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Interstate 405 (Oregon)

Interstate 405 (I-405), also known as the Stadium Freeway No. 61, is a short north–south Interstate Highway in Portland, Oregon. It forms a loop that travels around the west side of Downtown Portland, between two junctions with I-5 on the Willamette River near the Marquam Bridge to the south and Fremont Bridge to the north.

The Stadium Freeway was envisioned in the 1940s and 1950s by the state government and was added to the Interstate Highway system in 1958. Construction began in 1963, utilizing a trench with extensive landscaping and frequent overpasses, and was the most expensive freeway project in state history at a cost of $121 million. Hundreds of buildings were demolished to make way for the freeway, which displaced approximately 1,100 households.

The southernmost section of I-405 opened on October 26, 1965, and was followed by extensions in 1966 and 1969. The final section, including the Fremont Bridge, opened in November 1973. Plans for a spur freeway, I-505, were cancelled in 1978 following public outcry; its interchange with I-405 was subsequently reused for a 1988 realignment of U.S. Route 30 (US 30), which runs concurrent with I-405 across the Fremont Bridge to I-5.

Route description

I-405 begins at a three-way stack interchange with I-5 and Harbor Drive on the south side of Downtown Portland near the South Waterfront neighborhood. I-5 continues northeast from the interchange to the Marquam Bridge to East Portland and south towards South Portland, passing under the Ross Island Bridge. I-405 travels northwest along the foothills of the Southwest Hills, traveling around the urban campus of Portland State University and passing the end of the South Park Blocks. It begins a short concurrency with US 26.

US 26 splits from I-405 at an interchange north of Montgomery Street, traveling via the Vista Ridge Tunnels onto the Sunset Freeway towards the western suburbs of Portland. I-405 then turns northeast and narrows to four lanes as it travels through the east edge of the Goose Hollow neighborhood, passing the Multnomah County Central Library, Lincoln High School, and Providence Park, home of several local soccer teams. The below-grade freeway is connected to the neighborhood and the western fringe of downtown by a series of ramps that lead to Salmon and Taylor streets. At Yamhill and Morrison streets, I-405 crosses under bridges carrying MAX Light Rail trains, which continues west towards Beaverton and east to Downtown Portland.

I-405 intersects Burnside Street and turns due north as it climbs out of the below-grade trench, running parallel to 15th and 16th avenues. After an interchange with Glisan Street, the freeway becomes elevated and passes over cross-streets in the Pearl District, including those carrying the tracks of the Portland Streetcar's NS Line. A streetcar maintenance barn and railyard is located under the freeway between Marshall and Overton streets. At the northwest edge of Downtown Portland, I-405 intersects US 30, which continues northwest along a short freeway into the Northwest Industrial Area that was originally intended for the cancelled I-505.

I-405 and US 30 become concurrent as they cross over the Willamette River on the eight-lane Fremont Bridge, a steel tied-arch bridge that carries southbound traffic on its upper deck and northbound traffic below. The double-decker freeway continues northeast over the Union Pacific Railroad's Albina railyard and Interstate Avenue, a part of Route 99W that also carries the MAX Yellow Line. The northern terminus of I-405 is at a stack interchange with I-5 in the Eliot neighborhood; US 30 continues southeasterly onto I-5 for a short distance before beginning a concurrency with I-84. A set of ramps continue northeast from the interchange to Legacy Emanuel Hospital along the alignment of the cancelled Rose City Freeway.

I-405, also designated as Stadium Freeway No. 61, is the shortest Interstate freeway in the Portland area, at 4.2 mi. It has a posted speed limit of 50 mph due to its short distance between interchanges and high volume of merging traffic. The highway is maintained by the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT), who conduct an annual survey of traffic volume that is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. The busiest section of I-405 is at Burnside Street, which carried a daily average of 131,400 vehicles in 2018; and the least-trafficked section, at Southwest Broadway, carried 84,400 vehicles. The freeway had an estimated 8 hours of northbound congestion and 11.8 hours of southbound congestion in 2017, with average speeds of 22.8 mph for northbound traffic and 23.8 mph for southbound traffic during weekday afternoon rush hours. TriMet operates one bus route on I-405, Line 24, which uses the Fremont Bridge as a connection between Slabtown and Legacy Emanuel Hospital.

Planning and routing dispute
Highway planner Robert Moses was commissioned by the city government in 1943 to envision a program of public improvements that would begin after the end of World War II to provide employment for returning soldiers. Among these were a network of "thruways" for Portland, including a downtown loop consisting of the Foothills Thruway (later forming I-405) and the East-Side Thruway (later I-5), connected by a northern crossing of the Willamette River. The Foothills Thruway would run along Northwest 24th Avenue and terminate at two intersections with Harbor Drive at the Ross Island Bridge to the south and the new Willamette River bridge to the north. A city study released in June 1955 proposed the construction of several freeways in downtown Portland, including the Sunset Freeway and Stadium Freeway—later combined to form I-405. The northern crossing would use the double-decker Fremont Bridge, which had been proposed earlier as part of U.S. Route 99W in the 1920s but defeated in public referendums.

The federal Bureau of Public Roads included the Stadium Freeway in its 1955 recommendation for a national system of expressways that were later funded by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. The 3.8 mi freeway was estimated to cost $71 million in 1958 dollars (equivalent to $ in dollars) and would be funded primarily by the federal government under the Interstate Highways program. The Oregon Highway Division studied a set of five alternate routes for the freeway, designated as Interstate 405 by the federal government in 1958, with input from the city government over potential impacts to the west side of the central business district. The southern section from the Marquam Bridge to US 26 near Southwest Jefferson Street was split into two options: the Clay–Market route, following Clay and Market streets to the north of Portland State College; and the Foothills route, which would curve along the southwest side of an urban renewal area with a depressed roadway. The northern section from US 26 to the Fremont Bridge was split into three options: an elevated freeway between 15th and 16th avenues proposed by the city; an elevated freeway between 18th and 19th avenues; and a depressed roadway between 21st and 22nd avenues.

