepts I've met before. It may actually be easier to grasp for somebody coming at it with even less linguistics than I have, and therefore fewer hindering preconceptions. I take this stupidity to be a valuable resource for peer review, since it'll make me mulishly demand grade-school level explication of every detail. Here goes:
 * 1. I think the sentence "The diagram at the top of this page represents the sentence 'The door cannot open' Force-Dynamically" points the reader (well, me) wrong: scarily, it sounds like it claims the diagram represents only the sentence about the door. I'd at least turn it round to: "The sentence 'The door cannot open' can be Force-Dynamically represented by the diagram at the top of this page." Maybe I'd also immediately say something about what else--what classes of sentences and situations--the diagram can represent, though I'm unsure about that, it may not be a practical option. Still, I'd like the issue addressed somewhat, because my stupid-reader gut feeling is that the diagram could easily represent nearly 50% of force-dynamic sentences and situations, while another nearly 50% of them might be represented by its sibling (=the same except that the agonist is the stronger and movement results). And the feeling of a couple of simple diagrams doing for all, in turn, tends to cast doubt on how much help the theory can be for understanding "the cognitive basis of language". Help with this feeling is at hand, in the section "More complexity", but that still leaves me suspecting that the two simplest diagrams might represent most FD sentences. (Especially since sentence d in "More complexity" is so unnatural that it hints there might only be three convincing complex FD sentences altogether, a, b, and c. ;-))

 * 2. When the account gets to "More complexity", an unspoken assumption also seems to be in place that we know how to decide which force is agonist and which antagonist. I for one was surprised to find the wind, the headmaster, the breaking of the dam and the abating of the wind to be antagonists; why wouldn't they be agonists? The wind is mentioned first, it's the grammatical subject, and it's the more active force, so I expected it to have "primacy", if anything did, and to be designated the agonist. What do the leaves of the book have going for them? That they're part of "my" book, and my point of view determines the matter? That the book existed before the gust did? Or, another idea, are we supposed to pick one alternative at random for each sentence, and produce one of two equally valid diagrams? I just think too much is assumed here.

 * 3. The paragraph about how different representational devices are supposed to interact with one another is very abstract. It's not that it's hard to follow, but it just hardly conveys anything at all to the layman. I suppose the theoretical level of the problem makes it impossible to bring in an example and expound on how some particular other device doesn't play well with Force Dynamics? (Hey, draw an FD diagram of what happens when they meet! :-)) If it is at all possible, please try.

 * But these are all nits, it's an excellent article! The "Psychological basis" section is great--so short, yet does so much work, and really does expand my linguistic horizons. I like the conciseness myself, but it would also be interesting to hear if others think this section might benefit from being a little fuller. Bishonen | Talk 09:28, 5 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Bishonen, these are not nits, these are very valuable, thorough and astute comments. Thank you very much. It will take some time to adress your 'multi-layered' points (I mean, they look like three points but they are full of other important questions and comments). Let me start with a general all-important point which I think is not made clear in the article at all yet, and which might be the basis for much of your questions:

 * There is a difference between the actual world and our conceptualization of it (philosophical chatter about reality aside) — and Cognitive Linguistics (and Force Dynamics with it) is about the latter. This is an extremely important point which merits a quick illustration. Imagine a row of twenty little lamps, close to each other. Put a translucent screen before them. Imagine the lamps being switched on and then directly off in succession, first number one, then number two, and so on up to number twenty. Imagine it all going very rapid. What would you see? Most people will say: 'I saw a light moving.' But, of course, there wasn't one light at all; there were twenty little lamps. And surely there wasn't any movement involved; only a succession of separate events. Yet this is how people conceptualize the situation. And the very cool thing about language is that this conceptualization shines through all the time. Language shows us the world the way we humans conceptualize it.

 * Now your point (1).
 * 1a — I agree with you regarding the jammed door and the top right diagram; your suggestion is better so I've changed it.
 * 1b — about the few simplest diagrams representing nearly all FD situations. Let me first say that I agree that the article absolutely should be more clear about this. Having said that, there are a few points to make here:
 * There are not two, but four basic diagrams. This of course relates to your point 2, so now you should know that part of my answer to that point will be that it actually does matter which force you dub the Agonist and which one is the Antagonist (I'll come back to that).
 * This four 'basic' diagrams reflect steady-state oppositions as opposed to the ones under 'More complexity' where change over time is a factor. To be sure, there are a lot of steady-state oppositions; but in any event, these do not make up 'nearly all' FD situations, if only because we don't conceptualize all FD situations to be of a 'steady-state' nature.
 * The idea that the basic diagrams cover almost all situations means (I think) that you only consider part of the information in the diagrams. For example, looking only at the resultant (action or inaction), it is indeed clear (and obvious) that half of the basic diagrams will cover half of the possible situations and that the other half will take care of the rest. But there's more to it, since it's all about our conceptualization of the situation. That is why the Antagonist/Agonist distinction is imporant; and the balance; and the intrinsic force tendency. Needless to say, this is not your fault; the article clearly puts the reader on the wrong track and this should be sorted out.
 * 1c — about sentence d in 'More complexity'. Talmy himself gives the sentence 'The stirring rod's breaking let the particles settle'. I don't know if that is better than my 'abating wind' attempt; in any case, read my partial reply to your point 2 for a possible explanation of the awkwardness of sentences a-d.

 * Your point (2) — the unspoken assumption should be outspoken. There is actually a way to decide which force is going to be the Agonist and which one is to be the Antagonist. This is where Talmy's view on the matter really becomes clear so thank you for pointing this out. I can't answer your question yet, however; I've already seen that answering it will involve expanding the article by some thirty percent. This means that the article is not yet comprehensive at all, so thanks again for putting the finger right on the spot. I will be sorting this issue out (hate it to write incomplete articles), but I don't have the time for it at present. A fix of the article (and a partial answer to your question) will include the following bit of theory:
 * In Talmy's view, sentences without an agent like the ones in a-d are more basic than forms containing an agent. To quote him (2000a:421):
 * [T]he inclusion of an agent in a sentence, though often yielding a syntactically simpler construction, actually involves an additional semantic complex. An agent that intends the occurrence of a particular physical event, say, a vase's breaking, is necessarily involved in initiating a causal sequence leading to that event. This sequence must begin with a volitional act by the agent to move certain parts or all of his body. This in turn either leads directly to the intended event or sets off a further event chanin, of whatever length, that leads to the intended event.
 * To represent a whole sequence of this sort, many languages permit expression merely of the agent and of the final event, like English in I broke the vase. Here, the sequence's remaining elements are left implicit with their most generic values (...). The next element that can be added by itself to the overt expression is the one leading directly to the final event — that is, the penultimate event, or else just its (so-called) instrument, as in I broke the vase (by hitting it) with a ball. This privileged pair of events, the penultimate and the final, forms the identifying core of the whole agentive sequence. It can in fact be excerpted from there for exmpression as a basic precurso-result sequence, as in The ball's hitting it broke the vase.

