text:
Talk:Barrows Bearhawk

This article reads too much like an advertisement for both the Bearhawk and AviPro. The airplane is legit and so is AviPro, but this article is not very encyclopeadic. I'd rework it but I don't have time now, so I'm putting a cleanup notice in and hopefully someone can fix it if I don't remember to get around to it. Kevin Rector 15:59, Feb 1, 2005 (UTC)

 * You are quite right the article is very spammy and unrefrenced as well. It reads like a company press release. I have a ref and will do a scratch rewrite to WikiProject Aircraft standards. - Ahunt (talk) 14:48, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

 * ✅ - Ahunt (talk) 17:52, 1 November 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Barrows Bearhawk. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110718042755/http://wwwapps2.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/ccarcs/aspscripts/en/quicksearch.asp to http://wwwapps2.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/ccarcs/aspscripts/en/quicksearch.asp

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 16:36, 27 October 2016 (UTC)
 * ✔ - link to an archived database inquiry page is not very useful, so i have updated the refs instead. - Ahunt (talk) 20:48, 27 October 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Barrows Bearhawk. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120903093455/http://www.bearhawkaircraft.com/Bearhawk/barrowsbio.html to http://www.bearhawkaircraft.com/Bearhawk/barrowsbio.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 06:50, 15 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Barrows Bearhawk


text:
Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville

Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville (10 December 1637 – 22 September 1710) was the Governor General of New France from 1685 to 1689 and was an important figure during the intermittent conflict between New France and the Iroquois known as the Beaver Wars.

Denonville replaced the unpopular Joseph-Antoine Le Fèbvre de La Barre who had led a failed expedition against the Iroquois in 1684. Denonville's goals were to prevent any disruption of the lucrative fur trade by the English or Iroquois, and dissuade the Iroquois from raiding French settlements. In 1687, he led a punitive expedition against the Seneca that destroyed four of their villages. Denonville was recalled in 1689 because Louis XIV felt that the Marquis's military expertise would be of greater use in Europe.

Early life
Jacques-René de Brisay was the seventh child and eldest son of Pierre de Brisay and Louise d’Alès de Corbet. Pierre and Louise were members of the minor nobility. Pierre's holdings included the seigneury of Denonville, 40 miles southwest of Paris. Jacques-René entered the army at an early age and inherited the title Marquis de Denonville when he reached his age of majority. He was commissioned a captain in the Régiment Royal and participated in the 1664 North African campaign against the Barbary pirates. He later served in the Netherlands as a captain in the Régiment de la reine dragons (Queen's Dragoons). In November 1668, Denonville married Catherine Courtin, daughter of Germain Courtin. He was commissioned lieutenant-colonel of the Queen's Dragoons on 1673, and colonel-lieutenant in 1675, and in 1683 was promoted to brigadier.

Governor General of New France
For several decades, New France and its Indigenous allies had been the target of intermittent attacks by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. In response to Seneca attacks on France's fur trading partners in the Pays des Illinois, Denonville's predecessor as Governor General, Joseph-Antoine Le Fèbvre de La Barre, had led a poorly planned expedition that not only failed to curb Iroquois aggression, but resulted in what Louis XIV called a "shameful peace." The king recalled La Barre, and appointed Denonville, an officer of proven ability, as his replacement.

Denonville arrived at Quebec aboard a merchant ship with his pregnant wife and two daughters on August 1, 1685. The Marquise de Denonville was safely delivered of a daughter a few weeks later. Ships carrying 500 soldiers of the Troupes de la Marine and 150 engagés began arriving towards the end of the month, however, 60 on the first ship had died of typhus or scurvy, while the rest were in ill-health.

Denonville actively recruited Canadians for the Troupes de la Marine to replace soldiers who had died. He received six blank commissions from France in order to enlist young men of "good" families for the officer corps. He established a navigation school at Quebec to train Canadians as maritime pilots, enacted strict regulations governing taverns, restricted the number of fur-trading licences, and ordered a palisade constructed around Ville-Marie. (Montreal).

Louis XIV had instructed Denonville to "remove the fear of the Iroquois menace by humbling their pride." Denonville recognized that the security of New France depended not only on curbing Iroquois aggression but dealing with the threat of the Hudson's Bay Company to the fur trade. In March 1686, Denonville dispatched 30 French regulars under Pierre de Troyes and 70 Canadians under Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville overland from Montreal to James Bay. De Troyes and d'Iberville exceeded their orders, capturing Moose Factory, Rupert House and Fort Albany, and seizing 50,000 beaver pelts.

In 1687, Denonville launched a well-organized campaign against the Seneca. The expedition consisted of 832 French regulars, over 900 Canadian militia, and some 400 Indigenous allies. They left Montreal on June 13, 1687, and ascended the St. Lawrence River in batteaux and canoes. The expedition reached the French fort at Cataraqui at the eastern end of Lake Ontario on July 1.

The "neutral" Oneida who lived at Cataraqui and at Ganneious on the Napanee River had several days earlier been taken captive to prevent news of the expedition from reaching the Seneca. Denonville ordered that the Cayuga who lived at Kempe on the Bay of Quinte should also be taken captive. 51 men and 150 women and children from the three villages became prisoners of the French.

Denonville departed Cataraqui on July 4. The force rendezvoused with a large group of Ottawa, Illinois and coureurs des bois, and landed at Irondequoit Bay on the south shore of Lake Ontario. They erected a palisade to protect the boats, and on July 12 began the march to the largest of the Seneca villages, Ganondagan. On the 13th they were ambushed by several hundred Seneca, but after a French counterattack the Seneca "soon resolved to fly." The expedition suffered 6 killed and 20 wounded, while the Seneca casualties were 45 killed and 60 wounded. Upon their arrival at the village, the French "found it burned" and a nearby fort abandoned. A large number of hogs were butchered, and hundreds of thousands of bushels of stored and standing maize were destroyed. The force then turned west and destroyed the village of Totiakton and two smaller villages before returning to their boats at Irondequoit.

Denonville sent the sick and wounded back to Cataraqui, then headed west along the south shore of Lake Ontario to the Niagara River where he constructed Fort Denonville. The site had previously been used by La Salle for Fort Conti from 1678 to 1679. Fort Denonville was abandoned the following year, however, the location was later used for Fort Niagara. Leaving behind a garrison of 100 men, Denonville proceeded back to Cataraqui, before returning to Montreal on August 13.

Following the orders of Louis XIV, Denonville reluctantly sent 36 of the male prisoners to France to serve as galley slaves. Jesuit missionary Father Jean de Lamberville later accused Denonville of luring 40 Iroquois sachems to Cataraqui and enslaving them, however, the contemporary accounts written by Denonville, Louis Henri de Baugy, and Louis Armand, Baron de Lahontan record that the captives send to France were from the villages of Kente, Ganneoius, and Cataraqui, or had been among the small number taken prisoner as the expedition ascended the St. Lawrence River.

Due to the efforts of Denonville and the Minister of the Navy, Jean Baptise Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, 13 captives returned to New France in October 1689. Denoville had asked Seignelay to "preserve the Iroquois in Marseille" in anticipation that their return would facilitate peace negotiations with the Iroquois. In October 1688, Seignelay ordered that the surviving Iroquois be sent to Rochefort and treated well, but only 13 of the original 36 captives survived their two-year captivity and returned to Quebec.

In June 1688 Denonville negotiated a peace settlement with the Iroquois, however, his efforts were sabotaged the following year when England joined the coalition that had formed after France triggered the Nine Years' War. The English promptly informed their Iroquois allies that a state of war existed, and in the early hours of August 5, 1689, the Mohawk attacked the settlement of Lachine west of Montreal. 24 inhabitants were killed and 56 houses destroyed in what is known as the Lachine massacre. As many as 90 inhabitants were taken prisoner, of whom 42 never returned. Smaller raids continued for several months forcing Denonville to order the abandonment of the Cataraqui fort.

Several months earlier, Louis XIV had signed the order for Denonville to return to France. The king explained to Denonville that he wanted "to employ you in my armies where I am persuaded that you will serve me with the same zeal and the same success as you have done in the past." Denonville's replacement, the former governor Louis de Buade de Frontenac arrived in October 1688.

Later life
Denonville was promoted to Major General upon his return to France. In recognition of his decades of military service, Louis XIV appointed Denonville deputy-governor to the king's grandson, Louis, Duke of Burgandy. Denonville was subsequently appointed deputy-governor to Phillipe, Duke of Anjou in 1690, and Charles, Duke of Berry in 1693. Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville died at his chateau in Denonville, and was buried in the crypt of the chateau's chapel.

Anniversary medal
A medal commemorating the 250th anniversary of the 1687 Denonville Expedition was created by the Rochester Numismatic Association in 1937. The obverse has an image of the Marquis de Denonville while the reverse shows the timeline and path of the expedition.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:AndreaGuerra

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

16:00, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:AndreaGuerra


text:
Urum language

Urum (Урум, Ουρούμ) is a Turkic language spoken by several thousand ethnic Greeks who inhabit a few villages in southeastern Ukraine. Over the past few generations, there has been a deviation from teaching children Urum to the more common languages of the region, leaving a fairly limited number of new speakers. The Urum language is often considered a variant of Crimean Tatar.

Name and etymology
The name Urum is derived from Rûm 'Rome', the term for the Byzantine Empire in the Muslim world. The Ottoman Empire used it to describe non-Muslims within the empire. The initial vowel in Urum is prothetic. Turkic languages originally did not have in word-initial position, and so in borrowed words they used to add a vowel before it. The common use of the term Urum appears to have led to some confusion, as most Turkish-speaking Greeks were called Urum. The Turkish-speaking population in Georgia is often confused with the distinct community in Ukraine.

Classification
Urum is a Turkic language belonging to the West Kipchak branch of the family. Johanson (2021) classifies it as a variety of Crimean Tatar.

