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User:Mervyn/Timeline of communications and media

Timeline of communications and media is a temporary personal working list of notable events -- a check list to see if wikipedia has an article. Needs much disambiguation.

1700-1799

 * 1714 first typewriter patented by Henry Mill in England
 * 1719 Reaumur proposes using wood to make paper
 * 1720 South Sea Bubble bursts
 * 1724 Thomas Longman founded
 * 1727 The Gentleman's Magazine, first modern magazine
 * 1741 first magazine in America is published - American Magazine
 * 1742 Benjamin Franklin's General Magazine prints first American magazine ads
 * 1755 Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language
 * 1757 Whatman invents wove paper
 * 1762 John Murray (publisher) founded
 * 1764 Fournier develops point system to measure type sizes
 * 1765 earliest known children's pop-up book
 * 1768 first edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica
 * 1768 first Letters of Junius in England
 * 1768 first voyage of Cook's Endeavour
 * 1770 gum eraser
 * 1770 Eyre & Spottiswoode founded
 * 1772 first English patent for coloured ink
 * 1774 paper whitener kyle was born in jamaica
 * 1783 Glasgow Herald founded
 * 1784 first edition of The Times
 * 1786 Playfair's Commercial & Political Atlas
 * 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man
 * 1791 establishment of the Observer
 * 1792 Chappe's mechanical semaphore in France
 * 1792 New York Stock Exchange established
 * 1792 postal money orders in Britain
 * 1794 Metric system in France
 * 1798 Thomas Malthus's first Essay on Population
 * 1798 Alois Senefelder invents lithography
 * 1799 paper-making machine invented in France by Robert

1800-1849

 * 1801 Jacquard invents punch-card control for looms
 * 1803 Sydney Gazette & NSW Advertiser - first newspaper in Australia
 * 1804 Bonnier founded
 * 1806 carbon paper
 * 1807 camera lucida
 * 1807 John Wiley opens shop
 * 1807 A&C Black founded
 * 1811 Luddite riots in Nottingham
 * 1812 Churchill Livingstone founded
 * 1813 can opener invented
 * 1814 The Times printed by steam-powered rotary press
 * 1815 patent for lined notepaper
 * 1817 Berzelius isolates selenium
 * 1817 Ricardo's On the Principles of Political Economy & Taxation
 * 1817 Sir David Brewster patents the kaleidoscope ¥
 * 1817 Say's Catechism of Political Economy
 * 1818 Butterworth founded
 * 1820 first manufactured calculating machine, de Colmar's Arithometer
 * 1822 het Algemeen Handelsblad founded
 * 1822	Daguerre and Bouton stage the first diorama in Paris
 * 1823 Charles Babbage builds section of calculating machine
 * 1825 First railway opens, from Stockton to Darlington
 * 1827 Niépce makes first true photograph
 * 1827 first microphone constructed by Wheatstone
 * 1827 Samuel F. B. Morse founds Journal of Commerce
 * 1829 first US patent for a typewriter
 * 1829 Wheatstone uses punched paper tape to store data
 * 1830 number of ads in British newspapers rises to 877,972 pa
 * 1830 Stamp Tax abolished in Australia
 * 1832 Havas news agency established
 * 1833 experimental 1 kilometre-long electric telegraph in Germany
 * 1834 Babbage conceives Analytical Engine
 * 1834 Routledge founded
 * 1835 Bertelsmann founded as a religious printer
 * 1835 Agence Havas news and advertising agency founded
 * 1835 Libel Act in England establishes truth allowed as defence in defamation for first time in UK
 * 1836 General Register Office in the UK
 * 1837 Wheatstone and Cooke patent electric telegraph
 * 1837 Samuel F. B. Morse exhibits electric telegraph in US
 * 1837 world's largest newspaper, New York Sun, has 30 000 circulation
 * 1837 Pitman publishes book on shorthand
 * 1838	Jacobi introduces the electrotype, permitting extended print runs for illustrated publications ¥
 * 1838 London to Birmingham railway opens ¥
 * 1838 Daguerre-Niépce method begins photographic revolution
 * 1839 William Fox Talbot in England produces photographs from negatives
 * 1839 electrotyping (duplicating of printing plates) invented by Jacobi
 * 1839 electricity used to run printing press
 * 1839 Henri Becquerel notes electrochemical effects of light
 * 1840 first postage stamps sold in Britain
 * 1841 Volney Palmer, first media broker
 * 1841 first type-composing machine used in London
 * 1842 Illustrated London News appears
 * 1842 Sydney Morning Herald (SMH) appears
 * 1842 Galveston Daily News founded
 * 1843 first Christmas card commissioned by Henry Cole from artist John Calcott Horsley
 * 1843 Economist founded
 * 1843 Macmillan founded
 * 1843 photographic enlarger
 * 1843 Ada Lovelace publishes Notes about Computing
 * 1843 first public telegraph line, from Paddington to Slough
 * 1843 News of the World mass-market newspaper begins publication ¥
 * 1844 Pearson media group founded as UK civil engineering contractor
 * 1844 Toronto Globe founded
 * 1844 de Nieuwe Rotterdamse Courant founded
 * 1844 Samuel F. B. Morse's telegraph connects Washington and Baltimore
 * 1844 First photographically illustrated book published
 * 1845 Straits Times launched
 * 1845 cable laid across English Channel
 * 1845 typewriter ribbon
 * 1846 double cylinder rotary press produces 8,000 sheets per hour
 * 1846 Melbourne Argus appears
 * 1846 Moreton Bay (Brisbane) Courier
 * 1847 Levi Strauss invents denim jeans
 * 1847 Bakewell develops "copying telegraph"
 * 1847 Uusi Suomi founded
 * 1848 Mill's Principles of Political Economy
 * 1848 Marx's Das Kapital
 * 1848 first WH Smith railway bookstall
 * 1848 Cassell founded
 * 1848 first issue of Chicago Tribune
 * 1848 first US postage stamp
 * 1849 photographic slide
 * 1849 first French postage stamp
 * 1849 Howe patents safety-pin

