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Michał Krasenkow

Michał Krasenkow (born 14 November 1963) is a Polish chess grandmaster, chess trainer and writer. He is one of the strongest Polish chess players since World War II. His playing style is aggressive and he has won many "best game" awards.

Life and career
He was born in Moscow (formerly Mikhail Vladimirovich Krasenkov, Михаил Владимирович Красенков). Master of applied mathematics (1985). His first notable successes date back to the 80s: he became a national master of the USSR in 1982, an International Master in 1988 and an International Grandmaster in 1989. He became Champion of Georgia in 1987 and team champion of the USSR (with "Tigran Petrosian Chess Club", Moscow) in 1990.

In 1992 Krasenkow emigrated to Poland. Since 1996 he represents that country at international competitions. Two-times champion of Poland (2000, 2002). Krasenkow won Polish team championships 14 times: 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, and 1998 with "Stilon" Gorzów Wielkopolski, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2009 with "Polonia" Warsaw. European Cup winner (1997, with the Russian team "Ladia" Azov) and silver medalist (2001, 2003, 2005 with "Polonia Plus GSM" Warsaw, 2008 with OSC Baden-Baden). Representative of Poland at European team championships and Chess Olympiads since 1996 (European team championships: Pula 1997 – 3rd place on Board 1, Batumi 1999 – 2nd place on Board 1). Also German team champion (2006, 2007) and German Cup winner (2003, 2005, 2007, 2008) with Ooser Schachclub Baden-Baden, French team champion (2010) with L'Echiquier Chalonnais, Turkish team champion (2016) with Hatay Buyuksehir Belediyesi Genclik Spor Kulubu.

Notable performances
He participated in all FIDE k.o. World Championships since 1997. Best results: Groningen/Lausanne (1997/98) – 5th round qualifier (last 9); Las Vegas (1999) – 3rd round qualifier (last 32); Tripoli (2004) – 4th round qualifier (last 16). 3rd round qualifier of Chess World Cup 2021.

Major tournament victories: Moscow 1992 (Mikhail Tal Memorial) – I-III places (tied), New York 1997 – I-II (He took his prize money in cash and was robbed of all of it at a train station upon returning to Poland), Vilnius 1997 (Vladas Mikėnas Memorial) – I, Shanghai 2001 (Tan Chin Nam Cup – category 16) – I-III, Ostrava 2007 (category 16) – I, Moscow Open 2014 – I-IV, Warsaw 2014 (Miguel Najdorf Memorial) – I-VII.

Important tournament victories: Budapest 1989 – I-II places (tied), Vienna 1990 – I-VI, Gausdal 1991 – I-II, Katowice 1992 – I-II, Metz 1993 – I-III, Pardubice 1993 – I-V, Las Palmas 1993 – I-II, Pardubice 1994 – I-II, Stockholm 1994/95 – I, Stockholm 1995/96 – I, Asti 1996 – I, Reggio Emilia 1996/97 – I, Buenos Aires 1998 – I-V, Cutro 1999 – I, Shanghai 2000 – I-II, Barlinek 2001 – I-III, Kavala 2001 – I-II, Bad Wiessee 2001 – I-IV, Wijk aan Zee 2002, tournament "B" – I, Budapest 2004 – I, Vlissingen 2006 – I, Wijk aan Zee 2007, tournament "C" – I, Helsingør 2007 – I-V, Mumbai 2008 – I-VI, Hilversum 2009 – I-IV, Vlissingen 2009 – I, Stockholm 2012/13 – I, Vlissingen 2013 – I-IV, Vlissingen 2014 – I-IV, Porticcio 2017 – I, Dhaka 2021 - I, Porticcio 2023 – I-II. Runner-up in major tournaments in Hastings 1993/94 (behind John Nunn), Polanica Zdroj 1995 (behind Veselin Topalov), Pamplona 1998/99 (behind Alexander Morozevich), Lviv 2000, (FIDE Category 17) behind Vassily Ivanchuk. Polanica Zdroj 1998 (Category 17) – III-VI places.

In 2000 Krasenkow crossed the then extra-class threshold of 2700 rating points, obtaining 2702 in July and October rating lists. He was ranked number ten in the world at that time.

Krasenkow achieved notable successes in rapid chess: USSR Cup (Tallinn 1988) – I-II places (tied), European Championships (Gijon 1988) – IV-VII, GMA tournament (Murcia, 1990, with more than 100 Grandmasters participating) – V-VI, USSR Cup (Lviv, 1990) – I, CIS Cup (Moscow, 1991) – I, Russian Open Cup (Moscow, 1997) – I, León 2010 – I-II.

He was the Blitz Chess Champion of Poland in 1999 and 2001.

Coaching work
Krasenkow has coached national teams, young prodigies, including many future GMs, and occasionally top players including Viswanathan Anand. National coach of Poland in 2010–2014 and Turkey since 2016. He has been a FIDE Senior Trainer since 2012.

Theoretical contributions
Krasenkow has made major contributions to several areas of opening theory, most notably in the Classical King's Indian Defense. His consistent use of the relative sideline 5.h3 in that opening helped to establish it as a viable manner of combating the King's Indian. Other members of the elite now use the system from time to time, including on occasion Magnus Carlsen. It is typically called the Makogonov system, though some authors now refer to it as the Krasenkow System; he himself calls it the Bagirov system.

Another important contribution is the so-called Groningen Attack in the English Opening (discovered simultaneously with Vadim Zviagintsev): 1.Nf3 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.g4!?

Writings
Krasenkow has written several books on chess openings and middlegames:
 * The Open Spanish. London, Cadogan Books, 1995
 * The Sveshnikov Sicilian. London, Cadogan Books, 1996
 * Finding chess jewels. London, Everyman Chess, 2013
 * Learn from Michal Krasenkow. Landegem, Thinkers Publishing, 2019

title: Michał Krasenkow


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List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign

The following is a list, ordered by length of reign, of the monarchs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927–present), the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801), the Kingdom of England (871–1707), the Kingdom of Scotland (878–1707), the Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800), and the Principality of Wales (1216–1542).

Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning monarch in British history on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria. On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne. On 6 February 2022, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to reign for 70 years, and large-scale celebrations for her Platinum Jubilee occurred on 2 to 5 June. Later that year, Elizabeth II died at the age of 96, after reigning for 70 years and 214 days.

Elizabeth II: the longest-reigning monarch
On 9 September 2015, Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning known female monarch in world history. On 23 May 2016, her reign surpassed the claimed reign of James Francis Edward Stuart (nicknamed "the Old Pretender"). On 6 February 2022 (at the age of 95 years, 315 days), she became the first British monarch to reign for 70 years and celebrate a platinum jubilee.

Ten longest-reigning British monarchs
These are the ten longest-reigning monarchs in the British Isles for whom there is reliable recorded evidence.

Complete list of the unitary monarchy
On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England united with the Kingdom of Scotland as the Kingdom of Great Britain. Then, on 1 January 1801, the Kingdom of Great Britain united with the Kingdom of Ireland to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, becoming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland by Act of Parliament in 1927 following the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922.

England
Includes English monarchs from the installation of Alfred the Great as King of Wessex in 871 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Scotland
Includes Scottish monarchs from the installation of Kenneth I (House of Alpin) in 848 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Ireland
The High King of Ireland (846–1198) was primarily a titular ruler (with the exception of Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair who was regarded as the first "King of Ireland"). The later Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800) came into being under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the long title of which was "An Act that the King of England, his Heirs and Successors, be Kings of Ireland". In 1801 the Irish crown became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Gwynedd (incomplete list)
The Principality (or Kingdom) of Gwynedd (5th century–1216) was based in northwest Wales, its rulers were repeatedly acclaimed as "King of the Britons" before losing their power in civil wars or Saxon and Norman invasions. In 1216 it was superseded by the title Principality of Wales, although the new title was not first used until the 1240s.

Wales (complete list)
The Principality of Wales (1216–1542) was a client state of England for much of its history, except for brief periods when it was de facto independent under a Welsh Prince of Wales (see House of Aberffraw). From 1301 it was first used as a title of the English (and later British) heir apparent. The Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 formally incorporated all of Wales within the Kingdom of England.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Prayssac

Prayssac (Praissac) is a commune in the Lot department in south-western France.

Notable people

 * Birthplace of Jean-Baptiste Bessières, Duke of Istrie

title: Prayssac


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Evelyn Hart

Evelyn Anne Hart (born April 4, 1956) is a Canadian ballerina and former principal dancer with the Royal Winnipeg Ballet.

Life and career
Born in Toronto, Ontario, Hart studied dance at the Dorothy Carter School of Dance in London, Ontario, Canada, and later at the Royal Winnipeg Ballet School. Before attending the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, Hart auditioned for The National Ballet School of Canada in Toronto, Ontario. She was accepted for its preliminary intensive summer session of auditioning for consideration as a student in the year's intensive academic/professional training program, where students train for its parent company the National Ballet of Canada. Hart did not secure a place for the school year at the National Ballet School, mostly due to her problems with anorexia nervosa. Hart battled with this pathological eating disorder before returning to ballet, training again, and winning a place for herself at The Royal Winnipeg Ballet School. She joined the Royal Winnipeg Ballet company in 1976, was promoted to soloist in 1978, and to principal dancer in 1979.

