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Chinese South Africans

Chinese South Africans are Overseas Chinese who reside in South Africa, including those whose ancestors came to South Africa in the early 20th century until Chinese immigration was banned under the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1904. Chinese industrialists from the Republic of China (Taiwan) who arrived in the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, and post-apartheid immigrants to South Africa (predominantly from mainland China) now outnumber locally-born Chinese South Africans.

South Africa has the largest population of Chinese in Africa, and most of them live in Johannesburg, an economic hub in southern Africa.

First settlers
The first Chinese to settle in South Africa were prisoners, usually debtors, exiled from Batavia by the Dutch to their then newly founded colony at Cape Town in 1660. Originally the Dutch wanted to recruit Chinese settlers to settle in the colony as farmers, thereby helping establish the colony and create a tax base so the colony would be less of a drain on Dutch coffers. However the Dutch failed to find anyone in the Chinese community in Batavia who was prepared to volunteer to go to such a far off place. The first Chinese person recorded by the Dutch to arrive in the Cape was a convict by the name of Ytcho Wancho (almost certainly a Dutch version of his original Chinese name). There were also some free Chinese in the Dutch Cape Colony. They made a living through fishing and farming and traded their produce for other required goods. From 1660 until the late 19th century the number of Chinese people in the Cape Colony never exceeded 100.

Chinese people began arriving in large numbers in South Africa in the 1870s through to the early 20th century initially in hopes of making their fortune on the diamond and gold mines in Kimberley and the Witwatersrand respectively. Most were independent immigrants mostly coming from Guangdong Province then known as Canton. Due to anti-Chinese feeling and racial discrimination at the time they were prevented from obtaining mining contracts and so became entrepreneurs and small business owners instead.

The Chinese community in South Africa grew steadily throughout the remainder of the 19th century, bolstered by new arrivals from China. The Anglo-Boer War, fought between 1898 and 1902, pushed some Chinese South Africans out of the Witwatersrand and into areas such as Port Elizabeth and East London in the Eastern Cape. Areas recorded to have Chinese populations moving in to settle at the time include Pageview in Johannesburg that was declared a non-white area in the late 1800s and known as the "Malay Location" Large-scale immigration into South Africa during this time was prohibited by the Transvaal Immigration Restriction Act of 1902 and the Cape Chinese Exclusion Act of 1904. A host of discriminatory laws similar to the anti-Chinese laws that sought to restrict trade, land ownership and citizenship were also enacted during this time. These laws were largely made popular by a general anti-Chinese feeling across the western world during the early 1900s and the arrival of over 60,000 indentured Chinese miners after the second Anglo-Boer War.

These early immigrants arriving between the 1870s and early 1900s are the ancestors of most of South Africa's first Chinese community and number some 10,000 individuals today.

In 1903, the Transvaal Chinese Association was formed to represent the interests of the 900 or so Chinese people who lived in the Transvaal province.

Contracted gold miners (1904–1910)
There were many reasons why the British chose to import Chinese labour to use on the mines. After the Anglo-Boer War, production on the gold mines of the Witwatersrand was very low due to a lack of labour. The British government was eager to get these mines back online as quickly as possible as part of their overall effort to rebuild the war-torn country.

Because of the war, unskilled African laborers had returned to rural areas and were more inclined to work on rebuilding infrastructure as mining was more dangerous. Unskilled white labour was being phased out because it was deemed too expensive. The British found recruiting and importing labour from east Asia the most expedient way to solve this problem.

Between 1904 and 1910, over 63,000 contracted miners were brought in to work the mines of the Witwatersrand. Most of these contractors were recruited from the Chinese provinces of Zhili, Shandong and Henan. They were repatriated after 1910, because of strong White opposition to their presence, similar to anti-Asian sentiments in the western United States, particularly California at the same time. It is a myth that the contracted miners brought into South Africa at this time are the forefathers of much of South Africa's Chinese population today.

Herbert Hoover, who would become the 31st U.S. president, was a director of Chinese Engineering and Mining Corporation (CEMC) when it became a supplier of coolie (Asian) labor for South African mines. The first shipment of 2,000 Chinese workers arrived in Durban from Qinhuangdao in July 1904. By 1906, the total number of Chinese workers increased to 50,000, almost entirely recruited and shipped by CEMC. When the living and working conditions of the laborers became known, public opposition to the scheme grew and questions were asked in the British Parliament. The scheme was abandoned in 1911.

The mass importation of Chinese labourers to work on the gold mines contributed to the fall from power of the conservative government in the United Kingdom. However, it did stimulate to the economic recovery of South Africa after the Anglo-Boer War by once again making the mines of the Witwatersrand the most productive gold mines in the world.

Passive resistance campaign (1906–1913)
In 1906, about 1,000 Chinese joined Indian protesters led by Mahatma Gandhi to march against laws barring Asians in the Transvaal Colony from purchasing land. In 1907, the government of the Transvaal Colony passed the Transvaal Asiatic Registration Act that required the Indian and Chinese populations in the Transvaal to be registered and for males to be fingerprinted and carry pass books. The Transvaal Chinese Association made a written declaration saying that the Chinese would not register for passes and would not interact with those that did. Mahatma Gandhi started a campaign of passive resistance to protest the legislation that was supported by the Indian and Chinese communities. The secretary of the Chinese Association informed Gandhi that the Chinese were prepared to be jailed alongside Indians in support of this cause. On 16 August 1908, members of the movement gathered outside Hamidia Mosque where they burnt 1,200 registration certificates.

Apartheid era (1948–1994)
As with other non-White South Africans, the Chinese suffered from discrimination during apartheid, and were often classified as Coloureds, but sometimes as Asians, a category that was generally reserved for Indian South Africans. Today this segment of the South African Chinese population numbers some 10,000 individuals.

Under the apartheid-era Population Registration Act, 1950, Chinese South Africans were deemed "Asiatic", then "Coloured", and finally:

"the Chinese Group, which shall consist of persons who in fact are, or who, except in the case of persons who in fact are members of a race or class or tribe referred to in paragraph (1), (2), (3), (5) or (6) are generally accepted as members of a race or tribe whose national home is in China."

Chinese South Africans, along with Black, Coloured and Indian South Africans, were forcefully removed from areas declared "Whites only" areas by the government under the Group Areas Act in 1950. Suburbs in Johannesburg with Chinese South African populations that were subject to forced removals include Sophiatown starting in 1955, Marabastad in 1969  and the adjacent suburbs of Pageview and Vrededorp, known colloquially as 'Fietas', in 1968. Chinese South Africans were also among those removed from the South End district of Port Elizabeth beginning in 1965. These removals resulted in the formation of a Chinese township in Port Elizabeth.

In 1966 the South African Institute of Race Relations described the negative effects of apartheid legislation on the Chinese community and the resulting brain drain:

"No group is treated so inconsistently under South Africa's race legislation. Under the Immorality Act they are Non-White. The Group Areas Act says they are Coloured, subsection Chinese ... They are frequently mistaken for Japanese in public and have generally used White buses, hotels, cinemas and restaurants. But in Pretoria, only the consul-general's staff may use White buses .. Their future appears insecure and unstable. Because of past and present misery under South African laws, and what seems like more to come in the future, many Chinese are emigrating. Like many Coloured people who are leaving the country, they seem to favour Canada. Through humiliation and statutory discrimination South Africa is frustrating and alienating what should be a prized community."

In 1928, the liquor legislation was amended to allow Indian South Africans to purchase liquor. Following an amendment in 1962, other non-white South Africans could purchase alcohol, but not drink in white areas. In 1976, the law was amended to allow Chinese South Africans to drink alcohol in white areas.

In 1984, the Tricameral Parliament was established by the government to give Coloured and Indian South Africans a limited influence on South African politics. The Tricameral Parliament was criticised by anti-apartheid groups including the United Democratic Front, who promoted a boycott of the Tricameral Parliament elections, as it still excluded Black people and had very little political power in South Africa. The Chinese South African community refused to participate in this parliament. Previously, the Chinese Association had expelled a member who had been appointed to the President's Council, a body established to advise on constitutional reform.

Immigration from Taiwan
With the establishment of ties between apartheid South Africa and Taiwan (officially the Republic of China), KMT-affiliated Taiwanese Chinese (as well as some Hong Kongers from British Hong Kong) started migrating to South Africa from the late 1970s onward. Due to apartheid South Africa's desire to attract their investment in South Africa and the many poorer Bantustans within the country, they were exempt from many apartheid laws and regulations. This created a situation where South Africans of Chinese descent continued to be classified as Coloureds or Asians, whereas the Taiwanese Chinese and other East Asian expatriates (South Koreans and Japanese) were considered "honorary whites" and enjoyed most of the rights accorded to White South Africans.

The South African government also offered a number of economic incentives to investors from Taiwan seeking to set up factories and businesses in the country. These generous incentives ranged from "paying for relocation costs, subsidised wages for seven years, subsidised commercial rent for ten years, housing loans, cheap transport of goods to urban areas, and favourable exchange rates".

In 1984, South African Chinese, now increased to about 10,000, finally obtained the same official rights as the Japanese in South Africa, that is, to be treated as whites in terms of the Group Areas Act. The arrival of the Taiwanese resulted in a surge of the ethnic Chinese population of South Africa, which climbed from around 10,000 in the early 1980s to at least 20,000 in the early 1990s. Many Taiwanese were entrepreneurs who set up small companies, particularly in the textile sector, across South Africa. It is estimated that by the end of the early 1990s Taiwanese industrialists had invested $2 billion (or $2.94 billion in 2011 dollars) in South Africa and employed roughly 50,000 people.

In the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century many of the Taiwanese left South Africa, in part due to official recognition of the People's Republic of China and a post-apartheid crime wave that swept the country. Numbers dropped from a high of around 30,000 Taiwanese citizens in the mid-1990s to the current population of approximately 6,000 today.

Post-Apartheid
Following the end of apartheid in 1994, mainland Chinese began immigrating to South Africa in large numbers, increasing the Chinese population in South Africa to an estimated 300,000-400,000 in 2015. In Johannesburg, in particular, a new Chinatown has emerged in the eastern suburbs of Cyrildene and Bruma Lake, replacing the declining one in the city centre. A Chinese housing development has also been established in the small town of Bronkhorstspruit, east of Pretoria, as well as a massive new "city" in development in Johannesburg.

