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GAZ Volga

The Volga (Волга) is an executive car that originated in the Soviet Union to replace the GAZ Pobeda in 1956. Their role in serving the Soviet nomenklatura made them a contemporary cultural icon. Several generations of the car have been produced.

Despite the continuous modernisations, GAZ found it increasingly difficult to keep the ageing design competitive in a market economy. GAZ CEO Bo Andersson decided to discontinue the Volga range in 2010.

First Generation, the GAZ-M-21
The first generation Volga was developed as a replacement for the 1946 GAZ-M20 Pobeda mid-size car, based on a brief issued in 1951. The first pre-production batch left GAZ on 10 October 1956. It was built in three distinct series; in total 639,478 Volgas were built from 1956 until 1970. There was also an estate derivative (GAZ-22) and a rare, V8-engined version developed for the KGB's 9th Directorate as an escort vehicle for motorcades.

The first series, nicknamed the Star, was built from late 1956 until 1958. It was replaced by the second series, fitted with a 16-slit grille and nicknamed Akula (Shark). There were also continuous improvements throughout the entire production run. In 1962, the third series with its characteristic 36-slit grille was introduced. The new grille prompted the "Baleen" (Kitovy Us) nickname and became a Volga trademark for decades. Originally called the GAZ-M-21, the -M- prefix was a reference to Vyacheslav Molotov, after whom the Volga plant was named. The plant was renamed following the downfall of his career in 1957, and the -M- prefix was gradually removed from the car beginning in 1965. A fourth series was rejected and production of the third and final GAZ-21 continued until 15 July 1970.

The estate was introduced in 1962 and remains rare as it was only available to state buyers, to discourage private enterprise. In export, it was freely available.

Second generation, the GAZ-24, GAZ-3102 and GAZ-3110
Development of the planned replacement for the GAZ-21 Volga began in 1961. At the time, the North American automotive industry was perceived as the global leader in design and innovation, and it inevitable for its Soviet counterpart to look up to it. Despite Nikita Khrushchev urging his country to "catch-up and overtake America", the Soviet command economy could not afford to match the American convention of altering the car for every model year, nor were its centralised factories physically capable of doing so. Thus a more conservative measure was taken, where a typical car would last 7–10 years on the conveyor, typical of Europe. GAZ-24 Volga was planned to have such a lifetime, lasting through the 1970s. However, even before its 1968 première, it was already behind schedule and as the USSR slipped into the Era of Stagnation, following Alexey Kosygin's 1965 Soviet economic reform, the car was to become an iconic feature of that era, both aesthetically and technically. Developed in the mid-1960s, and after the initial production run lasting more than a decade and a half it would go a series of modernisations and facelifts, and despite unsuccessful attempts to find a replacement (GAZ-3105, GAZ-3111 and the Siber), the car would finally be retired in 2009 - 40 years after the first series began production.

First series — the GAZ-24 (1970–1985)
Design of GAZ-21's replacement began in the early 1960s, and original sketches showed an evolution from the contoured body of the early 1960s to the more angular and rigid profile. The M24 was to introduce the popular measure economy of scale into the model range, where the same body would house different powertrains, mechanics and interior trim, and hence could me marketed as separate cars (platform sharing). GAZ hoped to employ this on the new Volga and a range was drawn where the entry model would carry the traditional, though modernised, four cylinder engine and manual transmission (the prototype appeared with a 120 hp 2,990 cc V6). The first prototypes were built in 1966, and a year later the car was certified for production. For economic reasons a V6 model, despite showing promising results, was deemed unfeasible for mass production. The first batch of 24 vehicles were assembled in 1968, 215 more followed in 1969 and in a public ceremony held on 15 July 1970 the car superseded the GAZ-21 on conveyor without halting it.

Despite its more imposing appearance, the GAZ-24 was in fact 75 mm shorter in length and 120 mm in height, yet its wheelbase was extended by 10 mm. The lower body waist line, allowed the window area was to be increased, whilst using thinner linings in doors, roof and other body panels, notably increased interior space. The combination of this progressive design and a lower clearance gave it a much lighter and more elegant aura.

The car was powered by a 2,445 cc ZMZ-24D engine, an evolution of the ZMZ-21A. Retaining the basic OHV configuration, it now ran on 92 RON gasoline (while the ZMZ-24-01 could use commonly available 76 octane, and the 24-07 could use liquid propane). The cylinder block was die cast, instead of the slower coquille for the 21A. The engine featured a twin-choke carburettor, with a higher compression ratio, producing 95 hp at 4500 rpm and an even more impressive 186 N.m of torque at 2200–2400 RPM. Transmission was now fully synchronised four on floor layout. The brakes were improved, with a hydraulic vacuum servo unit (a licence-built Girling PowerStop), as well as an independent parking brake (rather than transmission brake of the GAZ-21). At the same time, certain features were retained for their proven reliability, like the kingpin front suspension and recirculating ball steering.

The car was built in several modifications and these were now indicated by numbers rather than letters. The sedan version was called GAZ-24. GAZ-24-01 was the taxi, which included a robust artificial leather interior and a slightly modified ZMZ-21A engine to run on 80 RON petrol. GAZ-24-02 was the estate wagon, introduced in 1972. Unlike the GAZ-22, it was serially assembled on a reserve conveyor, rather than out of sedan side panels. The rear, fifth, door was now a single unit that opened upwards instead of sideways. The car could seat eight people, due to a third row of seats in the cargo section. To allow maximum cargo volume and functionality, the seats in third and second rows were split (rather than a single bench) and could be folded independently of each other. GAZ-24-03 was the ambulance version of the -02. GAZ-24-04 was the taxi estate, with the powerplant and interior trim of the -01. In 1977 a GAZ-24-07 conversion kit was introduced for taxiparks. The GAZ-24-24 was the successor to the GAZ-23 "Chaser", with an identical V8 and automatic gearbox from the Chaika. Yet, unlike the -23, given the purpose of the car, even less effort was put in to differentiate it from standard vehicle due to costs. For example, the automatic selector was masked under a standard shifting lever. A small batch of export cars for countries with left-hand traffic was called GAZ-24-54 (less than a thousand examples built). GAZ-24-76 and -77 were export versions to Benelux countries, who would retrofit the cars with Indénor diesels and a more luxurious trim such as vinyl roof. Five experimental vehicles were built on the chassis of GAZ-69 4×4, called GAZ-24-95, one of which was known to be personally used by Leonid Brezhnev.