Examples

 * šar - city
 * äl - hand
 * göl - lake
 * yel - wind
 * yol - road
 * it - dog
 * üzüg - ring
 * ğız - girl
 * ğuš - bird

Consonants
/θ, ð/ appear solely in loanwords from Greek. /t͡s/ appears in loanwords. [w] can be an allophone of /v/ after vowels.

Writing system
A few manuscripts are known to be written in Urum using Greek characters. During the period between 1927 and 1937, the Urum language was written in reformed Latin characters, the New Turkic Alphabet, and used in local schools; at least one primer is known to have been printed. In 1937, the use of written Urum stopped. In 2000, Alexander Garkavets uses the following alphabet:

In an Urum primer issued in Kyiv in 2008, the following alphabet is suggested:

Publications
Very little has been published on the Urum language. There exists a very small lexicon, and a small description of the language. For Caucasian Urum, there is a language documentation project that collected a dictionary, a set of grammatically relevant clausal constructions, and a text corpus. The website of the project contains issues about language and history.

title: Urum language


text:
Alto de la Alianza

The Alto de la Alianza Monumental Complex (Complejo Monumental Alto de la Alianza) is a historical monument and landmark complex in the south of Peru, near the city of Tacna.

The monument is located in the site of the Battle of Tacna, a battle that took place on May 26, 1880 between the allied Bolivian and Peruvian forces against the Chilean Army that resulted in the alliance's retreat and the loss of their strongholds in Arica and Tacna, as well as a period known locally as the captivity of Tacna, part of the larger Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute that lasted about 50 years.

Overview
The site is on the Intiorko Hill plateau, surrounded by sand and sempervivum plants. It houses a monument in homage to the combatants of the battle. The arch generated by the set of volumes oriented on the east-west axis symbolizes the alliance of the armies of Peru and Bolivia; and its elements or blocks represent the different battalions or contingents that came from both countries.

The volume of stones reflects the direction of the Chilean attack and symbolizes the force that it exerted. The curve, generated by the volumes in opposition to the direction of the stones, symbolizes the battle and the succession of higher plates pointing south, expresses the resistance of the city of Tacna.

Complex
In 1979, the military government presided over by Francisco Morales Bermúdez determined the construction of a large monumental complex, located on the plain to the northeast of Intiorko hill; The project and construction of the monument were under the direction of architect Enrique Vargas Giles and engineer Jorge Espinoza Cáceres respectively and the sculptural part was assumed by Holger Carpio Deztre.

Museum
The Campo de la Alianza Site Museum is a war museum located under the Alto de la Alianza monument, it was inaugurated on May 26, 1982.

Monument
The monument features the previously described arch feature and ornate surroundings, as well as a cemetery in its vicinity with over 700 crosses representing the regiments and individuals that fought and were killed in action during the battle. In the cemetery stands a large marble cross that features a message by historians Jorge Basadre Grohmann and José Jiménez Borja in homage to the combatants of the Battles of Tacna (05-26-1880) and Arica (06-07-1880).

"To those who fell defending the freedom of Tacna and Arica, in the battles of May and June 1880, we pay homage with this cross full of thoughts rendered to their memory. They were strong men, for whom life was worth nothing in indignity and slavery. They inhabit the peaceful and laughing expanse of the valleys, they loved all men and did not crave the wealth of the stranger. But when unjust aggression threatened the integrity of their right, they rose to form a barrier with their bodies, at the gate of their beloved cities. The enemy overwhelmed this barrier only when all his blood, like a dejected flame, ran covering the arenas of combat. At the moment when the reparation of justice, which they defended, approaches, their memory rises like a rutile star to preside over the triumphant march of the banners."

- Jorge Basadre Grohmann & José Jiménez Borja

The monument is also accompanied by eight stainless steel sculptures created by the artist Holguer Caprio Dextre, with the purpose of resisting the environment of the area, and as a modern technique that has allowed advances and sculptural boasts. The set summarizes actions and attitudes of the history of the city of Tacna, heroism, resurgence and projection into the future.

title: Alto de la Alianza


text:
Hi Jolly

Hi Jolly or Hadji Ali (حاج علي; Hacı Ali), also known as Philip Tedro (c. 1828 – December 16, 1902), was an Ottoman subject of Syrian and Greek parentage, and in 1856 became one of the first camel drivers ever hired by the US Army to lead the camel driver experiment in the Southwest.

Biography
Ali was born as Philip Tedro in Smyrna around 1828, to a Greek mother and a Syrian Christian Arab father. As a young adult, he converted to Islam. After going to Mecca to perform the hajj (pilgrimage), he called himself Hadji Ali. He reverted to Philip Tedro in later life.

An Ottoman citizen of the region of Syria, Ali worked as a camel breeder and trainer. He served with the French Army in Algiers before signing on as a camel driver for the US Army in 1856.

Ali was one of several men hired by the United States Army to introduce camels as beasts of burden to transport cargo across the "Great American Desert." Eight of the men – including Ali – were of Greek origin. They arrived at the Port of Indianola in Calhoun County, Texas on the USS Supply (1846). The book Go West Greek George by Steven Dean Pastis, published in both Greek and English, specifically identifies all eight men. These pioneers were Yiorgos Caralambo (later known as Greek George), Hadji Ali (Hi Jolly, a.k.a. Philip Tedro), Mimico Teodora (Mico), Hadjiatis Yannaco (Long Tom), Anastasio Coralli (Short Tom), Michelo Georgios, Yanni Iliato, and Giorgios Costi. The Americans acquired three camels in Tunis, nine in Egypt, and 21 in Smyrna: 33 in all. Ali was the lead camel driver during the US Army's experiment with the U.S. Camel Corps in using camels in the dry deserts of the Southwest. After successfully traveling round trip from Texas to California, the experiment failed, partly due to the problem that the Army's burros, horses, and mules feared the large animals, often panicking, and the tensions of the American Civil War led to Congress not approving more funds for the Corps. In 1864, the camels were finally auctioned off in Benicia, California, and Camp Verde, Texas. Ali was discharged from the Quartermaster Department of the U.S. Army at Fort McDowell in 1870.

Ali next ran a freight service between the Colorado River and the mining establishments further east, using the few camels he had purchased. His business was unsuccessful, however, and he released his camels into the desert near Gila Bend. He became an American citizen in 1880, and he used his birth name of Philip Tedro (sometimes spelled Teadrow) when he married Gertrudis Serna in Tucson, Arizona. They had two children. In 1885, Ali was again hired by the U.S. Army in Arizona, and worked with pack mules for Brig. Gen. George Crook during the Geronimo campaign.

Hi Jolly's work in the US Camel Corps earned him a reputation as a living legend until his death in Arizona.

In his final years, Ali moved to Quartzsite, Arizona, where he mined and occasionally scouted for the US government. He died in 1902 and was buried in the Quartzsite Cemetery.

Gravesite and monument
In 1935, Arizona Governor Benjamin Moeur dedicated a monument to Hadji Ali and the Camel Corps in the Quartzsite Cemetery. The monument, located at his gravesite, is a pyramid built from local stones and topped with a copper camel, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The monument is the most visited location in Quartzsite.

Legacy

 * The folk song "Hi Jolly" is based on Hadji Ali's exploits.
 * The 1954 movie Southwest Passage, in which Hi Jolly was portrayed by Mark Hanna, and the 1976 movie Hawmps! in which he was portrayed by Gino Conforti, were based on the camel experiment.
 * Portrayed in Death Valley Days TV series, 1957 Season 6 Episode 2 "Camel Train".
 * The 1959 novel Hi Jolly by children's book author Jim Kjelgaard, also covers his story in a fictionalized form for young readers.
 * A slightly fictionalized version of Hadji Ali appears in the 1982 Lucky Luke comic album La Corde du pendu.
 * The 2018 children's book Route 66 by Frédéric Marais tells about the camel experiment and Hadji Ali.
 * The 2019 novel Inland by Téa Obreht includes a character based on Hadji Ali.

title: Hi Jolly


text:
Royal Victoria Dock Bridge

The Royal Victoria Dock Bridge is a signature high-level footbridge crossing the Royal Victoria Dock in the Docklands area of east London designed by London-based architects and designers Lifschutz Davidson Sandilands. The bridge provides a direct link from Eastern Quay and Britannia Village, a residential development to the south of the dock, to the ExCeL Exhibition Centre and Custom House station, both situated to the north of the dock.

The bridge takes the form of an inverted Fink truss, with six masts rising above the deck at 25.5 m centres, varying in height from almost 30 m at each end to just 10.6 m for the smallest masts. The shape of the bridge is designed to reflect the masts of the sailing boats which use the dock. The bridge crosses the dock with a clearance of some 15 m above the water, a height which was necessary to allow yachts to pass below the bridge deck. The bridge is accessed at each end by lift and stair towers.

The bridge was completed in 1998, at a cost of £5 million. A second construction stage envisaged in the bridge's design involves the addition of a glass passenger cabin travelling on a rail of the underside of the deck to make this a transporter bridge.

title: Royal Victoria Dock Bridge


text:
The Best American Series

The Best American Series is a series of anthologies that is published annually by Mariner Books, an imprint of HarperCollins. Each title within the series covers a specific genre such as short stories or mysteries. The works for each year's edition are selected from those published elsewhere during the previous year.

The Best American Short Stories has been published since 1915, making it the oldest continuous series of its type. Starting in 1986, additional titles were added for essays, sports writing, nature writing and more, at which time the broader The Best American Series moniker was introduced.

The series was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt prior to HarperCollins acquiring HMH Books & Media in 2021.

Editing
Each title has a continuing series editor who makes an initial selection of notable works from which a guest editor chooses those for inclusion in that year's edition. Guest editors are established authors in the title's associated genre. A new guest editor is chosen each year.

A work is eligible for the series if it is published in English (or published in another language but translated into English by the author) in the United States, Canada, Mexico, or Greenland; if it first appeared, or was significantly revised, during the previous year; and if the author comes from or chiefly lives in North America. Internet publications are eligible if their audience includes North American readers. Works that do not make the final cut are often given honorable mention in an alphabetical list at the back of the book.