 * Your point (3) — the article should indeed be more clear on this as well. An example of another representational device is a proposition. Propositional logic determines how propositions are supposed to interact with each other (e.g., when assessing the validity of an argument, we take information from the premises, compare this information with information found in the conclusion, and apply some logic, and determine whether the argument is valid or not). Now Goddard is saying something like: 'OK, we have propositional logic to take care of way propositions interact with one another; but where to fit those diagrams in? How do we 'extract' information from them and how do we know how to apply it, and where do we apply it?'. Let me throw in another quick and dirty example. Imagine that you have two files: one .ogg sound file (an audio recording of some play) and one .png picture file (a portrait of some guy). You are saying that both have much to do with each other. Now Goddard is asking: 'But how in the world are the different representational devices supposed to interact with one another? I.e., what kind of cognitive operation would be required to relate the 0's and 1's in the png-file to the 0's and 1's in the ogg-file?'
 * Now this of course is a very difficult question, opening sort of a Pandora's box of other interesting questions. If you hit edit in the 'Limitations and criticism' section you'll see the statement of Newman 1996:xii (I've commented it out because it's a little long and because I thought it was reasonably summarized). Basically, he says: 'I don't care about that so much. We just intend to draw some parallels, we don't want another form of formal logic; language is simply more complex than that'. Not all cognitive linguists do think this is an unimportant issue; but the inherent distrust of formal logic as a model of natural language that many of them have certainly plays a role here. So in the background, there's another question lurking: can natural language be formalized just like the artificial language we call formal logic? Most cognitive linguists don't think so. Goddard, by the way, doesn't think so either. But I'm straying from the subject. Is my point clear? Again, I couldn't agree more with you that these things need to be clarified in the article. They will be, eventually.
 * Hope you don't mind the largish reply. Thanks for the food for thought!  — mark ✎ 23:46, 5 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Mark, I think much of the trouble may indeed have been that I looked at the diagrams through Formal Logic glasses, which made them seem so simple—too simple—and just as you say, I failed to take in the significance of change over time. The article does stress that that's significant, but, well, I just kept the same glasses on. :-( If readers are going to be that obstreperous, I'm not sure what you can do about it, other than just put still more emphasis on the importance of process and change, rather than of end result.
 * A nit, and this may be asking for "essay" or original research rather than a tertiary or whatever summary, so it might not be the kind of thing that even ought to be addressed in the article, but I was just wondering: if language "shows us the world the way we humans conceptualize it", and sentences without an agent are more conceptually "basic" (according to Talmy) than those with, then why are sentences of type d so gosh-darn awkward? Wouldn't you expect the language to accommodate them much more comfortably?
 * Thanks for the full answer! I can't say I've fully grasped what the 30% expansion would entail, but I'm looking forward to it. (Wanna checkout a more evolved play?) Best,--Bishonen | Talk 13:01, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * As for the second nit — this one again is a question mainly motivated by the incomplete account of Force Dynamics here (I'm starting to feel ashamed really). In starting with a neat overview of the more simple diagrams, I tried to make the article a little pedagogic. But apparently I stopped too early (the 30% expansion has to do with that, too; Talmy's account is much more complicated than the article makes it look). Talmy is by no means saying that awkward sentences are more conceptually basic and the article should clarify that. However, I don't actually remember Talmy being very clear about the difference between semantic simplicity and conceptual basality (I agree with you that the part I quoted above seems to imply some kind of conceptual basality — I just don't think he wants to say that, because he really has thought a lot about it). I have to think about this more. Thanks again for your thoughts!  — mark ✎ 10:49, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * (via stressfull computer crash) I'm not going to rewrite everything I said before, that'd be too upsetting. The gist is that, although I know nothing of this subject, it seems to me that the title should be lower case, not upper case. This applies to other links in the article, such as Cognitive Semantics. I checked the external links and couldn't come up with a firm answer. If the capitalization issue is unclear then I prefer lower case. BrokenSegue 01:44, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * As you say, this is not an easy to answer question. But it is a very good point, and I tend to agree with you in most cases, so I'm going to change it. There are some borderline cases however — sometimes, the notion is really used as the proper name of a particular theory; in cases like that, it might seem best to keep it capitalized (but then, there is also the question of Force Dynamics vs. Force dynamics). I have to think about that. The literature is far from clear about this, but upon reviewing some sources, I think the uncapitalized version is the most common. Thanks for your thoughts!  — mark ✎ 10:49, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Catlett, Virginia

Catlett is a census-designated place (CDP) in Fauquier County, Virginia, United States. The population as of the 2010 census was 297. It is located west of the Prince William County line. Catlett was formerly a rail stop on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad, and the area was the site of many raids on the railroad during the American Civil War.

The Catlett Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008, and Auburn Battlefield in 2011.

History
Thanks to the creation of a railroad system that was essential to travel and supply in Virginia, many small towns including Catlett sprung up as stops. During its heyday, Catlett was a busy telegraph outpost and mail stop along the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. The land that the town was built on had originally been granted to John Catlett in 1715, but was not named for him at first. The post office and town were first known as Colvin's Station after the Colvin family, but over the years this was changed to Catlett Station and then to simply Catlett.

Catlett was the site of a pivotal skirmish in the Civil War between Major General J. E. B. Stuart of the Confederacy and the Union's Major General John Pope. The Confederates raided the Union camp at Catlett on August 22, 1862, in an effort to disrupt the Union's rail supply lines. Stuart and his men began their attack during what Stuart referred to as the "darkest night I ever knew". He and his men rode into town and using sabers and fire were able to destroy the Federal encampment, cut telegraph wires, obtain wagons-full of supplies and capture almost 300 Union troops, but were unable to destroy the railroad bridge on the outskirts of the town. A heavy thunderstorm prevented them from burning it, so they attempted to use axes, but were turned away by Union riflemen. The most important prize that the Confederates gained were General Pope's orders, which contained critical information about the Union campaign. These orders were taken by Stuart to General Robert E. Lee and played a pivotal role in securing the South's victory in the Battle of Second Manassas.

Later in the war, Colonel John S. Mosby conducted a raid with his cavalry unit in an attempt to disable an engine on the same rail line that Stuart had attacked in August 1862. This skirmish on May 20, 1863, went in favor of the superior numbers of the Union troops. Mosby's unit retreated after disabling the engine with a Howitzer cannon that they had captured the previous day. The Confederate troops took 5 fatalities, 20 injuries, and 10 men captured by the Federals.