In 2017 the trade union COSATU issued an apology for racially charged remarks made by COSATU protesters towards a Chinese South African Johannesburg city councillor, Michael Sun. In 2022 eleven people were found guilty of hate speech towards Chinese South Africans on Facebook following the airing of a Carte Blanche documentary on the inhumane treatment of donkeys slaughtered for use in traditional medicine in the People's Republic of China.

Black Economic Empowerment ruling
Under apartheid, some Chinese South Africans were discriminated against in various forms by the apartheid government. However, they were originally excluded from benefiting under the Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) programmes of the new South African government. This changed in mid-2008 when, in a case brought by the Chinese Association of South Africa, the Pretoria division of the High Court of South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were South African citizens before 1994, as well as their descendants, qualify as previously disadvantaged individuals as Coloureds, and therefore are eligible to benefit under BEE and other affirmative action policies and programmes. The Chinese Association of South Africa was represented by human rights lawyer George Bizos in court during the case. However, Chinese South Africans who immigrated to the country after 1994 will be ineligible to benefit under the policies. In September 2015, Department of Trade and Industry deputy director general Sipho Zikode clarified who the ruling was meant to benefit. He said that not all Chinese in South Africa were eligible for BEE. He confirmed that only Chinese who were South African citizens prior to 1994, numbering "about 10,000" were eligible.

The negative response following Chinese Association of South Africa's (CASA) initial announcement of success in their affirmative action case against the new South African government highlights the prevailing confusion and internal discord among most South Africans regarding the role of the Chinese in South African society. A trend followed where both criminals and corrupt officials disproportionately target Chinese and South Asian migrants, in contrast to the typical focus of violence on migrants from other African nations in South Africa. The heightened incidences of robberies and hate crimes against Chinese south Africans could be associated with their greater representation in the retail sector.

Immigration of mainland Chinese
The immigration of mainland Chinese, by far the largest group of Chinese in South Africa, can be divided into three periods. The first group arrived in the late 1980s and early 1990s along with the Taiwanese immigrants. Unlike the Taiwanese immigrants, lacking the capital to start larger firms, most established small businesses. Although becoming relatively prosperous a large number of this group left South Africa, either back to China or to more developed Western countries, around the same time and for much the same reason as the Taiwanese immigrants left. The second group, arriving mostly from Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces in the 1990s, were wealthier, better educated, and very entrepreneurial. The latest and ongoing group began arriving after 2000 and primarily made up of small traders and peasants from Fujian province. There are also many Chinese from other regions in China. As of 2013, there were 57 different regional Chinese associations operating in the Cyrildene Chinatown.

Although the Chinese South African community is a most law-abiding community that has maintained a low profile in modern South Africa, there is speculation that local criminal gangs in South Africa barter abalone illegally with Chinese nationals and triad societies in exchange for chemicals used in the production of drugs, reducing the need for the use of money and hence avoiding difficulties associated with money laundering.

Disputes within the Chinese community
Tensions among the Chinese community in South Africa have deep historical roots, with early Cantonese and Hakka settlers residing in separate regions until apartheid laws compelled coexistence. Later, conflicts escalated due to the arrival of controversial immigrants associated with Taiwanese investors in the late 20th century, engaging in illegal activities like fishing, smuggling, and drug trafficking. Chinese South Africans, frustrated by being wrongly associated with these actions, expressed anger and a desire to distance themselves from the negative image created by the newcomers.

Over time, the animosity shifted from Taiwanese to Fujianese migrants, who are now the primary target of hostility. Despite South Africans perceiving the Chinese as a singular group, internal divisions persist, particularly between settled Chinese and newer Fujianese migrants, contributing to misunderstandings and occasional difficulties.

Notable Chinese South Africans

 * Patrick Soon-Shiong (黃馨祥), surgeon and billionaire
 * Chad Ho, six-time titleholder for the Midmar Mile
 * Chris Wang (王翊儒), former member of the National Assembly, originally an MP for the ID, now a member of the ANC
 * Eugenia Chang, member of the National Assembly, for the Inkatha Freedom Party
 * Ina Lu (呂怡慧), Miss Chinese International 2006
 * Sherry Chen (陈阡蕙), former Member of Parliament in South Africa, member of the Democratic Alliance
 * Shiaan-Bin Huang (黄士豪), Member of Parliament of South Africa, member of the African National Congress
 * Shannon Kook, actor
 * Jennifer Su, television and radio personality
 * Xiaomei Havard, member of the National Assembly, member of the African National Congress
 * David Kan, businessman and founder of the electronics company Mustek.

title: Chinese South Africans


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Floris (film)

Floris is a 2004 Dutch film, directed by Jean van de Velde and starring Michiel Huisman as grandson of the original Floris from the 1969 TV series. The new side-kick is "Pi", played by popstar Birgit Schuurman. In the film some of the 1969 footage with Rutger Hauer and Bergman is included. Originally Hauer was asked to play the father of young Floris, but he declined. The film was shot in 2003.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Floris (film)


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Hot Butter

Hot Butter were an American instrumental band fronted by the keyboard player and studio musician Stan Free. The other band members were John Abbott, Bill Jerome, Steve Jerome, Danny Jordan and Dave Mullaney. They were best known for their 1972 version of the Moog synthesizer instrumental song "Popcorn", originally recorded by its composer, Gershon Kingsley, in 1969. The track became an international hit, selling a million copies in France, 250,000 in the United Kingdom, and over two million worldwide.

History
The group released two albums, Hot Butter (Musicor MS-3242; 1972) and More Hot Butter (Musicor MS-3254; 1973), primarily of covers, on LP issued by Hallmark Records. (The 1974 Australian Moog Hits consisted of nine tracks from More Hot Butter, plus two new tracks, Roger Whittaker's "Russian Whistler" and "Mexican Whistler".) The two albums were compiled on CD as Popcorn on the Castle Music label in 2000, omitting "Pipeline" and "Kappa Maki" from More Hot Butter and the two new tracks from Moog Hits.

Tracks written by members of the band were "At the Movies" (the B-side of "Popcorn") and "Tristana", by all the band members except Free, and "Space Walk", by Jan Fairchild (Mullaney) and his father Dave Mullaney. "The Silent Screen (Hot Butter)" is credited to all the members except for Free, but it's actually an arrangement of the main theme of the first movement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Symphony No. 40. Among the other artists covered by the band were Stephen Schwartz, Jerry Lordan and The Shadows, Neil Diamond, Joe Meek and The Tornados, Neal Hefti, Serge Gainsbourg, Robert Maxwell, Piero Umiliani, Jean-Joseph Mouret, Billy Joe & the Checkmates, Joe Buffalo's Band, Teo Macero, Leroy Anderson, Chuck Rio, and Norman Petty and The String-A-Longs. Mullaney and Abbott did most of the arranging. The Jeromes, Jordan, and Richard E. Talmadge produced the albums with MTL Productions for Musicor.

In addition to "Popcorn", another well-known track is August Msarurgwa's "Skokiaan", which was included on RE/Search's compilation album Incredibly Strange Music. Follow-up singles included The Shadows' "Apache", Chuck Rio's (Danny Flores) "Tequila", Billy Joe and the Checkmates' "Percolator", Joe Buffalo's Band's "Slag Solution", and Gene Farrow with G.F. Band's "You Should Be Dancing".

Stan Free
Stan Free (born Stanley Friedland) (April 12, 1922 – August 17, 1995) was an American jazz musician (pianist), composer, conductor and arranger. Free was born in the Brooklyn borough of New York City in 1922, and received a classical musical education, studying with Alexander Siloti and also at the Juilliard School. While still in his teens, he organized a combo (Stanley Friedland's Royal New Yorkers) that played in the Catskills. He also served as a staff sergeant in the Seventh Cavalry in World War II, seeing combat in the Pacific.

Upon his return, he became active in many musical endeavors, including serving as musical director for one of the first live television variety talk shows, "Cafe De Paris" with Sylvie St. Clair, on WABD, the old DuMont channel in New York (1949). The Stan Free Trio played in many New York jazz clubs of the day, including The Composer, The Embers, The Living Room and Hickory House to name a few. He was the featured performer for several summers at Herb McCarthy's Bowden Square in Southampton, Long Island. He recorded several albums (now out of print) under his own name: Free For All: The Stan Free Trio, Piano A La Percussion and ''Stan Free Five: Would You Believe? Jazz Alive''.

Free's best-known recording was the Moog hit "Popcorn" (1972), with the album named Hot Butter. In addition to Free, five studio musicians contributed to the album. Free also toured and recorded with the First Moog Quartet (1970–72), organized by Gershon Kingsley. Additionally he arranged music and conducted for many performers, notably the jazz vocalist Chris Connor (Chris Craft), and the comedian Jack Carter. He was also a studio musician for many of the rock and pop groups of the 1960s, including The Four Seasons, The Monkees and The Association. In 1979, Free played percussion on the Broadway Show The Most Happy Fella.

He was married with children and grandchildren, and died in New York.

