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Ike Williams

Isiah "Ike" Williams (August 2, 1923 – September 5, 1994) was an American professional boxer. He was a lightweight world boxing champion. He took the World Lightweight Championship in April 1945 and made eight successful defenses of the title against six different fighters prior to losing the championship to Jimmy Carter in 1951. Williams was known for his great right hand, and was named to The Ring magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time as well as The Ring magazine Fighter of the Year for 1948. Williams was The Ring magazine's Fighter of the Year for 1948, was inducted into The Ring Boxing Hall of Fame (disbanded in 1987), and was an inaugural 1990 inductee to the International Boxing Hall of Fame.

Early life
Williams was born in Brunswick, Georgia, on August 2, 1923. He did not turn professional until 1940 when he began boxing in Trenton, New Jersey. According to boxing lore, Williams worked as a newsboy after his family's move to Trenton, and first began boxing using his fists to defend the corner where he sold his papers.

Professional career
During his career, Williams faced and defeated former lightweight champions Sammy Angott, Bob Montgomery, and Beau Jack.

Taking the NBA World Lightweight Championship, April 1945
Williams was inducted into the U.S. Army after a close non-title win against the great lightweight Sammy Angott by ten-round decision at Shibe Park in Philadelphia on September 6, 1944, though he continued regular professional boxing during his service.

Williams won the NBA World Lightweight Championship before a crowd of 35,000 by a second-round knockout of Juan Zurita in Mexico City on April 18, 1945. Their first planned meeting in Philadelphia had been cancelled by the Pennsylvania Boxing Commission who recognized Bob Montgomery as the lightweight champion. Williams made a two fisted attack to the head of Zurita in the second which Zurita could not hold off, though he had made an effective defense in the first round. It was Zurita's first title defense. Shortly after Zurita was counted out, Williams' corner was crowded by fans, and several policeman were required to clear the ring before Williams could return to his dressing room.

World Lightweight Title defense against Bob Montgomery, August 1947
In one of his most important title defenses, he achieved a knockout of black boxer Bob Montgomery, NYSAC Lightweight Champion, at Municipal Stadium in Philadelphia in six rounds on August 4, 1947, to become the undisputed World Lightweight Champion. Montgomery was down for a count of nine in the sixth before the bout was stopped. The victory also avenged a twelfth-round knockout loss to Montgomery from January 25, 1944. At least one source had Williams with an edge in three of the rounds, with one to Montgomery, and one too close to call. The blow that sent Montgomery to the mat in the sixth was a right to the chin by the hard punching Williams. Montgomery rose after nine but continued to take punches and was up against the ropes, and sinking to the mat on his knees before the referee stopped the bout.

World Lightweight Title defense against Jesse Flores, September 1948
On September 23, 1948, Williams successfully defended his Lightweight title against Jesse Flores winning in a tenth-round technical knockout at Yankee Stadium in New York's Bronx. Flores had been on the mat five times during the fight, down twice in the fifth and twice in the eighth. The final blows were a left hook and then a right that sent Flores to the mat 2:07 into the tenth round.

World Lightweight Title defense against Enrique Bolanos, July 1949
On July 21, 1949, Williams defended his title against Enrique Bolanos winning in a fourth-round technical knockout before a crowd of near 19,000 at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles. Bolanos had been sent to the canvas twice before referee Jack Dempsey decided to end the bout 2:40 into the fourth round. Bolanos was knocked to the mat for a count of eight early in the fourth, and then after rising received a series of left and right hooks that sent him to his knees near William's corner. Bolanos' manager George Parnassus threw in the towel and referee Dempsey abruptly ended the bout causing the fight to be recorded as a technical knock out.

World Lightweight Title defense against Freddy Dawson, December 1949
On December 5, 1949, Williams defeated Freddy Dawson in a close fifteen-round decision before 10,389 fans at Convention Hall in Philadelphia. He had defeated Dawson twice in previous meetings and led in the early betting. In the post-fight decision, the two judges gave him the decision by only one round, ruling that 8 rounds were won by him and 7 by Dawson. The referee, who was closer to the action, gave him 9 rounds to 6 for Dawson. There were no knockdowns in the bout, and according to one source only one hard solid punch, a hard left to Dawson's head in the fifth. Boxing reporters already were concerned about Williams' ability to make the lightweight limit prior to his bout with Dawson, an issue that would arise again in his bout with Jimmy Carter. There were several newspaper reports that wrote of Williams' fine for informing the press of a potential bribe of the judges he claimed he had heard about in a phone call. He was fined by the boxing commission for informing the press of the possible bribe before he had first informed the commission.

On January 17, 1949, Williams first defeated Johhny Bratton by a comfortable margin in the Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in a ten-round decision before a satisfied crowd of 8,000 fans. Williams had taken a two-month lay-off from his fight schedule to help heal a broken hand. The judges scored 6-2 and 7-3 for Bratton, while the referee scored a closer 5-4-1 decision. Bratton put up a defense, and even stunned Williams momentarily in the eighth with a blow to the jaw, but lacked the skills at 21 to defeat Williams. On January 20, 1950, before a crowd of 12,000 at Chicago Stadium, Williams won an eighth-round technical knockout against Bratton who was forced to leave the ring with a broken jaw. Bratton later claimed the injury took place in round three. Williams hammered his opponent particularly hard in the second and seventh rounds, and was comfortably ahead on points, losing only one of the eight rounds fought to Bratton. Bratton ended the bout by turning his back and signalling the referee to end the fight. After returning to boxing, Bratton would briefly take the NBA World Welterweight Championship in March 1951, holding it only two months.

Loss of World Lightweight Title against Jimmy Carter, May 1951
He held on to the crown until May 25, 1951, when he was stopped by Jimmy Carter in a fourteenth-round technical knockout at New York's Madison Square Garden. Williams had been sent to the canvas four times before the fight was called. Williams was down for a count of five and eight in the fifth. He was down for a count of four and then six in the fourteenth before the referee ended the fight. Williams believed that his trouble making weight had weakened him for the fight.

Williams, for part of his career, was managed by Frank "Blinky" Palermo, who later was suspected of having ties to organized crime. According to Williams, he was blackballed by the boxing managers guild when he sought to manage himself. Palermo informed him he could resolve his problems with the guild, and Williams agreed to let Palermo manage him. Williams testified before the Kefauver Commission that Palermo did not arrange for him to throw any fights, but that he shorted him his share of his purses. Nevertheless, Williams did claim to have taken a dive against Chuck Davey, a much hyped contender for the welterweight crown.

Testifying before Congress, 1961
In 1961 Williams testified before Congress on antitrust in boxing. In his testimony, Williams stated that all boxers are asked to take bribes and that he was boycotted as a result of trying to manage himself. He explained that he could not get a fight because he did not use a manager and that he could not book a fight until he found a manager from the manager's guild. He explained that he did not receive his share of his purse in two fights which included Jesse Flores in Yankee Stadium, for the lightweight title on September 23, 1948, and Beau Jack at Shibe Park in Philadelphia, on July 12, 1948, and September 23, 1948. In those fights the money owed him was $32,500 and $32,400. He testified he told the boxing association to temporarily hold on to the money for these two fights for tax purposes. Later when he asked for his money, he discovered that his shares of the profits had been taken by his manager, who claimed to have fallen on hard times and spent it. Williams still had to pay the taxes on his share of the profits, though he never received them.

He further testified that his manager was offered $30,000 for him to throw a championship fight against Freddy Dawson in Philadelphia on December 5, 1949, though he declined. He testified that ten minutes before the fight he heard the judges being told if he did not win by a knock out that the fight would go to Dawson. Williams won the fight and told the media afterwards that he had heard a rumor that the fight would be fixed to go to Dawson by decision of the judges if he did not win by a knockout. Williams believed that the Judges upon hearing that he called the media decided to not fix the fight by giving an unfair decision to Dawson. Nonetheless, Williams was fined $500 for his comments to the media.