1850-1899

 * 1850 first machine-made paper bag
 * 1850 Mannheim designs logarithmic slide rule
 * 1850 number of magazines published in US reaches 685
 * 1851 Great Exhibition in London
 * 1851 first edition of New York Times
 * 1851 Archer invents wet-plate photography
 * 1851 patent for Singer sewing machine
 * 1851 first Canadian postage stamp
 * 1851 Reuters established
 * 1851	Collodion (wet plate) photographic process introduced ¥
 * 1851 First pillar box appears, invented by Trollope, the novelist
 * 1853 envelopes made by paper folding machine
 * 1853 establishment of Compagnie Générale des Eaux, precursor of Vivendi
 * 1854 telegraph used in Crimean War
 * 1854 Wheatstone invents Playfair cipher
 * 1854 Boole's Laws of Thought
 * 1854 first Australian telegraph line (Melbourne to Williamstown)
 * 1854 Carte-de-visite process simplifies photography
 * 1855 compulsory prepayment of postage in US
 * 1855 Hughes' printing telegraph
 * 1855 pre-payment of letters made compulsory in US
 * 1855 Maury's The Physical Geography of the Sea
 * 1855 registered letters enter service in US
 * 1855 Thomas Cook starts continental tours
 * 1856 Poitevan develops photolithography
 * 1856 blotting paper replaces sand boxes
 * 1856 machine-folding of newspapers
 * 1856 Symes buy The Age
 * 1858 failure of first transatlantic telegraph service
 * 1858 eraser fitted to end of pencil
 * 1858 first aerial photograph
 * 1858 Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney linked by telegraph
 * 1859 development of wide-angle camera lens
 * 1859 cable across Bass Strait
 * 1859 Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species published in London ¥
 * 1859 John Stuart Mill's On Liberty
 * 1859 Great Moral History of Port Curtis, Australia's first comic
 * 1860 Sholes builds functional typewriter
 * 1860 Schibsted launches Aftenposten
 * 1861 - First transatlantic telephone cable laid
 * 1861 end of Pony Express in US
 * 1861 first colour photograph taken by James Clerk Maxwell
 * 1862 drawing is sent over a wire by Caselli
 * 1862 first US national paper money
 * 1863First underground railway in London
 * 1863 uniform postage rates in US
 * 1863 rollerskates invented
 * 1865 Atlantic cable links US and Europe
 * 1865 Nokia established as pulp and paper mill
 * 1866 Holt Rinehart Winston founded
 * 1867 Cahalan invents stock ticker
 * 1868 writing machine first called a 'Type-Writer'
 * 1869 establishment of N W Ayer, first US ad agency
 * 1869 UK private telegraph companies nationalised
 * 1869 transcontinental railway completed in US
 * 1869 Suez Canal opened
 * 1870 stock ticker used by Wall Street
 * 1870 first British postcard devised by Anthony Trollope
 * 1871 Bates establishes first ad agency offering "creative services"
 * 1871 Hoe perfects continuous roll press
 * 1871 first newspaper printing of pictures (using halftone)
 * 1872 simultaneous transmission from both ends of a telegraph wire
 * 1872 US$1 million budget for advertising Lydia Pinkham's Pink Pills
 * 1872 Overland Telegraph Line links Melbourne to Darwin, with connection to Europe
 * 1873 D'Alzon founds Bonne Presse and Pelerin
 * 1873 US 'Comstock Act' criminalises use of mail for distributing any 'obscene, lewd or lascivious book or other publication of indecent character'
 * 1873 illustrated daily newspaper appears in New York
 * 1873 Maxwell publishes theory of radio waves
 * 1873 Dewey develops Dewey Decimal System for Amherst College Library
 * 1873 Remington starts manufacturing Sholes' typewriters
 * 1873 typewriters get the QWERTY pseudo-scientific keyboard
 * 1873 Parmalee invents automatic fire sprinklers
 * 1873 Mith and May note photoconductivity of selenium
 * 1874 Universal Postal Union (UPU) formed
 * 1874 Yomiuri Shimbun founded
 * 1875 mimeograph invented by Edison
 * 1875 UK Trade Marks Registration Act establishes Trade Marks Registry
 * 1875 John Wiley & Son incorporated
 * 1876 Bell invents telephone
 * 1876 Corriere della Sera founded
 * 1876 Chugai bukka shinpo (later Nikkei Shimbun) founded
 * 1877 Washington Post founded
 * 1877 Charles Cros and Thomas Edison invent phonograph
 * 1877 first commercial telephone is introduced
 * 1878 Edweard Muybridge photographs horse in motion
 * 1878 Scripps newspaper group founded
 * 1878 cathode ray tube invented by Crookes
 * 1878 microphone invented
 * 1878 telephone directories are issued
 * 1878 full page newspaper ads
 * 1878 dry-plate photography
 * 1879 Benday process assists newspaper illustration
 * 1879 first telephone service in Australia connects Melbourne and South Melbourne offices of Robinson Brothers
 * 1879 Sydney Daily Telegraph appears
 * 1879 Asahi Shimbun founded
 * 1879 Dahl's 'sulfate' method for practical manufacture of paper from wood pulp
 * 1879 Frege proposes notational system for mechanical reasoning
 * 1880 first photos in newspapers using halftones
 * 1880 Edison and Swan invent electric light
 * 1880 first parcel post
 * 1880 US-owned telephone companies in UK merge to form United Telephone Company (later National Telephone Co)
 * 1880 first Australian telephone exchange opened in Melbourne
 * 1880 telecommunications company Bell Canada established
 * 1881	Electric lighting installed in the Savoy Theatre, London
 * 1882 Married Womens' Property Act in UK
 * 1882 first wirephotos
 * 1882 first national US ad (by P&G for Ivory soap)
 * 1883 First photogravure printed in Britain
 * 1883 Halftone printing plates introduced
 * 1883 Stillwell invents brown paper bag
 * 1883 Curtis founds Ladies' Home Journal
 * 1884 Vort Arbeid newspaper founded
 * 1884 early version of television technology - Nipkow scanning disk
 * 1884 long distance telephone calls
 * 1884 electric tabulator
 * 1884 Waterman's fountain pen
 * 1885 First practical motor car with an internal combustion engine built by Karl Benz ¥
 * 1885 AT&T formed
 * 1885 cylinder-based dictating machines
 * 1885 coated photo printing paper made by Eastman
 * 1886 Mergenthaler's linotype machine
 * 1886 Sears Roebuck, forerunner of Amazon.com, starts mail-order business
 * 1886 first Berne Copyright Convention
 * 1886 Coca-Cola syrup invented
 * 1886 Hollerith forms Tabulating Machine Company
 * 1887 est. 5,400 cash registers in US (increases to 16,900 in 1890)
 * 1887 Celluloid photographic film introduced
 * 1887 US Interstate Commerce Act
 * 1887 Berliner patents phonographic disk
 * 1887 Comptometer multi-function adding machine is manufactured
 * 1887 Bodley Head founded
 * 1887 dynamite invented (NO! Alfred Nobel invented dynamite in 1863!)
 * 1887 Hutchinson founded
 * 1887 Winfrey buys Spalding Guardian
 * 1888 Kodak box camera
 * 1888 Hertz proves existence of radio waves
 * 1888 coin-operated public telephone
 * 1888 J M Dent founded
 * 1888 Burroughs patents adding machine
 * 1889 Hollerith's punch card machine used in US census
 * 1889 automatic telephone exchange
 * 1890 AB Dick markets mimeograph
 * 1890 New York Phonograph Co opens first purpose-built recording studio
 * 1890 Launch of the Daily Graphic, the first illustrated newspaper
 * 1890 zipper
 * 1890 rotogravure press
 * 1890 Constable founded
 * 1891 telephoto lens is attached to the camera
 * 1891 first telephone link between London & Paris
 * 1891 International Copyright Convention
 * 1892 Edison and Dickson invent peep-show Kinetoscope
 * 1892 4-colour rotary press
 * 1892 portable typewriters
 * 1892 Herman Ridder buys New York Staats-Zeitung
 * 1893 World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing in America
 * 1893 Coca-Cola trademark registered
 * 1894 Marconi invents wireless telegraphy
 * 1895 Lumière brothers invent Cinématograph
 * 1895 William Friese-Greene invents phototypesetting
 * 1895 Kellogg's Corn Flakes
 * 1895 first Times Atlas of the World
 * 1896 first edition of Daily Mail
 * 1896 Henry Ford builds Quadricycle
 * 1896 Underwood model permits typists to see what they are typing
 * 1896 X-ray photography invented
 * 1896 first US cinema opens
 * 1897 Braun invents cathode-ray tube
 * 1897 General Electric creates corporate publicity department
 * 1897 Curtis launches Saturday Evening Post
 * 1898 photographs taken by artificial light
 * 1898 New York State passes law against misleading advertising
 * 1898 Duckworth founded
 * 1898 Kauppalehti daily founded
 * 1898 James M Cox buys Dayton Evening News
 * 1899 loudspeaker is invented
 * 1899 magnetic sound recording
 * 1899 American Marconi Company (forerunner of RCA)
 * 1899 Burroughs Adding Machine Company
 * 1899 Thorsten Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class
 * 1899 Kraus launches Die Fackel

1900-1919

 * 1900 Kodak Brownie
 * 1900 est. 1.4 million telephones, 8,000 registered automobiles and 24 million electric light bulbs in US
 * 1900 'television' coined in France
 * 1900 price of 'chemical' wood pulp reaches US$36 per tonne, down from US$344 per tonne in 1866
 * 1900 'His Master's Voice' (HMV) registered as trademark in Britain
 * 1901 first electric typewriter, the Blickensderfer
 * 1901 first UK cinema opens
 * 1901 Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams
 * 1901 Gillette introduces double-edged safety razor
 * 1901 Marconi sends radio signal across Atlantic
 * 1901 establishment of Australian Commonwealth; PostMaster-General's 16,000 staff account for 90% of federal bureaucracy
 * 1901 22,310 telephone subscribers in Australia (79% in capital cities)
 * 1902 US Navy installs radio telephones aboard ships
 * 1902 photoelectric scanning used for image transfer
 * 1902 invention of the Teddy Bear
 * 1902 national syndication of comic strips in US begins when Hearst licenses his strips to other newspapers
 * 1902 Trans-Pacific telephone cable connects Canada and Australia
 * 1903 London Daily Mirror illustrates only with photographs
 * 1903 Ford Motor Co incorporated
 * 1904 telephone answering machine
 * 1904 photograph transmitted by wire in Germany
 * 1904 comic book
 * 1904 death of Joseph Pulitzer
 * 1904 double-sided phonograph disc
 * 1905 invention of the Yellow Pages
 * 1905 juke box
 * 1905 Australian Wireless Telegraphy Act regulates local airwaves
 * 1906 offset press
 * 1906 first classical music radio broadcast
 * 1906 de Forest invents three-element vacuum tube
 * 1906 Dunwoody and Pickard build crystal-&-cat's-whisker radio
 * 1906 animated cartoon film
 * 1906 Fessenden invents wireless telephony
 * 1906 experimental sound-on-film motion picture
 * 1906 experimental radio transmissions at Queenscliff, Victoria and Devonport, Tasmania by the Marconi Company
 * 1907 Bell & Howell develop a film projection system
 * 1907 Lumiere brothers invent still colour photography process
 * 1907 electric washing machine - The Thor
 * 1907 United Press International (UPI) founded
 * 1907 Melbourne to Sydney telephone trunk line
 * 1908 Ford's Model T
 * 1908 electric iron and toaster patented
 * 1908 Mills & Boon founded
 * 1908 Sidgwick & Jackson founded
 * 1909 radio distress signal saves 1,700 lives after ships collide
 * 1909 first broadcast talk (on votes for women)
 * 1909 pianos reach maximum market penetration in UK households at one per ten people
 * 1910 Amalgamated Wireless Australia (AWA) formed
 * 1910 first live opera broadcast
 * 1910 Harrap founded
 * 1911 UK and Australian Copyright Acts provide protection for author's lifetime plus 50 years
 * 1911 American Tobacco Company controls 92% of world's tobacco business, just a bit more than Microsoft's share of the browser market in early 2001
 * 1911 Photoplay magazine launched - first movie fan magazine and "genesis of celebrity culture"
 * 1911 nationalisation of National Telephone Co in UK
 * 1912 sinking of RMS Titanic
 * 1912 Mises' The Theory of Money & Credit
 * 1912 US passes law to control radio stations
 * 1912 first neon sign
 * 1912 first airmail
 * 1912 first automatic telephone exchange in Australia
 * 1913 portable phonograph
 * 1913 est one-third of British households own a phonograph
 * 1913 first newspaper crossword puzzle
 * 1914 radio message is sent to an airplane
 * 1914 35mm still camera
 * 1914 American Audit Bureau of Circulations formed
 * 1914 ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors & Publishers) founded
 * 1914 Allen & Unwin founded
 * 1914 first transcontinental telephone call in US
 * 1914 Melbourne to Adelaide telephone trunk
 * 1915 wireless radio service connects US and Japan
 * 1915 radio-telephone carries speech across Atlantic
 * 1915 Birth of a Nation
 * 1915 electric loudspeaker
 * 1916 United Newspapers formed in UK
 * 1916 Sarnoff envisages radio as "a household utility"
 * 1916 cameras get optical rangefinders
 * 1916 radios get tuners
 * 1916 US postal inspectors solve last known stagecoach robbery
 * 1917 photocomposition begins
 * 1917 Wente's condenser microphone
 * 1917 Capek uses term "robot" in Opilek
 * 1918 first regular airmail service: Washington to New York
 * 1918 Beaverbrook founds Sunday Express
 * 1918 first direct radio message from UK to Australia received at AWA's Wahroonga facility
 * 1919 rotary dial telephones
 * 1919 Eccles & Jordan's flip-flop circuit
 * 1919 shortwave radio
 * 1919 est. 1 million miles flown on scheduled routes (with 7,500 passengers)

