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Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360

The first phase of the Hundred Years' War between England and France lasted from 1337 to 1360. It is sometimes referred to as the Edwardian War because it was initiated by King Edward III of England, who claimed the French throne in defiance of King Philip VI of France. The dynastic conflict was caused by disputes over the French feudal sovereignty over Aquitaine and the English claims over the French royal title. The Kingdom of England and its allies dominated this phase of the war, and Edward's sovereignty over Aquitaine was confirmed in the Treaty of Brétigny (1360), although he renounced his claim to the French throne.

Edward had been granted the duchy of Aquitaine in 1325, and as Duke of Aquitaine he was a vassal to Philip VI of France. Due to political trouble in England during his early reign as a minor, Edward initially accepted Philip as King of France, but the relationship between the two kings soured in the 1330s when Philip allied with Edward's enemy, King David II of Scotland. Edward in turn provided refuge to Robert III of Artois, a French fugitive. When Edward refused to obey Philip's demands for the expulsion of Robert from England, Philip confiscated the Duchy of Aquitaine. This precipitated war and, in 1340, Edward declared himself king of France. Edward III and his son Edward the Black Prince, led their armies on a largely successful campaign across France with notable victories at Auberoche (1345), Crécy (1346), Calais (1347), and La Roche-Derrien (1347). Hostilities were paused until the mid-1350s for the deprivations of the Black Death. Then war continued, and the English were victorious at the Battle of Poitiers (1356) where the French king, John II, was captured and held for ransom. The Truce of Bordeaux was signed in 1357 and was followed by two treaties in London in 1358 and 1359.

After the treaties of London failed, Edward launched the Rheims campaign, which, though largely unsuccessful, led to the Treaty of Brétigny, which settled certain lands in France on Edward for renouncing his claim to the French throne. This was in part caused by Black Monday (1360), the freak storm that devastated the English army and forced Edward III into peace talks. This peace lasted nine years; but then began a second phase of hostilities known as the Caroline War.

Background
When Charles IV of France died in 1328, the nearest male in line to the throne was Edward III of England. Edward had inherited his right through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead king; but the question arose of whether she should be able to transmit a right that she, as a woman, did not possess as only men could be monarch. An assembly of the French aristocracy decided that the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and that he should be crowned Philip VI. The establishment of a legal succession to the French crown was central to the war and Edward III and succeeding generations of English monarchs laid claim to it.

After some initial reluctance, the seventeen-year-old Edward III (in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine) paid homage to Philip VI in 1329. Gascony, which had been incorporated into Aquitaine, was located in south west France just north of the Pyrenees. The Gascons had their own language and customs. A large proportion of the red wine (known as claret) that they produced, was shipped in a profitable trade with the English. The trade provided the English king with a lot of revenue. The Gascons preferred their relationship with a distant English king who left them alone, to a French king who might interfere in their affairs.

Despite Edward's homage to Philip the French continued to interfere in Gascony. There had been a series of skirmishes at some of the walled towns along the Gascon border. Agenais was an area of Gascony in French hands, and the officials there put pressure on the English administration. A chain of religious houses, although in Edward's jurisdiction, had cases held by French officials. Philip also contracted with various lords within Gascony to provide troops in the event of war with England.

Gascony was not the only issue; in the 1330s, France's support for Scotland caused problems for the English. Loyalties in the low countries were split. In Flanders, the towns were dependent on supplies of English wool, whereas the aristocracy supported the French king. Another element was that of naval power. Philip had intended to go on a crusade and had assembled a fleet off Marseille. These plans were abandoned in 1336 and the fleet moved to the English Channel off Normandy in an obvious act of provocation against the English. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. In November 1336, Philip issued an ultimatum to the seneschal of Gascony threatening that if Robert of Artois was not extradited to France then great peril and dissension would follow. When Philip confiscated the English king's lands in Gascony and the county of Ponthieu the following year, he laid emphasis on the case of Robert of Artois as one of the contributing causes.

Low Countries (1337–1341)
The confiscation of Gascony by Philip VI precipitated the war in 1337. In response, Edward's strategy was for the English in Gascony to hold their position while his army would invade France from the north. The English forces would be supplemented by a grand alliance of continental supporters whom he promised payment of over £200,000, valued at £65,000,000 in 2018. To pay for the war Edward had to raise large amounts of money for his own forces and also his allies on the continent. It was unlikely that the English parliament could raise the requisite sums quickly, so, in the summer of 1337, a plan was developed to make virtually all of the nation's wool stock available to help finance the war. 30,000 sacks would be sold by the English merchants, and the sum (estimated at £200,000) would be lent to Edward. To pay the fees promised to his allies, Edward was also forced to borrow heavily from the great banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi. Late in 1338, when he had exhausted the funds from the banking houses, William de la Pole, a wealthy merchant, came to the king's rescue by advancing him £110,000. Much of the money that William de la Pole lent the king was raised from other English merchants. Edward also borrowed money from merchants in the Low Countries, who charged extortionate rates of interest and demanded more solid guarantees of repayment. In 1340 the Earls of Derby and Northampton were held as surety for the repayment of loans. In the summer of 1339, Edward had asked the Commons for a grant of £300,000. In early 1340 they offered the grant in return for concessions from the king. Edward, delayed by his money-raising efforts, was temporarily unable to proceed with his invasion plans.

Meanwhile, the delay in invasion meant that the French government could use its resources elsewhere. In December 1338, Gascony was invaded by the French, who took Saint-Macaire and Blaye. The Englishman charged with the defense of Gascony was the seneschal of Gascony, one Oliver Ingham, who had been in and out of favour with Edward III and his father Edward II. He had proved himself to be an able soldier being a "remarkable improviser". As the English strategy was to invade France from the north Ingham received neither troops nor funds from England, but had to rely entirely on local resources. These were very scarce, so ultimately his strategy was for the English to wall themselves up in their castles and hold on as best they could. He was able to persuade the lord of Albret to switch sides from the French in 1339 and with his help conduct a raid into French territory.

The English parliament, in February 1339, had called up ships from the various ports around the English coast to provide for two naval fleets. This had not happened so the French who had hired galleys and crews from Genoa were able to strike almost at will upon the English coast. Portsmouth was raided, Southampton sacked, and Guernsey captured. The French campaign at sea continued in July 1339 when the French fleet set sail for the south coast of England where they intended a great raid on the Cinque Ports. Their first objective was Sandwich, in Kent. However, the Kent levies were waiting for them in force along the coast so the fleet continued onto Rye where they landed some men and proceeded to raid the area. However, the English had finally put together two fleets and both of them under Robert Morley arrived to confront the French. The French, with their Italian mercenaries believing that the English fleet was larger than it actually was, re-embarked in their ships and headed for the French coast. They escaped into the harbors without there being a naval engagement. In August the French naval campaign came to an abrupt end when, after quarrelling over pay the Genoese crews mutinied and taking over their galleys they returned to Italy.

Apart from a few notable exceptions, such as unwalled Hastings, which was burnt to the ground, the English coastal defenses had been fairly successful against the French raiding. However, with many English going to France at the beginning of the war and others being used to defend the coast against the French, the available troops in the north and Scotland was diminished. With the English presence reduced, the Scots were able to recapture many strong points, such as Perth in 1339 and Edinburgh in 1341.

Threatened with the immediate collapse of his plans, Edward desperately needed some positive military results. In September, Edward assembled an army consisting of about 12,000 men in the Low Countries. His army included elements from his various allies. Cambrai was an ally of the king of France, so, on 20 September, Edward's army marched into the bishopric. A two-week siege of Cambrai ensued. The whole area was laid waste but Cambrai was not taken, then on the evening of 9 October, Edward's army gave up and advanced into France proper. While Edward had been besieging Cambrai the French king had time to call up his army. On Edward's invasion, the French army advanced to Péronne, close to the border. While Edward's army laid waste to a twenty-mile-wide strip of French countryside, plundering and burning hundreds of villages, Philip's army shadowed Edward's army. On 14 October, Edward advanced toward the French army and battle appeared imminent. Edward moved away again plundering more territory. The French continued to shadow the English. Ultimately battle lines were drawn in the province of Picardy between La Capelle and La Flamengrie, both now in the Vervins arrondissement just inside northern France. With both sides facing each other a battle was expected to take place on 23 October, but nothing happened. At nightfall Edward marched his troops out of France, the French did not pursue Edward, this resulted in the campaign coming to an abrupt end. The Flemish ruler had remained loyal to the French king, consequently, Edward placed an embargo on all English goods to Flanders. In 1337, this precipitated a revolt in Flanders, because of the lack of English wool and food supplies. The leader of the revolt Jacob van Artevelde arranged for Flemish neutrality, in return for the lifting of the English embargo. By December, the Flemings were ready to formally join the anti-French coalition. The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward's purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the "true" king of France and not rebels against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try and raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.