The city government, Portland State College, and downtown business groups lobbied in support of the Clay–Market route, producing their own study that claimed it would preserve downtown property values. The Oregon State Highway Commission and Bureau of Public Roads preferred the Foothills route due to its $4 million (equivalent to $ in dollars) in cost savings compared to the Clay–Market route. The Oregon chapter of the American Institute of Architects and several industry groups recommended a delay in deciding the route based on potential damage to the cityscape caused by the designs in both options. By late May, a total of 389 households and 37 businesses had been relocated in anticipation of the freeway project, while 47 buildings had been demolished. The state highway commission hosted a public hearing in June 1960 to hear testimony from 300 people at Portland's Public Auditorium. The commission adopted the Foothills route and 15th–16th elevated freeway for I-405 on July 8, which would cost an estimated $75.7 million to construct (equivalent to $ in dollars). The Portland City Council then voted on July 14 to approve the general route endorsed by the state highway commission.

Property acquisition and Foothills construction
The state government began negotiations to acquire property along the Stadium Freeway's future right of way in October 1960, later requesting federal funds to aid the city government with relocating an estimated 1,100 households affected by planned demolitions. An estimated 554 buildings with 1,668 residential units were in the right of way for the freeway, including a school, several churches, and a recently completed synagogue for Congregation Shaarie Torah. In 1963, the owner of the Carlton Hotel, a long-term care home with 139 elderly residents, appealed the condemnation and planned demolition of the building to make way for the Stadium Freeway. The state government agreed to assist in relocating the residents to a new building, but its lack of a fire sprinkler system mandated for recipients of state welfare forced the eviction of 80 residents from the Carlton Hotel. Further planning work was delayed by a dispute with the city government and Bureau of Public Roads over the location of ramps and interchanges in early 1961, which were resolved with formal federal approval in August. The state highway commission approved the designation of Highway No. 61 for the Stadium Freeway on December 8, 1961.

In February 1962, the Portland City Council postponed its decisions on closing streets for freeway construction and ratification of an agreement with the state highway commission on maintenance of ramps and overpasses after protests from local residents, who described I-405 as a "gigantic monstrosity" and the "West Side Suicide". The state highway commission halted its property acquisition negotiations the following month while awaiting the city council's approval of the agreement and other plans, which were required under federal law. The protests coincided with the growing opposition to other freeway projects in the Portland area, including the Laurelhurst Freeway (I-205), at the onset of the region's freeway revolts. A pair of downtown businessmen formed the Citizens for Sane Freeways Committee and attempted to lobby the Bureau of Public Roads to adopt Harbor Drive as its route for I-405, but they were rejected because it did not meet modern freeway standards. The group later circulated a public petition with 3,000 signatures opposing the construction of the 13th–14th avenues section of the freeway between US 26 and Burnside Street. On March 22, the city council voted unanimously to approve its agreements with the state highway commission after a four-hour public hearing with 35 speakers, allowing the state government to resume property acquisition.

The Stadium Freeway project was divided into several stages to reduce long-term disruption to cross-town access, beginning with the trenched roadway in the Foothills area with 19 overpasses and working northward. The project required the demolition of 282 homes, 138 businesses, and 131 apartment buildings, costing $25 million (equivalent to $ in dollars) in condemnations and land purchases. The state highway commission awarded the first construction contract for the Stadium Freeway project in August 1963, accepting a $4.4 million bid (equivalent to $ in dollars) from the Donald M. Drake Company to build the 1.08 mi section from the Ross Island Bridge to Southwest Broadway with connections to the Marquam Bridge and the new freeway which became I-5. Construction began with utility relocation and the construction of temporary street detours in October 1963, ahead of work on the Vista Ridge Tunnels (part of US 26), which began the following month. Demolition and site clearing began by the end of 1963, with the St. Joseph's Catholic Church (built in 1887) among the oldest buildings to be demolished for the project; other buildings were saved from demolition and moved to new locations, including the two-story Century Building (which suffered fire damage during its month-long move), the former home of territorial governor George Law Curry, and St. Helen's Hall at Trinity Episcopal Cathedral. The broadcast studios of KGW-TV were also demolished for the project, requiring a $865,000 settlement from the state government for its property.

The Stadium Freeway's first completed overpass, carrying Southwest 4th Avenue, opened to traffic in March 1965 and replaced a temporary crossing that had been in use since May 1964. The not-yet-complete freeway was used as the boundary between the state's 1st and 3rd congressional districts following a special redistricting vote by the state legislature in May 1965. The first section of I-405, between the Ross Island Bridge and Southwest Broadway, opened to traffic on October 26, 1965, two months later than scheduled and at a cost of $5.5 million (equivalent to $ in dollars). The delay was attributed to heavy rains that prevented painting of lane markings and to a failed shipment of raised pavement markers. Excavation of the second section, also under the direction of the Drake Company, began in September 1965. It opened in September 1966, extending I-405 from Broadway to Southwest Montgomery Street near the Vista Ridge Tunnel. The Marquam Bridge opened a month later, granting access to East Portland via new ramps from I-405 to I-5.

Northern section and cancelled extensions

Construction of the third phase of I-405, covering 1.17 mi between Montgomery and Johnson streets, began in July 1966 under a $12.3 million contract (equivalent to $ in dollars)—the largest to be awarded by in the state highway commission's history. It included 22 overpasses to reduce disruption to the street grid and 55 retaining walls, which were covered by planted trees, shrubs, and ivy to beautify the freeway. An estimated 1,000,000 cuyd of dirt were excavated for the project and reused to fill industrial sites on the Willamette River. The freeway's overpasses were opened to traffic in October 1968, but completion of the lanes and ramps was delayed due to heavy rains that disrupted grading and installation of guardrails and signs. The Montgomery–Johnson section was opened to traffic on February 25, 1969, after an additional two-month delay due to snowy weather. It coincided with the opening of the Vista Ridge Tunnels, which provided a connection to the Sunset Freeway (US 26) and replaced an earlier street.