1920-1939

 * 1920 Pearson-controlled Westminister Press buys UK provincial newspaper chains
 * 1920 merger of Agence Havas and Société Générale des Annonces advertising agency
 * 1920 Heinemann founded
 * 1920 first broadcasting stations opened
 * 1920 KDKA in Pittsburgh broadcasts first scheduled radio programs
 * 1920 first US transcontinental airmail
 * 1921 Wittgenstein's Tractatus
 * 1921 de Volkskrant founded
 * 1921 Western Union begins wirephoto service
 * 1921 soap powder for washing machines
 * 1921 first hamburger chain, White Castle
 * 1921 Thorsten Veblen's The Engineers & the Price System
 * 1922 UK BBC formed as commercial radio broadcaster
 * 1922 UFA film company founded in Berlin
 * 1922 Technicolour introduces two-colour process for movies
 * 1922 average US weekly movie attendance is 40 million (1.56 per household)
 * 1922 first film with optical sound track produced by UFA
 * 1922 first radio advertisement in USA, US$100 for ten minutes
 * 1922 first 3-D movie
 * 1922 Dwiggins coins term 'graphic design'
 * 1922 Nanook of the North, first documentary
 * 1922 first portable radio in US
 * 1923 Sydney to Brisbane telephone trunk line
 * 1923 Disneys found film studio in Hollywood
 * 1923 electric guitar
 * 1923 first commercial radio broadcasting in Australia
 * 1923 Book-of-the-Month Club founded
 * 1923 Phaidon founded
 * 1923 Zworykin's electronic iconoscope camera and kinescope display
 * 1923 A C Nielsen founded
 * 1923 Young & Rubicam founded
 * 1923 16mm nonflammable film
 * 1923 Kodak introduces home movie equipment
 * 1923 Time magazine
 * 1923 Edward Bernays writes Crystallizing Public Opinion
 * 1924 Marlboro is launched, targeted at women with the line 'Mild as May'
 * 1924 invention of spiral binding for notebooks
 * 1924 invention of Vegemite
 * 1924 The Eveready Hour is the first sponsored radio program in US
 * 1924 IBM incorporated
 * 1924 Music Corporation of America (MCA) founded
 * 1924 2.5 million radio sets in the US
 * 1925 Leica 35 mm camera
 * 1925 commercial picture facsimile radio service across the US
 * 1925 electric phonograph
 * 1925 wide-screen film
 * 1925 Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby
 * 1925 AT&T establishes Bell Labs
 * 1925 Random House founded
 * 1925 Faber & Gwyer founded
 * 1925 Marinho takes control of O Globo newspaper
 * 1926 General Electric forms Radio Corporation of America (RCA)
 * 1926 Belo founded
 * 1926 UK government nationalises BBC
 * 1926 Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK) - Japan Broadcasting Corporation founded
 * 1926 first radio jingle: Wheaties
 * 1926 commercial picture facsimile radio service across Atlantic
 * 1926 Baird demonstrates electro-mechanical TV system
 * 1926 first 16mm movie is shot in the US
 * 1926 NBC radio network
 * 1926 Bell Labs transmit film by television
 * 1926 Aniline printing developed
 * 1926 Ridder buys Journal of Commerce
 * 1927 NBC begins two radio networks
 * 1927 Jolson's The Jazz Singer is the first popular "talkie"
 * 1927 Lang's Metropolis
 * 1927 Movietone offers sound newsreels
 * 1927 US Radio Act declares public ownership of the airwaves and establishes federal Radio Commission
 * 1927 Technicolor
 * 1927 JVC formed
 * 1927 Remington Rand formed
 * 1927 Gollancz founded
 * 1928 US broadcasters agree to ban radio ads during 'family hour'
 * 1928 Baird demonstrates colour TV on electro-mechanical system
 * 1928 first Mickey Mouse cartoon
 * 1928 teletype machine
 * 1928 Baird beams TV image from UK to US
 * 1928 first scheduled television broadcasts in US
 * 1928 IBM adopts 80-column punched card
 * 1928 United Independent Broadcasters restructured as Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)
 * 1929 Associated Newspapers formed in Australia through merger of S Bennett Ltd with Denison's Sun Newspapers
 * 1929 Cisneros founded
 * 1929 Decca records founded in UK
 * 1929 Nyquist Theorem
 * 1929 telegraph ticker sends 500 characters per minute
 * 1929 ship passengers can phone relatives ashore
 * 1929 brokers watch stock prices on an automated electric board
 * 1929 Sydney-Melbourne picturegram service launched
 * 1929 car radio invented
 * 1929 first magnetic sound recording on plastic tape
 * 1929 first television studio built in London
 * 1929 Variety reports that 'Wall Street Lays An Egg'
 * 1929 Bell Labs transmits stills in colour by mechanical scanning
 * 1929 Zworykin's cathode-ray tube "kinescope" receiver, 60 scan lines
 * 1929 Baird's tv transmissions using BBC radio towers during off hours
 * 1929 est. 57 million miles flown on scheduled routes (with 434,00 passengers)
 * 1930 Sidney & Cecil Bernstein open Granada Cinema
 * 1930 Experimental 30-line TV transmissions in the UK
 * 1930 photo flashbulbs replace flash powder
 * 1930 first use of TV for advertising via closed circuit in UK and US
 * 1930 Lowell Thomas comperes first regular US network newscast
 * 1930 Bush's differential analyzer
 * 1930 AT&T trials picture telephone
 * 1930 Melbourne to Perth telephone trunk line
 * 1930 London to Melbourne telephone service
 * 1930 Curtis buys Philadelphia Inquirer
 * 1931 commercial teletype service
 * 1931 electronic TV broadcasts in Los Angeles and Moscow
 * 1931 exposure meters on sale to photographers
 * 1931 Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften
 * 1931 EMI formed in UK
 * 1931 incorporation of Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Radiodiffusion (CLR)
 * 1931 Crossley system for rating size of radio program audiences
 * 1932 General Electric divests RCA
 * 1932 first colour photo in a British newspaper, The Times
 * 1932 Times uses Morrison's new Times Roman typeface
 * 1932 Kodak introduces 8 mm film for home movies
 * 1932 stereophonic sound in a motion picture, Gance's Napoleon
 * 1932 Zoom lens invented
 * 1932 NBC and CBS allow prices to be mentioned in radio commercials
 * 1932 International Telecommunications Union
 * 1932 Berle & Means' The Modern Corporation & Private Property
 * 1933 first Mars bar
 * 1933 Edwin Armstrong invents FM
 * 1933 singing telegrams
 * 1933 Homer Capehart sells Simplex record changer to Wurlitzer Co as basis for jukebox
 * 1933 Dreft, first household detergent
 * 1933 stereo phonograph records
 * 1933 Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) established
 * 1934 US Communications Act of 1934 creates federal Communications Commission
 * 1934 drive-in movie theater opens in New Jersey
 * 1934 Associated Press starts wirephoto service
 * 1934 first overseas radiophoto published in Australian newspapers
 * 1934 first mobile television truck captures Nazi rally
 * 1934 3-colour Technicolor used in live action film
 * 1934 half US homes have radios
 * 1934 Muzak founded
 * 1935 audio tape recorders on sale in Germany
 * 1935 IBM markets electric typewriter
 * 1935 IBM markets 601 tabulator
 * 1935 first Kit Kat in UK
 * 1935 first Penguin paperback
 * 1935 Michael Joseph founded
 * 1935 all-electronic VHF television
 * 1935 Eastman-Kodak develops Kodachrome colour film
 * 1936 Berlin Olympics are televised closed circuit
 * 1936 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)
 * 1936 coaxial cable connects New York to Philadelphia
 * 1936 Turing describes a general purpose computer
 * 1936 Walter Benjamin's The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction
 * 1936 Life launched
 * 1936 Packers buy Sydney Daily Telegraph from Associated Newspapers
 * 1936 Keynes's General Theory of Employment, Interest & Money
 * 1937 Turing's On Computable Numbers introduces Turing machine
 * 1937 NBC sends mobile TV truck onto New York streets
 * 1937 Hindenburg crash broadcast coast to coast in US
 * 1937 Greater Union Theatres (GU) group in Australia
 * 1937 Photocopier invented by Carlson
 * 1937 Snow White is first feature-length cartoon
 * 1938 Baird demonstrates live TV in colour
 * 1938 Biro brothers invent ballpoint pen
 * 1938 CBS World News Roundup ushers in modern newscasting
 * 1938 radio surpasses magazines as a source of ad revenue in US
 * 1938 U Penn plays first publicly televised game of US football
 * 1938 War of the Worlds broadcast frightens chattering classes
 * 1938 Hulton Press Library founded as archive for Picture Post magazine
 * 1939 Cox buys The Atlanta Journal
 * 1939 Atanasoff-Berry Computer, first electronic digital computer
 * 1939 300,000 jukeboxes in US
 * 1939 New York World's Fair shows television to public
 * 1939 first regular TV ads
 * 1939 radio in 75% of German households
 * 1939 Hewlett-Packard