Williams also recalled a fight against Kid Gavilán on January 28, 1949, at Madison Square Garden, in which he was offered $100,000 to throw the fight. Again, Ike Williams did not take the money, an action he regretted because he lost the fight even though a plurality of reporters in subsequent news stories that cover the fight believed he had won. This made Williams conclude that the judges may have also been influenced in this fight to vote for his opponent in the case of a points decision.

Williams also believed he lost his lightweight title in a bout with the boxer Jimmy Carter on May 25, 1951, in a bout where the judges were also influenced. He testified he was again offered to throw the fight, for a sum of $50,000. Again, Williams said he regretted not taking the money as he lost the fight in a similar fashion as before.

Williams testified he never took the money offered to him to fix fights because too many people were counting on him and that too many of his friends had bet their hard earned money on him.

Death
Williams died on September 5, 1994, at his home in the Wilshire District of Los Angeles of natural causes.

Professional boxing record
All information in this section is derived from BoxRec, unless otherwise stated.

Official record
All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as “no decision” bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column

Unofficial record
Record with the inclusion of newspaper decisions in the win/loss/draw column.

title: Ike Williams


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User:Kujila

Hi, lol

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Kujila


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WMC

WMC may refer to:

Educational institutions

 * Wah Medical College, a private medical college in the Punjab, Pakistan
 * Wenzhou Medical College, now Wenzhou Medical University, in Wenzhou, China
 * Western Michigan Christian High School, a private school in Muskegon, Michigan
 * Wirral Metropolitan College, a system of colleges in the area of Birkenhead, UK
 * Working Men's College, an adult education provider in London

Media

 * Windows Media Center, a discontinued digital video recorder and media player for Microsoft Windows
 * Windows Media Connect, server software for Microsoft Windows computers to share and stream media to WMC clients
 * WLFP (FM), a radio station (99.7 FM) licensed to Memphis, Tennessee, United States, known as WMC-FM from 1960 to 2023
 * WMC (AM), a radio station (790 AM) licensed to Memphis, Tennessee, United States
 * WMC-TV, a television station (channel 5 digital) licensed to Memphis, Tennessee, United States
 * Women Media Center, an NGO in Pakistan
 * Women's Murder Club (TV series) (2007-2008), an American TV series

Organisations, companies and clubs

 * War Manpower Commission, a World War II agency of the United States Government
 * Warlocks Motorcycle Club (disambiguation), various "outlaw" motorcycle clubs in the US
 * Western Mining Corporation, later WMC Resources; now owned by BHP Billiton
 * Wisconsin Manufacturers & Commerce, an association of manufacturers, service businesses, and chambers of commerce in Wisconsin
 * WMC Mortgage (1955-2007), a defunct California mortgage lender
 * Working men's club, a type of social club common in England
 * World Macedonian Congress, an NGO for ethnic Macedonians
 * World Methodist Council, international association of Methodist churches
 * World Muaythai Council, international association for Muaythai martial arts

Other uses

 * Wales Millennium Centre, a performing arts centre in Cardiff, Wales
 * Web Map Context, an Open Geospatial Consortium standard in GIS
 * White monopoly capital, a political economic concept in South Africa
 * Winter Music Conference, an annual electronic music conference

title: WMC


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Vasil Kolarov

Vasil Petrov Kolarov (Васил Петров Коларов; 16 July 1877 – 23 January 1950) was a Bulgarian communist political leader and leading functionary in the Communist International (Comintern).

Early years
Kolarov was born in Şumnu, Ottoman Empire (now Shumen, Bulgaria) on 16 July 1877, the son of a shoemaker. After graduating from high school in Varna, he worked as a teacher in Nikopol from 1895 to 1897.

In 1897, Kolarov joined the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party (BWSDP).

Kolarov studied law in Aix-en-Provence, France, and at the University of Geneva. Following his graduation in 1900, Kolarov worked as a lawyer in his hometown and, from 1904, in Plovdiv.

Political career
After the ideological split of the BWSDP, Kolarov cast his lot with Dimitar Blagoev's Tesniak (Narrow) wing of the party, which espoused revolutionary socialism. From 1904 to 1912, Kolarov headed the local Tesniak organization in Plovdiv. He was named a member of the organization's governing Central Committee in 1905. On behalf of the Tesniak organization, Kolarov was a delegate to the congresses of the Second International at Stuttgart (1907) and Copenhagen (1910).

During the Balkan wars Kolarov served as a second lieutenant in the 13th Rila Regiment of 7th Rila Division of the Bulgarian army. In 1913 Kolarov was elected to the Bulgarian National Assembly.

Kolarov participated in the September 1915 Zimmerwald Conference but at the time he remained aloof from the revolutionary Zimmerwald Left. Kolarov was also the delegate of the Tesniak organization to the 1917 Socialist conference held in Stockholm.

In April 1919 the Bulgarian Communist Party was established, with Kolarov elected the first Secretary of its Central Committee.

In 1920, Kolarov was arrested in Romania and was thus unable to attend the 2nd World Congress of the Communist International, although he was able to attend the 3rd World Congress held in Moscow the following year as the representative of the Bulgarian Communist Party.

Kolarov was elected to the Executive Committee of the Communist International (ECCI) and became a key functionary in the Comintern. Early in 1923, he travelled to Central and Western Europe on behalf of the Comintern, attending Communist gatherings in Paris, Frankfurt, Oslo, and Prague.

In June 1923, Kolarov spoke at the 3rd Enlarged Plenum of ECCI in Moscow before returning secretly to Bulgaria at the end of the month. There he was promptly arrested but released on 5 August. Upon his release, Kolarov played a critical role along with Georgi Dimitrov in convincing the Bulgarian Communist Party to organize an insurrection in accordance with Comintern instructions. Kolarov was a member of the revolutionary committee which launched that uprising in September 1923. This attempted revolution failed and Kolarov was forced to flee to the Soviet Union by way of Yugoslavia and Austria. He remained in exile for more than two decades.

Kolarov remained a top official of the Communist International, presiding over the body's debates at the 5th World Congress of 1924. He was re-elected to the ECCI and its governing Presidium at the 5th, 6th, and 7th Congresses.

Kolarov was President of the Executive Committee of the Peasant International (Krestintern) from 1928 until its dissolution in 1939. He also served as director of the International Agrarian Institute in Moscow during this period. In 1943, Kolarov signed the document formally dissolving the Communist International.

Return to Bulgaria
Kolarov returned to Bulgaria in 1945 during its occupation by the Soviet Union, and was elected to the National Assembly again. He was reelected in 1946 and became provisional president of Bulgaria that year, amidst the growing domination of the communists. He remained president until the formation of the government headed by Dimitrov in December 1947, which he entered as deputy prime minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.

When Dimitrov died in July 1949, Kolarov was elected to Dimitrov's old post as prime minister. He served until his own death a few months later.

Death and legacy
Kolarov died in Sofia on 23 January 1950. His funeral was held as a state funeral and his body was buried in the Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum.

His city of birth, Shumen, was named Kolarovgrad in his honor between 1950 and 1965.

title: Vasil Kolarov


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Prehistoric music

Prehistoric music (previously called primitive music) is a term in the history of music for all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in different parts of the world, but still exists in isolated areas. However, it is more common to refer to the "prehistoric" music which still survives as folk, indigenous or traditional music. Prehistoric music is studied alongside other periods within music archaeology.

Findings from Paleolithic archaeology sites suggest that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced. The disputed Divje Babe flute, a perforated cave bear femur, is at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley civilization archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, ancient Hindu scriptures.

Origins of prehistoric instruments
Many languages traditionally have terms for music that include dance, religion, or cult. The context in which prehistoric music took place has also become a subject of study and debate, as the sound made by music in prehistory would have been somewhat different depending on the acoustics present. Some cultures include sound mimesis within their music; often, this feature is related to shamanistic beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment or practical functions, for example in hunting scenarios.

It is likely that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. The oldest known Neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form has been dated to be 60,000 years old, predating the oldest known Paleolithic bone flute by some 20,000 years, but the true chronology may date back much further.

