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Sabattier effect

The Sabatier effect, also known as pseudo-solarization (or pseudo-solarisation) and erroneously referred to as the Sabattier effect, is a phenomenon in photography in which the image recorded on a negative or on a photographic print is wholly or partially reversed in tone. Dark areas appear light or light areas appear dark. Solarization and pseudo-solarization are quite distinct effects. Over time, the "pseudo" has been dropped in many photographic darkroom circles and discussions, but the effect that is meant is the Sabattier effect and not the solarization by extreme overexposure (see below).

Background
Initially, the term "solarization" was used to describe the effect observed in cases of extreme overexposure of the photographic film or plate in the camera.

The effect generated in the dark room was then called pseudo-solarization. Spencer defines the Sabattier effect as: "Partial image reversal produced by brief exposure to white light of a partly developed silver halide image". Many other ways of chemical and actinic radiation "exposure" can be utilised for the partial image reversal. The use of chemicals for image reversal is also known as 'chemical fogging'. The SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science and Engineering describes the effect as follows: If a film that has been exposed, developed, and washed but not fixed is given a second uniform exposure and developed again, an image with strong border effects is obtained, which combines the original image with a reversed (positive) image. Another usable definition is by Wijnekus & Wijnekus: If an exposed, incompletely developed, and washed, but not fixed film is given a second uniform exposure and developed again, a reversal of the original image may be obtained. The reversal may be partial or complete, depending on the relative magnitude of the first and second exposures.

History
The pseudo-solarization effect was described in print by H. de la Blanchère in 1859 in L’Art du Photographe. It was described again in 1860 by L.M. Rutherford and C.A. Seely, separately, in successive issues of The American Journal of Photography, and in the same year by Count Schouwaloff in the French publication Cosmos. French scientist Armand Sabatier published 26 October 1860 a process of obtaining direct positives (referencing Count Schouwaloff and Poitevin), but according to the description, this process did not seem to have any connection with the Sabattier effect as no mention was made of any exposure of the collodion plates after development had started. The name of the author was erroneously spelled with double "t" and thus the effect is hence known as the Sabattier effect in most literature. Sabatier described correctly the phenomenon in 1862. However, Sabatier could not find an explanation for the phenomenon.

The effect was usually caused by accidentally exposing an exposed plate or film to light during developing. The artist Man Ray perfected the technique which was accidentally discovered in the darkroom because of fellow artist Lee Miller accidentally exposing his film in the darkroom. It is evident from publications in the 19th century that this phenomenon was discovered many times by many photographers as it tends to occur whenever a light is switched on inadvertently in the darkroom while a film or print is being developed.

Explanation
Whereas many photographic effects have been researched and explained in such a way that most researchers agree upon them, the Sabattier effect does not belong to that group. In general the following facts are accepted by the community of photographic researchers:
 * The assumption that the Sabattier effect can be attributed to the solarization effect can be overruled.
 * The opinion that the Sabattier effect is a direct "print-through" effect of the silver produced by the first development on the below situated layers can not suffice to explain the effect. It has been shown that exposing a photographic layer through the base also displays the Sabattier effect. Moreover, chemical fogging is also proof that copier effect is only marginal in producing the Sabattier effect.
 * Oxidation products produced during the first development at the developed grains cannot cause a desensibilisation of the unexposed grains.
 * It is difficult to envision that the silver produced during the first development has a desensibilitating influence on the first developed grains. However this point must be further researched.
 * Although with commercial photographic materials the speed of development of the latent image of the second exposure is greater than that of the first development, it cannot be the determining factor for the Sabattier effect.
 * Several researchers assume that the development of a latent interior image as result of the first exposure thus affecting negatively the surface "specks" (also known as latent image centers) caused by the second exposure can partially explain the Sabattier effect. One of these researchers, K.W. Junge, published an explanation for the Sabattier effect as follows: The photographic material suitable for pseudo-solarizing should have a very low tendency to produce surface specks. This is usually achieved by prohibiting the chemical maturity during manufacturing. During the first exposure therefore almost only internal grain specks are produced. The first development will destroy the tendency to produce internal grain specks so that after the second exposure also grain surface specks are produced. These are only produced on grains which have still no internal grain specks. The reason for this is that during the second exposure electrons emerge which are much faster caught by the stable and big internal grain specks than they can serve to build new and smaller surface grain specks. The second development in a surface developer will now attack those grains which remained unchanged by the first exposure so that an image reversal will occur. The fact that instead of a second exposure electron donating systems (e.g. chemical fogging) can be added to the second developer supports this theory.

In the darkroom

Careful choice of the amount of light used and the precise moment in development to provide the additional exposure gives rise to different outcomes. However, pseudo-solarization is very difficult to manage to yield consistent results.

As a guide, an exposure of one second to a 25 watt incandescent lamp at two metres distance at around the end of the first minute of a 2-minute development can produce acceptable results. If the exposure is made with the developing print still in the tray of developer, it is important to stop agitation at least 10 seconds prior to exposure to allow any bubbles on the surface to disperse and to ensure that the print is lying flat. Pseudo-solarizing colour prints is more difficult because of the more careful control of temperature and timing that is required and because most amateur processing is undertaken in a processing drum rather than a dish. As lightsource also an enlarger without negative in the carrier can be used. In colour photography, different coloured lights can be used to affect pseudo-solarization, but the results become even less predictable.

Using the Sabattier effect it should be obvious that it is very difficult to manage all parameters for yielding consistent and predictable results and therefore other means have been pursued such as Agfacontour and special pseudo-solarizing developers

In scientific photography it was observed that when using photographic films with very high contrast (also known as lith films), the image produced by the Sabattier effect exhibited a multitude of lines of various width, representing a specific amount of exposure within a certain range. This led to the use of the Sabattier effect in the fields of photogrammetry and equidensitometry.

Agfacontour Professional Film
In 1970, Agfa marketed Agfacontour Professional Film, which simplified the process of obtaining consistent results for images that looked similar to pseudo-solarized images and therefore it was widely used in equidensitometry and art. This special purpose film addressed the uncertainty of pseudo-solarisation results.

As of 2002, Agfacontour Film was no longer being produced.

In digital media
Early video synthesiser technologists concerned themselves with achieving arbitrary curves not limited by film chemistry. A goal was to extend the range of pseudo-solarization effects possible to a computer specified curve. They then applied the defined solarization curve to real time video images. A video lookup table was often used to implement this. Using this enhanced solarization technology, still photos could also be passed through a grey scale or colour lookup table with the advantage that the effect could be previewed and progressively improved, instead of a procedure based on darkroom exposure calculations applied on a one time basis to a volatile light sensitive film or print, as described above. This was an especial advantage for creating colour solarizations with 3 primary colours.

Graphs describing pseudo-solarization curves typically place input range of tones on the x axis, with black at 0 and white to the right, and the output range of tones on the y axis with black at 0 and white up. A curve then defines the input to output mapping. Manipulating custom curves in photo-editing programs such as Photoshop provide tools to mimic the Sabattier effect in digital image processing.

title: Sabattier effect


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Thomas Francis Meagher

Thomas Francis Meagher (3 August 1823 – 1 July 1867 ) was an Irish nationalist and leader of the Young Irelanders in the Rebellion of 1848. After being convicted of sedition, he was first sentenced to death but received transportation for life to Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) in Australia.

In 1852, Meagher escaped and made his way to the United States, where he settled in New York City. He studied law, worked as a journalist, and traveled to present lectures on the Irish cause.

He married for a second time in New York. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Meagher joined the U.S. Army and rose to the rank of brigadier general. He was most notable for recruiting and leading the Irish Brigade and encouraging support among Irish immigrants for the Union. By his first marriage in Ireland, he had one surviving son; the two never met.

Following the Civil War, Meagher was appointed Montana's Territorial Secretary of State by President Andrew Johnson and served as acting territorial governor. In 1867, Meagher drowned in the Missouri River after falling from a steamboat at Fort Benton, Montana. Historians have questioned the circumstances around his death, with varying hypotheses including weakness from dysentery, intoxication, suicide, and murder. A 2016 analysis by Timothy Egan in The Immortal Irishman suggested Meagher may have been murdered by Montana political opponents.