Geography
Catlett is located in southeastern Fauquier County, bordered to the southwest by Calverton. Virginia State Route 28 passes through the community, leading southwest through Calverton to Midland and Bealeton; to the northeast it leads through Nokesville in Prince William County to the city of Manassas. Warrenton, the Fauquier County seat, is 12 mi to the northwest via local roads.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the Catlett CDP has a total area of 8.4 sqkm, of which 0.07 sqkm, or 0.84%, is water. The western and southern edge of Catlett is formed by Cedar Run, a tributary of the Occoquan River, which flows southeast to the Potomac.

Demographics
According to the 2010 census the total population of Catlett is 297. The town is predominantly White, with 251 residents or 84.5% of the population. The second highest and only other race in Catlett is African-American, with 46 residents or 15.5% of the population. Data from the 2010 census shows no other ethnicities living in Catlett.

100% of the population of Catlett are citizens of the United States, with a median age of 56.2. The town has 144 households and is relatively wealthy, with a median household income of $78,198.

Education
The citizens of Catlett are educated through Fauquier County Public Schools. H. M. Pearson Elementary School is located in Catlett. Catlett is zoned for Cedar Lee Middle School and Liberty High School. There are also many private schools both in Fauquier County and in neighboring Prince William County.

Public services
For fire fighting, Catlett like much of Fauquier County is served by Engine Company 7, which is equipped to fight both building and vehicular fires as well as brush fires and also has two ambulances. Engine Company 7, a volunteer organization of more than 80 participants, was formed by the merger of two organizations: the Catlett Volunteer Fire Company, organized in 1962, and the Cedar Run Volunteer Rescue Squad, organized in 1973.

Development
Development has been stymied by the community's dense, moist "blackjack" soil type, whose inability to perc well has resulted in one-third of the community's septic drain fields' failing. In December 2011, the county board of supervisors voted 3-2 to turn down a development proposal that called for building a large sewer system, capable of supporting 225 homes, 45 apartments and 85,000 square feet of commercial space, as a "proffer" in exchange for rezoning. As of 2018, the costs of building sewers were estimated at $10.9 million.

Politics
Catlett is in Virginia's 10th congressional district. It was previously in Virginia's 1st congressional district until 2023. It remains in Virginia's 31st House of Delegates district until redistricting, which occurred in 2021, takes effect in 2024, at which point it will join Virginia's 61st House of Delegates district. It will once again be in Virginia's 28th Senate district starting in 2024 after a hiatus in the 27th Senate district from 2011 until 2024. Catlett is in the Cedar Run district of the Fauquier County Board of Supervisors.

title: Catlett, Virginia


text:
Sól (Germanic mythology)

Sól (Old Norse:, "Sun") or Sunna (Old High German, and existing as an Old Norse and Icelandic synonym: see Wiktionary sunna, "Sun") is the Sun personified in Germanic mythology. One of the two Old High German Merseburg Incantations, written in the 9th or 10th century CE, attests that Sunna is the sister of Sinthgunt. In Norse mythology, Sól is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson.

In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda she is described as the sister of the personified moon, Máni, is the daughter of Mundilfari, is at times referred to as Álfröðull, and is foretold to be killed by a monstrous wolf during the events of Ragnarök, though beforehand she will have given birth to a daughter who continues her mother's course through the heavens. In the Prose Edda, she is additionally described as the wife of Glenr. As a proper noun, Sól appears throughout Old Norse literature. Scholars have produced theories about the development of the goddess from potential Nordic Bronze Age and Proto-Indo-European roots.

"Horse cure" Merseburg Incantation
One of the two Merseburg Incantations (the "horse cure"), recorded in Old High German, mentions Sunna, who is described as having a sister, Sinthgunt. The incantation describes how Phol and Wodan rode to a wood, and there Balder's foal sprained its foot. Sinthgunt sang charms, her sister Sunna sang charms, Friia sang charms, her sister Volla sang charms, and finally Wodan sang charms, followed by a verse describing the healing of the foal's bone.

Poetic Edda
In the poem Völuspá, a dead völva recounts the history of the universe and foretells the future to the disguised god Odin. In doing so, the völva recounts the early days of the universe, in which: In the poem Vafþrúðnismál, the god Odin tasks the jötunn Vafþrúðnir with a question about the origins of the sun and the moon. Vafþrúðnir responds that Mundilfari is the father of both Sól and Máni, and that they must pass through the heavens every day to count the years for man: In a stanza Vafþrúðnismál, Odin asks Vafþrúðnir from where another sun will come from once Fenrir has assailed the current sun. Vafþrúðnir responds in a further stanza, stating that before Álfröðull (Sól) is assailed by Fenrir, she will bear a daughter who will ride on her mother's paths after the events of Ragnarök. In a stanza of the poem Grímnismál, Odin says that before the Sun (referred to as "the shining god") is a shield named Svalinn, and if the shield were to fall from its frontal position, mountain and sea "would burn up". In stanza 39 Odin (disguised as Grimnir) says that both the Sun and the Moon are pursued through the heavens by wolves; the Sun, referred to as the "bright bride" of the heavens, is pursued by Sköll, while the Moon is pursued by Hati Hróðvitnisson.

In the poem Alvíssmál, the god Thor questions the dwarf Alvíss about the Sun, asking him what the Sun is called in each of the worlds. Alvíss responds that it is called "sun" by mankind, "sunshine" by the gods, "Dvalinn's deluder" by the dwarves, "everglow" by the jötnar, "the lovely wheel" by the elves, and "all-shining" by the "sons of the Æsir".

Prose Edda
Sól is referenced in the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, where she is introduced in chapter 8 in a quote from stanza 5 of Völuspá. In chapter 11 of Gylfaginning, Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High how the Sun and Moon are steered. High describes that Sól is one of the two children of Mundilfari, and states that the children were so beautiful they were named after the Sun (Sól) and the Moon (Máni). Mundilfari has Sól married to a man named Glenr.

High says that the gods were "angered by this arrogance" and that the gods had the two placed in the heavens. There, the children were made to drive the horses Árvakr and Alsviðr that drew the chariot of the sun. High says that the gods had created the chariot to illuminate the worlds from burning embers flying from the fiery world of Muspelheim. In order to cool the horses, the gods placed two bellows beneath their shoulders, and that "according to the same lore" these bellows are called Ísarnkol.