The tied arch design of the Fremont Bridge was approved by the state government, city council, and Bureau of Public Roads in May 1966. The costlier design was recommended by the Portland Art Commission after public outcry over the perceived "ugliness" of the Marquam Bridge and the initial cantilever design for the Fremont Bridge. Construction began in late 1968 and was originally estimated to cost $22.4 million (equivalent to $ in dollars) until later design changes caused its total cost to reach $50 million (equivalent to $ in  dollars). The Fremont Bridge and I-5 interchange opened on November 15, 1973, at a final cost of $82 million (equivalent to $ in dollars). I-405 cost a total of $121 million to construct (equivalent to $ in dollars), making it the most expensive freeway project in Oregon on a per-mile basis.

The northern section included construction of stub ramps to two future freeway extensions: the Industrial Freeway (I-505) from the west end of the Fremont Bridge and the Rose City Freeway from the I-5 interchange at the east end of the bridge. I-505 was approved by the federal government in 1969 and was planned to begin construction shortly after the bridge opened, but was halted by lawsuits from neighborhood activists. The project was cancelled in 1978 and the ramps were reused for an expressway section of US 30 connecting to Yeon Avenue, which opened in 1988. The Rose City Freeway remained part of a long-term freeways plan from the city government, but was later cancelled due to a lack of funding. The unused ramps were instead redirected to Kerby Avenue to serve the expanded Legacy Emanuel Hospital with approval from the city council in 1974 despite protests from local residents, which stalled the project for several years. The ramps were opened in 1979 with limited access to nearby streets as a compromise for the neighborhood.

Later developments
In August 2009, the entirety of I-405 with the exception of the Fremont Bridge was completely repaved for the first time by ODOT. The bridge itself was repaved in August 2011. ODOT began a year-long project to repair and replace expansion joints on elevated sections of the freeway in March 2019 due to extended deterioration of the structure.

In 1998, Mayor Vera Katz proposed capping the southwest portion of I-405 to create space for parks, housing, and offices. A similar proposal was suggested by the Portland Art Commission in 1964, but not studied until the adoption of the 1972 Downtown Plan. Plans to cap portions of I-405 have been made by grassroots organizations since the 2000s, aiming to mitigate the effects of the freeway and create new development in northwestern Portland. A 200 ft bridge, named Ned Flanders Crossing for The Simpsons character Ned Flanders, was built to create a pedestrian and bicycle connection across I-405 between two sections of Northwest Flanders Street in Northwest Portland. Construction on the bridge began in June 2020 and it opened a year later at a cost of $9.5 million.

title: Interstate 405 (Oregon)


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Interstate 405 (Washington)

Interstate 405 (I-405) is a north–south auxiliary Interstate Highway serving the Seattle region of Washington, United States. It bypasses Seattle east of Lake Washington, traveling through the Eastside area of King and Snohomish counties, providing an alternate route to I-5. The 30 mi freeway serves the cities of Renton, Bellevue, Kirkland, and Bothell. I-405 terminates at I-5 in Tukwila and Lynnwood, and also intersects several major highways, including SR 167, I-90, SR 520, and SR 522.

The Eastside highway was originally built in the early 20th century to connect cities along the lake and was formally added to the state highway system in 1937 as Secondary State Highway 2A (SSH 2A). A freeway replacement for SSH 2A was proposed in the 1940s by the state government and designated as I-405 as part of the federal Interstate Highway program, with the first section beginning construction in 1956 and completed in 1965. It was initially signed as SR 405 until the freeway was fully completed in 1971; since then, the highway has been expanded to add lanes for high-occupancy vehicles and toll users. I-405 is one of the most congested highways in the Seattle area and is known for its meandering "S-curves" through Renton, which were straightened in the 1990s.

Route description
I-405 is a 30 mi north–south freeway that serves as a bypass of I-5 through Seattle while serving the Eastside region. It is listed as part of the National Highway System, identifying routes that are important to the national economy, defense, and mobility, and the state's Highway of Statewide Significance program, recognizing its connection to major communities. The highway is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), who conduct an annual survey of traffic volume that is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. Average daily traffic volumes on I-405 in 2016 ranged from a minimum of 76,000 at its southern terminus in Tukwila to 209,000 in Downtown Bellevue. Approximately 86 percent of peak-direction lane miles on I-405 are rated as "routinely congested" by WSDOT and the highway accounted for over 30 percent of delays on the Seattle area's urban freeways from 2013 to 2017.

The freeway has a system of high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV lanes) from Tukwila to Downtown Bellevue that become high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT lanes) from Bellevue to Lynnwood. The HOT lanes are controlled through a series of designated access points and direct ramps located along I-405. Tolls are collected electronically through Good to Go transponders by overhead sensors or via license plate cameras for mail billing with a surcharge. The variable weekday toll rates are set according to traffic congestion, ranging from $0.75 to a maximum of $10, while weekends and federal holidays are toll-free. HOT lane tolls are waived for high-occupancy vehicles with three or more passengers during peak periods and two or more passengers during the mid-day when using the "FlexPass" that can toggle between tolled and HOV modes.

Tukwila to Bellevue

I-405 begins as a continuation of State Route 518 (SR 518) at a multi-level junction with I-5 in Tukwila, northeast of Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. The eight-lane freeway gains a set of HOV lanes, directly connected to I-5, and travels around the north side of the Southcenter Mall, at the center of Tukwila's retail district. The mall is served by a set of auxiliary ramps around the periphery of the I-5/SR 518 interchange. I-405 travels east across the Green River and intersects Interurban Avenue at the north end of SR 181, located near the Tukwila train station and Starfire Sports soccer complex at Fort Dent Park. After crossing a set of railroad tracks (part of the BNSF Railway's Seattle Subdivision and the Union Pacific Railroad), the freeway enters the city of Renton and passes between a regional wastewater treatment plant and the former Longacres racetrack (now a Boeing office park). I-405 continues across the Black River and through an industrial and commercial area on the southern outskirts of Renton to a cloverleaf interchange with SR 167 (the Valley Freeway) and Rainier Avenue. The interchange, located near several car dealerships at the northwest corner of Talbot Hill, includes a direct HOV flyover ramp from I-405 southbound to SR 167 and SR 167 northbound to I-405.