Family
Thomas Francis Meagher was born on 3 August 1823 in Waterford City in what is now the Granville Hotel on the Quay. From the age of two he lived with his family at Derrynane House in nearby Number 19, The Mall.

His father, Thomas Meagher (1796–1874), was a rich merchant who had retired to enter politics. He was twice elected Mayor of the city, which he represented in Parliament from August 1847 to March 1857. He had lived in the city since he was a young man, having migrated from Newfoundland in present-day Canada.

The senior Meagher was born in St John's, Newfoundland. His father, also named Thomas (1763–1837), had emigrated as a young man from County Tipperary just before the turn of the 18th century. Starting as a farmer, the grandfather Meagher became a trader, and advanced to merchant, and shipowner. Newfoundland was the only British colony where people of Irish descent constituted a majority of the population. The senior Thomas Meagher married a widow, Mary Crotty. He established a prosperous trade between St. John's and Waterford, Ireland. Later, the grandfather placed his eldest son Thomas in Waterford to represent their business interests. The son Thomas became a successful merchant in Waterford, whose economic success was followed by political office.

Thomas Francis Meagher's mother, Alicia Quan (1798–1827), was the second eldest daughter of Thomas Quan and Alicia Forristall. Her father was a partner in the trading and shipping firm known as Wye, Cashen and Quan of Waterford. She died when Meagher was three and a half years old, after the birth of twin girls. (One of the girls also died then; the other at age seven.) Meagher had four siblings; a brother Henry and three sisters. Only he and his older sister Christine Mary Meagher lived past childhood.

Early life and education
Meagher was educated at Roman Catholic boarding schools. When Meagher was eleven, his family sent him to the Jesuits at Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare. It was at Clongowes that he developed his skill of oratory, becoming at age 15 the youngest medalist of the Debating Society. These oratory skills would later distinguish Meagher during his years as a leading figure in Irish Nationalism. Although he gained a broad and deep education at Clongowes, as was typical, it did not include much about the history of his country or matters relating to Ireland.

After six years, Meagher left Ireland for the first time, to study in Lancashire, England, at Stonyhurst College, also a Jesuit institution. Meagher's father regarded Trinity College, the only university in Ireland, as being both anti-Irish and anti-Catholic.

The younger Meagher established a reputation for developed scholarship and "rare talents." While Meagher was at Stonyhurst, his English professors struggled to overcome his "horrible Irish brogue"; he acquired an Anglo-Irish upper-class accent that in turn grated on the ears of some of his countrymen. He became a popular speaker "who had no compare" in Conciliation Hall, the meeting place of the Irish Repeal Association.

Young Ireland
Meagher returned to Ireland in 1843, with undecided plans for a career in the Austrian army, a tradition among a number of Irish families.

In 1844 he traveled to Dublin with the intention of studying for the bar in order to become a lawyer. He became involved in the Repeal Association, which worked for repeal of the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland. Meagher was influenced by writers of The Nation newspaper and fellow workers in the Repeal movement.

The movement became nationwide. At a Repeal meeting held in Waterford on 13 December, at which his father presided, Meagher acted as one of the Secretaries. He soon became popular on Burgh Quay, his eloquence at meetings making him a celebrated figure in the capital. Any announcement of Meagher's speaking would ensure a crowded hall. In June 1846, the administration of Sir Robert Peel's Tory Ministry fell, and the Liberals under Lord John Russell came to power. Daniel O'Connell tried to lead the Repeal movement to support both the Russell administration and English Liberalism. Repeal agitation was damped down in return for a distribution of generous patronage through Conciliation Hall.

On 15 June 1846, Meagher denounced English Liberalism in Ireland, as he suspected the national cause of Repeal would be sacrificed to the Whig government. He felt the Irish would be "purchased back into factious vassalage." Meagher and the other "Young Irelanders" (the epithet used by O'Connell to describe the young men of The Nation) vehemently denounced any movement toward English political parties, so long as Repeal was denied.

The promise of patronage and influence divided the Repeal Movement. Those who hoped to gain by government positions, also called The "Tail", and described as the "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" wanted to drive the genuinely ecumenical Young Irelanders from the Repeal Association. Such opponents portrayed the ecumenical Young Irelanders as revolutionaries, factionists, infidels and secret enemies of the Catholic Church. On 13 July, O'Connell's followers introduced resolutions to declare that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms.

In fact, the Young Irelanders had not, until then, advocated the use of physical force to advance the cause of repeal and opposed any such policy. The "Peace Resolutions" declared that physical force was immoral under any circumstances to obtain national rights. Although Meagher agreed that only moral and peaceful means should be adopted by the Association, he added that if Repeal could not be carried by those means, he would adopt the more perilous and risky, but no less honorable choice of arms. When the Peace resolutions were proposed again on 28 July, Meagher responded with his famous "Sword Speech".

Meagher dissented from the Resolutions, not wanting to pledge to the unqualified repudiation of physical force "in all countries, at all times, and in every circumstance". He knew there were times when arms would suffice, and when political amelioration called for "a drop of blood, and many thousand drops of blood". He "eloquently defended physical force as an agency in securing national freedom."

As Meagher carried the audience to his side, O'Connell's supporters believed they were at risk in not being able to drive out the Young Irelanders. O'Connell's son John interrupted Meagher to declare that one of them had to leave the hall. William Smith O'Brien protested against this attempt to suppress legitimate speech and left the meeting with other prominent Young Irelanders in defiance, never to return.

Irish Confederation
In January 1847, Meagher, together with John Mitchel, William Smith O'Brien, and Thomas Devin Reilly formed a new repeal body, the Irish Confederation. In 1848, Meagher and O'Brien went to France to study revolutionary events there, and returned to Ireland with the new Flag of Ireland, a tricolour of green, white and orange made by and given to them by French women sympathetic to the Irish cause.

The acquisition of the flag is commemorated at the 1848 Flag Monument in the Irish parliament. The design used in 1848 was similar to the present flag, except that orange was placed next to the staff, and the red hand of Ulster decorated the white field. This flag was first flown in public on 1 March 1848, during the Waterford by-election, when Meagher and his friends flew the flag from the headquarters of Meagher's "Wolfe Tone Confederate Club" at No. 33, The Mall, Waterford.

Following the incident known as the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 or "Battle of Ballingarry" in August 1848, Meagher, Terence MacManus, O'Brien, and Patrick O'Donoghue were arrested, tried and convicted for sedition. Due to a newly passed ex post facto law, the sentence meant that Meagher and his colleagues were sentenced to be "hanged, drawn and quartered". It was after his trial that Meagher delivered his famous Speech From the Dock.

While awaiting execution in Richmond Gaol, Meagher and his colleagues were joined by Kevin Izod O'Doherty and John Martin. But, due to public outcry and international pressure, royal clemency commuted the death sentences to Penal exile for life to "the other side of the world".

In 1849 all were sent to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania, Australia). On July 20, the day after being notified of his exile to Van Diemen's Land, Meagher announced that he wished henceforth to be known as Thomas Francis O'Meagher.

Van Diemen's Land
Meagher accepted the "ticket-of-leave" in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), giving his word not to attempt to escape without first notifying the authorities, in return for comparative liberty on the island. A further stipulation was that each of the Irish "gentleman" convicts was sent to reside in separate districts: Meagher to Campbell Town and shortly after to Ross (where his cottages still stand); MacManus to Launceston and later near New Norfolk; Kevin O'Doherty to Oatlands; John Mitchel and John Martin to Bothwell; and O'Brien (who initially refused a ticket-of-leave) to the "Penal Station" on Maria Island and later to New Norfolk. During his time in Van Diemen's Land, Meagher managed to meet clandestinely with his fellow Irish rebels, especially at Interlaken on Lake Sorell.

Marriages and family
On 22 February 1851, in Van Diemen's Land, Meagher married Catherine Bennett, daughter of Bryan Bennett, a farmer who, in 1817, had been convicted of mail robbery and in 1818 transported to Van Diemen's Land. Meagher's fellow exiles disapproved of his marriage because she was a "dead-common girl", or the child of a common criminal. Although his friends believed her social status made them an unsuitable match, Meagher was unperturbed, and his wife and he lived in a house Meagher built on the shore of Lake Sorell. Soon after they were married, Catherine became ill.