Many editions have a mix of works from well-established authors—examples include Joyce Carol Oates, Michael Chabon, and Lorrie Moore—along with up-and-coming writers who have achieved moderate success, such as Benзкjamin Percy, Kyle Minor, and Ander Monson. Introductions to each edition are written by the series editor, guest editor, and sometimes other celebrities, such as actor Viggo Mortensen for The Best American Nonrequired Reading and UK cook Jamie Oliver for The Best American Recipes.

The editions are published in September or October and feature works that were published during the prior year: for example, The Best American Essays 2000 contains works published in 1999.

Titles
The Best American Series includes the following titles:

 * The Best American Short Stories (1915–)
 * The Best American Essays (1986–)
 * The Best American Mystery and Suspense (1997–)
 * The Best American Science and Nature Writing (2000–)
 * The Best American Science Fiction and Fantasy (2015–)
 * The Best American Food Writing (2018–)

The following titles were formerly included in the series:
 * The Best American Recipes (1999–2005)
 * The Best American Spiritual Writing (2004–2008)
 * The Best American Infographics (2013–2016)
 * The Best American Nonrequired Reading (2002–2019)
 * The Best American Comics (2006–2019)
 * The Best American Sports Writing (1991–2020)
 * The Best American Travel Writing (2000–2021)

title: The Best American Series


text:
Novell Storage Services

Novell Storage Services (NSS) is a file system used by the Novell NetWare network operating system. Support for NSS was introduced in 2004 to SUSE Linux via low-level network NCPFS protocol. It has some unique features that make it especially useful for setting up shared volumes on a file server in a local area network.

NSS is a 64-bit journaling file system with a balanced tree algorithm for the directory structure. Its published specifications (as of NetWare 6.5) are:

 * Maximum file size: 8 EB
 * Maximum partition size: 8 EB
 * Maximum device size (Physical or Logical): 8 EB
 * Maximum pool size: 8 EB
 * Maximum volume size: 8 EB
 * Maximum files per volume: 8 trillion
 * Maximum mounted volumes per server: unlimited if all are NSS
 * Maximum open files per server: no practical limit
 * Maximum directory tree depth: limited only by client
 * Maximum volumes per partition: unlimited
 * Maximum extended attributes: no limit on number of attributes.
 * Maximum data streams: no limit on number of data streams.
 * Unicode characters supported by default
 * Support for different name spaces: DOS, Microsoft Windows Long names (loaded by default), Unix, Apple Macintosh
 * Support for restoring deleted files (salvage)
 * Support for transparent compression
 * Support for encrypted volumes
 * Support for data shredding

title: Novell Storage Services


text:
User talk:Kees van Zon

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

16:06, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kees van Zon


text:
Goldberg v. Kelly

Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254 (1970), is a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires an evidentiary hearing before a recipient of certain government welfare benefits can be deprived of such benefits.

The individual losing benefits is entitled to an oral hearing before an impartial decision-maker as well as the right to confront and cross-examine witnesses and the right to a written statement setting out the evidence relied upon and the legal basis for the decision. There is no right to a formal trial. The case was decided 5–3. (There was a vacancy on the Court because of the resignation of Abe Fortas.) Goldberg v. Kelly, Shapiro v. Thompson and King v. Smith were a part of the set of successful Supreme Court cases that dealt with Welfare, specifically referred to as a part of 'The Welfare Cases'.

Issues

 * 1) Does the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution demand a hearing before the termination of statutorily defined welfare benefits?
 * 2) Does a pre-termination "informal hearing" in a welfare case satisfy the requirements of the Fourteenth Amendment?
 * 3) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a full "evidentiary hearing" prior to termination of welfare benefits?
 * 4) Does the welfare recipient have the right to counsel or an attorney at an evidentiary hearing?
 * 5) To what extent does the welfare administrative decision maker need to be impartial?

Holdings
1. Welfare benefits are a matter of statutory entitlement for persons qualified to receive them and so procedural due process is applicable to their termination.

2. The interest of the eligible recipient in the uninterrupted receipt of public assistance, which provides him with essential food, clothing, housing, and medical care and the State's interest that his payments not be erroneously terminated clearly outweigh the State's competing concern to prevent any increase in its fiscal and administrative burdens.

3. A pre-termination evidentiary hearing is necessary to provide the welfare recipient with procedural due process. (a) Such hearing need not take the form of a judicial or quasi-judicial trial, but the recipient must be provided with timely and adequate notice detailing the reasons for termination and an effective opportunity to defend by confronting adverse witnesses and by presenting his own arguments and evidence orally before the decision maker.

(b) Counsel need not be furnished at the pre-termination hearing, but the recipient must be allowed to retain an attorney.

(c) A decision must rest "solely on the legal rules and evidence adduced at the hearing."

(d) The decision maker need not file a full opinion or make formal findings of fact or conclusions of law but should state the reasons for his determination and indicate the evidence he relied on.

(e) The decision maker must be impartial, and although prior involvement in some aspects of a case will not necessarily bar a welfare official from acting as decision maker, he should not have participated in making the determination under review.

Discussion

The Goldberg decision set the parameters for procedural due process when dealing with the deprivation of a government benefit or entitlement. The Court held that a person has a property interest in certain government entitlements, which require notice and a hearing before a governmental entity (either state or federal) takes them away. Government-provided entitlements from the modern welfare state increased substantially in the United States during the 20th century. The Goldberg court decided that such entitlements (like welfare payments, government pensions, professional licenses), are a form of "new property" that require pre-deprivation procedural protection and so did away with the traditional distinction between rights and privileges.

The majority stated that welfare benefits are property and articulated the general proposition that welfare enjoys the same legal protection as other property. Justice Brennan noted that welfare benefits are "a matter of statutory entitlement for persons qualified to receive them" and added that "it may be realistic today to regard welfare entitlements as more like 'property' than a 'gratuity.'" Here Brennan cited Charles A. Reich's article "The New Property". The prohibition against deprivation of property without due process of law in the Fourteenth Amendment therefore applies to benefits termination.

This specific case dealt with 20 individuals who had been suspected of welfare fraud by New York City officials and were then denied municipal benefits. The opinion of the Court was delivered by Justice William Brennan, while dissenting opinions were filed by Justices Hugo Black and Potter Stewart and Chief Justice Warren Burger. Brennan said at his retirement that he considered it the most important case he had ever decided; conservative columnist David Frum once claimed that the case was a major factor in New York City's 1975 budget meltdown.

Twenty residents of New York City, including John Kelly, appealed the termination of their benefits under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program. Their assistance had been terminated or was about to be terminated without a pre-termination hearing. The procedures provided by the State Department of Social Services' Official Regulations did include a pre-termination review and a post-termination hearing.

The decision answered questions that had been unresolved in the previous Supreme Court cases of Rudder v. United States and Thorpe v. Housing Authority of Durham. The cases involved questions of denial of tenancy or eviction in governmental housing projects.

It has been noted that the precarious financial status of those in poverty may preclude an extensive litigation process despite the decision. The abstention doctrine presupposes the adequacy of state process to protect constitutional rights. Poor people may lack the funds to pursue a court hearing process. One solution has been the use of a preliminary injunction, which preserves the status quo while the litigation proceeds.

title: Goldberg v. Kelly


text:
Albert Forster

Albert Maria Forster (26 July 1902 – 28 February 1952) was a Nazi German politician, member of the SS and war criminal. Under his administration as the Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Danzig-West Prussia (the other German-annexed section of occupied Poland aside from the Warthegau) during the Second World War, the local non-German populations of Poles and Jews were classified as sub-human and subjected to extermination campaigns involving ethnic cleansing, mass murder, and in the case of some Poles with German ancestry, forceful Germanisation. Forster was directly responsible for the extermination of non-Germans and was a strong supporter of Polish genocide, which he had advocated before the war. Forster was tried, convicted and hanged in Warsaw for his crimes, after Germany was defeated.

Early life
Forster was born in Fürth, where he attended volksschule and the Humanistisches Gymnasium from 1908 to 1920. He then trained in banking for two years and began working at a Fürth bank in 1922. In November 1923, he joined the Nazi Party, becoming the leader of its local branch in Fürth; he also became a member of the SA at that time. In May 1924 he was dismissed from the bank for his Nazi activities, including anti-Semitic agitation. Following the Beer Hall Putsch when the Nazi Party was outlawed, he became a member of a Nazi front organization, the Greater German People's Community, and served as its local leader. During this time he was befriended by Julius Streicher, the Party leader of northern Bavaria, and became a part-time journalist for Streicher's weekly anti-Semitic paper Der Stürmer. He was an observer at the trial for high treason of Erich Ludendorff, Adolf Hitler and eight others putschists, which took place between 26 February and 1 April 1924 in the court at Munich.

Franconia
Forster was in attendance in Munich when the Nazi Party was refounded by Hitler on 27 February 1925, and he again became the Ortsgruppenleiter (Local Group Leader) in Fürth. He officially rejoined the Party on 5 April 1925 (membership number 1,924); as an early Party member he was considered an Alter Kämpfer and would later be awarded the Golden Party Badge. He soon became a Parteiredner (Party orator) giving speeches throughout the area. On 12 May 1926, he joined the Schutzstaffel (SS), forming and leading the SS Group "Nurnberg-Fürth" in July 1926. From February 1928, Forster was employed as a payment office official by the German National Association of Commercial Employees (Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband, DHV), a nationalist and anti-Semitic trade union. Forster unsuccessfully sought a seat in the Reichstag at the 20 May 1928 election. However, that year he advanced to Party Bezirksleiter (District Leader) for Middle Franconia, while also retaining his leadership in Fürth; he would continue to hold these positions through December 1929. At the 14 September 1930 election, Forster was elected to the Reichstag from electoral constituency 26, Franconia, and was made the expert advisor on labor and clerical employee issues to the Nazi Reichstag faction. When elected, he was the youngest deputy in the Reichstag.