English defenses in Gascony had been severely strained for some time, relief came when two of the nobles who supported the French king pursued a family feud against each other rather than fighting the English. The two nobles involved were the Count of Armagnac and the Count of Foix. Also, further assistance was provided by the Albret family, with Bernard-Aiz, Lord of Albret declaring for Edward in 1339. The Albrets held one of the most important lordships in English Gascony and had been courted by both the English and French crowns. Albret financed Edward's campaign in Gascony and also with his family connections was able to find much-needed additional manpower for Edward's army.

In 1340, the French put together an invasion fleet containing French, Castillian and Genoese ships. The 400 or so ships were squeezed into the Zwyn estuary. The English had no purpose-built warships, so had to make do with deep-draught, round-hulled merchant ships, known as cogs, that were converted for naval duties. Edward assembled a combined fleet at Orwell, in Kent and set up his headquarters on the cog Thomas. Although he knew that the French fleet was a far superior force to his own he sailed with his fleet on 22 June to confront the French fleet a day later. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluys, possibly trying to prevent Edward from landing his army. The English fleet apparently tricked the French into believing they were withdrawing. However, when the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. Edward sent his ships against the French fleet in units of three, two ships crammed with archers and one full of men-at-arms. Because the ships of the French fleet were so close together it limited their maneuverability. The English ships with the archers would come alongside a French ship and rain arrows down on its decks, the men-at-arms would then just mop up. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.

In spring of 1340, Philip VI had planned to smash the anti-French coalition by attacking Edward III's allies. French forces invaded Hainaut in May. But when news reached him about the disaster at Sluys, he turned his attention to counter the new threat. Edward III split his army in two. The first, led by Robert of Artois invaded the province of Artois. But in a battle with the garrison of Saint-Omer 26 June, most of this army was destroyed, and Robert was forced to retreat. On the same day Edward III appeared before the walls of Tournai. (Although these days it is in Belgium, then it was one of France's largest cities.) The siege dragged out, and in September, Philip VI arrived with the main French army. Philip VI again refused to meet the English in battle. Both sides running out of money led to a temporary truce (Truce of Espléchin, 25 September 1340).

The Truce of Espléchin marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War and resulted in a cessation of hostilities on all fronts for nine months. The cost both politically and financially had been immense. Grand alliances could no longer be afforded and some allies could no longer be relied on. The German princes all backed out of the anti-French alliance, only the burghers of Flanders remained. In England; opinion was turning against Edward, his gains on the continent had been at a large cost and most of Scotland had been lost. Essentially bankrupt, Edward was forced to cut his losses. Those whose support he could not afford to lose were repaid, others were not. The contemporary Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani suggested that the banks of Bardi and Peruzzi failed because Edward III defaulted on the loans. Villani was not an independent source, his brother was a member of the Peruzzi company. Villani said that Edward owed the Bardi 900,000 gold florins (£135,000) and the Peruzzi 600,000 (£90,000). But the Peruzzis' records show that they never had that much capital to lend Edward III. In reality the English crown had forced the companies to accept a smaller amount of debt and repaid some with cash and others with royal grants of wool, a principal export of the English economy at the time.

Further, at the same time Florence was going through a period of internal disputes and the third largest financial company, the Acciaiuoli, also went bankrupt, and they did not lend any money to Edward. What loans Edward III did default on are likely only to have contributed to the financial problems in Florence, not caused them.

Brittany (1341–1345)
On 30 April 1341, John III, Duke of Brittany died without heirs precipitating the Breton war of succession. Although John III died childless, he did leave two candidates for the dukedom; his younger half-brother John, Count of Montfort and his niece Jeanne of Penthièvre, daughter of his brother Guy. Jeanne of Penthièvre's was more closely related to John III than John of Montfort however, the new rules on female inheritance, that had excluded Edward III to the throne of France, seemed to imply that women could not succeed to powerful titles. Jeanne of Penthièvre's husband was the King's nephew, Charles of Blois. According to feudal law, it was the king of France's responsibility to decide who should inherit. Unwilling to rely on the King's impartiality, John of Montfort assumed the title, seized Nantes, the Breton capital, and summoned the knight-service of Brittany to recognize him as Duke of Montfort. The French-speaking magnates and bishops refused to recognize John of Montfort although the minor clergy, the knights and the Breton peasantry did, the result was a civil war.

After capturing Nantes, John of Montfort went on to seize the ducal treasury at Limoges and, by the middle of August, he was in possession of most of the duchy, including the three principal cities, Nantes, Rennes and Vannes. Philip of France favoured Charles of Blois as the official candidate. So fearing that the French army would depose him, John of Montfort fled to England to seek the support of Edward III.

Despite the Truce of Espléchin still being in place, Edward III agreed to provide help. John of Montfort returned to Brittany and waited for confirmation of this assistance from the English Parliament. Meanwhile, Philip VI sent a large army to Brittany in support of Charles of Blois and by November they had trapped John of Montfort in Nantes. With the possibility of a long siege, the citizens of Nantes decided to surrender John of Montfort to the French army. He was then imprisoned in Paris.

It now fell upon John's wife, Joanna of Flanders, to lead the Montfortist cause. She set up headquarters at Hennebont in southern Brittany, and defended it against Charles de Blois' army throughout the winter of 1341–42. Her forces managed to keep the road open between the port of Brest and Hennebont, which enabled a small English force to land at Brest and combine with her forces to drive the French army away and recapture territory in the west of Brittany.

In August 1342, another English force under the command of the Earl of Northampton, arrived and landed at the port of Brest. The force advanced across Brittany and captured Vannes. The English forces with contingents commanded by Richard de Artois defeated a French army under Charles of Blois near Morlaix on 30 September 1342. Robert de Artois sailed to England where he died of wounds received at the taking of Vannes. Worse still for Edward III, Vannes was retaken by a French force under the command of Olivier of Clisson.

In late October 1342, Edward III arrived with his main army at Brest, and retook Vannes. He then moved east to besiege Rennes. A French army marched to engage him, but a major battle was averted when two cardinals arrived from Avignon in January 1343 and enforced a general truce, the Truce of Malestroit. Even with the truce in place, the war continued in Brittany until May 1345 when Edward eventually succeeded in taking control.

Truce of Malestroit (1343–1345)
The official reason for such a long truce was to allow time for a peace conference and the negotiation of a lasting peace, but both countries also suffered from war exhaustion. In England, the tax burden had been heavy and in addition the wool trade had been heavily manipulated. Edward III spent the next years slowly paying off his immense debt.

In France, Philip VI had financial difficulties of his own. France had no central institution with the authority to grant taxes for the whole country. Instead, the Crown had to negotiate with the various provincial assemblies. In accordance with the ancient feudal customs, most of them refused to pay taxes while there was a truce. Instead, Philip VI had to resort to manipulation of the coinage and he introduced two vastly unpopular taxes, first the 'fouage', or hearth tax, and then the 'gabelle', a tax on salt.

In 1343, the Seneschal of Gascony Oliver Ingham was recalled to England and replaced with Nicholas de la Beche. Beche upheld the Truce of Malestroit in the duchy as best he could. No major campaigns were fought, between February 1343 and June 1345 but he failed to restore the civil peace and he went about himself with an escort of forty men at arms, his predecessor only had half that number.

When there was a treaty or truce in place it left many a soldier unemployed, so rather than go back to a life of poverty they would band together in free companies or routiers. The routier companies consisted of men who principally came from Gascony but also from Brittany and other parts of France, Spain, Germany, and England. They would use their military training to live off the countryside robbing, looting, killing or torturing as they went to get supplies. With the Malestroit truce in force, bands of routiers became an increasing problem. They were well-organised and would sometimes act as mercenaries for one or both sides. One tactic would be to seize a town or castle of local strategic importance. From this base, they would plunder the surrounding areas until nothing of value remained, and then move on to places more ripe. Often they would hold towns to ransom who would pay them to go away. The routier problem was not solved until a system of taxation in the 15th century allowed for a regular army that employed the best of the routiers.

English victories (1345–1351)
On 5 July 1346, Edward set sail from Portsmouth with about 750 ships and 7,000–10,000 men, beginning a major invasion across the Channel. With him was his nearly 16-year-old son, Edward, the Black Prince (Edward of Woodstock), the recently created Prince of Wales. On 12 July, Edward landed at Hague in the Cotentin peninsula of Normandy. Jean Froissart wrote in his Chronicles that: When the king of England arrived in the Hogue Saint-Vaast, the king issued out of his ship, and the first foot that he set on the ground, he fell so rudely, that the blood brast (burst) out of his nose'' [a nosebleed]. ''The knights that were about him took him up and said: "Sir, for God's sake enter again into your ship, and come not aland this day, for this is but an evil sign for us." Then the king answered quickly and said: "Wherefore? [Why?] This is a good token for me, for the land desireth to have me.' Of the which answer all his men were right joyful. So that day and night the king lodged on the sands, and in the meantime discharged the ships of their horses and other baggages: there the king made two marshals of his host, the one the lord Geoffroy de Harcourt and the other the Earl of Warwick, and the Earl of Arundel. And he ordained that the Earl of Huntingdon should keep the fleet of ships with a hundred men of arms and four hundred archers: and also he ordained three battles (battalions), one to go on his right hand, closing to the sea-side, and the other on his left hand, and the king himself in the midst, and every night to lodge all in one field.