Though the vehicle never underwent a generational facelift on the scale of the GAZ-21 (if one does not count its derivative successors), nonetheless the car was modernised during production. The early stage included removal of bonnet-mounted rear-view mirrors, new ignition and boot locks. The novel belt-speedometer proved too complicated and was replaced by a standard arrow-driven one, as was the fate of the engine cooling coupling that controlled the ventilator fan (proved unreliable, the ventilator would be permanently on, whilst warm air for cold starts would be manually controlled with venetian-type shutter). Additions included external comfort lights were on the rear pillar's chrome element, that turned on upon opening of rear doors.

In the original design brief the GAZ-24 was to be retired by 1978, and though by that time work on a successor (the GAZ-3102) was underway, it was clear that the car would have to soldier on the conveyor for a foreseeable future. In 1977, following a 1976 report by NAMI on the Volga's major shortcomings (problematic steering prime among them), GAZ refused to update the GAZ-24's front suspension, instead making only cosmetic changes. (The front suspension would be unchanged until 2003, when the kingpins were changed to sealed ball joints, while the rear got an antiroll bar. ) Visually, these Volgas can be identified by front and rear bumper overriders, front fog lights and rear reflectors integrated into a single block. Inside the car gained retractable seat belts, a new dashboard where all exposed metal elements were covered by plastic. In this final shape the car was produced until 1986, the estate until 1987. Including the GAZ-24-10, almost one and a half million such Volgas were produced.

Overall, the original Model 24 Volga was a major success. Like the GAZ-21, it remained a dream car for the Soviet consumer. However, unlike the GAZ-21 it cost almost twice as much, and given that its launch coincided with the launch of the VAZ plant, the more available Lada allowed for the Volga to rise in exclusivity. The lion's share of cars were used for the Soviet nomenklatura and the rest in taxi, police and ambulances. Private ownership would often be offered only to representatives of Soviet elite and celebrities. Given that it was possible to openly purchase a new Volga only via Beryozka chain (where it cost almost ten thousand rubles) its resale value would thus be several times higher than the stated nominal price. In both cases, the sum would be well outside the financial abilities of the Soviet working class. Thus, though the car was as iconic of its time as the predecessor, it was also become a symbolic feature of Social stratification in the USSR, and the Era of Stagnation during which it was produced. This more negative connotation began to disperse following the introduction of the GAZ-3102.

Whereas the GAZ-21 became a collectible by the Soviet Union's collapse, the GAZ-24 extended assembly line life meant that only in the late 2000s have prices for low-mileage mint-condition models and restoration interest began to climb.

GAZ always desired a six-cylinder version, and built prototypes with a variety of sixes: a 125 hp 2,494 cc BMW in 1973, a 120 hp Peugeot (as used in the Peugeot 604 and Volvo 260) in 1978, a Mercedes R6 in 1975, and a 135 hp (the 2.8 from a Ford Scorpio) in 1984. (The 2,445 cc continued in production until 2008, by then only on special order.)

In 1977, the 31011, with the 160 hp 4,250 cc V8 and automatic transmission, appeared, for KGB and police use, joined by the experimental 31014 with 5,530 cc ZMZ-503.10 V8, delivering 195 hp and 450 ft.lbf. Production pursuit cars, which became available in 1986, were 31012s with the 5.5 liter (with one four-choke carburetor), fitted with a three-speed automatic and power steering (some with power windows and air conditioning), while the 31013 was the same, but with electronic ignition. These "were quite simply the fastest cars on Russian roads", and they got just 20 L/100 km. Their low-key appearance made them sleepers, though Soviet and Russian drivers soon learned to spot the extra radio aerials and dual exhausts. These cars were never true production models, "to all intents and purposes hand built". How many were made is unknown, the last being assembled in 1995.

Small numbers were built with the 140 hp two-rotor 1,300 cc VAZ-411-01 Wankel engine (which featured a 9.4:1 compression ratio) as the 31028. It was never common. There are reportedly also a few with the three-rotor VAZ 431 rotary, and with a pair of single-rotors operated independently (a bit like an Armstrong Siddeley Double Mamba). The rotary models were operated by KGB and traffic police, but these agencies preferred V8-powered 3102s.

There was also a prototype 31015 built in 1989, with a 160 hp 2,600 cc Mercedes engine.

The GAZ-24 was the Eastern Bloc's largest family car, but proved difficult for families to actually obtain, with official purchases at first taking precedence.

Second series—the GAZ-3102 and derivatives
When launching the M24 Volga, GAZ envisioned an average, for the USSR, production run of a decade. The newer designs were produced by smaller numbers due to development of other projects in the Soviet automotive industry, in particular the coming about of the VAZ plant and a much bigger Moskvitch, the project 3-5, to replace the 408 and 412 series. The latter's being more economic would have proved a natural relieve the Volga of its traditional taxi role, leaving GAZ's new vehicle as a more exclusive personal luxury car for the mid-range Soviet nomenklatura. With this in mind, the vehicle's mock-up demonstrated in 1976 was to grow in size, have the V6 powerplant as standard, and a perspective 4.2 litre V8 optional with many other features of the contemporary foreign cars of the 1970s. In 1976-7, the new GAZ-3101 appeared in prototype form, but it was little more than "a cosmetic tart-up of the mainstream Volga", with new front door windows, door handles, and lights; it also got longer front overhang and longer trunk. This would be renamed the 3102 in time. A few were built with a 4,250 cc V8 as the 31011, but this never entered serial production, nor did the continuing GAZ-desired V6 model. (Among its standard features were a fire extinguisher.) It was powered by a twelve-valve version (ZMZ-402.10) of the venerable 2,445 cc inline four with electronic ignition, producing 105 hp, enough for 94 mph. Disk brakes were fitted in front, while the rear drums were equipped with a crude antiskid system.