The freeway turns northeast and runs below several hills with residential neighborhoods overlooking downtown Renton. I-405 intersects SR 515 in a half-diamond interchange and then enters a series of "s-curves" as it travels around the east side of downtown Renton. After crossing the Cedar River upstream from the Renton Public Library, the freeway passes through a public park and intersects SR 169 and SR 900 at two separate interchanges. The southern junction, with SR 169, is a partial cloverleaf interchange at Bronson Way, while the northern junction with SR 900 is a half-diamond that also marks the beginning of a short concurrency with the latter. The concurrent I-405 and SR 900 then pass the Kenworth truck plant and the Renton Landing shopping center near the Boeing Renton Factory before reaching a junction with Sunset Boulevard, which carries SR 900 east towards Issaquah.

From downtown Renton, I-405 narrows to six lanes and climbs over Kennydale Hill and descends down May Creek. The freeway, now closely following the shore of Lake Washington and the Eastside Rail Corridor trail, passes the Virginia Mason Athletic Center, the headquarters of the Seattle Seahawks football team. I-405 leaves Renton and briefly enters the city of Newcastle before continuing into the residential Newport neighborhood in southern Bellevue. The freeway travels along the lake and near several residential areas, passing through two intermediate interchanges at Newport Hills and Coal Creek near Newport High School. I-405 then passes the Marketplace at Factoria shopping center and the headquarters of T-Mobile US before it reaches a full stack interchange with I-90, which provides access to Seattle, Mercer Island, Eastgate, and Issaquah.

Bellevue to Lynnwood

The freeway continues north from the interchange towards Downtown Bellevue, passing the Mercer Slough estuary and the historic Wilburton Trestle as it widens to ten lanes. I-405 travels through several interchanges and forms the eastern border of Downtown Bellevue, a major office district, separating it from the retail areas of Wilburton. It intersects Northeast 4th Street in a diamond interchange, Northeast 6th Street in an HOV-only Texas T interchange serving the Bellevue Transit Center and under the 2 Line light rail guideway, and Northeast 8th Street in a cloverleaf interchange near the Overlake Medical Center. A set of four HOT lanes begin at the Northeast 6th Street ramp, traveling north with limited entry and exit points.

I-405 continues north from Downtown Bellevue into the city's northern residential and commercial neighborhoods, where it intersects SR 520—a major east–west freeway with connections to Seattle, the Microsoft campus in Overlake, and Redmond. The partial cloverleaf interchange includes a braided ramp from the northbound exit allowing traffic from Northeast 8th Street to enter I-405 and traffic from Northeast 10th Street to access SR 520. The freeway leaves Bellevue for Kirkland, traveling along the west side of Bridle Trails State Park and passing the campus of Northwest University in the predominantly residential Houghton neighborhood. I-405 then travels along the west side of Rose Hill, an area uphill from and about 1 mi east of downtown Kirkland, intersecting Northeast 85th Street (formerly SR 908) near Lake Washington High School. The freeway continues north along the Cross Kirkland Corridor (part of the Eastside Rail Corridor trail) to the Totem Lake area, where it has three junctions. The southernmost is a half single-point urban interchange with Northeast 116th Street near the Lake Washington Institute of Technology campus, followed by a partial cloverleaf interchange with Northeast 124th Street serving The Village at Totem Lake shopping center, and a median interchange with Northeast 128th Street in the I-405 HOT lanes near EvergreenHealth's main medical center.

The freeway continues north through Kirkland's residential Kingsgate neighborhood and enters the city of Bothell near an interchange with Northeast 160th Street. I-405's HOT lanes are reduced to one per direction and a northbound braided ramp begins to separate traffic bound for SR 522, the next interchange. The combination interchange with SR 522 is located above the Sammamish River and adjacent to the University of Washington Bothell and Cascadia College campus; SR 522 continues west along Lake Washington towards Seattle and east through Woodinville towards Monroe. The freeway crosses over North Creek and intersects Northeast 195th Street near several office parks at the northern border of King County.

I-405 enters Snohomish County and travels northwest through a wooded area along North Creek before reaching an interchange with the Bothell–Everett Highway, which continues north to Mill Creek as SR 527. The interchange, located in the Canyon Park industrial area, is adjacent to a park and ride that serves as the southern terminus of the Swift Green Line and has a dedicated pedestrian bridge. The freeway continues northwest through residential neighborhoods and gains a set of auxiliary lanes in the shoulder that are opened to northbound traffic during limited periods using a series of overhead signs and restricted to transit use in the southbound direction. I-405 continues northwest, crossing over SR 524 without an interchange, and terminates at a combination interchange with I-5 east of the Alderwood Mall in Lynnwood. The freeway continues north as SR 525, which connects to SR 99 and serves the Mukilteo terminal on the Washington State Ferries system.

Early highways
During early development of the Eastside region in the late 19th century, travel between cities was dependent on boats, including a system of passenger steamboats and ferries on Lake Washington. The first completed railroad on the Eastside was the Lake Washington Belt Line, opened from Renton to Woodinville in late 1904 by the Northern Pacific Railway. It was intended to allow freight to bypass Seattle's congested railyards and was also served by passenger trains. The area's first log roads had been built in the early 1890s and were expanded across the region by the beginning of the 20th century, including predecessors to I-405.

A north–south road between Kirkland and modern-day Bellevue was completed in 1908 and gradually extended south to Renton and north to Bothell. The road, named Lake Washington Boulevard, was fully paved by 1932 and designated by the state legislature as part of Secondary State Highway 2A (SSH 2A) in 1937. SSH 2A traveled north from US 10 in Renton to Primary State Highway 2 (PSH 2) in Bothell, continuing onward to US 99 in Everett. Three Tree Point Road, which connected Burien to Renton, was designated as SSH 1L. The Bothell–Everett section of SSH 2A was later removed from the state highway system in 1943.

Planning for a series of upgrades to transform SSH 2A into a suitable bypass of US 99 around Seattle began in the late 1940s. A plan announced in 1947 would use federal funds to build a new two-lane road between Bellevue and Woodinville, supplementing another road to Kennydale that was already under construction. Additional right-of-way would be acquired to allow for expansion to four lanes at a later date. Following a survey by the state highway department, a route generally following 116th Avenue Northeast was chosen in 1949; plans also called for a limited-access highway with several cloverleaf interchanges dependent on available funding. A 4 mi section of the new highway between Kennydale and Bellevue began construction in February 1947 and was completed the following year.