Free City of Danzig
On 15 October 1930, Forster became the Nazi Party's Gauleiter of the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), replacing Arthur Greiser who then became the Deputy Gauleiter. This touched off a feud between them and Greiser was to remain Forster's lifelong nemesis. Many residents resented Forster as an interloper who had replaced Greiser, a native Danziger. Forster immediately embarked on an aggressive propaganda campaign and membership drive. In November 1930, he became the founder and publisher of the Danziger Beobachter (Danzig Observer). From December 1930 to December 1932, he increased the Party member ship from 1,310 to 9,519. The Danzig SA likewise expanded from 150 to 1,500 members.

After the Nazi seizure of power, Forster spearheaded the Nazi take-over of Danzig in the spring of 1933, attaining an absolute majority for the Nazi Party in the Danzig Senate. Hitler rewarded him with the leadership of the DHV on 10 May 1933, making him the head of all clerical employee organizations within the German Labor Front. On 15 September he was appointed to the Prussian State Council and in January 1934, he was made honorary Führer of the 36th SS-Standarte in Danzig. In January 1935, he was named chairman of the Danzig branch of the Nordische Gesellschaft (Nordic Society) that was charged with strengthening German-Nordic cultural and political cooperation. On 23 January 1936, he became a member of the personal staff of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler.

Before World War II, Forster had tried and failed to gain control over the organisation of the irredentist activities of the ethnic German population in the Polish Corridor, neighbouring Freie Stadt Danzig, which was created in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles; rather it was the SS-dominated Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle that won control. With Forster and Himmler engaged in a power struggle, this rendered the (ethnic) Germans suspicious of Forster. When these territories were annexed after the Invasion of Poland and they became Reichsgau Danzig – West Prussia, Forster's distrust of the local Nazi leaders led him to deny them political power. Forster filled all the significant positions with his allies from the pre-war Free City of Danzig. This snub created a great bitterness among the local Germans in addition to Forster's Germanisation policies, which denied them a higher status than local Poles.

In May 1934 Forster, who had been made an Honorary Citizen of Fürth and of Danzig, married Gertrud Deetz. The wedding took place in the Berlin chancellory, with Hitler and Rudolf Hess as witnesses and wedding guests. However, a 1943-44 report on Hitler titled Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler by psychoanalyst Walter C. Langer asserts that Forster "is known to be a homosexual" and was often addressed as "Bubi," a common term of affection among German homosexuals of the era.

In 1937 Forster boasted about his fight against communists and other "subhumans".

In 1939, following orders from Berlin, Forster led the agitation in Danzig to step up pressure for annexation by Nazi Germany and proclaimed that in future "Poland will be only a dream". On 23 August Forster replaced Greiser as Danzig's head of state. The Danzig issue was one of the pretexts used for the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939. He was hateful of Jews whom he called "dirty and slippery race" and he expressed his desire to control parts of Poland after Poles would be expelled from them.

World War II
Immediately following the German invasion of Poland, Forster on 8 September was appointed Chief of Civil Administration in the military district of Danzig-West Prussia, which subsequently was annexed to the German Reich on 8 October 1939. The military administration ended and he was then appointed Gauleiter of the newly created Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia on 21 October. At the same time, he was also named Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor) of the new territory, thereby uniting under his control the highest party and governmental offices in his jurisdiction. Additionally, he was appointed Reich Defense Commissioner of the newly established Wehrkreis (Military District) XX, consisting of the new Reichsgau. On 7 July 1940 he was elected to the Reichstag for Danzig-West Prussia and would remain a member until the end of the Nazi regime. A member of the SS since 1926, Forster was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer on 31 December 1941. In September 1944, he was given command of the Volkssturm forces in hie Reichsgau. He would retain these posts until fleeing Danzig on 27 March 1945 ahead of the invading Soviet forces.

Extermination and ethnic cleansing
Adolf Hitler instructed the Gauleiters, namely Forster and his rival Arthur Greiser, Gauleiter in the Warthegau, to Germanise the area, promising that "There would be no questions asked" about how this "Germanisation" was to be accomplished. Forster's goal was to make the area fully Germanised within ten years, and he was directly responsible for extermination policy in the region.

Forster was directly responsible for the extermination of non-Germans in Danzig-West Prussia. He personally believed in the need to engage in genocide of Poles and stated that, "We have to exterminate this nation, starting from the cradle"  and declared that Poles and Jews were not human.

Around 70 camps were set up for Polish people in Pomerania where they were subjected to murder, torture and, in the case of women and girls, rape before being executed. Between the 10th and 15th of September, Forster organised a meeting of top Nazi officials in his region and ordered the immediate removal of all "dangerous" Poles, all Jews, and all Polish clergy. In some cases Forster ordered executions himself. On the 19th of October he reprimanded Nazi officials in the city of Grudziadz for not "spilling enough Polish blood." The total number of victims of what Christopher Browning calls an "orgy of murder and deportation" cannot be precisely estimated. Forster reported that 87,000 people had been "evacuated" from the region by February 1940.

Piaśnica
Forster was one of those responsible for the mass murders in Piaśnica, where approximately 12,000 to 16,000 Poles, Jews, Czechs, Kashubians and even Germans were killed in the winter of 1939-1940. Forster personally encouraged such violence; in a speech at the Prusinski Hotel in Wejherowo he incited ethnic Germans to attack Poles by saying "We have to eliminate the lice-ridden Poles, starting with those in the cradle. In your hands I give the fate of the Poles; you can do with them what you want". The crowd gathered before the hotel chanted "Kill the Polish dogs!" and "Death to the Poles". The Selbstschutz later participated in the massacres as Piaśnica. In 1946 a Polish National Tribunal in Gdańsk held Forster responsible for the murders at Piasnica.

Role in the Jewish Holocaust
Forster at the outbreak of the war declared that "Jews are not humans, and must be eradicated like vermin...mercy towards Jews is reprehensible. Any means of destruction of Jews is desirable." Jews were killed locally or deported to the General Government. By November 1939 Danzig-West Prussia was declared "Judenfrei". It is estimated that up to 30,000 Jews from Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany in Pomerania and attached to Danzig-West Prussia were murdered during the war.

Germanisation policies
The Nazi policy and terror instituted by Forster offered only two possibilities to the Polish population: extermination or Germanisation. Forster pursued a policy of genocide and forced assimilation of the population in his area of responsibility. At the start of the war Forster planned ethnic cleansing of all Poles originating from Congress Poland and all Jews by February 1940 from his Gau, but unforeseen problems with agriculture workers and the inadequate character of German settlers forced him to revise his policies. Forster was willing to accept any and all Poles who claimed to have "German blood" as Germans. In practice, the method of determining whether Poles had any German ancestry or not was to send out Nazi Party workers to interview the local Poles; all Poles who stated that they had German ancestry had their answers taken at face value with no documentation required. Refusal to become Germanised was punishable by deportation to the General Government or imprisonment in a concentration camp. In some cases whole settlements were classed as populated by Germans in order to meet quotas Forster laid down. Practical issues like food production could influence Forster's decisions on whom to expel.

Forster was at odds with Arthur Greiser, who had complained to Heinrich Himmler, the 'Reich Commissioner for the Strengthening of Germandom', that Forster's assimilation policy was against Nazi racial theory. When Himmler approached Forster over this issue, Forster simply ignored him, realizing that Hitler allowed each Gauleiter to run his area as he saw fit. Both Greiser and Himmler complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be classified as Germans, but Hitler merely bounced the problem back to them, telling them to go sort out their problems with Forster on their own. This was a difficult task; Himmler's attempts to cajole Forster to see matters his way met with resentment and contempt. In a discussion with Richard Hildebrandt Forster scoffed, "if I looked like Himmler, I wouldn't talk about race".

The outcome of these policies was that two-thirds of the ethnic Polish population of Forster's Gau would be classed as German under the Deutsche Volksliste.

Although far fewer Poles would be removed from Danzig-West Prussia than in the neighbouring Warthegau it is estimated that by the end of the war, up to 60,000 people had been murdered in the region and up to 170,000 expelled. Other estimates place the expulsion figure at around 35,000 people. Forster himself reported that 87,000 people had been "evacuated" from the region by February 1940.

Conflict with SS and colonisation policies
Forster's conflict with the SS also had direct and injurious consequences for ethnic Germans. During the war, hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans were moved by Nazi-Soviet agreement from the Soviet Union into Poland and used as colonists in Nazi occupied Poland. While Greiser did all he could to accommodate them in his Reichsgau, Forster viewed them with hostility, claiming that his region needed young farmers while the refugees were old and urbanised. He initially refused to admit any of them into his Reichsgau. When a ship bearing several thousands of ethnic Germans from the Baltic states arrived at Danzig he initially refused them entry unless Himmler promised that they would not be settled in Danzig-West Prussia but proceed immediately elsewhere, an assurance that Himmler could not provide. It was only following a lengthy telephone consultation with the desperate Himmler that Forster allowed the passengers to disembark, on the understanding that their residence in the Reichsgau would be temporary, though most did not, ultimately, leave the region. In time he had to relent, and by June 1944, 53,258 colonists had settled in Danzig-West Prussia, a far cry from the 421,780 settled in the Warthegau. Forster's Germanization policies left less free land and housing than Greiser's mass expulsions, although it is evident that Forster's perception of the ethnic German refugees as wards of the SS played its role in determining his attitude.

Trial and death
At the end of the war, Forster took refuge in the British Occupation Zone of Germany. The British handed him over to the People's Republic of Poland.