She was the first Canadian to win gold at the Varna International Ballet Competition in Varna, Bulgaria in 1980 for the pas de deux Belong choreographed by Norbert Vesak.

Hart starred in the ballet film Moment of Light, alongside Rex Harrington, former principal dancer of the National Ballet of Canada, and Robert Sher-Machherndl, former principal dancer of the Dutch National Ballet and Bavarian State Ballet. The film was released in 1992.

In 2005, Hart left the RWB to dance as a freelance artist. On August 23, 2006, she danced her swan song at the Grand Theatre in London, Ontario. She also danced as a guest artist with Toronto's ProArteDanza ending a thirty-year career.

Honours
In 1983, Hart was made an Officer of the Order of Canada (OC) and was promoted to Companion (CC) in 1994. In 2000 she was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. In 2001, Hart received a Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts. In 2006, she was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. She was made a Member of the Order of Manitoba (OM) in 2006.

title: Evelyn Hart


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Charles Brisbane

Sir Charles Brisbane KCB (1770 – December 1829) was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the American War of Independence, and with distinction under Lords Hood and Nelson.

He took part in 1796 in the capitulation of Saldanha Bay, the capture of the Spanish frigate Pomona off Havana, Cuba in 1806, and then in 1807 was in command at capture of the island of Curaçao. He was made governor of St. Vincent in 1808, and served as such until his death in 1829.

Family and early life
Charles Brisbane was born in mid-1770 and baptised on 12 July at Deal in Kent, the fourth but eldest surviving son of Captain (later Admiral) John Brisbane and his wife Mary Young. He was entered on board HMS Alcide (1779), commanded by his father, in 1779. He was present at the action of 8 January 1780, and the relief of the Great Siege of Gibraltar in January 1780, and later served in the West Indies. At the end of 1781 he was placed on board HMS Hercules (1759) with Captain Henry Savage, and was present at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica, on 12 April 1782, where he was badly wounded by a splinter.

He continued serving during the peace, and after the Spanish armament in 1790 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant on 22 November. In 1793 he was aboard the frigate HMS Meleager (1785), in which he went out to the Mediterranean, and was employed on shore at Toulon during the occupation of the city, and afterwards in Corsica, both at the siege of Saint-Florent and at the siege of Bastia. Brisbane was under the immediate orders of Captain Horatio Nelson, and like him sustained the loss of an eye from a severe wound in the head inflicted by the small fragments of an iron shot. He then served for a short time in HMS Britannia (1762), bearing the flag of Admiral Lord Hood, by whom he was promoted to the command of the sloop HMS Tarleton (1782) on 1 July 1794, and served in her during the remainder of that and the following year in the squadron acting in the Gulf of Genoa, under the immediate orders of Nelson.

Command
In the autumn of 1795 he was sent from Gibraltar to convoy two troopships to Barbados. On his way there he fell in with a Dutch squadron, which he kept company with, sending the transports on by themselves; finding that the Dutch were bound for the Cape of Good Hope, he carried the intelligence to Sir George Elphinstone, the commander-in-chief on that station, acting contrary to the orders under which he had sailed. After the capture of the Dutch ships in Saldanha Bay on 18 August 1796, he was promoted by Sir George to the command of one of them; he had previously, 22 July, been promoted by Sir John Jervis, the commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, under whose orders he had sailed, and he also received the thanks of the admiralty.

He continued on the Cape station in command of the frigate HMS Oiseau (1793), and was in her at Saint Helena when a mutiny broke out on board. This he quelled decisively, and he was shortly afterwards recalled to the Cape to take command of HMS Tremendous (1784), Rear-Admiral Thomas Pringle's flagship, on board which also there had been mutineers. In the course of 1798 he returned to England with Pringle in command of the frigate HMS Crescent (1784), and in 1801 was appointed to the frigate HMS Doris (1795), one of the squadron off Brest, under Admiral William Cornwallis.

Napoleonic Wars
During the short Peace of Amiens he commanded the frigate HMS Trent (1796) and HMS Sanspareil (1794) in the West Indies. He was then moved into HMS Goliath (1781), on which he took part in the action of 28 June 1803, and in which on his way home he was nearly lost in a hurricane. In 1805 Brisbane was appointed to the frigate HMS Arethusa (1781), which he took to the West Indies. Early in 1806 he ran Arethusa ashore amongst the Colorados rocks, near the north-west end of Cuba, and she was got off only by throwing all her guns overboard. In this defenceless condition she encountered a Spanish ship of the line off Havana, but the enemy vessel ran in under the guns of Morro Castle.

Having refitted at Jamaica, Arethusa was in August again off Havana, and on the 23rd, in company with the 44-gun HMS Anson (1781), captured the Spanish frigate Pomona, anchored near a battery, and supported by ten gunboats. The gunboats were all destroyed and the battery blown up, apparently by some accident to the furnaces for heating shot. The heated shot had temporarily set Arethusa on fire, she had two men killed and thirty-two men, including Captain Brisbane, wounded.

On 1 January 1807 Brisbane, still in Arethusa, with three other frigates, having been sent off Curaçao, reduced the forts and captured the island from the Dutch. For his success on this occasion Brisbane was knighted, and he, as well as the other three captains, received a gold medal. He continued in command of Arethusa till near the end of 1808, when he was transferred to the 74-gun HMS Blake (1808), but was almost immediately afterwards appointed governor of the island of Saint Vincent. He held the post, without any further service at sea, until his death on the island in December 1829. On 2 January 1815 he had been nominated a KCB, and attained his flag rank on 12 August 1819.

Family
He married Sarah, daughter of Sir James Patey, of Reading, and left several children.

His daughter Lavinia married Lt General John Frederick Ewart and was mother to both General Sir John Alexander Ewart (1821–1904) and Charles Brisbane Ewart.

title: Charles Brisbane


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User talk:Ta bu shi da yu/Sources

In some order

 * 1) Laws and legislative proceedings
 * 2) Judicial procedings
 * 3) Peer reviewed journal articles
 * 4) Academic Papers
 * 5) Academic Books
 * 6) Academic Journals
 * 7) Journals
 * 8) Books
 * 9) Paper dictionaries
 * 10) Maps/atlases
 * 11) Signage posted by road departments and other public entities
 * 12) Photos (including aerial photos)
 * 13) Paper encyclopedias
 * 14) Interviews
 * 15) Newspapers
 * 16) Press releases
 * 17) Think tank publications (due to biases and unknown backers)
 * 18) Corporate webpages
 * 19) Fictional books
 * 20) Signage posted by businesses and other private entities
 * 21) Religious texts
 * 22) Blogs

Some sources may or may not be reliable, depending on what we write about:

 * 1) Fan pages (including serious subjects like roads and rails). About topics it relates to, it might be very relevant. For instance, comics. Fansites might be very important.
 * 2) Usenet postings (depends on what it is and where it comes from. Torvalds vs. Tanenbaum is good for that article. Bad for an article about Microkernel vs Monolithic kernel.

add more

What makes a reputable source?
Some sources are seen as more reputable than others. For instance, I personally don't take Alexander Hislop's text to be reliable. Others don't find blogs reliable. Newspapers can be seen as less reliable than peer reviewed articles. Even these have issues (see Sokal affair).

A source can be seen as more reliable if it is not subject to change as much. A little ironic considering what I'm posting to. That's a side point. A blog may not be considered as reliable or reputable because it can change very quickly and with no notice. Printed medium is seen as more reliable because then everyone knows what was written and the only way of changing what is written is by destroying the source and then reprinting it. In this case, "reliablity" is really the unchanging nature of the medium, not the infallibility of the facts contained in the text itself. For instance, a blog might be 100% accurate, but seen as unreliable because the text can be changed with no record of that change (except for things like Google cache and the wayback machine), however an academic paper like Sokal's is more "reliable" because it cannot change and everyone can critique it. There is basically a reference point that everyone can refer to. Wikipedia, in this case, might be seen as more "reliable" than a blog because of our system of edit histories. However, we might be seen as less reliable than the paper version of Britanicca because they don't change their text except for between editions: few and far between. The rate at which information changes on Wikipedia, and the risk that it might be deleted (no matter how transparent the process) might be seen as making Wikipedia unreliable.

With sources that have lots of errors, one way of dealing with this problem is make an article on the source itself, or on the author with a note to the problems with the sources. If the article gets deleted due to a lack of notability, then perhaps the source should not be used in Wikipedia articles.

We need to stick to the facts, and not interpret them. We are an encyclopedia, we should leave the interpretation to the readers.