Less than a year after his wedding in January 1852, Meagher abruptly surrendered his "ticket-of-leave" and planned his escape to the United States. Meagher sent his "ticket-of-leave" and a letter to the authorities, along with notifying them he would consider himself a free man in twenty-four hours. When he escaped, Catherine was in an advanced stage of pregnancy and stayed behind. Following Meagher's departure from Van Diemen's Land, their son, Henry Emmett Fitzgerald O'Meagher, was born, but he died at 4 months of age, shortly after Meagher reached New York City.

Henry Emmett Fitzgerald O'Meagher was buried on 8 June 1852 at St. John's Catholic Church, the oldest Catholic church in Australia, in Richmond, Tasmania, Australia. The small grave is next to the church. A plaque notes his father having been an Irish Patriot and member of the Young Irelanders.

Following Meagher's escape, Catherine travelled to London, where she was met by her father-in-law and then they both travelled on to Waterford. On arrival at Waterford railway station, she was welcomed by thousands of citizens, such was her husband's fame in Ireland as a nationalist. However, she was not well and rested at her father-in-law's home for a short time (where a crowd of 20,000 'serenaded' her). Eventually she was able to spend a short time in the United States with Meagher. She returned to Ireland pregnant and in poor health. She gave birth to Meagher's only child to reach adulthood: Thomas Bennett Meagher, named after his father. She died in Ireland on 12 May 1854, at the home of her father-in-law. Meagher never met his son, who was raised by relatives. After Meagher settled in New York, he soon courted Elizabeth "Libby" Townsend, the daughter of Peter Townsend and Caroline (née) Parrish of Monroe, New York. The Townsend family were wealthy Protestants, who opposed Meagher's marrying their daughter but eventually relented. Elizabeth converted to Roman Catholicism, and, in 1856 she and Meagher married.

Immigration to the United States
Meagher arrived in New York City in May 1852. He studied law and journalism, and became a noted lecturer. Soon after, Meagher became a United States citizen. He eventually founded a weekly newspaper called the Irish News. Meagher and John Mitchel, who had also since escaped, published the radical pro-Irish independence Citizen. After his escape, the question of "honor" was raised by Mitchel, among others. Meagher agreed to be "tried" by American notables, and vowed to return to Van Diemen's Land if they held against him. The simulated court martial found for Meagher, and he was vindicated.

Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War, Meagher traveled to Costa Rica, in part to determine whether Central America would be suitable for Irish immigration. He used his experiences as the basis for writing travel articles which were published in Harper's Magazine. He was commissioned as a captain in the New York State Militia.

American Civil War
Meagher's decision to serve the Union was not a simple one; before the onset of the war, he had supported the South. He had visited the South to lecture, and was sympathetic to its people. Further, his Irish friend John Mitchel, who had settled in the South, supported the secessionists. Meagher and Mitchel split over the issue of slavery. Mitchel went to the Confederate capitol in Richmond, Virginia, and his three sons served with the Confederate States Army. On 12 April 1861, the first shots were fired at U.S.-held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. This action by the South pushed Meagher into support of the Union cause.

He began recruiting men for the Union Army. One of his ads in the New York Daily Tribune read: "One hundred young Irishman—healthy, intelligent and active—wanted at once to form a Company under command of Thomas Francis Meagher." On April 29, his recruits were enlisted as Company K of the 69th Infantry Regiment of the New York State Militia (the "Fighting 69th"). Under the command of Colonel Michael Corcoran, another leading Irish political figure, the 69th fought in the First Battle of Bull Run, a Confederate victory. Corcoran was captured, and Meagher succeeded him as colonel.

After Bull Run, Meagher returned to New York to form the Irish Brigade. In lectures, including a famous speech made at the Boston Music Hall in September 1861, he implored the Irish of the North to defend the Union. He was commissioned brigadier general (effective 3 February) to lead the Brigade in the Peninsula Campaign of 1862. At the Battle of Fair Oaks in May, Meagher first led the Brigade in battle. The Union won a defensive victory, and the Irish Brigade furthered their reputation as fierce fighters.

This reputation was solidified when the New York printmaker Currier and Ives published a lithograph depicting Meagher on horseback, leading his brigade in a bayonet charge. Following the Battle of Fair Oaks, Meagher was given command of a non-Irish regiment. This experiment was unsuccessful, and thereafter Meagher would command only Irishmen. Meagher's troops fought at the Battle of Gaines' Mill on 27 June. The Irish Brigade arrived in battle after a quick march through the Chickahominy River, as reinforcements for the weakening V Corps. Later, this march and battle were considered by historians as the highlight of Meagher's military career.

The Irish Brigade suffered huge losses at the Battle of Antietam that fall. Meagher's brigade led an attack at Antietam on September 17 against the Sunken Road (later referred to as "Bloody Lane") and lost 540 men to heavy volleys before being ordered to withdraw. During the battle, Meagher was injured when he fell off his horse. Some reports said Meagher had been drunk, but Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's official report noted that Meagher's horse had been shot. Meagher had faced reports of drunkenness at the First Battle of Bull Run. The high number of casualties at Antietam, and the rumors of his being drunk on the battlefield, increased criticism of Meagher's command ability.

The Irish Brigade suffered its largest losses at the Battle of Fredericksburg. Brigade chaplain Father William Corby later said it was "a body of about 4,000 Catholic men marching – most of them – to death." Meagher led 1,200 men into battle, and "two hundred and eighty men only appeared under arms to represent the Irish Brigade" the next morning. Meagher took no direct part in this battle, remaining at the rear when his brigade began their advance, due to, what he described in his official report as 'a most painful ulcer in the knee joint'.

Meagher spent the next four months recovering from his injuries, and resumed his command three days prior to the Battle of Chancellorsville. After limited engagement at Chancellorsville, Meagher resigned his commission on 14 May 1863. The Army had refused his request to return to New York to raise reinforcements for his battered brigade. The brigade was 4,000 strong in mid–May 1862, but by late May 1863, it had only a few hundred combat-ready men left.

Meagher's fellow Irish leader, Col. Corcoran, had been exchanged and promoted Brigadier General, but he died in December 1863. So the Army rescinded Meagher's resignation on 23 December. He was assigned to duty in the Western Theater beginning in September 1864. He commanded the District of Etowah in the Department of the Cumberland from 29 November to 5 January 1865. Meagher briefly commanded a provisional division in the Army of the Ohio (9–25 February); he resigned from the Army on May 15.

Territorial governorship of Montana
After the war, Meagher was appointed Secretary of the new Territory of Montana; soon after arriving there, he was designated Acting Governor.

Meagher attempted to create a working relationship between the territory's Republican executive and judicial branches, and the Democratic legislative branch. He failed, making enemies in both camps. Further, he angered many when he pardoned a fellow Irishman who had been convicted of manslaughter.

The Territory of Montana was created from the eastern portion of Idaho Territory as its population increased with an influx of settlers following the discovery of gold in 1862. When the Civil War ended, many more settlers entered the territory. Searching for riches, they often disregarded U.S. treaties with the local Native American tribes.

In 1867, Montana pioneer John Bozeman was allegedly killed by a band of Blackfeet, who attacked other settlers as well. Meagher responded by organizing the Montana Territory Volunteer Militia to retaliate. He secured funding from the federal government to campaign against the Native Americans, but was unable to find the offenders, or retain the militia's cohesion. He was later criticized for his actions.

Meagher called Montana's first constitutional convention to develop a constitution as a step toward statehood. Not enough residents voted for the constitution and statehood to qualify. In addition, copies of the constitution were lost on the way to a printer, and Congress never received copies for review. Montana gained statehood in 1889, more than 20 years after Meagher's death.

Disappearance
In the summer of 1867, Meagher traveled to Fort Benton, Montana, to receive a shipment of guns and ammunition sent by General William Tecumseh Sherman for use by the Montana Militia. On the way to Fort Benton, the Missouri River terminus for steamboat travel, Meagher fell ill and stopped for six days to recuperate. When he reached Fort Benton, he was reportedly still ill. Sometime in the early evening of 1 July 1867, Meagher fell overboard from the steamboat G. A. Thompson, into the Missouri River. The pilot described the waters as "instant death – water twelve feet deep and rushing at the rate of ten miles an hour." His body was never recovered.