The East Pacific Highway Association, formed to plan a major highway to the east of US 99 from Tenino to the Canadian border, lobbied the state legislature for funding to complete the 25 mi link between Renton and Woodinville. The state government approved plans for the Eastside highway in 1952 as part of its limited-access highway network and allocated funds to begin acquisition of right-of-way along the corridor. The federal Bureau of Public Roads included the Eastside bypass of Seattle in its 1955 recommendation for a national system of Interstate routes; it would generally follow SSH 1L and SSH 2A to northern Kirkland before turning northwest near Bothell on a new route to the already-planned Seattle–Everett freeway (now I-5). The system was approved by the signing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, which included funds for upgrading SSH 2A into a freeway. The highway, also known as the Renton Freeway, would follow the new SSH 2A roadway and include a new connection to Lynnwood.

Construction of a new alignment for SSH 2A began in 1953; the section between Bellevue and Kirkland was completed in October 1956 after two years of construction that was slowed by difficult soil conditions. The former alignment on Lake Washington Boulevard and Market Street through Kirkland was transferred to the city government. SSH 2A and the eastern portion of SSH 1L were replaced in 1957 by the Renton branch of PSH 1, created to consolidate the bypass into a single numbered highway. In 1957, the Washington State Highway Commission approved accelerated plans to build new two-lane sections of the future freeway corridor that would be designed to accommodate later expansions to four lanes with limited access to adhere to Interstate standards. By the end of the year, the new highway had been extended 3.3 mi north to Juanita and the southern outskirts of Woodinville.

Interstate construction
The American Association of State Highway Officials approved Interstate 405 as the designation for the Seattle bypass freeway in November 1958, based on a proposal submitted by the Washington State Department of Highways. On October 23, 1958, a dual ribbon-cutting ceremony marked the completion of the Renton–Kennydale and Kirkland–Woodinville sections of the initial highway. The 2.6 mi northern extension, which terminated with a connection to Woodinville Drive, took five months to construct and included several new overpasses. The highway's completion spurred economic growth in Bellevue, which was sought due to its location near a junction with US 10; from 1955 to 1958, the city and its surrounding areas had grown from a population of 27,600 to 41,750.

Expansion of the existing two-lane highway into a freeway began with a section between Factoria and Downtown Bellevue that opened in 1961. The project included a cloverleaf interchange at Northeast 8th Street in Downtown Bellevue. A nearby interchange at Northrup Road was rebuilt in 1963 to temporarily accommodate traffic from the then-new Evergreen Point Floating Bridge using a hybrid cloverleaf design. Construction of the permanent interchange was later completed in November 1966 at a cost of $5.5 million.

In 1964, the system of primary and secondary state highways was removed in favor of new state routes, and the incomplete sections of the corridor were renumbered to SR 405. By 1966, the remaining sections of SR 405 were fully renumbered to I-405. The first segment of the Renton Freeway to be completed was between Tukwila and Renton, costing $12.6 million and opening to traffic on August 31, 1965. An extension that bypassed downtown Renton opened on September 3, connecting with the existing freeway to Kennydale.

A four-lane section of I-405 between Kennydale and Factoria in southern Bellevue was opened to traffic in August of that year. A temporary overpass with a traffic signal was installed at the Factoria interchange while construction continued on a new connection to US 10 (later I-90) for several more years. The 209 acre interchange with I-5 at Tukwila opened in stages between February and November 1967; it cost $16 million to construct and included ramps to the new Southcenter shopping mall.

The final section of I-405 to be built, between Woodinville and Lynnwood, was opened to traffic in November 1969. Further construction expanded I-405 to six lanes, including a section near Woodinville that involved the demolition of recent bridges that were too narrow to support three lanes per direction. These projects had been delayed due to a cut in federal highway spending in the late 1960s. The proposed route between Bothell and Lynnwood was originally planned to follow Swamp Creek from Kenmore, but was later moved further northeast to North Creek after opposition from residents. It was later revived in 1971 as part of a shorter connector between Kenmore and I-405 that was rejected for a lack of projected need.

Later development
In the 1960s, the state government studied the construction of an outer freeway bypass due to expected traffic demand on I-405. A report released in 1970 concluded that the outer bypass, nicknamed I-605, would not be necessary and recommended expanding I-405 to eight lanes in some sections. The proposal had also been controversial with residents around Lake Sammamish, around which the freeway corridor was moved several times.

The first sound wall on a highway in Washington was installed in 1973 along I-405 near the Wilburton interchange in Bellevue. It was constructed from plywood and placed near Bellevue to mitigate construction noise; at the time, the northbound carriageway had bidirectional traffic.

One of the major construction projects on the highway was straightening the s-curves in Renton, which were designed for speeds of up to 45 mph. This project began in 1990, and was estimated to cost $70 million. Also during this time, the portion of the highway between I-5 and South Renton was being repaved and HOV lanes were being added, which were originally placed on the right-hand side of the road before being migrated over to the median in the early 2000s.

21st century
Originally intended as a bypass to I-5 through Seattle, I-405 has experienced a large increase in traffic volume since its construction. I-405 is now the most congested freeway in Washington State, particularly the segment between State Route 169 and I-90.

A Nickel Project funded in 2003 originally included three planned improvements for I-405:
 * The construction of one lane in each direction between SE 8th and I-90, replacing the Wilburton Tunnel.
 * The construction of one northbound lane from NE 70th to NE 124th, and one southbound lane from SR 522 to SR 520.
 * The construction of one northbound lane from SR 181 to SR 167, and one southbound lane from SR 169 to SR 167.

In 2005, the "Renton to Bellevue Project" was added as an additional Nickel Project, and would have added two lanes in each direction between SR 169 and I-90. However, in November 2007, voters rejected the ballot measure which would have provided the additional funds necessary for this project. At this time the project is still largely unfunded. The web site "Road to Ruin" ranks the widening of I-405 as the fourth most wasteful highway project in the United States. The project is designed to help traffic move more smoothly on I-405.

A 2008 construction project demolished the Wilburton Tunnel, which formerly covered a portion of the freeway between Factoria and Bellevue and carried the BNSF Woodinville Subdivision.