In 1948, Forster was condemned to death by the Polish court for war crimes (the Supreme National Tribunal) and crimes against humanity. He was held and had his sentence deferred. Polish president August Zaleski denied clemency on 21 February 1952, and Forster was moved from Gdańsk to Mokotów Prison in Warsaw, where he was hanged on 28 February 1952. His wife, who had not heard from him since 1949, was informed of his death in 1954.

title: Albert Forster


text:
User talk:Zurkog

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

16:08, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zurkog


text:
Kodava people

The Kodava people (native: Koḍavarï) or Kodavas or Codavas are an ethno-linguistic group from the region of Kodagu in the southern Indian state of Karnataka, who natively speak the Kodava language. They are traditionally land-owning agriculturists and patrilineal, with martial customs. Kodavas worship ancestors and weapons. They used to worship swords, bows, arrows and later guns. Hence, Kodavas are the only ones in India permitted to carry firearms without a license.

Origin
The words Kodava (the indigenous people, language and culture) and Kodagu (the land) come from the same root word 'Koda' which means "Mist" But some claim it means 'hills', others say it means 'west' but both relate to the Western Ghats' location. Kodagu is called Kodava Naad in the native Kodava language. The word "Kodavas" was anglicized to "Coorgs" by the British Raj. For centuries, the Kodavas have lived in Kodagu cultivating paddy fields, maintaining cattle herds and coffee plantations, and carrying arms during war.

Puranic association

The Hindu Puranas (Kaveri Purana of Skanda Purana) claim that Chandra Varma, (lunar dynasty warrior) and son of Emperor of Matsya Desha, was the ancestor of the Kodavas. An ardent devotee of Goddess Mahalakshmi, he had gone on pilgrimage to several holy places all over India. Chandra Varma had a privy army who escorted him on his campaigns until he came into Kodagu(Coorg). Coorg, the source of the River Kaveri, was uninhabited jungle land when he arrived to settle here. Thereafter he became the first Raja of the Coorg principality. He had 11 sons, the eldest among them was Devakantha who later succeeded him as Raja. They were married to the daughters of the Raja of Vidarbha.
 * Kannada inscriptions speak of this region as being called Kudagu nad (parts of Kodagu, Western Mysore and Kerala) as well. Both the name of the natives and of the region are synonymous (Kodava-Kodavu; Kodaga-Kodagu; Coorgs-Coorg).
 * In 1398 AD, when the Vijaynagara Empire ruled southern India, Mangaraja, a Kannada poet, wrote in his lexicon about the Kodavas saying that they were a warrior people who were fond of hunting game for sport.

Historians agree that the Kodavas have lived in Kodagu for over a thousand years, hence they are the earliest agriculturists and probably the oldest settled inhabitants of the area.

Ancient period
The earliest mention about Coorg can be seen in the works those date back to the Sangam period. The Ezhimala dynasty had jurisdiction over two Nadus – The coastal Poozhinadu and the hilly eastern Karkanadu. According to the works of Sangam literature, Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt between Mangalore and Kozhikode. Karkanadu consisted of Wayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts of Kodagu.

Rajas
The Kadamba ruled North Karnataka along with Goa and parts of Maharashtra while the Gangas ruled South Karnataka and parts of Andhra and Tamil Nadu prior to 1000AD. The regions of Hassan, Kodagu, Tulunad and Waynad were ruled between them. Later the cholas entered Karnataka to rule, but it was short lived. The Hoysalas succeeded them and ruled Southern Karnataka (including Tulunad and Kodagu) and parts of Tamil Nadu. In the aftermath of the Delhi Sultanate invasion of South India (around 1319) the Vijaynagara Hindu Empire arose to rule South India until their downfall in the 16th century. From around 1600 until 1834 the Haleri Rajas ruled over Kodagu.

Samadhis were built for army chief Biddanda Bopu, who was the commander-in-chief for the army of Dodda Vira Rajendra, and his son Biddanda Somaiah. On the samadhi of Biddanda Bopu, there is a plate carved in Kannada praising him for his bravery shown in the wars fought against Tipu Sultan.

Coorg War
In 1834 the last of the Haleri Rajas Chikka Vira Raja fell out of favour with the East India Company who then intervened by launching an invasion Kodagu. A short but bloody campaign occurred in which a number of British soldiers and officers were killed. Near Somwarpet where the Coorgs were led by Mathanda Appachu the resistance was most furious. But this Coorg campaign ended quickly when the Raja sent his Diwan Apparanda Bopu to surrender to the British and lead them from Kushalnagar into Madikeri. After that, Kodagu was annexed by the British, and the Raja was exiled. Apparanda Bopu and Cheppudira Ponnappa were retained as the Dewans of Coorg.

Freedom Struggle
The Coorg rebellion of 1837 actually occurred in Sulya which was separated from Coorg Province in 1834 and attached to South Canara district of Madras Province. Led by Guddemane Appaiah Gowda, and others it was not supported to Gowdas alone nor opposed by all Kodavas. "A large number of people from Coorg settled in Lower Coorg also participated in the revolt... There are no reliable sources which prove such a bitter hatred among the Coorgs and the Gowdas of Sullia." In fact, Kodavas from Nalkunadu led by Subedar Mandira Uthaiah (Nalknadu Uttu) and Subedar Nerpanda Madaiah, Subedar Kollira Achaiah, Chermandanda Subbaiah Chottemanda  Poovaiah and Subedar Cheeyakpoovanda Devaiaha actively participated in the revolt. A British officer, Colonel Green, entered Mangalore by ship from Kannur. A detachment of troops under his command participated in numerous battles against Coorg forces.

The two Coorg Diwans Apparanda Bopu and Cheppudira Ponnappa were great diplomats. Apparanda Bopu was first suspected by the British who first wanted to throw him into jail. But the two stopped Col Green and convinced the British to spare the lives of Kedambadi Rame Gowda, Chetty Kudiya, Mandira Uthaiah, Shantheyanda Mallayya, Subedar Nerpanda Madaiah and Subedar Kollira Achaiah and other rebel leaders. However they were unable to save all the leaders. In this manner all the Lingayats, Gowdas, Kodavas, Bunts and others who survived have to thank the two Coorg Diwans for convincing the British not to execute them.

During the period of British rule, Coorgs entered politics, government service, medicine, education, and law. Under British protection, Kodagu became a State with nominal independence (Coorg State). The British recognised the exceptional martial abilities of the Kodavas and used them in the Indian Army. Many Kodavas fought in the two World Wars. Dewan Bahadur Ketolira Chengappa was the last Chief Commissioner of Coorg in 1947. In 1950 Coorg was recognised as one of 27 different states of the Indian Union but in 1956 the state of Coorg was merged into Mysore (now Karnataka).

There were many freedom fighters among the Kodavas as well, like Iynanda P. Kariappa, who was a leader of the INC and was sent to Delhi Jail by the British, he later on became the first MLA of Coorg State, and was also the District board President. Pandyanda Belliappa (Kodagu's Gandhi), Kollimada C. Carumbaiah, C.M. Poonacha, Chekkera Monnaiah, Mallengada Chengappa, Ajjikuttira Chinnappa, Ponnimada Machaiah, Kalengada Chinnappa, Chokira Madappa, Pandikanda Madappa, Kotera Accavva, Balyatanda Muddavva, Mukkatira Bojamma, Machimanda Medakka, Appanderanda Kalamma and others. It is noteworthy that there was an army of freedom fighters from the Kodava community such as Puliyanda Subbaiah from Maggula village.

Attire
A Kodava woman is called Kodavathi Kodavas have distinctive dresses, the men wearing wraparound robes called the Kupya (now only seen at ceremonial occasions), and the women with a distinctive style of wearing the sari. The Kodava woman wears a sari with the pleats at the back and the loose end pinned at the right shoulder. The men have many distinctive practices such as carrying ceremonial knives, and martial war dances.

Cuisine
Boiled rice (koolu) is a staple food of the Kodavas for lunch and dinner. Coconut, jackfruit, plantain, mango, and other fruits and vegetables are widely used. Ghee is used in well-to-do families and on festive occasions. Rice in the form of Kanji or Koolu was served at meals along with curries and other additional dishes during olden days. Non-vegetarian food was not objectionable and alcoholic drinks as a rule weren't prohibited. Pork, chicken, and river fish are commonly consumed as also are varieties of game meat. Pork is a common dish at many households and the famous Kodava 'Pandhi Curry' (which is almost deep Brown in color due to the use of garcinia cambogia vinegar called Kachumpuli) is served along with 'Kadumbuttu'(steamed rice balls). Sweet dishes like akki payasa are prepared during festive occasions. Other special dishes include otti (rice roti), paaputtu, thaliya putt (similar to idli), noolputtu (rice noodles) served with traditional Coorg chicken curry dominated by coconut and other masala, bymbale (bamboo shoots), wild mushrooms, various leafy vegetables, ferns, crabs, thambuttu (a sweet specially prepared during their harvest festival called puthari), raw mango curry, tender jackfruit curry, jackfruit seeds curry, traditional sauce,etc.

Organizational structure
Kodava settlements in Coorg are in the form of Okka family groups that are scattered across agricultural and forested holdings, where traditional Ainmane houses form focal meeting points in the rural landscape. The emergence of townships, as such, has been a relatively recent phenomenon and many of the main towns in Kodagu are inhabited by recent migrants and non-Kodavas.

Social Status
The Kodavas enjoyed equal status with the Nairs, Bunts, Vokkaligas and Vellalas in the Hindu caste system.

Festivals

Kodava festivities center around their agriculture and military tradition. Originally most of their lives were spent in the field: cultivating, harvesting and guarding their fields from the depredations of wild animals, or otherwise they were either waging war or hunting for game.

Their new year was originally celebrated on Bishu Changrandi (called Vishu in Kerala).

The Kodavas began to celebrate a few Hindu festivals such as Ugadi, Ayudha Puja (Dasara, also called Navaratri, Vijaydashami, Durga Puja or Dussehra) and Mahashivaratri under the Haleri Rajas(1602–1834).

However Kodavas traditionally celebrate the following three main festivals peculiar to Kodagu alone (two are cultural and one religious) – Kail Poldh, Kaveri Changrandi (Tula Sankramana) and Puthari.