Hot Butter
Side one
 * Musicor MS-3242 (U.S.); Pye International NSPL.28169 (UK), 1972
 * 1) "Popcorn" (Gershon Kingsley) (2:30)
 * 2) "Day by Day" (Stephen Schwartz) (3:44)
 * 3) "Apache" (Jerry Lordan) (2:50)
 * 4) "At the Movies" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan) (2:31)
 * 5) "Tristana" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan) (3:29)
 * 6) "Song Sung Blue" (Neil Diamond) (3:54)

Side two
 * 1) "Telstar" (Joe Meek) (2:34)
 * 2) "Tomatoes" (Neal Hefti) (2:27)
 * 3) "Amazing Grace" (Trad. Arr. Abbott, Mullaney) (2:37)
 * 4) "Love at First Sight" (S. Gainsbourg) (2:38)
 * 5) "Song of the Narobi Trio" (R. Maxwell) (2:13)
 * 6) "Hot Butter (The Silent Screen)" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan) (2:04)

More Hot Butter
Side one
 * Musicor MS-3254; 1973
 * 1) "Percolator"
 * 2) "Slag Solution"
 * 3) "Sounds"
 * 4) "Wheels"
 * 5) "Skokiaan"
 * 6) "Pipeline"

Side two
 * 1) "Space Walk"
 * 2) "The Masterpiece"
 * 3) "Tequila" (Instrumental)
 * 4) "Syncopated Clock"
 * 5) "Kappa Maki"
 * 6) "Mah-Na, Mah-Na"

Popcorn with Hot Butter
Side one
 * 1) "Popcorn" (Instrumental)
 * 2) "Day by Day"
 * 3) "Apache"
 * 4) "At the Movies"
 * 5) "Tomatoes"

Side two
 * 1) "Pipeline"
 * 2) "Hot Butter"
 * 3) "Telstar"
 * 4) "Tristana"
 * 5) "Song of the Nairobi Trio"
 * 6) "Amazing Grace"

Moog Hits
Side one
 * Musicor Records, L34984, 1974 (Australia)
 * 1) "Slag Solution"
 * 2) "Sounds - Simple"
 * 3) "Wheels"
 * 4) "Skokiaan"
 * 5) "Russian Whistler"

Side two
 * 1) "Space Walk"
 * 2) "The Masterpiece"
 * 3) "Tequila"
 * 4) "Syncopated Clock"
 * 5) "Mah-Na, Mah-Na"
 * 6) "Mexican Whistler"

Popcorn (CD)

 * Castle Music ESMCD907 (UK), 2000
 * 1) "Popcorn" (Gershon Kingsley)
 * 2) "Day by Day" (Stephen Schwartz)
 * 3) "Apache" (Lordan)
 * 4) "At the Movies" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan)
 * 5) "Tristana" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan)
 * 6) "Song Sung Blue" (Diamond)
 * 7) "Telstar" (Meek)
 * 8) "Tomatoes" (Hefti)
 * 9) "Amazing Grace" (Trad. Arr. Abbott, Mullaney)
 * 10) "Love at First Sight" (Gainsbourg)
 * 11) "Song of the Narobi Trio" (Maxwell).
 * 12) "Hot Butter (The Silent Screen)" (Abbott, Mullaney, Jerome, Jerome, Jordan)
 * 13) "Mah-Na-Mah-Na" (Umiliani)
 * 14) "Masterpiece" (Mouret, Parnes)
 * 15) "Percolator" (Bideu, Freeman)
 * 16) "Skokiaan" (Kusarurgwa)
 * 17) "Slag Solution" (Morgan, Ranzzano)
 * 18) "Sounds" (Macero)
 * 19) "Space Walk" (Mullaney, Mullaney)
 * 20) "Syncopated Clock" (Anderson, Parish)
 * 21) "Tequila" (Rio)
 * 22) "Wheels" (Petty)

Singles

 * 1972: "Popcorn" (Gershon Kingsley) [2:30] / "At the Movies" (John Abbott, Dave Mullaney, Bill Jerome, Steve Jerome, Danny Jordan) [2:31]

 * 1972: "Apache" (Jerry Lordan) [2:47] / "Hot Butter" (Mozart: Sinfonie Nr. 40) (Abbott, Mullaney, B. Jerome, S. Jerome, Jordan) [2:08]

 * 1972: "Tequila" (Chuck Rio) [1:47] / "Tomatoes" (Neil Hefti) [2:21]

 * 1973: "Percolator" (Lew Bedell, Ernie Freeman) [1:58] / "Tristana" (Abbott, Mullaney, B. Jerome, S. Jerome, Jordan) [3:29] (#46 CAN AC )

 * 1973: "Slag Solution" (Tony Ranzzano, Babel Son) [2:30] / "Kappa Maki" (Abbott, Mullaney, B. Jerome, S. Jerome, Jordan) [2:38]

 * 1975: "Getting Off" (D. Mullaney, J. Mullaney) [2:53] / "Getting On" (D. Mullaney, J. Mullaney) [3:29]

 * 1977: "You Should Be Dancing" (Gene Farrow, Chris Warren) [5:13] / "You Should Be Dancing" (Track Without Lead Vocal) (Farrow, Warren) [4:42]

title: Hot Butter


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Marion Bridge (film)

Marion Bridge is a 2002 Canadian drama film directed by Wiebke von Carolsfeld. The film won the award for Best Canadian First Feature Film at the 2002 Toronto International Film Festival. Based on a dramatic play by Daniel MacIvor, the film is notable for being Elliot Page's first performance in a feature film.

Plot
Agnes (Molly Parker), an alcoholic and drug-user who is struggling to overcome her self-destructive behaviour, returns from Toronto, Ontario, to her Cape Breton Island hometown of Sydney, Nova Scotia, because of the failing health of her mother Rose (Marguerite McNeil). Rose, an Irish-Canadian who is also an alcoholic, lies dying of cancer at a local hospital. Agnes stays at her childhood home with her older sister Theresa (Rebecca Jenkins), a devout Catholic whose husband recently left her for a younger woman, and Louise (Stacy Smith), a middle sister who has retreated from the outside world. Waiting at their mother's deathbed, they are forced to face the resentments, trust issues, and scars of their past, particularly the sexual abuse they suffered at the hands of their father, as they make peace with one another and with their mother.

The sisters bring their ailing mother home despite the mistrust they feel at Agnes' pledge to care for Rose, but Agnes cleans the house, acts what appears to be responsibly, and even encourages Louise to play her guitar and socialize with a friend from church. When Theresa's husband Donnie is left by his girlfriend, Theresa is compelled to comfort him and clean his house as she blames herself for his betrayal; he wanted children while she didn't, which is in her mind is a sin.

Agnes is unable to stop herself repeatedly driving to a gift shop in rural Marion Bridge in hopes of building a relationship with 16-year-old Joanie (Elliot Page), her daughter who resulted from the rape by her father. When Theresa finds out what Agnes has been doing, she warns her sister not to tell Joanie about her relationship to their family, and she refuses to consider Agnes' suggestion that they talk to their father.

Eventually Theresa relents about meeting Joanie, and accompanies Agnes to a meeting with her. Joanie's adoptive mother Chrissy (Hollis McLaren) confronts them, and asks that they wait until Joanie is an adult before telling her their secret. When Joanie visits the sisters and asks Agnes whether she is her mother, Agnes denies it, telling her Chrissy is her real mother.

Before she dies, the girls’ mother Rose asks her daughters to forgive her for ignoring things she didn't want to see as she believed it was best for everyone. The sisters finally visit their father, who is suffering from dementia, and his wife. With Agnes' encouragement, Louise buys a new truck and the sisters drive out to Marion Bridge for a picnic with Joanie and Chrissy.

Production
The film was shot in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island including  Whitney Pier and Sydney River.

Critical response
In The New York Times review, film critic Stephen Holden praised Marion Bridge as "exquisitely acted" as well as "truthful and quietly compelling," adding that "it uncovers a complexity and depth of feeling rarely glimpsed in a family drama."

Streaming
As of March 2024, the movie can be streamed on YouTube.

title: Marion Bridge (film)


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International Control Commission

The International Control Commission (abbreviated ICC; Commission Internationale de Contrôle, or CIC), was an international force established in 1954. More formally called the International Commission for Supervision and Control, the organisation was actually organised as three separate but interconnected bodies, one for each territory within the former French Indochina, being treated as a single state having two temporary administrations: the ICSC for Vietnam; the ICSC for Laos; and the ICSC for Cambodia.

It oversaw the implementation of the Geneva Accords that ended the First Indochina War and brought about the Partition of Vietnam. It monitored the observance of the ceasefires and noted any violations. The organization consisted of delegations of diplomats and military personnel from: Canada, Poland, and India, representing respectively the non-communist, communist, and non-aligned blocs. The ICC/ICSC started well, but the irreconcilable positions soon told, and the organisation became largely irrelevant in the face of an increasingly-active conflict. Nevertheless, it survived, as a communications link, until the Paris Accords were signed and it was reconvened as the International Commission for Control and Supervision.

Background
The International Control Commission was created to apply the Geneva Accords, a treaty signed as part of the removal of Vietnam from the French Empire. However, while both were created in the same treaty, the International Control Commission is distinct from the Joint Commission. It was the duty of the Joint Commission to actually oversee the ceasefire in the region and to ensure the peace, as well as to act as the adjudicator in all issues relating to the peace. It was the duty of the International Control Commission to oversee the region and to ensure that the terms of the treaty are followed. Specifically, the treaty discussed four primary duties of the International Control Commission:"'(a) Control the movement of the armed forces of the two parties, effected within the framework of the regroupment plan.""(b) Supervise the demarcation lines between the re-grouping areas, and also the demilitarized zones.""(c) Control the operations of releasing prisoners of war and civilian internees." (d) Supervise at ports and airfields as well as along all frontiers of Viet-Nam the execution of the provisions of the agreement on the cessation of hostilities, regulating the introduction into the country of armed forces, military personnel and of all kinds of arms, munitions and war material." The treaty makes it quite clear that in fact the International Control Commission was the inferior Commission, and was given little actual power to affect politics in the region. Instead, it was simply given power to conduct studies and write reports on what was happening on the ground in Vietnam and return the information to the Joint Council which would make policy decisions. The Joint Council could request the opinion of the International Control Commission, but was free to not consider it. However, the lack of governing power was not well known by the public, and the International Control Commission would fall under attack for its perceived lack of leadership in the region when in reality, it was unable to serve the role people expected.

Relocation and early peacekeeping (1954–1956)
The first action of the International Control Commission, as stipulated by the treaty was to separate the state of Vietnam into two separate zones, one controlled by the People's Army of Vietnam in the North and the other controlled by the French Union in the South. The regions would go on to be colloquially known as North and South Vietnam. As part of the treaty, the division was given 300 days in which to occur and was overseen by the International Control Commission.

The first and likely most important duty of the International Control Commission was the relocation itself. Many people wanted to move, and the manpower and resources that it took were tremendous. In all, 897,149 people were moved from one half of Vietnam to the other, 892,876 from north to south, and 4,269 from south to north. The movement was largely successful, despite feelings on both sides. The largest complaint from the North was that the South was distributing untrue and derogatory propaganda in an attempt to get people to emigrate and in the South that the North was blocking immigration. In total, the deadline was actually extended a full month to allow additional people to travel, despite British, Canadian, and commission pressure to extend it further. While the process is not well remembered and had its share of issues, there is little doubt it was a success.

