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Edwin Boring

Edwin Garrigues (Garry) Boring (23 October 1886 – 1 July 1968) was an American experimental psychologist, Professor of Psychology at Clark University and at Harvard University, who later became one of the first historians of psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Boring as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, tied with John Dewey, Amos Tversky, and Wilhelm Wundt.

Early life
Boring was born on October 23, 1886, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and grew up in a Quaker family interested in science. His elder sister was the zoologist, Alice Middleton Boring. In 1904, Boring attended Cornell University, where he studied electrical engineering. He earned a ME degree in electrical engineering in 1908 and then took a job at Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Boring returned to Cornell for an AM in physics, but he was instead drawn to the world of psychology by I. Madison Bentley's animal psychology course.

Boring notes that his interest in psychology had already begun in 1905, when he took an elementary psychology class as an elective while pursuing his engineering degree. Bentley's course was under the professorship of Edward B. Titchener and captured Boring's attention. On one test Boring received back, Titchener had written "You have the psychological point of view!" (p. 31). It was that remark that stuck with him and guided him toward psychology when he arrived at Cornell for the second time.

Boring's minor research strayed too far from Titchener's definition of psychology. It was at Titchener's suggestion that he decided to do his thesis on visceral sensibility. He conducted the study by placing a stomach tube in his own stomach to learn more about the sensations of the alimentary tract. The results indicated that the stomach and esophagus were more sensitive to temperature and pressure than had been realized. The studies indicate his interest, from an early age, in the physical and experimental components of psychology. In 1914, Boring's efforts were rewarded when he received his PhD.

While he was completing his studies, Boring and his wife, Lucy M. Day, joined Titchener's lab group and became part of Titchener's selective in-group. Most of their time at Cornell was spent working on Titchener's research projects. During Boring's time at Cornell, he developed a close relationship with Titchener, one that continued until Titchener's death, in 1927. Boring felt deep respect for Titchener and admired his dedication to his work. In his autobiography, he even remarked that he believed Titchener to be the closest to genius of anyone he knew.

Titchener presented Boring with his first opportunity not only to teach but also to practice writing about the history of experimental psychology. Titchener wanted to redesign a systematic psychology course and enlisted his graduate students to do the job. It was a large task; the course covered the entire history of psychology in 3 lectures a week for 2 years. Boring and the rest of the team read through German literature on experimental psychology and many other primary sources of information to complete this project. The finished product was a 200-lecture course. The task sparked Boring's interest in the history that shaped the field; it would also serve as great training for Boring's later publication of his own text, The History of Experimental Psychology, in 1929. The work also gave Boring experience in teaching psychology. He continued to teach psychology at Cornell for 4 years but was glad when the war forced him to leave this position, as he felt that Cornell did not need him.

Intelligence testing in the First World War
During the First World War, Boring was not drafted because of the birth of his first son. Disappointment over not helping his country did not last for long. Robert M. Yerkes asked him to join in the development of intelligence testing. Boring was later appointed chief psychological examiner at Camp Upton in Long Island. Then, in 1918, Boring was asked to work on a massive report on the army intelligence program. Boring made his contribution during the war but was troubled afterward by the lack of scientific objectivity that resulted from intelligence testing. He found the use of probabilities to answer scientific questions to be particularly frustrating. At the time, Boring felt that science was a field of certainty, not probability. As a result, Boring remained cautious of intelligence testing throughout his life. When questions followed in later years about the definition of intelligence, Boring adopted the phrase "Intelligence is what the tests test" (p. 46).

Clark University
In 1920, Boring was offered a position at Harvard and was also offered a position to continue working with Yerkes in Minnesota. He chose Harvard because he believed that they had a greater need for him there; he had a mission to "rescue Harvard psychology from the philosophers" (p. 36) and transform psychology into a respectable science. Boring felt that the previous psychology professor, Hugo Münsterberg, had "vulgarized" (p. 46) the field by placing it in the philosophical realm; it was Boring's goal to bring the program to a more objective perspective. However, the summer before he was to start at Harvard, G. Stanley Hall, the president of Clark University, offered him a job as professor of experimental psychology for three years with the promise that if his work was satisfactory, his position would be made permanent. The appeal of stability led Boring to accept the position at Clark. Here, he enjoyed his work, but there were concerns regarding the status of psychology when the new president and geographer Wallace Walter Atwood was appointed, who wanted to replace newly popular psychology with geography. Controversy was also stirred during the Red Scare, when Atwood accused Boring of being a Bolshevik encouraging underground radicalism at Clark. Such allegations had no evidence of support, and while Boring waited for his reappointment to Clark, he received another offer from Harvard as an associate professor and an offer from Stanford University for a full professorship with a higher salary. The decision was made for Boring when Stanford withdrew the offer because of Boring's hesitation to accept it, leaving him to start a new career at Harvard.

Harvard University
His tenure at Harvard almost ended before it began, when he was injured in an automobile accident. Boring fractured his skull and had to stay in the hospital for six weeks. Also, the accident resulted in temporary retroactive and progressive amnesia. The experience caused Boring to question what it means to be conscious. If a person could not recall what the person had said moments afterward, could he really be considered conscious? Such questions become a lifelong endeavor for Boring to try to answer.

He was rewarded for his dedication to Harvard by being promoted to laboratory director in 1924; he held that position until 1949, when he resigned. In 1928, he received a full-time professorship; during that same year he was president of the American Psychological Association. Boring was very interested in building a close relationship between the staff and students. At his suggestion, in 1924 the Harvard philosophy and psychology department began the first colloquium to build a sense of community.

In 1933, James B. Conant became president of Harvard. Conant's interest in psychology was considerably greater than the former president's, and in 1934, he accepted Boring's motion to separate the psychology and philosophy departments. By removing the philosophy go-between, the official break between the disciplines freed the psychological science faculty to focus on the research and experimental psychology questions that they wanted to answer. Boring emphasized the use of the experimental method, rather than the tools of philosophy, to investigate psychological questions. Boring's mission was finally complete. Boring was made the first chair of the Department of Psychology, but 2 years later, he resigned the position to Gordon W. Allport.

Psychoanalysis treatments
Boring's self-criticism, fear of failure, and need for peer-acceptance became unmanageable and affected the productivity of his work. In 1933, at the suggestion of his friends and family, Boring began psychoanalysis treatment with a former colleague of Freud, Hanns Sachs. Boring remained in psychoanalysis for a year, five sessions a week, but he found it to be ineffective in alleviating his concerns. Boring had hoped to achieve a change in personality by the end of the experience and was disappointed to find that he still had his old mindset. Four years later, both Sachs and Boring wrote about the experience in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. The two men agreed that the psychoanalysis was not successful.

Psychological organizations, conferences, and committees
In 1919–1922 Boring served as secretary of the American Psychological Association while James McKeen Cattell was president. The two men were both very passionate about their work and often clashed as a result. In 1928, Boring became president of the American Psychological Association.

Even with Boring's influence on the field of psychology, he influenced other disciplines as well. In 1945, he was elected as the chairman of the Publications Committee of the American Philosophical Society, of which he was a member. He was also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the United States National Academy of Sciences.

In 1945, Robert M. Yerkes asked Boring to join his Survey and Planning Committee, designed to bring psychologists together to discuss issues regarding the war and the role psychologists could play during wartime to help provide services to the country. Boring suggested uniting the American Psychological Association and the Association for Applied Psychology and all other societies that were willing. It was an influential move that restructured the American Psychological Association into what it is today. The Intersociety Constitutional Convention was formed and first met in 1943. Boring was the first chairman of this Intersociety.

In 1966, Division 26, the Division for the History of Psychology, of the American Psychological Association was formed. During its formation, the Division 26 members made a gesture to honor Boring for his tremendous contribution as a historian of psychology. Boring declined to run for president and was made "honorary president" (p. 308) of the Division as an acknowledgment of his work. He was then asked to introduce the first elected president, Robert I. Watson, at the first official meeting, but old age prevented Boring from making the trip. He introduced him by a written statement he mailed, read by John A. Popplestone. In this speech, Boring made jokes that he was the ghost of history's past, a comment that was echoed by his voice being present without his body.

Family
In 1914, he married fellow psychologist Lucy M. Day. They had four children; the first, a son, was born on January 11, 1916, the birthday of Edward B. Titchener, a colleague whom Boring held in high regard. Boring and his wife considered this to be a "happy omen" (p. 45). On July 1, 1968, Boring died in Cambridge, Massachusetts at 81 from multiple myeloma, a hereditary bone cancer which he acquired later in life. His remains were interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Work
Although Boring conducted a lot of research during his career, most of it resulted in minor contributions to psychology. The vast majority of his research centered around sensory and perceptual phenomena. However, most of his time was spent teaching, doing administrative work, writing, editing, or guiding the research of his graduate students.