On September 27, 2015, a set of high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT lanes) opened on I-405 between Bellevue and Lynnwood, replacing the existing HOV lanes from NE 6th Street to I-5/SR 525. Construction on the southern half of the HOT lanes system, extending to the SR 167 interchange in Renton, began in 2020 and is scheduled to be completed in 2024 at a cost of $1.2 billion.

The City of Bellevue plans to construct a lidded park over a section of I-405 between 4th and 6th streets as part of its "Grand Connection" program. A new half-diamond interchange at Northeast 132nd Street in Kirkland is scheduled to open in 2023, and opened in 2024, while the Northeast 85th Street cloverleaf interchange is planned to be reconstructed as part of a bus rapid transit project.

Transit service
The I-405 corridor is served by several express bus routes operated by Sound Transit, King County Metro, and Community Transit. They connect several hubs that are centered around Bellevue Transit Center, accessed via the HOV ramp at Northeast 6th Street in Downtown Bellevue, and continue beyond I-405 to Everett, Burien, and the Green River Valley. The freeway also has several large park-and-ride facilities that are served by flyer stops and direct access HOV ramps. In 2017, 202 bus trips on the I-405 corridor carried approximately 6,800 passengers during peak periods on an average weekday.

The Sound Transit 3 ballot measure, passed in 2016, includes $1 billion in funding for a bus rapid transit (BRT) system covering the entirety of the I-405 corridor using the expanded HOT lanes. The system, part of the Stride network, will have two lines: the S1 Line from Burien to Bellevue and the S2 Line from Bellevue to Lynnwood. The Stride lines will serve eleven stations, mostly at existing flyer stops, and have a maximum frequency of 10 minutes during peak periods. They are scheduled to open between 2028 and 2029. One of the new stations on the BRT corridor, at Northeast 85th Street in Kirkland, is planned to include reconstruction of the existing cloverleaf interchange at an estimated cost of $300 million.

title: Interstate 405 (Washington)


text: Talk:Hellblazer

title: Talk:Hellblazer


text:
Pindi

Pindi may refer to:
 * Rawalpindi, commonly known as Pindi, a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan
 * Pindi Bhattian Tehsil, an administrative sub-division of Hafizabad district in the Punjab, Pakistan
 * Pindi Bhattian, Pakistan
 * Pindi Gheb Tehsil, an administrative subdivision (tehsil), of Attock District in the Punjab, Pakistan
 * Pindi Gheb, Pakistan
 * Pindi Sarhal, is a village of the Attock District in Punjab, Pakistan
 * Pindi Pindi, small rural locality in Mackay Region, Queensland, Australia
 * Pindi, Põlva County, Estonia
 * Pindi, Võru County, Estonia
 * Pindi (Hindu iconography), decked stones or tree stumps viewed in Hinduism as abstract manifestations of the mother goddess Shakti
 * Pindi People, african ethnie in DR Congo

title: Pindi


text:
Talk:Mizraim

Removal
I removed the following:

 * literally meaning "those from Izra" (or Asar), is the name of a pre-resurrected Egyptian pharaoh god.

This is not at all factual. The root of Mizraim goes back to a common Semitic root that has nothing to do with any Egyptian deity. —Nefertum17 17:24, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I thought "Mizraim" came from the Akkadian word Misr ("frontier" or "march"), according to some authorities in notes I don't have at hand at the moment. -- llywrch 21:37, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Mudraya
in Old Persian. Böri (talk) 11:32, 14 June 2011 (UTC)

Etymology
The intro paragraph had recently been changed to assert that mizraim comes from "metzar, meaning a 'distress'", where it had previously said "matzor, meaning a 'mound' or fortress'". Putting together some of the information I found across multiple sources, it appears that these similarities are superficial, and that the word descends from a common Semitic root. I tried to rewrite the intro to make this clear, but would be nice to find a better citation. Esk (talk) 01:59, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

Akkadian and Aramaic
It cites An Essay on Assyriology to support that Egypt was called Mu-ṣur in Assyrian neo-Aramaic. However, that source discusses the Rassam cylinder, which is in neo-Assyrian Akkadian (cuneiform), not Aramaic.

It also says it was Miṣru in Akkadian and Misri in the 14th century B.C. Amarna tablets. But when you click on the link for Miṣru, it takes you to a Wiktionary page the lists the pronunciation as Miṣriʾi. The Amarna tablets are in Akkadian. The source given, Commentary on Ezekiel 25-48, says that it's Miṣri in the Amarna letters and Muṣur in Assyro-Babylonian texts (~700 years after the Amarna letters, but still Akkadian).

- Switch Assyrian neo-Aramaic records for neo-Assyrian Akkadian.

- Add source and word for Aramaic? Which dialect?

- I do not see support in the sources for Miṣru. Either a source must be added, or this should be dropped. Also adding approximate years would be nice.

Orluvoq (talk) 06:35, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

 * I have switched Assyrian neo-Aramaic records for neo-Assyrian Akkadian Orluvoq (talk) 06:39, 16 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I see that it says, "Mizraim in Neo-Babylonian texts," with a reference to Freedom: reassessments and rephrasings.
 * This is a book about philosophy, not history, and I think it's a very dubious source for the claim. I see nothing about Neo-Babylonian texts.
 * We need an actual source here. Also, is Neo-Babylonian supposed to be Akkadian or Aramaic? The source does not say. Orluvoq (talk) 06:47, 16 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I merged the Akkadian example into the Amarna letters example, which is Akkadian Orluvoq (talk) 06:54, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mizraim