In addition to the sheer logistical problems of moving the numbers of people, the commission had to worry about the treatment of citizens who would not or could not move. Officially, there was a requirement by the Geneva Agreement that all citizens would be granted "democratic liberties" While there was no official definition as to the meaning of this phrase, it is likely that it refers to Lockean ideals. In this case, however, it more specifically refers to the right to live without fear of government reprisals. However, there were two radically different groups that had been at war for years. That the governments of the regions would be able to guarantee this freedom was unlikely, to say the least. To answer this problem, the International Control Commission created the Freedoms Committee to answer the concerns of anyone who submitted a claim that their democratic liberties had been violated. In total, the committee heard 17,397 cases under the rules over the course of the 300 days of the relocation. While the International Control Commission may have settled the cases, the governments of the respective sides did little to enforce them and most cases were not helped by the International Control Commission. The rest were settled reasonably fairly, and the International Control Commission is well regarded for its work during this period. It may not have been able to help with every case, but it managed to help a lot of people.

According to the original accords, the separation of the regions was to be the end of the International Control Commission. However, members of the commission looked at the country and decided that it was in the best interest of all involved for it to continue. Tensions between the North and the South were running high, and while neither group were very big fans of the International Control Commission, both preferred talking to it than to their counterparts. The Joint Commission disbanded, leaving the International Control Commission in a position where it was unsure of its own powers. The main reason to remain in Vietnam was to ensure that the tenuous peace held. While the commission was there, there was still the hope of its final job being carried out: holding an election. The election to unify Vietnam was to be held two years after the separation attempt to reach a longer peace and to prevent a permanent split between the two sides. However, there was little hope in anyone's mind that the elections would actually happen after the two years of increased tension between the two Vietnams and the international community as a whole. By the time that the election was set to take place, even the International Control Commission was unexcited by the premise. As such, when the proposed date for the elections, 21 July 1956, occurred, there was no surprise when they, in fact, did not happen.

However, the International Control Commission was able to hold the two sides in check for years in a shaky peace that otherwise would have likely descended into conflict almost immediately.

Growing difficulties (1956–1973)
Despite still existing, the Commission quickly found itself with few friends and fewer powers. It was unable to control much of anything or act as anything beyond a minor speed bump for either side. The states that sat on the commission were secondary powers, at best, never large enough to have a major impact on world affairs during the Cold War, in comparison to the two superpowers. In addition, they were sitting on a fault line between the two major powers that had been fighting not ten years earlier. What had begun as a ceasefire quickly became a battlefield as tensions continued to flair. After the first two years, when the active partitioning ended and the two Vietnamese governments became more and more comfortable in their ability to rule, they also became closer and closer to their respective patrons, the North to the Soviet Union and the South to the United States. That relationship to the larger powers allowed the developing states to take bigger risks and care less and less about the condemnation of the International Control Commission. In addition, when the global superpowers looked to act through the states, the International Control Commission could not respond either, as the international community needed to defer to the superpowers, giving the International Control Commission few ways to influence anything. Without any actual power or backing of the global superpowers, there was little for the International Control Commission to do to enforce their views except complaining to what was quickly becoming an empty room. The commission was expected to police two states and ensure a full peace between the global superpowers, a daunting task for the entire world during the period, let alone a commission. As such, the power of the International Control Commission drained away during this period until it was little more than a figurehead, able to state its opinions but little more in the region.

That was seen most pointedly in arms traffic, which was strictly limited under the terms of the Geneva Agreements. However, after the successful separation and the growth of superpower influence, trafficking became a much more important factor. The means of and the response to the issue is seen in this quote from John Holms:"'...in the North the International Control Commission was unable to observe violations of the arms control stipulation but never able to maintain adequate inspection to be assured that no violations were taking place. In the South, the struggle was with the indifference and reluctance of the authorities and the persistent effort of the Americans to press the terms of the Agreement farther than they could properly be stretched. The violations in the South were, needless to say, observable, and the attitude of the Americans was negative but decent. The Commission was in a position to prove Southern but not Northern violations. The Southerners and Americans inevitably complained and increasingly insisted that the known if not proved disregard of the arms control provisions by the Communists not only justified by made essential their doing likewise.'"That difficulty further reduced the impact of the International Control Commission, preventing it from performing its duties, and putting into question its existence. That it could not reach the North was a problem since it was it sworn duty to maintain "democratic liberties" and put a stop to any kind of growing threats to violence. The inability to patrol regularly allowed the North to build whatever it wanted, as there was no threat of the international community stopping it because the ICC has no actual way of enforcing order.

The lack of respect from the North led to it losing the ability to police the South, which is the great tragedy of the region. With the North so far away and difficult to control, any attempt to do its job in the South was met with cries of a double standard. While that was technically true, it showed the inherent issues with the International Control Commission. It was a regulatory board with no ability to regulate the one thing it was supposed to. As such, it drifted further and further into ridicule in the eyes of the world.

Another major and far more tangible difficulty that the International Control Commission ran into was a severe lack of funds. The commission was funded by the various states that composed it, but it was an extremely low priority during the Cold War. As such, donations would frequently be late or simply never arrive. There was a rise in operating expenses as the Joint Commission disbanded and the International Control Commission was forced to take on greater responsibility and the financial straits. That led to further inability to operate and reduced its power in the region.

A third major difficulty the International Control Commission experienced during its operations was a lack of manpower and transportation. For the International Control Commission to function properly as a check on the two Vietnams, it would have to travel throughout the region with impunity to look for signs of growing tension or violations of "democratic liberties" but would have to be able to catch the states unaware. If it was unable to do so, it would be trivial for one of the sides to hide any evidence of misconduct from the International Control Commission. However, money issues made the International Control Commission unable to maintain a fleet of cars to allow it to travel on its own, and the growing distrust between the two states made it more and more dangerous to travel. As such, the only safe way to travel was in government convoys. While that was safer and cheaper for the International Control Commission, it lost that crucial element of surprise. That further reduced its impact in the region and made it even more ephemeral.

By far the biggest blow to the International Control Commission is the growing military presence of the United States during the 1960s that would ultimately escalate into the Vietnam War. The troops and military supplies brought in were in clear defiance of the Geneva Agreements, but the lack of power invested in the International Control Commission meant that it was completely unable to prevent even that. It could do no more than write a sternly worded report on 13 February 1965. It stated that the US had violated the Geneva Agreements and that there were growing conflicts between the two sides.

However, there was no response from the international community and so the power and reputation of the International Control Commission fell further. Despite its growing irrelevance, the International Control Commission attempted to hang on as a moderating voice in the conflict. It made several attempts to bring the two sides closer together and to start a dialogue but its efforts came to naught. That lack of effect was to be endemic of the International Control Commission during the conflict, as it was unable to negotiate peace as the tensions grew into full-blown war and its role became more and more vestigial in the face of regional politics.

Professor Mieczysław Maneli, head of the Polish delegation to the ICC, defected to the United States in 1968.

Collapse and dissolution (1972–1973)
The International Control Commission did not outlive the Vietnam War. Their fall came from an unlikely source, with India, one of the key member states of the International Control Commission normalizing relations with North but not South Vietnam. That insulted the South Vietnamese and they forced the Indians and, by extension, all of the International Control Commission out of the country. While the Commission tried to function from Hanoi, it became much harder to regulate South Vietnam. That, coupled with the general pointlessness of the institution in the modern world, meant that in March 1973, the International Control Commission formally shut down and was replaced by the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS).

ICSC for Vietnam
Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as a single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until the elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated the model of three national delegations.

Heads of Delegation
The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative. Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of the Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate.

Indian Chief Commissioner

 * 1954: M. J. (Manilal Jagdish) Desai (1904-)
 * 1954: Alternate Delegate: Major-General K. P. Dhargalkar
 * 1960: N. Gopala Menon
 * 1961: A. S. (Anant) Naravane, MC (1916-)
 * 1963: Ramchundur "Ram" Goburdhun
 * 1965: M. A. Rahman

Canadian Commissioner

 * 1954-1955: Sherwood Lett, CBE, DSO, MC (1895-1964)
 * 1955-1956: David Johnson (1902-1973)
 * 1956-1957: Bruce Williams (-2005)
 * 1957-1958: Thomas Carter, MC (-2005)
 * 1958-1959: Charles Bédard (1924-2013)
 * 1959-1960: John Erichsen-Brown
 * 1960-1961: Charles Woodsworth (1909-2005)
 * 1961-1964: Gordon Cox
 * 1964-1965: Blair Seaborn (1924-2019)
 * 1965-1966: Victor Moore
 * 1966-1968: Ormond Dier
 * 1968-1969: Richard Tait
 * 1969-1971: Albert Hart [& Laos]
 * 1971-1973: Robert Jackson [1972:& Laos]

Polish Commissioner

 * 1954-1955: Przemysław Ogrodzinski (1918-1980)
 * 1955-1956: Jerzy Michałowski (1909-1993)
 * 1956-1957: Antoni Szymanowski (1914-1985)
 * 1957-1959: Władysław Góralski
 * 1959-1959: Tadeusz Wiśniewski
 * 1960-1963: Leon Romaniecki
 * 1963-1964: Mieczyslaw Maneli (1922-1994)
 * 1966-1967: Janusz Lewandowski (1931-2013). - Marigold
 * 1970-1973: Ludwik Klockowski

Head of PAVN Liaison Mission to ICC

 * 1954-1973: Col. Ha Van Lau (1918-2016)

Head of RVN Liaison Mission to ICC

 * -1961: Col. Hoang Thuy Nam (-1961) - killed on duty

Northern Vietnam

 * Hanoi
 * Lao Cai
 * Dong Dang
 * Haiphong
 * Vinh
 * Dong Hoi

Southern Vietnam

 * Gio Linh
 * Tourane
 * Qui Nhon
 * Nha Trang
 * Cap St.Jacques
 * Saigon

ICSC for Laos
Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as a single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until the elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated the model of three national delegations.

Heads of Delegation
The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative. Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of the Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate.