Theoretically, music may have existed prior to the Paleolithic era. Anthropological and archaeological research suggest that music first arose when stone tools first began to be used by hominins. The noises produced by work, such as pounding seed and roots into a meal, are a likely source of rhythm created by early humans. The first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments most likely involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to create rhythm. There are bone flutes and pipes which are unambiguously paleolithic. Additionally, pierced phalanges (usually interpreted as "phalangeal whistles"), bullroarers, and rasps have also been discovered. The latter musical finds date back as far as the Paleolithic era, although there is some ambiguity over archaeological finds which can be variously interpreted as either musical or non-musical instruments/tools.

Another possible origin of music is motherese, the vocal-gestural communication between mothers and infants. This form of communication involves melodic, rhythmic and movement patterns as well as the communication of intention and meaning, and in this sense is similar to music.

Geoffrey Miller suggests musical displays play a role in "demonstrating fitness to mate." Based on the ideas of honest signal and the handicap principle, Miller suggested that music and dancing, as energetically costly activities, demonstrated the physical and psychological prowess of the singing and dancing individual. Similarly, communal singing occurs among both sexes in cooperatively breeding songbirds of Australia and Africa, such as magpies and white-browed sparrow-weavers.

Archaeoacoustic methodology
The field of archaeoacoustics uses acoustic techniques to explore prehistoric sounds, soundscapes, and instruments; it has included the study of ringing rocks and lithophones, of the acoustics of ritual sites such as chamber tombs and stone circles, and the exploration of prehistoric instruments using acoustic testing. Such work has included acoustic field tests to capture and analyze the impulse response of archaeological sites; acoustic tests of lithophones or 'rock gongs'; and reconstructions of soundscapes as experimental archaeology.

Egypt
In prehistoric Egypt, music and chanting were commonly used in magic and rituals. The ancient Egyptians credited the goddess Bat with the invention of music. The cult of Bat was eventually syncretised into that of Hathor because both were depicted as cows. Hathor's music was believed to have been used by Osiris as part of his effort to civilise the world. The lion-goddess Bastet was also considered a goddess of music. Rhythms during this time were unvaried and music served to create rhythm. Small shells were used as whistles. During the predynastic period of Egyptian history, funerary chants continued to play an important role in Egyptian religion and were accompanied by clappers or a flute. Despite the lack of physical evidence in some cases, Egyptologists theorise that the development of certain instruments known of the Old Kingdom period, such as the end-blown flute, took place during this time.

Libya
Excavations in 1969 found a 90-115,000 year old bone flute fragment in the Haua Fteah cave in Libya. It has one manmade punctured hole, which resembles similar bone flutes found in Europe and the Mediterranean. The exact species the bone comes from is unknown, but it seems to have come from a large bird.

Southern Africa
The peoples of Southern Africa in the South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zambia region used bone, clay, and metal for creating instruments, as idiophones and aerophones were the two types of instruments that were made. Spinning disks, bone tubes, and a bullroarer were found in the Southern and Western Capes of South Africa that date back from 2525±85 BP - 1732 AD. There were also many more bone tubes found in the Matjes River which may have been used for flutes, trumpets, whistles, bells, and mbira keys. Numerous mbira keys were found in Zimbabwe that date back to 210±90 BP - Later Iron Age.

China
In 1986, several gudi (lit. "bone flutes") were found in Jiahu in Henan Province, China. They date to about 7000 BCE. They have between six and nine holes each and were made from the hollow bones of the red-crowned crane. At the time of discovery, one was found to be still playable. This playable bone flute is capable of using both the five- or seven-note Xia Zhi scale and the six-note Qing Shang scale of the ancient Chinese musical system.

India
India has the oldest musical traditions in the world. References to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological sites.

Israel
The peoples of Israel had prehistoric bones that were specifically aerophones. Several of these bones were excavated at Eynan-Mallaha and date back to 10,730 and 9760 cal BC. Smaller bird bones were preferred to bigger ones due to the difference in sound, although they are more difficult to play as a result of their size. The pitch of the tone the flutes produce are believed to mimic the call of several birds. It is likely that the flute was used for music and dance rather than hunting, since it is limited by the small range of birds imitated. It is common for birds to be used as an inspiration for music such as the Sun Dance of the Plains Indians in which dancers used whistles to mimic eagles, or the Kaluli people who wore rainforest birds' feathers as ornaments.

Vietnam
Two deer antlers were discovered in the Go O Chua site of southern Vietnam which were used as stringed instruments, they are dated to be at minimum 2,000 years old. One discovered in 1997, and the other in 2008. The instrument has a single string which was attached on both ends of the antler, with the burr of the antler forming a bridge. The instrument is similar in form to a Đàn brố, or a K'ni. These are the first stringed instruments archaeologically discovered in Vietnam.

Several lithophones were also found across the country which would have been laid down on strings with wooden or bamboo frames and struck to make noise.

Australia
Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander music includes the music of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. Music has formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of these people, down through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day, and has existed for 40,000 years. The traditional forms include many aspects of performance and musical instrumentation which are unique to particular regions or Indigenous Australian groups; there are equally elements of musical tradition which are common or widespread through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond. The culture of the Torres Strait Islanders is related to that of adjacent parts of New Guinea and so their music is also related. Music is a vital part of Indigenous Australians' cultural maintenance.

Didgeridoo

A didgeridoo is a type of musical instrument that, according to western musicological classification, falls into the category of aerophone. It is one of the oldest instruments to date. It consists of a long tube, without finger holes, through which the player blows. It is sometimes fitted with a mouthpiece of beeswax. Didgeridoos are traditionally made of eucalyptus, but contemporary materials such as PVC piping are used. In traditional situations it is played only by men, usually as an accompaniment to ceremonial or recreational singing, or, much more rarely, as a solo instrument. Skilled players use the technique of circular breathing to achieve a continuous sound, and also employ techniques for inducing multiple harmonic resonances. Traditionally the instrument was not widespread around the country, but was only used by Aboriginal groups in the most northerly areas.

Clapsticks
A clapstick is a type of musical instrument that, according to western musicological classification, falls into the category of percussion. Unlike drumsticks, which are generally used to strike a drum, clapsticks are intended for striking one stick on another, and people as well. They are of oval shape with paintings of snakes, lizards, birds and more.

Gum leaf
Used as a hand-held free reed instrument.

Bullroarer
A bullroarer consists of a weighted airfoil (a rectangular thin slat of wood about 15 cm (6 in) to 60 cm (24 in) long and about 1.25 cm (0.5 in) to 5 cm (2 in) wide) attached to a long cord. Typically, the wood slat is trimmed down to a sharp edge around the edges, and serrations along the length of the wooden slat may or may not be used, depending on the cultural traditions of the region in question.

The cord is given a slight initial twist, and the roarer is then swung in a large circle in a horizontal plane, or in a smaller circle in a vertical plane. The aerodynamics of the roarer will keep it spinning about its axis even after the initial twist has unwound. The cord winds fully first in one direction and then the other, alternating.

It makes a characteristic roaring vibrato sound with notable sound modulations occurring from the rotation of the roarer along its longitudinal axis, and the choice of whether a shorter or longer length of cord is used to spin the bullroarer. By modifying the expansiveness of its circuit and the speed given it, and by changing the plane in which the bullroarer is whirled from horizontal to vertical or vice versa, the modulation of the sound produced can be controlled, making the coding of information possible.

 * Audio/visual demonstration
 * Sound modulation by changing orbital plane.

The low-frequency component of the sound travels extremely long distances, clearly audible over many miles on a quiet night.

The use of bullroarers has also been documented in ancient Greece, Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, Mali, New Zealand, and the Americas (see Bullroarer). Banks Island Eskimos were still using bullroarers circa 1963 (59-year-old "Susie" being documented scaring off four polar bears armed with only three seal hooks and vocals. Aleut, Eskimo and Inuit used bullroarers occasionally as a children's toy or musical instruments, but preferred drums and rattles.