Figure-ground phenomena research
Later in his career Boring became interested in the perceptual ambiguity of figure-ground phenomena. He discussed cartoonist W. E. Hill's "My Wife and My Mother-in-Law" in a 1930 journal article, explaining that this illustration was an accurate representation of the phenomena because the two different images are interpenetrating one another with no formal dividing line. He contrasted this image to Edgar Rubin's Rubin vase figure, where he felt that there is an obvious dividing line between the human profiles and goblets. This description made Hill's young-woman/old-woman puzzle famous and earned it the title of the "Boring figure".

Tonal brightness research
One graduate student with whom Boring developed a student-professor relationship similar to the one Boring had had with Titchener was Stanley Smith Stevens. In 1936 the two published their research on tonal brightness. At the time it was known that tonal brightness varied with pitch; and, based on previous research, it was believed that high tones are bright and low tones are dull. The question that Stevens and Boring researched was concerning the bright and dull tones that could be produced with a siren when the holes were appropriately spaced, hypothesizing that brightness varies with both the intensity and the frequency of the pitch. Boring suggested that they embrace the new technology and conduct the experiment with a cathode-ray oscilloscope and a wave-analyzer. They concluded through this study that tonal brightness is essentially the same as tonal density.

Moon illusion research
One of Boring's best-known projects is his 1940 study of the Moon illusion. Boring and fellow researcher A. H. Holway hypothesized that the Moon appears larger on the horizon because the eyes view it directly at a leveled position, while the Moon overhead appears smaller because the eyes must look up. They tested this experimentally, and found that for an observer whose eyes were kept in a fixed position while a circle representing the Moon moved up (through the use of a pulley system), the Moon appeared to increase in size. This illusion did not occur when participants were lying down while viewing the Moon, and they also found some evidence of it not occurring when viewing the Moon with only one eye. These results led the researchers to conclude that the illusion of Moon shrinkage depends on the movement of the eyes in the head, not the movement of the actual head, and that it depends on binocular vision, that is, the use of both eyes together. This study exemplifies Boring's interest in misperceptions of sensory experience.

Publications
Although Boring did make some research contributions, he had a larger impact through his writing. His first connection to psychological literature came about in 1926 when Boring became a joint editor of The American Journal of Psychology, which was originally started by G. Stanley Hall and later bought by K. M. Dallenbach for Cornell University and put under Titchener's control. When Titchener withdrew from the journal Dallenbach asked I. Madison Bentley, Margaret Floy Washburn, and Boring to pick up editorship of the journal. Boring accepted and remained an editor for 23 years.

A History of Experimental Psychology, 1929
While studying at Cornell, the 200-lecture course Titchener had Boring and the rest of his graduate students design left an interest in Boring on the historical perspective of psychology. This later inspired him to publish his first book titled A History of Experimental Psychology in 1929 in hopes of making psychologists more "history-conscious" (p. 42). The book did well within the first year, selling 1,316 copies; many in the field enjoyed the text and the manner in which he described the history of the discipline. The text continued to prosper through the years, selling 16,765 copies in 1950. Most people still consider this to be Boring's most important work; the publication made him one of the first historians of psychology.

The Physical Dimensions of Consciousness, 1933
His next work, The Physical Dimensions of Consciousness, appeared in 1933. Here, he attempts to accommodate behaviorism by viewing sensations through their physical mechanisms. In this, Boring expresses his monist physicalism perspective, similar to operationalism's emphasis on measurement in order to understand the meaning of concepts. Boring himself was surprised by his view being in direct opposition to his deeply respected mentor Titchener. However, Titchener was dead by this time. Having found Titchener's mentalist and dualist perspective untenable, Boring now focused on the physical brain rather than the abstract mind. One of the book's objectives is to clarify such complex terms as consciousness and sensation, questions that had been plaguing him since his automobile accident. Boring sought to establish what these phenomena represent in physical terms.

Psychology: a Factual Textbook, 1935
Boring was approached by Harry P. Weld to collaborate with him and Herbert Langfeld on a psychology textbook, referred to as the BLW textbooks. The first edition was titled Psychology: a Factual Textbook and was published in 1935. This textbook focused mainly on the hard facts and each section was written by a specialist in the field of focus for that chapter. In 1939 the text was much revised and a second edition was published. The third edition published in 1948 was renamed Foundations of Psychology and it was greatly expanded to include new authors, chapters, and format.

Sensation and Perception in the History of Experimental Psychology, 1942
He considered his most important work to be his second volume of history, Sensation and Perception in the History of Experimental Psychology, which was published in 1942. Boring dated the preface December 6, 1941, the day before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, because, he argued, this was the last day "pure scholarship could be undertaken with a clear conscience" (p. 47). As a historian of psychology, Boring was well aware of the importance of place and time during which theories were proposed. In the last chapter of his book, Boring introduced Goethe and Johann Herder's idea of Zeitgeist. Both G. Stanley Hall and William James had occasionally used the term but it was Boring who popularized it. In several of his works and articles he refers to the Zeitgeist, recognizing how it affected the acceptance of his own ideas. For instance Boring describes forces of the time working to separate the disciplines of philosophy and psychology at Harvard, commenting that the change would have been made even without him there to propose it. Also in this book, Boring claimed that different areas of the tongue are sensitive to sweet, salty, sour and bitter tastes. This was based on misinterpreted data from a 1901 paper written by German scientist D. P. Hänig. This in turn led to the now discredited tongue map, which purports to show where tastes are detected. Boring later resigned from Harvard University in 1949 and in that same year published the second edition of A History of Experimental Psychology where he brought the text up to date on advancements in the field of psychology. He emphasizes the role of the Zeitgeist providing a context for the great thinkers in psychology to advance their ideas. Both volumes of the textbook were used by numerous graduate students in the 1960s and have played a large role in shaping psychologists' attitudes towards their field. It was considered to be "a classic, replacing a classic" (p. 60) in the world of psychology.

Psychology for the Fighting Man, 1943
During the Second World War Boring made his contribution to the war efforts through his writing. Since the First World War there had been talk about the need for a textbook on military psychology but the war ended before the idea could be further developed. With the second war underway the idea resurfaced, and Boring felt confident that with his experience from his BLW textbooks he could write the textbook on military psychology.

The National Research Council's Emergency Committee on Psychology decided to create a book that would focus on the psychology of the majority of soldiers in the army, the ordinary GI, instead of focusing on the higher level officers. In 1943, Psychology for the Fighting Man was published. The book focused on practical information, such as boosting the morale of soldiers, personal-adjustment in the army, and obtainment of necessities such as food. The book sold 380,000 copies and brought The National Research Council about $10,000.

With that project complete Boring turned toward creating the military psychology textbook he had originally intended to work on. In 1945 he completed this work with the publication of Psychology for the Armed Services.

"The woman problem", 1951
He published an article on his own in 1951 in the American Psychologist that focused on women in the field and emphasized his beliefs. He wrote about the disadvantages women in psychology face as the result of society which affects their professional advancement. He called this the "woman problem". Boring describes the standard procedure men undergo to achieve prestige in their career: a man must receive a PhD, conduct meaningful research that gets published, and undertake administrative work. If work is done well enough to impress their boss, men are likely to be promoted to higher positions and work in broader tasks such as publishing books, or becoming a dean or college president, allowing them to influence a wider range of people. It was the pursuit of prestige at higher positions that women lacked, largely because they were blocked from the higher-level jobs in the first place.

Psychology One, 1956
Boring appeared on Psychology One, which was the first publicly televised introductory psychology course that aired in 1956. The program was designed to introduce psychology to the general public and provided an entertaining but insightful form of instruction. Among the topics Boring discussed on the show were the physics of sensations such as light and sound, the structures of sense organs, perceptual constancy and illusions and learning.

Psychologist at Large: Autobiography, 1961
In 1961 Boring published a text about his career and life experiences. The book was titled Psychologist at Large: an Autobiography and Selected Essays. It was the extension of a chapter written previously for the series he had edited since 1930, A History of Psychology in Autobiography, which at that time was four volumes and contained autobiographical narratives by 58 eminent psychologists. Psychologist at Large was Boring's last book to be published.

Contemporary Psychology
In his seventies he continued to make contributions to the field through his writing. He founded and edited a journal that was dedicated exclusively to psychology book reviews, Contemporary Psychology. In this journal, Boring was able to shape the psychological works that were published. He demanded a high degree of quality which challenged psychologists to rise to his standard.

Legacy
Boring left his legacy on the field of psychology in many ways. He was a historian, researcher, professor, critic, editor, and served in positions on many committees and intellectual societies. He acted through a wide range of faculties to leave his mark on psychology.

Boring taught psychology at Harvard University for 27 years. He had a profound impact, training many students who would go on to become influential in the field of psychology such as Stanley Smith Stevens. He pushed psychologists to adopt better writing habits which ultimately benefited the audiences that would later read these works. Instead of focusing on gaining success through his students' work, Boring led a professional life full of integrity, and was willing to sacrifice his own needs for those of his students.

His textbooks also provided his interpretations of the field and were read by thousands of people. In this way, his written work influenced countless students and fellow psychologists with whom he never came into physical contact. Through the years Boring's rigidity softened and he was able to contribute to many areas in psychology. He was a man of experimental psychology, objective science, but also philosophical science. His research was based on sensory and perceptual phenomena, but he was also a statesman and advocate for women in psychology and military psychology.