Manufacture of the 3102 began in 1981, with its official launch the next year. However, such car would never see light, as the 1970s unrolled, the stagnation era effects has significantly thwarted any innovation in Soviet Union's planned economy structure. Moreover, the Minister of Automotive Industry, Viktor Polyakov, had open favouritism for the new VAZ giant, and thus neither AZLK's 3-5 project, nor GAZ's ambitious third-generation Volga would see their respective conveyors. In 1973 more economic solution was adopted for the future car, that rotated around giving a major upgrade to the GAZ-24 by replacing most of the mechanics, the body panels, the interior yet keeping the skeletal body sections and platform, thus avoiding the most costly replacement of production press stamping.

The first users of the 3102 were the KGB and other government bodies through 1983. It proved unavailable to the public until after the collapse of the Soviet Union. This limited availability has given the 3102 a particular cachet in Russia (even over the Mercedes common among the privileged), allowing GAZ sell it at a markup.

GAZ-3102 (1982–2009)
By 1980 a replacement was developed, the GAZ-3102, which was based on the central platform and body of the GAZ-24, but with original fascia, interior, engine and chassis. However, political and economic stagnation of the late Brezhnev years continuously delayed the car's launch. When the first pre-production vehicles were evaluated by Party garages, the leadership was so impressed with the car, that they barred its mass production as to avoid devaluing its status by its use in taxicabs. As a result, from 1982 and all the way until 2008, the GAZ-3102 was produced in parallel with other Volgas, though in lesser smaller quantity. Originally having its own production line and many distinct features (including a novel, but ultimately unreliable stratified charge ignition), by 1997 the differences between production, trim and accessories of GAZ-3102 and latter Volga's remained only in its exterior. GAZ-3102 originally being an exclusive car for higher ranking authorities, retained its business image during the 1990s and well into the 2000s.

GAZ-24-10 (1985–1992)
The GAZ-24 continued to be produced until 1985, when using some of the technical developments of GAZ-3102 was deeply modified, resulting in the GAZ-24-10. Starting with 24-10 the Volga began a slow transformation as the Perestroika reforms took shape. Though still remaining a status car, it quickly lost that prestige as market economy allowed free import of automobiles. However its simple and robust design and still good quality assembly, and the lack of a domestic light commercial vehicle the GAZ-24-10 was quickly seized by the new generation of commerce.

GAZ-31029 (1992–1997)
In 1992 when the original machine tooling for the GAZ-24 body panels disintegrated, GAZ took the panels of GAZ-3102 and stripping them of any decorations, launched the GAZ-31029 Volga. Although being obsolete (kingpin front and leaf spring rear suspensions, front drum brakes, carburetted engine .), production was doubled in quantity and halved in quality. As a result, the car transformed from a symbol of status into a disposable workhorse, barely meeting the astronomic demand of the emerging market economy.

GAZ-3110 (1997–2004)
Though deemed temporary until GAZ's own LCV cars, the GAZelle and Sobol, entered production, the GAZ-31029 Volga occupied a major market niche, and demand for the vehicle remained. Thus in 1997 GAZ modernised the car once more, creating original body panels, whilst retaining the GAZ-24's central shell. This removed the visual dissonance that the 31029 created, and by incorporating the chassis and powertrain developed for the new Gazelle families (which in turn were designed for the aborted GAZ-3103/04/05 Volgas), combined with a new interior resulted in GAZ-3110 model. Given the timing, with the 1998 financial crises that followed, which left many foreign equivalents outside the budget Russia's business and public alike, the GAZ-3110 proved a necessity rather than a cheap alternative during the post-crises years.

GAZ-31105 (2004–2009)
GAZ-31105 was a second stage of the GAZ-3110's modernisation, though the designation was applied to cars produced from January 2004, the mechanical features were introduced almost a year earlier, and certain external ones were available in separate batches as standard or optional in others.

GAZ-3105 Volga (1992-1996)
During the late 1980s GAZ developed a concept car for a future replacement for both the business -3102 Volga and the luxury limousine GAZ-14 Chaika. However the resulting GAZ-3105, which was never to be part of the Volga family, as it would be produced on the Chaika's conveyor (presently still used for the -3102) due to the economic problems never reached production.

GAZ-3111 Volga (1998-2004)
The GAZ-3111 was scheduled to launch in 2000, but the factory's new owner Oleg Deripaska was unimpressed with the vehicle visually and once again, the high price of the car prevented any interest to sales. As a result, only 428 cars were built as part of the pre-production batch.

GAZ Volga Siber (2008-2010)
Although GAZ was developing a "spiritual successor" to the 3111, the front-wheel drive Volga 3115, in December 2005 RusPromAvto, the parent company of GAZ, announced that production of Volga passenger cars would be phased out over a 2-year period, with production to end in 2007. GAZ stated that they would instead concentrate on their more profitable truck, bus, and commercial vehicle businesses. At the same time the announcement was made, GAZ also introduced the Volga 311055, a long wheelbase derivative of the 31105. However, in the summer of 2006, GAZ reversed its earlier decision, announcing that further investments would be made in upgrading the styling and technology of the Volga saloons, keeping them in production as "retro" or "historical" vehicles. In early 2006, GAZ signed a deal with DaimlerChrysler to acquire the tooling and intellectual property rights for the Chrysler Sebring mid-size car design. GAZ stated that the new car would not carry the Volga brand.