Austria and Hungary
Clay bells were found in Austria and Hungary which date to the early neolithic period. One is from the Starčevo site in Gellénháza, Hungary, and the other is from the Brunn site located on the outskirts of Vienna which was excavated in 1999. Unlike modern bells these bells lack a clapper. They were suspended by string and most likely struck with wooden sticks or animal bones. Both bells were recreated and played, but neither were loud enough to be used as instruments, which might be why they were destroyed and thrown away.

France
A one-of-a-kind Upper Paleolithic era Seashell Horn was discovered in the Marsoulas cave in 1931, which is made of a Charonia lampus shell. Dating back to the early Magdalenian period, it was modified to be played as a wind instrument by blowing air through the mouthpiece located at the apex. There are engravings on the inside of the lip, while unclear what the engravings represent, it is clear that they were intentional.

Germany
In 2008, archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany. The five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The researchers involved in the discovery officially published their findings in the journal Nature in June 2009. It is one of several similar instruments found in the area, which date to around 42,000 years ago, making this the oldest confirmed finds of any musical instruments in history. The Hohle Fels flute was found next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the "finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe". Scientists have also suggested that the discovery of the flute may help to explain why early humans survived, while Neanderthals became extinct.

Greece
On the island of Keros (Κέρος), two marble statues from the late Neolithic culture called Early Cycladic culture (2900–2000 BCE) were discovered together in a single grave in the 19th century. They depict a standing double flute player and a sitting musician playing a triangular-shaped lyre or harp. The harpist is approximately 23 cm high and dates to around 2700–2500 BCE. He expresses concentration and intense feelings and tilts his head up to the light. The meaning of these and many other figures is not known; perhaps they were used to ward off evil spirits, had religious significance, served as toys, or depicted figures from mythology.

Ireland
The oldest known wooden pipes were discovered in Wicklow, Ireland, in the winter of 2003, carbon-dated at around 2167±30 BCE. A wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. They may once have been strapped together.

Slovakia
A clay egg-shaped rattle, bottle-shaped rattles, and pan pipes made of bone were all discovered in Slovakia. They are dated back to 300-800 AD, during the Migration Period. Music culture in Slovakia had not formed until the 9th century while these instruments go back to 4-6th century AD, so while they cannot be connected to Slovak culture they prove that music had existed in this region at that time. They may have been used for ceremonies, rituals, or cults for dancing and singing to ward off evil spirits or call to the gods for help.

Slovenia
The oldest flute ever discovered may be the so-called Divje Babe flute, found in the Cerkno Hills, Slovenia in 1995, though this is disputed. The item in question is a fragment of the femur of a juvenile cave bear, and has been dated to about 43,000 years ago. However, whether it is truly a musical instrument or simply a carnivore-chewed bone is a matter of ongoing debate. In 2012, some flutes that were discovered years earlier in the Geißenklösterle cave received a new high-resolution carbon-dating examination yielding an age of 42,000 to 43,000 years.

Canada
For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by Indigenous Peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Each of the Indigenous communities had (and have) their own unique musical traditions. Chanting – singing is widely popular, with many of its performers also using a variety of musical instruments. They used the materials at hand to make their instruments for thousands of years before Europeans immigrated to the new world. They made gourds and animal horns into rattles which were elaborately carved and beautifully painted. In woodland areas, they made horns of birchbark along with drumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides. These musical instruments provide the background for songs and dances.

title: Prehistoric music


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Great Houghton

Great Houghton may refer to:

 * Great Houghton, Northamptonshire, England
 * Great Houghton, South Yorkshire, England
 * Great Houghton Halt, a railway station in South Yorkshire, England
 * Great Houghton Cricket Club, a cricket club in Northampton, England

title: Great Houghton


text:
Talk:Chernobyl exclusion zone

Untitled
It would be a big overhaul, but this article is filled with subtle historical inaccuracies, plus a lot of redundancies and discrepancies with the other Chernobyl articles. Anyone want to help me take on a massive edit? Mfrphoto (talk) 19:40, 22 March 2011 (UTC)

A major source of information is the authoritative article by Zbigniew Jaworowski, former Chairman of UNSCEAR, which can be accessed at http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles_2010/Summer_2010/Observations_Chernobyl.pdf. Unfortunately, I haven't the time to help incorporate this invaluable information into the Chernobyl articles. Anarchie76 (talk) 11:18, 24 March 2011 (UTC) The Zone is inappropriate alternative name because zona in colloquial Russian/Ukrainian/Belarusian means "jail". Also, we need redirects here from "the forth - Fourth Zone" and the "Chernobyl zone". I have honestly tried to work with redirect templates today, but they're above my knowledge so far:).

Would some movie-concerned Wikifellow link this page to the films portraying exactly the Forth Zone (unlike Stalker). Take a look at - if you read Russian (and have a cheap cable connection : )

Now, the only obstacle to remove stub template is I think the lack of maps. Experts? Michael, Steshcke?AlexPU

 * The guy was right: redirects are needed indeed. I found out that Chernobyl accident has neither links here nor mentions of (!?). Chornobyl zone is also OK. Ukrained 19:02, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Shame on us, AlexPU :). I followed your typo like a fool and created erroneous redirect! Ukrained 19:19, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * And let's capitalize some redirect names. Ukrained 19:29, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

I would suggest to use "Exclusion Zone" as the main term and link instead of "Zone of Alienation". "Exclusion Zone" is the term the institutions within the Exclusion Zone use themselves, and which are used in international project papers like for UN projects etc. I do not want to just overwrite your content, this is why you may see this as a friendly suggestion and contribtuion for you to consider. If you would like to have a photo of the model of the reactor after the accident on the page, let me know, I would make a good one available for this purpose on Commons. Other stuff and text maybe available on request, like a photo of the logo of the power plant (ChNPP) displayed near the red forest (the one that burnt from a radioactive dust cloud). This is my first Wiki text, please excuse in case I make a mistake with anything. Othertwice1 (talk) 14:23, 1 July 2008 (UTC)

"A motorcycle trip inside the zone (later confirmed as a hoax)"
Okay why is this even an external link if it's being called a hoax? Talk about being hypocritical, we're giving free advertising to someone who rigged the whole thing apparently just to get some attention. If it is to stay then it has to be discussed because it actually managed to get peoples attention back onto what happened.

Either it should be discussed or deleted, not just left as a festering link to a hoax. 83.100.152.98 00:02, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

 * It was me who marked the report as a hoax. I admit, it was a bit harsh: Helena (or whatever her real name is) did go to the Zone. However, not on a bike (she only took her gear and helmet), and certainly not by herself but with other people who also paid for the organized tour (seriously, do you really expect people who back in the Soviet times were feared by NATO generals to simply let a "pretty girl on a bike" ride in? Come on) --Bicycle repairman 03:35, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

RPG's?
From the 'Status' section: Numerous short-term tours and research expeditions into the zone are organized for Ukrainian and foreign citizens (mostly scientists, politicians, and the occasional computer game development team for RPG development). That last one sounds dubious. Pendragon39 16:15, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

 * It sounds like a bit of a joke. Maybe it happened once and one of the people in question added it here. Personally I don't think there's any point in saying "Ukrainian and foreign citizens" either (there aren't many places closed specifically to foreigners in Ukraine any more) and there's not a heck of a lot of point in listing the other professions either. I don't even think it's true to say "mostly..."; anyone (e.g. tourists) can, I'm told, book a tour from Kiev for between $100 and $200, and if you just drive to the zone, as I have, it's possible to avoid the checkpoints on the main roads by "getting lost" on tracks in the forest. – Kieran T  ( talk  16:52, 10 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, you've been there - please modify the sentence to make it more accurate :) Pendragon39 17:30, 10 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Yeah! I was just being chicken and hiding out on the talk page because for some odd reason these Chernobyl-related articles seem to get ever-so controversial! But you're right, I should make a change, hang on... ;) – Kieran T  ( talk  17:33, 10 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Looks good :) Pendragon39 00:09, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

Mixing Game/reality?
"There is also a complex social system of STALKERS that salvage artifacts from the radioactive anomalies that the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant has caused."