The many contributions Boring made in psychology were recognized later in his lifetime. In 1956 Clark University offered him an honorary degree. Then a year later in 1957 the Society of Experimental Psychologists, a group he was a charter member of, held a special dinner in his honor where students and colleagues gave donations to Harvard to start the Boring Liberty Fund. Perhaps the greatest recognition Boring received for his work in progressing the field of psychology was in 1959 when the American Psychological Association honored him with the gold medal, praising him for "his varied and distinguished contributions to psychology as investigator, teacher, historian, theorist, administrator and statesman, popular expositor, and editor" (p. 796).

Boring had such a profound impact on psychology that Robert Yerkes even dubbed him "Mr. Psychology" (p. 445).

Selected publications

 * A History of Experimental Psychology (1929)
 * The Physical Dimensions of Consciousness (1933)
 * Sensation and Perception in the History of Experimental Psychology (1942)
 * Introduction to Psychology (1938)
 * Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. (1942)
 * Psychology for the Fighting Man (1943)
 * Psychology for the Armed Services (1945)
 * Foundations of Psychology (1948, with Herbert Langfeld and Harry Weld)
 * A History of Experimental Psychology (1950) (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 * Psychologist at Large: an Autobiography and Selected Essays (1961)
 * History, Psychology, and Science: Selected Papers (1963)
 * A Source Book in the History of Psychology (1965, as editor, with Richard J. Herrnstein)
 * History of Psychology in Autobiography (vols I-IV, 1930–1952)

title: Edwin Boring


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Me So Horny

"Me So Horny" is a song by the rap group 2 Live Crew on their album As Nasty as They Wanna Be. The explicit nature of the lyrics of this song and the album led to the initially successful prosecution of the group on obscenity charges and the album being banned from sale in Florida. This ban was overturned on appeal.

It reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart and number 26 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1989, staying on the Hot 100 for 30 weeks, despite lack of airplay due to the controversial nature of the lyrics (and/or possibly because of the associated controversy). The song also reached number one in the Netherlands.

The song samples music from the 1979 hit song "Firecracker" by Mass Production and dialogue from the Richard Pryor film Which Way Is Up? and the Stanley Kubrick film Full Metal Jacket.

Samples
The song heavily samples the 1979 funk hit single "Firecracker" by Mass Production. It also features lines from two different films:

Which Way Is Up? (1977) – The "Gonna do that thing. What we gonna do? Oh sock it to me. [moaning]" sample heard at the beginning of the song (and occasionally sampled throughout) is from the scene in which Leroy (Richard Pryor) listens in on his father Rufus (also played by Pryor) having sex in another room.

Full Metal Jacket (1987) – The lines listed below were sampled from the scene in which Private Joker (Matthew Modine) and Private Rafterman (Kevyn Major Howard) are approached by a Da Nang prostitute (Papillon Soo Soo). The exchange between Joker and the prostitute is used at the beginning, while the "Me so horny. Me love you long time. Me sucky sucky" sample is used in the chorus and throughout the song. Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" can be heard underneath the samples at the beginning and end; that song appeared in the original scene in the movie.
 * Da Nang prostitute: Well, baby, me so horny. Me so horny. Me love you long time. Me sucky sucky.

 * [later in the same dialogue exchange]
 * Private Joker: What'll we get for ten dollars?
 * Da Nang prostitute: Every t'ing you want.
 * Private Joker: Everything?
 * Da Nang prostitute: Every t'ing.

The "Me So Horny" sample was also featured three years later, when Sir Mix-a-Lot included the sample in "Baby Got Back".

Success and controversy
The song became a major hit for 2 Live Crew, topping the rap charts and going to No. 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1989. As Nasty as They Wanna Be reached No. 3 on the rap album charts and No. 29 on the album chart. The album eventually sold millions of copies. Because of the controversy, the song's title was never mentioned by Shadoe Stevens when he played the song on the radio show American Top 40, though it did get mentioned on a Summer 1990 episode when the group's second top 40 hit, Banned in the U.S.A. was on the chart.

The success of the single and the album led to concern over the explicit nature of rap lyrics both by 2 Live Crew and by gangsta rappers such as Geto Boys, Ice-T and N.W.A.

Then–Broward County prosecutor Jack Thompson prosecuted 2 Live Crew on obscenity charges and persuaded a Federal District judge to declare the album obscene in June 1990. 2 Live Crew performed songs from the album including "Me So Horny" and were prosecuted for obscenity. Record store clerks who sold copies of the album were also arrested.

Henry Louis Gates, Jr. testified on behalf of the group during the trial. The decision was later overturned on appeal and the ruling was upheld by the US Supreme Court. The publicity from the trials led to further sales of the album.

In 1999, the group, minus former bandleader Luther Campbell, rerecorded the song as "Bill So Horny" during the impeachment of U.S. President Bill Clinton for perjury under oath about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. However, the remix failed to chart.

In 2008, it was ranked number 83 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.

Music video
The music video mainly features the members of the band rapping while scantily clad women are shown dancing on a stage.

Two versions of the video were ultimately released. The original "uncut" version featured the dancing women in G-string bikini bottoms (with rotoscoped black squares placed over the women's buttocks) and sport brassieres. The MTV version featured alternative lyrics for the song (to comply with MTV's standards and practices) and alternative footage of the dancers in cycling shorts instead of bikinis.

Covers and re-mixes

 * American industrial metal act Revolting Cocks covered the song on their 2010 longplayer Got Cock?. The album also included a remix of the track.
 * Andy LaPlegua of Combichrist made an EBM version of the song for his solo album "13 Ways to Masturbate" released under the moniker of Dj Scandy.
 * An interpolation of the song can be heard on the track Kitty Kat from the mixtape Something for Thee Hotties by American rap artist Megan Thee Stallion.
 * The M.I.A. song "10 Dollar" (from Arular ) features an interpolation of the refrain: "What can I get for ten dollar? Every/any-ting you want"

Parodies

 * A comedy hip-hop duo known as 2 Live Jews (whose name is an obvious parody of 2 Live Crew) released a spoof of the song, called "Oy! It's So Humid". This spoof replaces the line, "Me love you long time" with "It's like a sauna in here." This is one of the tracks of their first album, titled As Kosher As They Wanna Be.
 * Richard Cheese and Lounge Against the Machine did a Lounge cover on the 2005 album, Aperitif for Destruction.
 * A parody group known as "MC Pillsberry & the 4 Large Crew (aka Too Large Crew)" made a spoof of the song called, "Me So Hungry". This title was also used for a similar spoof by 3 Local Boyz.
 * The parody music video "Me Want Maury" on the January 19, 1992 third-season episode of In Living Color mocked Maury Povich (Jim Carrey) and Connie Chung's (Steve Park) attempts to conceive a child.
 * The South Park episode "Cow Days" contains Eric Cartman saying the lines "Me love you long time. Me sucky sucky."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Me So Horny


text:
Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra

The Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra was an American civil passenger and cargo aircraft built by the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation during the late 1930s. An outgrowth of the earlier Model 10 Electra, the Model 14 was also developed into larger, more capable civil and military versions.

Design and development
The design, developed by a team led by Don Palmer, was a scaled-up version of the original Model 10 Electra, with passenger seating increased from 10 to 14. It was intended to compete commercially with the contemporary Douglas DC-2 and the Boeing 247. The first Model 14 flew on July 29, 1937, piloted by Marshall Headle. Early 14's used the Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet engine; later the Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9 was offered as an option.

Lockheed built a total of 114 Model 14s; another 119 were built under license in Japan by the Tachikawa Aircraft Company under the designation Tachikawa Type LO Transport Aircraft Thelma. Another 121 were built by Kawasaki Aircraft Company under the designation Kawasaki Type 1 cargo transporter. The type 1 cargo's fuselage was lengthened by 1.4 m, enabling the fitting of larger cargo doors.

In Japan during the late 1930s and early 1940s, in common with most large economies of the time, research was being conducted into pressurised cabins for high-altitude flight. In similar fashion to the Lockheed XC-35, in the United States, Tachikawa incorporated a pressurised cabin into new forward and centre fuselage sections for one of the locally built Lockheed Type LO Transport Aircraft. The resulting research aircraft was given the long designation Tachikawa-Lockheed Type-B high altitude research aircraft and the company designation Tachikawa SS-1. The first conversion was completed in May 1943, re-engined with 2x 1080 hp Mitsubishi Ha-102 14-cylinder radial engines. The two conversions carried out a brief flight testing programme.

Operational history
The Model 14 entered commercial service with Northwest Airlines in the US in October 1937. Aircraft were exported for use by Aer Lingus of Ireland, British Airways and KLM of the Netherlands. The Model 14 was the basis for development of the Lockheed Hudson maritime reconnaissance and light bomber aircraft operated by the Royal Air Force, USAAF, United States Navy and many others during World War II.