1940 - 1959

 * 1940 Walt Disney's Fantasia introduces stereo sound
 * 1940 CBS demonstrates color television in New York
 * 1940 80% of US homes have radio
 * 1940 Wilson's To the Finland Station
 * 1941 Citizen Kane
 * 1941 stereo installed in Moscow movie theater
 * 1941 FCC sets US TV standards
 * 1941 first colour TV commercial, for Bulova watches
 * 1941 microwave transmission
 * 1941 Zuse's Z3 computer
 * 1942 Academic Press founded
 * 1942 Lamarr & Antheil patent for secure "spread spectrum" communications
 * 1942 Kodacolour process produces the colour print
 * 1944 Harvard's Mark I, first digital computer
 * 1944 IBM offers typewriter with proportional spacing
 * 1944 first high-fidelity recordings
 * 1944 von Neumann & Morgenstern's Theory of Games & Economic Behavior
 * 1945 Clarke describes geosynchronous communication satellites
 * 1945 Bush's 'Memex' article
 * 1945 est. 10,000 television sets in US
 * 1946 6,500 television receivers sold in US
 * 1946 Lanham Act in US
 * 1946 term 'bit' used for first time by John Tukey
 * 1946 first network soap opera
 * 1946 jukeboxes go into mass production
 * 1946 ENIAC makes 5,000 additions in one second
 * 1946 automobile radio telephones connect to US phone network
 * 1946 Love Me Sailor censorship trial in Australia
 * 1946 Axel Springer founds Nordwestdeutsche Hefte and Hör Zu magazine
 * 1946 Rupert Hart-Davis founded
 * 1946 over 200 new mass-oriented magazines launched in US
 * 1946 IBM markets 603 electronic tabulator
 * 1946 Universal Pictures merges with International Pictures to become Universal International
 * 1947 invention of transistor
 * 1947 zoom lens used in US baseball world series TV
 * 1947 holography
 * 1947 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) becomes UN agency
 * 1948 Claude Shannon's A Mathematical Theory of Communication
 * 1948 Wiener's Cybernetics
 * 1948 invention of LP record and Polaroid camera
 * 1948 News of the World sells 8 million copies in UK
 * 1948 Holtzbrinck founded
 * 1948 Brost buys licence for Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung (WAZ)
 * 1948 establishment of Australian Broadcasting Control Board
 * 1948 US weekly cinema population peaks at 90 million
 * 1948 IBM markets 604 tabulator
 * 1949 birth of US network TV
 * 1949 disposable syringe invented in Australia
 * 1949 RCA introduces 45 rpm record
 * 1949 regional use of cable television in US
 * 1949 first commercial computer
 * 1949 magnetic core computer memory
 * 1949 Australian CSIRAC computer perform its first controlled program
 * 1949 The Lone Ranger and Hopalong Cassidy initiate tv Western genre
 * 1949 Weidenfeld & Nicolson founded
 * 1949 Thames & Hudson founded
 * 1950 Turing's Computing Machinery & Intelligence
 * 1950 Remington-Rand acquires Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp
 * 1950 NBC launches Today show and The Adventures of Superman
 * 1950 Phonevision, first pay-per-view service
 * 1950 AC Nielsen's Audimeters start to track TV viewing
 * 1950 changeable typewriter typefaces in use
 * 1950 first credit card - Diners Club
 * 1950 first Bertelsmann book club formed
 * 1950 Victor Civita forms Editora Abril
 * 1950 Paul Hamlyn founded
 * 1950 R. C. Hoiles founds Freedom Newspapers

1951-1975

 * 1951 1.5 million television sets in US
 * 1951 launch of commercial radio in Japan
 * 1951 Cinerama
 * 1951 Wang Laboratories founded
 * 1951 still cameras get built-in flash units
 * 1951 coaxial cable reaches coast to coast in the US
 * 1951 André Deutsch founded
 * 1951 Peter Owen founded
 * 1951 Treaty of Paris establishes European Coal and Steel Community
 * 1952 Bing Crosby's company tests video recording
 * 1952 Nixdorf Computer founded
 * 1952 US government sues IBM for monopolizing punched-card machine industry
 * 1952 Sony produces first transistor radios
 * 1952 UNIVAC I projects the winner of the presidential election on CBS
 * 1952 Zenith proposes pay-TV system using punched cards
 * 1952 est. 22m television sets in US homes
 * 1953 first issue of TV Guide
 * 1953 Axel Springer buys Die Welt
 * 1953 launch of commercial TV in Japan
 * 1953 Fairfax grabs Associated Newspapers
 * 1953 National Cash Register enters computer market through purchase of Computer Research Corporation
 * 1954 Village Roadshow media group founded
 * 1954 Television Act establishes UK Independent Television Authority (ITA)
 * 1954 FORTRAN created by John Backus
 * 1954 IBM markets 650 computer, using drum storage
 * 1954 USSR launches Sputnik
 * 1954 regular colour TV broadcasts begin in the US
 * 1954 TV ad revenue exceeds radio revenue in US for first time
 * 1954 Robert Borkenstein patents breathalyser
 * 1955 NBC president David Sarnoff says "Television will never be a medium of entertainment"
 * 1955 Disneyland opened
 * 1955 EMI buys Capitol Records in US
 * 1955 launch of L'Espresso
 * 1955 Remington-Rand & Sperry Gyroscope merge as Sperry-Rand
 * 1955 rebranding sees start of Marlboro Man campaign
 * 1955 first fluoride toothpaste, Crest
 * 1955 music recorded on tape in stereo
 * 1955 US record sales reach US$277m pa
 * 1956 television broadcasting in Australia
 * 1956 Granada TV starts broadcasting in UK
 * 1956 first transatlantic telephone cable
 * 1956 television in 71% of US households
 * 1956 first hard disk drive at IBM
 * 1956 IBM settles punch card dispute through DOJ consent decree
 * 1956 Ampex builds practical videotape recorder
 * 1956 Bell Labs tests picture phone
 * 1956 first transatlantic telephone calls by cable
 * 1956 term 'artificial intelligence' devised
 * 1956 first use of "Elvis has left the building"
 * 1956 Burroughs Adding Machine Company enters computer market through purchase of Electrodata
 * 1957 Treaty of Rome establishes European Economic Community
 * 1957 Control Data Corporation formed
 * 1957 Digital Equipment (DEC) formed
 * 1957 National Opinion Polls (NOP) founded in UK
 * 1957 Soviet Union's Sputnik sends signals from space
 * 1957 first Japanese car sold in US
 * 1957 FORTRAN becomes first high-level computer language
 * 1957 UNIVAC II marketed
 * 1957 Sony TR63 is first pocket transistor radio
 * 1957 surgical operation is televised
 * 1957 Vance Packard's The Hidden Persuaders
 * 1957 Chomsky's Syntactic Structures
 * 1957 first book to be entirely phototypeset is offset printed
 * 1958 US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency founded
 * 1958 Minsky founds AI Lab at MIT
 * 1958 Warner Bros records formed
 * 1958 UNIMATE is first industrial robot
 * 1958 colour videotape recording
 * 1958 laser invented at Bell Labs
 * 1958 integrated circuit
 * 1958 cable carries FM radio stations
 * 1958 Galbraith's The Affluent Society
 * 1958 Bank of America launches first US credit card
 * 1958 AT&T markets first modems
 * 1959 local ads go on cable TV in the US
 * 1959 Xerox's first automatic paper copier
 * 1959 "A Mars a day helps you work, rest and play"
 * 1959 French SECAM and German PAL television systems
 * 1959 first packaged program sold by Computer Science Corporation
 * 1959 Advance buys Conde Nast magazine group
 * 1959 Axel Springer buys majority of Ullstein AG
 * 1959 Grundy Productions founded in Australia
 * 1959 Tisch brothers buy Loews cinema chain from MGM
 * 1959 US record sales reach US$600m pa


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Nocte people

The Nocte people, also known as the Nocte Naga, are a Tibeto-Burmese ethnic group primarily living in Northeast Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. They number about 111,679 (Census 2011), mainly found in the Patkai hills of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Ethnically related to the Konyak Naga, their origins can be traced back to the Hukong Valley in Myanmar, where they migrated from between the 1670 and 1700.

Their chiefs who were originally known as Ang exert control over the village with his council the "Ngoang-Wang" (modern-day cabinet), and since they did not have an army under their control they would consult trusted family (lowang-tang) on an important matter. The Chief also consult village elders and priests on all important socio-religious ceremonies.

Terminology
The term Nocte was coined in the 1950s. It has been derived from two words: Nok, which means village, and Tey, which means people. In the medieval and the colonial period, the Nocte people was called Noga or Naga because of the close ethnic relation with the Naga people of Nagaland. As per the location of the village, the Ahoms called the Noctes as Namsangya or Namsangia, Borduaria or Bor Duris, and Paniduaria.

Tea gardens from the colonial era
In 1776, Sir Joseph Banks, a British botanist, recommended for the first time that tea cultivation should be taken up in India. Four years later in 1780, Robert Kyd, who founded the botanical garden at Kolkata in 1787, started experimenting with tea cultivation in India with consignments of seeds arrived from China. Decades later in 1815, Colonel Latter, a British army officer, reported that the Singpho people gathered an indigenous species of tea, and ate its leaves with oil and garlic. In 1820s, Maniram Dutta Baruah, an Assamese nobleman who was hanged for his role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, informed the British cultivators - Major Robert Bruce and his brother Charles Alexander Bruce - about the indigenous tea growing in the jungles of the Nocte and the Singpho countries, which was hitherto unknown to the rest of the world. C.A. Bruce is best known for being the father of the tea industry in India.

In or about 1833-34, Namsang and Hukanjuri tea gardens were taken up by the Britishers on account of the indigenous tea growing on them. The land belonged to the Namsang Chief, and was also claimed by the Borduria Chief. These gardens became operational from October 1840. The gardens are now under Assam's Jeypore area of Dibrugarh district. Teams of wild elephants were harnessed to clear the dense forest, toppling trees with a girth of 25 feet. In 1838, India's first twelve chests of manufactured tea, made from the indigenous tea, were shipped to London and were sold at the London auctions. This paved the way for the formation of the Bengal Tea Association in Kolkata and a first joint stock tea company, the Assam Company, in London. Ironically, the native plants flourished, while the Chinese seedlings struggled to survive in the intense Assam heat and it was eventually decided to make subsequent plantings with seedlings from the native tea bush. The people from Namsang and Borduria worked willingly for the Company and were paid in kind, and the Chiefs of received "douceurs" from the Managers of the Assam Company. About the year 1861-62, these gardens were transferred to the Northern Assam Company, and the Namsang Chief was taken to Nazira for the purpose of being informed that the lands were about to be transferred to other proprietors. He received a further "douceur" of Rs. 1,000 and presents; and "from that time to the present (1873), owing to his power to retain possession as against the Borduria Chief, he has been undoubtedly recognized as the landlord."

These gardens were the subject of correspondence between the Government of British India and the Bengal Government. At that time, the present-day Northeast India was under the Bengal Government. As per a 1876 report, ever since the gardens were transferred to the Assam Company on the relinquishment of the government undertaking, the Assam Company paid yearly subsidies of Rs. 200-250 each, to the Chief. The gardens changed hands often, but the owners always continued to pay the subsidy, till 1873, when a Mr. Minto was the owner. About this time, the Namsang Chief was reported to have assumed a threatening attitude in connection with the gardens, and on Mr. Minto's representations to the contrary, the anomalous position of the gardens came to light. After two years of negotiation, the Namsang Chief and the Government of British India reached an agreement, and the latter sanctioned this settlement,---vide letter No. 1943P., dated 6 July 1875. The terms of agreement were:

1. That the Namsang Chief shall receive an annual subsidy of Rs. 450 for ever---this being the sum Mr. Minto paid to them.