The army marched through Normandy. Philip gathered a large army to oppose him, and Edward chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went, rather than attempt to take and hold territory. During this time, he fought two successful actions, the Storming of Caen and the Battle of Blanchetaque. Eventually finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle, and Philip's army attacked him at the famous Battle of Crécy. The much larger French army made a series of piecemeal attacks against the expert English and Welsh longbowmen, and all of the attacks were dispersed with heavy losses until the French were forced to retreat. Crécy was a crushing defeat for the French.

Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the coastal city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. An English victory against Scotland in the Battle of Neville's Cross led to the capture of David II and greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.

In 1348, the Black Death began to sweep across Europe and in both England and France it would have huge consequences. This prevented England from financing and launching any major offensives. In France, Philip VI died in 1350 and was replaced by his son John II ("John the Good").

At that time there was bitter feeling between the English and the Spanish on account of various acts of violence and plunder which the Spaniards had committed against English ships at sea. In 1350, while the Spanish were in Flanders for trading purposes, they were told that the English were intending to waylay them on their voyage back home. They equipped their ships, lying at Sluys, with all kinds of weapons and powerful artillery, and engaged all the mercenaries, archers and crossbowmen who were willing to serve them for pay. When Edward heard of these warlike preparations, he said angrily: "We have had long experience of Spanish ways. They have done us many wrongs and, far from making amends, they go on arming themselves against us. They must be intercepted on their way back." The Spaniard's fleet followed a course along the south coast of England, hoping to descend on some unsuspecting town. They were interrupted by Edward's fleet off Winchelsea on the afternoon of 29 August 1350. The battle lasted until dusk and was a small-scale repeat of Sluys, with the archers slaughtering the Spanish seamen before the men-at-arms boarded their vessels. Nearly half the Spanish ships were captured, the rest escaping under cover of darkness.

Collapse of the French government (1351–1360)
Sporadic conflicts in Brittany continued, including notable incidents of chivalry such as the Battle of the Thirty in 1351. The battle was in fact a staged tournament. There had been a truce in place since 1347, so there was not supposed to be any fighting. Two of the opposing leaders, the Breton, Robert de Beaumanoir who held the garrison at Josselin, and the Englishman, Richmond Bambro who held the garrison at Ploërmel, agreed to stage a private fight with 30 knights from either side fighting with sharpened weapons. Among Bambro's knights were two famous men-at-arms, Robert Knolles and Hugh Calveley, but he could not find thirty Englishmen so had to make up the numbers with German men-at-arms. The battle raged all day and ended with a French victory. In keeping with chivalric tradition, the French ransomed many of the defeated English.

The Black Death had reached England in 1348. The widespread effects of the plague had effectively put the war on hold. However, by the mid-1350s the disease had receded sufficiently to allow the country to start rebuilding its finances. So in 1355 Edward's son, Edward the Black Prince, resumed the war and invaded France from English-held Gascony and by August of that year he had begun a brutal campaign of raids known as chevauchée. This campaign was designed to terrorise and demoralise the people, discredit their leaders and drain the French king's financial resources. Anything that was portable was looted and anything that could not be taken away was broken or burnt. An observer at the time said, of the Black Prince, that as he rode to Toulouse there was no town that he did not lay waste.

In August 1356, the Black Prince was threatened by a larger army under John II. The English attempted to retreat but their way was blocked at Poitiers. The Black Prince tried to negotiate terms with the French, but John's army attacked the English on 19 September 1356. The English archers were able to bring down the first three assaults of the French cavalry. At the point when the English archers were running out of arrows and many were wounded or exhausted, the French king deployed his reserves, an elite force of men. It seemed that the French would win the day, however, the Gascon noble Captal de Buch managed to thwart the French by leading a flanking movement, with a small group of men, that succeeded in capturing John II, and many of his nobles. John signed a truce with Edward III, and in his absence much of the government began to collapse. John's ransom was set to two million, but John believed he was worth more than that and insisted that his ransom be raised to four million écus.

The First Treaty of London was signed in 1358 and, essentially, was an agreement setting the ransom for John at four million écus. The first instalment was to be paid by 1 November 1358, however, the French defaulted on the agreement. The Second Treaty of London was signed on 12 March 1359 and this time the treaty allowed for hostages to be held in place of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay the ransom. Also, under the terms of the treaty England gained possession of Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine and all the coastline from Flanders to Spain, thus restoring the former Angevin Empire. The hostages were held in honourable captivity which under the chivalric code meant they were given free rein to move about. In 1362 John's son, Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English-held Calais, escaped his parole and refused to return. When John found out, ashamed at the actions of his son he felt duty-bound to return to captivity. He left Paris and gave himself up to the Captain of Calais, who returned him to his honourable captivity in England. He spent the rest of his reign there and died in London on 8 April 1364. John's funeral, in England, was a great chivalrous affair and he was honoured as a great man by the Plantagenets. In 1358, a peasant revolt in France called the Jacquerie took place. It was caused by the deprivations suffered by the country people during the war and their treatment at the hands of the free companies and the French nobility, in particular, after the Battle of Poitiers. Led by Guillaume Kale (Carle or Cale), they joined forces with other villages, and beginning in the area of Beauvais, north of Paris, committed atrocities against the nobles and destroyed many chateaux in the area. All the rebellious groups were defeated later that summer at the battle of Mello and reprisals followed.

Capitalising on the discontent in France, Edward assembled his army at Calais in the late summer of 1359. His first objective was to take the city of Rheims. However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences before Edward and his army arrived. Edward besieged Rheims for five weeks but the new fortifications held out. He lifted the siege and moved his army on to Paris in the Spring of 1360. The suburbs of Paris were sacked but the city held out. His army was weakened from being harassed by the French companies and also disease, so after a few skirmishes Edward moved his army to the town of Chartres. At Chartres, disaster struck when a freak hailstorm devastated Edward's army, killing an estimated 1,000 English soldiers and 6,000 horses. Following this phenomenon, the King underwent a religious period where he vowed to God to make peace with France. When the Dauphin offered negotiations he was ready to agree. Representatives of the two crowns met at Brétigny and within a week they had agreed to a draft treaty. The Treaty of Brétigny was later ratified by the two Kings John and Edward as the Treaty of Calais on 24 October 1360. Under the terms of the treaty, Edward agreed to renounce the French crown. In return, he obtained full sovereign rights over an expanded Aquitaine and Calais.

title: Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360


text:
The High & Mighty

The High & Mighty is an American hip hop duo from Philadelphia, composed of rapper Mr. Eon ("The High", b. Erik Meltzer in 1972) and producer DJ Mighty Mi ("The Mighty", b. Milo Berger in 1972).

Career
Their commercial debut was in 1999 on the underground rap label Rawkus with their album, Home Field Advantage, featuring rappers, such as Mos Def, Kool Keith, What? What?, Cage, Pharoahe Monch, Evidence of Dilated Peoples, Defari, Thirstin Howl III, and Eminem. They later left Rawkus, distributing the records issued by their own record company Eastern Conference Records via Landspeed Records. They also established a group called Smut Peddlers with Cage and published an album called Porn Again. In 2002, they co-wrote and co-produced Princess Superstar's international hit single "Bad Babysitter", with Mr. Eon also providing additional vocals.

The titles of their albums and the name of their record label are both references to one of their favorite musical subjects, American professional team sports. Home Field Advantage, for example, features numerous sporting references, including the track "Friendly Game of Football" and mentions of the '69 New York Mets, Cris Carter and Jason Sehorn, among others. José Reyes and David Wright of the Mets were mentioned in the song "Key Master" ("We the future like Reyes and David Wright on Fireworks Night"). Another recurring source of lyrical fodder is the Star Wars film series, with Home Field Advantage including lines about Jedi master Mace Windu, the bounty hunter Greedo, Anakin Skywalker and the droid C-3PO.

Masta Ace
Rapper Masta Ace called them "a couple of high whiteys" in his hit battle rap "Acknowledge". According to Ace himself, another rapper had told him that the High & Mighty had dissed him at one of their shows. This prompted him to create the song Acknowledge on his 2001 album Disposable Arts. Ace eventually learned that he was misinformed, but the track had already been released, presumably ending the feud.

Cage and Copywrite
They also had a feud with rapper Cage, which resulted in "Public Property" from Cage's 2005 album, Hell's Winter; along with Copywrite on the track "Poorly Promote This", which was produced by Twiz the Beat Pro.

Popular culture
Their song "B-Boy Document '99" was featured in the popular Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 video game. A music video for the track "I Wanna (But I Won't)" from The Highlite Zone features actor Michael Rapaport and was directed by Joey Boukadakis.