In 1938, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain, after signing the Munich Agreement, returned to London Heston Airport on board a British Airways Lockheed 14, and was famously photographed beside the aircraft (registration ), showing to the crowd the signed document, which he would later that day describe as bringing "peace for our time".

Record-breaking flights
In May 1938, a team of aviators of the Polish airline LOT, made up of Wacław Makowski, director of LOT and first pilot, Zbigniew Wysiekierski, second pilot, Szymon Piskorz, mechanic and radionavigator, Alfons Rzeczewski, radio-navigator and Jerzy Krassowski, assistant, accomplished an experimental flight from the United States to Poland. This flight was carried out on board one of the aircraft bought by LOT, manufactured by Lockheed in California, a Lockheed Model 14H Super Electra (of which the Polish registration was SP-LMK. ). The crew took off from Burbank (Los Angeles) where these aircraft were manufactured, and after a tour of South America, flew the Atlantic from Brazil to West Africa en route to Warsaw. A poster celebrating the flight can be seen in a US Library of Congress/Matson Archive photo of the LOT/Imperial Airways Sales office in Jerusalem about 1939.

The distance covered was of 15,441 mi. They flew via the cities of Mazatlan, Mexico City, Guatemala, and Panama, then via the South American cities of Lima, Peru; Santiago, Chile; Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Rio de Janeiro and Natal in Brazil. They flew across the South Atlantic to Dakar, Senegal, in Africa and then to Casablanca, Tunis, and then on to Rome, Italy. The final leg of the flight brought them to Warsaw, Poland. The flying time was 85 hours between 13 May and 5 June. The overflight of the Atlantic - from Natal to Dakar - lasted 11 hours and 10 minutes (1,908 mi/3,070 km). This feat by Polish aviators marked the history of air communication on a world level. (Prior to this flight airliners were delivered across the Atlantic as deck cargo on ships ).

Howard Hughes flew a Super Electra (NX18973) on a global circumnavigation flight. With four crewmates (Harry Connor, copilot; Tom Thurlow, navigator; Richard Stoddart, engineer; and Ed Lund, mechanic), the Lockheed 14 took off from Floyd Bennett Field in New York on July 10, 1938. The flight, which circled the narrower northern latitudes, passed through Paris, Moscow, Omsk, Yakutsk, Fairbanks, Alaska and Minneapolis before returning to New York. The total distance flown was 14,672 mi (23,612 km) and total time was 3 days, 19 hours, 17 minutes.

Variants
Data from:Lockheed Aircraft since 1913
 * Model 14: The basic airliner version of the Super Electra, variants with cabin arrangement changes, engine types etc. denoted by an alpha-numeric suffix.
 * Model 14H:20 aircraft powered by 2x 875 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1690-S1E-G Hornet engines
 * Model 14H-2:32 aircraft powered by 2x 875 hp R-1690-S1E2-G engines, 12 of which were re-engined with 1200 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S1C3-G Twin Wasp engines to become 14-08s.
 * Model C-14H-1:A single 14-H (c/n 1401) converted with a bulged cabin roof and large freight door for carriage of bulky loads, later re-converted to 14-H for airline use in Brazil and Nicaragua.
 * Model 14-08:12 14H-2s re-engined with 1200 hp R-1830-S1C3-G engines by Trans-Canada Air Lines (TCA)
 * Model 14-WF62:An exclusively export version powered by 2x 900 hp Wright SGR-1820-F62 Cyclone engines for British Airways (8), KLM (11) and Aer Lingus (2).
 * Model 14-WG3B:Another export version, a.k.a. 14-G3B, powered by 2x 900 hp GR-1820-G2B engines. With the exception of four aircraft delivered to Romania, all WG3Bs were delivered to Japan, either to Tachikawa Hikoki K.K. for re-sale or direct to the operator Nihon Hikoki K.K. (Greater Japan Airways Co. Ltd).
 * Model 14-N:Two aircraft were completed as personal transports as 14-Ns, powered by 2x 1100 hp GR-1820-G105 engines.
 * Model 14-N2:One aircraft built for Howard Hughes, for a round the world flight, powered by 2x 1100 hp GR-1820-G102 and fitted with auxiliary tanks in the cabin as well as, survival equipment, navigation equipment and communication equipment.
 * Model 14-N3: One aircraft with 2x 1100 hp GR-1820-G105A engines
 * Lockheed Type LO Transport Aircraft:Long designation given to 30 Model 14-WG3B aircraft delivered by Lockheed for use by Nihon Koku K.K. (Greater Japan Airways Co. Ltd). Given the allied reporting name Toby.
 * C-111
 * Three civil Model 14s impressed in Australia. FY1944 serials assigned after the fact

 * XR4O-1
 * One L-14 (USN 1441, mfr. serial 1482) used as USN executive transport

 * Tachikawa Type LO Transport Aircraft
 * Japanese licence production of the Model 14-38 by the Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd (立川飛行機株式会社 Tachikawa Hikōki K.K.?) powered by 2x 900 hp Mitsubishi Ha-26-I 14 cylinder radial engines. The 119 production aircraft were given the allied reporting name Thelma.

 * Kawasaki Army Type 1 Freight Transport
 * Long designation of the Ki-56

 * Kawasaki Ki-56
 * Freight transport aircraft redesigned by Takei Doi at Kawasaki Kokuki Kogoyo K.K. (Kawasaki Aircraft Company), from the Type LO. Careful attention to weight reduction, a 1.5 m increase in rear fuselage length and power from 2x 950 hp Nakajima Ha-25 14-cylinder radial engines improved performance and handling. The 121 production aircraft were given the Allied reporting name Thalia.

Civilian

 * Guinea Airways
 * Qantas Empire Airways
 * SABENA (in Africa)
 * John Mahieu Aviation (postwar)
 * Aerovias Brasil
 * Linhas Aéreas Paulistas – LAP
 * Trans-Canada Air Lines 16 Lockheed Super Electra 14H2, 12 modified to model 14-08 standard
 * Canadian Pacific Air Lines
 * Dutch East Indies
 * KNILM (Royal Dutch Indies Airways)
 * Air Afrique (the prewar airline, unrelated to the postwar airline of the same name)
 * Air France
 * TACA Airways System
 * Aer Lingus Teoranta
 * Japan Air Transport (Nihon Kōkū Yusō KK)
 * Imperial Japanese Airways (Dai Nippon Kōkū KK), which Japan Air Transport was merged into.
 * Manchukuo
 * Manchuria Aviation Company operated an unknown number of Tachikawa Type LO aircraft.
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands
 * KLM (mostly for KLM's West Indian Section in the Caribbean)
 * LOT Polish Airlines operated 10 aircraft between May 1938 and September 1939. Two aircraft (SP-BNG and SP-BNJ) crashed. When WWII started four aircraft (SP-BNH, SP-BPK, SP-BNE and SP-BPL) were evacuated to Romania and finally took over by LARES. One aircraft (SP-BPN) was interned in Estonia and three (SP-BNF, SP-BPM and SP-LMK) were evacuated to the United Kingdom. Two of them were taken over by BOAC in mid-1940.
 * DETA Mozambique Airways (serving Portugal's colony of Mozambique)
 * LARES (Liniile Aeriene Române Exploatate cu Statul)
 * 🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago
 * British West Indian Airways
 * British Airways Ltd. (not to be confused with the modern airline of the same name)
 * BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corporation), which British Airways Ltd. was merged into.
 * Northwest Airlines
 * Continental Air Lines
 * Santa Maria Airlines
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela
 * Línea Aeropostal Venezolana (LAV)
 * LARES (Liniile Aeriene Române Exploatate cu Statul)
 * 🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago
 * British West Indian Airways
 * British Airways Ltd. (not to be confused with the modern airline of the same name)
 * BOAC (British Overseas Airways Corporation), which British Airways Ltd. was merged into.
 * Northwest Airlines
 * Continental Air Lines
 * Santa Maria Airlines
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela
 * Línea Aeropostal Venezolana (LAV)
 * Santa Maria Airlines
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela
 * Línea Aeropostal Venezolana (LAV)

Military

 * 🇨🇦 Canada
 * Royal Canadian Air Force
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia
 * Estonian Air Force operated one aircraft, ex-Polish SP-BPN interned on 4 September 1939. This Super Electra was used for VIP flights between 1939 and 1940.
 * 🇯🇵 Japan
 * Imperial Japanese Army
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa
 * South African Air Force
 * Soviet Union
 * Soviet Air Force took over single ex-Polish Super Electra after seizing Estonia in 1940. Aircraft was crashed during takeoff from Riga to Moscow in October 1940. Wreck was still present on the airfield during German invasion in 1941.
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom
 * Royal Air Force
 * United States Army Air Forces
 * United States Navy
 * United States Navy