In chapter 12 of Gylfaginning, Gangleri tells High that the sun moves quickly, almost as if she were moving so quickly that she fears something, that she could not go faster even if she were afraid of her own death. High responds that "It is not surprising that she moves with such speed. The one chasing her comes close, and there is no escape for her except to run." Gangleri asks who chases her, to which High responds that two wolves give chase to Sól and Máni. The first wolf, Sköll, chases Sól, and despite her fear, Sköll will eventually catch her. Hati Hróðvitnisson, the second wolf, runs ahead of Sól to chase after Máni, whom Hati Hróðvitnisson will also catch. In chapter 35, Sól's status as a goddess is stated by High, along with Bil.

In chapter 53, High says that after the events of Ragnarök, Sól's legacy will be continued by a daughter that is no less beautiful than she, who will follow the path she once rode, and, in support, Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is then quoted.

In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, Sól is first presented in chapter 93, where the kennings "daughter of Mundilfæri", "sister of Máni", "wife of Glen", "fire of sky and air" are given for her, followed by an excerpt of a work by the 11th century skald Skúli Þórsteinsson:
 * God-blithe bedfellow of Glen
 * steps to her divine sanctuary
 * with brightness; then descends the good
 * light of grey-clad moon.

In chapter 56, additional names for Sól are given; "day-star", "disc", "ever-glow", "all-bright seen", "fair-wheel", "grace-shine", "Dvalinn's toy", "elf-disc", "doubt-disc", and "ruddy". In chapter 58, following a list of horses, the horses Arvakr and Alsviðr are listed as drawing the sun, and, in chapter 75, Sól is again included in a list of goddesses.

Theories
Scholars have proposed that Sól, as a goddess, may represent an extension of an earlier Proto-Indo-European deity due to Indo-European linguistic connections between Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Common Brittonic Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, Latin Sol, and Slavic Tsar Solnitse.

Regarding Sól's attested personifications in Norse mythology, John Lindow states that "even kennings like 'hall of the sun' for sky may not suggest personification, given the rules of kenning formation"; that in poetry only stanzas associated with Sól in the poem Vafþrúðnismál are certain in their personification of the goddess; and "that Sól is female and Máni male probably has to do with the grammatical gender of the nouns: Sól is feminine and Máni is masculine." Lindow states that, while the Sun seems to have been a focus of older Scandinavian religious practices, it is difficult to make a case for the placement of the sun in a central role in surviving sources for Norse mythology.

Rudolf Simek states that Nordic Bronze Age archaeological finds, such as rock carvings and the Trundholm sun chariot, provide ample evidence of the Sun having been viewed as a life-giving heavenly body to the Bronze Age Scandinavians, and that the Sun likely always received an amount of veneration. Simek states that the only evidence of the Sun assuming a personification stems from the Old High German Incantation reference and from Poetic Edda poems, and that both of these references do not provide enough information to assume a Germanic sun cult. "On the other hand", Simek posits, the "great age of the concept is evident" by the Trundholm sun chariot, which specifically supports the notion of the Sun being drawn across the sky by horses. Simek further theorizes that the combination of sun symbols with ships in religious practices, which occur with frequency from the Bronze Age into Middle Ages, seem to derive from religious practices surrounding a fertility god (such as the Vanir gods Njörðr or Freyr), and not to a personified sun.

title: Sól (Germanic mythology)


text:
Rundlet

The rundlet is an archaic unit-like size of wine casks once used in Britain. It was equivalent to about 68 litres. It used to be defined as 18 wine gallons—one of several gallons then in use—before the adoption of the imperial system in 1824, afterwards it was 15 imperial gallons, which became the universal English base unit of volume in the British realm.

title: Rundlet


text:
Egoboo

Egoboo is a colloquial expression for the pleasure received from public recognition of voluntary work.

The term was in use in science fiction fandom as early as 1947, when it was used (spelled "ego boo") in a letter from Rick Sneary published in the letter column of Thrilling Wonder Stories. It was originally simply used to describe the "ego boost" someone feels on seeing their name in print. As a reliable way for someone to get their name in print was to do something worth mentioning, it became caught up with the idea of voluntary community participation. As a result of this, in later years, the term grew to mean something akin to an ephemeral currency, e.g., "I got a lot of egoboo for editing that newsletter."

The term later spread into the open source programming movement, where the concept of non-monetary reward from community response is a key motivator for many of the participants.

As a result of its prevalence in this context, it is often attributed to Eric S. Raymond. However, it has been in use in science fiction fandom since 1947 or earlier, being referenced in the 1959 collection of fandom-related jargon Fancyclopedia II. It did not, however, occur in the 1944 predecessor to that work, Fancyclopedia I, suggesting the term came into common use sometime in the intervening years. The first print citation available electronically is in a 1950 issue of Lee Hoffman's Quandry, where it is spelled "ego-boo"; later usage dropped the hyphen and blended the two words, a common feature of fannish jargon.

The earliest online citation recorded is a reference to it being used in 1982, describing InConJunction, a science fiction convention in Indiana; the high proportion of science fiction fans on Usenet, and the Internet generally, in early years helped spread it into the wider computing community.

title: Egoboo


text:
User talk:Ebpugh

THis is my demo page

title: User talk:Ebpugh


text:
Template talk:Wiktionary category

Appearance

 * This template needs improvement. It looks terrible in Safari, with the graphic sticking out of the bottom of the grey box.  —Michael Z. 2005-03-1 15:04 Z
 * I know. I tried several approaches, but I cannot seem to hit the magic incantation that will persuade the border of the outermost <div> to enclose all of the entities within it.  But as I type these very words, I've just had an idea ... Uncle G 18:45, 2005 Mar 1 (UTC)

Usage
There should be a usage section telling how to use this template. 67.175.105.209 03:36, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Wiktionary category


text:
User talk:Kawasawwa

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. To read up on the latest wikinews, have a look at the Wikipedia Signpost. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

(Sam Spade | talk | contributions) 15:05, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kawasawwa


text:
May highflyer

The May highflyer (Hydriomena impluviata) is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found across the Palearctic region and the Near East although its range is largely determined by the presence of its larval food plant. The species was first described by Michael Denis and Ignaz Schiffermüller in 1775.

The wingspan is 30–34 mm and it is quite variable in markings, the best identification feature being four square spots along the costa of each forewing, although these may not be visible in the frequent melanic forms. "Individual specimens of coerulata (synonym of impluviata) bear a very close resemblance to Hydriomena ruberata. coerulata (impluviata) is perhaps on an average slightly smaller, is somewhat shorter-winged, oftener with a very pale, blue-green median band, the oblique subbasal line is straight, or only very weakly angulated in the cell, the black marks on the hindmargin of the forewing and on the anterior veins distally, which generally characterize both species, on an average less strongly developed than in ruberata but very variable in both species". The larva is relatively powerful and dark red-purple in colour. It has some short setae.

The species flies at night from May to July and is attracted to light.

The larva feeds on the leaves of alder, spinning two leaves together so it can feed undisturbed. The species overwinters as a pupa under loose alder bark.