When GAZ acquired the Chrysler Sebring license, it decided to further modify the car, and the Volga Siber was the result. The Volga Siber was unveiled in August 2007, and production began in July 2008, with a goal of producing 20,000 units the first year. However, sales figures were not met and only 2,500 Sibers were built in all of 2009.

In total, about 9,000 cars were produced during the 2008–2010 production run.

title: GAZ Volga


text: User talk:12.105.233.229

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:12.105.233.229


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David Kaplan (philosopher)

David Benjamin Kaplan (born September 17, 1933) is an American philosopher. He is the Hans Reichenbach Professor of Scientific Philosophy at the UCLA Department of Philosophy. His philosophical work focuses on the philosophy of language, logic, metaphysics, epistemology and the philosophy of Frege and Russell. He is best known for his work on demonstratives, propositions, and reference in intensional contexts. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences in 1983 and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy in 2007.

Education and career
Kaplan began as an undergraduate at UCLA in 1951, admitted on academic probation "owing to poor grades." While he started as a music major due to his interest in jazz, he was soon persuaded by his academic counselor Veronica Kalish to take the logic course taught by her husband Donald Kalish. Kaplan went on to earn a BA in philosophy in 1956 and a BA in mathematics in 1957, continuing in the department of philosophy as a graduate student. He was the last doctoral student supervised by Rudolf Carnap, receiving his PhD in 1964 with a thesis entitled Foundations of Intensional Logic. His work continues the strongly formal approach to philosophy long associated with UCLA (as represented by mathematician-logician-philosophers such as Alonzo Church and Richard Montague).

In most years, Kaplan teaches an upper division course on philosophy of language, focusing on the work of either Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, or P. F. Strawson. He also teaches a related course on Kripke's Naming and Necessity. His lectures often focus on selected paragraphs from Russell's "On Denoting" as well as Frege's "On Sense and Reference."

In 2022 he received the Rolf Schock Prize in the category of "Philosophy".

Philosophical work
Kaplan's work is primarily focused on issues in the philosophy of language and logic. These ventures, however, sometimes take him into related issues in other fields, such as the philosophy of mind.

Semantics for indexicals and demonstratives
Kaplan's most influential contribution to the philosophy of language is his semantic analysis of indexicals and demonstratives, which is outlined (in progressively greater detail) in a series of articles: "Dthat," "On The Logic of Demonstratives," "Demonstratives," and "Afterthoughts".

Kaplan's insights center on two key distinctions, which may be seen as responses to the inability of Frege's semantics to deal with context-sensitivity in language. First, in place of Frege's categories of Sinn and Bedeutung (typically translated as "sense" and "reference"), Kaplan introduces the notions of character and content. The former is the linguistic meaning of an expression, and the latter is the proposition (or propositional component) expressed by an expression in a context. Second, Kaplan makes an explicit distinction between the context of an utterance and the circumstances of evaluation of the proposition expressed by an utterance. Context can be formalized as a set composed of a speaker, a place, a time, and a possible world (and, depending on the analysis of demonstratives, perhaps a set of either demonstrations or directing intentions). Circumstances of evaluation play a role very similar to possible worlds in modal semantics.

From these rough distinctions, Kaplan then defines character and content more precisely. Character defines a function associated by convention with an expression, which takes contextual elements as arguments and yields content as values. Content, on the other hand, defines a function taking as arguments those elements of the circumstances of evaluation relevant to determining extension, and yielding the extension (referent or truth-value) as a value.

Two more important notions can thus be defined. We can say that an expression is context-sensitive if and only if its character defines a non-constant function (i.e., if, and only if it yields different content-values given different context-element-arguments). An expression is context-insensitive if and only if its character defines a constant function. Also, the distinction between character and content breaks down in the case of context-insensitive expressions, and convention associates each such expression directly with a content.

On the other hand, an expression is directly referential if, and only if its content defines a constant function from circumstances of evaluation to extension. Kaplan also characterizes directly referential expressions as those that refer without the mediation of a Fregean Sinn, or as those whose only contribution to content are their referents. Thus, in the case of directly referential expressions, we can say that the distinction between content and referent breaks down.

Any singular term is directly referential according to Kaplan. So the following intuitive picture emerges: the meaning of an indexical is a rule taking us from some part of the context to an expression, and the meaning of an expression is a bit of propositional content that determines the extension in each possible world.

Kaplan goes on to use this semantic scheme to explain phenomena concerning the relationship between necessary and a priori truth. An utterance is said to be necessarily true if, and only if the content it expresses is true in every possible circumstance; while an utterance is said to be true a priori if, and only if it expresses, in each context, a content that is true in the circumstances that context is part of. So, "I am here now" is true a priori because each of the indexical expressions used ('I', 'here', 'now') directly refer to the speaker, location, and time of utterance. But the utterance is not necessarily true, because any given speaker might have been in at a different place at that time, given different circumstances of evaluation. On the other hand, "I am David Kaplan," as spoken by David Kaplan, is necessarily true, since "I" and "David Kaplan" (both directly referential expressions) refer to the same object in every circumstance of evaluation. The same statement is not true a priori, however, because if it were spoken in a different context (e.g., one with a speaker other than Kaplan), it might be false.

Another result of Kaplan's theory is that it solves Frege's Puzzle for indexicals. Roughly, the puzzle here arises as indexicals are thought to be directly referential, i.e., they do not refer by means of a Fregean Sinn. However, Frege explains cognitive value in terms of Sinn. Thus the following problem emerges: The sentences "I am David Kaplan", spoken by David Kaplan, "he is David Kaplan", spoken by someone pointing at David Kaplan, and "David Kaplan is David Kaplan", spoken by anyone, all express the same content and refer to the same individuals. Yet each of the three has a different cognitive value (it is possible to rationally believe one while denying another). Kaplan explains this by associating cognitive value with character rather than content, thus remedying the problem. (There are problems with this approach, which Kaplan explores in "Afterthoughts".)