Indian Chief Commissioner

 * 1954-1955: Dr. J. N. (Jagan Nath) Khosla
 * 1954: Alternate Delegate: Major-General P. S. (Prem Singh) Gyani
 * 1958-1961: ICSC for Laos adjourned
 * 1961: Samar Sen
 * 1962: Avtar Singh

Canadian Commissioner

 * 1954-1955: Léon Mayrand (1905-1975)
 * 1955-1956: Paul Bridle (1914-1988)
 * 1956-1957: Peter Campbell
 * 1957-1958: William Olivier
 * 1958-1961: ICSC for Laos adjourned
 * 1961-1962: Léon Mayrand [bis]
 * 1962-1964: Paul Bridle [bis]
 * 1964-1965: Donald Munro (1916-1998)
 * 1965-1966: Keith MacLellan (1920-1998)
 * 1966-1969: Percy Cooper
 * 1969-1971: Albert Hart [from: (South) Vietnam]
 * 1972-1973: Robert Jackson [from: (North) Vietnam]

Polish Commissioner

 * 1955: Dr. Marek Thee (1918–1999)
 * 1958-1961: ICSC for Laos adjourned
 * 1961: Albert Morski
 * 1961-1963: Dr. Marek Thee [bis]

ICSC for Cambodia
Each of the three new states of Indochina had its own Commission, with Vietnam, still being treated as a single state, in temporary partition under two administrations, until the elections of 1956 would enable reunification. The three Commissions replicated the model of three national delegations.

Heads of Delegation
The head of each of the three delegations, in each of the three Commissions, was styled the Commissioner or, using UN parlance, the Permanent Representative. Canada was assumed to favour the South and Poland was assumed to favour the North, whilst India was viewed as the 'honest broker', and was therefore in permanent command of the commission. The heads of the Indian delegations were automatically the Chief Commissioner of each of the ICSC. For the initial deployment, each civilian Chief Commissioner was assisted by a military deputy, a Major-General, known as the Alternate Delegate.

Indian Chief Commissioner

 * 1954: Gopalaswami Parthasarathi
 * 1954: Alternate Delegate: Major-General S. N. (Sarda Nand) Singh (1910-1970)

Canadian Commissioner

 * 1954-1954: Ronald Macdonnell
 * 1954-1955: Rudolf Duder
 * 1955-1956: Arnold Smith (1915-1994)
 * 1956-1957: Acting: Joseph Lavigne
 * 1957-1958: Acting: Eric Gilmour
 * 1958-1959: Acting Arthur Blanchette (1921-2003)
 * 1959-1961: Acting D'Iberville Fortier (1926-2006)
 * 1961-1962: Acting Thomas Pope (1930-2017)
 * 1963-1965: Acting Jean-Marie Déry
 * 1965-1966: Clifford Webster
 * 1966-1968: Sinclair Nutting
 * 1968-1970: Richard Gorham

Polish Commissioner

 * 1954: Wiktor Grosz (1907-1956)
 * 1958: Zygfryd Wolniak (1922-1970)

Organisation
The organisation of the ICSC/ICC/CIC altered considerably over the two decades of its existence. It began, with great expectations, as a large force, covering the whole territory. As conditions on the ground altered, and hopes foundered, the numbers were scaled back considerably and most regional offices closed, until the organisation was reduced mostly to two representative offices, in the respective capitals. This remained largely the case, until the Paris Accords, and the brief revival as the ICCS.

Strength
Initially, the participant nations were prepared to commit a significant number of diplomats and military personnel to the project. India, as lead-nation, was determined to ensure adequate security measures and from its own very recent history had bitter experience of how fraught the task of Partition and population transfer could be. It deployed a full battalion of infantry, 2nd Bn. the Guards Regiment, as security for the subordinate headquarters and as an operational reserve. In addition, the Indian Army's Corps of Signals established and manned the communications network between the field teams and the headquarters, and linked the capitals, of the three, or rather the four, countries. The following figures probably represent the maximum effort, around 24 March 1955, during the height of population transfer:
 * India: 1, 086
 * Canada: c.160
 * Poland: c.160
 * Total: 1, 406

Overall totals are difficult to calculate, due to the long duration of the mission and due to the considerable changes in its duties and organisation during the near two decades of its existence. The Indian military contribution overall has been estimated to be as follows: However, even this figure appears to exclude the Indian civil diplomatic contingent.
 * Officers: 970
 * SNCOs: 140
 * Jawans: 6,157
 * Total: 7,267

The overall figures for Canada and for Poland would appear to be a little under 2,000 each.

In addition to the figures for the formal Delegations, there might be considered the largely-French crews of the ICC/CIC air element; the formal, largely-military, local Liaison Missions to the ICC, and the informal locally employed civilian (LEC) ancillary staff.

Air transport
The ICC/ICSC was authorised to monitor observance of the Geneva Accords anywhere in the former French Indochina (FIC). As such, they were entitled to travel between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City for a continuous period of nearly two decades from they early 1950s to the early 1970s, and indeed beyond, under a slightly altered guise. They needed to commute between the two hostile capitals as the Cold War between them, and in the wider world, became considerably more heated. They also needed to travel to the other two capitals: Phnom Penh and Vientiane. No scheduled airline operated such a route: it was neither commercially viable to do so, nor safe to do so, whether in topographical terms or in military terms. The only realistic answer was to charter their own air fleet.

As part of its agreement to pay for its disengagement from Empire in the Far East, France agreed to provide and fund the air-transport for the ICC. The result was a small fleet of three increasingly obsolete aircraft, with French crews. The aircraft were all of the same type, for ease of maintenance & spares: the prewar-vintage Boeing 307 Stratoliner, the first pressurized airliner to enter service.

Fixed-wing
Although the operator was essentially the same company throughout the two decades, spin-offs and mergers meant the aircraft could be seen, at various times, under several different operator names, and in several different liveries. Aircraft in regular ICC service often kept the livery but dropped the airline name, having CIC  inscribed on the stabilizer instead. These included:
 * 1954-55?Aigle Azur.
 * 1955-61?Aigle Azur Extrême-Orient.
 * 1961-63?Union Aéromaritime de Transport (UAT) - Aéromaritime.
 * 1963-73?Union de Transports Aériens (UTA).
 * 1965-Compagnie Internationale de Transports Civil Aériens (CITCA): the leasing company handling the CIC contract.

The original 3 aircraft were:
 * F-BELV (ex-TWA: NC-19905)
 * F-BELU (ex-TWA: NC-19906)
 * F-BELX (ex-TWA: NC-19907)

Rotary-wing
In 1962, the Laos Accords declared the neutrality of Laos, and the undercover war that had been waged in the country needed to be scaled back. The ICC/CIC were therefore able to buy up a number of surplus helicopters from operator Air America for their own work in monitoring the new Accords. After the initial purchase of four Sikorsky H-34, an additional two were added the following year. The fleet was in operation for about five years, though some aircraft were apparently still flying in 1969.

The fleet was based in Vientiane and the crews were mostly French, though the former operator remained responsible for the maintenance and some of the former US pilots were apparently also contracted:
 * 1962.09: CIC-1: (ex-US 'H-X': 148803, 58.1388).
 * 1962.09: CIC-2: (ex-US 'H-Y': 148805, 58.1390).
 * 1962.09: CIC-3: (ex-US 'H-Z': 148806, 58.1391).
 * 1962.09: CIC-4: (ex-US 'H-11':148807, 58.1392).
 * 1963.05: CIC-5: (ex-US 'H-B': 148647, 58.578).
 * 1963.06: CIC-6: (ex-US 'H-A': 148644, 58.572).

Attempts to maintain neutrality in Laos were unsuccessful and with the escalation of war-fighting throughout the 1960s, the remaining helicopters were sold back to the former operator, with most being passed on to the Royal Lao Air Force.

Losses
The ICC operated in three, or arguably four, separate but inter-connected war-zones. The field teams made inspections around the four countries of the former French Indochina (FIC), usually well-heralded and with an armed escort from the local military, though this would often negate the value of such inspections. Nevertheless, all three delegations lost personnel as a direct result of their ICC service. The worst single incident was probably the loss of aircraft F-BELV, in the Laos-North Vietnam border area, on 18 October 1965. Some 13 people were lost and, to date, neither aircraft remains, nor bodies have retrieved or even located. The thirteen people comprised the diplomats or military personnel from all three delegations, plus the French crew of the civil aircraft that was on contract to the ICC.

Indian delegation

 * S. L. Bhalla (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * Capt. C. K. Bhattacharjee (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * Lt. Bhola Singh (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * J. Prasad (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * M. R. Ramani (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace

Polish delegation

 * Mr. Meluch (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace

Canadian delegation

 * Sgt. J. S. Byrne, CD, RCASC (1929-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace [SB-801786 James Sylvester Byrne, b. Dublin, Irish Free State (IFS) - 1950 enlistment; Korea veteran; of Aylmer, QC]
 * John Turner (1935-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace [John Douglas Turner - diplomat, only recently turned 30; of Montreal, QC]
 * Cpl. V. J. Perkin, BW(RHC), RCIC (1928-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: passenger in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace [SK-13997 Vernon John Perkin, b. London, ON - 1952 enlistment, Korea peacekeeping; of Regina, SK or Winnipeg, MB (sources vary - SK address might have been service accommodation; father of five)

French Crew of F-BELV of CITCA, on contract to ICC

 * Capt. Henri Domerque (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: pilot of ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * Albert Gustin (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: steward in ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * Camille Lemee (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: radio-officer of ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace
 * Marcel Ropers (-1965) 18.10.65: missing, presumed dead: flight-engineer ICC aircraft F-BELV when lost without trace

Medal
As with other international peacekeeping and monitoring missions, such as the UN, the ICC/ICSC issued a medal to recognise the service of its members in what was becoming an increasingly active war-zone. The medal was issued on standard terms of 90 days service, unless prevented by injury or death in service.

The medal was planned and designed by India; it was produced in Bangalore. India had gained its own independence less than a decade before the formation of the ICC and was the lead-nation of the project, by command and by numbers, and was proud to commemorate its active leadership in of the developing Non-Aligned Movement. When the idea was presented to its colleagues, the reaction was less than ecstatic: Canada was thinking of issuing its own national peacekeeping or general service medal and was therefore hesitant, and Poland was equally non-committal.

The medal ribbon comprises three equal vertical stripes, in green, white and saffron. Some sources suggest 'white and red' represent the colours of Canada and Poland, but examples suggest that, in practice, the stripes reflect the Indian flag alone.