Some believed his death to be suspicious and many theories circulated about his death. Early theories included a claim that he was murdered by a Confederate soldier from the war, or by Native Americans. In 1913 a man claimed to have carried out the murder of Meagher for the price of $8000, but then recanted. In the same vein, American journalist and novelist Timothy Egan, who published a biography of Meagher in 2016, noted that his political nemesis, Wilbur Fisk Sanders, was in Fort Benton at the same time. Egan hypothesized that Meagher may have been set up for murder by his Montana political enemies or powerful and still active vigilantes.

In 2008, John T. Hubbell suggested that Meagher had been drinking and fell overboard. Other hypotheses included the possibility that he had been weakened by dysentery or that his fall was a suicide. A fictionalized account shown on Death Valley Days (1960) had him survive the assassination attempt because his aide had been mistakenly murdered when he accepted one of his trademark cigars; and Meagher used his seeming death as leverage over his political opponents.

Meagher was survived by his American second wife, Elizabeth "Libby" (née Townsend; 1840–1906). He was also survived by his second son by his first wife, Catherine.

Legacy and honors

 * The Thomas F. Meagher Foundation promotes pride in and respect for the Irish flag, and is leading centennial celebrations of the adoption of the Irish tricolor in Ireland.
 * A statue of Meagher, on horseback with sword raised, is on the front lawn of the Montana State Capitol in Helena, and was first erected in 1905.
 * A similar statue honoring him was erected in 2004 in Waterford, Ireland near his childhood home at Number 19, The Mall.
 * The actor Richard Webb was cast as Meagher in the 1960 episode "The General Who Disappeared" on the syndicated television anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story line, Meagher as acting governor of the Montana Territory seeks to clean up corrupt politics.
 * In 1963, President Kennedy spoke of Meagher's legacy, leading the Irish Brigade into battle in the American Civil War. He presented the battle flag of the Brigade to the people of Ireland, and it hangs to this day in Leinster House, the location of the Irish Parliament.
 * In 1982, the Ancient Order of Hibernians formed the Thomas Francis Meagher Division #1 in Helena, Montana, dedicated to the principles of the Order and to restoring a historically accurate record of Meagher's contributions to Montana.
 * The military fort at Camden near Crosshaven, County Cork, was renamed Fort Meagher.
 * Meagher County, Montana, was named for him.
 * A monument at the Antietam battlefield was dedicated in his honor. The inscription on the granite monument reads:
 * A cenotaph memorial to Meagher is located in Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York, adjacent to the grave of his second wife.
 * In the spring of 1867, the U.S. Army established a post near Rocky Creek, east of Bozeman, Montana, and named it Fort Elizabeth Meagher in honor of Meagher's second wife.
 * At the New York-New York Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, a statue depicting Meagher in uniform was dedicated near the Brooklyn Bridge directly facing the Las Vegas strip.
 * On 3 December 1944, the Liberty Ship S.S. Thomas F. Meagher was launched.
 * In March 2015, the Suir Bridge, crossing the river Suir outside Meagher's native Waterford, was renamed the Thomas Francis Meagher Bridge by the President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins.
 * In December 1987, the General Thomas F. Meagher Division 1 of the City of Fredericksburg (Virginia) of the Ancient Order of Hibernians was formed.
 * A memorial featuring a bust of Meagher was dedicated in 2009 on the bank of the Missouri River in Fort Benton, Montana, believed to be near the site of the riverboat where he was said to have fallen overboard.
 * Missoula, Montana has named a Hurling Club and a downtown bar after Meagher.
 * On July 1, 2017, marking 150 years since Thomas Francis Meagher death, a bronze bust sculpted by Michael J. Keropian was dedicated to General Thomas Francis Meagher in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. The monument sits just in back of his wife's grave marker.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thomas Francis Meagher


text:
Chemical table file

Chemical table file (CT file) is a family of text-based chemical file formats that describe molecules and chemical reactions. One format, for example, lists each atom in a molecule, the x-y-z coordinates of that atom, and the bonds among the atoms.

File formats
There are several file formats in the family.

The formats were created by MDL Information Systems (MDL), which was acquired by Symyx Technologies then merged with Accelrys Corp., and now called BIOVIA, a subsidiary of Dassault Systemes of Dassault Group.

The CT file is an open format. BIOVIA publishes its specification. BIOVIA requires users to register to download the CT file format specifications.

Molfile
An MDL Molfile is a file format for holding information about the atoms, bonds, connectivity and coordinates of a molecule.

The molfile consists of some header information, the Connection Table (CT) containing atom info, then bond connections and types, followed by sections for more complex information.

The molfile is sufficiently common that most, if not all, cheminformatics software systems/applications are able to read the format, though not always to the same degree. It is also supported by some computational software such as Mathematica.

The current de facto standard version is molfile V2000, although, more recently, the V3000 format has been circulating widely enough to present a potential compatibility issue for those applications that are not yet V3000-capable.

Bond block specification
The Bond Block is made up of bond lines, one line per bond, with the following format:

111 222 ttt sss xxx rrr ccc

where the values are described in the following table:

Extended Connection Table (V3000)
The extended (V3000) molfile consists of a regular molfile “no structure” followed by a single molfile appendix that contains the body of the connection table (Ctab). The following figure shows both an alanine structure and the extended molfile corresponding to it.

Note that the “no structure” is flagged with the “V3000” instead of the “V2000” version stamp. There are two other changes to the header in addition to the version:
 * The number of appendix lines is always written as 999, regardless of how many there actually are. (All current readers will disregard the count and stop at M END.)

Unlike the V2000 molfile, the V3000 extended Rgroup molfile has the same header format as a non-Rgroup molfile.
 * The “dimensional code” is maintained more explicitly. Thus “3D” really means 3D, although “2D” will be interpreted as 3D if any non-zero Z-coordinates are found.

Counts line
A counts line is required, and must be first. It specifies the number of atoms, bonds, 3D objects, and Sgroups. It also specifies whether or not the CHIRAL flag is set. Optionally, the counts line can specify molregno. This is only used when the regno exceeds 999999 (the limit of the format in the molfile header line). The format of the counts line is:

SDF
SDF is one of a family of chemical-data file formats developed by MDL; it is intended especially for structural information. "SDF" stands for structure-data format, and SDF files actually wrap the molfile (MDL Molfile) format. Multiple records are delimited by lines consisting of four dollar signs ($$$$). A key feature of this format is its ability to include associated data.

Associated data items are denoted as follows: Multiple-line data items are also supported. The MDL SDF-format specification requires that a hard-carriage-return character be inserted if a single line of any text field exceeds 200 characters. This requirement is frequently violated in practice, as many SMILES and InChI strings exceed that length.

Other formats of the family
There are other, less commonly used formats of the family:
 * RXNFile - for representing a single chemical reaction;
 * RDFile - for representing a list of records with associated data. Each record can contain chemical structures, reactions, textual and tabular data;
 * RGFile - for representing the Markush structures (deprecated, Molfile V3000 can represent Markush structures);
 * XDFile - for representing chemical information in XML format.

title: Chemical table file


text:
Anthony Green (painter)

Anthony Green (30 September 1939 – 14 February 2023) was an English realist painter and printmaker best known for his paintings of his own middle-class domestic life. His works sometimes used compound perspectives and polygonal forms—particularly with large, irregularly shaped canvasses. As well as producing oil paintings, he also produced a number of works designed from the start as limited edition prints, which were typically giclée works.

Early years
Anthony Green was born on 30 September 1939 in Luton, Bedfordshire, and educated at Highgate School, London (where he was taught by Kyffin Williams) and the Slade School of Art (from 1956). Green was interviewed for his place at the Slade by William Coldstream. It was there where he first met lifelong friend and fellow RA Ben Levene, and in 1957 where he met his future wife Mary Cozens-Walker.

In 1960 he moved to Paris and Châteauroux on a scholarship from the Government of France. He returned to England in 1961 and married Cozens-Walker, with whom he had two daughters, Kate and Lucy. His first one-man exhibition was held at the Rowan Gallery in 1962. He taught at the Slade from 1964 until 1967 when he received a Harkness Fellowship and spent two years living in Leonia, New Jersey and Altadena, California.