Kaplan's semantic theory faces a problem, however, with proper names, which seem both directly referential and context-insensitive. On Kaplan's account, this means that constant functions are defined by both a proper name's character and its content, which would imply that proper names have no meaning other than their reference. While this approach to proper names is not novel (John Stuart Mill being an early advocate), Frege's Puzzle is thought to cast doubt on any such account. Many philosophers have attempted to deal with this issue (notably Joseph Almog, David Braun, Michael Devitt, John Perry, Nathan Salmon, Scott Soames, and Howard Wettstein), but no solution has been widely accepted.

Quantifying in
In his article "Quantifying In" (1968), Kaplan discusses issues in intensional and indirect (Ungerade, or oblique) discourse, such as substitution failure, existential generalization failure, and the distinction between de re / de dicto propositional attitude attributions. Such issues were made salient primarily by W. V. Quine in his "Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes" (1956).

The phrase "quantifying in" comes from Quine's discussion of what he calls "relational" constructions of an existential statement. In such cases, a variable bound by an anterior variable-binding operator occurs within a non-extensional context such as that created by a 'that' clause, or, alternatively, by propositional attitude or modal operators. The "quantifying in" idiom captures the notion that the variable-binding operator (for example, the existential quantifier 'something') reaches into, so to speak, the non-extensional context to bind the variable occurring within its scope. For example, (using a propositional attitude clause), if one quantifies into the statement "Ralph believes that Ortcutt is a spy," the result is (partly formalized):

 * (Ǝx) (Ralph believes that x is a spy)
 * ["There is someone Ralph believes is a spy"]

In short, Kaplan attempts (among other things) to provide an apparatus (in a Fregean vein) that allows one to quantify into such intensional contexts even if they exhibit the kind of substitution failure that Quine discusses. If successful, this shows that Quine is wrong in thinking that substitution failure implies existential generalization failure for (or inability to quantify into) the clauses that exhibit such substitution failure.

Logic 2000 program
In recent years, Kaplan has devoted much effort to teaching introductory logic. A main contribution has been his work to create a computer program, Logic 2000, on which students can do their assignments. Logic 2000 is currently available for use free of charge. The program has many parts, including a derivations module, a symbolizations module, a models module, and much more. The program was initially developed to complement the logic text of Donald Kalish and Richard Montague, and the derivations module therefore uses their distinctive natural deduction system. Perhaps the most significant features of the program are its feedback and error-checking capacities. The program can provide a student with immediate and extensive error messages detailing any errors the student may have made on the problem he or she is currently working on. The program's current iteration and name is Logic 2010.

title: David Kaplan (philosopher)


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Talk:List of incomplete Doctor Who serials

Page format discussions
I changed the opening because none of the '60s episodes exist in the form that they were transmitted. All the black and white episodes exist only as 16 mm copies. The originals were on quad tapes. The current opening is more exact with regards to what the list contains Davhorn 18:13, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

Efforts to locate specimens of missing episodes are ongoing as of 2005. Please check your attic.

Just a query - would anyone consider Shada to be an incomplete story? - Zaphod Beeblebrox 12:46, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * It's not incomplete in the same way as the others here - Shada was never finished. This listing is for serials that were completed, but have bits missing. Perhaps this could do with a name change. --khaosworks 02:34, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Should there be any discussion of the BBC Radio Collection/Audio releases of Doctor Who CDs? Specifically I'm thinking in terms of what has been released (bonuses in the Daleks Masterplan and Marco Polo sets, extra discs in the Daleks and Cybermen collector's tins)?

 * I don't see why not. Try writing it up and then let the hounds of hell... uh... rest of us rip it... uh... edit it to a consensus form. :) --khaosworks 03:51, 1 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Hey - it's an approach that's worked well in the past - I know I've created a couple of Who-related articles in the past that were soon polished up and brought up to a very good standard by others very soon afterwards. - Zaphod Beeblebrox 08:13, 1 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Okay, I'm going to give this a go. But now I'm curious about 'scope' - should I limit it to "Incomplete Doctor Who Serials released by BBC Audio" or "Audio Releases of Incomplete Doctor Who Serials" (would this include the unofficial reconstructions?) or "Doctor Who Releases by BBC Audio" (the last of which could arguably include soundtracks, 1990s tapes, all of the MP3 CDs to date (Tales from the Tardis 1 & 2, Daleks Masterplan MP3 CD), the new Pescatons release, both releases of Death Comes to Time, etc etc)?!? In any case, I generally have only the CDs from the late 90s onwards (but I'm not done yet, even given the fact that The Crusade and The Ice Warriors are yet to be released as I write this (1 April 05)) - obviously I wouldn't put it past wikipedians to add information about the earlier cassette tape editions. My personal preference is leaning toward "Doctor Who Releases by BBC Audio" but I didn't want it to look like one huge advertisement for their CDs.... Thoughts?