I cannot believe that this would be true, but it more sounds like straightly taken from the game "STALKER: Shadow of Chernobyl". Guess someonehas mixed up reality and game. Can someone confirm and change this? (i would have changed the page if i was 100% certain). Of course, i'm certain there are no anomalies like those in that game, but since i'm not very into radioactivity, i'm not sure if there are things at all called anomalies when it comes to radition. (As in maybe a local higher level of radiation?) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 213.67.3.200 (talk) 18:09, 4 April 2007 (UTC).

 * This is stated in the first section of the "S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl" page here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.T.A.L.K.E.R.:_Shadow_of_Chernobyl

 * "Some terminology of the game ("The Zone", "Stalker") as well as the background idea is borrowed from the popular science fiction book Roadside Picnic by Boris and Arkady Strugatsky, as well as the 1979 film Stalker, which was adapted from the book."

 * As far as I can find, STALKERS are not a real thing. There are people who loot the site, as mentioned in some of the Chernobyl articles, but they are not called STALKERS, nor do they have a complex social system. 205.211.50.10 02:05, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Quite clearly a pisstake. Some of the research scientists who work near the Zone call themselves Stalkers because of the culture surrounding the Zone, but the guys who grab bits and pieces of metal in Chernobyl and fence it in Kiev or online arn't stalkers.--70.178.224.225 04:26, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah, there are people taking stuff from the area and selling it. But stalker isn't the (correct) term for them. They're more-or-less scrap hunters. Even I thought about going there and selling what I can find, you can make a hefty fortune off of all that stuff left over from the evacuations. Royaljared (talk) 01:30, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

Relevance of Stalker film to Chernobyl incident?
"Stalker is a 1979 film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky, based on a 1972 novel by Boris and Arkady Strugatsky entitled Roadside Picnic. Both describe a mysterious and forbidden "zone", depopulated of human life by an unexplained disaster, and Tarkovsky's film in particular has come to symbolize the exclusion zone in the minds of many commentators."

The film Stalker, as well as the novel, are more based off of the Mayak incident, and the film was actually made seven years before the Chernobyl incident.--127.0.0.1 01:14, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

I think it's included because it portrays the idea of the "zone" which was never an issue of the Mayak incident, so it's still relevant. Pongley (talk) 09:20, 7 October 2010 (UTC)

This section is for "cultural references" and not cultural coincidences. Removing the line about Stalker unless someone can find a source stating the naming of The Zone was a direct reference to the Tarkovsky film. (68.34.31.6 (talk) 03:51, 4 May 2012 (UTC)) It could not have been an influence: The film was made in the decade before the disaster. Nevertheless, there's evidence that the Tarkovsky movie and the book it was based upon was used as a cultural reference when people began to talk about the Zone: 'Stalking' became applied to activities in the Zone as a result of that film. I'll eventually get around to writing this evidence into the page. -- Cooper 42(Talk)(Contr) 17:04, 4 May 2012 (UTC)

The bunker
I heared that there is a large radiation-protected facility under the radar building still functioning. It includes food, clean air and energy reserves. It it true?--212.1.251.138 22:50, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

History
The history section is too sentimental for Wikipedia. Can someone change? (SirGrotius 19:22, 9 October 2007 (UTC))

Map?
Now it's been a few years since I took a course in geography, but 30Km is a pretty range. does anyone know where Chernobyl is in Ukraine? Maybe it would be helpful to the more map-minded if they knew where it was. Sixer Fixer (talk) 01:24, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

Coordinates?
I've commented out the coordinates (for now). Can someone explain why we have coordinates for this article? (especially displayed in the title). Are the coordinates in the centre of the zone? Please don't bite me if I haven't understood. --smadge1 (talk) 10:24, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

CoD4: MW
Added to the Cultural precedents and references section, someone forgot that Call of Duty 4 has a level set in Prypiat. Dragonshardz (talk) 18:57, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Looting
Despite police control, intruders often infiltrate the perimeter and remove polluted materials, from electronics to toilet seats, especially in Pripyat

Even if there is really such a big market these days for pre-1986 Soviet-manufactured electronic goods would it be common to actually find such items in working order having been stored unused in less than ideal conditions for over two decades ? 86.112.254.163 (talk) 11:00, 26 April 2009 (UTC)
 * They are looking for precious metals I think, such as gold, silver, platinum, rather than for working electronics.--Dojarca (talk) 11:14, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

They're looking for ANY metal, as well as for wires, pipes and non-rusting plumbing parts:( —Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.133.151.124 (talk) 20:59, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

The spamsection
Ladies and gentlemen, the "Cultural precedents and references" has become a spamdrive for a growing number of people. I suggest to clean it up from everything except Strugatsky novel and Tarkovsky film (which still need citations), and I`m going to be bold and do it myself in a week. Ukrained (talk) 20:10, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

Dubious
I see a number of minor factual errors in this article. (I spent the past year working in the Chernobyl zone). However, I am new to editing Wikipedia entries so please look and see if I followed conventions correctly. Thanks. Mfrphoto (talk) 21:36, 28 August 2009 (UTC)mfrphoto

I've made some factual corrections, but there are some other problems I refrained from fixing as I am not positive about the facts. These are, in order:

1...in order to evacuate the local population : I don't believe the zone was created until after the evacuation. 2 It would be useful to add an explanation of the 4 different zones in the Purpose and status section. 3 Zone authorities pay much attention to protecting such spots from tourists, scrap hunters and wildfires : this may be true on paper but is certainly not true in reality 4 It is partly excluded from the regular civil rule. : Can anyone tell me what this means? 5 The flora and fauna section needs to be updated and made more coherent. 6. Yaniv station: never heard it called this name so I changed it but perhaps someone knows better than I. Mfrphoto (talk) 05:00, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I'd agree. It's the First Zone, not the Fourth. And it is entirely in Kyivska Oblast. The railway station in question is called "industrial siding of the ChAES" now according to this map, although Yaniv station did exist somewhere on that line before the disaster. However, the terminus of the passenger service, according to this schedule, is Semykhody.

Zone dimensions
The phrase "Chornobyl's'ka zona оr Четверта зона, Chetverta zona) is the 30 km/19 mi exclusion zone around the site" is misleading. Dimensions (radius) of the most contaminated closed zone exceed(ed) 30 km by far in almost every direction. The name "The 30 Kilometer Zone" in Russian was just a lie, characteristic to Soviet authorities. 193.40.133.134 (talk) 12:52, 16 July 2010 (UTC)

Does anyone know the full geographical extent of the zone of alienation? How many square kilometers are we talking about? The maps is useful, but it's hard to estimate from that. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.155.152.138 (talk) 11:11, 17 March 2011 (UTC)

Chernobyl Stalking
Has anyone started the move to the Zone of alienation? If not, I can C.C.Peterson (talk) 15:46, 24 October 2010 (UTC)

Useless map?
Currently, this article gives a map of the Zone of Alienation. Can someone explain the characteristics of the different zones? Thanks, --Abdull (talk) 23:05, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

Please read the legend on the map for some information. Somitcw (talk) 16:10, 27 August 2017 (UTC)

Referencing
This article has a lot of uncited statements. Jezhotwells (talk) 15:59, 12 April 2011 (UTC)

Article re-name
The article name seems long and formal (currently "Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone"). In English, it is often just called the "Chernobyl exclusion zone". Perhaps I'm wrong, and we need to say "Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant" in full, and "Exclusion Zone" needs to be capitalized as a proper noun. I'd like to see what others thought about simplifying the article name. Green Cardamom (talk) 19:31, 12 November 2011 (UTC)

The Ukrainian official name is: Зона відчуження Чорнобильської АЕС Which translates directly as Chernobyl NPP Zone of Alienation where NPP stands for Nuclear Power plant (атомна електростанція)

You are right, though, that it is most often refered to in English as the "Chernobyl Exclusion Zone" (Zone of Alienation gets used rarely, and ocasionally the now-inaccurate colloquialism "30km Zone" gets used in English and Ukrainian). This is backed up by its use by scientists and scholars on the Zone. Google scholar sees "Chernobyl NPP Exclusion Zone" in about 75 results, "Chernobyl nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone" in about 25 resulst and "Chernobyl Exclusion Zone" in over 200 results.