Some principles

 * What constitutes a good source very much depends on what is being discussed. If X has written in their autobiography that they believe such and such a thing, then that autobiography will be a good source that X did believe that thing when the autobiography was written (even where the autobiography is ghosted, there would be an expectation that the subject has read and agreed the text of it).
 * More remarkable claims require stronger sources. Information that President Bush visited Europe on such a date as part of a very public vicit could be sourced from a news website or newspaper. Such a source would not be suitable as a source of information about a matter of great controversy in academic circles.
 * Blogs can be written by anyone. They are not peer reviewed and are not subject to any sort of scrutiny for accuracy. They are not acceptable sources for anything other than what the writer of the blog thinks or believes on a certain date.
 * So in other words, they are great for opinion, but bad for factual material? I would agree with this. - Ta bu shi da yu 21:38, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * They offer someone's opinion - but the question then to ask is why is this person's opinion important/relevant. Usually the answer is no - as those whose opinions may be relevant often nowadays have websites of their own, rather than just blogs.

Academic Arbitration Committee
As detailed rules will be difficult to formulate, and people will still argue about them, should we have an Academic Arbitration Committee? The AcArbCom being there to opine on whether information that is disputed is adequately supported by sources. Just an idea - as it just seems strange that we have no procedures to arbitrate on whether content is supported by adequate sources. IMO, it is inappropriate to leave such a decision to a majority vote. Thoughts? jguk 21:24, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ta bu shi da yu/Sources


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François-Adrien Boieldieu

François-Adrien Boieldieu (, also ) (16 December 1775 – 8 October 1834) was a French composer, mainly of operas, often called "the French Mozart". His date of birth was given as December 15 by his biographer Lucien Augé de Lassus (b. 1841) and as September 15 by some local press releases. Although his reputation is largely based upon his operas, Boieldieu composed other works and among them, his Harp Concerto in C (1800–1801) is a masterpiece of the harp repertory.

Biography
Born during the Ancien Régime in Rouen, François-Adrien Boieldieu received his musical education first from the choirmaster and then from the organist of the local cathedral. During the Reign of Terror, Rouen was one of the few towns to maintain a significant musical life and in 1793, a series of concerts was organised that featured the celebrated violinist Pierre Rode and the tenor Pierre-Jean Garat. It was during this time that Boieldieu composed his earliest works to texts written by his father (La fille coupable in 1793, followed by Rosalie et Mirza in 1795). These works brought him immediate success.

During the Revolutionary period, Boieldieu left for Paris and wisely started work as a piano tuner. At this time, the Opéra-Comique was the only theatre to offer opportunities for the hybrid works of the same name, close to classic opera, but containing spoken dialogue. The most typical work of the genre was Luigi Cherubini's Médée (1797). Traditionally performed at the Salle Favart, Opéra-comique was staged at the Théâtre de Monsieur from 1789. In 1791, the company set up home in a new theatre, the Théâtre Feydeau, previously reserved for the troupe of the opera buffa.

Throughout the course of ten years, the Favart and the Feydeau companies were rivals, the Favart beefing up its repertoire of patriotic spectacles and presenting the lighter works of Étienne Méhul, the Feydeau offering the heroic dramas of Cherubini or Jean-François Le Sueur. In 1797, Boieldieu offered the Feydeau La famille suisse and L'heureuse nouvelle. In 1798, he presented the Favart with Zoraime et Zulmare, which brought him extraordinary success.

The spiritual heir of André Grétry, Boieldieu focused on melodies that avoided too much ornamentation, set to light, but intelligent, orchestration. Hector Berlioz described his music as possessing "a pleasing and tasteful Parisian elegance". He was appointed as second class professor of piano in 1798. In 1800, he achieved a veritable triumph with Le calife de Bagdad (The Caliph of Baghdad).

Following the breakdown of his marriage to the dancer Clotilde Mafleurai, he set off for Saint Petersburg in 1804 to take up the post of court composer to the Russian tsar, where he stayed until 1810. There he composed nine operas, including Aline, reine de Golconde (1804) and Les voitures versées (1808).

On his return to France he won back Parisian audiences with La jeune femme en colère (1811), Jean de Paris (1812), Le nouveau seigneur du village (1813), and a dozen other works. In 1817, he succeeded Méhul as one of the forty members of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. He became professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire in 1820. He also received the Légion d'honneur in 1820.

In 1825, he produced his operatic masterpiece, La dame blanche (revived in the Salle Favart in 1997 and recorded by the conductor Marc Minkowski). Unusual for the time, La dame blanche was based on episodes from two novels by Walter Scott. The libretto by Eugène Scribe is built around the theme of the long-lost child fortunately recognized at a moment of peril. The style of the opera influenced Lucia di Lammermoor, I puritani, and La jolie fille de Perth. La dame blanche was one of the early attempts to introduce the fantastic into opera.

He gradually lost the ability to speak, likely due to cancer of the larynx. The bankruptcy of the Opéra-Comique and the revolution of 1830 added to his woes. To save him from poverty, Adolphe Thiers awarded him a state pension of 6,000 francs. On September 25, 1834, he made his last public appearance at the premiere of Adolphe Adam's Le chalet. In this way, he stylishly passed on the baton to his brilliant pupil.

Boieldieu died in Varennes-Jarcy. On 13 November 1834 his heart was interred in Rouen, in a tomb paid for by that city and designed by Charles Isabelle, while his body was interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. He was survived by (Adrien) Louis (Victor) Boïeldieu (1815–83), a son he had with Thérèse Louise Antoinette Regnault, the French opera singer and member of the Opéra-Comique who is known under the name Antoinette Lemonnier. His son became a composer.

He was a freemason, initiated at the Parisian lodge Les Arts et l'Amitié ('Arts and Friendship') – belonging to the Grand Orient of France, – as well as having been a member of the lodge 'Palestine' (in St. Petersburg), and an honorary member of the lodge 'Les Amis Réunis' ('Friends Re-united'), also in St. Petersburg.

title: François-Adrien Boieldieu


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Gumdrop

Gumdrops are a type of gummy candy. They are brightly colored pectin-based pieces, shaped like a narrow dome (sometimes with a flattened top), often coated in granulated sugar and having fruit and spice flavors; the latter are also known as spice drops.

History
Gumdrops first appeared in the 19th century United States, purportedly as early as 1801, although at that time they likely referred to small, hard sweets also derived from fruit gelatin. The name "gumdrop" is not found in print until 1859, appearing in an advertisement published by the Decatur, IL Illinois State Chronicle for a candy shop owned by a George Julier. By that time, a gelatin-based, rubbery candy akin to modern gummies went by the gumdrop name, but also a pastier candy with a potato starch base.

One of the oldest types of gumdrops still produced are "spice" gumdrops, using traditional spices including clove, anise, allspice, spearmint, cinnamon, and wintergreen for flavoring.

Usage
Gumdrops, spice drops, and their variations are used in baking for decorating cakes. Around Christmas, they are sometimes used to decorate gingerbread houses and other confections.

In popular culture
The Apollo 9 Command module was nicknamed "Gumdrop".

The board game Candy Land includes a "Gumdrop Pass" and "Gumdrop Mountain".

The use of the expression "goody gumdrops" as an alliterative exclamation of joy was first recorded in the 1959 novel Strike Out Where Not Applicable by British crime author Nicolas Freeling: "Buttered toast, and cherry cake, as well as Marmite. Goody, goody gumdrops".

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Adolf Bernhard Christoph Hilgenfeld

Adolf Bernhard Christoph Hilgenfeld (2 June 1823 – 12 January 1907) was a German Protestant theologian.

Biography
He was born at Stappenbeck near Salzwedel in the Province of Saxony.

He studied at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin and the University of Halle, and in 1890 became professor ordinarius of theology at the University of Jena. He belonged to the Tübingen school. Fond of emphasizing his independence of Ferdinand Christian Baur, he still, in all important points, followed in the footsteps of his master; his method, which he is wont to contrast as Literarkritik with Baur's Tendenzkritik, "is nevertheless essentially the same as Baur's."