2. That this payment shall cover claims not only in respect of the tea gardens of Hukanjuri and Namsang, but of all the tract of country which will come within the "Inner Line," and over which the Namsangias have hitherto asserted rights.

3. The Namsang Chief was also granted license for obtaining arms and ammunition.

Historical books
In 1839, the first book on the Nocte people was written and published. Titled, "A spelling book and vocabulary in English, Assamese, Singpho and Naga", the book was authored by Miles Bronson, the American Baptist Missionary who lived with the Nocte people from January 1839 to October 1840. A 66-page book, it consist of more than 730 vocabularies and 47 reading lessons each in Nocte (Naga), Singpho, Assamese and English languages. As per the records, 500 copies of the book were printed at the American Baptist Mission Press, Jeypore, Assam. With the help of Prof. Stephen Morey of La Trobe University, Australia, Dr. Rikker Dockum of Swarthmore College, USA, and Dr. Luke Lindemann of Yale University, USA, Nocte Digest editor, Shri Wangtum Humchha Lowang, acquired the book in a digital format on 31 July 2021, from the Beinecke Rare Books & Manuscript Library of Yale University, Connecticut, USA.

Religion
The last ruler of united Namsang, Borduria and all the Nocte Naga villagers under the Ang of Namsang and Ang of Borduria including those friendly villagers of Wancho area of now Longding district, Lotha Khunbao was known for his spirituality and accepted tenets of Vaishnavism in early 18th Century. He was named as "Narottam", meaning the best among men, by Sri Ram, the Gukhai of the Bare Ghar Satra. In 1972 Lt: Governor late Col. KAA Raja honored Lotha Khunbao by naming (Namsang-mukh) as 'Narottam Nagar', where now, the reputed institution, Ramakrishna Mission School was established and funded by Namsang-Borduria Fund (from the revenue arising out of Namsang & Borduria people reserve Forest). A picture of the chief and his wife is also available in the British Archive Museum. This has brought them closer to the Hindu culture of much of the rest of India. The 1961 census reported some Buddhists among the Nocte. The Nocte were followers of Theravada Buddhism and Animism, although they have adopted Hinduism since the 18th Century, under the influence of Sri Ram or Shankardeva. Traditionally Nocte Naga believed in Nature worship. All cosmic power was known as 'Jauban' and worshiped. Their animist religiosity was akin to the "Native American". After death, the spirit of the mighty Chief becomes 'Laa' or mighty Eagle. Other malevolent and benevolent deities are also worshipped as well. Offerings of food and water are given to the gods in order to appease them. The Noctes from Namsang village were the first to come in contact with Christianity when American Baptist missionary Miles Bronson visited the village in January 1839 and lived there with his family till the second half of 1840. Bronson's primary objective was to convert the Noctes into Christianity and set up school. He and his wife succeeded in opening a school and even printed several books in Romanized Nocte. However, the missionaries failed to convert the ethnic group into Christianity as they refused to abandon their own religion. Christianity was successfully introduced in the late 20th Century. On 2 August 1993, Mother Teresa visited Borduria village and inaugurated the first Catholic Church of Arunachal Pradesh. It was the only place visited by her in the state. She also laid the foundation for the House for Missionaries of Charity (MC) Sisters.

Of late, Baptist missionaries have converted about one-fifth to one-third of the Nocte to Christianity, principally those living in Khonsa. One Buddhist Channel in 2010 claimed there were no Christians anywhere in Arunachal Pradesh province in 1951, which seems to indicate that this conversion to Christianity largely happened in the latter half of the 20th century with continuation into the 21st century.

Culture
"Chalo-Loku" (Harvesting Festival or thanks, giving festival), the Nocte Naga had 14 "loku" the most important 'loku' was "Chalo-loku". While most "Loku" of the Nocte-Naga last between 1 and 2 days; "Chalo-loku" has to last for 3 days to complete all rituals that go with this particular festival. The festival, which lasts for three days, involves the slaughter of cattle, entertainment and the gathering of food on the first day.

The second day, known as Chamkatja is an enactment of empowering the four distinctive "Clans", the "Lotung-som Cham", 'Matey-som Cham', 'Khetey-som' Cham and 'Nook Pang-mi Cham" (the Nook Pangmi-Cham warriors will be led by the "Tang-dong Lowang". This brand of youths was furious warriors. While returning from the "Nook-Pangmi-Chaam" every member of the village must give right of way to these warriors; even by the mighty chief & his family. The warriors would be received for a powerful enactment of warrior dance by the mighty Chief in his house with the best rice beers. The first 'Cham-kat" of the young Chief will not go to his clan 'Cham' but join the "Nook-Pangmi-Cham" under the care of "Tangdong-Lowang".  Last day of the festival is called "Than-lang-jaa". Before the dance 'Chin-lit' ceremonies are performed by the maternal family. As an act of blessing and to ward off evil spirit fresh single ginger neckless is garland by the female members of the maternal clan. "Woo-soak" ceremony is also performed on the last day by the chief assisted by 'tan-waa' (priest) village elders "Ngoan-Wang" and council members to understand the fortunes of the new year by reading the formation of eggs tenderly pouring the eggs yolk on a specific type of leaves called "Nyap-lin". The eggs have to be fresh and collected from the village. The first eggs would be for the Chief and his family/clan, 2nd eggs will be for selecting the next 'jhum' to be cultivated (both Namsang & Borduria has 12 jhum' properly ear-marked. They will break as many eggs is required till the best 'jhum' land is selected as shown by the formation of the fresh 'egg'. After a 'jhum' is selected the council of Wiseman will also see the prosperity of the "Sala-jaah and Thingyan-Jaah" the last egg would be for the good omen of going to the plains for trade and labor contract works. The festival is then concluded with dancing around the village singing romantic songs, the climax of the festival would be the fast rhythmic movement called the "Kepa-boong". During this dance, the chief singer will evoke the holy spirit to bless the village until the next festivity.

Food
The Nocte are agriculturalists and have good planning in their daily diet. Main crops such as rice and maize are planted, as their staple food is rice, which is often supplemented by leafy vegetables, fish and meat. A local liquor brewed from rice, tapioca, and millet proved to be popular among the Nocte although in recent times tea is consumed as well

Dress
The menfolk have a tendency to shave their hair in the frontal part of the head, and the back tuft of hair is tied into a chignon just above the nape. The womenfolk will keep their long auburn tresses tied into a bun kept at the back of the neck, although the widow will cut their hair short on the condition if they do not remarry. Like the Wancho, they tattoo their faces and bodies.

Owing to the humid climate, the menfolk will wear a loincloth in front with cane belts, which acts as a waistband. Bamboo slips and armlets made of ivory are worn on all four limbs as well. The womenfolk tend to wear a short cotton skirt that measures from the waist to knees, and a blouse is worn to cover the upper body. The goats' horns act as earlobes, although ornaments include metal bangles and earrings are worn.

Lifestyle
The Nocte construct houses made of silts, bamboos and palm leaves for roofs, although the chief's houses are constructed with carved massive blocks and wooden pillars. Dormitories are provided for bachelors and unmarried women separately. According to their tradition, it is a place where the elders teach children about traditional mythology, folklore, and religion. In cases of Christian families, Christian teachings are also mixed with traditional teachings as well, which is evident among Catholic converts. The chiefs are addressed in either of the two titles: Namsang and Borduria.

The dormitory of a bachelor is known as a "Poh", while a bachelorettes' one is known as a "Yanpo". However, women are not permitted to enter the boys’ dormitory, although the reverse is permitted. Dormitories are built upon wooden raised piles, usually measuring four feet above the ground. The bachelors' dormitories are decorated with human skulls taken in headhunting, which are used for containing large log drums carved out from wooden logs. The drum, known as 'thum' or 'log-drum'. However, with the advancement of Western education, it has been witnessed that these practices are in decline. Headhunting, which once proved to be popular among the Nocte, has been banned in 1940 although the last head-hunting was noted in 1991 amongst the Wancho.

Hygiene issues
The Nocte followed an age-old tradition of keeping bodies of the deceased relatives in the open, either near a river or just outside their houses. The Nocte Christians, like most Nocte, would keep their body exposed for three days, although they are kept in the house.

Inevitably, the decomposed bodies would attract bacteria, insects, and germs lying in the open that produced a terrible stench. This was the cause of the frequent outbreaks of health-threatening diseases. Owing to public health education by reformers, the burial of the deceased in proper coffins have completely supplaced this traditional rite since 2004. The Kheti village, which is not far removed from Khonsa, was the last village to give up this practice in the modern Nocte society.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nocte people


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Constance Talmadge

Constance Alice Talmadge (April 19, 1898 – November 23, 1973) was an American silent film star. She was the sister of actresses Norma and Natalie Talmadge.

Early life
Talmadge was born on April 19, 1898, in Brooklyn, New York, to poor parents, Margaret L. "Peg" and Frederick O. Talmadge. Her father was an alcoholic, and left them when she was still very young. Her mother made a living by doing laundry. When a friend recommended Talmadge's mother use older sister Norma as a model for title slides in flickers, which were shown in early nickelodeons, Peg decided to do so. This led all three sisters into acting careers.

Career

She began making films in 1914, in a Vitagraph comedy short, In Bridal Attire (1914). Her first major role was as the Mountain Girl and Marguerite de Navarre in D.W. Griffith's Intolerance (1916).

Griffith re-edited Intolerance repeatedly after its initial release, and even shot new scenes long after it was in distribution. Grace Kingsley found Talmadge in her dressing room at the Fine Arts Studio, in Los Angeles, in the midst of making up for some new shots.

"Did you really drive those galloping brutes of horses?" asked Kingsley.

"Indeed I did," said Talmadge. "Two women sat behind me at the Auditorium the other night. They said, 'Of course she never really drove those horses herself. Somebody doubled for her.' Know what I did? I turned around and told them, 'I wish I could show you my knees, all black and blue even yet from being cracked up against the dashboard of that chariot!'"