In reality, the usual borders of the Zone as it is known is actually a some of two parts of a four-zone system: the central exclusion Zone and bits of the "Compulsory reloaction Zone": http://www.chernobyl.info/Default.aspx?tabid=130&map=58_en exact definition of borders is difficult (officail documentation prduce different boundaries, though one set is more common than another), but that's another issue. --Cooper42 17:39, 25 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Somebody messed up the article naming, which is, officially and clearly, the "Zone of alienation" in Ukrainian. We need it back. 93.75.164.119 (talk) 11:41, 6 January 2013 (UTC)
 * We don't use "official" names always. We use the name that is most common and best understood in the English language world. -- Green Cardamom (talk) 16:41, 6 January 2013 (UTC)
 * If you mean the Google by "English-language world") than they are almost equal in usage:

 *
 * 93.75.164.119 (talk) 12:20, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
 * No, don't mean by Google, at least not those searches or results. -- Green Cardamom (talk) 16:11, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

Area
"it initially existed as an area of 30 kilometer radius ... it now covers a much larger area ... The Exclusion Zone covers an area of approximately 2,600 km2"

That doesn't seem to make sense. The area of a circle with radius 30 km exceeds 2600 sq km. Should this be rephrased or corrected? Martin Rattigan (talk) 14:35, 8 January 2013 (UTC)

You are, of course, correct. π*302 = 2,827km2 as the area. What it should claim is that it now covers a larger area of the territory of Ukraine; given that much of the 30km radius zone was in Belarus (which has it's own Zone / 'nature reserve'). Will edit accordingly -- Cooper 42 (Talk)(Contr) 04:32, 10 January 2013 (UTC)

Dead Link
Not sure how to file an actual report for it, and I don't have time to figure it out (last minute research paper night). Link #8 ("Zoning of radioactively contaminated territory of Ukraine according to actual regulations") goes to an error page. Either a replacement link is needed or it must be removed. Mazt (talk) 01:04, 14 May 2013 (UTC)

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Half-life
In 1986, Wormwood poisoned the Earth that also made one-third of the Earths fresh waters bitter. But, that was over 30 years ago.

Radioactive Iodine-131 has a half-life of eight days so is almost gone in six months and zilch before a year is up. Radioactive Caesium-137 ( a.k.a. Cesium-137 ) has a half-life of 30 years so should be half of the original poisoning by today. Fresh water flowing into the oceans should have reduced bitter water to almost nothing. If the exclusions zones are based on radioactivity, then they should have shrunk.

Did the zones shrink or were the limits lowered?

Confiscated/Closed Zone was: Greater than 40 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137 should now be: Greater than 20 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137?

Permanent Control Zone was: 15 to 40 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137 should now be: 7.5 to 20 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137?

Periodic Control Zone was: 5 to 15 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137 should now be: 2.5 to 7.5 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137?

Unnamed Zone was: 1 to 15 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137 should now be: 0.5 to 7.5 curies per square kilometer of Caesium-137?

We have the same issue coming up in another 30 years.

Other weird questions:

Are the remaining people living in the exclusion being supplied with Prussian Blue to flush Caesium-137 quickly or doesn't the government care? Did the government supply non-radioactive Iodine before the Iodine-131 was gone in six months to a year? Why wasn't Strontium-90 ( also a thirty year half-life ) mentioned and are people told to not drink the milk for a few hundred years?

Somitcw (talk) 16:10, 27 August 2017 (UTC)
 * "Wormwood"? You mean, that doesn't-exist killer star/asteroid/wachamacallit? Please keep that stuff off here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.111.8.107 (talk) 20:16, 11 April 2020 (UTC)

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Proposal to add Chernobyl Tourism section
We have recently sought to have an article placed in the namespace about a company which conducts guided tours of the Chernobyl site and it has been suggested by the reviewer that it be merged with this article instead. The company is CHERNOBYLwel.come and the draft article is Draft:CHERNOBYLwel.come. Your opinions would be welcome. Gibmul (talk) 15:13, 1 April 2019 (UTC)

 * I have added the section https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone#Chernobyl_tourism as recommended by the reviewer User:AngusWOOF Your comments are welcome.Gibmul (talk) 14:00, 26 April 2019 (UTC)

April 2020 forest fire
Do we have any good sources about the forest fires in the exclusion zone right now? Here's a video from the ISRN = Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire showing how the smoke from the fire has swept across a fair bit of Europe. Boud (talk) 22:39, 19 April 2020 (UTC)

Chernobyl or Chornobyl
The article uses "Chernobyl" and "Chornobyl" in different places. While both are valid, although I'd suggest perhaps "Chernobyl" is more widely known and used, shouldn't one be picked to be consistent throughout the content? I can see some cited sources use Chornobyl in the cite URL or title, which should possibly be left alone. Jamesmacwhite (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 20:52, 19 February 2022 (UTC)
 * I also wondered about this. A check with Google confirms that "Chernobyl" is overwhelmingly the preferred spelling, at least for English speakers. I agree it should be left as "Chornobyl" if spelled that way in outside sources, but if there's no objection to me changing the other instances, I'll do so. Tisnec (talk) 23:23, 26 February 2022 (UTC)

 * It should be "Chernobyl" as that is the name of the article because it is without question the common name. It is inconsistent because there are always driveby editors who ignore policy and try to change this. Mellk (talk) 23:45, 26 February 2022 (UTC)

20,000
Multiple sources for this information. I am wondering why you have removed information which was sourced. Here are sources for the 20,000 number Bruxton (talk) 16:38, 28 February 2023 (UTC)
 * 1) Newsweek
 * 2) National Geographic
 * 3) Power Technology
 * 4) Energy Democracies for Sustainable Futures
 * I clicked on one of your sources at random and it did not contain the 20,000 years statement. The figure is arbitrary and flies in the face of common sense, regardless of how many uneducated journalists repeat it in a game of telephone. The primary hazards of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone are Cesium-137, Strontium-90 and transuranic elements like Plutonium and Americium. The former two nuclides will be essentially gone in under 300 years. The Plutonium and Americium will be around for much longer than that, for up to hundreds of thousands of years. So the 20,000 figure is wrong no matter what approach you use. And that is entirely disregarding what the definition of "habitability" is, without which it is a meaningless scare quote that does not belong in an informative article, just one meant to play on emotions.Sredmash (talk) 00:33, 1 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I am not sure as an editor you personally have the right to reject multiple RS which repeat the claim. We must follow the RS and not decide unilaterally that journalists have arrived at a figure of 20,000 through "a game of telephone".
 * Newsweek " It is thought that the reactor site will not become habitable again for at least 20,000 years, according to a 2016 report."
 * National Geographic " More than 30 years on, scientists estimate the zone around the former plant will not be habitable for up to 20,000 years."
 * Power Technology - I may have linked the incorrect source, it is this one. "Meanwhile, Reactor No. 4, now covered by the New Safe Confinement, is estimated to remain highly radioactive for up to 20,000 years."
 * Energy Democracies for Sustainable Futures "According to some experts, it will take another 20,000 years before the area immediately surrounding the Chernobyl plant - called the exlusion zone .... fit for habitation."
 * Bruxton (talk) 03:53, 1 March 2023 (UTC)
 * As an editor you have no obligation to seek out and repost the least-informed and least-useful statements, simply because they have a source. All those quotes are very poor quality information by Wikipedia standards, employing weasel words. Why not go find the actual sources that quote these "experts" and "scientists" or "reports" to provide some actual information on the mythical 20,000 year cut-off? Why gravitate to the most trivial and misleading information available, simply because it appears on the front page of Google?Sredmash (talk) 14:24, 1 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the response. I think we have an obligation to include the information, but it is not productive for either of us to keep a back and forth going. I have understood your points. Bruxton (talk) 21:13, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