Royal Academy of Arts
Green's professional life was intertwined with the Royal Academy for more than 50 years. He was elected an Associate Member on 23 April 1971, was elected a full Member on 1 March 1977 and won the Royal Academy Summer Exhibit of the Year in 1977. A retrospective of his work was held at the Royal Academy in 1978.

In 2000, Green was appointed a Trustee of the Royal Academy. In 2003 he was a featured artist at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition. He was elected a Senior RA in 2014, and in 2017 there was an exhibition of his works entitled 'The Life and Death of Miss Dupont' which was held in the Tennant Gallery at the Royal Academy.

Green twice stood as a candidate for President of the Royal Academy, in 1999 (beaten by the sculptor Phillip King) and 2004 (beaten by the architect Nicholas Grimshaw).

Green exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts Summer Exhibition every year from 1966 to the last exhibition before he died in 2023.

Other career highlights
In total Green had almost 100 one-man shows worldwide, including a retrospective in Japan in 1987-88. In 1991 he was elected a Fellow of University College London and in 1996 was shortlisted for the Jerwood Painting Prize. Green's work Resurrection, a pictorial sculpture for the Millennium, toured UK cathedrals in 2000. In 2002 he was elected to the New English Art Club.

In 2011 Green was presented with an honorary doctorate by the University of Buckingham, and in 2015 he was created an honorary fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge.

Television
In 1979 Green was the subject of the BBC Arts programme Arena, in an episode entitled 'Now and Then'.

In 1985 Green appeared as a guest on the Wogan show.

In 1987 Green was the subject of The South Bank Show, in an episode entitled 'Anthony Green RA: A Love Story'. In the show Green, and Cozens-Walker, were interviewed by Melvyn Bragg in the family home in Lissenden Gardens.

In 2017 an edited version of the South Bank Show interview was broadcast as part of 'The South Bank Show Originals' series.

Death
Green died at home in Cambridgeshire, on the morning of 14 February 2023. He was 83.

Public collections
The following public collections contain works by Green:
 * Arts Council of Great Britain
 * British Council
 * Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon
 * Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow
 * Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 * Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * National Museum of Wales, Cardiff
 * National Portrait Gallery, London
 * Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia
 * Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art (in the Gabrielle Keiller Collection)
 * Setagaya Art Museum, Tokyo
 * Tate Gallery, London
 * Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum, Japan
 * Ulster Museum, Belfast
 * Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Books

 * Bailey, Martin, ed. A green part of the world: Anthony Green. London: Thames & Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0-500-23397-7.
 * Anthony Green 1960–86. Tokyo: The Japan Association of Art Museums / Yomiuri Shinbun, 1987. (No ISBN.) Catalogue of exhibitions held in Niigata, Tokyo, Osaka and Iwaki, 31 October 1987 – 15 May 1988; text in Japanese and English.
 * Green, Anthony Anthony Green RA: Flowers, Clouds, Corsets and a Cactus The Richmond Hill Gallery, 2010. ISBN 978-0956473110
 * Bailey, Martin, ed. Anthony Green: Painting life. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2017. ISBN 978-1910350553.
 * Beetles, Chris Anthony Green RA Among Royal Academy Artists & Friends Chris Beetles Ltd, 2018 ISBN 978-1905738830
 * Davis, Paul E. H. Anthony Green: Printed Life. University of Buckingham Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1912500048.
 * Green, Anthony Lockdown Love Letters Chris Beetles Ltd, 2023 ISBN 978-1914906060.

title: Anthony Green (painter)


text:
Talk:Saddam Hussein/Archive 6

On a second thought, I removed the info box, which appears to emphasize formal office-- inappropriate here because Saddam, of course, could rule without reference to formal institutions. 172 17:23, 19 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Dear Wikipedia ""Neutrality"" guardian, Re Saddam Hussein entry, no one has yet to answer my question, why do the live palestinians deserve mention in the primary intro for a non palestinian leader, but the Slaughtered Kurds, Saddam's countrymen, gassed by him, do not?

You could have Written "Some parts of the Arab world admired Saddam for standing up to the west". Without mentioning the Palestinians, just like you refuse to mention the slaughtered Kurds. But you insist on mentioning the Palestinians, and further conceal any remnant of opposing POV with the fascist's friend, the term "human-rights situation" which you hope anyone can interpret as anything. Are you claiming that the horrors both existed and didn't exist, depending on who you ask? where are all those dead kurds, then?

revive them! I'm sure they will be glad to read in wikipedia that what was done to them was only "a situation". A situation is good. Elain in Seinfeld has situations. comes and goes. They can dig up their graves and go home to watch the reruns, check out some situtions in bars, and generally have a good situation.

Never mind the bodies, they will soon rot and everyone would have forgotten all about it. Shhhhhhh. But Only one thing as sure as the Sun existed, didn't it? The palestinians and their glee! thats as solid as Iron! who needs proof? its the Palestinians! Amen! I want to know a rational arumgent of why it is so important and humanitarian to disguise Saddams undisputed, proven horrors. It must be VERY important. there must be some divine logic here beyond my rationality.

Oh, It will upset the palestinians? sure! don't you think Saddam's other little hobbies (other than encouraging palestinians, and better documented than something so nebolous as street reaction) have upset at least the same number of people or larger? why do you stifle their emphasis then? Either you stifle ALL non Iraqi effects of Saddam, or you mention them NEUTRALLY that means not ONLY the palestinians, but other groups affected. Are you perhaps saying that 10,000 gassed kurds and their millions of grieving relatives/supporters are less important than 2 million live palestinians whose sole influence by Iraqi affairs is a blushing glee at Saddam's deeds?

if so, how many? how many non-palestinians does it take to die till that issue becomes important enough to mention it alongside the palestinian POV? a million? 6 million by any chance? does this number mean anything to you or do you just file it in you head as "Human rights situation"?

and how many palestinians angry that 1+1=2 would it take for you to remove all the henceforth controversial entries on mathematics? 3 palestinians? 4 perhaps? and dont be too slow then, they might otherwise cause something to your own "Human rights situation" that you won't like.

And this pargraph:

an increase in human-rights abuses, notably acts of genocide against Iraqi Kurds. The United States continued to view Saddam with deep suspicion, however, primarly due to his pursuit of weapons of mass destruction

do you have any factual references that dispute any of this? supported FACTS not 'liberal' wishful illusions! all of it is corroborated in the links!

And this,

"Thanks for pointing this out. I suspect that it was removed because an anon is getting a kick out replacing non-controversial matter-of-fact statements like the above with overtly emotive, deliberately provocative ones."

Are you hinting that this sentence: "While he remained a popular hero among many disaffected Arabs for standing up to the West and for his unflinching support for the Palestinians"

is a NPOV? what proof do you have of his support of the palestinians? are there any references of this, or just hearsay?

is hearsay enough to mention when supporting the palestinian cause, but against it one needs to split the atom in your lab first?

Just call wikipedia the Western Edition of Pravda, and be done with it!

Again, in case you did not get it: The Palestinian POV in this matter is merely an issude of morale, and the opposing POV rests on actual crimes of war! how in your humane conscience can you condone this state of affairs?

And I dont wan't to skewer anyone either. If I wante to Skewer Saddam, I would have called him a Hitler wannabe; Little Stalin, the prince of evil and so forth. This is skewering. Mentioning FACTS is never skewering, even if the palestinians don't like them!

P.S. I'm glad there were no palestinians involved in Europe in the second world war, or a description of one of them dropping his apple might have completely eclipsed the "Holocaust" entry.... I guess he just didn't come forward yet.

I want to know, why "removed politically charged Saddam and Arafat link, it has nothing to do with Iraq" thats all right,

but the kilometer of text about the palestinian is not irrelevant to Iraq? are the palestinians Iraqi? why are so many people are so insistent on beautifying dictators and oppressors living and operating in other countries except for America? you call yourselves democrats?