Personnel

 * Mr. Eon – rap vocals (1996–present)
 * DJ Mighty Mi – producer (1996–present)

Albums

 * 1999 – Home Field Advantage (Eastern Conference/Rawkus)
 * 2002 – Air Force 1 (Eastern Conference/Landspeed)
 * 2003 – The Highlite Zone (Eastern Conference/Caroline)
 * 2005 – The 12th Man (Eastern Conference)

Singles

 * 1997 – "It's All for You" / "Hands On Experience" / "Cranial Lumps" / "Open Mic Night" / "The Meaning"
 * 1998 – "B-Boy Document" / "Mind, Soul & Body"
 * 1999 – "B-Boy Document '99" / "Chaos" / "Dirty Decibels" / "Sun, Moon & Stars" / "The Conflict"
 * 2000 – "Dick Starbuck Porno Detective"
 * 2003 – "Take It Off"

Collaborative albums

 * 2001 – Porn Again (with Cage, as Smut Peddlers)

Guest appearances

 * 2002 – Princess Superstar – Bad Babysitter

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The High & Mighty


text:
Talk:Quebec City–Windsor Corridor

GMA
Any reason the Montreal region is referred to as Montreal-Laval-Brossard ? Brossard isn't as big as other nearby cities part of the GMA such as Terrebonne or Repentigny, and certainly not as important as Longueuil. In any case, changed it to Greater Montreal Area, but am open to discussion if it's an accepted term by StatsCan. Yhave (talk) 20:19, 18 September 2017 (UTC)

Other Names
My geography teacher has referred to this area as the Quebec-Windsor strip and the Quebec-Windsor Access. Is anyone else aware of these alternate names and if so should there be message about them at the top of the page? 72.143.166.161 20:11, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

What about the Quedor nickname?

Proximity to US Border
I have removed the following section of text from the Geography section: "The section of the corridor from Montreal to Hamilton (and again in Windsor) is close to or actually on the U.S. border." While perhaps not 100% false, it is certainly misleading, and far from accurate. The entire corridor is close to the U.S. border. To suggest that the Hamilton to Montreal portion is any closer is not only misleading, it's false. The fact that the entire corridor is in close proximity to the U.S. is covered in other portions of the text. See Redundancy. Baribeau 20:49, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

dm64
This is my first stab at the page, but it needs a lot of work -- this is an article about where more than half of all Canadians live. It would be especially useful if someone could add a map and some pictures, as well as more information on climate, flora, and fauna. -- Dpm64 14:02, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)Yhave (talk) 20:19, 18 September 2017 (UTC)

 * I like this article, and think it's necessary, but I question the name choice. To me, Quebec City-Windsor corridor refers specifically to the passenger rail service that runs between those two cities. However, this article talks more generally about the history, geography, and various methods of transportation that exists in this region, including passenger rail (though the article kind of glosses over that last topic). However, as far as I can tell, there is no "accepted" name for this megalopolis. Darkcore 08:36, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the comment. I do hear the name used in other contexts, but I agree that it is most closely associated with rail travel, just like the Northeast Corridor in the US is (though that term is used more broadly for geography as well now -- that article should probably be updated).  Perhaps someone will be able to come up with a more generally acceptable name.  Dpm64 15:01, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Wealthiest?
I always thought the Calgary-Edmonton corridor was wealthier than the Windsor-Quebec City corridor,per capita basis anyways.
 * The article doesn't specify "per capita" wealth. It's speaking strictly about concentration of wealth. Geoff NoNick 14:26, 25 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I would imagine that concentration of wealth IS per capita wealth. Suggesting that a region is the wealthiest merely because it has the most people (and thus the most wealth) proves almost nothing; one could scale that up to declare the entirety of Canada the wealthiest region in Canada, if you understand what I'm trying to say.  One could also declare many countries as a whole far wealthier than this corridor under those criterion as well even though their actual personal wealth levels are far lower.  Perhaps it would be wiser to declare that the majority of Canada's GDP comes from this region (assuming such a fact is true) as the current setup is, in my opinion, misleading.  I presume that the majority of Canada's GDP would likely come from this region, and if someone wants to check that, that would be a far better statistic to use - as it is, it's like saying that Germany is the wealthiest region in Europe, for example, which is just plain wrong. David Corbett 05:09, 2 June 2006 (UTC)
 * People usually do it by gross income, not per-capita; otherwise, the G7 would be Qatar, Luxembourg, Norway, Brunei, Singapore, the U.S., and Ireland. David (talk) 14:01, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

BosWash?
"It has many similarities to the BosWash megalopolis that extends from Boston to Washington, D.C. in the United States." I'm thinking that's not the best analogy. This area has a fair ammount of cities in a relatively small area, but I don't think it would be considered a magalopolis. It isn't non-stop urban sprawl (at least not yet!) - there are still large areas of farmland and nature in this region. The stretch from Toronto to Windsor could maybe be considered pre-megalopolis (though it still includes a lot of farmland), but the remainer is far from it. The urban corridor of the US "upper midwest" is much more similar to this region - in terms of culture, population density, character, etc.
 * I think the analogy is meant to reflect that the Q-W Corridor's relative socio-economic impact on Canada is similar to the impact of the BosWash on the US. But whatever. Geoff NoNick 15:11, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm with Jeff -- I've changed the analogy back (but used the Northwest Corridor, to make it clearer). David 03:00, 19 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm actually not sure a relative comparison with the Northwest Corridor of the US is valid. The Quebec City-Windsor Corridor contains *half* of Canada's population, but the Northwest Corridor only contains 16% of the US population according to the BosWash article.  There is an entire other strip of land on the other coast (Southern California) that has roughly the same population and economic importance as the Northwest Corridor, and even cultural influence what with Hollywood and all.  And the Northwest corridor isn't the center of the US transportation infrastructure.  Atlanta has the busiest airport.

Proposed merger

 * The following discussion is closed. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.

I believe the Corridor (VIA) article should be maintained since it pertains specifically to intercity passenger rail services in this geographic region. VIA uses the term Corridor as its marketing term for this service area which contains multiple trains over several routes. Plasma east (talk) 16:53, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Disagree — this article is much longer than the other and has had many more contributions. It also refers to the geographical area in general, rather than just to VIA's service, so it has wider coverage.  If there has to be a merge, it makes more sense to merge the small amount of extra info in the other article into a section of this one. David (talk) 19:45, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Agree — I didn't read carefully enough. I have no objection to maintaining Corridor (VIA) as a separate article for the reasons given above by Plasma east. David (talk) 19:48, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Agree — they are quite separate topics; there is no reason to consider merging them. Wilfred Day (talk) 01:25, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.

Defining the corridor
I have long been aware of this corridor, having been born there, but this is my first look at the article, and my awareness of the corridor seems to differ from this article slightly.

First, why not include Trois-Rivieres/Shawinigan/Sherbrooke as part of the corridor? They're major cities that run along the path of the corridor as presently constituted.

Second, why not include Detroit? Personally, I've always viewed the corridor as extending from Chicago to Quebec City, as a parallel corridor to the BosWash corridor. In that sense you could make a case for including Buffalo, Toledo, maybe even Cleveland? (NorthernFalcon (talk) 02:43, 8 December 2008 (UTC))

 * Trois-Rivieres is implicitly included in the corridor, since it's based on being along the shores of Lake Erie, Ontario and the Saint-Lawrence down to Quebec City. 3R is on the St.Lawrence. It also extends up the Ottawa River to Ottawa, and down the Rideau Canal/River to Kingston. -- 65.92.180.137 (talk) 03:11, 26 March 2013 (UTC)

Image
Can anyone create a better image defining this area ? Not to insult the current image but it could be of better quality. PhilthyBear (talk) 16:22, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Ontario - Quebec Corridor
The corridor has increasingly been named the "Ontario - Quebec Corridor " in the media. Perhaps a name change might be in order ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by UrbanNerd (talk • contribs) 22:48, 2 February 2011

Airport section
CFB Petawawa is not an airbase by any stretch of the imagination. It has a helipad and a Hercules landing field which is less busy than most general aviation aerodromes in the valley. If we include Petawawa in the "airports" section, then by that logic 50+ aerodromes along the corridor should be included. The purpose of the section is to list the major aviation centres, not the minor ones. UpstreamPaddler (talk) 04:43, 5 February 2013 (UTC)

Updating the population statistics.
In the next few days, I will attempt to update the population figures by using the 2011 Canadian census. On the Ontario side, there are 47 counties within the corridor with a total 2011 population of 11,631,799 and on the Quebec side there are 9 regions and 3 metropolitan areas that make up 6,790,431. Thus, this corridor had a population of 18,422,230 in 2011. Lightspeed2012 20:16, 30 January 2015 (UTC)

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Cleanup tags
It appears that you recently added more than 20 cleanup tags to this article, but I still don't notice any "unsourced predictions" in this article. Can you explain the reason for these tags? Jarble (talk) 18:34, 1 July 2017 (UTC)

Every place I left a tag, statements are made as though they are facts, with no cited sources at all. Statistics Canada released a document in 2001 as part of the census of that year, that the London (Ontario) Chamber of Commerce 'leaked' online, with the StatsCan logo all over it. It stated this:

Windsor-Quebec City Corridor, 2001

Ontario Section 10,706,513 93% of Ontario's population

Quebec Section 6,327,354 87% of Quebec's population

Total Population 17,033,867 57% of Canada's population

The text was embedded on a graphical map of the corridor, with various types of StatsCan city-regions dotted and named on the map. I asked StatsCan how it defined the W-QCC and it claimed that it didn't measure it at all. So, I attached their ('leaked') document to an email reply, and ended up with the Director of Communications for Statistics Canada getting back to me to try to do damage control, claiming that it was a one-off thing that had only been done for the London Chamber of Commerce. (Seems quite unfair to Canadian taxpayers, and a lie, but.)