 * 1) The flight season refers to the British Isles. This may vary in other parts of the range.

Subspecies

 * H. i. impluviata
 * H. i. insulicolata

title: May highflyer


text:
User talk:Uiko-kon

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. To read up on the latest wikinews, have a look at the Wikipedia Signpost. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

(Sam Spade | talk | contributions) 15:06, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Uiko-kon


text:
Herbert Hasler

Herbert George "Blondie" Hasler, (27 February 1914 – 5 May 1987) was a lieutenant colonel in the Royal Marines. Soon after joining the Marines, he grew a splendid blonde moustache, from which he acquired his nickname ‘Blondie'. In December 1942, during the Second World War, Hasler led a small commando raid against Axis shipping in Bordeaux. He was responsible for many of the concepts which ultimately led to the post-war formation of the Special Boat Service. After the war he became a notable yachtsman, contributing especially to developments in single-handed sailing.

Early life
Hasler was born in Dublin on 27 February 1914, the youngest son of Lieutenant Arthur Thomas Hasler (a Royal Army Medical Corps quartermaster), and his wife, Annie Georgina (née Andrews). His father died after the troopship Transylvania was torpedoed on 4 May 1917. Hasler was sent to Wellington College, where he was a keen sportsman. He was commissioned into the Royal Marines on 1 September 1932.

Second World War
In 1940, Hasler served as fleet landing officer in Scapa Flow, and was then sent to Narvik in support of the French Foreign Legion in the Norwegian campaign, for which duties he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), mentioned in despatches, and awarded the French Croix de guerre.

At the age of 28 in 1942, Major Hasler planned and personally led Operation Frankton, for which he was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). He was also recommended for the Victoria Cross, but was not eligible because his actions were not "in the face of the enemy" as required for that decoration. There are conflicting opinions about the impact of this costly operation on the war effort, but the courage and enterprise of the participants is not in doubt.

In commemoration of Herbert Hasler's efforts in Operation Frankton, the UK Kayak marathon racing series is named 'The Hasler Series'.

Sailing
Hasler is known as the father of single-handed sailing, owing to his invention of the first practical self-steering gear for yachts: many sailing vessels continue to rely on systems substantially based on Hasler's work.

In 1947 he took part in the Royal Ocean Racing Club Dinard Race – Cowes to Dinard, sailing the yacht Tre-sang, winning his class championship.

In 1960, Hasler competed in the first Observer Single-handed Transatlantic Race (OSTAR), from Plymouth to New York. The race, originated solely by Hasler, did not include any "half a crown" bet as the myth suggests with Sir Francis Chichester the fourth of the five competitors to enter the race. Of the fifty yachtsmen who sent letters of intent to compete, only five eventually started. Hasler himself sailed one of the smallest boats in the race, his heavily modified Nordic Folkboat Jester, and finished second in 48 days to Chichester's much larger Gipsy Moth III. Jester was equipped with Hasler's self-steering system. David Lewis sailed Cardinal Vertue – a design of Laurent Giles – to the third place; see also the book: The Ship Would Not Travel Due West.

Hasler had Jester built some years prior to the first trans-Atlantic race, specifying that a fully enclosed deck, with two circular hatches in the cabin top rather than a conventional cockpit, be built on the standard hull. He used the boat as a floating laboratory to develop his self-steering system, and also pioneered the use of a Chinese-style junk rig on a western yacht, to avoid the physical effort and potentially dangerous deck-work, required to handle a conventional rig single-handed. The junk rig allowed all sail handling to be done from the safety of the central control hatch, and Hasler claimed he could sail Jester across the Atlantic without ever leaving the cabin.

Hasler and Jester returned for the 1964 OSTAR, finishing fifth in 37 days, 22 hours. On his return Hasler, who was becoming disenchanted with what he perceived as the race's commercialisation, and the increasing size, complexity and expense of the yachts brought about by sponsorship, sold Jester to Mike Richey. Richey continued to race the boat until she was lost in an Atlantic storm during the 1988 OSTAR.

title: Herbert Hasler


text:
Vietnamese phonology

The phonology of Vietnamese features 19 consonant phonemes, with 5 additional consonant phonemes used in Vietnamese's Southern dialect, and 4 exclusive to the Northern dialect. Vietnamese also has 14 vowel nuclei, and 6 tones that are integral to the interpretation of the language. Older interpretations of Vietnamese tones differentiated between "sharp" and "heavy" entering and departing tones. This article is a technical description of the sound system of the Vietnamese language, including phonetics and phonology. Two main varieties of Vietnamese, Hanoi and Saigon, which are slightly different to each other, are described below.

Initial consonants
Initial consonants which exist only in the Northern dialect are in red, while those that exist only in the Southern dialect are in blue.
 * /w/ is the only initial consonant permitted to form consonant clusters with other consonants.
 * occurs syllable-initially mostly in loan words, some speakers pronounce it as (as in sâm panh, derived from French champagne). The  rarely occurs and used in syllable-initially, but still, the Vietnamese usually use it in words that have the first consonant sounding like an English /f/ (as in phố or phường for example). So the Vietnamese language rarely uses  syllable-initially, but usually uses  syllable-initially.
 * The glottalized stops are preglottalized and voiced:  (the glottis is always closed before the oral closure). This glottal closure is often not released before the release of the oral closure, resulting in the characteristic implosive pronunciation. However, sometimes the glottal closure is released prior to the oral release in which case the stops are pronounced . Therefore, the primary characteristic is preglottalization with implosion being secondary.
 * are bilabial, while are labiodental.
 * are denti-alveolar, while are apico-alveolar.
 * are phonetically lamino-palatoalveolar (the blade of the tongue makes contact behind the alveolar ridge).
 * are often slightly affricated, but they are unaspirated.
 * A glottal stop is inserted before words that begin with a vowel or :

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * ăn
 * 'to eat'
 * uỷ
 * 'to delegate'
 * }
 * uỷ
 * 'to delegate'
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

Hanoi initials

 * d, gi and r are all pronounced . But in some families, people still pronounce r as or r in English, which is pretty rare.
 * ch and tr are both pronounced, while x and s are both pronounced.
 * Some rural speakers merge and  into  or the opposite to, although this is not considered standard.

Saigon initials

 * d and gi are both pronounced.
 * Historically, is pronounced  in common speech, merging with d and gi. However, it is becoming distinct and pronounced as, especially in careful speech or when reading a text. In traditional performance including Cải lương, Đờn ca tài tử, Hát bội and some old speakers of Overseas Vietnamese, it is pronounced as consonant cluster  or . In loanwords, it is always pronounced : va li.
 * Historically, a distinction is made between ch and tr, as well as between x  and s . However, in many speakers, these two pairs are becoming merged as  and  respectively.
 * In informal speech,, , , and sometimes are pronounced . However, it is becoming distinct and pronounced as , , ,  respectively, especially in formal speech or when reading a text.
 * In southern speech, the phoneme, generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the letter $⟨r⟩$, has a number of variant pronunciations. It may occur as a retroflex fricative , an alveolar fricative , a velar fricative [ɣ], a palatal approximant [j], or a trill.