So popular was Talmadge's portrayal of the tomboyish Mountain Girl, Griffith released in 1919 the Babylonian sequence from Intolerance as a new, separate film called The Fall of Babylon. He refilmed her death scene to allow for a happy ending.

Her friend Anita Loos, who wrote many screenplays for her, appreciated her "humour and her irresponsible way of life". Over the course of her career, Talmadge appeared in more than 80 films, often in comedies such as A Pair of Silk Stockings (1918), Happiness a la Mode (1919), Romance and Arabella (1919), Wedding Bells (1921), and The Primitive Lover (1922). Talmadge, along with her sisters, was heavily billed during her early career. According to her 1923 Blue Book of the Screen biography, she was "5'5" tall, 120 lbs, with blonde hair and brown eyes, ... an outdoor girl who loved activities."

When Talmadge was asked by a writer for Green Book magazine what sort of stories she wanted to do in 1920, she said: Although no less than sixty manuscripts are submitted to me every week, it is exceedingly difficult to get exactly the kind of comedy I especially want. I want comedies of manners, comedies that are funny because they delight one’s sense of what is ridiculously human in the way of little everyday commonplace foibles and frailties – subtle comedies, not comedies of the slap stick variety.

I enjoy making people laugh. Secondly, because this type of work comes easiest and most naturally to me, I am not a highly emotional type. My sister could cry real tears over two sofa cushions stuffed into a long dress and white lace cap, to look like a dead baby, and she would do it so convincingly that 900 persons out front would weep with her. That is real art, but my kind of talent would lead me to bounce that padded baby up and down on my knee with absurd grimaces that would make the same 900 roar with laughter.

With the advent of talkies in 1929, Talmadge left Hollywood. Her sister Norma did make a handful of appearances in talking films, but for the most part the three sisters retired all together, investing in real estate and other business ventures. Only a few of her films survive today.

Personal life
She was married four times; all the unions were childless:

 * Her first marriage, to John Pialoglou (1893–1959), a Greek tobacco importer, occurred in 1920 at a double wedding with Dorothy Gish and James Rennie; she divorced Pialoglou two years later. Her marriage to him, a Greek subject, caused her to lose her natural-born U.S. citizenship; following her divorce, she had to apply for U.S. naturalization.
 * She married Scottish soldier Alastair William Mackintosh (grandfather of author Edward St Aubyn) in February 1926, divorcing him in 1927 on grounds of adultery.
 * She married Townsend Netcher in May 1929, divorcing in 1939.
 * She married Walter Michael Giblin in 1939. This marriage lasted until his death on May 1, 1964.

Talmadge's mother fostered the belief she might one day return to films. "Success and fame cast a spell that can never been quite shaken off", her mother said in her autobiography. "A woman, because of her love, may say, and in the fervor of the moment believe, that she is ready to give up her chosen work. But there is sure to come a time when keen longing and strong regret for her lost career dominate over the more placid contentments of love and marriage. Then unhappiness and friction ensue."

She died of pneumonia. Along with her sister Norma, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks, Talmadge inaugurated the tradition of placing her footprints in concrete outside Grauman's Chinese Theater. She left a trail of five footprints in her slab.

Her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is at 6300 Hollywood Blvd.

title: Constance Talmadge


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Striving for Mediocrity

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. -- AllyUnion (talk) 12:43, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Striving for Mediocrity
There's already discussion on the VfD pages about whether university newspapers are of encyclopedic value. A comic strip in a university newspaper is of even less encyclopedic value. RickK 08:37, Feb 5, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, Not notable. Inter 11:25, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, comic strips are not inherently encyclopedic. Wyss 21:44, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable enough, article as it stands is un-encyclopaedic. Megan1967 02:55, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. College newspaper comic strips specifically are not inherently notable. In general, they run for about three years max, the artist graduates, and life goes on for artist and audience alike.   — Gwalla | Talk 03:11, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Unless it's Doonesbury. :)  RickK 05:27, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: Well, yeah, some do go on to greater things. But lets wait until they do before making articles for them.   — Gwalla | Talk 06:18, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. ComCat.
 * Delete, nn. Edeans 05:39, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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User:Pprevos~enwiki

PhD student at La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia. Researching the relationship between organisational culture and service quality.

 * Follow me on Twitter: @pprevos
 * Personal website: prevos.net
 * Critical management studies: hypotheticorp.org

title: User:Pprevos~enwiki


text:
Italia (airship)

The Italia was a semi-rigid airship belonging to the Italian Air Force. It was designed by Italian engineer and General Umberto Nobile who commanded the dirigible in his second series of flights around the North Pole. The Italia crashed in May 1928, with one confirmed fatality from the crash, one fatality from exposure while awaiting rescue, and six missing crew members who were trapped in the still-airborne envelope. At the end of the rescue operations there were a total of 17 dead (crew and rescuers) and a number of survivors.

Design and specifications
Italia was an N-class semi-rigid airship, designation N-4. It was almost identical in design to the N-1 Norge but was slightly larger in gas capacity.

 * First flight: 1928
 * Length: 347.8 ft
 * Diameter: 63.9 ft
 * Gas capacity: 654,000 cuft
 * Performance: 70.2 mph
 * Payload: 20,900 lb
 * Power plant: 3 Maybach diesel engines, 750 hp total

Polar expedition
At the end of 1927, after much insistence, Nobile gained permission to use this airship for a new scientific expedition to the North Pole under the aegis of the Italian Geographical Society. He obtained strong assistance from the Italian Royal Navy and secured the necessary funds from a financing private Committee of the City of Milan.

Personnel

 * Umberto Nobile, expedition leader – survived
 * Finn Malmgren, Swedish meteorologist, physicist – died trekking for help
 * František Běhounek, Czechoslovak physicist – survived
 * Aldo Pontremoli, physicist – disappeared with envelope
 * Ugo Lago, journalist – disappeared with envelope
 * Francesco Tomaselli, journalist – not on final flight
 * Adalberto Mariano (RM), navigator – survived
 * Filippo Zappi (RM), navigator – survived
 * Alfredo Viglieri (RM), navigator, hydrographer – survived
 * Natale Cecioni, elevator operator, chief technician – survived
 * Giuseppe Biagi, radio operator – survived
 * Ettore Pedretti, radio operator – not on final flight
 * Felice Trojani, elevator operator, aeronautical project engineer – survived
 * Ettore Arduino, chief engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 * Calisto Ciocca, starboard engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 * Attilio Caratti, port engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 * Vincenzo Pomella, rear engine mechanic – killed in the crash
 * Renato Alessandrini, foreman, rigger, helmsman – disappeared with envelope

Milan–Ny-Ålesund
At 01:15 on 15 April 1928, Italia took off from the base at Milano and headed for the Arctic. With 20 personnel on board, and a payload of 17,000 lb of fuel and supplies, the initial journey to Stolp in Germany took 30 hours through a variety of bad weather conditions. Near Trieste, a wind gust damaged one of the tail fins. Later, in the Sudetes, the airship faced severe hailstorms and narrowly escaped lightning strikes.

On arrival at Stolp in Pomerania, at 07:15 on 16 April, inspection revealed hail damage to the propellers and envelope, and severe tail fin damage. All of the ballast and most of the fuel had been used fighting the wind. Repairs took ten days, and the required parts and technicians had to be sent from Italy.

Takeoff from Stolp was further delayed by bad weather, but Italia set off for Norway at 03:28 on 3 May 1928; eight hours later, escorted by Swedish naval planes, she passed over Stockholm. The expedition's meteorologist, Finn Malmgren, spotted his house from the air and the airship descended to drop a letter to his mother. Bad weather forced Italia east over Finland; she passed over Rovaniemi at 01:49 on 4 May, reaching the mooring mast at Vadsø later that day. While the airship was moored without difficulty, blizzard conditions and heavy rain kept the crew in a state of constant anxiety but caused only minor structural damage.

As soon as the weather permitted, Italia took off for Ny-Ålesund (Kings Bay) at 20:34 on 5 May, and by 05:30 the following day, had passed the meteorological station on Bear Island, but ran into high winds shortly afterwards, also suffering an engine failure. By 12:00 on 6 May, Italia had reached Kings Bay where the support ship Città di Milano was anchored under the command of Captain Giuseppe Romagna Manoja.

Polar flights
Nobile planned three polar flights, each exploring a different area of the Arctic, with a return to Kings Bay between flights. Once the necessary engine and structural repairs had been completed, the first flight departed from Kings Bay on 11 May 1928. Italia was forced to turn back eight hours into the flight because of thick ice forming on the envelope, as well as fraying of the control cables due to the extreme conditions.

The second flight left at 13:20 on 15 May and lasted for sixty hours. In contrast to the first flight, the weather conditions were excellent this time and visibility was perfect. Valuable meteorological, magnetic, and geographic data were gathered in a 2,500 mile flight to the hitherto uncharted Nicholas II Land and back. Malmgren carried out weather and ice observations, while Pontremoli and Běhounek took measurements of magnetic phenomena and radioactivity. The airship returned safely to base at Kings Bay in the early hours of 18 May.

The third flight started on the morning of 23 May; following a route along the Greenland coast, with the assistance of strong tailwinds, Italia reached the North Pole nineteen hours later, at 00:24, on 24 May. Nobile had prepared a winch, an inflatable raft, and survival packs (which turned out to be providential) with the intention of lowering some of the scientists onto the ice, but the wind made this task impossible. Instead, they circled the pole, making observations, and at 01:20, they dropped onto the ice the Italian and Milanese colours, as well as a wooden cross presented by Pope Pius XI and a religious medal from the citizens of Forlì, during a short ceremony. Italia started back to base at 02:20, on 24 May.

Crash
The same tail wind that had helped Italia to the pole now impeded her progress. Nobile calculated that the return journey would take 40 hours, and had discussed their options with Malmgren in the hours before their arrival at the pole. Nobile considered a trans-polar route to Mackenzie Bay in Canada but, according to Nobile, Malmgren advised a return to Kings Bay, predicting lessening winds on their return trip. On the other hand, Malmgren anticipated a head wind all the way if the Canadian route was attempted. No doubt the prospect of a forced landing in the Canadian wilderness was unpalatable to both men, as it would mean the end of the expedition.