I asked him how Stats Canada came up with the numbers, what it defined the W-QCC as, so that anyone could calculate the above for any census year. He told me that the city-region names on the map of the document were how it was calculated... but city-regions are defined in more than one way by StatsCan so I asked him which way the city-regions were defined. He told me it was by CMA (Census Metropolitan Area) but many of the city labels on the map were not CMAs, such as London, Ontario. He corrected himself yet again, claiming that CA (Census Agglomeration) definitions were used for places like London, and for places like Toronto and Montreal, the CMA data was used.

So, I used the 2001 census data at the time, to calculate it all. When I had Excel add up the populations of every city-region area on the StatsCan map, as they had told me it was done, nothing added up. So, I got back to the Director of Communications for Statistics Canada yet again, to see what lie he'd tell me about the W-QCC next. My hard drive then decided to crash on me.

I couldn't recover any email, I had no idea who I'd been talking to (specific email addresses) at StatsCan after I got my computer fixed, and here we are. I still see no verifiable sources of even what the name of the Windsor-Quebec City Corridor is. We would need a source like Statistics Canada to state the population, land area and even what is and isn't part of the Windsor-Quebec City Corridor. I see no such documentation, anywhere online.

As for economic data, it'd be wonderful if Stats Canada were as open about it as the US Department of Commerce is, where it's a simple matter to get NAICS and other industry data to mix and match for any combination of states/industries, and even for economic regions like the Great Lakes region... but Canada doesn't do this. No one has any idea what the economy of the W-QCC is, because no one can even define what its name is, with an official map or anything else official, other than official lies about what Stats Canada does and doesn't produce and give to departments of commerce, with our tax money, behind our backs. And only the London Chamber of Commerce, not the Toronto Board of Trade or Chamber of Commerce of Metropolitan Montreal. Why would StatsCan bother to give Toronto and Montreal information about the W-QCC? Only the London Chamber of Commerce, the one that happened to accidentally leak a StatsCan document about the Windsor-Quebec City Corridor, ever got any info about the W-QCC as a one-off thing... and StatsCan even denied that much. And I can't find that document anymore, so it must have never existed in the first place, so I can't even prove that Statistics Canada calls it the Windsor-Quebec City Corridor (in English) not the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor.

Please feel free, anyone, to replace each of my tags with the type of verifiable information required on Wikipedia. I would be delighted to see any type of verifiable, credible documentation of what the W-QCC is, starting with its official English name.  —S-Ranger (talk) 18:45, 1 December 2017 (UTC)
 * What a load of junk. Seriously. Firstly, you need to read WP:CALC. Secondly, we have the word of an anonymous user that they, over a decade and a half ago, made some phone calls and because of that the entire article should be defaced or deleted? C'mon, you expect us to work from that? Nonsense. oknazevad (talk) 21:35, 2 November 2018 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Quebec City–Windsor Corridor


text:
Population size

In population genetics and population ecology, population size (usually denoted N) is a countable quantity representing the number of individual organisms in a population. Population size is directly associated with amount of genetic drift, and is the underlying cause of effects like population bottlenecks and the founder effect. Genetic drift is the major source of decrease of genetic diversity within populations which drives fixation and can potentially lead to speciation events.

Genetic drift
Of the five conditions required to maintain Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, infinite population size will always be violated; this means that some degree of genetic drift is always occurring. Smaller population size leads to increased genetic drift, it has been hypothesized that this gives these groups an evolutionary advantage for acquisition of genome complexity. An alternate hypothesis posits that while genetic drift plays a larger role in small populations developing complexity, selection is the mechanism by which large populations develop complexity.

Population bottlenecks and founder effect
Population bottlenecks occur when population size reduces for a short period of time, decreasing the genetic diversity in the population.

The founder effect occurs when few individuals from a larger population establish a new population and also decreases the genetic diversity, and was originally outlined by Ernst Mayr. The founder effect is a unique case of genetic drift, as the smaller founding population has decreased genetic diversity that will move alleles within the population more rapidly towards fixation.

Modeling genetic drift
Genetic drift is typically modeled in lab environments using bacterial populations or digital simulation. In digital organisms, a generated population undergoes evolution based on varying parameters, including differential fitness, variation, and heredity set for individual organisms.

Rozen et al. use separate bacterial strains on two different mediums, one with simple nutrient components and one with nutrients noted to help populations of bacteria evolve more heterogeneity. A digital simulation based on the bacterial experiment design was also used, with assorted assignations of fitness and effective population sizes comparable to those of the bacteria used based on both small and large population designations Within both simple and complex environments, smaller populations demonstrated greater population variation than larger populations, which showed no significant fitness diversity. Smaller populations had increased fitness and adapted more rapidly in the complex environment, while large populations adapted faster than small populations in the simple environment. These data demonstrate that the consequences of increased variation within small populations is dependent on the environment: more challenging or complex environments allow variance present within small populations to confer greater advantage. Analysis demonstrates that smaller populations have more significant levels of fitness from heterogeneity within the group regardless of the complexity of the environment; adaptive responses are increased in more complex environments. Adaptations in asexual populations are also not limited by mutations, as genetic variation within these populations can drive adaptation. Although small populations tend to face more challenges because of limited access to widespread beneficial mutation adaptation within these populations is less predictable and allows populations to be more plastic in their environmental responses. Fitness increase over time in small asexual populations is known to be strongly positively correlated with population size and mutation rate, and fixation probability of a beneficial mutation is inversely related to population size and mutation rate.

LaBar and Adami use digital haploid organisms to assess differing strategies for accumulating genomic complexity. This study demonstrated that both drift and selection are effective in small and large populations, respectively, but that this success is dependent on several factors. Data from the observation of insertion mutations in this digital system demonstrate that small populations evolve larger genome sizes from fixation of deleterious mutations and large populations evolve larger genome sizes from fixation of beneficial mutations. Small populations were noted to have an advantage in attaining full genomic complexity due to drift-driven phenotypic complexity. When deletion mutations were simulated, only the largest populations had any significant fitness advantage. These simulations demonstrate that smaller populations fix deleterious mutations by increased genetic drift. This advantage is likely limited by high rates of extinction. Larger populations evolve complexity through mutations that increase expression of particular genes; removal of deleterious alleles does not limit developing more complex genomes in the larger groups and a large number of insertion mutations that resulted in beneficial or non-functional elements within the genome were not required. When deletion mutations occur more frequently, the largest populations have an advantage that suggests larger populations generally have an evolutionary advantage for development of new traits.

Critical Mutation Rate
Critical mutation rate, or error threshold, limits the number of mutations that can exist within a self-replicating molecule before genetic information is destroyed in later generations.

Contrary to the findings of previous studies, critical mutation rate has been noted to be dependent on population size in both haploid and diploid populations. When populations have fewer than 100 individuals, critical mutation rate can be exceeded, but will lead to loss of genetic material which results in further population decline and likelihood of extinction. This ‘speed limit’ is common within small, adapted asexual populations and is independent of mutation rate.

Effective population size (Ne)
The effective population size (Ne) is defined as "the number of breeding individuals in an idealized population that would show the same amount of dispersion of allele frequencies under random genetic drift or the same amount of inbreeding as the population under consideration." Ne is usually less than N (the absolute population size) and this has important applications in conservation genetics.

Overpopulation may indicate any case in which the population of any species of animal may exceed the carrying capacity of its ecological niche.

title: Population size


text:
Hypotrochoid

In geometry, a hypotrochoid is a roulette traced by a point attached to a circle of radius $r$ rolling around the inside of a fixed circle of radius $R$, where the point is a distance $d$ from the center of the interior circle.

The parametric equations for a hypotrochoid are:

 * $$\begin{align}

& x (\theta) = (R - r)\cos\theta + d\cos\left({R - r \over r}\theta\right) \\ & y (\theta) = (R - r)\sin\theta - d\sin\left({R - r \over r}\theta\right) \end{align}$$

where $θ$ is the angle formed by the horizontal and the center of the rolling circle (these are not polar equations because $θ$ is not the polar angle). When measured in radian, $θ$ takes values from 0 to $$2 \pi \times \tfrac{\operatorname{LCM}(r, R)}{R}$$ (where $R = 5, r = 3, d = 5$ is least common multiple).

Special cases include the hypocycloid with $LCM$ and the ellipse with $d = r$ and $R = 2r$. The eccentricity of the ellipse is

 * $$e=\frac{2\sqrt{d/r}}{1+(d/r)}$$

becoming 1 when $$d=r$$ (see Tusi couple).

The classic Spirograph toy traces out hypotrochoid and epitrochoid curves.