 * Have a look at Doctor Who spin-offs. That article started out as a couple of paragraphs on the main page and got shifted to its own article, and has expanded to the point where I think it's time to spin off some of the sections. You might consider - and this is a bit of a big project - using the "Audio" section as a start off point and writing a whole new Doctor Who audios article, which would include Big Finish, BBC, etc. You don't have to put in stuff you don't know, of course - the rest of us should be able to fill in the blanks. Oh, and get yourself a Wikipedia account so we can get to know you rather than as a series of IP addresses. It helps with credibility. :)  --khaosworks 14:09, 1 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Alright alright, picky picky. I've avoided account creation because I've found it easier to make legitimate edits without logging in on any number of pages. Anyway, I'm still leaning towards more of a generic Doctor Who audio releases article (which could include the soundtrack CDs, and even the old effects LP/cassette from the 70s). And then possibly do a breakdown by 'studio'? For example: "Audio releases under the BBC Radio Collection banner" "Audio releases under the BBC Audio banner" "Audio releases by Big Finish" etc. --JohnDBuell 16:28, 1 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Like I said, go ahead. We'll start mucking about with it soon enough after the first draft. --khaosworks 17:37, 1 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Okay, Doctor Who audio releases is now 'live.' Have fun. Share and Enjoy. There's still all of the 'lost' soundtracks and Big Finish productions to add, as I noted on its talk page. --JohnDBuell 05:49, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Page Redesign
I, Mollsmolyneux, have redesigned the List of incomplete Doctor Who serials page. To view it please Click Here. Please leave any comments you have about the page on My Talk Page and tell me if you think I should put the page on. -- Mollsmolyneux 20:05, 11 Nov 2005 (UTC)

Colourised "Ambassadors"
Does anyone know more about the project to colourize Ambassadors of Death Part 4? It seems a bit odd to credit it to "a colleague of Ian Levine" — does the person working on this want to remain anonymous or something? I'm not really au fait with the world of Doctor Who restoration (the Restoration Team, et al.) — if someone else is, please update the entry accordingly. It would also be good if we could give a citation for whoever's doing the restoration, rather than merely linking to the preview file. —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 06:36, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * He does wish to remain anonymous. A copy with sections of the episode colored was sent to the RT, but it was not deemed good enough for release in its present condition. Don't know what happened after that. Davhorn 20:13, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Has the effort been discussed in any reliable sources (in this context, these would include Doctor Who Magazine and the like)? If not, we probably shouldn't even mention it, especially if the person wants to remain anonymous and it's not likely to lead to commercial release. —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 23:20, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * The only places I've seen it has been on various forums, like the RT's forum and Levine's forum. I don't subscribe to DWM or any other magazine, so I don't know about those... Davhorn 23:28, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Use of English
I noticed some mistakes, such as the use of "color" instead of "colour". This is a British show and a particular link that I corrected refers to a British article ("Putting colour back in the Doctor's cheeks"). Would be nice to see things spelt correctly, not the use of "American English" which is very improper. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.34.114.43 (talk) 22:32, 25 March 2008 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Gary E. Luck

Untitled
This page was voted on for deletion at Votes for deletion/Gary E. Luck. The consensus was to keep it. dbenbenn | talk 00:28, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Updated and correct photo for GEN Gary E. Luck
I have a more correct photo of GEN Gary Luck as a four star general provided to me from GEN Luck. How can I upload the photo or to whom can I send the file to update this page? Thanks! Steven Palmer steven.t.palmer4.civ@mail.mil 17:26, 1 September 2016 (UTC)199.208.239.140 (talk)

title: Talk:Gary E. Luck


text:
David E. Kaplan (author)

David E. Kaplan (born 1955) is an investigative reporter and former director of the Center for Public Integrity's International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Before this post, he worked for the American newsweekly U.S. News & World Report.

Works
David E. Kaplan commonly writes about terrorism, organized crime, and intelligence. He is co-author of Yakuza (University of California Press, 2003).

Kaplan is also co-author of The Cult at the End of the World, on the Aum doomsday sect behind the 1995 nerve gassing of Tokyo's subway (Crown, 1996); and author of Fires of the Dragon, on the life and murder of Taiwanese-American journalist Henry Liu.

Books

 * Cult at the End of the World: The Terrifying Story of the Aum Doomsday Cult, from the Subways of Tokyo to the Nuclear Arsenals of Russia. New York: Crown Publishers (1996). ISBN 0517705435.
 * Yakuza: Japan's Criminal Underworld, Expanded Edition, with Alec Debro. Berkeley: University of California Press (2003). ISBN 0520215621.

title: David E. Kaplan (author)


text: User talk:83.25.94.242

title: User talk:83.25.94.242


text:
Liverpool Overhead Railway Southern Extension Tunnel

The Liverpool Overhead Railway Southern Extension Tunnel, also known as the Dingle Extension Tunnel or variations thereof, stretches for half a mile from Herculaneum Dock to Dingle underground railway station, which was the southern terminus of the Liverpool Overhead Railway.

History
The tunnel was opened for operations on 31 December 1896. Per the inscription on the tunnel entrance it was constructed under the chairmanship of William Bower Forwood by the engineer Charles Douglas Fox. Additional engineers attributed on the portal are J. H. Greathead and S. B. Cottrell. Contractors were H. M. Nowell and C. Braddock.

The tunnel was approximately 0.5 mile long, 25 ft wide and 19 ft high. In the station, reached after 186 ft the width and height increased to 52 ft and 25 ft to accommodate the island platform with tracks each side.

The tunnel portal at Herculaneum Dock is halfway up a cliff so that the track seamlessly run onto the elevated section of Overhead Railway. The track was electrified using the third rail. The inscription “LOR Southern Extension” lies above the portal. Soon after the entrance the tunnel passes over the Garston and Liverpool Railway railway tunnel which links Brunswick and St Michaels. The tunnel was twin track and ended 123 yd beyond the end of Dingle station with twin sets of buffers embedded in the end wall of the tunnel.

The last trains ran on 30 December 1956. The former station was used as motor repair garage until the collapse of the station entrance in 2012, leaving the tunnel and station disused. In April 2020 the private owner of the tunnel was looking to sell it with suggestions it could be used as a wine cellar.


text:
Aero Mongolia

Aero Mongolia (Аэро Монголиа, ) is one of the three national airlines of Mongolia. Its head office is on the third floor of Buyant-Ukhaa International Airport in Ulaanbaatar. It operates domestic flights to eleven destinations, and also operates international scheduled services to Irkutsk, Russia, and to Hohhot, China. Its main base is Chinggis Khaan International Airport.