Few more small festivals celebrated within the family groups are Karana Kodupo ( offerings to the 'Guru Karana' the main ancestor of the family & feasting), Pasanamurthy Therre Kattuva(offerings to god pasanamurthy), etc.,

The Naad namme (village festival) varying from village to village this festival runs for a week of time in some places and a minimum of three days in some villages, some parts call this festival as Boad Namme where each day will have its own type celebrations like a group of men and children dressing up in different attires like tiger, women, various themes and bands and do a procession overnight to all the houses in the village entertaining the villagers (some places people offer money to these groups) and later next day they all go to a holy lake near the Oor Devastana (village temple) usually located in Deva kaad (god's forest) take bath, change their attire & take blessings of God in temple. These days are followed by poojas and food offerings in temple (veg food). In some places, non veg food is also served outside the temple to villagers at the end of the festival. This is celebrated every year in all the parts of Kodagu, some places celebrate once in two years.

Kail Poldh (Festival of Arms)
Kail Poldh is celebrated on 3 September. Officially, the festival begins on the 18th day after the sun enters the Simha Raasi (the Western sign of Leo). Kail means weapon or armoury and Poldh means festival. The day signifies the completion of "naati" – meaning the transplantation of the rice (paddy) crop. The festival signifies the day when men should prepare to guard their crop from wild boars and other animals, since during the preceding months, in which the family were engaged in the fields, all weapons were normally deposited in the "Kanni Kombare", or the prayer room.

Hence on the day of Kailpoldu, the weapons are taken out of the Pooja room, cleaned and decorated with flowers. They are then kept in the "Nellakki Nadubade", the central hall of the house and the place of community worship. Each member of the family has a bath, after which they worship the weapons. Feasting and drinking follow. The eldest member of the family hands a gun to the senior member of the family, signifying the commencement of the festivities. The Menu for the day is Kadumbutte (steamed rice balls) and Pandhi Curry (Pork Curry) and Alcoholic beverages are also served.

The whole family assembles in the "Mand" (open ground), where physical contests and sports, including marksmanship, are conducted. In the past the hunting and cooking of wild game was part of the celebration, but today shooting skills are tested by firing at a coconut tied onto the branch of a tall tree. Traditional rural sports, like grabbing a coconut from the hands of a group of 8–10 people (thenge porata), throwing a stone the size of a cricket ball at a coconut from a distance of 10–15 paces (thenge eed), lifting a stone ball of 30–40 cm lying at one's feet and throwing it backwards over the shoulders, etc., are now conducted in community groups called Kodava Samajas in towns and cities.

Kaveri Sankramana (worship of river Kaveri)
The Kaveri Sankramana festival normally takes place in mid-October. It is associated with the river Kaveri, which flows through the district from its source at Talakaveri. At a predetermined time, when the sun enters Tula Rasi (Tula sankramana), a fountain from a small tank fills the larger holy tank at Talakaveri. Thousands of people gather to dip in this holy water. The water is collected in bottles and reaches every home throughout Kodagu. This holy water is called Theertha, and is preserved in all Kodava homes. A spoonful of this water is fed to the dying, in the belief that they will attain moksha (spiritual emancipation) and gain entry to heaven.

On this day, married women wearing new silk saris perform puja to a vegetable, symbolising the goddess Kaveri. The vegetable is usually a cucumber or a coconut, wrapped in a piece of red silk cloth and decorated with flowers and jewels (mainly 'Pathak' (Kodava Mangalasuthra)). This is called the Kanni Puje. The word Kanni denotes the goddess Parvati, who incarnated as Kaveri. Three sets of betel leaves and areca nut are kept in front of the goddess with bunches of glass bangles. All the members of the family pray to the goddess by throwing rice and prostrating themselves before the image.

The elder members of the family ceremonially bless the younger. An older married woman then draws water from the well and starts cooking. The menu of the day is dosa and vegetable curry (usually sweet pumpkin curry (kumbala kari) ) and payasa. Nothing but vegetarian food is cooked on this day, and this is the only festival which is strictly vegetarian. Alcohol is prohibited. The Kaveri cult has its center and origin in Kodagu. It is only those Kodava rites associated with the river Kaveri that are Brahmanical in influence.

Puttari (Harvest festival)

Puttari (pudiya ari) means "new rice" and is the rice harvest festival. This takes place in late November or early December and is always on the night of a full moon. Celebrations and preparations for this festival start a week in advance by all family members cleaning up the entire house and surroundings, painting the house (whitewash in olden days).

On the day of Puttari, the whole family assembles and all the ancestral homes (ain mane) and houses are decorated with marigold flowers and green mango leaves. Specific foods are prepared: thambuttu (a sweet made with ripe bananas and roasted rice flour), kadambutt pandhi curi and also a special food of yam and jaggery water with coconut which is eaten before going to the field. All food prepared is first offered to the ancestors (meedi) before the family eats.

Then the eldest member of the family hands a sickle to the head of the family and one of the women leads a procession to the paddy fields with a lit lamp in her hands. A gun is fired to mark the beginning of the harvest, with chanting of "Poli Poli Deva" (may the Gods grant bountious harvests) by all present. Then the symbolic harvesting of the crop begins. The paddy is cut and stacked and tied in sheaves that are then carried home to be offered to the gods. The sheaves are attached over the front door and the main lamp in the home to mark the generosity of the gods and attract a good harvest in the following season.

The younger generation then light fire crackers and revel, symbolising prosperity. Groups of youngsters visit neighboring houses to celebrate and are given monetary gifts. A week later, this money is pooled and the entire village celebrates a communal dinner. All family members gather for this meal. Dinner normally consists of meat dishes, such as pork, and mutton curry. Alcoholic beverages are also served at such feasts in Kodagu.

Shrines and deities
The Kodavas have a local trinity comprising the Kuladevi (patron goddess) Kaveri, Maguru (chief preceptor) Igguthappa and Guru Karana (revered common ancestor). The Kodavas of Kodagu are polytheist Hindus who believe in reincarnation, revere the cow and originally worshipped the natural elements and their ancestors. Their chief deities are Bhagwathi (Lakshmi), Mahadeva (Shiva), Bhadrakali (a form of Parvati as Kali), Muthappa and Aiyappa.

Igguthappa, the most important local God, is an incarnation of Lord Subramani, the God of snakes, rain, harvest and rice (Incidentally, the famous Kukke Subramani temple located near Kodagu is dedicated to snakes, hence Subramani is the God of snakes despite the misconception that his carrier, the peacock, which eats grains and insects, kills and eats snakes). The reverence of various spirits in addition to the established gods of Hinduism is also part of their religion. This is similar to the bhuta aradhana of Tulunad. There are many spirits worshipped in Kodagu. The Kodavas also practised snake worship. Consumption of soma (liquor) and pork is permitted,

They maintained sacred groves on their public village lands from ancient times, hunting and cutting trees was prohibited in these woods called the Devakadu. However these days the government and private speculative land buyers have acquired these sacred groves and converted them into farms for monetary gains with disrespect towards native religious feelings. The Kodavas believe in astrology as well.

On their ancestral clan lands they have a shrine (Kaimada), which is the shrine of the clan's first ancestor (Guru Karana – Karana). The spirits of departed souls who were prominent figures in the community and had done good deeds while they were alive were worshipped. These spirit gods do not have a set form of physical representation. Symbolically a piece of rock is sanctified and considered as such a spirit deity. A number of weapons, made of wood or metal, are kept in the Kaimadas. Every year, members of each family get together to remember the 'Karana's of their family and give offerings (similar to Ofrenda).

Each village had a Bhagwathi, each lane had a snake deity and each nad(region) had an Aiyappa. The Kodavas worshipped Mahadeva as well. Some of the main shrines of the Kodavas are the temples of Talakaveri, Bhagamandala, Padi Igguthappa, Peggala (Heggala), Kakot Parambu and Bythoor. The Kodavas also revere and visit the shrines of Kukke Subramanya and Dharmasthala Manjunatha in Tulunad.

Socio-religious link with North Malabar
The word Kodakar was the Malayalam word for a Kodava, and it comes from the word "Kodag-kara". The ancient Kodavas of Kodagu had land trade with Northern Malabar, especially with Thalassery (Tellicherry) port on the coast, and would also go on regular pilgrimage to the temples of the region. Devotees from Kodagu were, and still are, frequent visitors to the temples of Kannur and Waynad (districts of North Kerala). These temples are in places like Baithur or Bythoor (Vayathur and Ulikkal), Payyavoor, Parassinikkadavu, Thirunelli, Kanjirath, Nileshwar and Payyanur. Also the Nambima (Namboothiri) priests of North Malabar traditionally served as the temple priests in the temples of Kodagu. The folk songs of the Kodavas speak of the temple deities having originated in North Malabar. These folk songs while talking of Kodagu and its people also mention the temple regions as well as the Thiyyar, Nambiya (Nambiar), the Nambima (Namboothiri) and the Nayamma (the Kodava word for Nair – in Malayalam Nayanmmar means Nairs) people of Northern Malabar.

Baithurappa (Bythoorappa) is a chief deity of the Kodavas. The Puggera family of Kodavas were hereditary temple managers at the Bythoor (Vayathur, in Kerala and near Karnataka's Kodagu border) temple which was in the dominion of the Mannanar raja, who like the Kolathiri (Chera Raja) was an ally of the Kodavas. Every year Kodavas from Southern Kodagu pilgrimage to this place. Likewise the Bovverianda and the Mundiolanda families of Kodavas were the hereditary temple managers at the Payyavur temple which was under the Kolathiri (Chera) kings. This is because a few of the Kodavas lived in North Malabar in the Taliparamba (ancient capital of the Cheras) region in the ancient past and fought on their side as mercenary soldiers.