Accidents and incidents

 * On January 10, 1938, Northwest Airlines Flight 2, an L14H, crashed near Bozeman, Montana, due to structural failure caused by a design defect, killing all 10 passengers and crew on board.
 * On May 16, 1938, a Northwest Airlines L14H2 (NC17394) struck Stroh Peak (near Saugus, California) while on a delivery flight, killing all nine on board.
 * On July 8, 1938, Northwest Airlines Flight 4, an L14H (NC17383), stalled and crashed on takeoff from Billings Municipal Airport, killing one of 10 on board.
 * On July 22, 1938, a LOT Polish Airlines L14H (SP-BNG) crashed near Stulpicani, Romania, killing all 14 on board; the cause was unknown, but the aircraft may have been struck by lightning.
 * On November 18, 1938, a Trans-Canada Air Lines L14H2 (CF-TCL) crashed shortly after takeoff from Regina Airport, killing both pilots.
 * On November 22, 1938, a British Airways Ltd. L14-WF62 (G-AFGO) crashed at Walton Bay, Somerset while on a test flight, killing both pilots Commander E. G. Robinson and Commander Robert P. J. Leborgne.
 * On December 9, 1938, a KLM L14-WF62 (PH-APE, Ekster) crashed on takeoff from Schiphol Municipal Airport due to engine failure while on a training flight, killing all four on board.
 * On January 13, 1939, Northwest Airlines Flight 1, an L14H, crashed on takeoff from Miles City Municipal Airport following a cockpit fire, killing all four on board.
 * On January 18, 1939, a Guinea Airways L14H (VH-ABI, Koranga) crashed on takeoff from Tindal Airport following a loss of altitude, killing all four on board.
 * On May 17, 1939, an Imperial Japanese Airways L14-WG3B (J-BCOZ) crashed on takeoff from Fukuoka Airport after the aircraft struck a fence, killing six of 11 on board.
 * On December 21, 1939, a British Airways, Ltd. L14-WF62 (G-AFYU) ditched in the Mediterranean 300 mi off Alexandria, Egypt killing five of 11 on board.
 * On January 22, 1940, a KNILM L14-WF62 (PK-AFO) crashed off Ngurah Rai Bali International Airport after losing altitude on takeoff, killing eight of nine on board.
 * On April 22, 1940, a BOAC L14-WF62 (G-AFKD, Loch Invar) crashed near Loch Lomond, Scotland while being ferried from Perth International Airport to Heston Airport, killing all three crew on board.
 * On November 10, 1940, RAF L14N2 AX688 stalled and crashed shortly after takeoff from Nairobi during bad weather, killing all on board.
 * On February 6, 1941, a Trans-Canada Air Lines L14H2 (CF-TCP) crashed into trees while on approach to Armstrong Airport, killing all 12 passengers and crew on board.
 * On February 20, 1941, Royal Air Force Hudson III T9449 suffered a double engine failure and crashed near Musgrave Harbour, Newfoundland. The pilot Captain Joseph Mackey survived, but the two other crew and the sole passenger, Canadian doctor, and Nobel Laureate, Sir Frederick Banting, died.
 * On December 18, 1941, an Aeroflot L14H (CCCP-L3453) stalled and crashed near Khodynka Field following engine failure during a test flight, killing two of three on board.
 * On August 22, 1942, a KLM West Indies Service L14-WF62 (PJ-AIP) crashed shortly after takeoff from Piarco Airport, killing all 13 on board.
 * On December 20, 1942, a Canadian Pacific Air Lines L14H2 (CF-TPD) crashed into Mount William Knight, killing all 13 passengers and crew on board; the wreckage was found in August 1943.
 * On January 13, 1943, an Air France L14H2 (F-ARRF) crashed at Aguelhok, Mali due to engine failure, killing all three crew on board.
 * On May 19, 1943 RAF Hudson IIIA FH168 (c/n 414-6458) Crashed in attempted forced landing 7 miles south of RAF St Eval, England, as a result of engine failure. Two of the crew were killed, including, Air Commodore Sir Nigel Norman who was thrown from the aircraft and broke his neck. He was on his way to the Middle East for an airborne forces planning conference. Also killed in the crash was P/O (Obs) Arthur Rotenberg, J/16615 buried in St Columb Major Cemetery
 * On August 26, 1943, a British West Indian Airways L14H (VP-TAH) burned out at Piarco Airport during refueling.
 * On March 28, 1946, a Dalstroi Aviation L14 (514) crashed on takeoff from Zyrianka, Russia due to crew error, killing the pilot.
 * On April 22, 1946, a TACA de Nicaragua B14S (AN-ACC) crashed on takeoff from La Libertad Airstrip, killing 18 of 21 on board in the deadliest accident involving the Super Electra.
 * On December 7, 1946, a Dalstroi Aviation L14 (6) crashed on climbout from Berelakh, Magadan, Russia (then part of the Khabarovsk Territory) due to double engine failure, killing all seven on board.
 * On October 29, 1948, an R.A Brand & Co. Ltd. L14-08 (G-AKPD) crashed off Elba, killing all four passengers and crew on board; the wreckage was found in March 1954 during the search for BOAC Flight 781.
 * On July 14, 1951, an Airtaco L14H (SE-BTN) crashed on takeoff from Stockholm due to double engine failure caused by fuel starvation, killing four of six on board.
 * On June 16, 1955, a TAPSA L14H2 (OB-QAG-338) crashed on takeoff from Tarapoto Airport due to loss of control after the cargo shifted, killing all three on board.

title: Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra


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Through arch bridge

A through arch bridge, also known as a through-type arch bridge, is a bridge that is made from materials such as steel or reinforced concrete, in which the base of an arch structure is below the deck but the top rises above it. It can either be lower bearing or mid-bearing. Thus, the deck is within the arch, and cables or beams that are in tension suspend the central part of the deck from the arch.

Function
For a specific construction method, especially for masonry arches, the proportions of the arch remain similar no matter what the size: wider arches are thus required to be taller arches. For a semi-circular arch, the height is half of the span. Bridges across deep, narrow gorges can have their arch placed entirely beneath a flat roadway, but bridges in flatter country rise above their road approaches. A wide bridge may require an arch so tall as to become a significant obstacle and incline for the roadway. Small bridges can be hump-backed, but larger bridges such as the Old Bridge, Pontypridd may become so steep as to require steps, making their use for wheeled traffic difficult. Railways also find arched bridges difficult as they are even less tolerant of inclines. Where simple arched bridges are used for railways on flat terrain the cost of building long approach embankments may be considerable.

Further issues are the foundations for the bridge. Arch bridges generate large side thrusts on their footings and so may require a solid bedrock foundation. Flattening the arch shape to avoid the humpback problem, such as for Brunel's Maidenhead bridge, increases this side thrust. It is often impossible to achieve a flat enough arch, simply owing to the limitations of the foundations – particularly in flat country. Historically, such bridges often became viaducts of multiple small arches.

With the availability of iron or concrete as structural materials, it became possible to construct a through arch bridge: a bridge where the deck does not have to be carried over the top of the arch. This requires a structure that can both support the deck from the arch by tension rods, chains or cables and allow a gap in the arch, so the deck can pass through it. The first of these in particular cannot be achieved with masonry construction and requires wrought iron or steel.

The use of a through arch does not change the proportions or size of the arch: a large span will still require a tall arch, although this can now reach any height above the deck without obstructing traffic. The arch may also reach downwards at its sides, to either reach strong foundations or to place the roadway at a convenient height for spanning a deep valley from a plateau above. The Tyne Bridge demonstrates both of these advantages.

Notable examples
A well-known example of this type is the Sydney Harbour Bridge in Australia, which is based on the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. Other bridges include the Chaotianmen Bridge in China, the world's longest through arch bridge; Tyne Bridge of Newcastle upon Tyne; the Bayonne Bridge that connects New York City to New Jersey, which is longer than the Sydney Harbour Bridge; the Ahwaz White Bridge; the Bourne Bridge and Sagamore Bridge, smaller, near-twin bridges over the Cape Cod Canal; the Pennybacker Bridge in Austin, Texas and as the Hernando de Soto Bridge in Memphis, Tennessee. Wylam Railway Bridge is an early through arch bridge upstream of the Tyne Bridge.

Arch rib arrangements
The through arch bridge usually consists of two ribs, although there are examples like the Hulme Arch Bridge of through arches with a single rib. When the two arches are built in parallel planes, the structure is a parallel rib arch bridge. When the two arch ribs lean together and shorten the distance between the arches near the top, the span is a basket handle arch bridge.

Tied-arch bridges
Many tied-arch bridges are also through-arch bridges. As well as tying the side-loads of the arch, the tension member is also at a convenient height to form the bridge deck, as for a through-arch.

The converse is not true: through-arch bridges do not imply that they are tied-arch bridges, unless they also provide the deliberate tension member that is the key to a tied-arch. Although visually similar, tied- and untied- through-arch bridges are quite distinct structurally and are unrelated in how they distribute their loads. In particular, cast iron bridges such as the Stanley Ferry Aqueduct may resemble tied-arch bridges, but as cast iron is weak in tension they are not structurally a tied arch.

Construction sequence
In some locations it is not practical to support the arch from beneath during construction.

In modern construction, temporary towers are erected and supported by cables anchored in the ground. Temporary cables fly from each side to support arch segments as they are constructed. When the arches are almost complete a jacking bridge is placed over or beneath the gap to force the arches apart, whence the final section is constructed in place or lifted into position.