On the whole, however, he modified the positions of the founder of the Tübingen school, going beyond him only in his investigations into the Fourth Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie. Hilgenfeld died in Jena in 1907, aged 83.

title: Adolf Bernhard Christoph Hilgenfeld


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/2000s music groups

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result was delete all ɑʀкʏɑɴ 19:21, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

2000s music groups

 * – (View AfD) (View log)

This article is redundant with the Category:2000s music groups. I am also nominating the following related pages because they all fail in the same way as being redundant with their respective categories of the same name:

There is no need to merge the information on the page. The categorization of each group's article will suffice. Keeping this list separately introduces all kinds of problems and should be considered Listcruft. Maher-shalal-hashbaz 01:33, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete, redundant to categories. Ten Pound Hammer  • (Broken clamshells•Otter chirps•Review?) 02:25, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete, redundant. This is why we have categories, boys and girls. Realkyhick 02:55, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete If it is just a list (with no/minimal description in each one), create a category and delete the article as "redundant". Same applies here.-- Pre ston  H  03:11, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom. Maxamegalon2000 05:03, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete With info transferred to categories Mbisanz 06:02, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete all. Redundant to categories. Thin Arthur 06:12, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete per nom, Thin Arthur and Mbisanz.--JForget 22:35, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Simon Says Delete all Thin Arthur and I are the only ones who voted to Delete All. Oh, I guess the nominator did too.  Since nobody's voting to Keep All, it looks unanimous.  Mandsford 22:38, 31 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete all. Redundant. DJBullfish 03:28, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep and rewrite, could be rewritten to not be redundant with categories. For example, a year of foundation could be added.  Grue   06:21, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Move to 2000s in music, 1990s in music, 1980s in music, 1970s in music,1960s in music, Delete the list portion, Rewrite the intro with sources. HokieRNB 17:28, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Talk:Dearne Valley line

From PNA/Transport
The Dearne Valley Line (DVL) is one example of an article which has no historic input. The National Rail (NL) website here shows that - as a PR job I suspect - they have named certain sections/lengths of line. The named one was on the stub list. As a start it was necessary to rename the article from xxxx line to xxxx Line, since that is the full title. Secondly, the article carries no historic base for the naming of the line, which I have now included: it was, and still is, a main artery joining two places (Sheffild and York) by means of a joint working arrangement.

I then discovered that, for some reason, the stations on the line were divided as to their location - odd, since the whole thing is an entity. The further problem was that other lines, also named like the DVL had been treated in exactly the same way - only the modern existence is covered with no historical background whatsoever. A glance at the NL list will show that there are quite a few of those lines, and it is obvious that many are named as they are because of their history. I shall try to find out how many of them are articled, but this will take some time. Peter Shearan 13:11, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I have now had an intensive period of amending the articles in question; they all needed clarification as to what they were (not railways but services over stretches of modern lines). Peter Shearan 08:06, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I started editing this because it is on the stub list. However I note:
 * If one looks at list of named lines it is obvious that National Rail have done a PR job and named lines all over the country - hence my reason for changing the title to Dearne Valley Line and not simply xxxx line. Unfortunately when I changed it discovered all the others had been written as a Wikipedia article in similar vein!
 * I don't think it's obvious at all! That list (now here) is a handy reference to some of the names currently knocking about (frequently of recent commercial invention, and not guaranteed to survive franchise changes), but "National Rail" (the marketing name of ATOC) does not have any lines to name, and nor do the TOCs. What they do have ownership of are passenger services and the companies' marketing departments are fond of "branding" these services with a name which often ends in "Line" -- but these are "lines" more in the sense of a shipping line than a railway line (a physical route which may carry far more than just a passenger service), and do not necessarily correspond to the real, physical lines, owned by Network Rail. The National Rail list is, in any case, a jumble of historic all-traffic route names (the North & West Line) and passenger-service marketing names (ATW's Marches Line), but doesn't mention Wikipedia's "Welsh Marches Line"! -- Picapica 12:29, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Each one of them is a standalone entity and therefore I cannot see why there has to be the division between where the stations are located.
 * this Line has a historical significance, since a great part of it was the result of a joint agreement between the NER and the Midland.I haven't checked my reference books to see whether the same would apply to other named railways, but I am sure that they often were the result of similar circumstances. That of course is why the lines still exist today in the form that National Rail have produced them - they are arteries within the system. The manner in which they are written in these articles only suggest the modern circumstances and completely ignores their significance Peter Shearan 11:00, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, it does have an historical significance. It's just historically this was the Swinton and Knottingley Joint, whilst the Dearne Valley Line was a completely different line! the Solipsistic Snallygaster warns you not to click on this link 10:16, 31 March 2007 (UTC)

Historical data
I've entered the opening dates of the different sections of the route, as well as giving a basic description of the services which use bits of the route today. I don't have books at hand to talk about the significance of the route or its operational history; the dates and constructing companies will have to do for now!

Eborbuses 02:49, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 13:04, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Trent Valley Line which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 16:31, 1 February 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dearne Valley line


text:
The Consultants

The Consultants are a comedy sketch team who first reached public prominence in August 2002 where they won the Perrier Best Newcomer Award at the Edinburgh Fringe.

The team, consisting of Neil Edmond, Justin Edwards and James Rawlings, have since recorded four series of comedy shows, also named The Consultants, on BBC Radio 4, featuring an eclectic mix of songs, puns and sketches.

BBC Audiobooks Release
Released in 2003 (Cat no. 056352345x) which contains the first four episodes of the first series.

title: The Consultants


text: File:We Are Not Alone.jpg

title: File:We Are Not Alone.jpg


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dual layer recording

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was merge and redirect to DVD. – ABCD 22:16, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Dual layer recording
This is a press release, not an article. --Pengo 11:02, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: This was apparently never listed on vfd, so I'm putting it on today's page. —Korath (Talk) 00:00, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with DVD. Dual layer refers to the DVD-9 format, a type of DVD. --Fuzzball! 00:37, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge. Agreed with Fuzzball. In the meantime, I edited it to be more encyclopedic. 63.173.114.141 00:58, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with DVD. Megan1967 03:33, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect - David Gerard 09:42, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with DVD. Adds very little new content above that on DVD anyway. Voicey 05:16, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Mumbles

Hamlet, Village or Small Town
Oh, come on. If Mumbles is a village, nowhere would be big enough to qualify as a city. It's more than large enough to be a town, with plenty of shops and many houses. [213.105.224.14]
 * Mumbles is certainly *not* a town, by the common usage of the term in the UK. It is clearly a reasonably large village though. The nearest 'town' is Swansea. --Vamp:Willow 11:36, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Fire at The Mermaid
Currently the article mentions that "Famous poet Dylan Thomas was said to have enjoyed many hours at The Mermaid, now a restaurant and coffee lounge." - Sadly the Mermaid that Dylan Thomas frequented was badly damaged by fire circa 1997 and by 1999 had been demolished. The restaurant and coffee lounge is on the same site, but significantly different. I used to work the bar at The Mermaid but had left for Uni by then so if anyone can improve on the dates and details please do. --Ear1grey 12:43, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

In the Media
Perhaps a section describing times when Mumbles has been recorded in popular media would be useful? Obvious things that spring to mind are Ennels Point and the coffin scene in Twin Town, but there must be more... --Ear1grey 12:43, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

The Mumbles Mile
The Mile really deserves a section of it's own, with a little detail and an explanation of why it became well known and how it's changed since it's initial infamy. The closure of two of the four mumbles nightclubs (Neptunes & Secrets (later named Barberellas)), the conversion of the Prince of Wales, and probably several other factors have all played a part as Mumbles nightlife has evolved. --Ear1grey 12:50, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Info Added to History Section
I've added some info on the previously "development" title of the article which I've now changed to "history". Hope everything's fine. (Cepb 21:27, 7 July 2007 (UTC))

Catherine Zeta Jones
She grew up living in the Mayals, and went to school in Swansea. That is not Mumbles. 78.145.186.41 (talk) 12:07, 7 June 2010 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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title: Talk:Mumbles


text:
Walter the Chancellor

Walter the Chancellor (also known as Galterius cancellarius, the Latinized form of his French name, Gautier) was a French or Norman crusader and author of the twelfth century.

He served as Chancellor of the Principality of Antioch and wrote Bella Antiochena ("Wars of Antioch" or "The Antiochene Wars") about the history of the principality from 1114–1122, mostly during the reign of Roger of Salerno. He was certainly present at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119, in which Roger was defeated and killed by Ilghazi, and Walter was probably taken into captivity for a brief time in Aleppo. Nothing more is known about him. Even his place of origin is uncertain, as the editorial introduction of Recueil des Historiens des Croisades points out. Some authors claim on the basis of "gallicisms" in his Latin that he is of French origin, while others cite the fact that he is in the party, and writing a history, of the Norman Roger of Salerno. The text itself gives no indication.

The Bella Antiochena was written in two parts, the first sometime before Ager Sanguinis in 1119, and the second probably around 1122, or in stages from 1119 to 1122. The work was published in Jacques Paul Migne's Patrologia Latina in 1853, the Recueil des Historiens des Croisades in 1895, and by H. Hagenmeyer in 1896. Walter was used as a source by the later 12th-century chronicler William of Tyre.

title: Walter the Chancellor


text:
Kenneth Morris (author)

Kenneth Vennor Morris (31 July 1879 – 21 April 1937), sometimes using the Welsh form of his name Cenydd Morus, was a Welsh author and theosophist. Born in South Wales, he relocated to London with his family as a child, and was educated at Christ's Hospital. In 1896, he lived in Dublin for a while, where he became friends with George William Russell. From 1908 to 1930, Morris lived in California as a staffperson of the Theosophical Society headquarters at Point Loma. The last seven years of his life were spent back in his native Wales, during which time he founded seven Welsh theosophical lodges. Morris was a friend of Talbot Mundy, and the two writers often commentated on each other's work in magazine The Theosophical Path.