Firearms
The Kodavas revered weapons, such as guns and the traditional sword and dagger, which are essential for their ceremonial purposes and in accordance to their religious and cultural customs. The Kodavas stood guard at the Mysore, Mangalore and Malabar boundary posts. The support of the Kodagu native police, army and offices, held by Jamma ryots (native militia farmers, also called jamma tenure-holders), who were mostly Kodavas while including people from a few other communities as well, exempted the Kodavas from the 1861 Indian Arms Act. The 1878 Indian Arms Act listed among those groups of persons not restricted by the Act: "all persons of Kodava race, and all jumma tenure-holders in Coorg who by their tenures are liable for police and military duties."

Language and literature
The Kodava language, called Kodava takk, is an independent and has quite a few words from languages of neighboring states as well as from Kannada. Kodava takk similarity in accent and pronunciation with that of Beary bashe, a dialect spoken by Bearys of Coastal Karnataka.

Kodava people are the native speakers of Kodava language are origins of district of Kodagu. As per 1991 census, the speakers of Kodava Takk make up to 0.25% of the total population of the Karnataka state. According to Karnataka Kodava Sahitya Academy, apart from Kodavas, 18 other ethnic groups speak Kodava Takk in and outside the district including Amma Kodavas, Kodava Heggade, Iri, Koyava, Banna, Madivala, Hajama, Kembatti, and Meda.

First script for Kodava Thakk was found at Bhagamandala inscription dating back to 1370 AD. Later in the year 1887 Dr. Koravanda Appaiah invented a script for Kodava Thakk, Followed by Dr I.M.Muthanna in 1970, Kiran Subbaiah in 1980, Ponjanda Appaiah in 2003, Dr. Cox in 2005, Charles Henry in 2008. A meeting which was held on 21 February 2022 by Karnataka Kodava Sahitya Academy at Madikeri officially accepted Dr. IM Muthanna's script as the official script of Kodava Thakk. Thus, ending the debate for the need of a script for Kodava Thakk.

Devarakadu
The Kodavas revered nature and their ancestors they formerly hunted for sport, the Kodavas would even conduct ceremonies symbolically uniting in marriage the spirits of killed tigers with the spirit of the hunter, highlighting the intimate relationship between Kodava culture and the wildlife living in their forest realm. Sacred groves, known as devarakadu (devara = God's and kadu = forest), continue to be maintained in their natural state amongst the coffee plantations since the time of the Rajas. Each village has at least one devarakadu, which is believed to be an abode of the gods, with strict laws and taboos against poaching and felling of trees. These groves are also an important storehouse of biodiversity in the district.

Jamma
A system of land tenure, known as Jamma (privileged tenureship), was formerly instituted in Kodagu during the pre-colonial Paleri Dynasty of the Lingayat Rajas. Jamma agricultural lands were held almost exclusively by Kodavas as a hereditary right, and were both indivisible and inalienable. Importantly, rights over the adjacent uncultivated woods (bane) were also attached to Jamma tenure, such that relatively expansive agricultural-forestry estates have remained intact across Kodagu. The exclusion of plantation crops, such as coffee, from India's Land Ceiling Act has further insulated these holdings from post independence land reform efforts across India. Importantly, rights over the adjacent forests (bane) were also attached to Jamma tenure, such that relatively expansive agricultural-forestry estates have remained intact across Kodagu. A unique feature of Jamma tenure is that tree rights remained with the Rajas, and were subsequently transferred to the colonial and post-independence governments and remains an import determinant of land use practices in the district.

Coffee cultivation
Coffee cultivatuion is widely believed to have been introduced in the western ghats from the Yemeni port of Mocha by the Muslim saint, Baba Budan, in the 16th century and some time after its introduction, coffee cultivation was embraced by the Kodavas in western Karnataka. Following the British annexation of Kodagu in 1834, large numbers of European planters began settling in the forested mountains to cultivate coffee, dramatically changing the economic and environmental management structures of Kodava society. Today, more than one third of India's coffee is grown in Kodagu district, making it the most important coffee growing district in India, the world's fifth largest coffee-producing country.

Recent developments

Lately, some organisations including the Codava National Council (CNC) and Kodava Rashtriya Samiti are demanding Kodava homeland status and autonomy and to Kodagu district and also Scheduled Tribe status to Kodava Tribe  The population of the Kodavas is around 1.5 lakh (150,000).

Kodavas proper
The Kodava community numbers about one-fifth out of a total population of over 500,000, in Kodagu. Many Kodava people have migrated to areas outside Kodagu, to other Indian cities and regions, predominantly to Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, Ooty, Chennai, Mumbai, Kerala, Hyderabad and Delhi for better job prospects. A few of them have now migrated outside India to foreign countries, like North America (the US and Canada), the Middle East (especially Dubai in UAE and Muscat in Oman), the UK and Australia (especially to Sydney where they are prominent members in the financial industry as well as contributing to the health industry).

Amma Kodavas

Besides the Kodavas there were other indigenous people who followed the same culture and spoke the same Kodava language. One of them, the Amma Kodavas, were believed to be the original priests' at all important temples in Coorg including temples of Talakaveri, Igguthappa and Irupu. The religious customs and practices of the hill people of Coorg gradually and subtly began to be influenced by the Brahmin practises and rituals. The role of the Coorg priest, via: Amma Kodavas declined and that of the Brahmin priest increased. In due course, the Amma Kodavas had no role to play in the religious aspects of the people of Coorg.

The loss of this important role earned some powerful Brahmin sympathisers, one of whom was a Havyaka Brahmin Thimmapaya, who had a large following of Amma Kodavas. During the later part of the 19th century, it appears that an attempt was made for assimilating the Amma Kodavas into the Brahmin fold. One batch of Amma Kodavas performed the rites to wear the sacred thread. Another batch is reported to have done so early in the 20th Century. Both these batches were assigned the Gothra names of their Brahmin patrons. The process of assimilation did not move any further. Today, many of the Amma Kodavas wear the sacred thread, a large number of them performing the rites a day before marriage (not after puberty, as done by the mainstream Brahmins). There are as many, who do not wear the sacred thread. Some of the Amma Kodavas do not have gotras assigned to them. They are vegetarians and endogamous. However, all other social activities such as marriage, dress and festivals are similar to the Kodavas.

Kodagu Brahmins
Kodagu Brahmin people have been residing in Coorg since the haleri dynasty. They have been said to have migrated during that period from the South Canaran area. Their prime occupation was to perform rituals and were Archakas in the temples of Kodagu. Kodagu Brahmins celebrate kodava festivals such as puthari, kaveri sankramana but not kailpodh. They are pure vegetarians and wear the sacred thread. They speak Kannada, Havigannada or Havyaka or Tulu. follow kodava customs to an extent. They have clan system as well like the others some of them are, 'Cukkemane', 'Doddmane', 'Makkimane', 'Paremane', 'Kirumakki mane', 'Narasajjanamane', ' Kadangamakki mane', 'Nooroklunaadumane', 'Mottemane', Mooterimane and many more. They worship spirits or 'theray' and ancestors as well. They perform a ritual at every year end called "Bhandaara pooje" when all the clan members unite for the event. They have 'gothras' assigned just like the amma kodavas. Currently they have settled in bigger cities and even abroad for better occupations. They are also coffee planters and have made a mark in the military and defense services. Being a part of kodava society for many ages they are equipped with weapons i.e. 'thok' or 'kovi' and are used efficiently. They have local cuisines as well like thambuli, majjigehuli, kanile palya, pathrode, akki rotti etc. Jewelry includes 'Jomaale' ,'Kokkethaathi' 'havaladasara', kadaga (coorg kada), 'muttina sara' and 'thaali'. The original Brahmins of Kodagu are either Havyaka or Shivalli type of Brahmins who migrated to this region under various dynastis. A major group of Brahmins are said to have migrated from Haleri during the time of Chola dynasty. Although they have been residents of Kodagu, none of their mother tongue has never been 'Kodava thak', although some of them may know the language to converse.

Kodagu Heggade
The Kodagu Heggades are another of these indigenous castes of Coorg although originally they were believed to have come from North Malabar. They have around 100 family names. They follow the Kodava habits and customs, dress like other Kodavas and speak Kodava Takk. The Kodagu Heggades and the Amma Kodavas are similar to the Kodavas and hence might have been related to them in the ancient past.

Kodava Maaples
The Muslim descendants of the Kodavas who were converted into Islam, by Tipu Sultan's army on various forays into Coorg are called Kodava Maaple. During the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789–1792) 5,000 Kodava men and their family members, escaped from captivity in Seringapatam and returned to Coorg. During the war in 1791, one night the British attacked the Sultan's army which fled. That day the Asadulai (converts) who were seized at Coorg and other places along with the Neze Cardar (lancers), all numbering 10,000 people, escaped with their weapons to Coorg. Tipu's batteries were taken and there was confusion among Tipu's troops during that nightly encounter. According to Moegling, Kodavas, who had been carried away by Tipu with their wives and children, made their escape and returned to their native country (Coorg). These converts remained Muslims as they didn't reconvert to Hinduism,

The descendants of these Muslims, many of them now inter-married with Mappilas of Kerala and Bearys of Tulu Nadu, constitute a very small minority in modern Kodagu. In spite of their change in faith, they maintained their original clan names and dress habits and speak Kodava takk, although now they do follow some Mappila–Beary customs also. Today, many Muslims bear Kodava family names. There is Kathanira, Joypera, Periyanda, Alira, koovalera, Cheeranda, Chakkera, Chimmacheera, Duddiyanda, Kaddadiyanda, and Kolumanda in Virajpet.

Yemmemadu Dargah is the main shrine of the Kodava Muslims and is revered by the Kodava Hindus as well. This dargah is located in a place called Yemmemadu in Kodagu district. There is an annual Urs held at this place which goes on for around eight days and more than two lakh devotees from all religions across the state come here to participate and get the blessings of the Sufi saints. Women are denied entry into the dargah and separate arrangements are made to enable them to offer prayers.