text:
User talk:Philidias

Lorenzo de' Medici
Hi, why did you delete all that text from the Lorenzo article? Wikipedia is not paper, and most of it was interesting/useful. The article could even stand to be a bit longer (e.g. giving more details of the Naples war, his constitutional changes, etc), without it becoming duplicative of a real biography. I put most of the stuff you removed back, and also used almost all of your added text (the list of philosophers in his circle was a particularly good thought). Noel (talk) 17:30, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Hi, your situation (which you explained to someone via email) has been explained to us. The thing is that even if we did change our copy of the page, I'm not sure that would help you. That is because Google (and Yahoo, etc) cache pages (i.e. keep their own copies of pages), which is what they actually use when they do a search. (I often do searches, and when I click on a result, get a 404 from the actual page - that's because Google is relatively slow to revisit old pages.)
 * So using Google to search for the text that you used would probably return the Wikipedia page even if our copy has been updated - the Google system is unlikely to notice that we have changed the page for quite a few days, and so they will still have the old text in their local copy.
 * I'm really sorry for you, but I'm afraid that you are probably going to have to face the music. My suggestion is that you go talk to your teacher right away, and explain that you didn't realize that what you did counted as plagiarism, etc. Getting in front of it's probably better than letting her find it out. Noel (talk) 02:35, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I just checked on Google for some of the text you've been removing, and Google does indeed have a local cached copy. But it's even worse than I realized: Wikipedia content is copied by lots of sites, which also update their local copies rather slowly. And Google has indexed all them too. So, basically, you're stuck - if someone searches for the text you used, they will find it, no matter what we do on the page here. Noel (talk) 02:40, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Warning
If you remove text from the article again, you will be blocked for vandalism. - Fredrik | talk 21:52, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Philidias


text:
Galiceno

The Galiceno is a horse breed developed in Mexico, bred from horses brought from Spain by Hernán Cortés and other conquistadors. Although small in stature, they are generally considered a horse, rather than a pony, and are always solid-colored. In Mexico, they are an all-around horse, used for riding, packing and light draft. In the United States they are often used as mounts for younger competitors, although they are also found competing in Western events. The breed descends from horses brought from Spain to Mexico during the 16th century. Many of these horses escaped or were released and formed feral bands in the interior of Mexico, which were then captured by local inhabitants. They were also often used by Spanish missionaries to the American West, where they became some of the ancestors of the American Indian Horse. In 1958, these horses were first imported to the United States, and in 1959 a breed registry was formed. Many of the horses are also registered with the American Indian Horse Registry.

Characteristics
The Galiceno stands between high, and weigh between 620 and 750 lbs. They are usually bay, black, or chestnut, while pinto colorings are not allowed by the United States registry. They have a nicely proportioned head with a straight profile. The neck is short and muscular. The breed is narrow in the chest, though deep, the shoulders are straight, and the withers pronounced. The back is short, the croup sloping, and the legs long and strong, with small hooves.

The breed has good stamina, and a fast, ground-covering, running-walk gait, which is said to be smooth and comfortable to ride. They are strong, able to carry a person all day in heat and over rough terrain, despite their small size. The Galiceno is used in Mexico as a riding and pack pony, as well as for light draft and farm work. In the United States they are used as a riding pony for children, and has proved to be a good jumper for younger competitors. Their quickness and agility make them a good cutting horse, and also good for reining classes and timed events. The breed takes its name from the province of Galicia in Spain.

History
The Galiceno developed in Mexico from horses imported by Hernán Cortés, mostly thought to be Portuguese Garrano and the Galician Pony of Spain. It is thought that Sorraia blood was added at some point in the breed's history. The ancestors of the Galiceno were among sixteen horses landed by Cortes during his Mexican invasion in 1519 for use in the mines and as transport. During the rest of the 16th century, conquistadors continued to bring horses into what is now Mexico, including many small-framed, smooth-gaited horses. Many of these horses eventually escaped or were released and formed feral bands in Mexico's mountainous interior. Over the next few centuries, local inhabitants began to catch and use horses from the increasing populations; the type that eventually became the Galiceno was especially prized in coastal regions. Galicenos were used by Spaniards in silver mines and as pack horses; in the latter role they moved further northward with the Spanish missions and were sometimes lost in battle or stolen by Indians. These horses eventually became part of the Mustang herds of the American West, as well as playing a role in the ancestry of the American Indian Horse.

The first Galicenos intentionally imported to the United States came in 1958 as part of a herd of 135 horses, many or all of them previously feral Mexican horses. In 1959, the Galiceño Horse Breeders Association was formed in the United States to maintain the breed; and by 2005 had registered about 7,000 horses throughout North America, with around 20 new foals registered each year. Some Galicenos are also registered with the American Indian Horse registry, which is dedicated to preserving the lines of horses bred by the Native Americans of the United States. DNA testing carried out on Galiceno horses in the United States, including one of the original horses brought out of Mexico, has found markers similar to those in other known Spanish populations. Recent studies at Texas A&M have shown that the Galicenos are closest to the Garranos of Portugal and Spain. In 2015, the breed was added to The Livestock Conservancy's (TLC) Conservation Priority List as "Critical", TLC estimates the US population to stand at between 200 and 300 animals, with a very low population of active breeding stock.

title: Galiceno


text:
Mark Levinson No. 26

The Mark Levinson No. 26S Dual Monaural Preamplifiers used Teflon circuit boards to supposedly differentiate the No. 26 and the 26S models, produced between 1991 and 1994 by Madrigal Audio Laboratories. This unit utilizes Camac coaxial connectors (except for the XLR balanced ones), which were used in the medical industry as well, because they break hot before they break ground when unplugged. No shorting electronics means a safe preamp and safe ER patients. An external power block, the PLS-226, was used to keep interference to a minimum.

The No. 26 came in three versions, a balanced audio version, a phono version, and a basic version that could do neither. There was only space for one expansion board inside the unit, so it was not possible to put in the phono and the balanced board. This made the phono and balanced inputs on the unit shared; only one set could be active in the unit based on which board was present. The 26S included both phono and one balanced input as standard.

Specifications

 * XLR Balanced Stereo Input and Output
 * 3 Outputs: Main/Tape 1/Tape 2
 * 6 Inputs: Tuner/Tape 1/Tape 2/CD/Aux 1/Phono or Aux 2
 * 8 Selector knobs: Input/Output Level/Record/Monitor/Phase/Balanced 1/Balanced 2/Stereo, Mono
 * Voltage can be adjusted internally: 100, 120, 200, 220, 240 VAC @ 50–60 Hz

title: Mark Levinson No. 26


text:
Galician horse

The Galician or Galician Mountain Horse, Caballo de Pura Raza Gallega, Raza Equina Cabalo Galego do Monte, is a breed of small horse from Galicia, in north-western Spain. It is genetically very close to the Garrano breed of northern Portugal. It was in the past used as a war-horse and in agriculture; it is now raised principally for meat. The horses are bay or black.