On the obverse of the medal, India is represented by a national symbol, the other two countries by their flags. The Lion of Ashoka thus stands above the crossed flags of Canada and Poland. The dove of peace is superimposed over the crossed flag-poles. The inscription 'International Commission For Supervision And Control' appears around the edge, with the word 'Peace' at the base.

On the reverse is a map of Indochina, with Vietnam shown as a single entity; its name is inscribed in Latin script, but without the Vietnamese diacritics. Unusually, Laos and Cambodia are both marked with their names in their own scripts: Lao script and Cambodian script, almost certainly a unique feature in phaleristics.

One source states that the total number of ICC/ICSC medals issued was '1,550', but this must be a statement taken out of context: as the Indian strength for the first year alone was over one thousand, and troops usually did a tour of about a year, this figure should have been exceeded by eligible Indian soldiers alone before the end of 1956; numbers soon dropped significantly, but still the organisation did remain for almost two decades. The figure quoted above might possibly have related to the number of Canadians eligible.

title: International Control Commission


text: Category:721 births

title: Category:721 births


text: Category:712 births

title: Category:712 births


text:
General Hershy Bar

General Hershy Bar was a satirical character of the Vietnam War-era Anti-War protest movement, portrayed by William "Bill" Matons, in a parody of U.S. General Lewis B. Hershey, then Director of the Selective Service.

The character's name was also spelled as "Hershey Bar" or "HersheyBar" among Matons' own publications and those of the general public when referring to him. Matons also performed Calypso music under the names The Calypso Kid and Calypso Joe.

Biography
He was born William Arthur Matons in September 1906 and died October 13, 1993 (dates not verified). Bill Matons danced under his birth name in the 1930s in the Modern Dance worlds of New York. During the Calypso Craze of the 1940s, Matons performed as The Calypso Kid on stage and on the radio. He also used Calypso Joe, a stage name created when he was a calypso dancer, promoter, night club owner in the 1940s and '50s. Finally, in the 1960s he adopted the name General Hershy Bar. He kept the name the rest of his life, and most of the time in public he stayed 'in character' as part of his anti-war street-theater.

Early life: Wisconsin to New York (1920s to early 1930s)
Matons was adopted and raised by Lithuanian parents who encouraged his ad-lib performing talents. He was a modern dancer and choreographer in New York in the 1930s. He was born in Cleveland Ohio, the son of gypsy immigrants. His father settled down to a life making violins in Cleveland, and then moved shortly to Racine, Wisconsin where Matons went to grade school. The family then moved to Milwaukee where he attended a semester of high school before going to work in the steel mills. After this job he was a steeple-jack, coast guardsman, cook on a yacht, and also sold jewelry. He read books on dancing and found notice of Charles Weidman dance scholarships in New York City. After only three months with Weiman's group he appeared in Americana. In his twenties he was dance director of Railroads on Parade at the NY World's Fair and danced in As Thousands Cheer.

Modern dance career in New York (1930s)
During the Great Depression, the NY modern dance world was influenced by the politics of the left as covered in Ellen Graf's book, Stepping Left Dance and Politics in New York City 1928–1942. Matons appears on the cover of this book in the center.

Matons danced with the Humphrey-Weidman company in New York, from 1933 to 1936 and again in 1940. He appeared in the Charles Weidman works, Ringside, Studies in Conflict, Candide (1933), Traditions (1935), and American Saga (1936) as well as Americana, As Thousands Cheer(1933), and Everywhere I Roam. He was director of the experimental unit of the New Dance League, which evolved from the Workers Dance League between 1931 and 1935.

As Thousands Cheer, by Irving Berlin and Moss Hart, opened September 30, 1933, at the Music Box Theater and closed Sept 8, 1934, with 400 performances by the Charles Weidman dancers Letitia Ide and Jose Limon with Matons and others.

On July 25, 1936, at Bennington, Vermont, the New Dance League presented performances by Anna Sokolow, Matons, Fara Lynn, and Eva Desca. On April 25, 1937, New Dance League presented Dances of Today at St. James Theater. Included at this show were Songs of Protest - Lay Down Late and Sistern and Brethern, Song for Soviet Youth Day, Under the Swastika: Germans Think with Your Blood, Though we be flogged. Matons also appeared in Letter to a Policeman in Kansas City.

In 1938 he danced some early poems of Kenneth Patchen in New York and is mentioned in Patchen's papers at the UCSC special collections archive.

Matons was choreographer for the Lenin Peace Pageant at Madison Square Garden in 1937. Performed with Ailes Gilmour in "Adelante," a Works Progress Administration sponsored Broadway musical in 1939. Adelante, a work with a Spanish theme, opened April 4, 1939, at Daly's Theater and had 16 performances and Matons created the leading role and danced it. The show included Helen Tamiris among others. Tamiris was important in the WPA Federal Dance Project and believed strongly in using dance to explore social themes.

Matons led the Experimental Dance Group in the late 1930s. His dancers included a young Rebecca Lepkoff. He choreographed for the 1939 Worlds Fair in New York, creating the dance for Railroads on Parade – Drama of Transport. The music for this was written by Kurt Weil. Weil had started the score in spring 1938. It was written as a Circus Opera using the elements of theater music from opera to circus. Matons hired Rebecca Lepkoff for the Worlds Fair show and as he could pay a decent wage, uncommon at during the depression, Lepkoff used this money to buy her first camera, starting her photography career.

The author Ramsay Burt described how Matons choreographed and produced One Sixth of the Earth while with Humphrey-Weidman. Burt notes that Matons used the motif of "...poignant speeches by anonymous witnesses in the crowd...derived from the tradition of agit-prop Living Newspapers with origins in the Soviet Union".

In 1939 Matons was still working with Doris Humphrey in the Humphrey-Weidman company.

Calypso period (late 1930s to 1950s)
In 1938 while with Humphrey and Weidman he began to focus on calypso dance and music. Earlier in his life, while working on a boat, he heard the music while working on a ship stopped in Trinidad (1935), but he had not considered the dance aspect at that time. He found a Spanish music store in Harlem owned by Costellanos Molinas, brought some music home, and made up some dances in 1938. He coached performers from the West Indies in dances and stage techniques to improve their showmanship. He started to import singers to the US and began to have a monopoly on calypso there.

Late 1938 he brought calypso to New York City night life at the Village Vanguard with the Duke of Iron, Gerald Clark and his Calypso Serenaders and a half dozen dancers. The show included satirical acts on important issues of the day. The Calypso Kid stages the revues at the Vanguard with the songs "Edward the VIII" or "Roosevelt in Trinidad" made into small skits with pantomime and dance. Matons and his calypso crew traveled the US and beyond performing shows. Calypso was still a fairly niche market until Joe Miller a radio comic brought the song, "Rum and Coco-Cola" to the US in 1945. A calypso craze swept the nation following this. Many of the songs were banned from radio play at the time due to the earthy nature of many calypso songs.

Matons' importance in the start of the Calypso Craze is noted in the book, "Encuentros sincopados: el caribe contemporáneo a través de sus prácticas musicales -Historia (Siglo Veintiuno Editores) Pensamiento caribeño" by Lara Ivette Lopez de Jesus; "...there never was any organized dance for the calypso; therefore no calypso dance ever existed in reality, only in name...The first person who organized such a dance was an American named Bill Maton [sic], a dancer. He had visited Trinidad in 1935, and appeared in shows in the US and Canada"

In the 1940s and '50s he was performing with calypso singers and operating a night club in NY where he used the name Calypso Kid and then Calypso Joe. A picture of him as Calypso Joe in costume in 1952 is on the Dallas Library Site. A notice in Billboard for April 7, 1945, mentions him coming to Hollywood, "...now that Rum and Coca Cola is hot..." with his revue of calypso stars Lord Beginner, Lord Caresser, Lord Dignity, Chief Eagle Eye, The Duke of Iron and others. He operated a calypso night club in Honolulu in the 1950s. By 1957 he had a calypso night club act appearing in Las Vegas.

Allied Artists Pictures Corporation in Los Angeles came out with Calypso Joe (1957) starring The Duke of Iron and Angie Dickinson among others. Papers noted that it did not include Matons, or compensate him for the use of the name he had spent years building up.

Anti-war work (1960s to 1990s)
In Los Angeles he self-published several monographs and booklets using the publishing company he created, Handicap Publications. The PeaceNut cartoons were published by Handicap, showing a business location of 5420 Carlton Way, Hollywood, CA. Handicap Pictures was established for producing short films in "true bloody color", as he said. Titles included, President Johnson the Defoliate President, and Damn the constitution-undeclared wars-full speed ahead with the theme song "your lyin’ cheat in’ heart" and he mentions his saying "give war no quarter because it ain’t worth a dime" in one. He published his book, kiss don't kill in 1967 (Handicap Publications). Another publication was "Get off your apathy!: a biography of Florence Beaumont, who burned herself instead of others! —like phony politicians", by Thomas Michael Dunphy (aka "General Wastemoreland"), Handicap Publications 1968. This work also contains sections written by General Hershy Bar.

In 1972 he became the manager of an apartment building in Hollywood (Los Angeles), California. The 42-unit Afton Arms Apartments was built in 1924 at 6141 Afton Place and El Centro by architect Leland Bryant. The building was the site of many important dissident activities, The Hollywood Ten and Art Kunkin's Los Angeles Free Press both used the Grand Ball room. In 1987, Hillel Slovak of the Red Hot Chili Peppers was found dead in his apartment in the building where he lived. The General renamed the building "The Happy Malaga Castle" in 1972

In 1978 he was one of the participants at the first Doo Dah Parade, an irreverent alternative to the traditional formality of the Rose Parade in Pasadena. Through the late 1970s to early 1980s he lived on Harvard Blvd in Hollywood, CA. In Hollywood he would 'perform' his anti-war guerrilla street theater for tourists to Grauman's Chinese Theater and other Hollywood Boulevard locations, including while on the RTD bus he got around on. He died October 13, 1993. He was frequently seen partnered with General Waste More Land (aka Tom Dunphy), a parody of General William Westmoreland. The characters were common at street theater performances and demonstrations against U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. Tom Dunphy (aka "General Waste More Land") still lives in Berkeley Ca (see video below). He would greet people on the street he met as "General" and salute often as well, which was saying that we are all Generals and so complicit in war.