 * Dude. You need to calm down. Be a little more approachable. Learn spelling and diction. All that stuff. It will get you far. Also, you should create a login. People will respect you more if you sign your posts and have a talk page. No one respects anonymous IP editors. At least, I don't... and I think I speak for everybody.
 * Anyway, that's enough of being whimsical! As to your actual points, such as they are: obviously, there's a huge buttload of documentation on Saddam's support for Palestinians. Look around. Also, your article-link about "Saddam and Arafat" was an article about Arafat and Israel, and included a tiny line about how Arafat supported one of Saddam's actions. Don't cry when it was removed for being irrelevant.
 * I agree with you that the article underplays Saddam's atrocities. However, you're way off the mark on all your rants about Palestinians. If you can make rational, conservative, and appropriate (and grammatically correct) edits about atrocities you think need mentioning (in the correct places), they'll get a lot more support. Graft 05:49, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

external links issue
Hello, I added the following external link, which is a report congress about the evidence of saddam's attempted assasination of former president bush. -	*Information about Saddam's attempted assasination of former president George Bush I believe this is important because it's cited as a cause for the recent war. It was immediately removed by another user, and I'd like it added back.

-please, I beg of you! from the rich supermarket of Saddam's atrocities, we have to concentrate on the most awful ones, not blur the focus with relative trivialities - and in any case, the people who removed this reference probably view Bush's assasination not wholly negatively (probably watched too many re-runs of Farenhype 9/11 and the propoganda got in their bloodstream till they see Bush's face in red street lights)

The most important cause for this war is his acts of genocide and pursuit of weapons of mass destruction. This is enough.

Proposed article split
At 52KB this article is too long and must be split in 2 in order to guarantee editorial freedom. Please put your proposals about how to split the article here. I hope to split the article, according to a consensus reached here, on Sunday. I am putting a note at the top of the article so readers can participate in the debate. Squiquifox 21:39, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)

People don't really care about the 32KB limit anymore. WhisperToMe 22:43, 8 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Seconded. Don't split the article. There are other Saddam-related articles, but the bio piece must be comprehensive over time. 172 01:18, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Internet Explorer for Mac (including the most recent version) has a hard limit of 32K on text fields. So if someone edits the article and saves it using IE for Mac, half of the article will disappear. Therefore to guarantee editorial freedom for Mac users we must split the article. I am not trying to get consensus on whether to split the article, but on how to do so. If you don't like the 32KB warning try and get the policy changed. How do we split this article? --Squiquifox 21:10, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * There is no need to split this article, just as there is no need to split the numerous other articles that go above 32K. Mac users can simply copy the text and paste the first half of the article in (say) Saddam Hussein/temp sandbox 1 and the second half of the sandbox in (say) Saddam Hussein/temp sandbox 2 and ask another user to consolidate the changes and post his/her new version. 172 22:41, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)

While I don't think we need to strictly adhere to the 32 KB limit, especially in a case like this, we should treat it as a general guideline that shouldn't be greatly exceeded. Not for technical reasons so much as simply to ensure that individual articles deal with specific subjects and are accessible to the reader. What we have here should be a reasonably concise biography of Saddam; greater detail should be available in subarticles, or in articles on the various political and military events in question. Just a matter of organization. So it would be fine with me to see some effort made towards reducing the size of the article, as long as the content is preserved in other articles. Everyking 00:42, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I have brought the issue of whether articles should be split/slimmed or not to Village pump (policy).Squiquifox 02:51, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

something else
Sorry, I don't understand why its so important to present this dictator in a favourable light. (is someone afraid of him? he is not roaming around anymore, remember) It is essential that at least a crumb of his brutality is described in the summary:

Saddam initiated Iraq's nuclear enrichment project in the 1980's, with French and Italian assistance. The first Iraqi nuclear reactor, Osiraq (named after the Egyptian God of the dead) was destroyed by an Israeli air strike in 1981. There were several public threats by Saddam to use weapons of mass destruction, and actual useage, against Iraqi Kurdish communities.

Israeli strike
According to wikipedia guidlines, contrasting viewpoints must be equally represented. You know most people only read the summary, so it has to be finely balanced on its own. If you spend half a paragraph, flashing in neon letters near the title, extolling the intoxicating effect and inspiration Saddam's brutality gave to the Palestinians (which hardly are worth mentioning since the man was not a palestinian, we are not discussing them here but Saddam and Iraq) then you have to also mention the undisputed negative effect of his actions and policies on other nations of the world, and not 5 kilometers below this where (you hope?) no one will read.

Either you discuss the effect on New York of all butterflies who flap their wings in Sumatra, or you don't. You can't just discuss the ones you adore and call it a neutral discussion.

There is a vile insinuation that the Allied suspicion of saddam is baseless- because it is mentioned but not supported with evidence in the same section. that is also why the Israeli strike on the Iraqi nuclear reactor has to be mentioned there, because Allied suspicion was certainly not baseless. Saddam was (at some point during his rule) actively pursuing and using WMD's and there is no doubt of that. The only doubt is on whether the American response was justified but that discussion has no place here. You have to learn to accept neutrality even when its implications aren't to your liking. And as to the other claims that this is already mentioned under "The Gulf war" well no, the israeli strike nor the existence of an Iraqi nuclear reactor are nought to be found anywhere there, in accordance with the wikipedia "thou shalt try to praise any enemies of zionism regardless of irrelevancy or the contents of their closet" act... not to mention that the French and Italians built it, that really is too much for the standard issue Liberal Horse (or rather, donkey?..) blinds to bear...

 * I moved your reference to the Israeli strike to where you should've placed it in the first place (not in the intro)... I suggest that you take a course in writing. First, the introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give the reader an idea of the article's focus. In the intro, it is sufficient to lay out the focus on Saddam's conflict with Israel and later with the West in general terms, and later in the article detail Saddam's particular actions... Please stop reinserting that paragraph in the intro; continuing to do so will be considered vandalism and may result in a block on your account. Second, do not screw up the order of the footnotes. (You kept inserting a fourteenth footnote following the fourth footnote.) If you add a footnote, add one to the number of every footnote following the new insertion. This may be tedious, as Wikipedia lacks a program for generating them automatically at this time, but you are responsible for this if you insist on adding one. 172 16:10, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with 172 on the matter of the intro. A lead section should be kept reasonably concise. It's not a question of any POV, just organization. Everyking 16:42, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

If it is sufficient to lay out Saddams profile in general terms, the effect on Palestinians deserve no mention there, that is a secondary detail, and not a major element of Iraqi history or Saddam's history. If it desreves mention there, then other secondary details deserve mention too. "it is sufficient to lay out the focus on Saddam's conflict with Israel " that pargraph which I have added does exactly that, without it is not clear at all why the west is suspicious of Saddam, only that he raised the morale of the Palestinians. That is certainly not one of his significant career achievments, by any POV, because his actions in Iraq come first. It is not logical to mention a leaders' secondary influece in external countries as an introduction, overshadowing his achievements in his own country. But if you insist on mentioning such things, at least do it even handedly.
 * it is not clear at all why the west is suspicious of Saddam. Nonsense. The intro mentions the Gulf War and the human rights situation, and makes no value judgments about his relationship to the Palestinians. 172 19:56, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

"While he remained a popular hero among many disaffected Arabs for standing up to the West and for his unflinching support for the Palestinians, 4 the United States continued to view Saddam with deep suspicion following Iraqi defeat in the 1991 Persian Gulf War."

Why did we remove this? It appears to be true, and even uncontroversial. DJ Clayworth 16:03, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks for pointing this out. I suspect that it was removed because an anon is getting a kick out replacing non-controversial matter-of-fact statements like the above with overtly emotive, deliberately provocative ones. I reverted the changes. Please keep an eye on this article in case the anon POV warrior returns. 172 19:29, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

>> News for both of you guys... there ARE controversial topics!! it does not mean they do not exist and should not be discussed! When Bush is controversial, then its ok to hang him on a skewer, right? but Saddam the modern Sister Theresa should be handled with rosewater gloves since his papa beat him, poor lollypop, and then its completely understandable why he has these orientalist urges to drop a few Kurd villages for breakfast, right? only natural. See it from his position. and I removed the 'matter of fact statements' about the palestinians because you insisted on removing my matter of fact statement about Saddam and Arafat, on the pretense that Arafat is irrelevant to Iraq. Well why oh why, Araft is irrelevant but the palestinian joy at foreign Dictators is relevant? because it presents saddam in a more favourable light in time for his trial? are you getting percentages here?

You guys are driving civilization downhill.