Hypotrochoids describe the support of the eigenvalues of some random matrices with cyclic correlations.

title: Hypotrochoid


text:
User talk:Parry~enwiki

HI DUDES N DAMES this is parry ,,parvinder singh doing chemical engg atr rvce, b'lore...

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title: User talk:Parry~enwiki


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Moritz Lazarus

Moritz Lazarus (15 September 1824 – 13 April 1903), born at Filehne, in the Grand Duchy of Posen, was a German-Jewish philosopher, psychologist, and a vocal opponent of the antisemitism of his time.

Life and education
He was born at Filehne, Posen. The son of Aaron Levin Lazarus, a pupil of Akiba Eiger, and himself president of the bet din and the yeshiva of Filehne (died there in 1874), he was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and subsequently in law and philosophy at the University of Berlin. In 1850 he obtained his PhD degree; in the same year he married Sarah Lebenheim.

From 1860 to 1866 he was professor in the University of Berne, and subsequently returned to Berlin as professor of philosophy in the Kriegsakademie (1868) and later in the University of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his seventieth birthday he was honored with the title of Geheimrath. He died in Meran.

Philosophy
The fundamental principle of his philosophy was that truth must be sought not in metaphysical or a priori abstractions but in psychological investigation, and further that this investigation cannot confine itself successfully to the individual consciousness, but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind from the historical or comparative standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its conventions and the main tendencies of its evolution.

This Völkerpsychologie (folk or comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists.

In support of his theory he founded, in combination with Heymann Steinthal, the Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft (1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His chief work was Das Leben der Seele (Berlin, 1855–1857; 3rd ed., 1883). Other philosophical works were: Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten (1860 and 1867), Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte (1865 and 1872); Zur Lehre von den Sinnestäuschungen (1867); Ideale Fragen (1875 and 1885), Erziehung und Geschichte (1881); Unser Standpunkt (1881); Ueber die Reize des Spiels (1883).

Apart from the great interest of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the Jews of the so-called Semitic denomination in Germany. Like Heine, Auerbach and Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower ideals of the German Jews, and took a leading place in German literature and thought. He protested against the violent antisemitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He wrote in this connection a number of articles collected in 1887 under the title Treu und Frei: Reden und Vorträge über Juden und Judenthum. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second Jewish synods at Leipzig and Augsburg.

Founds "Völkerpsychologie"
Lazarus' first publication, "Die Sittliche Berechtigung Preussens in Deutschland" (Berlin, 1850), appealed to the public at large. In this book he claimed for Prussia the leadership over the other German states on account of her political, philosophical, and religious superiority. From 1850 Lazarus devoted himself especially to psychology. Applying the laws of the psychology of the individual to the nation and to mankind (for these he considered as social beings), Lazarus established a new branch of research which he termed "Völkerpsychologie" (national psychology). In an article entitled "Ueber den Begriff und die Möglichkeit einer Völkerpsychologie als Wissenschaft" (in Robert Prutz's "Deutsches Museum," 1851) he laid the foundation for the study of this science. Nine years later, in collaboration with Steinthal, his friend and brother-in-law, Lazarus established the "Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft" (vols. i-xx, Berlin, 1860–90; continued as the "Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde"). From 1856 to 1858 he published his principal work, "Das Leben der Seele in Monographien" (3 vols.; 3d ed., 1883–97). It deals with the principal problems of psychology from the standpoint of the philosophy of Herbart. Written in a popular and easy style, it soon found a large circle of readers.

In 1860 Lazarus was called to the University of Bern as professor of psychology; six years later he returned to Berlin and was appointed teacher of philosophy at the Royal Military Academy (1867); and in 1874 he became professor of philosophy at the university of that city. He was one of the founders of the Schillerstiftung and for many years its president; he was also curator of the Victoria Lyceum. On the occasion of his seventieth birthday Lazarus was honored by the German emperor, the University of Bern, and the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati. The first conferred upon him the title of "Königlicher Geheimer Regierungsrath"; the second, the degree of doctor of law; and the third, that of doctor of theology. In 1895 Lazarus, after the death of his first wife, married the widow Nahida Ruth Remy, who was raised a Protestant but under his influence had embraced Judaism. During his last years Lazarus lived a retired life in Meran.

Among his shorter philosophical and historical writings may be mentioned: "Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten," 1860; "Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte," 1861; "Zur Lehre von den Sinneserscheinungen," 1867; "Ein Psychologischer Blick in Unsere Zeit," 1872; "Ideale Fragen," 1878; "Erziehung und Geschichte," 1881; and "Ueber die Reize des Spiels," 1883.

Communal activity
Lazarus took an active part in the public and spiritual life of the Prussian Jews. From 1867 to 1892 he was a member of the Repräsentanten-Versammlung of the Jewish congregation of Berlin; from 1882 to 1894, vice-president of the Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeindebund; from 1867 to 1874, president of the Berlin branch of the Alliance Israélite Universelle; in 1869, president of the Jewish Synod of Leipzig, and in 1871 of that of Augsburg. He was also vice-president of the Russian Auxiliary Committee and of the Romanian Committee (1869–94). Lazarus was furthermore one of the founders of the Lehranstalt für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums of Berlin, and for many years president of its board of curators. He was a very effective and popular public speaker. His most important lectures on Jews and Judaism were collected and published in his "Treu und Frei," Leipzig, 1887 (containing his speeches at the meetings of the two synods; "Was Heiss National?"; "Unser Standpunkt"; "An die Deutschen Juden"; "Auf Moses Mendelssohn"; "Auf Michael Sachs"; "Aus einer Jüdischen Gemeinde vor Fünfzig Jahren").

Lazarus devoted much time and energy to combating that antisemitism which took its rise in Germany about 1878. He was one of the most prominent Jewish apologists of his time. Like many of his contemporaries, he believed (erroneously) that antisemitism was merely a passing fancy, a phenomenon engendered by reactionary times, which could be explained away in writings or addresses. He maintained that the Jews were united only by means of their religious history ("Treu und Frei," p. 77). In this case as in many others, when considering Jewish matters, Lazarus follows the dictates of his desires rather than the interests of the commonweal ("Gemeingeist"). Much cited for apologetic purposes is his definition of the concept "nation," as the essential and only objective characteristic of which he takes not the similarity of customs and morals, of territory, religion, and race, but the bond of language.

"Die Ethik des Judenthums"
Of his more important contributions to Jewish literature may be cited: "Der Prophet Jeremias" (1894), a lecture, and "Die Ethik des Judenthums"(part i, 1898; 2d ed., 1899; translated into English by Henrietta Szold, and published by the Jewish Publication Society of America, 1900). In the latter work Lazarus takes ethics as the resultant rather than as the basic principle of religion, and, following Kant, establishes as the principle of Jewish ethics in particular the co-equality of God and the law of autonomy, whereby the Jewish conception of God has, of course, been given up. Lazarus fails to show the historical development of the morals of Judaism according to the various sources, as has been pointed out by Herman Cohen ("Das Problem der Jüdischen Sittenlehre, eine Kritik von Lazarus, 'Ethik des Judenthums,'" in "Monatsschrift," xliii, 385 et seq.).

title: Moritz Lazarus


text:
Abraham Rees

Abraham Rees (1743 – 9 June 1825) was a Welsh nonconformist minister, and compiler of Rees's Cyclopædia (in 45 volumes).

Life
He was the second son of Esther, daughter of Abraham Penry, and her husband Lewis Rees, and was born in Llanbrynmair, Montgomeryshire. Lewis Rees (1710-1800) was independent minister at Llanbrynmair (1734–1759) and Mynyddbach, Glamorganshire (1759–1800). Rees was educated for the ministry at Coward's academy in Wellclose Square, near London, under David Jennings, entering in 1759. In 1762 he was appointed assistant tutor in mathematics and natural philosophy; on the move of the academy to Hoxton after Jennings's death in 1762 he became resident tutor, a position which he held till 1785, his colleagues being Andrew Kippis and Samuel Morton Savage; subsequently he was tutor in Hebrew and mathematics in the New College at Hackney (1786–96).

His first ministerial engagement was in the independent congregation at Clapham, where he preached once a fortnight, as assistant to Philip Furneaux. In 1768 he became assistant to Henry Read (1686–1774) in the presbyterian congregation at St Thomas's, Southwark, and succeeded him as pastor in 1774. He moved to the pastorate of the Old Jewry congregation in 1783, and retained this charge till his death, being both morning and afternoon preacher (unusual then, among London presbyterians); he shared also (from 1773) a Sunday-evening lecture at Salters' Hall, and was one of the Tuesday-morning lecturers at Salters' Hall till 1795. A new meeting-house, of octagon form, was erected for him in Jewin Street and opened 10 December 1809. He was elected trustee of Dr Daniel Williams's foundations in 1774, and secretary of the presbyterian board in 1778, and held both offices till his death. On 31 January 1775 he received the degree of DD from the University of Edinburgh. He made a triennial visit to Wales as examiner of Carmarthen Academy. In 1806 he was appointed distributor of the English regium donum. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1813.