Travelling directly south on a heading for Kings Bay, after 24 hours of increasing head winds and thick mist, the Italia was only halfway back to base. The airship struggled to gain ground and break through to the zone of calmer winds which Malmgren predicted was just ahead. Ice forming on the propellers was breaking off and tearing holes in the envelope which necessitated constant repairs. Engine speed was increased but with little effect, except for a doubling of fuel consumption. Dr Běhounek, who was in charge of the compass, started to report variations in course of up to 30 degrees, and the elevator man Cecioni had similar problems maintaining control. By 07:30 on 25 May, Nobile, who had been awake for over 48 hours, knew that the situation was critical and Giuseppe Biagi, the wireless operator, sent a message stating if he did not answer a call, there would be a good reason.

By dead reckoning, Nobile estimated the airship's position to be 100 mi northeast of Moffen Island; instead they were 200 mi east of the island.

The first critical incident occurred at 09:25, on 25 May, when the elevator control jammed in the downward position while the ship was travelling at less than 1000 ft altitude. All engines were stopped and the Italia began to rise again after it had dropped to within 300 ft of the jagged ice pack. The airship was allowed to continue rising to 3000 ft and above the cloud layer into bright sunlight for 30 minutes. After two engines were restarted, the ship descended to 1000 ft with no apparent ill effect, with the headwind appearing to decrease slightly allowing an airspeed of 30 mph. Malmgren took the helm with Zappi supervising him, and Cecioni continued to operate the elevators.

At 10:25, the ship was noticed to be tail-heavy and falling at a rate of 2 ft/s. Nobile ordered full elevators and emergency power, but although the nose rose to an upward angle of 21 degrees, the descent continued. Nobile ordered foreman rigger Renato Alessandrini to the tail of the envelope to check the automatic gas valves. Shortly afterwards, realising that a crash was unavoidable, Nobile ordered the engines at full stop and the cutting of electrical power to prevent a fire on impact; however, the port engine engineer failed to notice the order, and the ship began to bank. At the same time, Nobile ordered Cecioni to dump the ballast chain, but he was unable to carry out the order in time, owing to the steep angle of the floor and the secure way in which the chain was lashed. Seconds later, the airship's control car hit the jagged ice, smashed open and was torn from the keel. Suddenly relieved of the weight of the gondola, the envelope of the ship began to rise, with a gaping tear in the keel and part of one cabin wall still attached.

Nine survivors (and Titina, Nobile's fox terrier) and one fatality were stranded on the ice. Six more crew were trapped in the still-drifting airship envelope which, along with the crew members on board, has never been found. The position of the crash was close to 81.23333°N, 28.23333°W, approximately 120 km northeast of Nordaustlandet, Svalbard. The drifting sea ice later took the survivors towards Foyn and Broch islands.

Immediate aftermath
Cecioni was hurled out of the ruptured cabin into a mound of ice, injuring both of his legs. He would later recall that he saw the envelope drifting above him, and Ciocca halfway out of the starboard engine car staring down in horror. Lago, Dr Pontremoli, and Alessandrini could also be seen in the torn opening where the companion way had been. Chief engine mechanic Ettore Arduino, with remarkable presence of mind, started throwing anything he could lay his hands on down to the men on the ice as he drifted slowly away with the envelope. These supplies, and the packs intended for the descent to the ice, helped to keep the survivors alive for their long ordeal. Arduino, and the five others, are assumed to have perished with the drifting airship envelope.

Trojani, at the engine control signals, fared better, as he was hurled into soft snow and rolled before immediately jumping to his feet and cleaning the snow off his glasses, which had survived the crash unscathed. Viglieri and Mariano, standing next to the chart table, briefly saw the rear engine car about to strike the ice hard and then found themselves prostrate, but unharmed, in a mass of debris. Biagi, with no time to send out an SOS, grabbed the portable emergency radio and wrapped his arms around it, trying to save it from damage. The impact on the ice had winded him, but he was still inside the wreck of the cabin when it came to rest. Nobile lay unconscious with a head wound, with Malmgren and Zappi nearby. Mariano, Běhounek, Trojani, and Viglieri were the first to rise to their feet, and they began to examine the others for injuries. Nobile gradually regained consciousness; he had a broken leg, right arm, and cracked rib, in addition to the head wound. Cecioni had two badly broken legs. Malmgren had an injured (broken or dislocated) shoulder and was suspected, much later on, to have internal injuries. Zappi had severe chest pains from suspected broken ribs.

Almost immediately, the survivors were buoyed by the discovery of a waterproof bag containing chocolate, pemmican, a Colt revolver, ammunition and a flare gun. Biagi's shortwave radio was intact and he began searching for material to construct a radio mast. He soon discovered the rear engine car smashed on the ice, and the body of Pomella, who appeared to have survived the impact and sat down on a block of ice, only to die shortly afterwards from a head injury. Despite this shock, Biagi was able to erect an antenna, and within a few hours began to send the first SOS signals from the stricken survivors. Nobile and Cecioni were placed together in a sleeping bag for warmth and spent the next few hours in semi-consciousness, while the others gathered what they could from the wreck. According to Nobile, Malmgren, who was in immense pain and suffering from guilt about his role in the crash, announced that he would drown himself and began to walk away from the crash site, but he stopped when Nobile sharply ordered him to return. Later the same day, Mariano had to subdue and disarm Malmgren when he found him walking away from the crash site with the loaded Colt revolver. Meanwhile, the uninjured men surveyed the ice pack, collecting supplies, and they chose a stable patch of ice to erect a 8 x silk tent that they had recovered; this was to be their only shelter during the coming ordeal.

The day after the crash was spent looking for more supplies amongst the wreckage. Navigational instruments and charts were recovered, allowing them to calculate the approximate position of the crash site. They also calculated the quantity of rations per man: a scant 300 g of food per day, mainly pemmican and chocolate, calculated for a 25-day stretch on the ice. Eventually 129 kg of food were recovered, extending the supply to 45 days. Finally, the crowded tent was dyed with red strips for improved visibility from the air, using dye marker bombs that had been on board the airship. Biagi continued to regularly signal for help with his radio, but the connection with the support ship Città di Milano was long impeded due to the precarious conditions of operation of the field radio, the particular propagation of short waves, and the unscrupulous use of radio stations by journalists at the Italian base in Ny-Ålesund. The men had been equipped with many layers of woollen clothes and lambskin flight suits, but not all of them were fully dressed at the time of the crash and none had proper Arctic survival clothing. Land was sighted in the distance on 28 May, breaking the despondency of the survivors. Discussions began as to whether they should attempt a trek towards land and eventually it was decided that Malmgren, Zappi and Mariano would set off to try to summon help. On 29 May, Malmgren shot a curious polar bear that had wandered to the crash site, augmenting the food supply with about 400 lb of fresh meat.

Rescue effort
On 25 May, Captain Romagna Manoja immediately asked for Norway's assistance through the Italian delegation at Oslo. He rented two whaling boats and embarked on a rescue cruise to the northeast coasts. An international rescue effort followed. Word also reached Roald Amundsen in Oslo, whom immediately began to organize a search; American Lincoln Ellsworth who had accompanied Amundsen and Nobile on the earlier polar fight, also offered to aid in the search.

In Italy, Arturo Mercanti, a former air force chief and friend of Nobile, requested that air force planes be sent to the Arctic to begin a search. The Italian Government authorised three sea planes to be used: a Dornier Wal, piloted by Luigi Penzo; a Dornier Wal, piloted by Ivo Ravazzoni; and a Savoia-Marchetti S.55, piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Umberto Maddalena, who was the first rescuer to spot the "Red Tent" survivors on 20 June.

Captain Gennaro Sora (of the Italian Army Alpini ski detachment) ran a heroic over-ice sled attempt from the Città di Milano support ship, while Matteoda and Albertini of the SUCAI (the University Section of the Italian Alpine Club) did the same from the Italian-hired ship Braganza.

The lack of co-ordination among the search efforts meant that it took more than 48 days before all of the crash survivors (and the stranded would-be rescuers) were retrieved. Roald Amundsen was lost and presumed dead after the French Latham sea plane piloted by René Guilbaud, in which he was flying, disappeared en route to Spitsbergen to take part in the rescue operation.

Chronology of Crash
The Italia crashed on the ice on 25 May 1928. These are the events that followed:

 * 25 May: Radio operator Biagi salvages the radio, constructs a makeshift radio mast and begins transmitting SOS. Captain of the support ship Città di Milano, Giuseppe Romagna Manoja, calls Norway for help through the Italian diplomatic delegation of Oslo.
 * 26 May: At the request of Captain Romagna, the Norwegian whaler Hobby is hired by the Italian government.
 * 27–30 May: The ship City of Milan makes a rescue cruise to the North Cape, but is forced to turn back due to the impossibility of tackling the pack ice, but Sucaini Gianni Albertini and Sergio Matteoda manage to land, with the guide Valdemar Kramer, and the Alpini Giuseppe Sandrini and Silvio Pedrotti, who start the search with dogs and sleds.
 * 28 May: Captain Romagna also hires the Norwegian whaler Braganza.
 * 29 May: The second radio telegraphist of the expedition, Ettore Pedretti, on board the City of Milan intercepts a fragment of message which may have been transmitted by Biagi, but not being certain he does not transcribe the message, which only later proves to be a genuine transmission.
 * 30 May: The survivors are unable to establish radio contact because of weather conditions, the particular propagation of short waves and the unscrupulous use of the radio frequencies by journalists based in Ny-Ålesund. Malmgren, with navigators Mariano and Zappi, begin a trek toward land.
 * 3 June: Nikolai Schmidt, a 21-year-old Soviet amateur radio operator in Vokhma hears the Italia SOS signals with his home-made lamp-regenerative circuit; he immediately sends a telegram to Radio Friends Company in Moscow; in Osoaviakhim aid committee "Italia" was made
 * 5 June: The Norwegian pilot Finn Lützow-Holm makes the first flight in search of the Italia. In the ensuing weeks, pilots from Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Soviet Union and Italy make search and rescue flights.
 * 9 June: Radio contact is established between the survivors and the Città di Milano. The ship, under the command of Captain Ugo Baccarani, intercepts the coordinates of the survivors and the search takes effect.
 * 12 June: Icebreaker Malygin headed from Arkhangelsk towards Svalbard.
 * 16 June: Icebreaker Krasin equipped with one Junkers YuG-1 on board (Boris Chukhnovsky as a pilot) under the command of Rudolf Samoylovich headed from Saint Petersburg.
 * 15–16 June: Malmgren collapses from exposure on the ice and asks to be left behind. His body has never been found.
 * 18 June: Roald Amundsen and five others disappear on a flight to Spitsbergen to aid in the rescue operations. Captain Gennaro Sora of the Italian Alpini defies orders and sets off by sled with Arctic explorers Ludvig Varming and Sjef van Dongen to try to reach the crash zone.
 * 20 June: Icebreaker Malygin was caught in ice in Barents Sea and out of rescue mission.
 * 20 June: Italian pilot Maddalena spots the survivors and drops supplies, many of which are smashed or useless.
 * 21 June: Krasin landed in Bergen
 * 22 June: Italian and Swedish pilots drop more supplies, this time successfully.
 * 23 June: Krasin headed towards Svalbard.
 * 23 June: Swedish pilot Einar Lundborg is ordered to rescue Nobile first, but crashes his plane when he returns for more survivors and is trapped on the ice with the others. Rescue operations are suspended pending the arrival of suitable light aircraft capable of landing on the ice.
 * 6 July: Lundborg is picked up from the ice floe by his Swedish co-pilot Birger Schyberg in a light Cirrus Moth ski-biplane. Schyberg also intends to rescue the other five survivors (including Nobile's dog), but changing ice conditions lead him to change his mind after having brought Lundborg to safety.
 * 10 July: Chukhnovsky's crew flew out to conduct ice reconnaissance and search for the Italian camp. Malmgren's group was seen but it was unable to count how many people was there. The radiogram sent to the Krasin indicated three survivors. Due to fog Chukhnovsky couldn't find an icebreaker and forced landed on ice floe. Landing gear and two propellers were damaged. Chukhnovsky radioed that he doesn't need any help and rescue effort should be directed towards italians.
 * 12 July: Krasin rescues Mariano and Zappi, but Malmgren has already been left behind almost four weeks prior. The five remaining Italia survivors are rescued by the icebreaker later the same day. Boris Chukhnovsky and his four crew are also rescued by the Krasin on its way back to Kings Bay.
 * 13 July: Rescuers Sora and Van Dongen are rescued from Foynøya island by Finnish and Swedish aircraft.

Participants in search of Italia survivors

 * Denmark
 * State owned Arctic schooner Gustav Holm from Kgl. Grønlandske Handel.

 * Finland
 * Floatplane / ski aircraft Junkers F 13 Turku K-SALG (from Aero OY / Finnair), commander Olavi Sarko, pilot Gunnar Lihr.

 * France
 * Flying boat biplane Latham 47 "02" (from French Navy) pilot: René Guilbaud.
 * Two small flying boats, Hydravions Louis Schreck FBA type biplane (on board Strasbourg).
 * Cruiser FRENCH CRUISER Strasbourg, oil supply vessel Durance, fishery inspection vessel Quentin Roosevelt and private expedition vessel Pourquoi-Pas.

 * Italy
 * Flying boat Savoia-Marchetti S.55 I-SAAT Santa Maria (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Maddalena.
 * Flying boat Do15 Dornier Wal Marina II I-PLIF (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Penzo.
 * Flying boat Do15 Dornier Wal Marina I I-XAAF (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Ravazzoni. (Marina I was stationed exclusively at Tromsø, Northern Norway searching for Amundsen).
 * Two small flying boats, Macchi M.18 type biplane stationed at Citta di Milano and Braganza pilots: Penzo and Crosio.
 * Cableship Citta di Milano and seal fishery vessels Hobby and Braganza.
 * Norwegian trapper Waldemar Kræmer and four Alpini soldiers with a small boat searched the coast of Vestspitsbergen.
 * Dog sledge team led by the Italian Alpini captain Sora, the Dutchman van Dongen and the Dane Ludvig Varming searched the coast of Nordaustlandet. Varming was left behind, but Sora and van Dongen reached Foyn Island and Broch island.

 * Norway
 * Floatplane monoplane Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 "F.36" pilot: Finn Lützow-Holm.
 * Floatplane monoplane Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 "F.38" pilot: Riiser-Larsen.
 * Floatplane biplane Sopwith Baby "F.100" pilot: Lambrecht (on board Tordenskjold).
 * Floatplane biplane Sopwith Baby "F.102" pilot: Ingebrigtsen (on board Tordenskjold).
 * Coastal defense ship HNoMS Tordenskjold, and seal fishery vessels Hobby (used thrice, see Italy and USA), Braganza (used twice, see Italy). Veslekari (Tryggve Gran), Heimland, fishery inspection vessel Michael Sars, Svalbard governor's Svalbard and miner's boat (name unknown).
 * Dog sledge team led by the trapper Hilmar Nøis and Rolf S. Tandberg supported partly by two Italian alpine students Albertini and Matteoda.

 * Soviet Union
 * Floatplane / ski monoplane Junkers G 23 Red Bear (on board Krassin) pilot: Boris Chukhnovsky.
 * Floatplane / ski monoplane Junkers F 13 RR-DAS (on board Malygin) pilot: Babushkin.
 * Icebreakers Krassin,  Malygin,  Georgiy Sedov and brig  Perseus

 * Sweden
 * Floatplane monoplane Hansa Brandenburg (Heinkel HE 5) "255" pilot: Tornberg.
 * Floatplane monoplane Hansa Brandenburg (Heinkel HE 5) "257" pilot: Jacobsson.
 * Ski biplane Fokker C.V.M. "31" pilot: Einar Lundborg.
 * Ski biplane Fokker C.V.M. "32" (never used, in the hold of Tanja).
 * Floatplane / ski biplane de Havilland 60 Moth S-AABN pilot: Birger Schyberg.
 * Ski monoplane Klemm-Daimler L.20 D-1357 (from Germany) pilot: Ekman.
 * Floatplane monoplane Junkers G 24 Uppland S-AABG (from national airline ABA) pilot: Viktor Nilsson.
 * Seal fishery vessel Quest and freighter S/S Tanja.

 * United States
 * Seal fishery vessel Hobby with "F.36" and "F.38" pilots: Lützow-Holm and Riiser-Larsen (Louise Boyd charter).

Causes of crash
The causes of the crash of the Italia remain controversial even today. The main causes were the severe Arctic climate and the decision to return to base in Spitsbergen in the midst of a worsening gale, rather than to continue across the Pole and attempt a landing in Canada. This fact drove meteorologist Finn Malmgren to attempt suicide twice soon after the crash.

Another factor is the decision to let the airship rise above the cloud layer, causing heating and then expansion of the hydrogen, which triggered automatic valving of the gas. Once the engines were restarted, the ship descended through the clouds into freezing air again and, either because the automatic valves were jammed open, or because the ship had already valved too much hydrogen, it could no longer stay aloft. Although Nobile was blamed for the crash by the Italian fascist government and was the victim of a smear campaign in the press, one criticism, from the master airship commander Hugo Eckener is perhaps justified—that Nobile should never have climbed above the cloud layer in the first place.

Another possibility is a rupture of one of the gas cells, although this is unlikely as it almost certainly would have been noticed immediately by any of the crew on duty. The most recent theory suggests that the outer cover of the airship may have sustained damage during the pre-flight ice removal, when a group of men wearing ice cleats hacked at the airship with pickaxes. Felice Trojani, one of the airship engineers, reported in his book that in the years after the crash, he examined eleven different possible causes in detail without coming to any real solution.

Recent analysis of the historical evidence shows that human fatigue probably played an important role in the crash of the Italia. At the time of the crash, Nobile may have been awake for at least 72 hours, i.e., three days; just prior to the crash, Nobile made three command errors of types associated with inadequate sleep. Sleep deprivation impairs aspects of cognitive functioning necessary for commanding flights, especially under such challenging conditions. Nobile's failure (or refusal) to choose a second-in-command was the primary reason for his sleep deprivation and may have directly led to the crash of the Italia.

Search for wreckage
The latest documented, targeted attempt to locate the wreckage of the Italia was carried out in 2018, ninety years after the crash. On 13 August 2018, a team of researchers with the PolarQuest2018 expedition reached the GPS coordinates of the first SOS message radioed by Giuseppe Biagi from the Red Tent and were aided by the fact that global climate change has greatly reduced the area of the North Atlantic Ocean that is typically covered by ice. After a short commemoration ceremony, the team on board deployed an innovative 3D multi-beam sonar device to search the seabed for any potential wreckage of the Italia (the same technology has successfully located other wreckage such as that of the USS Susan B. Anthony which sank off the coast of France in 1944). They scanned along the most probable search areas for the missing airship envelope, following the drift of the Red Tent. The search, however, produced no results. , the remains of the Italia and her crew have never been found.

Popular culture

 * The 1928 Soviet documentary film Heroic Deed Among the Ice, by Georgi Vasilyev and Sergei Vasilyev, describes the rescue mission of the Soviet icebreaker Krassin.
 * František Běhounek, one of the survivors, wrote several books depicting the events, including Trosečníci na kře ledové (translation: Survivors on cold ice) (1928). He was also advisor for the 1968 Czechoslovak documentary film, Vzducholodí k severnímu pólu (translation: Airship to the Northern Pole).
 * The story of the Italia disaster was made into a film in 1969, titled The Red Tent.
 * Midnight Sun is a 2007 graphic novel by Ben Towle, which tells a semi-fictionalised account of the rescue mission.
 * The Spitsbergen Airship Museum in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, features many objects from the Italia, and attempts to portray the events of the expedition and subsequent rescue efforts in a neutral tone.
 * In Saul Bellow's novel Humboldt's Gift, the Italia airship rescue mission inspires Von Humboldt Fleisher's gift, a movie treatment.

title: Italia (airship)