 * Wikipedia's purpose is to be NPOV. We are trying to show the facts to people. We aren't tryin' to skewer anyone. WhisperToMe 01:04, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

WhisperToMe 01:02, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saddam Hussein/Archive 6


text:
Associated Presbyterian Churches

The Associated Presbyterian Churches (APC) is a Presbyterian church, with congregations in Scotland, and formerly in Canada and New Zealand. It was formed in 1989 as a result of division in the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland.

History
The division occurred because of a continuing difference over liberty of conscience (as defined in the Westminster Confession of Faith), which came to a head over the attendance of Lord Mackay of Clashfern at a Requiem Mass which formed part of the funeral of a colleague, former Lord Justice Clerk Lord Wheatley. As Mackay was Lord Advocate for Scotland, it was expected that he attend the funeral of a deceased member of the judiciary; Wheatley was also a friend of Mackay. However, Mackay was also an elder in the Free Presbyterian Church, and its leadership found his attendance intolerable, as it regards the Catholic Church as spurious and the Mass as idolatrous. As a result, Mackay was suspended from office as an elder. Some in the church disagreed with this punishment and a split ensued, not only over the Mackay affair but also the ongoing issue of freedom of conscience. Those who formed the APC believed that liberty of conscience was not being given sufficient place in the Free Presbyterian Church, and that the disciplinary action taken by the Free Presbyterian authorities against Lord Mackay was inappropriate.

They also asserted that the Free Presbyterian Church failed to put into practice the Westminster Confession of Faith's teaching on Communion of the Saints. "The APC seeks to re-assert this communion as expressed in the Westminster Confession of Faith itself." The APC made various unsuccessful attempts at encouraging unity among similar churches in Scotland (Free Church of Scotland, International Presbyterian Church, Free Church (Continuing), Reformed Presbyterian Church). Since 1989, the majority of its congregations have merged with Free Church of Scotland congregations.

Doctrine
The Associated Churches website states: "We believe that it is correct to allow Christians to make their own decisions on matters that are not fundamental to the faith."

The church's beliefs "are stated in a confession that is catholic, Reformed, and biblical, and which states the historic convictions of the Church of Scotland" the Westminster Confession of Faith.

International organisations
Associate Presbyterian Church is a member of the World Reformed Fellowship.

title: Associated Presbyterian Churches


text: Category:Microcomputer stubs

title: Category:Microcomputer stubs


text:
Burgundian Netherlands

In the history of the Low Countries, the Burgundian Netherlands (Burgundiae Belgicae, Pays-Bas bourguignons, Bourgondische Nederlanden, Burgundesch Nidderlanden, Bas Payis borguignons) or the Burgundian Age is the period between 1384 and 1482, during which a growing part of the Low Countries was ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy. Within their Burgundian State, which itself belonged partly to the Holy Roman Empire and partly to the Kingdom of France, the dukes united these lowlands into a political union that went beyond a personal union as it gained central institutions for the first time (such as the States General).

The period began with Duke Philip the Bold taking office as count of Flanders and Artois in 1384 and lasted until the death of Duchess Mary of Burgundy in 1482 after which the Burgundian State was dissolved, and the Low Countries came under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy by inheritance.

In the 15th century, it was customary to refer to the Low Countries where the Duke of Burgundy ruled and usually resided as les pays de par-deçà meaning "the lands over here" as opposed to Burgundy proper (in Central France) which was designated les pays de par-delà meaning "the lands over there" (see also Terminology of the Low Countries).

History
A fair share (but not most) of these territories were inherited by the Burgundian dukes, a younger branch of the French royal House of Valois, upon the death of Count Louis II of Flanders in 1384. His heiress, Margaret III of Flanders in 1369 had married Philip the Bold, youngest son of King John II of France and the first of the Valois dukes of Burgundy at Dijon, who thus inherited the County of Flanders. The Flemish comital House of Dampierre had been French vassals, who held territory around the affluent cities of Bruges and Ghent, but also adjacent lands in former Lower Lorraine east of the Scheldt river ("Imperial Flanders") including the exclave of Mechelen, which were a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, and furthermore the neighbouring French County of Artois. Together they initiated an era of Burgundian governance in the Low Countries.

The Dampierre legacy further comprised the French counties of Rethel in northern Champagne and Nevers west of Burgundy proper, both held by Philip's younger son Philip II from 1407, as well as the County of Burgundy (Franche-Comté) east of it, an Imperial fief which had been part of the former Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles.

In the following decades, the Burgundian dukes expanded their territories in the Low Countries by the acquisition of several Imperial States: Duke Philip the Good purchased the County of Namur in 1421, inherited the Duchies of Brabant and Limburg in 1430, and seized the Counties of Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland in 1432, and the Duchy of Luxembourg in 1441. His son, the last Burgundian duke Charles the Bold, in 1473 annexed the Duchy of Guelders, which had been pawned by late Arnold of Egmond.

The Valois era would last until 1477, when Duke Charles the Bold died at the Battle of Nancy leaving no male heir. The territorial Duchy of Burgundy reverted to the French crown according to Salic law, and King Louis XI of France also seized the French portion of the Burgundian possessions in the Low Countries. The Imperial fiefs passed to the Austrian House of Habsburg through Charles' daughter Mary of Burgundy and her husband Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg, son of Emperor Frederick III. Maximilian however regarded the Burgundian Netherlands including Flanders and Artois as the undivided domains of his wife and himself and marched against the French. The conflict culminated at the Battle of Guinegate in 1479. Though Maximilian was victorious, he was only able to gain the County of Flanders according to the 1482 Treaty of Arras after his wife Mary had suddenly died, while France retained Artois.

In her testament, Mary of Burgundy had bequested the Burgundian heritage to her and Maximilian's son, Philip the Handsome. His father, dissatisfied with the terms of the Arras agreement, continued to contest the seized French territories. In 1493, King Charles VIII of France according to the Treaty of Senlis finally renounced Artois, which together with Flanders was incorporated into the Imperial Seventeen Provinces under the rule of Philip.

Demographics
The population of the main provinces of the Low Countries in 1477 (Prince-Bishoprics in italic).

Rulers
The Burgundian dukes who ruled the Burgundian territories were:

House of Valois, territorial Dukes of Burgundy
 * Philip the Bold (1384–1404), son of King John II of France, by his wife Margaret III of Flanders
 * John the Fearless (1404–1419), son
 * Philip the Good (1419–1467), son
 * Charles the Bold (1467–1477), son

House of Valois, titular Duchess of Burgundy
 * Mary of Burgundy (1477–1482), Charles' daughter, married Maximilian I of Habsburg in 1477

House of Habsburg, titular Dukes of Burgundy (see Habsburg Netherlands)
 * Philip the Handsome (1482–1506), Mary's son; Maximilian I, his father, as regent (1482–1493), Margaret of York, his step-grandmother, governess (1489-1493)
 * Charles V (1506–1555), Philip's son; Margaret of Austria, regent (1507–1515) and (1519–1530)

Political
The sheer burden of variety of bishoprics and independent cities, the intensely local partisanship, the various taxation systems, weights and measures, internal customs barriers, fiercely defended local rights were all hindrances to a "good Valois". Attempts at enlarging personal control by the dukes resulted in revolts among the independent towns (sometimes supported by independent local nobles) and bloody military suppression in response. An increasingly modernized central government, with a bureaucracy of clerks, allowed the dukes to become celebrated art patrons and establish a glamorous court life that gave rise to conventions of behavior that lasted for centuries. Philip the Good (1419–1467) extended his personal control to the southeast; bringing Brussels, Namur, and Liège under his control. He channeled the traditional independence of the cities through such mechanisms as the first Estates-General, and consolidating of the region's economy.

The first Estates General of the Burgundian territories met in the City Hall of Bruges on 9 January 1464. It included delegates from the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Flanders, Lille, Douai and Orchies, the County of Artois, the County of Hainaut, the County of Holland, the County of Zeeland, the County of Namur, the Lordship of Mechelen, and the Boulonnais. Up to 1464, the Duke only maintained ties with each of the provincial States separately. In principle, the provincial Estates were composed of representatives of the three traditional estates: clergy, nobility and the Third Estate, but the exact composition and influence of each estate (within the provincial Estates) could differ. Convening an Estates General in which all provincial Estates were represented was part of Philip the Good's policy of centralisation.