Requested move 2 August 2023

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved. Rough consensus to move; while the number of editors supporting and opposing the move was roughly equal consensus is not based on counting votes but on strength of argument. When considered in this light, those supporting the move had the strongest argument, based on the evidence they presented in the form of ngrams. (closed by non-admin page mover) BilledMammal (talk) 13:15, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

Chernobyl Exclusion Zone → Chernobyl exclusion zone – Per WP:NCCAPS and MOS:CAPS, apply sentence case unless capped in a substantial majority of sources. This is not. See ngram Cinderella157 (talk) 00:30, 2 August 2023 (UTC) — Relisting. BilledMammal (talk) 02:10, 9 August 2023 (UTC) The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. This discussion was not concluded. There was no consensus and the article should not have been railroaded into a move. No one has engaged with my arguments in favor of the status quo. Definitive sources such as the Encyclopedia Brittanica, National Geographic, the New York Times, Nature journal and The Lancet journal all capitalize each noun. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-chernobyl-has-become-unexpected-haven-wildlife https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/life-goes-on-chernobyl-35-years-after-worlds-worst-nuclear-accident https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanonc/PIIS1470204513704170.pdf https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-22842-5 I still haven't seen an actual argument as to why we should capital the trailing nouns in Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and Kyiv Oblast, but not for the Zone.20:17, 16 August 2023 (UTC)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sredmash (talk • contribs)
 * Support. It does appear to be descriptive rather than a formal name. ╠╣uw [ talk ] 12:20, 2 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose. This is a formal name, as is common knowledge. Furthermore in Russian it is frequently abbreviated as 'ChZO' which cements its status as a proper noun. The situation is complicated by the fact that the word 'otchuzhdenie' is very seldom used outside of the context of this exclusion zone in particular. Sometimes it is translated as 'Alienation Zone' for that reason, so rendering it as a common noun fails to capture the usage and connotation of the name for more reasons than one. Sredmash (talk) 18:23, 2 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I would observe that, like English, initialisms are capitalisted in Russian etc but that does not ipso facto make the phrase being abbreviated a proper name|noun. Also, Russian capitalises proper names and when expanded but otchuzhdenie is not capitalised. Cinderella157 (talk) 22:38, 2 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Russian is notoriously stingy with capitalization by comparison with English, frequently capitalizing the first letter when English would capitalize all of the words. But they still capitalize 'Zone' when colloquially shortening the name, as is also done in English. Really there is no basis in the Wikipedia policy I can see for this proposal. The Zone is a political region with borders. If you would capitalize Chernobyl Rayon (district), you would capitalize the Zone. Just like a political district, the Zone has its own governing body, specific laws and institutions. From both a formal perspective and a colloquial one, it warrants capitalization.Sredmash (talk) 12:30, 3 August 2023 (UTC)
 * This search This of google books does not support the assertion that zone is consistently capped in Russian in the phrase " Зона адчужэння Чарнобыльскай Зона отчуждения Чернобыльской ". Yes, English is less formal in respect to capitalisation and one will often see phrases capitalised for emphasis or distinction (similar to italics) but we don't do that here (per MOS:SIGNIFCAPS). Most European languages (with the notable exception of German) tend to reserve capitalisation for proper nouns|names. As you appear to be unaware of the prevailing WP:P&G (already linked), MOS:CAPS states: only words and phrases that are consistently capitalized in a substantial majority of independent, reliable sources are capitalized in Wikipedia. WP:NCCAPS (linked from WP:AT) gives specific voice to MOS:CAPS. That WP:OTHERTHINGS exist is only a valid argument if they represent WP best practice. Qualifiers such as state or district for geopolitical regions are not always capitalised on WP. See for example List of districts in India, since capitalisation is determind by MOS:CAPS and evidence of usage. Cinderella157 (talk) 01:45, 4 August 2023 (UTC) Amend Cinderella157 (talk) 04:08, 4 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't recommend trying to dabble in languages you don't speak. Зона адчужэння Чарнобыльскай is not Russian. I already made an argument as to why 'exclusion' is nearly unique in its usage here. Why don't you convince everyone to decapitalize every Oblast in Ukraine, and then come back to this discussion.Sredmash (talk) 02:21, 4 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Per WP:ENGLISH, our concern here is how the subject is most commonly identified in English language sources. If it's capped in other languages like Russian or Belarusian, that's fine, but that would apply to the title as it appears in the corresponding non-English Wikipedias. ╠╣uw [ talk ] 09:40, 5 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. This is not consistently capitalized in sources, we don't care here what is done in other languages, and capitalization of acronyms tells us nothing at all about capitalization of aconrym expansions.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  14:36, 5 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Looks like a proper name to me. -- Necrothesp (talk) 15:36, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support – Perhaps "Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Zone of Alienation" is a proper name, but the current title is not. Dicklyon (talk) 05:07, 9 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Its like a human name, do you say the last name with a lower case? No. The name change is pointless, as its like saying to rename the United States to “United states” because the S is capitalized.. SnowieLuna1212 (talk) 16:46, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * If you believe it was closed incorrectly then WP:MRV exists. There's a fairly solid argument of No Consensus, and per WP:TITLECHANGES, reverting to its default capitalized title. ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 10:10, 18 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I am a subject matter expert regarding this article, but an inexperienced Wikipedia editor. I don't know how to initiate these kinds of deliberations and would likely break something by just reverting. Is there anyone who can assist with procedure?Sredmash (talk) 12:39, 18 August 2023 (UTC)
 * The instructions are in the green box at WP:IMR. They are not super complex, as it just involves copying and filling in a template. Step 1 was already done, as you clearly informed the closer of your wish for them to revert the close as a WP:BADNAC #2 and they disagreed. ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 16:59, 18 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chernobyl exclusion zone


text:
Volvo C70

The Volvo C70 is a two-door, four-passenger sports GT manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars from 1996 to 2013 across two generations.

The first generation (1996–2005) was available as both a coupé (1996–2002) and softtop convertible (1997–2005). The second generation (2006–2013) was available as a retractable hardtop convertible.

First generation (1996–2005)
Volvo debuted the first generation C70 at the 1996 Paris Motor Show, and introduced it in Europe as a 1997 model, and a year later as a 1998 model in North America — with 2.0 (sold mostly in Italy), a low-pressure turbo (2.4L) and a high-pressure turbo (2.0L and 2.3L), 5-cylinder, turbocharged petrol engines and manual and automatic transmissions. Ian Callum designed the exterior and Mexican designer Jose Diaz de la Vega led the interior design team.

The C70 broke Volvo's decades-long styling tradition of boxy, rectilinear designs and was Volvo's first luxury coupe since the 780. According to a tongue-in-check remark made by Peter Horbury, Volvo's design chief from 1991 to 2002, with the C70, Volvo "kept the toy, and threw away the box!" "Our vision was to design a convertible that would meet the needs of a family of four looking for comfortable blue-sky motoring in a vehicle also providing stylish looks, performance and faultless driving and road-holding."

In a development program of 30 months and working with a Volvo 850-derived platform, Britain’s TWR (Tom Walkinshaw Racing) co-designed the car's basic design and suspension tuning with Volvo. Manufacture of the C70 was a joint venture until the two companies experienced disputes that threatened to interrupt production; TWR did not contribute to the second generation C70.

Volvo's first modern convertible, the C70 was manufactured in Uddevalla, Sweden on an assembly line separate from the 70-series sedan and station wagon. The four-passenger convertible featured an electrically heated glass rear window; automatic (pop-up) rollover hoops system, marketed as ROPS; seat belt pre-tensioners; A-pillars reinforced with boron steel; front and side airbags; and a safety cage — a horseshoe-like structure around the passenger compartment.

The cloth convertible top, initially available in four colors, was fully automatic, operated by a single, dashboard-mounted control. The top stored automatically under an integral rigid tonneau cover, using a system pioneered in modern convertibles with the fourth generation Mercedes SL.

The C70 convertible exhibited two negative traits endemic to convertibles: poor rear visibility and pronounced scuttle shake, a characteristic where the structural design of the bulkhead between the engine and passenger compartments of a convertible suffers sufficiently poor rigidity to negatively impact ride and handling — and allow noticeable vibration, shudder or chassis-flexing into the passenger compartment.