Comparison of initials
The table below summarizes these sound correspondences:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! rowspan="2" | Diaphoneme ! rowspan="2" | Hanoi ! rowspan="2" | Saigon ! colspan="3" | Example ! word ! Hanoi ! Saigon ! ! rowspan="2" | ! ! ! ! !
 * or
 * style="text-align: left;" | vợ  'wife'
 * or
 * or
 * or
 * rowspan="3" |
 * rowspan="2" |
 * style="text-align: left;" | da  'skin'
 * rowspan="3" |
 * rowspan="2" |
 * style="text-align: left;" | gia  'to add'
 * style="text-align: left;" | gia  'to add'
 * style="text-align: left;" | ra  'to go out'
 * style="text-align: left;" | ra  'to go out'
 * rowspan="2" |
 * style="text-align: left;" | chẻ  'split'
 * rowspan="2" |
 * rowspan="2" |
 * or
 * style="text-align: left;" | trẻ  'young'
 * or
 * rowspan="2" |
 * style="text-align: left;" | xinh  'beautiful'
 * rowspan="2" |
 * rowspan="2" |
 * or
 * style="text-align: left;" | sinh  'born'
 * or
 * }

Vowel nuclei

The IPA chart of vowel nuclei above is based on the sounds in Hanoi Vietnamese; other regions may have slightly different inventories. Vowel nuclei consist of monophthongs (simple vowels) and three centering diphthongs.

 * All vowels are unrounded except for the four back rounded vowels:.
 * In the South, the high vowels are all diphthongized in open syllables:, Ba Vì.
 * and are pronounced shorter than the other vowels. These short vowels only occur in closed syllables.
 * The vowels and  are marginal. As with the other short/long vowel pairs, short and long  and  are only distinguished in closed syllables. For some speakers the distinction may be one of vowel quality or of the articulation of the syllable coda in addition to or instead of vowel quantity.
 * : Many descriptions, such as Thompson,, , consider this vowel to be close back unrounded: . However, Han's instrumental analysis indicates that it is more central than back. , and  also transcribe this vowel as central.

Closing sequences
In Vietnamese, vowel nuclei are able to combine with offglides or  to form closing diphthongs and triphthongs. Below is a chart listing the closing sequences of general northern speech.

 * {| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"

! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | offglide ! colspan="2" | offglide ! Front ! colspan="2" | Central ! Back ! Centering ! Close ! Close-mid/ Mid

$⟨ia~iê⟩$

$⟨ưa~ươ⟩$ ! Open-mid/ Open

$⟨ua~uô⟩$

$⟨i, y⟩$
 * }
 * }

says that in Hanoi, words spelled with ưu and ươu are pronounced, respectively, whereas other dialects in the Tonkin delta pronounce them as and. This observation is also made by and.

Finals
When stops occur at the end of words, they have no audible release :

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * đáp
 * 'to reply'
 * mát
 * 'cool'
 * khác
 * 'different'
 * }
 * 'cool'
 * khác
 * 'different'
 * }
 * khác
 * 'different'
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

When the velar consonants are after, they are articulated with a simultaneous bilabial closure  (i.e. doubly articulated) or are strongly labialized.

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * đục
 * 'murky'
 * độc
 * 'poison'
 * đọc
 * 'to read'
 * ung
 * 'cancer'
 * ông
 * 'man'/'grandfather'
 * ong
 * 'bee'
 * }
 * 'to read'
 * ung
 * 'cancer'
 * ông
 * 'man'/'grandfather'
 * ong
 * 'bee'
 * }
 * ông
 * 'man'/'grandfather'
 * ong
 * 'bee'
 * }
 * ong
 * 'bee'
 * }
 * ong
 * 'bee'
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

Analysis of final ch, nh
The pronunciation of syllable-final ch and nh in Hanoi Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis, that of has them as being phonemes, where  contrasts with both syllable-final t  and c , and  contrasts with syllable-final n  and ng. Final is, then, identified with syllable-initial.

Another analysis has final $⟨ư⟩$ and $⟨u⟩$ as representing different spellings of the velar phonemes and  that occur after upper front vowels  (orthographic $⟨ê⟩$) and  (orthographic $⟨ơ⟩$). This analysis interprets orthographic ⟨ach⟩ and ⟨anh⟩ as an underlying, which becomes phonetically open and diphthongized: → ,  →. This diphthongization also affects ⟨êch⟩ and ⟨ênh⟩: →,  →.

Arguments for the second analysis include the limited distribution of final and, the gap in the distribution of  and  which do not occur after  and , the pronunciation of ⟨ach⟩ and ⟨anh⟩ as  and  in certain conservative central dialects, and the patterning of ~ and ~ in certain reduplicated words. Additionally, final is not articulated as far forward as the initial :  and  are pre-velar  with no alveolar contact.

The first analysis closely follows the surface pronunciation of a slightly different Hanoi dialect than the second. In this dialect, the in  and  is not diphthongized but is actually articulated more forward, approaching a front vowel. This results in a three-way contrast between the rimes ăn vs. anh  vs. ăng. For this reason, a separate phonemic is posited.

Table of Hanoi finals
The following rimes ending with velar consonants have been diphthongized in the Hanoi dialect, but, and  are more open:

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * ong, oc
 * ông, ôc
 * ung, uc
 * ưng, ưc, ưn, ưt
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * ung, uc
 * ưng, ưc, ưn, ưt
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * ưng, ưc, ưn, ưt
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * ênh, êch
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * inh, ich
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

With the above phonemic analyses, the following is a table of rimes ending in in the Hanoi dialect:

Merger of finals
While the variety of Vietnamese spoken in Hanoi has retained finals faithfully from Middle Vietnamese, the variety spoken in Ho Chi Minh City has drastically changed its finals. Rimes ending in merged with those ending in, respectively, so they are always pronounced , respectively, after the short front vowels  (only when  is before "nh"). However, they are always pronounced after the other vowels. After rounded vowels, many speakers close their lips, i.e. they pronounce as. Subsequently, vowels of rimes ending in labiovelars have been diphthongized, while vowels of rimes ending in alveolar have been centralized. Otherwise, some Southern speakers distinguish and  after  in formal speech, but there are no Southern speakers who pronounce "ch" and "nh" at the end of syllables as.