Ducal patronage
From 1441, Philip based his ducal court in Brussels, but Bruges was the world center of commerce, though by the 1480s the inevitable silting of its harbor was bringing its economic hegemony to a close. Philip was a great patron of illuminated manuscripts and court painting reached new highs: Robert Campin, the famous Van Eyck brothers, and Rogier van der Weyden.

Social and economic
In 1491 and 1492, the peasants revolted in some areas. They were suppressed by Maximilian's forces under the command of Duke Albert of Saxony at a battle at Heemskerk.

"Burgundian character"
In the present-day Netherlands, inhabitants of the culturally Catholic area of Meierij van 's-Hertogenbosch are considered by the other Dutch to have a Burgundian character, meaning that they are supposed to be companionable people who like to party exuberantly.

title: Burgundian Netherlands


text:
Robert Bigelow

Robert Thomas Bigelow (born May 12, 1944) is an American businessman. He owns Budget Suites of America and is the founder of Bigelow Aerospace.

Bigelow has provided financial support for investigations of UFOs and parapsychological topics, including the continuation of consciousness after death.

Early life
Bigelow grew up in Las Vegas, Nevada, attended Highland Elementary School, and was first exposed to science through a number of the nuclear weapons tests conducted Nevada National Security Site, about 70 mi northwest of the city.

At age 12, Bigelow decided that his future lay in space travel. Despite his limitations in mathematics, he resolved to choose a career that would make him rich enough that, one day, he could hire the scientific expertise required to launch his own space program.

He enrolled in the University of Nevada, Reno, in 1962 to study banking and real estate, and he graduated from Arizona State University in 1967.

Real estate
From the late 1960s through the 1990s, Bigelow developed commercial real estate hotels, motels and apartments.

In his real estate career, Bigelow built approximately 15,000 units and purchased another 8,000. For most of his career, "he held on to almost everything he bought, but ... eventually unload much of his housing stock in the boom years immediately before the 2008 crash". In 2013, Bigelow reflected on this: "People just really wanted to throw money away, so that was lucky."

Budget Suites of America
Bigelow owns Budget Suites of America, an extended-stay apartment chain founded in 1987. It caters to budget travelers needing to stay for an extended period. Its rooms are primarily suites featuring a full kitchen. Budget Suites owns three hotels in Phoenix, Arizona; five in Las Vegas, Nevada; ten in Dallas, Texas; and one in San Antonio, Texas.

Aerospace
In 1999, Bigelow founded Bigelow Aerospace.

Bigelow had indicated he planned to spend up to US$500 million to develop the first commercial space station with a goal of the station costing 33% of the US$1.5 billion that NASA expended on a single Space Shuttle mission. Bigelow Aerospace has launched two experimental space modules, Genesis I in 2006 and Genesis II in 2007, and had planned for full-scale space habitats to be used as orbital hotels, research labs and factories.

In 2013, Bigelow indicated that the reason he went into the commercial real estate business was to obtain the requisite resources to be able to fund a team developing space destinations. In October 2017, Bigelow announced that he planned to put an inflatable "space hotel" into orbit by 2022. The plan was part of a partnership with United Launch Alliance, and the project was estimated to cost US$2.3 billion in total. The cost of a 3-day stay in this spatial hotel was estimated at 5 million dollars.

In April 2016, Bigelow's BEAM module was launched to the International Space Station on the eighth SpaceX cargo resupply mission.

In March 2020, Bigelow Aerospace laid off all 88 members of staff and halted operations after over 20 years of business, in a move that was partially caused by the coronavirus pandemic.

In March 2021, he sued NASA for US$1.05 million, alleging he was not paid according to contract for product testing and development.

Anomalies research
In 1995, Bigelow founded the National Institute for Discovery Science to fund the research and study of various fringe sciences and paranormal topics, most notably ufology. The organization researched cattle mutilation and black triangle reports, ultimately attributing the latter to secretive advanced aircraft operated by the military. The institute was disbanded in 2004.

In 1996, Bigelow purchased Skinwalker Ranch, a 512 acre cattle ranch located in Utah that is the site of purported paranormal phenomena, such as inter-dimensional shape-shifters, for $200,000. In 2016, Bigelow sold the ranch to Brandon Fugal for $4 million.

In December 2017, Bigelow was reported by the New York Times to have urged Senator Harry Reid to initiate what became the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program, a government study which operated from 2007 to 2012 tasked with the study of UFOs. According to the New York Times, Bigelow said he was “absolutely convinced” that extraterrestrial life exists and that extraterrestrials have visited Earth.

Consciousness studies
In June 2020, Bigelow founded the Bigelow Institute for Consciousness Studies (BICS) to support investigations into life after death. In January 2021, the institute put up an award of US$1 million asking for essays arguing for existence of a life after death. The institute awarded the first-place $500,000 prize to Jeffrey Mishlove, the second-place prize to Pim van Lommel, and the third-place prize to Leo Ruickbie.

Personal life
On February 4, 1965, he married Diane Mona Grammy (April 9, 1947 – February 19, 2020) of Camden, New Jersey.

They had two children together, Robert Michael "Bobby" Bigelow, and Rod Lee Bigelow. In 1992, Rod Lee Bigelow died by suicide, aged 24. In 2011, Robert Bigelow's grandson, Rod Lee Bigelow II, died by suicide, having suffered from drug addiction.

Diane Bigelow died on February 19, 2020, of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

Political contributions
Bigelow has made political donations to conservative Republican candidates. In July 2022, he donated $10 million to Florida Republican Governor Ron DeSantis, which was the single biggest donation of his re-election bid. Bigelow has contributed over $25 million to groups and causes supporting Joe Lombardo's candidacy for governor of Nevada. Campaign finance experts believe this may be the most a single donor has spent on a statewide race in modern history. In January 2024 he stated in an interview that he had donated to Donald Trump, "I gave him $1 million towards his legal fees a few weeks ago. I made a promise to give him $20 million more, that will be to the super PAC….”

title: Robert Bigelow


text:
Graded School

Associação Escola Graduada de São Paulo, most commonly referred to as Graded School or Graded, is an American school in São Paulo, Brazil. The school opened on October 17, 1920, in a small schoolhouse on Avenida São João, and in 1961 the current campus was built on Avenida Giovanni Gronchi, in a terrain now facing Paraisópolis, located in Morumbi.

Overview
The school offers education from pre-primary to high school, all offering American-style teaching. The Lower School consists of the Montessori P pre-primary program (three years old through Kindergarten). The high school also offers an International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma and a Brazilian diploma, in addition to the mandatory SACS-accredited American diploma. There are two Advanced Placement courses available: AP Calculus AB and BC. The majority of classes are taught in English, but the school does offer classes in Portuguese, French, and Spanish. Graded's high school offers two to three levels of maths sets per year. The school has 90 classrooms, eight computer labs, an auditorium, an infirmary, two soccer fields, two covered play areas, two gyms, and four science labs. The libraries contain over 50,000 volumes. All graduates receive an American high school diploma.

In 2006, the school finished the construction of an arts center. It is a large structure with two floors, but standing as high as a six-floor building. The first floor houses music and theater activities, with an orchestra room, a band room, six practice rooms (two of which contain pianos, and one an electric drum set), a dance studio, a media center for editing film and music, and a black box theater. The second floor is dedicated to the visual arts, and contains several rooms for ceramics, painting, and drawing. The second floor also has a photography room, complete with its own developing facilities.

In 2010, the Graded Campus Project was developed. In February 2014, Phase I of the project was completed, with a full renovation of the Lower School Playgrounds and Gymnasiums. In March 2017, Phase II of the Graded Campus Project was inaugurated. It included a new Main Entrance, Parking Garage, Student Center, Large Field, Small Field, Track, Beach Volleyball Court, Wellness Gymnasium, and Maintenance Building.

Traditionally more than 95% of the school's graduating class enrolls in a 4-year degree education within one year of graduation.

Accreditation
Accredited by the Brazilian Ministry of Education. Graded is an IB World School, authorized by the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO). The school is a member of the American International Schools in the Americas (AMISA), the US National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS), the Council of International Schools (CIS), and the American Montessori Society. Graded is also a registered examination center for the International Baccalaureate (IB), all College Board exams (the SAT, SSAT, PSAT), and the ACT.

title: Graded School