When he presented the address of the body of ministers of the 'three denominations' (Presbyterians, Independents and Baptists) in 1820 on the accession of George IV, it was noted that, as a student, he had attended the similar deputation to George III sixty years before. According to Alexander Gordon (Unitarian) in the Dictionary of National Biography, his theology was of a mediating and transitional character; his doctrines had an evangelical flavour, though essentially of an Arian type, and inclining to those of Richard Price, and he held the tenet of a universal restoration. He was the last of the London dissenting ministers who officiated in a wig.

He died at his residence in Artillery Place, Finsbury, on 9 June 1825, and was buried on 18 June in Bunhill Fields, the pall being borne by six ministers of the 'three denominations.' A funeral oration was delivered by Thomas Rees, and the funeral sermon, on 19 June, by Robert Aspland. Rees survived his wife and all his children, but left several grandchildren. His son, Nathaniel Penry Rees, died 8 July 1802, on a voyage from Bengal to St Helena. His only daughter Joanna Rees born 17 April 1769 in Hoxton Town, Shoreditch married John Jones.

Abraham married on 3 July 1764 to Joanna Goldney. Children were: Charles Goldney Rees Nathaniel Penry Rees Joanna Rees Philip Lewis Rees, born 12 Oct 1772 in Hoxton Town ,died 25 Feb 1798, buried in Dissenting Chapel Yard. Rivington, Lancs

Works
Rees's work as a cyclopædist began as an improver of the Cyclopædia of Ephraim Chambers, originally published in 1728, in 2 volumes. This was re-edited by Rees in 1778; and, with the incorporation of a supplement and much new matter, was issued by him in 1781–6, in 4 volumes; reprinted 1788–91. In recognition of his labour he was elected in 1786 a Fellow of the Royal Society, and subsequently of the Linnean Society and the American Philosophical Society. He then projected a more comprehensive publication. The first part of The Cyclopædia; or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature was issued on 2 January 1802, and the work was completed in forty-five volumes, including six volumes of plates, in August 1820. The parts were issued at irregular intervals, two parts constituting a volume. Great attention is paid to English biography; the botanical articles were generally contributed by Sir James Edward Smith and the music articles by Charles Burney. Congratulated, on the completion of his task, by his friend, John Evans (1767–1827), Rees wrote in reply: 'I thank you, but I feel more grateful that I have been spared to publish my four volumes of sermons.' The Cyclopædia; ... is commonly known as Rees's Cyclopædia.

Besides single sermons (1770–1813), Rees published 'Practical Sermons,' 1809, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1812, with two additional volumes, 1821. In conjunction with Kippis, Thomas Jervis, and Thomas Morgan, LLD, he brought out 'A Collection of Hymns and Psalms,' &c., 1795, (the ninth edition, 1823, is revised by Rees and Jervis). This collection, generally known as Kippis's, was the first attempt to supply, for general use among liberal dissenters, a hymnal to take the place of Isaac Watts's. It was supplemented in 1807, and again in 1852.

title: Abraham Rees


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Highdown Hill

Highdown Hill is a hill in the South Downs, with a height of 81 m. The summit of the hill and its western slopes lie in the parish of Ferring in the Arun district, while its eastern slopes lie in the borough of Worthing. It is a popular spot for picnickers, dog-walkers and horse riders. It overlooks Littlehampton, Angmering, Ferring and Worthing with views as far east as the Seven Sisters and west to the Isle of Wight.

It is the property of the National Trust.

To the north, the ancient hill forts of Cissbury Ring and Chanctonbury Ring can be seen, and the visible remains of a Bronze Age hill fort exist on the summit of Highdown Hill. Highdown Hill is the traditional burial-place of the kings of Sussex.

At the base of the hill, there is a car park, toilets, public gardens, cafe, hotel and restaurant.

Early history
Human occupation of the hill is thought to have started in the Late Bronze Age (around 1000 BC) when an enclosure was built. By the Early Iron Age (around 600 BC) this had been replaced by a hill fort composed of a single rampart and ditch. An Anglo-Saxon cemetery was created on the site around 450 AD which has produced an unusual number of glass objects, which can now be seen in Worthing Museum. This cemetery was discovered by accident in the 1890s when local landowner Edwin Henty undertook tree planting inside the hillfort. His workmen had discarded or stolen much material before a full excavation could begin.

Excavations continued for the next two seasons under guidance from Charles Hercules Read, the Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries at the time. 86 Anglo-Saxon graves were uncovered between 1893 and 1894 and the contents of all of these grave cuts were listed and several of them drawn. A plan of the cemetery was never drawn up. At the time, several skeletons were left in their graves whilst others were uncovered. A large number of bones and artefacts were passed around various local museums and many of these have since been lost.

18th century
In the 18th century, the miller John Olliver had his tomb built on the hill 27 years before his death in 1793. It is said that he was in fact the leader of local smugglers and used the tomb to store contraband. He would set the sails of his windmill at different angles to indicate the absence of customs men to his followers out at sea. The remains of the mill can still be seen on the west side of the hill. Local legend has it that a runaway millstone from this mill is the source of the name Roundstone for the farm at the foot of the hill, which was subsequently used for the nearby pub and garden centre.

20th century
During World War II a radar station was built on the hill and considerable damage was done to the archaeology during its construction. Further damage was done as trees were uprooted following the Great Storm of 1987 leading to a rescue dig in 1988.

Highdown Hill today
Highdown Gardens lie in a former chalk pit below the hill. Highdown Vineyard is a working vineyard producing English Wines on the southern slope of the hill. Roundstone is the name associated with a farm, pub and several local businesses below Highdown Hill. Based on local legend, the name derives from a runaway millstone from the mill on the hill.

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Talk:U.S. Route 23

Untitled
I prefer SPUI's south to north routing. However, the descriptions in most of the states were written from north to south, so I reorganized it that way. If somebody wants to undertake the tedious task of reworking each state, have at it. But please don't leave it as a mixed bag.
 * South to north is the standard for mileposts and exit numbers in the U.S.; thus it should be encouraged wherever possible in articles. It shouldn't be too hard to reverse the state descriptions if you feel it's out of place that way. --SPUI (talk) 14:18, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I'll take it as a project. I should get it done by no later than 2/27. Earpol 19:49, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I believe the exit number noted for the interchange with I80 along the original route is wrong. It's either old exit 4, milepost 59, or old exit 5 milepost 71. I suspect it was 5 though. --Jmslagle 05:01, 23 March 2006 (UTC)

Clarify
"The designation is more intact..." means ???

Junction List
Junction List is at eleven. It probably should be at ten. I removed I-96 because there were 3 junctions in Michigan, which seemed a bit overkill. Someone put 96 back on so I'll leave it until I get an opinion. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Deigo (talk • contribs) 14:48, 18 August 2008 (UTC)

Georgia Rout 87
Why does Georgia State Route 87 redirect here? There is no mention of it whatsoever here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.234.69.70 (talk) 14:28, 7 March 2013 (UTC)

Split
The section on U.S. 23 in Ohio should be split off. That's a pretty big chunk of route and it deserves its own article denoting major intersections, route history, etc. Ten Pound Hammer • (What did I screw up now?) 12:51, 13 September 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:U.S. Route 23


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User talk:Ggonnell

 Mi trovate sulla versione italiana di wikipedia. Lasciate un messaggio nella mia pagina di discussione.

Bitte evtl. Nachrichten in meine it.wiki-Diskussionseite schreiben.

If you need to contact me please write me in my italian discussion page.

Ggonnell / McGonnell

Old discussions

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:57, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ggonnell


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West Hendon

West Hendon is a district of Hendon in North London, in the London Borough of Barnet. It is the NW9 part of Hendon, located around the A5 Edgware Road and the Welsh Harp (Brent Reservoir). The area is known for the West Hendon Estate which is undergoing controversial regeneration.

History
West Hendon was a settlement within that part of the ancient parish of Hendon known as the Hyde. It was formally known, from 1878 to 1890, as New Hendon, a small railway development on the Edgware Road. Before the 1830s there were three farms, Upper and Lower Guttershedge (east of the road) and Cockman's in the Wood (west of the road) and an inn, The Welsh Harp. Between 1835 and 1838, the Brent Reservoir was constructed by damming the Brent and the Silk brooks and flooding much of Cockman's Farm. The water was used to supply the Grand Union Canal. At its greatest extent, in 1853, it covered 400 acres (1.6 km2) but was dramatically reduced to 195 acres (789,000 m2) in the 1890s. Subsequently, it has been reduced to 110 acres (445,000 m2). It contains enough water to fill 3 million baths and in 1991 was believed to contain 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) of fish. The residue of Cockman's Farm became Woodfield House, home to the Roman Catholic Passioist Fathers (1852 and 1858). The house was demolished in 1940 and the site used by the Borough of Hendon and its successor the London Borough of Barnet as a plant nursery.