According to Ursula K. Le Guin, Morris is one of the three master prose stylists of fantasy of the 20th century, together with E. R. Eddison and J. R. R. Tolkien.

Works

 * The Fates of the Princes of Dyfed (1914) As Cenydd Morus.
 * The Secret Mountain and Other Tales (1926)
 * Book of the Three Dragons (1930)
 * The Chalchiuhite Dragon: A Tale of Toltec Times (1992)
 * The Dragon Path: Collected Tales of Kenneth Morris (1995)

Works online

 * The Fates of the Princes of Dyfed, online edition
 * The Chalchiuhite Dragon:A Tale of Toltec Times, online edition
 * Short stories, a play, and book excerpts.
 * The Chalchiuhite Dragon:A Tale of Toltec Times, online edition
 * Short stories, a play, and book excerpts.

title: Kenneth Morris (author)


text: User talk:84.72.223.179

title: User talk:84.72.223.179


text:
Kammhuber Line

The Kammhuber Line was the name given by the Allies to the German night-fighter air-defence system established in western Europe in July 1940 by Colonel Josef Kammhuber. It consisted of a series of control sectors equipped with radars and searchlights and an associated night fighter. Each sector would direct the night fighter into visual range to target intruding bombers.

The Line proved very effective against initial RAF Bomber Command tactics. However, the RAF analyzed the German system and developed a counter-measure. On the night of 30/31 May 1942 in its 1,000 plane raid against Cologne, Bomber Command introduced the use of the bomber stream. The concentration of bombers through a few of the boxes ovewhelmed the Luftwaffe defenses. In response, the Germans converted their ground radar into a radar network which would follow the path of the British bombers, while a controller directed the night fighters into the stream. Measure and counter-measure continued until October 1944, when German defenses were no longer able to respond.

Description
The first version of the Line consisted of a series of radar stations with overlapping coverage, layered three deep from Denmark to the middle of France, each covering a zone about 32 km long (north-south) and 20 km wide (east-west). Each control centre was known as a Himmelbett (canopy bed) zone, consisting of a Freya radar with a range of about 100 km, a "master searchlight" directed by the radar, and a number of manually directed searchlights spread through the cell. Each cell was also assigned one primary and one backup night fighter. The fighter used was usually a Dornier Do 17Z-10, Junkers Ju 88C or Messerschmitt Bf 110. This technique of ground-controlled interception (GCI) was preceded by the use of single-engined non radar-equipped Bf 109s guided to the attacking bombers by the illumination of searchlights, termed; Helle Nachtjagd – illuminated night fighting.

RAF bombers flying into Germany or France had to cross the line at some point, at which time the Freya radar operators directed the master searchlight to illuminate the plane. Once this had happened other manually controlled searchlights also picked up the plane, and the night fighters were directed to intercept the illuminated bomber. Demands by the Bürgermeisters in Germany led to the recall of the searchlights to the major cities, which undermined this system.

Later versions of the Himmelbett added two Würzburg radars, with a range of about 30 km. Unlike the early-warning Freya, Würzburgs were accurate (and complex) tracking radars. One was locked onto the night fighter as soon as it entered the cell and as soon as the Freya picked up a target the second Würzburg locked onto it. All position reports were sent to the Himmelbett control centre thereby allowing controllers in the Himmelbett centre to get continual readings of the positions of both planes.

A Jägerleitoffizier directed the German night-fighter to a visual interception with the RAF bomber using radio. Operations were manually coordinated using an "Auswertetisch" (the precursor of a "Seeburg" plotting table). To aid interception a number of the night fighters were fitted with a short-range infrared device known as the Spanner-Anlage but these proved almost useless. Later the short-range, UHF-band original version of the Lichtenstein airborne intercept radar system was added to the aircraft, allowing them to detect aircraft once the operators had directed them into the area, making searchlights largely redundant. The battle stations were known as "Kammhuber's opera houses" and procedures developed in 1942 were used until the end of the war.

Counter-measures
British intelligence soon discovered the nature of the Kammhuber Line and started studying ways to defeat it. At the time RAF Bomber Command exerted no discipline on how pilots were to get their aircraft to the target. There was an air of amateurism and individuality to the pilots of Bomber Command. Each pilot was on his own as to his flight path to the target, altitude to be flown and time of arrival. Thus bombing attacks would go on sporadically for four or five hours, and there was no concentration in the bombing. The boxes of the Kammhuber Line were well set up to deal with the broad approach paths of individual bombers.

At the urging of R. V. Jones, Bomber Command reorganized their attacks into streams of bombers – the so-called bomber stream, carefully positioned so the stream flew down the middle of a single cell. Data provided to the British scientists allowed them to calculate that the bomber stream would overwhelm the six potential interceptions per hour that the German night fighters could manage in a Himmelbett zone. It was then a matter of calculating the statistical loss from collisions against the statistical loss from night fighters to calculate how close the bombers should fly to minimise RAF losses. The introduction of Gee radio navigation in 1942 allowed the RAF bombers to fly by a common route and at the same speed to and from the target, each aircraft being allotted a height band and a time slot in a bomber stream to minimize the risk of collision. The first use of the bomber stream was the first 1,000 bomber raid against Cologne on the night of 30/31 May 1942. This tactic was extremely effective, leading to fighting between Kammhuber and Erhard Milch, his boss.

Although the success rate of the line dropped, the network of radars and plotting stations continued to prove their worth. Now when a raid started, night fighters from any base within range were directed into the stream, where it was hoped they would be able to find aircraft with their radar. At the same time a massive building program started to add hundreds of Würzburgs to the system, although the infrastructure needed was extensive. The boxes were initially the radius of the Würzburg radars, about 22 miles, but more powerful radar later on made the boxes up to 100 miles across. Eventually, the line of boxes was several deep, especially around larger towns and the Ruhr valley. Once again the system started to score increasing successes against the British raids.

The British were ready for this development, and as soon as the rates started to improve – for the Germans – they introduced "Window". When they dropped strips of foil from "lead" bombers, the German radar operators saw what appeared to be a stream entering their box, each packet of chaff appearing to be a bomber on their displays. Night fighters were then sent to attack this stream, only to find empty space. Just as the fighters reached the false stream, the "real" stream appeared hundreds of miles away, too far to be attacked. The first time this was used was during Operation Gomorrah (a week-long bombing campaign against Hamburg) and proved spectacularly effective. The German radar operators eventually learned to spot the lead bombers at the edge of the windowing, making it less effective. The British had held back from introducing Window for over a year lest the technique be adopted by the Germans and used against British cities.

A more sophisticated method for blinding the German radar was "Mandrel", a jamming signal broadcast from aircraft accompanying the bomber stream or later certain bombers themselves. This progressed into jamming techniques against individual German radar types and spoofing radars to see bomber streams that were not there. The British also attacked the communications between ground stations and fighters, with Operation Corona, broadcasting false directions in authentic accents over the radio.

One other element was long-range nightfighters operating against the German nightfighters, using a system called "Serrate" to home in on the German nightfighter radar signals. At least three squadrons equipped with Bristol Beaufighter and de Havilland Mosquito were part of No. 100 Group RAF supporting Bomber Command with electronic countermeasures.

title: Kammhuber Line


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bloggertizing

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Carrp | Talk 04:12, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Bloggertizing
Neologism, vanity (term claimed to be coined by the article's creator) and false (Google shows the term being used by someone else on Sept. 16, 2004 ). --Plek 11:05, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete..."the ironing is delicious", as they say. Nick04 14:03, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, unless someone provides more notable content. Zzyzx11 20:55, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, neologism. Megan1967 22:38, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. -- Maybe for WikIDictionary. Tygar 08:35, Feb 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Giano 20:28, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Andaloor

Andaloor is a place located in Dharmadam village in Thalassery taluk of Kerala state, South India. This is the place where Andaloor Kavu is situated. Andaloor is well known for the ancient art form Theyyam.

The Thaze Kavu, part of the Andaloor Kavu, has the remnants of a sacred grove. It is one of the few remaining habitats for the species typical of the Myristica swamps, notably Syzygium travancoricum, an endangered endemic plant. Heavy disturbance in this highly populated area is a threat to the sacred grove.

title: Andaloor


text:
Kavkasia

Trio Kavkasia is a U.S. trio performing traditional vocal polyphony from Georgia.

Trio Kavkasia (Georgian word for Caucasus) was formed in 1994 by Alan Gasser, Stuart Gelzer and Carl Linich, three Americans who together have more than sixty years of experience singing the traditional music of Georgia.

They sing concerts and lead workshops in North America, and they have made several extended visits to Georgia to study with singers there, both in professional ensembles and in remote villages. In 1997 each of them was made a State Prize Laureate and was awarded the Silver Medal of the Georgian Ministry of Culture "for profound knowledge of the folk music of Georgia and his role in its popularization around the world."