In some cases, this type of arch has been created by constructing cantilevers from each side, with the shoreside ends bolted securely down into heavy piers. The incomplete channel ends are then constructed toward each other and either filled by construction or by lifting a prefabricated center section. This type of construction was used in the Sydney Harbour Bridge illustrated above, with the supporting cables to the higher side of the arches removed after completion.

title: Through arch bridge


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Simple suspension bridge

A simple suspension bridge (also rope bridge, swing bridge (in New Zealand), suspended bridge, hanging bridge and catenary bridge) is a primitive type of bridge in which the deck of the bridge lies on two parallel load-bearing cables that are anchored at either end. They have no towers or piers. The cables follow a shallow downward catenary arc which moves in response to dynamic loads on the bridge deck.

The arc of the deck and its large movement under load make such bridges unsuitable for vehicular traffic. Simple suspension bridges are restricted in their use to foot traffic. For safety, they are built with stout handrail cables, supported on short piers at each end, and running parallel to the load-bearing cables. Sometime these may be the primary load-bearing element, with the deck suspended below. Simple suspension bridges are considered the most efficient and sustainable design in rural regions, especially for river crossings that lie in non-floodplain topography such as gorges.

Comparison to other types
In some contexts the term "simple suspension bridge" refers not to this type of bridge but rather to a suspended-deck bridge that is "simple" in that its deck is not stiffened. Although simple suspension bridges and "simple" suspended deck bridges are similar in many respects, they differ in their physics. On a simple suspension bridge, the main cables (or chains) follow a hyperbolic curve, the catenary. This is because the main cables are free hanging. In contrast, on a suspended deck bridge (whether "simple" or not) the main cables follow a parabolic curve. This is because the main cables are tied at uniform intervals to the bridge deck below (see suspension bridge curve).

The differences between these two curves were a question of importance in the 17th century, worked on by Isaac Newton. The solution was found in 1691, by Gottfried Leibniz, Christiaan Huygens, and Johann Bernoulli who derived the equation in response to a challenge by Jakob Bernoulli. Their solutions were published in the Acta Eruditorum for June 1691.

A stressed ribbon bridge also has one or more catenary curves and a deck laid on the main cables. Unlike a simple suspension bridge however, a stressed ribbon bridge has a stiff deck, usually due to the addition of compression elements (concrete slabs) laid over the main cables. This stiffness allows the bridge to be much heavier, wider, and more stable.

History
The simple suspension bridge is the oldest known type of suspension bridge and, ignoring the possibility of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, there were at least two independent inventions of the simple suspension bridge, in the wider Himalaya region and South America. The earliest reference to suspension bridges appear in Han dynasty records on the travels of Chinese diplomatic missions to the countries on the western and southern fringe of the Himalaya, namely the Hindukush range in Afghanistan, and the lands of Gandhara and Gilgit. These were simple suspension bridges of three or more cables made from vines, where people walked directly on the ropes to cross. Later, they also used decking made from planks resting on two cables.

In South America, Inca rope bridges predate the arrival of the Spanish in the Andes in the 16th century. The oldest known suspension bridge, reported from ruins, dates from the 7th century in Central America (see Maya Bridge at Yaxchilan).

Simple suspension bridges using iron chains are also documented in Tibet and China. One bridge on the upper Yangtze dates back to the 7th century. Several are attributed to Tibetan monk Thang Tong Gyalpo, who reportedly built several in Tibet and Bhutan in the 15th century, including Chushul Chakzam and one at Chuka. Another example, the Luding Bridge, dates from 1703, spanning 100 m using 11 iron chains.

Development of wire cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m. However, simple suspension bridge designs were made largely obsolete by the 19th century invention and patent of the suspended deck bridge by James Finley. A late 18th century English painting of a bridge in Srinagar, then part of the Garhwal Kingdom, anticipates the invention of the suspended deck bridge. This unusual bridge, built on a floodplain, had suspended deck ramps used to access a simple suspension bridge supported from towers.

Materials
This type of bridge is known as a rope bridge due to its historical construction from rope. Inca rope bridges still are formed from native materials, chiefly rope, in some areas of South America. These rope bridges must be renewed periodically owing to the limited lifetime of the materials, and rope components are made by families as contributions to a community endeavor.

Simple suspension bridges, for use by pedestrians and livestock, are still constructed, based on the ancient Inca rope bridge but using wire rope and sometimes steel or aluminium grid decking, rather than wood.

In modern bridges, materials used instead of (fiber) rope include wire rope, chain, and special-purpose articulated steel beams.

Living bridges
In the northeast Indian state of Meghalaya, Khasi and Jaintia tribal people have created living root bridges, which are a form of tree shaping. Here, simple suspension bridges are made by training the roots of the Ficus elastica species of banyan tree across watercourses. There are examples with a span of over 170 feet (52 m). They are naturally self-renewing and self-strengthening as the component roots grow thicker and some are thought to be more than 500 years old.

In the Iya Valley of Japan, bridges have been constructed using wisteria vines. To build such a bridge, these vines were planted on opposite sides of a river and woven together when they grew long enough to span the gap. The addition of planks produced a serviceable bridge.

Design

The very lightest bridges of this type consist of a single footrope and nothing more. These are tightropes and slacklines, and require skill to use. More commonly, the footrope is accompanied by one or two handrail ropes, connected at intervals by vertical side ropes. This style is used by mountaineers and is employed extensively in New Zealand on lesser backcountry walking tracks where examples are referred to as 'three wire bridges'. A slightly heavier variation has two ropes supporting a deck, and two handrail ropes. Handrails are necessary because these bridges are prone to oscillate side to side and end to end. Rarely, the footrope (or footrope plus handrails) is combined with an overhead rope similar to a zip-line or cableway.

In some cases, such as the Capilano Suspension Bridge, the primary supports form the handrails with the deck suspended below them. This makes for more motion side-to-side in the deck than when the primary supports are at deck level, but less motion in the handrails.

Disadvantages connected with simple suspension bridges are very great. The location of the deck is limited, massive anchorages and piers generally are required, and loading produces transient deformation of the deck. Solutions to these problems led to a wide variety of methods of stiffening the deck, resulting in several other types of suspension bridge. These include a stressed ribbon bridge, which is closely related to a simple suspension bridge but has a stiffened deck suitable for vehicle traffic.

A very light bridge, constructed with cables under high tension, may approach a suspended deck bridge in the nearly horizontal grade of its deck.

The bridge may be stiffened by the addition of cables that do not bear the primary structural or live loads and so may be relatively light. These also add stability in wind. An example is the 220 m bridge across the river Drac at Lac de Monteynard-Avignonet: this bridge has stabilizing cables below and to the side of the deck.

To reduce twisting motion in response to users a bridge may employ vertical drop cables from each side at the center of the bridge, anchored to the ground below.

Use
The lightest of these bridges, without decking, are suitable for use only by pedestrians. Light bridges with decking, and sufficient tension that crossing the bridge does not approach climbing, may be used also by pack horses (and other animals), equestrians, and bicycle riders. To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal walking step will induce traveling waves that can cause the traveler to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or side-to-side. The exception is a stabilized bridge, which may be quite stable.

Simple suspension bridges have applications in outdoor recreation. They are a popular choice for tree-top trails and, where the terrain is suitable, for stream crossings. They may be designed without stabilizing so that the free movement of the bridge provides a more interesting experience for the user.

In French, a rudimentary simple suspension bridge is known by one of three names, depending on its form: pont himalayen ("Himalayan bridge":  a single footrope and handrails on both sides, usually without a deck);  pont de singe ("monkey bridge: a footrope with overhead rope);  and tyrolienne ("Tyrolean":  a zip-line).  Zip-lines can be traversed by hanging below, or walked (by individuals with exceptional balance).  A more developed version of the pont himalayen, provided with a deck between a pair of main cables, is known as a passerelle himalayenne (French, "Himalayan footbridge").  Examples of this type include two bridges at Lac de Monteynard-Avignonet in the French Alps;  these bridges are exceptionally long, for bridges of this type.

Notable bridges
Notable simple suspension bridges include:

title: Simple suspension bridge


text:
File:Sn1899.gif

Shawnee county map circa 1899 Originally from History of Kansas, Noble Prentis, (Winfield: E.P. Greer. 1899)

title: File:Sn1899.gif


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Moveable bridge

A moveable bridge, or movable bridge, is a bridge that moves to allow passage for boats or barges. In American English, the term is synonymous with, and the latter is the common term, but drawbridge can be limited to the narrower, historical definition used in some other forms of English, in which drawbridge refers to only a specific type of moveable bridge often found in castles.