Table of Ho Chi Minh City finals
The short back vowels in the rimes have been diphthongized and centralized, meanwhile, the consonants have been labialized. Similarly, the short front vowels have been centralized which are realized as central vowels and the "unspecified" consonants have been affected by coronal spreading from the preceding front vowels which are surfaced as coronals (alveolar).

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * ung, uc
 * ông, ôc
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * ong, oc
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * in ~ inh, it ~ ich
 * um, up
 * /um/, /up/
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * anh, ach
 * ênh, êch
 * in ~ inh, it ~ ich
 * um, up
 * /um/, /up/
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * ênh, êch
 * in ~ inh, it ~ ich
 * um, up
 * /um/, /up/
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * in ~ inh, it ~ ich
 * um, up
 * /um/, /up/
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * um, up
 * /um/, /up/
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * ưng ~ ưn, ưc ~ ưt
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The other closed dialects (Hue, Quang Nam, Binh Dinh) which have also been merged in codas, but some vowels are pronounced differently in some dialects:

The ông, ôc rimes are merged into ong, oc as, in many Southern speakers, but not with ôn, ôt as pronounced ,. The oong, ooc and eng, ec rimes are few and are mostly loanwords or onomatopoeia. The ôông, ôôc (oong, ooc, eng, ec, êng, êc as well) rimes are the "archaic" form before becoming ông, ôc by diphthongization and still exist in the North Central dialect in many placenames. The articulation of these rimes in the North Central dialect are, without a simultaneous bilabial closure or labialization.

 * {| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;"

 * on, ot
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * oong, ooc
 * ôn, ôt
 * rowspan="2" |,.
 * ôông, ôôc
 * ong, oc
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * ông, ôc
 * }
 * rowspan="2" |,.
 * ôông, ôôc
 * ong, oc
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * ông, ôc
 * }
 * ong, oc
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * ông, ôc
 * }
 * rowspan="2" |,
 * ông, ôc
 * }
 * ông, ôc
 * }
 * }
 * }

With the above phonemic analyses, the following is a table of rimes ending in in the Ho Chi Minh City dialect:

Tone
Vietnamese vowels are all pronounced with an inherent tone. Tones differ in

 * pitch
 * length
 * contour melody
 * intensity
 * phonation (with or without accompanying constricted vocal cords)

Unlike many Native American, African, and Chinese languages, Vietnamese tones do not rely solely on pitch contour. Vietnamese often uses instead a register complex (which is a combination of phonation type, pitch, length, vowel quality, etc.). So perhaps a better description would be that Vietnamese is a register language and not a "pure" tonal language.

In Vietnamese orthography, tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel.

Six-tone analysis
There is much variation among speakers concerning how tone is realized phonetically. There are differences between varieties of Vietnamese spoken in the major geographic areas (northern, central, southern) and smaller differences within the major areas (e.g. Hanoi vs. other northern varieties). In addition, there seems to be variation among individuals. More research is needed to determine the remaining details of tone realization and the variation among speakers.

Northern varieties
The six tones in the Hanoi and other northern varieties are:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! Tone name ! Tone ID ! Vni/telex/Viqr ! Description ! Chao Tone Contour ! Diacritic ! Example
 * ngang "flat"
 * A1
 * [default]
 * mid level
 * (33)
 * style="text-align: center;" |◌
 * ba ('three')
 * huyền "deep"
 * A2
 * 2 / f / `
 * low falling (breathy)
 * (21) or (31)
 * style="text-align: center;" |◌̀
 * bà ('grandmother')
 * sắc "sharp"
 * B1
 * 1 / s / '
 * mid rising, tense
 * (35)
 * style="text-align: center;" |◌́
 * bá ('to embrace')
 * nặng "heavy"
 * B2
 * 5 / j /.
 * mid falling, glottalized, heavy
 * (3ˀ2ʔ) or (3ˀ1ʔ)
 * style="text-align: center;" |◌̣
 * bạ ('to strengthen')
 * hỏi "asking"
 * C1
 * 3 / r / ?
 * mid falling(-rising), emphasis
 * (313) or (323) or (31)
 * style="text-align: center;" | ◌̉
 * bả ('bait')
 * ngã "tumbling"
 * C2
 * 4 / x / ~
 * mid rising, glottalized
 * (3ˀ5) or (4ˀ5)
 * style="text-align: center;" |̃|◌̃
 * bã ('residue')
 * }
 * 4 / x / ~
 * mid rising, glottalized
 * (3ˀ5) or (4ˀ5)
 * style="text-align: center;" |̃|◌̃
 * bã ('residue')
 * }

Ngang tone:

 * The ngang tone is level at around the mid level (33) and is produced with modal voice phonation (i.e. with "normal" phonation). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "level"; describes it as "high (or mid) level".

Huyền tone:

 * The huyền tone starts low-mid and falls (21). Some Hanoi speakers start at a somewhat higher point (31). It is sometimes accompanied by breathy voice (or lax) phonation in some speakers, but this is lacking in other speakers: bà = . Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "grave-lowering"; describes it as "low falling".

Hỏi tone:

 * The hỏi tone starts a mid level and falls. It starts with modal voice phonation, which moves increasingly toward tense voice with accompanying harsh voice (although the harsh voice seems to vary according to speaker). In Hanoi, the tone is mid falling (31). In other northern speakers, the tone is mid falling and then rises back to the mid level (313 or 323). This characteristic gives this tone its traditional description as "dipping". However, the falling-rising contour is most obvious in citation forms or when syllable-final; in other positions and when in fast speech, the rising contour is negligible. The hỏi also is relatively short compared with the other tones, but not as short as the nặng tone. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "smooth-rising"; describes it as "dipping-rising".

Ngã tone:

 * The ngã tone is mid rising (35). Many speakers begin the vowel with modal voice, followed by strong creaky voice starting toward the middle of the vowel, which is then lessening as the end of the syllable is approached. Some speakers with more dramatic glottalization have a glottal stop closure in the middle of the vowel (i.e. as ). In Hanoi Vietnamese, the tone starts at a higher pitch (45) than other northern speakers. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "chesty-raised"; describes it as "creaking-rising".

Sắc tone:

 * The sắc tone starts as mid and then rises (35) in much the same way as the ngã tone. It is accompanied by tense voice phonation throughout the duration of the vowel. In some Hanoi speakers, the ngã tone is noticeably higher than the sắc tone, for example: má = (34); mã =  (45). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "acute-angry";  describes it as "high (or mid) rising".

Nặng tone:

 * The nặng tone starts mid or low-mid and rapidly falls in pitch (32 or 21). It starts with tense voice that becomes increasingly tense until the vowel ends in a glottal stop closure. This tone is noticeably shorter than the other tones. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "chesty-heavy"; describes it as "constricted".