Discography

 * Songs of the Caucasus 1995 (published by Well-Tempered Productions)
 * O Morning Breeze 2001 (published by Naxos World)
 * The Fox and the Lion 2006 (published by Traditional Crossroads)

title: Kavkasia


text:
Talk:Model minority

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Lilpichu, Mchang38.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Ejia1.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Gshreya.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 31 August 2020 and 19 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Skyelar24.

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Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 1 February 2021 and 28 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Vypdiep.

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Review of Model Minority Article

 * 1) There are several references missing throughout the article, and several of the citations linked at the bottom are not working.
 * 2) The article begins disaggregating how the model minority myth impacts different Asian demographics, but only does so for Southeast and South Asians. There is no specific section dedicated to the model minority myth and East Asians in the United States. The term South Asians is also often used as a synonym for Indian Americans, even though this is inaccurate as the region of South Asia includes several other countries/demographics.
 * 3) The model minority myth has been evidenced to impact people of different genders in different ways. There is no mention of how the myth may impact women and queer folk different than cisgender men.

~ Sonalchuriwal (talk) 17:14, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Migration in World History
— Assignment last updated by Jtran83 (talk) 08:39, 21 April 2023 (UTC)

Proposed Merger: Model Minority & Model Minority Myth
These articles are BOTH discussing the same stereotype. And, as has been written in numerous places (Time Magazine 'How the Model Minority Myth of Asian Americans Hurts Us All'; CNBC 'How the model minority myth holds Asian Americans back at work - and what companies should do'; NPR ' 'Model Minority' Myth Again Used as a Racial Wedge Between Asians and Blacks; USC Pacifica Asia Museum 'Debunking the Model Minority Myth'; National Cancer Institute ' 'Model Minority' Stereotype'; 'Unraveling the Model Minority Stereotype: Listening to Asian American Youth' by Stacy J. Lee, and even more dangerously described as the flip side of the coin of the money-mad Jew/Asian rendered seemingly positive (Transgressions of a Model Minority by Jonathan Freedman; etc); and the list goes on, it is being addressed in most of the current discourse as a stereotype that is harmful to everyone, whether the group described as such or an outside group, whether it has become a self-identifier or is externally applied. What is the point of having two articles on the same topic? Why not merge them both into one under the subsection of stereotypes? Model Minority Myth and Model Minority Stereotype are two names for the same thing. Why not merge the content and state them as name variations? Thoughts? KnowTheManyHistories (talk) 23:16, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

Statistics: Update
Statistics should probably be updated to include African countries, as an extremely high percentage of immigrants from various countries in Africa hold a Bachelor's degree or higher and the chart does not include this. KnowTheManyHistories (talk) 02:22, 14 September 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Race in America, sec 2
— Assignment last updated by Ec2903 (talk) 22:48, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Model minority


text:
Arthur Lake

Arthur Lake may refer to:

 * Arthur Lake (bishop) (1569–1626), English bishop of Bath and Wells
 * Arthur Lake (MP) (1598–1633), English member of House of Commons from 1624 to 1626
 * Arthur Lake (actor) (1905–1987), American actor known as Dagwood Bumstead, bumbling husband of Blondie

title: Arthur Lake


text:
Arnold Heeney

Arnold Danford Patrick Heeney (April 5, 1902 – December 20, 1970) was a Canadian lawyer, diplomat and civil servant.

He was born in Montreal, Quebec. He was educated at St. John's College, Winnipeg and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1921 and a Master of Arts degree in 1923 both from the University of Manitoba. As the Manitoba Rhodes Scholar he went on to St. John's College, Oxford before returning to Canada, earning a Bachelor of Civil Law degree at McGill University.

Specializing in Maritime law, in 1929 he joined the Montreal law firm of Meredith, Holden, Heward & Holden. In one of his last cases with the firm, he successfully represented F. R. Scott against the City of Westmount.

In 1938, he took the position of Principal Secretary to Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. From 1940 to 1949, he was Clerk of the Privy Council and Secretary to the Cabinet. He was perhaps the most important civil servant during World War II.

In 1949, he became Under Secretary of State for External Affairs, then Ambassador to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. He was Canada's Ambassador to the United States from 1953 to 1957 and 1959 to 1962.

In 1968, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. He died in Ottawa in 1970.

title: Arnold Heeney


text:
Category talk:Non-combat military accidents

Stub message
Grutness, I've reverted your edit as a formalistic one. Practically, the stub-templated article is a page needing expansion. The category needing more filling is just freaking the same. And the most important: otherwise, how am I supposed to notify other Wikifellows that the category needs new articles? Stubbing it is definitely the ultimate way.

As for Wikirules, let's find the special way for "stubbing" categories related to other categories. Looking forward to participate in such process. Best wishes, AlexPU —Preceding undated comment added 11:11, 27 February 2005 (UTC)

 * Articles can be stubs, categories cannot. Categories are directly stated as not needing the stub templates at WikiProject Stub sorting/Criteria - they have a separate template:  (which I've added to the category).

 * The main reasons for this are that:

 * 1) when an article is extended, it is clear to the editor how much has been added and whether the stub message can be removed. This is not true with a category, as it is not the category that is edited, but articles which are categorised.
 * 2) a category with no articles in it is as complete in itself as a category with 1000 articles in it - what is incomplete is the articles which should be categorised. They are the stubs.

 * advertises that a category is empty. Other than that, you could remind people in the necessary WikiProjects about its existence.

 * PS - I have added HMS Thetis (N25) to Category:Modern submarine disasters, but I've also suggested on cfd that it simply become category:Submarine disasters.
 * Grutness|hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|25px|]] 10:06, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah, now I see my mistake. Thank you for kind consulting, Grutness. You know, I avoid long browsing around Wikipedia rules and community pages because of ISP connection shortages. Fully agree with your suggestion on submarine category: any submarine is a relatively modern subject :) Best wishes, AlexPU —Preceding undated comment added 06:18, 2 March 2005 (UTC)


text:
Georgian–Ossetian conflict

The Georgian–Ossetian conflict is an ethno-political conflict over Georgia's former autonomous region of South Ossetia, which evolved in 1989 and developed into a war. Despite a declared ceasefire and numerous peace efforts, the conflict remained unresolved. In August 2008, military tensions and clashes between Georgia and South Ossetian separatists erupted into the Russo-Georgian War. Since then, South Ossetia has been under a de-facto Russian control.

Background
The term "South Ossetia" first appeared during the 19th century. Throughout antiquity, the territory of South Ossetia was part of a region of Shida Kartli within the Georgian kingdom of Iberia. In the middle ages, the territory was disputed between various Georgian principalities and kingdoms before all of them were unified in the Kingdom of Georgia by 1008. During this period, the territory was part of the Duchy of Kartli. The migration of Alan-Ossetians to the region is believed to be connected to the fall of Kingdom of Alania in the North Caucasus in 13th and 14th centuries to the Mongols and later to Timur's armies. They retreated into the mountains of the central Caucasus and gradually started moving south, across the Caucasus Mountains into the Kingdom of Georgia. The territory of South Ossetia became part of the Kingdom of Kartli after the collapse of the Kingdom of Georgia, and it was held by the aristocratic Georgian Machabeli family, becoming known as Samachablo ("Land of the Machabeli"). In the 17th century, under pressure from the Kabardian princes, Ossetians started a second wave of migration from the North Caucasus to the Kingdom of Kartli. During this time, the Ossetians began to form their settlements in Samachablo; however, they were still outnumbered by native Georgians. In the 19th century, Georgian kingdoms and principalities were incorporated into the Russian Empire, and Ossetian migration to Georgian areas continued throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. The term "South Ossetia" appeared during this period, its first documented use dating to the 19th century. Until then, "North Ossetia" was referred to simply as Ossetia, and "South Ossetia" as Kartli or Samachablo. The term "South Ossetia" became widespread only after the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast was established within the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic by the Soviet administration under pressure from Kavburo (the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party) in 1922.

Early years of the Soviet Union
The conflict between Georgians and Ossetians dates back until at least 1918. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, the Democratic Republic of Georgia declared independence (26 May 1918) under the Mensheviks, while the Bolsheviks took control of Russia. Georgians suppressed a Bolshevik rebellion in present-day South Ossetia with great severity in 1918 and in the next year outlawed the National Soviet of South Ossetia. In June 1920, a Russian-sponsored Ossetian force attacked the Georgian Army and People's Guard. The Georgians responded vigorously and defeated the insurgents, with several Ossetian villages being burnt down and 20,000 Ossetians displaced in Soviet Russia. Eight months later, the Red Army successfully invaded Georgia and the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast was created. Some believe that the Bolsheviks granted this autonomy to the Ossetians in exchange for their (Bolshevik) loyalty in fighting the Democratic Republic of Georgia and favouring local separatists, since this area had never been a separate entity prior to the Red Army invasion.

Late years of the Soviet Union
In the late 1980s, the Ossetian nationalistic organization Adamon Nikhas (Voice of the People) was created. On 10 November 1989, the South Ossetian Supreme Soviet asked the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic for the status of the region to be upgraded to that of an autonomous republic. However this application was rejected on 16 November. On 23 November 1989, Georgians organized a mass protest in Tskhinvali to oppose separatist tendencies.