Appearances
The rally started in Washington Square and went up Fifth Avenue.... At the rally I found Phil Ochs, Paul Krassner and Abbie Hoffman. Also General Hersheybar.
 * He appeared in many dance performances in the 1930s until the 1950s. Starting out in Modern Dance in New York and ending with Calypso Dancing in venues across the Western Hemisphere.
 * He appeared in the Charles Weidman works, Ringside, Studies in Conflict, Candide (1933), Traditions (1935), and American Saga (1936) as well as Americana, As Thousands Cheer, and Everywhere I Roam.
 * He appears in a $6 1/2$-minute B&W 16mm film, Humphrey-Weidman Company (1938), by Ann Barzel filmed during a performance at the Auditorium Theater Chicago. The featured the dancers, Doris Humphrey, Charles Weidman, José Limón, Bill Matons, Katherine Litz, Katherine Manning, and Sybil Shearer. The film has short excerpts from 7 works. Matons appears in Traditions with choreography by Charles Weidman. Danced by Charles Weidman, José Limón, and Bill Matons.
 * He appears on the cover of Ellen Graf's book, 'Stepping Left Dance and Politics in New York City 1928-1942'.
 * In 1969 General Hershey Bar supposedly showed up at the Altamont free concert in California where performers included the Rolling Stones. The movie made of the concert shows Bar's work partner General Wastemoreland in full regalia, making a gesture he satirically called a navel salute, which involved placing a horizontal hand on his navel then moving his arm out horizontally. There was a case brought by General Hershy Bar regarding the use of his image in the Altamont concert movie by the Rolling Stones. In that case he says it was not him, but General Wastemoreland that appears in the movie. Details of this case are at the link below.
 * He also made a cameo appearance in a low-budget movie made for public access, entitled Broadcast From The Future, in which he appeared as Doctor Everest Word. (Bluemonkey Films by Martin Cohen, also starring Evonne Pizzoni, aired in 1991).
 * The characters of General Hershy Bar and General Waste More Land were made into a 1967 underground comic book called Those Lovable Peace-Nuts by William Stout.
 * Photographer Richard Friedman wrote of encountering General Hershy Bar at a so-called War Is Over march in the late 1960s:
 * He appeared in uniform on the street in a 1986 music documentary, "X - The Unheard Music" by the LA punk band, X during the song "Los Angeles".
 * He appeared in the 1967 movie, Something's Happening, chronicling the youth movement on the Sunset Strip in LA and in San Francisco's Haight Ashbury.

Lists
List of choreographers

List of peace activists

List of dance personalities

title: General Hershy Bar


text:
Talk:Christian Doppler

Doppler's decision to immigrate to United States
I'm adding a sentence to the biography paragraph that describes how Doppler was going to immigrate to the US before being offered a position in Prague, which changed his mind. Ssegtf (talk) 17:53, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

Doppler's Scientific Beliefs
I'm adding a sentence to the biography section about how Doppler believed that if a star went 136,000 km/s, it would vanish from sight. What other scientific beliefs did Doppler hold?Patkeo6 (talk) 17:19, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

Untitled
Does there have to be a mention in the very beginning that he is homosexual? Not even Oscar Wilde has his sexual orientation mentioned along with his titles. A reference to his homosexuality should be placed in the Life section or after a few lines. (by the way, there should probably be a citation for where you found he was gay because it seems not to be widely noted.) --WongFeiHung 21:24, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

Do you think this fact is really important for his biography and works in physics/mathematics? Frankly speaking, I doubt. :) --Ilya O. Orlov 02:40, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 09:46, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

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Spurious spelling "Döppler"
"Doppler" sometimes gets hypercorrected into spurious "Döppler". For example, a 1931 letter to Physical Review, reporting the spectroscopic discovery of deuterium, mentions spurious "Döppler broadening". Sadly, spurious "Döppler" appears even in titles of papers and articles, ranging at least from 1906 through 2012.

"Döppler" is obviously incorrect. Not one statue or plaque of Christian Doppler spells it that way. No one is named "Döppler", on English Wikipedia or German Wikipedia.

(No action needed – just don't pick up spurious "Döppler".)

(Redirect-from-misspelling articles seem unnecessary, because a Wikipedia search for "Döppler"-anything goes directly to the correct "Doppler"-anything article, because Wikipedia search strips casing and diacritics.)

(Unfortunately, there are some correct uses of "Döppler". An alternative rock trio from north London has named itself "Döppler", a made-up name that adds a non-historical "metal umlaut".) -A876 (talk) 19:45, 25 April 2018 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: History of Science
— Assignment last updated by K8shep (talk) 18:03, 12 March 2023 (UTC)

Adding more to Article
I'm going to be adding more to the articles main space, including information about Doppler's childhood and the first experiment of his principle.Patkeo6 (talk) 17:07, 7 April 2023 (UTC)

Details on Doppler's early education and family
I'm going to add some details on Doppler's education before he entered into his assistantship in Vienna, and some info on his family. I will also add some detail on his assistantship in Vienna.ThanksSsegtf (talk) 18:46, 7 April 2023 (UTC)

Organizing the Article into sections
The Doppler page is not divided into sections. With the amount of info the page has, I think that organizing it with section headings could be helpful. I'm going to take a stab at sectioning it. If anyone has suggestions on how to organize the page, please comment. All help is appreciated here. The first headings I'm going to add are early life and scientific career. ThanksSsegtf (talk) 16:17, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

Broken template
For some reason doesn't seem to work. I removed it for the moment. - Tournesol (talk) 10:07, 15 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christian Doppler


text:
1570 in music

Events

 * 5 July – Annibale Zoilo joins the Sistine Chapel Choir in Rome as an alto.
 * Luzzasco Luzzaschi becomes master of Duke Alfonso of Ferrara's private musica da camera, which was soon to become one of the most distinguished in Europe
 * Orlande de Lassus is made a nobleman by Emperor Maximilian II, and knighted by Pope Gregory XIII
 * Formation in Paris of Antoine de Baïf's Académie de Poésie et Musique, and consequent development of musique mesurée by composers such as Claude Le Jeune and Guillaume Costeley
 * First appearance of the air de cour, a ubiquitous type of popular secular music in France until around 1650
 * Lázaro del Álamo leaves his post as maestro di capilla in Mexico City
 * Approximate date of the "Son de la Má Teodora", the earliest surviving example of son montuno from Cuba

Publications

 * Lodovico Agostini – First book of madrigals for five voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano and sons)
 * Giovanni Animuccia – Second book of laudi (Rome: Camerali for Antonio Blado)
 * Giammateo Asola – First book of masses for five voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano and sons)
 * Ippolito Baccusi
 * First book of masses, for five and six voices (Venice: Girolamo Scotto)
 * First book of madrigals for five and six voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano and sons)
 * Lodovico Balbi – First book of madrigals for four voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano and sons)
 * Vincenzo Bellavere – First book of Giustiniane
 * Maddalena Casulana – Second book of madrigals for four voices (Venice: Girolamo Scotto), the second printed collection of music by a woman in European history
 * Pierre Certon – Les meslanges (Paris: Nicolas Du Chemin), a collection of sacred songs for five, six, seven, and eight voices with one for nine and one for thirteen
 * Francesco Corteccia – Responsories for four voices (Venice: the sons of Antonio Gardano)
 * Guillaume Costeley – Musique de Guillaume Costeley (Paris: Le Roy & Ballard), a collection of French chansons for five voices
 * Nicolao Dorati – Le Stanze della Signora Vittoria Colonna Marchesana di Pescara Illustrissima for four voices (Venice: Girolamo Scotto), containing settings of poems by Vittoria Colonna
 * Giovanni Ferretti – Third book of canzoni alla napolitana for five voices (Venice: Girolamo Scotto)
 * Andrea Gabrieli – Second book of madrigals for five voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano, figliuoli), also includes two for six voices and a dialogue for eight voices
 * Francisco Guerrero – Motets for four, five, six, and eight voices (Venice: Antonio Gardano, figliuoli)
 * Marc'Antonio Ingegneri – First book of madrigals for four voices (Venice)
 * Nicolas de La Grotte – Chansons de P. de Ronsard, Ph. Desportes, et autres (Paris: Le Roy & Ballard)
 * Orlande de Lassus
 * 5 Masses suavissimis modulationibus refertae (filled with sweet melodies) for four and five voices, book 2 (Venice: Claudio Correggio)
 * Selectiorum aliquot cantionum sacrarum for six voices (Munich: Adam Berg)
 * Mattheus Le Maistre – First book of motets for five voices (Dresden: Gimel Bergen)
 * Philippe de Monte – Third book of madrigals for five voices (Venice: Girolamo Scotto)
 * Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina – Third book of masses, for four to six voices (Rome: heirs of Valerio & Luigi Dorico)

Classical music

 * Geert van Turnhout – Missa ‘O Maria vernans rosa’ a 5
 * Approximate date – Thomas Tallis – Spem in alium

Births

 * June 13 (baptized) – Paul Peuerl, German composer and organist (d. c. after 1625).
 * June 18 (baptized) – Juan Pujol, Catalan composer (d. 1626)
 * August 19 – Salamone Rossi, Italian composer (d. 1630)
 * October 21 – Wolfgang Schonsleder, German composer and music theorist
 * probable
 * Giovanni Paolo Cima, Italian composer (d. 1622)
 * John Cooper (Coprario), English composer (d. 1626)
 * Ignazio Donati, Italian composer (d. 1638)
 * John Farmer, English madrigal composer (d. 1605)
 * Claudia Sessa, Italian composer (d. c. 1617-19)

Deaths

 * January – Pierre Clereau, composer and choirmaster
 * March 25 – Johann Walter, German composer (b. 1496)
 * September – Jean de Bonmarché, composer (b. c. 1525)
 * date unknown – Tomás de Santa María, Spanish music theorist, organist and composer (b. c. 1510).
 * probable
 * Jean Maillard, French composer (approximate date) (b. c. 1515)
 * Diego Ortiz, Spanish music theorist and composer (approximate date) (b. c. 1510)

title: 1570 in music


text:
Ibagué

Ibagué  (referred to as San Bonifacio de Ibagué del Valle de las Lanzas during the Spanish period) is the capital of Tolima, one of the 32 departments that make up the Republic of Colombia. The city is located in the center of the country, on the central mountain range of the Colombian Andes, near Nevado del Tolima. It is one of the most populous cities in the country, with a population of 492,554 (according to the 2018 census), making it the eleventh most populous in Colombia, and with a population of 529,625 in the municipality. It was founded on 14 October 1550, by the Spanish captain Andrés López de Galarza. The city of Ibagué is divided into 13 communes and the rural area has 17 corregimientos. As the capital of the department of Tolima the city hosts the Government of Tolima, the Departmental Assembly, and the Attorney General's Office. It is the main epicenter of political, economic, administrative, business, art, culture, and tourism activities in the area.