An advantage of making bridges moveable is the lower cost, due to the absence of high piers and long approaches. The principal disadvantage is that the traffic on the bridge must be halted when it is opened for passage of traffic on the waterway. For seldom-used railroad bridges over busy channels, the bridge may be left open and then closed for train passages. For small bridges, bridge movement may be enabled without the need for an engine. Some bridges are operated by the users, especially those with a boat, others by a bridgeman (or bridge tender); a few are remotely controlled using video-cameras and loudspeakers. Generally, the bridges are powered by electric motors, whether operating winches, gearing, or hydraulic pistons. While moveable bridges in their entirety may be quite long, the length of the moveable portion is restricted by engineering and cost considerations to a few hundred feet.

There are often traffic lights for the road and water traffic, and moving barriers for the road traffic.

In the United States, regulations governing the operation of moveable bridges (referred to as drawbridges) – for example, hours of operation and how much advance notice must be given by water traffic – are listed in Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations; temporary deviations are published in the Coast Guard's Local Notice to Mariners.

Types

 * Double-beam drawbridge
 * Drawbridge (British English definition) – the bridge deck is hinged on one end
 * Bascule bridge – a drawbridge hinged on pins with a counterweight to facilitate raising; road or rail
 * Rolling bascule bridge – an unhinged drawbridge lifted by the rolling of a large gear segment along a horizontal rack
 * Folding bridge – a drawbridge with multiple sections that collapse together horizontally
 * Curling bridge – a drawbridge with transverse divisions between multiple sections that curl vertically
 * Fan Bridge – a drawbridge with longitudinal divisions between multiple bascule sections that rise to various angles of elevation, forming a fan arrangement.
 * Vertical-lift bridge – the bridge deck is lifted by counterweighted cables mounted on towers; road or rail
 * Table bridge – a lift bridge with the lifting mechanism mounted underneath it
 * Retractable bridge (Thrust bridge) – the bridge deck is retracted to one side
 * Submersible bridge – also called a ducking bridge, the bridge deck is lowered into the water
 * Tilt bridge – the bridge deck, which is curved and pivoted at each end, is lifted at an angle
 * Swing bridge – the bridge deck rotates around a fixed point, usually at the centre, but may resemble a gate in its operation; road or rail
 * Transporter bridge – a structure high above carries a suspended, ferry-like structure
 * Jet bridge – a passenger bridge to an airplane. One end is mobile with height, yaw, and tilt adjustments on the outboard end
 * Guthrie rolling bridge
 * Vlotbrug, a design of retractable floating bridge in the Netherlands
 * Linkspan
 * Ferry slip
 * Locks are implicitly bridges as well allowing ship traffic to flow when open and at least foot traffic on top when closed

Accidents

 * April 23, 1853 – Rancocas Creek, New Jersey: Engineer of the Camden & Amboy's 2 p.m. train out of Camden, New Jersey missed stop signals and ran his train off an open drawspan at Rancocas Creek. There were 27 fatalities.
 * June 29, 1864 – St-Hilaire train disaster, Mont-St-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada: A Grand Trunk Railway passenger train failed to observe a red signal and ran through an open swing bridge over the Richelieu River. Ninety-nine were killed and 100 were injured.
 * November 7, 1916 – Summer Street Bridge Disaster, Boston, Massachusetts: a streetcar loaded with passengers ran off an open drawbridge into Fort Point Channel near downtown Boston killing 46 passengers.
 * September 15, 1958 – Newark Bay, New Jersey rail accident, Elizabethport, New Jersey: Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ) commuter train #3314 from Bay Head Junction to Jersey City ran a stop signal and an open derail protecting the Newark Bay 4-span lift bridge, and the train's two diesel locomotives and two of five passenger cars went into Newark Bay through one of the open spans. Four crewmen, including the engineer and fireman, and 44 passengers died by drowning.
 * September 22, 1993 – Mobile, Alabama, US: In heavy fog and low visibility, a disoriented towboat pilot made a wrong turn and entered a non-navigable waterway. Due to inexperience and improper radar training, the pilot did not realize he was off-course and struck an unfinished swing bridge over the Big Bayou Canot around 2:45AM, knocking it out of alignment by approximately three feet (one meter), although his initial supposition in the low visibility was that one of the barges had run aground.  The rails kinked but did not break, so no fault was indicated for approaching trains.  Approximately 8 minutes later, an Amtrak train carrying 220 passengers derailed at the kinked portion of the rails, killing 47 and injuring 103 more.
 * November 23, 1996 – Kearny, New Jersey, US: An Amtrak passenger and mail train derailed while crossing the Portal Bridge over the Hackensack River, sideswiping another passenger train in the process. Thirty-four people were injured. A broken rail joint on one pair of the bridge's movable rails at each end of the span caused a track misalignment, while still making electrical contact with the landward rails; thus signals were clear, derails closed, and a fault indication was not displayed.

title: Moveable bridge


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Charles-Philippe d'Orléans

Charles Philippe Marie Louis d'Orléans (born 3 March 1973) is a member of the House of Orléans. He is the elder of two sons of Prince Michel d'Orléans and his former wife Béatrice Pasquier de Franclieu. His paternal grandfather was Prince Henri d'Orléans, the Orléanist pretender to the French throne. As such, Charles-Philippe takes the traditional royal rank of petit-fils de France with the style of Royal Highness.

Charles-Philippe was an independent candidate in the 2012 French legislative election, standing in the Fifth constituency for French residents overseas, which covers Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Monaco. He finished seventh, with 3.05% of the vote. (Within the constituency, he finished fourth in Portugal, his country of residence, with 7.37%, and fourth also in Monaco, with 5.33%.)

Charles-Philippe served as Grand Master of the Orléans obedience of the Order of Saint Lazarus from 2004 to 2010. Since 2004, he styles himself as "Duke of Anjou".

Marriage and issue
On 21 June 2008, Charles-Philippe married Diana Álvares Pereira de Melo, 11th Duchess of Cadaval. The ceremony took place in the Cathedral of Évora. Both husband and wife are Capetians, descending in unbroken male line from King Robert II of France (972–1031), Charles-Philippe through the elder son, King Henry I of France, via the cadet branch of the House of Bourbon-Orléans, and Diana from his younger son Robert I, Duke of Burgundy through the royal (though illegitimate) Portuguese branch of the House of Braganza. The couple are also fifth cousins once-removed through shared descent from King Francis I of the Two Sicilies.

The couple's only child, Princess Isabelle d'Orléans, was born on 22 February 2012 in Lisbon, Portugal. Her godparents are Princess Maria Theodora zu Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg and Felipe VI of Spain (then Prince of Asturias).

In December 2022, their divorce was announced.

In March 2023, his engagement to Monegasque shooting champion and former model Naomi-Valeska Kern (née Salz), widow of the German fashion designer Otto Kern, was announced.

On 9 September 2023, he married Naomi-Valeska in a civil ceremony. The Chef of the House, the Count of Paris, made clear that he lost due to this second marriage the HRH and his wife is just Madame Charles Philippe d’Orleans. His former wife retained her French titles and dignities. According to the house rules a consent of the head of the house ( which he didn’t give) and a Catholic Church marriage is required ( which did take place as the first marriage was not annulled)

Politics
Charles-Philippe was an independent candidate in the 2012 French legislative election, standing in the Fifth constituency for French residents overseas, which covers Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Monaco. As a candidate, he described himself as "strongly attached to France's republican values", adding that he might subsequently join "a recomposed centre-right party". He finished seventh, with 3.05% of the vote. (Within the constituency, he finished fourth in Portugal, his country of residence, with 7.37%, and fourth also in Monaco, with 5.33%.)

Order of Saint Lazarus
In 2004, Charles-Philippe was appointed as Grand Master of the Orléans obedience of the Order of Saint Lazarus. His acceptance of this role placed the order under the sanction of a dynastic prince of the House of Bourbon, in what is said to be a continuation of a tradition established since the 13th century when the Order of Saint Lazarus came under the protection of King Philippe le Bel. This affiliation had continued over the ensuing centuries but ended with the deposition of King Charles X of France, when a decree of King Louis Philippe I revoked royal protection of the diminishing remnant of the order and made it illegal to wear the order's decorations.

Charles-Philippe's designation as "Grand Master of the Order of Saint Lazarus" was disputed by those knights who remained loyal to his distant cousins (Francisco de Borbón y Escasany, 5th Duke of Seville, and, subsequently, Carlos Gereda y de Borbón, Marquis de Almazán) and to the Melchite Greek Catholic Patriarch Gregory III Laham as Protector of the order.

Charles-Philippe founded the Saint Lazare Foundation, which has been financed by the World Society, an international think tank whose mission, inspired by the Count of Paris, is to explore solutions to the planet's future needs for potable water.

In March 2010, Charles-Philippe decided to step down from his position as Grand Master for personal reasons. However, he maintained his participation in the order's activities as Grand Master Emeritus, as Grand Prior of France, and as chairman of the order's governing council. He was replaced by Count Jan Dobrzenský z Dobrzenicz as Grand Master of the Orléans obedience.

Title controversy
On 8 December 2004, he received the title "Duke of Anjou" from his uncle Prince Henri d'Orléans, head of the House of Orléans. There is some controversy in the use of this title by an Orléans prince. It had traditionally been borne by or associated with the heads of the House of Bourbon that claimed the French throne as Legitimist pretenders since 1883, in rivalry to the claim asserted by the House of Orléans.