South Ossetia declared about its state sovereignty on 20 September 1990. In October 1990, the Georgian parliamentary elections were boycotted by South Ossetia, which held elections to its own parliament in December of the same year. On 11 December 1990, the Georgian Parliament passed a bill that effectively abolished South Ossetia's autonomous status to prevent separatism. Russia intervened and a state of emergency was declared in South Ossetia.

On 4 May 1991, the South Ossetian Parliament declared its intention to separate from Georgia and to unite with North Ossetia, which was located within the borders of the Russian Federation.

1991–1992 South Ossetia War
Amidst rising ethnic tensions, war broke out when Georgian police forces and paramilitary organizations entered the capital of South Ossetia, Tskhinvali, to restore order. More than 2,000 people are believed to have been killed in the war. The separatists were helped by former Soviet military units, who by now had come under Russian command. Approximately 100,000 Ossetians fled Georgia proper and South Ossetia, while 23,000 Georgians left South Ossetia. A ceasefire agreement (the Sochi Agreement) was reached on 24 June 1992. While it ended the war, it did not deal with the status of South Ossetia. A Joint Control Commission for Georgian–Ossetian Conflict Resolution and peacekeeping force, composed of Russian, Georgian and Ossetian troops, was set up. The Ossetian de facto government controlled the region independently from Tbilisi. The JPKF's activities were mainly concentrated in the Conflict Zone, which included an area within a 15 km radius from Tskhinvali.

The separatists retained control over the districts of Tskhinvali, Java, Znauri and parts of Akhalgori. The Tbilisi central government controlled the rest of Akhalgori and the Georgian villages in the Tskhinvali district.

1992–2003
In 1996, the Ergneti market was opened and soon became the place where Georgians and South Ossetians traded. In 1996, Lyudvig Chibirov won the presidential elections in South Ossetia. A memorandum on "Measures for providing security and confidence building" was signed in Moscow on 16 May 1996, which was regarded as the first step towards a rapprochement between Georgia and the separatists of South Ossetia. This was followed up by several meetings between the President of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze, and the de facto President of South Ossetia, Lyudvig Chibirov. They met in Vladikavkaz in 1996, in Java in 1997, and in Borjomi in 1998. These resulted in some positive developments as the talks about IDP return, economic development, a political solution to the issues, and the protection of the population in the conflict zone.

There was no military confrontation for twelve years. While the peace process was frozen, Ossetians and Georgians engaged in lively exchanges and uncontrolled trade. The unresolved conflict encouraged development of such illegal activities as kidnapping, drug-trafficking and arms trading. Up to the end of 2003, a number of law enforcement officials from South Ossetia and Georgia proper allegedly were participating in criminal economic activities. Authorities on both sides reportedly cooperated to profit from illegal trade, as did Russian customs and peacekeeping troops.

The 2004 flare-up

When Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president in 2004, his goal was to return the breakaway regions of Georgia to central control.

Following the success in Adjara, President Mikheil Saakashvili’s government turned their attention to South Ossetia.

In June, the Georgians shut down the Ergneti market, which was a major trading point for contraband goods. This made the situation more tense. Georgia's regional administration began to restore the alternative road to Didi Liakhvi.

On 7 July, Georgian peacekeepers intercepted a Russian convoy. The next day around 50 Georgian peacekeepers were disarmed and detained by the South Ossetian militias. The Georgian peacekeepers captured were all released on 9 July, with three exceptions. On 11 July 2004, Georgian president Saakashvili said the "crisis in South Ossetia is not a problem between Georgians and Ossetians. This is a problem between Georgia and Russia."

On 5 August 2004, Russian State Duma issued an official statement concerning the aggravation of situation around South Ossetia and Abkhazia in connection "with political actions of Georgian authorities". The statement warned that Russia could get involved in the conflict and would take "appropriate actions in case the lives of Russian citizens were jeopardized". Hundreds of Russian volunteers, mainly Cossacks, stated their readiness to protect the people of South Ossetia should the conflict escalate any further.

The tensions increased on the night of 10–11 August, when Georgian and South Ossetian villages in the area north of Tskhinvali came under fire and civilians were injured. Georgian and South Ossetian members of the JPFK are said to have been involved in the exchange of fire. On 13 August, Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania and de facto South Ossetian President Eduard Kokoity agreed on a ceasefire, which was breached multiple times by both sides. During the tensions in July and August, 17 Georgians and 5 Ossetians were killed. In emergency sessions of the JCC on 17 and 18 August in Tbilisi and Tskhinvali, the sides debated complex ceasefire proposals and demilitarization projects. At the same time, they expected fighting to resume and used the truce to improve their military positions and strengthen defences. A ceasefire agreement was reached on 19 August.

On 24 August, in an interview broadcast by Imedi television, the chairman of the Georgian parliament's Defense and Security Committee, Givi Targamadze, said that Russian military was prepared to launch a strike into Georgian territory, but the raid was preempted by Saakashvili's decision on 19 August to withdraw Georgian forces from strategic positions in South Ossetia. Targamadze said the Georgian government possessed secretly recorded video of Russian military preparations near the Georgian border.

At a high-level meeting between Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania and South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity on 5 November in Sochi, Russia, an agreement on demilitarization of the conflict zone was reached. Some exchange of fire continued in the zone of conflict after the ceasefire, apparently primarily initiated by the Ossetian side.

New peace efforts
Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili presented a new vision for resolving the South Ossetian conflict at the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) session in Strasbourg, on 26 January 2005. His proposal included broader forms of autonomy, including a constitutional guarantee of free and directly elected local self-governance. Saakashvili stated that South Ossetia's parliament would have control over issues such as culture, education, social policy, economic policy, public order, organization of local self-governance and environmental protection. At the same time South Ossetia would have a voice in the national structures of government as well, with a constitutional guarantee of representation in the judicial and constitutional-judicial branches and in the Parliament. Georgia would commit to improving the economic and social conditions of South Ossetian inhabitants. Saakashvili proposed a transitional 3-year conflict resolution period, during which time mixed Georgian and Ossetian police forces, under the guidance and auspices of international organizations, would be established and Ossetian forces would gradually be integrated into a united Georgian Armed Force. Saakashvili also said that the international community should play a more significant and visible role in solving this conflict.

Zurab Zhvania's premature death in February 2005 was a setback in the conflict resolution.

2006 attack on a Georgian helicopter
On 3 September 2006, the South Ossetian forces opened fire at a Georgian MI-8 helicopter carrying Defense Minister of Georgia, Irakli Okruashvili, when it flew over the separatist-held territory. It landed safely in Georgian government-controlled territory. Although the South Ossetian authorities reported that the Georgian helicopter had entered their air space and fired shots at the ground, the Georgians denied the charge that shots had come from the helicopter. The South Ossetian officials confirmed their troops were responsible for the attack, but denied the claim that the aircraft was targeted because of prior intelligence that Okruashvili was on board. "We are not interested in having either Okruashvili or [Georgian president Mikheil] Saakashvili killed, as they are helping us to achieve independence," declared South Ossetian Interior minister Mikhail Mindzayev.

2006 October incident
On 31 October 2006, the South Ossetian police reported a skirmish in the Java, Georgia district, in which they killed a group of 4 men. The weapons seized from the group included assault rifles, guns, grenade launchers, grenades and explosive devices. Other items found in the militants' possession included extremist Wahhabi literature, maps of Java district and sets of Russian peacekeeping uniforms. Those findings led the South Ossetian authorities to conclude that the militants were planning to carry out acts of sabotage and terrorist attacks. The South Ossetian authorities identified the men as Chechens from Georgia's Pankisi Gorge. South Ossetia accused Georgia of hiring the Chechen mercenaries to carry out terrorist attacks in the region.

The Georgian side flatly denied its involvement in the incident. Shota Khizanishvili, a spokesperson for the Georgian Interior Ministry, supposed that the incident could be connected to "internal conflicts in South Ossetia".

Rival elections of 2006
On 12 November 2006, presidential election and referendum were held in South Ossetia. The separatist-controlled part of the region re-elected Eduard Kokoity as de facto president and voted for independence from Georgia. In the areas under Georgia's control, the Ossetian opposition organized rival polls electing Dmitry Sanakoyev as an alternative president and voted for negotiations with Georgia on a future federal agreement. The pro-Georgian government was never able to draw significant support away from the separatist authorities.

Georgia's new initiative
On 29 March 2007, the Russian Foreign Ministry warned in a statement that Tbilisi's plan to set up a temporary administrative unit in the part of breakaway South Ossetia would "shatter an already fragile situation". On 10 May 2007, Dmitry Sanakoyev was appointed as head of the Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia by the President of Georgia. The next day, Sanakoyev addressed the Parliament of Georgia, outlining his vision of the conflict resolution plan. In response the South Ossetian separatists enforced mass blockade of Georgian villages in the conflict zone and Eduard Kokoity demanded the withdrawal of Georgian special-task troops and South Ossetia's interim government headed by "alternative president" Dmitry Sanakoyev.