Early special editions featured two-tone leather interior with wood trim and a SC-901 (1998) Dolby Pro Logic I stereo with 3-disc integrated changer unit (via a cartridge) 400 watts of power and 11 high end Dynaudio speakers.

C70
The C70, was introduced to the press in a signature color (saffron pearl metallic) and for the debut marketing, the 1997 film The Saint featured a C70 — recalling the notable connection of the Volvo P1800 and the television series from the early 1960s, The Saint with Roger Moore as Simon Templar. The total number of cars produced with the signature saffron pearl metallic paint was reportedly 145. There was no 2005 model C70 in North America, the 2004 left over models were sold into 2005 there. 72,000 first generation C70s were produced in the seven years up to 2006, fewer than 50,000 were convertibles.

Volvo cosmetically updated the convertible with new clear headlights and rear light clusters for model year 2004.

C70 Collection special edition
Introduced in February 2004, the C70 Collection package featured Titanium Grey Pearl exterior with Toscana Tan exclusive soft leather. It included special deco stitching in the seats, armrests, sun visors and door panels, together with aluminium inserts in the centre stack and other interior fittings. It was also available in Black Sapphire, Titanium Grey Pearl or Silver metallic exterior combined with Off Black exclusive soft leather with contrast deco stitching. In this form it had Carbon-fibre inserts in the centre stack and other interior fittings. Both packages included an exclusive polished 17-inch wheel design, and luxury floor mats. The exclusive leather also extended to the door panels.

Relative sales performance
Of the 72,000 first generation C70s produced worldwide, 26,036 were Coupés and 46,786 were Convertibles. Volvo Cars of North America reported that 24,948 Convertibles were sold in the US, plus 6,465 Coupés. Of those US-market Coupés, 603 had the 2.3 Liter engine with high pressure turbo (T5) and the M56 5-speed manual transmission. It's believed only 135 of the C70 T5M coupés painted "Saffron" made it to the US market.

Second generation (2006–2013)
The second generation C70 model debuted at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show, sharing the Volvo S40 platform, designed by John Kinsey and built by Pininfarina Sverige AB — a joint venture between Pininfarina and Volvo (and the first time Pininfarina has manufactured outside Italy). The C70 retractable hardtop replaces its predecessors two models: both the convertible and the coupé, the latter which had been absent from Volvo's lineup since 2003. The retractable hardtop went on sale in the U.S. in spring 2006.

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in the United States conducted its first crash tests of several convertibles, designating the C70 a "Top Safety Pick".

Top mechanism
The three-section hardtop assembly, manufactured by Pininfarina in Uddevalla by its subsidiary RHTU Sverige A.B. and developed with Webasto, raises or lowers in under 30 seconds and includes a global window switch that allows simultaneous raising or lowering of all windows, and a button to power-activate the raising of the folded top stack within the trunk — specifically to increase access to cargo storage when the top is lowered.

Operation of the retractable hard top is possible only when the car is stationary and requires no extra space behind the car while the roof is being raised or lowered but requires a height clearance of six feet seven inches (2,006.6 mm) — and requires the driver to hold the console button for the full operation. The top features a fabric headliner that unfurls and is tensioned by wires as the roof moves into place, as well as mesh wind blocker that clips over the rear seats when driving with two front passengers. The blocker has zippered openings for parcel storage and folds in half for trunk stowage.

The trunk lid, which opens both in a rear-hinged mode to stow the folding roof as well as standard a front-hinged mode for luggage loading, is aluminum — while the three roof sections are steel. A trunk divider enables assessment of precisely how much can be loaded with the roof down. Trunk space is 13 cubic feet with the top raised (368.12 L) and seven cubic feet (198.22 L) with the top lowered.

A hatch in the backrest of the rear seat enables transport of long objects inside the car, e.g., skis. Overall body rigidity is improved by approximately 15 percent when the roof is raised.

Safety
Safety systems include a door-mounted side impact protection inflatable which inflates upward when activated. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are slightly offset from each other. This allows them to remain upright and offer effective head protection even with the window open. The curtain also deflates slowly to provide protection should the car roll over. This is a unique solution in the automotive world.

The C70 retractable hardtop also features a roll over protection structure (ROPS) with two pyrotechnically charged roll hoops hidden behind the rear seats that deploy under roll-over conditions whether the roof is retracted or not. Volvo featured this advancement in a copy of the "Volvo Saved My Life Club" brochures. There, a woman was able to walk away from an accident after she slid off an ice-covered mountain road and rolled her C70 which then slid more than 30 ft down the mountain face.

Production
As of 2006, production was increased from 16,000 annual units to 20,000. A total of 88,760 Volvo C70 II were sold between 2006 and 2015. The last Volvo C70 rolled off the production line on the 25th of June 2013.

2010 update
Volvo introduced an updated version of the C70, in Flamenco Red Pearl paint, at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show, and later at the 2010 South Florida International Auto Show. Revisions included a redesigned front end and new rear LED lamps.

The engine and transmission remain the same as before, and the interior is largely unchanged. It went on sale in early 2010.

The US model went on sale in 2010 as a 2011 model year vehicle. Early model includes C70 T5.

C70 Inscription (2011–2013)
The C70 Inscription is a limited (2,000 units a year) version of the C70 with choice of three colours (Black Stone (Solid), Black Sapphire (Metallic) and Ice White (Solid)), 18-inch Midir wheels in black with polished spokes and outer perimeter, high-gloss paint on the grille and the LED Daytime Running Lights surrounded by contrasting chrome, an exclusive leather-covered dashboard with contrasting stitching, Sovereign Hide upholstery in Off Black or Calcite with the same contrasting stitching as on dashboard, handbrake lever and carpets; "Inscription" embroidered on the front headrests, special Inscription carpets and handbrake lever, steering wheel and gear shift knob with aluminium inlays, sports pedals with aluminium inlay, aluminium inlay in centre stack (optional Black or Nordic Light Oak)

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Los Angeles Auto Show, and went on sale beginning in November 2011.

North American model went on sale in the first quarter of 2012 in limited quantities (500 units in 2012), and includes T5 engine, Active dual Xenon headlights, rear spoilers, aluminium sport pedals.

2013 Volvo Special Edition C70 (2013)
The Volvo Special Edition C70 is a version of the 2013 Volvo C70 for the Canadian market with BLIS (Blindspot Information System), 18-inch Midir diamond-cut alloy rims, retractable side view mirrors, an integrated wind blocker, choice of 3 body colours (Ice White, Electric Silver, Ember Black), bespoke interiors swathed in Graphite Sovereign Hide, Cacao Sovereign Hide and Cranberry Leather; free option spare wheel kit containing a spare wheel Tempa Spare in trunk.

Production
Production of the C70 began in Volvo's joint-venture plant with Pininfarina Sverige in Uddevalla, Sweden in 2005. On 4 October 2011 it was announced that production would cease in 2013, following the termination of the joint venture. The last C70 rolled out of the Uddevalla assembly plant on 25 June 2013.

title: Volvo C70


text:
Bartolomeo Borghesi

Bartolomeo (also Bartolommeo) Borghesi (11 July 1781 – 16 April 1860) was an Italian antiquarian who was a key figure in establishing the science of numismatics.

He was born at Savignano, near Rimini, and studied at Bologna and Rome. Having weakened his eyesight by the study of documents of the Middle Ages, he turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At Rome he arranged and cataloged several collections of coins, amongst them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pope Pius VII. In consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi retired to San Marino, where he died in 1860.

Although mainly an enthusiastic student, he was for some time podestà of the little republic. His monumental work, Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini (1818–1820), attracted the attention of the learned world as furnishing positive bases for the chronology of Roman history, while his contributions to Italian archaeological journals established his reputation as a numismatist and antiquarian.

Before his death, Borghesi conceived the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by the Academy of Berlin under the auspices of Theodor Mommsen, and the result was the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Napoleon III ordered the publication of a complete edition of the works of Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes, of which the first appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897.

title: Bartolomeo Borghesi