In that year, Henri, comte de Chambord, last patrilineal descendant of Louis XV, died childless. The Legitimist legacy was claimed by the next senior branch of the Bourbons, descended from a younger grandson of Louis XIV – Philippe, Duke of Anjou. Although Philippe ceased use of the Anjou title upon becoming King Philip V of Spain in 1700, renouncing his succession rights to the French throne in exchange for retention of his Spanish crown, Legitimists maintained that this act was not binding. Therefore, they still uphold the senior agnatic descendant of Philippe d'Anjou as rightful claimant to the French crown.

In 1989, Louis Alphonse de Bourbon became the senior agnate of the House of Bourbon, claimed the Legitimist succession, as had his father, and was immediately accorded the title "Duke of Anjou" by Legitimists.

He does not claim that Duke of Anjou is an inherited legal title, since it was never officially conferred upon his ancestor Philippe d'Anjou; it was, in fact, subsequently given by French kings to other cadets of the dynasty domiciled in France. Rather, it is explicitly a title of pretense, associated historically, politically and symbolically with French Legitimism.

The House of Orléans never possessed or used the Anjou ducal title during the ancien régime, but its head claims the right de jure to dispose of it, as of all titles traditional in France's royal house. So too does the Legitimist claimant. Thus, Charles-Philippe, Duke of Anjou and Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou are contemporaries and cousins — both reared in Spain, as it happens — but nominally represent different and competing rationales for restoration of the French monarchy.

title: Charles-Philippe d'Orléans


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Tilt bridge

A tilt bridge is a type of moveable bridge which rotates about fixed endpoints rather than lifting or bending, as with a drawbridge. The tilting Gateshead Millennium Bridge spanning the River Tyne between Gateshead on the south bank and Newcastle upon Tyne, England, on the north is a pedestrian bridge with two large hydraulic rams at each side that tilt the structure back allowing small watercraft to pass under.

The pedestrian and cycle pathway is an almost-horizontal curve, suspended above the river from a just-beyond-the-vertical parabolic arch. To raise the bridge, this whole assembly rotates as a single, rigid structure. As the arch tilts lower, the pathway rises, each counterbalancing the other so that a minimum of energy is needed. The resultant appearance in motion leads to it sometimes being called the "eyelid bridge", since its shape is akin to the blinking of an eye if seen from along the river. Two further tilt bridges are known to exist in Belgium, both constructed in 2011: the Scheepsdalebrug (Scheepsdalebridge) in Brugge and the Sint-Annabrug over the river Dender in Aalst. The former combines the working mechanisms of a rolling lift bascule bridge and a tilt bridge: the bridge is mounted on two lifting arms which roll along racks, positioned parallel to the navigable way, tilting up the bridge leaf providing a clearance for passing ships. The latter is mounted on two lifting arms which are connected to fixed pivot points a few feet downstream from the bridge leaf.

title: Tilt bridge


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Noah's Arc (TV series)

Noah's Arc is an American cable television comedy-drama series that aired for two seasons on the Logo network from October 19, 2005 to October 4, 2006. The show centered on the lives of four African-American gay friends who share personal and professional experiences while living in Los Angeles.

After its cancellation, a film was produced entitled Noah's Arc: Jumping the Broom, which was released theatrically in 2008.

Series overview
Originally, the show focused around friends Noah Nicholson, Alex Kirby, Ricky Davis, and Chance Counter. Noah is a financially struggling screenwriter who eventually lands a job as a Hollywood film writer, a job that was originally belonged to his boyfriend Wade Robinson. Alex is a HIV counselor and the sassy friend of the group. Ricky is the owner of clothing boutique and the closest friend of Noah. Chance is a college professor. Wade who eventually becomes Noah's boyfriend struggles with his sexual identity as well as the acceptance by Noah's friends. The group endures many social issues throughout the series including same sex dating, same-sex marriage, same-sex parenthood, HIV and AIDS awareness, infidelity, promiscuity, homophobia, and gay bashing.

By season two, Noah and Wade's intimate relationship ends with Noah having a new boyfriend and moving into new home. Alex opens his own HIV clinic with the help of his friends. Ricky enters into a brief relationship with a doctor who is HIV positive but Ricky has his reservations about being intimate. Chance is now a married man who is adapting to married life.

Cast and characters

 * Darryl Stephens as Noah Nicholson, a screenwriter
 * Rodney Chester as Alex Kirby, an HIV/AIDS educator
 * Christian Vincent as Ricky Davis, a promiscuous boutique owner
 * Doug Spearman as Chance Counter, an economics professor
 * Jensen Atwood as Wade Robinson, a screenwriter who comes out after falling for Noah

Development
The idea for Noah's Arc originated in 2003 when Patrik-Ian Polk attended a Los Angeles Black gay pride club event. The experience inspired Ian-Polk to write the series that was centered around the lives of Black gay men. The original one-hour pilot was produced independently and released as a web series in 2004, and to assist in funding each episode, the show was originally envisioned as a DVD subscription series. After the web series was well received, the series was picked up by Logo TV as a half-hour series. During production of the pilot episode, Rodney Chester – who portrays Alex in the show – used his own truck as a makeshift hair, make-up and dressing room. After the pilot episode was well received at film festivals and independent screenings, the series was picked up by MTV-affiliated cable network Logo as a half-hour series. The pilot, "My One Temptation", was re-written and re-shot as a two-part premiere episode, and Noah's Arc became LOGO's first scripted series.

Executive producer Dave Mace served as the series' showrunner, with Patrik-Ian Polk and Carol Ann Shine as series' co-executive producers. Pamela Post, Noreen Halpern, Eileen Opatut, and John Morayniss also served as executive producers for the second season.

Casting
Casting for the lead characters of Noah's Arc occurred in early 2003. Pamela Azmi-Andrew was the casting director as Polk sat in on the auditions. For the title lead role, Noah Nicholson, actors Darryl Stephens and Christian Vincent were being considered. Stephens, who originally auditioned for the role of Ricky Davis, was cast as Noah Nicholson. Vincent was later recast as Noah's best friend Ricky Davis.

Rodney Chester was cast as Alex Kirby. Chester maintained a friendship with Polk when he appeared in Polk's independent film Punks, which adapts several elements into the television series. Doug Spearman and Jensen Atwood would later be cast for their respective roles. By mid-2003, a cast was put together for the filming of the pilot episode. Shortly after the release of the pilot episode, Polk wrote and directed another in-depth episode for the characters. Shaun T. Fitness, who was originally cast as Trey Iverson in the pilot episode, was replaced by Gregory Keith in the series. Carlos Tineco, who was originally cast as a random guy whom Ricky has sex with, was cast for the recurring role Junito. The character of Junito was originally a go-go dancer before being rewritten as a doctor and later recast with Wilson Cruz assuming the role in the series. Jurnee Crapps, who played the role of Kenya McEntire, was replaced by Sahara Davis in season two.

Filming
Season one was filmed in Los Angeles, while season two was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Reunion
On July 5, 2020, nearly fourteen years after the show ended, the cast reunited for Noah's Arc: The 'Rona Chronicles, an hour-long special aired on YouTube and Facebook. Produced during and based around the COVID-19 pandemic, The 'Rona Chronicles was produced as a virtual reunion, with the actors (and therefore their characters) interacting virtually via Skype. The reunion, which benefited charity, was followed by a live Q&A moderated by Queer Eye's Karamo Brown.

Legacy
Noah's Arc was the first scripted television series to center a group of black gay men.

Episodes
Season one consists of nine episodes, while season two has eight episodes. The unaired pilot is available on the season one DVD box set.

Broadcast
Noah's Arc aired on Logo in the United States. The show became Logo's highest-rated show during its run. Despite the positive feedback from viewership, the show was not renewed for a third season and was later canceled. In the summer of 2008, BET's spin-off cable television channel BET J briefly broadcast the entire series in rotation. In October 2008, the movie Noah's Arc: Jumping the Broom was released which picks up after series' cliffhanger finale.

Streaming
In March 2019, Logo TV began streaming the entire series on their YouTube channel. The episodes were removed from their YouTube channel in September 2019. The series streams on Apple TV (with a subscription). Outside of Logo platform, the series can be found on electronic sell-through platforms such as iTunes and Amazon Prime Video.

Soundtracks
Soundtrack albums for each of the first two seasons were released by Tommy Boy Records. The season one soundtrack was released on March 24, 2006, and features music by such artists as Joshua Radin, Gordon Chambers, Me'shell Ndegéocello, Patrik-Ian Polk, Mary Ann Tatum, and Adriana Evans.

The soundtrack for season two was released on December 15, 2007, featuring the likes of Anthony David, Bedroom Walls, Raz-B, Patrik-Ian Polk, Mike Anthony, and Solange Knowles.

title: Noah's Arc (TV series)


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Portal talk:The arts

Trying to experience the best of...the general arts
Need some direction. Maybe the high importance articles, except we need a category directory for doing that Alena 33 (talk) 02:03, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:The arts