On 24 July 2007, Tbilisi held its first state commission to define South Ossetia's status within the Georgian state. Chaired by Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli, the commission included Georgian parliamentarians, representatives of the Ossetian community in Georgia and representatives of several Georgian human rights organisations. The talks were held with Sanakoyev's administration.

Sanakoyev's supporters launched a campaign against Kokoity named "Kokoity Fandarast" ("Goodbye Kokoity" in Ossetian language).

Tsitelubani missile incident 2007
On 6 August 2007, a missile landed, but did not explode, in the village of Tsitelubani, some 65 km from Tbilisi. Georgian officials said that Russian attack aircraft, an SU-24 Fencer, violated its airspace and fired Raduga Kh-58 anti-radar tactically guided missile. Russia denied the allegations. The group of defense specialists from the United States, Sweden, Latvia and Lithuania stated late on 15 August that the plane flew from Russian to Georgian airspace and back three times.

Pre-war clashes
Events prior to August 2008 are described in 2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis.

2008 War in South Ossetia
Tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008. Fighting began in the night of June 14-15th 2008 when mortar fire and an exchange of fire broke out between South Ossetian and Georgian forces. South Ossetia claimed that mortar fire was launched from Georgian-controlled villages on Tskhinvali, the South Ossetian capital, and that their forces were responding to fire from Georgian forces on the outskirts of the capital. Georgia denied firing the first shot, saying instead that South Ossetia had attacked the Georgian-controlled villages of Ergneti, Nikozi and Prisi. Fighting further escalated when South Ossetian separatists fired upon a Georgian military vehicle on 1 August 2008. The explosion wounded five Georgian peacekeepers. In response, Georgian snipers assaulted the South Ossetian militiamen during the evening. Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August, with a sporadic response from Georgian peacekeepers and other troops in the region. Serious incidents happened in the following week after Ossetian attacks on Georgian villages and positions in South Ossetia.

At around 19:00 on 7 August 2008, Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced a unilateral ceasefire and no-response order. However, South Ossetian separatists intensified their attacks on Georgian villages located in the South Ossetian conflict zone. Georgian troops returned fire and advanced towards the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia, Tskhinvali, during the night of 8 August. According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer, the Ossetians were intentionally provoking the Georgians, so Russia would use the Georgian response as a pretext for premeditated military invasion. According to Georgian intelligence, and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through the Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military operation.

The centre of Tskhinvali was reached by 1,500 men of the Georgian ground forces by 10:00 on 8 August. One Georgian diplomat told Kommersant on the same day that by taking control of Tskhinvali they wanted to demonstrate that Georgia wouldn't tolerate killing of Georgian citizens. Russia accused Georgia of aggression against South Ossetia, and launched a large-scale invasion of Georgia under the guise of peacekeeping operation on 8 August. Russian military captured Tskhinvali in five days and expelled Georgian forces. Russia also launched airstrikes against military infrastructure in Georgia. Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia. Russian forces occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti and Gori (the last one after the ceasefire was negotiated). Russian Black Sea Fleet blockaded the Georgian coast.

Both during and after the war, South Ossetian forces and irregular militia conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia, with Georgian villages around Tskhinvali being destroyed after the war had ended. The war displaced 192,000 people, and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced. In an interview published in Kommersant, South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return.

President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008. On 17 August, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced that Russian forces would begin to pull out of Georgia the following day. Russian forces withdrew from the buffer zones adjacent to Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and control over them was transferred to the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia.

After the 2008 war
On 26 August 2008, Russia officially recognized both South Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states.

In 2015, the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court requested authorisation from the court's judges to begin an investigation into the alleged war crimes in relation to the conflict. This case includes alleged crimes committed as part of a campaign to expel ethnic Georgians from South Ossetia as well as attacks on peacekeepers by Georgian and South Ossetian forces.

Russian and Ossetian troops expanded the border into Georgia, evicting ethnic Georgians from their homes.

There have been several proposals on South Ossetia joining Russia following the war. The latest dates back to 2022.

2019 Chorchana-Tsnelisi Crisis
On 24–25 August, 2019, tensions mounted at the administrative boundary line in South Ossetia as the Georgian police erected a checkpoint between the villages of Chorchana and Tsnelisi in response to ongoing Russian–South Ossetian demarcation works. On 29 August, movement of military equipment and personnel was noticed near Chorchana. South Ossetian official Egor Kochiev demanded immediate dismantling of Georgian police checkpoint, otherwise warning that South Ossetia would take "legal measures". Georgian officials responded by saying that Georgia does not accepts "the language of ultimatums". The State Security Service of Georgia stated that the checkpoint was erected on Georgian-controlled territory and its up to Georgian government to decide where to place police checkpoint on Georgian territory. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia called on de facto South Ossetian authorities to stop provocations and unlawful demarcation works. On 29 August, South Ossetian officials abruptly left the meeting with Georgian government conducted in Incident Prevention and Response Mechanism (IPRM) format.

In September, the South Ossetian authorities closed all crossing points with the Georgian government-controlled territory, aggravating humanitarian situation in the region and placing some 2,500 ethnic Georgians remaining in the Akhalgori district at a particular risk.

Representatives of Tbilisi, Moscow and Tskhinvali continued discussing the situation during a series of "technical meetings", but serious security challenges remained. Georgian officials have refused to have any talks about placement of police checkpoints on Georgian controlled territory.

Present—
On 6 November, 2023, Russian Federation Border Guards murdered a Georgian civilian and detained another near the border in the vicinity of Kirbali village.

title: Georgian–Ossetian conflict


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Giorgi Chanturia

Giorgi Chanturia (გიორგი ჭანტურია, ; 19 August 1959 – 3 December 1994) was a Georgian politician and the National Democratic Party leader who was murdered in Tbilisi, Georgia in December 1994.

Biography
He entered national politics by reviving the Georgian National Democratic Party (NDP) as an informal anti-Communist oppositional organization in 1981. He was arrested several times by the Soviet authorities. By the end of the 80s, he became one of the leaders of national movement along with Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. The conflict in South Ossetia split the opponents of the Communists – but only to a small degree. Although Gamsakhurdia and Chanturia did not agree on how to deal with the secessionist demands of the Ossetians, they were both more opposed to the Communists and continuing membership of the USSR.

In the 1990 elections the umbrella Round Table-Free Georgia bloc led by Gamsakhurdia and Chanturia won 54% of the vote. In April 1991, Georgia declared independence from the Soviet Union. Soon Zviad Gamsakhurdia was elected as the first President of Georgia. However, Gamsakhurdia’s move towards authoritarianism made many of his former allies, including Chanturia, to join the opposition.

The opposition to Gamsakhurdia, now joined in an uneasy coalition behind former Prime Minister Tengiz Sigua and the National Guard leader Tengiz Kitovani demanded that Gamsakhurdia resign and call new parliamentary elections. Gamsakhurdia refused to compromise, and his troops forcibly dispersed a large opposition rally in Tbilisi on 2 September 1991. Following the break-up, Gia Chanturia was arrested after a plane in which he was flying was ordered to return to Tbilisi on the evening of 17 September 1991. He was charged with having organized construction of barricades on Rustaveli Avenue on 2 September, which his supporters deny he did.

After the fall of Gamsakhurdia, Chanturia was in moderate opposition to Eduard Shevardnadze’s government in 1992-1994.

Death
On the morning of 3 December 1994, on the eve of the closing of the 7th congress of the National Democratic Party (NDP), Giorgi Chanturia and his wife, one of the leaders of the NDP faction in parliament Irina Sarishvili, were shot by four gunmen in their car. Chanturia and his bodyguard died, while Sarishvili was severely wounded. The terrorists succeeded in escaping. Nobody was arrested on charges of assassination; neither did any group take responsibility for the act of terrorism. The Georgian Ministry of the Interior charged senior members of the KGB and the Mkhedrioni with involvement in the assassination of Chanturia and attempted assassination of Shevardnadze; Deputy Security Minister Temur Khachishvili was arrested on 2 September for accusations of the Shevardnadze assassination attempt. A warrant was also issues for the arrest of the former Security Minister, Igor Giorgadze.

The Georgian political world was shocked by the assassination of Chanturia. His death escalated calls for resignation of the Cabinet of Ministers.

Although no open accusations were raised against any political groups, few people doubted the political character of the assassination. Observers pointed out the increasing popularity of the late Chanturia and his party, and the fact that recently late NDP chairman had severely criticized several major political figures: the leader of the Mkhedrioni, MP Jaba Ioseliani, Defense Minister Vardiko Nadibaidze and State Security Minister Igor Giorgadze. While Ioseliani was accused of running Georgia as a Mafia godfather, two ministers had been mentioned as promoting Russian rather than Georgian national interests.

title: Giorgi Chanturia