Coorg has a significant Muslim population who are Syeds and Sheikhs who speak Urdu at home or Mappilas who speak Malayalam at home. There are Beary Bhashe speaking Beary Muslims and Nawayathi speaking Nawayath Muslims as well. Muslims of the Syed and the Sheikh clans who were on good terms with Kodavas and their Raja were allowed to remain in Kodagu after the fall of Tipu Sultan.

Other communities of Kodava origin
These include communities such as, kodava thiyya, kodava Nair, kodava Koleya, kodava Airi, kodava Malekudiya, kodava Meda, kodava Kembatti, kodava Kapala, kodava Kavadi, kodava Kolla, kodava Koyava, kodava Banna, kodava Golla, kodavaKanya, kodava Maleya and others. . and they culturally ingrained themselves in the Kodava Society. They speak Kodava takk and follow the Kodava customs and habits t.

Are bhashe speaking Gowda communities of somwarpet taluk as their name indicates, hail mostly from those districts before the British period Amara sullia and puttur wa under coorg. Originally they are the migrants from Ikkeri (Keladi) Maha Samsthana (present Shimoga, Chikka Magaluru and Hassan Districts). They were originally Natha Pantha and Shivaites owing allegiance to Kigga and Sringeri Matha. Later Emperor Vishnuvardhana's rule they became Vaishnavites and worship 'Tirupati Timmappa' (Balaji of Thirupati) and 'Sabbakka' (Sharada of Sringeri). They are also called Tuluva Gowdas as they spoke Tulu when they came from Ikkeri, later in the Haleri kingdom, and settled the Mangalore-Udupi (Dakshina Kannada-Udupi) region. They now speak the Are Bhashe or Gowda Kannada dialect of Tulu and Kannada. They are said to have 10 Kutumba and 18 Balis as their primordial root families, from which arose around a Nooru Mane or hundred families. In Kodagu, there were quite a few families settled in Kodagu from the time of Lingayat King of Coorg, Rev. G. Richter, in Gazetteer of Coorg (1870) lists them as Tulu Gowdas (Vokkaligas in Kodagu are residents of yelusaviraseeme taluk from immemorial.

Caste reservations
Around 2000, some of the Kodava language speakers were included in the Other Backward Classes list of Karnataka. The Kodavas were listed as Kodagaru under the Category III A of the Other Backwards Caste (OBC) List of Karnataka State Government. The Coorg National Council had appealed to the State Government to correct this and mention them as Kodavas and to include them in the Central Government Other Backward Castes (OBC) List. Among the other castes included in the Category III A of the State OBC List are the Kodagu Gowda (Gowda).

The Amma Kodava, the Kodagu Banna and the Kodagu Heggade have been included under the Category II A of the State OBC list, while the Kodagu Kapala have been included under Category I A of the State OBC List. All four have been included in the Central Government Other Backward Castes (OBC) List. kodava kembati and kodava kudiya have been included in Scheduled caste and Scheduled tribe List of Karnataka Respectively.

Eminent Kodavas

The Kodavas have contributed immensely towards the growth of the Indian nation, despite them being in small numbers. Their most significant contributions are in the armed forces and in sports. Originally being land-owning militiamen farmers from Kodagu, hence their traditional twin occupations were as agriculturists and as soldiers.

The Kodava ancestors grew paddy and plantation crops like bananas and pepper, their descendants are now into coffee cultivation. The distinguished among them had been local chieftains, palace officials, officers of the Raja's army and brave battle veterans, therefore invariably having attained fame in either government service or in the local army.

Army
Many Kodavas joined the Indian armed forces both as officers and as servicemen. They distinguished themselves in times of war and peace, army-men are still shown the most respect in Kodagu (Coorg). Quite a number of Kodavas have been martyred on enemy frontiers. Many Kodavas participated in the two World Wars before Indian Independence and in the wars against China and Pakistan after 1947.

Field Marshal Cariappa of the Rajput Regiment and General Thimayya of the Kumaon Regiment were the most distinguished army-men among the Kodavas. Many other Kodavas have been made Lt. Generals, Major Generals, Brigadiers and Air Marshals. Lt. General A. C. Iyappa (or Apparanda Aiyappa) is best remembered for his contributions towards the Corps of Signals and towards Bharat Electronics Limited. There were several war heroes as well such as Nadikerianda Bheemaiah, a JCO who was awarded the Vir Chakra for conspicuous bravery in J&K Operations in 1947, Air Marshal Cheppudira D Subbaia who was a fighter pilot during WW II and was awarded the Vir Chakra and the PVSM, Squadron Leader Ajjamada B Devaiah, (known as the 'wings of fire') another fighter pilot was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra after he shot down an enemy aircraft and died in Pakistan during the 1965 Indo Pak War, Major Ganapathi Puttichanda Somiah, (known as the 'Major who kept his cool') awarded the Maha Vir Chakra, during the Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka, Major Ranjan Chengappa, Shaurya Chakra Awardee who was in Congo for UN mission as part of a peace keeping force, Col Chembanda M Thimanna, awarded the Shaurya Chakra for bravery in counter insurgency operations, Major Chottangada Ganesh Madappa, was awarded Shaurya Chakra posthumously in 1996, Squadron Leader Mandepanda Appachu Ganapathy, awarded the Vir Chakra in 1972 (when as a Flight Lieutenant he shot down Pakistani Sabre Jets). Major (now Retd Maj Gen) K P Nanjappa was awarded the Vir Chakra in 1971.

There was a separate Coorg regiment (now forming a unit of the Indian Regiment of Artillery, this unit being called the 37 (Coorg) Anti-Tank Regiment RIA) which largely included people from non-Kodava backgrounds while the Kodavas themselves served in different other regiments; this is in keeping with the army's non-bias policy according to which people were recruited in regiments other than those belonging to their region and community of birth.

Hockey
Kodavas have a long history of association with the game of field hockey. The district of Kodagu is considered as the cradle of Indian hockey.

More than 50 Kodavas have represented India in international hockey tournaments, M. P. Ganesh, M.M Somaiah, B. K. Subramani, A. B. Subbaiah, K. M. Chengappa, .K. K. Poonacha, C. S. Poonacha, Jagadish Ponnappa, M.A.Bopanna, Len Ayyappa, Amar Aiyamma to name a few, out of whom 7 have also participated in the Olympics.

The passion for hockey in Kodagu is so much that teams representing more than each of 200 families participate in an annual Kodava Hockey Festival. This festival is recognised as one of the largest field hockey tournaments in the world and has been referred to the Guinness Book of Records. However it has already found a mention in the Limca Book of Records, which is an Indian variant of the Guinness Book.

Other Sports
Kodavas have also been known in other individual sport events as well especially in athletics; Ashwini Nachappa, National Champion in Athletics, Olympian and Arjuna Awardee, Rohan Bopanna,  National Tennis Champion, Joshna Chinappa,  Ace squash player, Jagat and Anita Nanjappa, motor racing champions,   C.C. Machaiah, (Chenanda Machiah) National boxing Champion, Olympian and Arjuna Awardee, Reeth Abraham (née Devaiah; of Kodava parentage), National Athletics Champion, Arjuna Awardee and Olympian, Arjun Devaiah, National Athlete and Arjuna Award winner, Pramila Aiyappa (née Ganapathy), National Champion in Athletics and Olympian, P G Chengappa, Former National Badminton Player, M R Poovamma (Maachettira Poovamma), National Champion in Athletics and Olympian and Ashwini Ponnappa, national badminton player. Of late Kodavas have begun to distinguish themselves in cricket. Robin Uthappa, K. P. Appanna, N. C. Aiyappa, K C Cariappa and Shyam Ponnappa have represented Karnataka state in national tournaments, like the Ranji trophy, and Bangalore city in the Indian Premier League. Among them, Robin Uthappa went on to play for Indian National Cricket Team, as well.

Other fields
The Kodavas language was a spoken language and had no written literature until 1900. Appanervanda Haridasa Appachcha Kavi, Nadikerianda Chinnappa and Dr. I M Muthanna, have contributed immensely towards developing a literature for this language. The Kodavas are almost all Hindus a few of them had taken up monkhood and contributed towards the development of the religion, especially in Kodagu and Mysore regions, the most famous among them being Swami Shambhavananda, Sadguru Appayya Swami and Swami Narayanananda. In the government service as well there were many prominent Kodavas. One remembers Rao Bahadur IGP P.K.Monnappa, for his contributions towards the Indian Police in South India, be it in Hyderabad, Madras, Mysore or Coorg. Diwan Bahadur Ketoli Chengappa, was the last Chief Commissioner (the governor of a British province which had no elected assembly) of Coorg. There were others like Rai Saheb Muthanna who served in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Mesopotamia (Iraq) during WWII and Rao Saheb Pattamada Devaiah, SP of Coorg. Some were judges in the High Court, such as Palecanda Medappa for Mysore and Ajjikuttira S Bopanna for Karnataka. C M Poonacha had been the Chief Minister of Coorg State (1952–'56), MP, Union Minister and later Governor of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. C B Muthamma was the first woman Indian Foreign Service officer. Mr CG Somaiah was the First IAS Officer to rise to the position of Home Secretary, Chief Vigilance Commissioner (CVC) and Comptroller and Auditor General (CAAG)

Popular culture
The Kodava people and culture have been depicted in a number of movies and books. Some such popular Kannada movies were Huliya Haalina Mevu starring Rajkumar and based on Kodagu-based Kannada author Bharathisutha’s novel of the same name, Muthina Haara directed by Rajendra Singh Babu and starring Vishnuvardhan and Suhasini Maniratnam, and Golden Star Ganesh starrer Mungaru Male. Some of the popular English novels on Kodavas are Kaveri Nambisan’s The Scent of Pepper published in 1996 by Penguin books and Sarita Mandanna’s Tiger Hills which was long listed for the Man Asian Literary Prize.

title: Kodava people