History
The airline was established in 2001 and performed its first flight domestically on May 25, 2003. Today, it has over 140 employees (as of December 2014) and operates flights for two destinations internationally, and twelve destinations domestically via its own three Fokker 50 aircraft and two Fokker 100 aircraft (this contradicts the fleet list below that refers to Airbus 319 and ERJ 145 - two of each). It received its first Fokker 50 in May 2003 and its first Fokker 100 in January 2006. By merging with Monnis Group in June 2007, Aero Mongolia took numerous actions to strengthen its management, to stabilize financial capability and to ensure flight safety.

Destinations
As of August 2019, Aero Mongolia operated the following services (including domestic charter):

Current fleet
The Aero Mongolia fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of October 2023):

Former fleet
The airline fleet previously included the following aircraft:
 * 4 Fokker 50 (2003-2018)
 * 2 Fokker 100 (2005-2011)

Frequent flyer program
SKYMILES is the frequent-flyer program of Aero Mongolia. "SKYMILES" also refers to the bonus card which Aero Mongolia's frequent flyers are given. The program enables passengers to collect 10 tugriks (MNT) from each km they fly. Savings will be automatically calculated (based on flight distance) and collected to passenger’s bonus card. Passengers can make use of their savings whenever they want.

Incidents and accidents
On 31 October 2007, Mongolian aviation authorities suspended Aero Mongolia flights after the airline failed safety checks. In the first quarter of 2008, Aero Mongolia received the license to fly on domestic routes.

The airline's operations were suspended from January to May 2009 due to the Mongolian Civil Aviation's doubt of flight safety.

On 30 March 2012, Aero Mongolia Fokker 50 aircraft Reg. JU-8257, during takeoff roll in Oyutolgoi Airport, skidded off the runway and the right engine propeller was damaged due to colliding with the side runway lights. The aircraft was written off due to severe damage. There were no fatalities and no injuries.

title: Aero Mongolia


text: User:Thesamo

title: User:Thesamo


text:
Henkka Seppälä

Henri "Henkka T. Blacksmith" Seppälä (born 7 June 1980) is the former bassist of the Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom from 1995 to 2019. He is also responsible for backing vocals both in studio and live. In 2020 he announced he would be joining the band Moon Shot as their bassist.

Henkka is a very common nickname for Henri and seppä means blacksmith in English. The reason he has a T. in the middle of his name is his nickname being Torso.

Biography
Seppälä was born in 1980 in Espoo, Finland. He first started playing guitar at the age of eleven. He got into the heavy metal scene through his brother, who listened to bands such as Slayer and Pantera with his friends. Before that, he had only had contact with glam metal/hard rock bands such as Guns N' Roses and Poison. As time passed, his interest started leaning towards heavier bands, until in the early 1990s he discovered black metal and death metal bands of the likes of Burzum, Dissection and Cannibal Corpse.

He played drums in his first band at the age of 13. The band was called Aivokasvain (Brain Tumour). He was part of the band for two years, and then quit, switching his main instrument to the bass.

When Samuli Miettinen quit Inearthed (the original name of Children of Bodom) in 1996, Seppälä joined the band, (asked by lead guitarist and singer, Alexi Laiho) he then adopted the 5-string bass.

He is the frontman of the band when it comes to interviews and public appearances. Other than the fact that he can speak Russian, Finnish, English, Swedish and some Spanish and French, he is also the most equilibrated member of the band, in a general way.

He studied political history at the University of Helsinki when not on tour, and received his Master's Degree in 2012 with a thesis on the role of NGOs in rural development in Finland. He is also into sports, and has a passion for (European) football and enjoys swimming. Musically, Seppälä was completely dedicated to Children of Bodom, and was the only member who did not have any side-projects during their time together. According to him, the most important things in his life are his family and his band at the time.

Influences
On the Children of Bodom official website, Seppälä lists his influences as Tom Araya, Billy Gould, Steve Brunner, Paulo Jr, Joe Principe and David Ellefson.

Equipment
Amp is an Ampeg SVT3pro and cabinet Ampeg 810. He boost his sound with a Super Overdrive pedal or Tech21 Sansamp pre amp. Audiotech Guitar Products Source Selector 1X6 Rack Mount Audio Switcher for switching between wireless units.
 * ESP Henkka T. Blacksmith Forest Signature Bass,4 string (34" neckthru body alder, EMG 35DC)
 * ESP Henkka T. Blacksmith Bottom Line Signature Bass,5 string ( 34" neckthru body alder, EMG 40DC pickups)
 * ESP Custom Shop "Assault" shaped (34" neckthru body alder, EMG 40DC pickups)
 * ESP Custom Shop Viper Bass, same specs as his other basses, and can be seen on their live DVD Chaos Ridden Years (tuned CGCF)
 * ESP Custom Shop Araya Shape (White with COBHC logo on fretboard, seen on the 2009 No Fear Tour)

title: Henkka Seppälä


text:
Rade

Rade may refer to:
 * Rade people, a people group in Southeast Asia also called "Rhade" or "Êđê"
 * places in Lower-Saxony, Germany:
 * Rade, Neu Wulmstorf, a village in the district of Harburg
 * places in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany:
 * Rade, Steinburg, a municipality in the district of Steinburg
 * Rade bei Hohenwestedt, a municipality in the district of Rendsburg-Eckernförde
 * Rade bei Rendsburg, a municipality in the district of Rendsburg-Eckernförde
 * Råde, a municipality in Norway

Personal name
 * Rade, a masculine given name, often the shortened Serbo-Croatian form of Radovan, Radoslav, Radivoje. Notable people with the name include:
 * Rade, a Swiss hip hop artist, former member of Sens Unik
 * Rade Bogdanović (born 1970), Serbian football player
 * Rade Bulat (1920–2013), Croatian Serb communist activist
 * Rade Grbić (1870–1910), United States Navy sailor of Dalmatian Serb origin
 * Rade Končar (1911–1942), Croatian Serb communist activist
 * Rade Šerbedžija (born 1946), Croatian Serb actor
 * Rade, a surname. Notable people with the name include:
 * John Rade (born 1960), American football player
 * Olle Råde (born 1978), Swedish card game player

title: Rade


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Cambridge Student

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Keep. Rje 19:55, Feb 17, 2005 (UTC)