Originally The Harp and Horn (c. 1750s), The Harp was rebuilt in 1859 and again in 1937, before finally being pulled down in 1970 to make way for the M1. During the 1960s, it was known as The Lakeside Scene and hosted some of the great rock and blues bands of the day, such as the Yardbirds. From 1859 until the end of the century it was run by the Warner brothers, and the reservoir became a centre for all sorts of sporting events such as ice skating, swimming and angling; it was, until 1878, the Kingsbury Race Course and the first mechanical hare in greyhound racing was used there in 1876. By 1850, there was a second public house, the Upper Welsh Harp. At its height in the mid-1880s crowds in excess of 25,000 people could be expected on a Bank Holiday weekend.

Development
Two railway stations were opened, both of the Midland Railway: Hendon (1868), and Welsh Harp (1870). The latter was only 600 yards south of Hendon station and built for leisure traffic for the reservoir; it closed down by 1903 and the station building remained until the 1970s. A local builder called Bishop laid the first brick of a new terrace called Neeld Terrace (1881), which heralded the start of New Hendon. Brent Vue was built on land originally owned by the Midland Company. In 1885, the Baptists had a mission hall and their present hall was opened in 1930. By 1886, there were 200 new houses and the Anglican church of St. John's was built. It became part of the Municipal Borough of Hendon in 1894.

The 1896 Ordnance Survey Map shows that most of the roads had been laid out, but with little further development beyond that of the mid-1880s. In 1896 Schweppes opened a large mineral water factory, and the present Anglican church of St. John's was established in Algernon Road. With a planned tram line along the West Hendon Broadway due to open in 1904 and run by Metropolitan Electric Tramways, Welsh Harp station was closed in 1903, and West Hendon became a thriving Edwardian retail district until overshadowed by Golders Green. The Ordnance Survey Map of 1913 shows the area as being fully developed.

The reservoir was an important centre for speedboat racing in the 1920s and 1930s. C Harrison broke the outboard motorboat record at 57 mph (92 km/h) in 1931.

War bombing and post-war period
During World War II, on 13 February 1941, the Luftwaffe dropped a single SC2500 maximum heavy explosive bomb (equivalent to two V2 rockets), killing 85 people, injuring hundreds, destroying 40 houses in an area west of the Edgware Road and making over one thousand locals homeless. The devastated area here was redeveloped by the 1970s. A memorial plaque was laid at a green space (York Memorial Park) in the 1960s where smashed houses once stood. During a very hot summer in the 1960s, the water levels fell dramatically and remains of some of the destroyed houses could be seen.

In 1964, St Patrick's Roman Catholic church was formed at 167 the Broadway. In 1984 a small Islamic Centre was established at 135 the Broadway; it was later moved to Brent View Road and reopened as Hendon Mosque on 23 August 1996. Hendon Mosque notably held the funeral for Nazia Hassan, a pioneer of Pakistani pop music, in 2001.

No. 110 West Hendon Broadway was built in the 1930s as an attractive building with a floral clock in its front garden. Originally used for a local car parts business, the building was seemingly used as UK headquarters for the Free German Trade Union Federation from the 1970s to 1990. It was rumoured among local people that the building was an East German espionage base. The building was later used by various hardware distributors but is now derelict.

The Upper Welsh Harp public house was demolished in 2017 despite local residents campaigning against it. The building failed to get listed by English Heritage. A five-storey block of flats was built on the site.

Estate regeneration
The West Hendon Estate was built in the late 1960s, originally made up of 680 homes. Plans were made during the 2000s to regenerate the estate, which were eventually approved in 2013. As of 2019, Marsh Drive is the only remaining original block yet to be demolished which is expected in 2022. This block has apparently been neglected by the council. The new development is collectively named Hendon Waterside.

The most prominent building of the new development is Hawfinch House, a high rise 26 storey tower that is 85 m tall, completed in July 2016. It became the tallest building in the borough of Barnet.

The regeneration has been controversial and has caused backlash from both residents and MPs. Barnet London Borough Council has faced criticism for its regeneration of the West Hendon Estate, including the use of compulsory purchase. It was claimed that 400 families would be forced to move off the estate. During 2014, residents protested against the plans and blocked the entrance to the estate. In 2018, Jeremy Corbyn and Mayor Sadiq Khan visited residents in the estate and were told of having been let down by Barnet council. The estate has been featured on the BBC's Victoria Derbyshire show, which found that the Marsh Drive block was in poor condition. In 2016 the BBC filmed a documentary called The Estate We're In for BBC One that followed tenants and homeowners of the estate who were against the regeneration.

Another controversy was the loss of York Park open space, behind the estate. Residents saw the park as a memorial for the victims of the 1941 Luftwaffe bombing. Barnet stated in its regeneration plan in 2008 that the park would be retained, however this changed later on and the park was sold to the developers for the building of blocks.

Demography and community
West Hendon is a more socially deprived part of Hendon and the borough of Barnet.

It has a range of cultures including from Somali, Afghan and West African communities; 50.6% of West Hendon ward's population was of BAME background in the 2011 census (thus differing from Hendon). Religiously, 36% were Christian, 17% Muslim, 14% Jewish, 11% Hindu and 11% irreligious. The largest foreign languages are Polish and Gujarati, both numbering over 800 people each. 49% of the population was white (27% British, 20% Other), 32% was Asian (15% Indian, 9% Other, 4% Chinese), and 9% was black (7% African).

The West Hendon Community Hub provides local events and is home to a children's centre. Numerous community groups exist including the West Hendon Allotment Society, West Hendon Residents' Association, Friends of York Park, Woolmead Residents' Association, Welsh Harp Conservation Group and Welsh Harp Sailing Association.

Geography and locale
West Hendon lies to the west and south-west of Hendon, and lies 7 miles north-west of London's Charing Cross. It is about 40 m to 60 m above sea level, lower than the rest of Hendon to its east. The Silk Stream, a tributary of the River Brent, marks its northern boundary with The Hyde, a small loose area bordering Kingsbury and Colindale. The Silk Bridge on the A5 crosses the stream to the Hyde, across which is a retail park, a Sainsbury's supermarket and Hendon Magistrates' Court.

Cool Oak Lane is a narrow road that crosses the Welsh Harp through a bridge, and travels west for half a mile before reaching Wood Lane in the Fryent residential area of Kingsbury. Cool Oak Lane is notably one of the nearest country lanes from the centre of London. The area around here consists of woodlands and allotments. The bridge on this lane is Grade II listed and was built at the time of the Brent's damming in c. 1835; an older bridge once existed at this site before.

The Capital Ring flows through West Hendon. From the west it reaches the area from Woodfield Park next to the reservoir, crosses the bridge on Cool Oak Lane, and travels eastwards through Park Road towards Hendon Park and Brent Park in Hendon. In addition, Cool Oak Lane forms part of the designated London Cycle Network.

There is an industrial estate at Garrick Road, to the north of the station and west of the rail tracks.

West Hendon Broadway (part of the continuous A5 and Edgware Road) runs through the heart of West Hendon and is the main focus of activity. The street contains several local amenities such as a post office, surgery, restaurants and an Irish pub (The Wee Pub, formerly O ' Hanlons), beauty salons and hairdressers, and other businesses and organisations including the Welsh Harp Boat Centre and its accompanying cafe. The southern part near Staples Corner contains several trade units and warehouses.

Transport
The area is served by Hendon railway station on the Midland Main Line. The M1 motorway flows directly next to it. West Hendon is close by the A41 (at Hendon) and the A406 North Circular Road (at Staples Corner).

Transport for London bus routes 32, 83, 142, 183 and N16 (night) serve the area.

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Abraham Sharp

Abraham Sharp (1653 – 18 July 1742) was an English mathematician and astronomer.

Life
Sharp was born in Horton Hall in Little Horton, Bradford, the son of well-to-do merchant John Sharp and Mary (née Clarkson) Sharp and was educated at Bradford Grammar School.

In 1669 he became a merchant's apprentice before becoming a schoolmaster in Liverpool and subsequently a bookkeeper in London. His wide knowledge of mathematics and astronomy attracted Flamsteed's attention and it was through Flamsteed that Sharp was invited, in 1688, to enter the Greenwich Royal Observatory. There he did notable work, improving instruments and showing great skill as a calculator, publishing Geometry Improved and logarithmic tables.

Sharp calculated pi to 72 decimal places using an arctan sequence, briefly holding the record until John Machin calculated 100 digits in 1706.

He returned to Little Horton in 1694. When the Atlas Coelestis – the largest star map at the time – was published, it contained 26 maps of the major constellations visible from Greenwich, and two planispheres designed by Sharp.

Sharp died in Little Horton in 1742. He had never married. He was a great-uncle of Jesse Ramsden, the scientific instrument maker.

An English translation of a memorial tablet in Latin in Bradford Cathedral carved by Peter Scheemakers translates as " He was rightly counted among the most accomplished mathematicians of his day. He enjoyed constant friendship with the very famous men of the same repute, notably Flamsteed and the illustrious Newton. He drew up the description of the heavens made by the former of these (Flamsteed) in (astronomical) tables of the greatest accuracy; he also published anonymously various writings and descriptions of instruments perfected by himself....

The crater Sharp on the Moon is named after him.

title: Abraham Sharp