Ibagué maintains one of the major urban economies of Colombia and could grow in prominence within South America with its development potential and competitive national and international business centers, industry, and infrastructure. It is one of three cities in the country chosen by the World Trade Center Association (WTCA) to build headquarters along with Cali, adding to the one existing in Bogotá. The economy of Ibagué is based primarily on the industrial, tourism, and agricultural sectors, with its textile industry being the third largest in Colombia. According to "Doing Business" from the World Bank in Washington DC, Ibagué tops the ranking of the cities with greater ease of doing business and investment in the country after Manizales. The city is also part of the Colombian coffee growing axis.

The city is known as "The Musical Capital of Colombia and America", thanks to the Conservatory of Tolima (one of the most prestigious and important in Colombia), folklore festivities, and its many monuments referring to music. The city's main educational institutions are the University of Tolima, the University of Ibagué, the Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia (UNAD) and the Conservatory of Tolima.

History
Ibagué was founded by Andrés López de Galarza on 14 October 1550, as "Villa de San Bonifacio de Ibagué del Valle de las Lanzas" ("Town of Saint Boniface of Ibagué of the Valley of the Spears") in a nearby location where now lies the urban area of the neighboring municipality of Cajamarca about 42 km to the west of Ibagué's current whereabouts. The indigenous Pijaos commanded by cacique Ibagué were not fond of Spaniards colonizing the area so the city was re-founded in its current location on 7 February 1551.

From April to December 1854, Ibagué was briefly the capital of the New Granada following a coup d'etat promoted by general José María Melo. In 1908, when the department of Tolima was created, Ibagué was designated as its capital. The University of Tolima was founded in 1945, and was raised to state university status in 1954. The city is also the home of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ibagué.

Geography
Ibagué is located in the Colombian Andean region, in the center of the department of Tolima, surrounded by mountains on all sides with the exception of a plateau which extends to the east.

Volcanism
Ibagué lies within the Andean Volcanic Belt. It has two active volcanoes in its immediate vicinity: the Nevado del Tolima, 28 km NW of the city, and the Cerro Machín, 17 km west of the city center but still within the Municipality of Ibagué. The city is one access point to Los Nevados National Park, the other being Manizales.

Cerro Machín has been dormant for the last 800 years, but seismological activity has been registered recently causing several earthquakes. The volcano is classified as "III – Changes in behavior of volcanic activity" by Ingeominas, the Colombian Institute for Geology and Mining. A map of menaced areas has been published indicating that in the event of an eruption the city of Ibagué would not be affected despite its proximity to the volcano.

Demographics
The total population of the municipality of Ibagué (including urban and rural areas), according to the 2018 census, was 529,635 inhabitants, of which 492,554 resided in the urban area.

Transportation
Municipal transport is managed by several local bus companies that operate minibuses throughout the city and to neighboring villages.

Ibagué lies at the intersection of national roads 40 and 43, connecting the city to Magdalena River Valley and Bogotá to the east, Armenia and the Valle del Cauca to the west, and Honda to the north. There is a long distance bus terminal with connections to most big cities in Colombia. There are frequent connections to Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, and several overnight buses to Cartagena, Barranquilla, and seasonal services to Santa Marta.

About 10 km east of the city lies Perales Airport which has several flights a day to Bogotá and Medellín.

Climate
Ibagué features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification, albeit a relatively cooler version of the climate due to the high altitude. Although the city does experience noticeably drier conditions during and around the months of January and July, the city has no true dry season month, as all twelve months see on average more than 60 mm of rain. As is commonplace in areas with this climate, temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the course of the year in Ibagué, with average high temperatures of about 28 C and average low temperatures of about 18 C. On average Ibagué sees 1700 mm of rain annually.

Neighborhoods

 * Picaleña
 * Combeima
 * Ricaurte
 * Kenedy
 * Jordan (I-IX etapa)
 * Sta Helena
 * Belen
 * Pueblo Nuevo
 * Galan
 * Sta Rita
 * Venecia
 * Ambala
 * Pedregal
 * Vergel
 * Martires
 * Estadio
 * La Francia
 * San Francisco
 * Claret
 * Hipodromo
 * Las Ferias

Notable people

 * Andres Marin, competitive ice climber
 * Gloria Valencia de Castaño, Journalist
 * Darío Ortiz Robledo, artist
 * Óscar Escandón, boxer
 * Jairo Alberto Bocanegra Pena, singer
 * Patricia Caicedo, soprano
 * Estefanía Gómez, actress
 * James Cañón, novelist
 * James Rodríguez, soccer player

Sports
The Colombian Football Association announced that Ibagué will be one of the venue cities to host the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup, although in the end it was not designated as the venue for the sporting event.

Ibague has one professional soccer team Deportes Tolima three times Liga BetPlay winner in 2003, 2018 and 2021. Club Deportes Tolima was founded on 18 December 1954, under the leadership of Manuel Rubio Sánchez, who was in charge of registering the team with Dimayor for the sum of 10,000 pesos. In 1957, one of the most important men in the history of Deportes Tolima, Jorge Guzmán Molina, arrived, achieving the first sub-championship of the team.

Twin towns – sister cities
Ibagué is twinned with:
 * 🇨🇳 Chengdu, China
 * 🇪🇸 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain

title: Ibagué


text: Category:785 deaths

title: Category:785 deaths


text:
Fox Sports World

Fox Sports World may refer to:
 * Fox Soccer, an American television specialty channel, originally named Fox Sports World
 * Fox Sports World (Canada), a Canadian television specialty channel

title: Fox Sports World


text:
Goulbourn Township, Ontario

Goulbourn Township, Ontario, was formed in 1818, roughly 20 km southwest of downtown Ottawa, with the first major settlement occurring in Richmond. Other communities in the township include Stittsville, Munster, and Ashton. Stittsville is the largest community in the township, owing in part to its proximity to Kanata and the Queensway. The township was amalgamated into the current City of Ottawa in 2001.

According to the Canada 2001 Census:
 * Population: 23,604 (approx. 39,250 with original boundaries)
 * % Change (1996-2001): 22.5
 * Dwellings: 7,975
 * Area (km².): 271.32
 * Density (persons per km2.): 87.0
 * At the 2006 census the population of Goulbourn had increased to 28,583.
 * At the 2011 census, the population had increased to 36,320.
 * At the 2016 census, the population had increased to 40,010.

Three quarters of the population (30,032) live in Stittsville. Richmond has a population of 4,833 (4,055 in the population centre) and the remaining 5,145 live in rural parts of the Township.

Goulbourn took its name from Henry Goulburn, Undersecretary of State for War and the Colonies from 1812 to 1826.

Reeves

 * 1850 Thomas Garland
 * 1858 J. Sumner
 * 1860 T. McCaffrey
 * 1861 John Scott
 * 1867 C.M. Church
 * 1868 Hiram Stykes
 * 1869 Robinson Lyon
 * 1870 Hiram Sykes
 * 1871 Robinson Lyon
 * 1873 John Scott
 * 1874 Robinson Lyon
 * 1875 Neil Stewart
 * 1885 John Kemp
 * 1887 H.G. Cowan
 * 1895 John C. Bradley
 * 1897 n/a (1897-1906 County Council was composed of division representatives, not reeves)
 * 1907 S.A. Jinkinson
 * 1909 George Llewellyn
 * 1920 R. Sample
 * 1924 T. Alfred Bradley
 * 1925 R.N. Sample
 * 1932 J.W. Patrick
 * 1935 Norman McCaffrey
 * 1951 H. Spearman
 * 1959 Alan R. Simpson
 * 1962 Albert Argue (died in 1964, term completed by Reginald Faulkner)
 * 1965 Reginald Faulkner
 * 1967 Garnet Bradley
 * 1972 Clarence Maheral

Mayors
Goulbourn amalgamated with Stittsville and Richmond on January 1, 1974. In a plebiscite, voters in the amalgamated municipality overwhelmingly selected to retain the name Goulbourn over the other options "Fernbank" and "South Carleton".

 * 1974-1981 Betty Hill
 * 1982-1991 Anton Wytenburg
 * 1992-1996 Paul Bradley
 * 1997-2001 Janet Stavinga

title: Goulbourn Township, Ontario


text:
Talk:Negima! Magister Negi Magi

why is it rated m
i have now idea why its rated mature could someone please tell me? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.74.0.207 (talk) 21:35, 6 July 2011 (UTC)

due to the huge amount of fan service perhaps? 99.123.198.224 (talk) 03:20, 17 January 2012 (UTC)

what is this?
I found this in Chinese manga site while trying to find ch 350(see if the Chinese one was released cause the English one was not) http://www.dm5.com/m96893-p4/ Now, where does this come from? and what is this categorized under? I can't find either the English nor the Japanese counterpart. Is this "official" stuff? is there more stuff of this kind? Any Negima experts know? 99.123.198.224 (talk) 03:20, 17 January 2012 (UTC)
 * That's the "volume 0" that supposedly came with the Negima Anime Final movie. I don't know if it's truly canon though because some parts from the movie were said to have changed from the original manga. Jcdizon (talk) 00:32, 29 January 2012 (UTC)

Why no mention of the controversy?
The plot involves sexual innuendo between a child and an adult. Why no mention of the controversy? — TheHerbalGerbil (TALK, 03:39, 27 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Are there any reliable sources to back that kind of section up?ggctuk (2005) (talk) 05:16, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Is there really a controversy? And as Ggctuk stated, you need reliable sources to support that there is one. —Farix (t | c) 13:35, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

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title: Category:786 deaths