The Cambridge Student
Student newspapers are not inherently notable, and the article fails to establish notability for this one. Uncle G 00:31, 2005 Feb 8 (UTC)
 * Keep Cambridge is quite a well known university. I will categorise the articlePhilip 01:01, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC). Never heard of it - where is it ? Brookie 19:17, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Easily notable. Samaritan 01:44, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: expanded to include claims of notability from their website. Kappa 01:49, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep agree that not all student newspapers are notable, but come on... this isn't Podunk Township Middle School we're talking about here. Well above the bar. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd  02:37, Feb 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * That the university is notable does not automatically make its student unions, buildings, newspapers, academic staff, catering services, or groundskeepers notable. The worthiness of the newspaper has to be considered on its own merits. The circulation figure is one such datum. But I'm not quite persuaded by it.  The (equally) free local newspaper that comes unsolicited through through my door every Thursday, and that I throw directly into the recycling bin, boasts an uncombined readership of 42000, nearly three times that of The Cambridge Student, and it too sports interviews with prominent political figures, campaigns on public issues, coverage of national news, features, and reviews. I'm not persuaded that it is notable on those grounds, so I'm not persuaded that The Cambridge Student is notable on solely the same grounds, especially given the pretty much identical distribution and funding mechanisms. Persuade me either that The Cambridge Student is somehow different to my local free newspaper, or that my local free newspaper is notable. ☺ Uncle G 06:18, 2005 Feb 8 (UTC)
 * This paper will almost certainly contain contributions from numberous students who go on to become national figures in many fields. It is likely to be a leading training ground for distinguished colummnists and editors. But your local paper should also have an article. I can't understand why some people want to prevent Wikipedia from becoming a comprehensive guide to the world. Philip 18:51, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Student newspapers are frequently notable. This one certainly is. --Centauri 03:22, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete and make everyone read No personal attacks. Gamaliel 04:00, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, article does not establish notability. Megan1967 07:36, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Extreme keep no less.  —RaD Man (talk) 08:26, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep but its not as good as Varsity Fuzz 13:01, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete.  Student newspapers aren't inherently notable, but the main student newspaper at Cambridge University probably is, and indeed it has a Wikipedia article: Varsity (newspaper).  However, this isn't that paper.  This article is about the free weekly put out by the Student Union at Cambridge for the last five years or so.  I wonder if the people voting Keep even bothered to read the article.  Notability not established.   --BM 14:25, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 *  *GASP*  I'm shocked. —RaD Man (talk)  21:37, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Both the Varsity and TCS are free, and are both "main newspapers" in Cam although Varsity does have a longer history and is more notable, I believe the TCS is still notable enough for inclusion Fuzz 14:50, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and expand. It's a good start for an article. --Neigel von Teighen 14:29, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Student newspapers do derive some of their notability from the notability of the university they're associated with, by virtue of the fact that the papers derive some of their capability to cover a wide range of things and their circulation from that association. Varsity (newspaper) is probably more deserving of an article in general, but that doesn't mean that this one is not.  If the 15,000 circ. figure cited in this article is correct, that makes it a pretty good-sized student newspaper.  (I worked many years for my college newspaper, UT's The Daily Texan, the largest student newspaper in the US with a daily circ. of approximately 30,000.)  Katefan0 16:35, Feb 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and allow for organic growth and expansion. GRider\talk 17:56, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, campus newspapers aren't inherently encyclopedic, this one is. Wyss 20:27, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to Cambridge University Students' Union. No more notable than the student newspaper I once wrote for - in fact, probably less so since this isn't even the dominant student newspaper for the university.  Rossami (talk) 23:23, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak keep. --JuntungWu 18:34, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Keep As far as I can see there's nothing wrong with it.. This is prime wikipedia material (of course if people want it improved - then improve it! max rspct 21:43, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Why not?  Student newspapers at sufficiently notable universities are notable. - Mustafaa 22:26, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I agree with Mustafaa. bakuzjw (aka 578) 23:48, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Extreme Keep. Agree with Mustafaa.  Bart133 (t) 21:51, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge all of the various student unions, organizations and cruft at cambridge into one keeper article. They don't ~really~ merit standing alone, but may figure in future biographies as starting places of others. Not to mention may aid in research about someone going to that school. --Dbroadwell 19:16, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)


text: Category:Music by continent

title: Category:Music by continent


text:
Neko

Neko (ネコ or ねこ or 猫, cat) may refer to:

Characters

 * Neko (K), an anime character from The K Project
 * Neko Fukuta, a character in Hakobune Hakusho
 * Neko, a non-player character in the Mana series of role-playing games
 * Neko Kuroha, an anime character in Brynhildr in the Darkness
 * Nekomusume or catgirl, a female character in Japanese anime and manga

People

 * Neko Case (born 1970), American singer-songwriter
 * Neko Hiroshi (born 1977), Japanese comedian
 * Neko Oikawa, Japanese lyricist

Technology

 * Neko (software), a cat screenmate application
 * Neko Entertainment, a video-game developer and publisher
 * NekoVM

Other uses

 * Néko, a village in Ivory Coast
 * Neko language, a Trans–New Guinea language
 * Neko, a submissive role in a relationship between females in yuri or shōjo-ai media

title: Neko


text:
User talk:Rojack

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! Carrp | Talk 00:31, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Image copyright problem with File:The Day of Forever.jpg
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 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for each article the image is used in.
 * That every article it is used on is linked to from its description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --FairuseBot (talk) 13:12, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rojack