Southern varieties
In Southern varieties, tones ngang, sắc, huyền have similar contours to Northern tones; however, these tones are produced with normal voice instead of breathy voice.

The nặng tone is pronounced as low rising tone (12) [˩˨] in fast speech or low falling-rising tone (212) [˨˩˨] in more careful utterance.

The ngã and hỏi tone are merged into a mid falling-rising (214) [˨˩˦], which is somewhat similar to the hỏi tone of the non-Hanoi Northern accent mentioned above. This merged hỏi-ngã tone is characteristic of Southern Vietnamese accents.

North-central and Central varieties
North-central and Central Vietnamese varieties are fairly similar with respect to tone although within the North-central dialect region there is considerable internal variation.

It is sometimes said (by people from other provinces) that people from Nghệ An pronounce every tone as a nặng tone.

Eight-tone analysis
An older analysis assumes eight tones rather than six. This follows the lead of traditional Chinese phonology. In Middle Chinese, syllables ending in a vowel or nasal allowed for three tonal distinctions, but syllables ending with, or  had no tonal distinctions. Rather, they were consistently pronounced with a short high tone, which was called the entering tone and considered a fourth tone. Similar considerations lead to the identification of two additional tones in Vietnamese for syllables ending in, , and. These are not phonemically distinct from the sắc and nặng tones, however, and hence not considered as separate tones by modern linguists and are not distinguished in the orthography.

Syllables and phonotactics
According to, there are 4,500 to 4,800 possible spoken syllables (depending on dialect), and the standard national orthography (Quốc Ngữ) can represent 6,200 syllables (Quốc Ngữ orthography represents more phonemic distinctions than are made by any one dialect). A description of syllable structure and exploration of its patterning according to the Prosodic Analysis approach of J.R. Firth is given in Henderson (1966).

The Vietnamese syllable structure follows the scheme:

 * (C1)(w)V(G|C2)+T

where
 * {| cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9;"

 * style="vertical-align: top;" |
 * C1 = initial consonant onset
 * w = labiovelar on-glide
 * V = vowel nucleus
 * style="vertical-align: top;" |
 * G = off-glide coda ( or )
 * C2 = final consonant coda
 * T = tone.
 * }

In other words, a syllable has an obligatory nucleus and tone, and can have an optional consonant onset, an optional on-glide, and an optional coda or off-glide.

More explicitly, the syllable types are as follows:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Syllable ! Example ! Syllable ! Example
 * - style="font-size: 85%; background: #f2f2f2;"
 * V
 * ê "eh"
 * wV
 * uể "sluggish"
 * VC
 * ám "possess (by ghosts,.etc)"
 * wVC
 * oán "bear a grudge"
 * VC
 * ớt "capsicum"
 * wVC
 * oắt "little imp"
 * CV
 * nữ "female"
 * CwV
 * huỷ "cancel"
 * CVC
 * cơm "rice"
 * CwVC
 * toán "math"
 * CVC
 * tức "angry"
 * CwVC
 * hoặc "or"
 * }
 * CVC
 * tức "angry"
 * CwVC
 * hoặc "or"
 * }
 * }

C1: Any consonant may occur in as an onset with the following exceptions:
 * does not occur in native Vietnamese words

w: the onglide (sometimes transcribed instead as labialization  on a preceding consonant):

 * does not occur after labial consonants
 * does not occur after in native Vietnamese words (it occurs in uncommon Sino-Vietnamese borrowings)

V: The vowel nucleus V may be any of the following 14 monophthongs or diphthongs:.

G: The offglide may be or. Together, V and G must form one of the diphthongs or triphthongs listed in the section on Vowels.
 * offglide does not follow the front vowels
 * offglide does not follow the rounded vowels
 * with some exceptions (such as khuỷu tay "elbow"), the offglide cannot occur if the syllable contains a  onglide

C2: The optional coda C2 is restricted to labial, coronal, and velar stops and nasals, which cannot cooccur with the offglides.

T: Syllables are spoken with an inherent tone contour:
 * Six tone contours are possible for syllables with offglides, closed syllables with nasal codas , and open syllables—i.e., those without consonant codas.
 * If the syllable is closed with one of the oral stops, only two contours are possible: the sắc and the nặng tones.

 * Less common rimes may not be represented in this table.
 * The nặng tone mark (dot below) has been added to all rimes in this table for illustration purposes only. It indicates which letter tone marks in general are added to, largely according to the "new style" rules of Vietnamese orthography as stated in Quy tắc đặt dấu thanh trong chữ quốc ngữ. In practice, not all these rimes have real words or syllables that have the nặng tone.
 * The IPA representations are based on Wikipedia's conventions. Different dialects may have different pronunciations.

title: Vietnamese phonology


text:
User:Pbotch

Paul is currently an undergraduate at Southeast Missouri State University, majoring in Biology with a general emphasis in zoology. He is primarily interested in the ecology and evolution of reptiles and amphibians, although his undergraduate research has been focused on foraging behavior of Reticulitermes flavipis, a subterranean termite. Other interests include armchair astronomy, environmentalism, history, (progressive) politics, and of course music.

Heroes: Kurt Vonnegut Jr., Carl Sagan, Ralph Nader, Johnny Cash

Music: indie rock, punk rock, country rock, folk rock

Other: St. Louis Cardinals

External Links: Talk.Origins Archive

title: User:Pbotch


text:
Kosmos (publisher)

Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co. KG is a media publishing house based in Stuttgart, Germany, founded in 1822 by Johann Friedrich Franckh. In the nineteenth century the company published the fairy tales of Wilhelm Hauff as well as works by Wilhelm Waiblinger and Eduard Mörike.

The "Friends of Nature Club" (Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde) was set up in 1903 in response to booming public interest in science and technology, and by 1912 100,000 members were receiving its monthly magazine "Cosmos" (Kosmos). The company moved into publishing books on popular science topics under the brands Franckh’sche Verlagshandlung and KOSMOS, including successful non-fiction guidebooks by Hanns Günther and Heinz Richter. Children's fiction and Kosmos-branded science experimentation kits were introduced in the 1920s, first in the field of electronics and then chemistry and other areas. In 1937, this effort led to a gold medal at the world exhibition in Paris.

Kosmos's current output includes non-fiction, children's books, science kits and German-style board games. Many of their games are translated into English and published by Thames & Kosmos. Their line of experiment kits and science kits is distributed in North America and the United Kingdom by Thames & Kosmos.

Notable games

 * Beowulf: The Legend
 * Exit: The Game
 * Jambo
 * Lord of the Rings
 * Lost Cities
 * The Settlers of Catan
 * TwixT

title: Kosmos (publisher)