History
The most commonly accepted theory of the origin of the Gallego is that it, like other small breeds of the northern part of the Iberian peninsula, descends from small dark-coloured horses introduced by Celtic immigrants in the sixth century BC.

In the Middle Ages these horses were rented or swapped for other horses at the border between Galicia and Castile, since the Galician was more sturdy and suitable for the rugged landscape of the country.

In the 1980s and 90s there was concern that the introduction of stallions of other breeds, with better meat-producing qualities, was placing at risk the original stock of Galician horses. The Xunta de Galicia published a conservation plan for the breed in 1993. A breed association, the Asociación Pura Raza Cabalo Galego, was formed in 1997, and in 1998 the breed was officially recognised and a stud-book established.

The Gallego is regulated and protected by the Galician government, in an attempt to increase the numbers of the feral stock.

Distribution and management
It is distributed through much of Galicia. It is present in the concellos of A Estrada, Cambados, Covelo, Poio, Pontevedra and Santa María de Oia in the province of Pontevedra; of Abegondo, Arzúa, Cambre, Cariño, Cerceda, Curtis, Ferrol, Irixoa, Lousame, Noia, Ortigueira and Porto do Son in the province of A Coruña; of Guitiriz, Muras, Ourol, Mondoñedo, Riotorto, Vilalba and Viveiro in the province of Lugo; and of Castro Caldelas, Coles and Lobios in the province of Ourense. A small number have been exported to Germany. In 2013 the total population was reported as 1623.

Almost all Gallego horses are managed extensively, in semi-feral conditions on the mountains of Galicia.

title: Galician horse


text:
Talk:Thiophene

Removed the following paragraph:
 * Thiophene can be produced at little cost via reaction of sulfur and butane. CHCH2CH2CH3 + S -> C4H4S + 3 H2S.

This doesn't seem to be an important industrial process, please provide links or references. The conversion needs temperatures of 600 °C. Moreover, the formula is wrong. Cacycle 17:27, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thiophene


text:
Yamunanagar

Yamunanagar, is a city and a municipal corporation in Yamunanagar district in the Indian state of Haryana. This town is known for the cluster of plywood units and paper factories. It provides timber to larger industries. The older town is called Jagadhri. The Yamunanagar-Jagadhri railway station (YJUD) services the city. Despite its name, Jagadhri Railway is situated in Yamunanagar. There is also another railway station called Jagadhri Workshop in Yamunanagar.

History
This town was part of Ambala district before it was made as separate district in November 1989. The town was formerly known as Abdullahpur and Jamnanagar. Before the Independence, it was a small village with most of the population lived around the railway station, which increased as a result of the migration of refugees from West Punjab after the partition.

Geography
Yamunanagar has the river Yamuna (its namesake) running through the district, which forms the eastern boundary with the neighbouring Saharanpur district. This boundary is also a state boundary, as Saharanpur is in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The district also separates the Yamuna system from the Satluj river system.

From Yamunanagar, the Yamuna river enters the plain area for the first time. The historical river Saraswati also originates from Adi badri, also located in the district. Towards its northern edge is a sub-mountainous region, which has more forest cover and many streams; it is the area where the river Yamuna flows out of the hills and into the plains. The northern boundary is also an interstate boundary with the state of Himachal Pradesh to the north. Sirmour in Himachal is the district to its north with the towns of Nahan and Paonta Sahib close to the boundary with Yamunanagar.

Climate
Record High – 47.9 degrees Record Low – -0.5 degrees Record rainfall (24 hours) – 383mm in Jagadhri on 14 July 2016.

Average Rainfall of Monsoon – 891 mm. Chhachhrauli and Bilaspur tehsils are the rainiest Tehsils in Haryana. They are known as "The Cherapunjjis of Haryana". Loo blows generally between 15 May to 20 June. Fog is common in December, January and February.

Rivers
The Western Yamuna Canal of the river Yamuna flows on one side of the city. This canal serves the irrigation needs of the farmers. The canal has century-old path ways, known locally as pattris, on both sides, which serve as connecting routes between villages even today and also help the irrigation department to maintain the canal and serve as a perfect scenic walk—with water on one side and green lush farms on other. The Yamuna river marks the boundary of the district with the state of Uttar Pradesh, which borders the city on the eastern side. The neighbouring city is Saharanpur in the state of Uttar Pradesh. , the district borders the state of Himachal Pradesh, Sirmaur being the district and the towns of Nahan and Paonta Sahib being the towns nearby. Tajewala headworks—from where the Yamuna canal is diverted—also lies north of the city. Jagadhri is an adjoining town famous for its industrial brass sheet and stainless steel industry.

Demographics
As per provisional data of census 2011, Yamunanagar urban agglomeration had a population of 383,318, out of which males were 205,346 and females were 177,972. The population in the age range 0 to 6 years was 40,950. The total number of literates were 293,475, of which males were 163,791 and females were 129,684. The effective literacy rate of the population above 7 years of age was 85.72 per cent.

Yamunanagar-Jagadhri Municipal Corporation
The Yamunanagar-Jagadhri Municipal Corporation is headed by Municipal Commissioner Ayush Sinha,IAS The elected head is Mayor Madan Chauhan. The city is divided into 22 wards for the purpose of development, each of which is represented by a municipal councillor.

Industries
Yamuna Nagar is well known for its industries. It has emerged as an important industrial destination in the state. This has been despite its relatively isolated location within the state. Due to expanding industries, the city kept on extending geographically.

The main crops produced are sugarcane, wheat, and rice. The city also produces sugar machinery, paper machinery, and highly efficient equipment for petrochemical plants, which are shipped to various refineries across the country. The city is also known for its plywood industries, which is attributed to the easy accessibility of primary raw material – poplar tree. It has also one of India's largest railways, carriage and wagon repair workshops. Recently, Reliance Infrastructure has also installed Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram Thermal Power Station in the town. Haryana Urban Development Authority has done major development work in the land stretch linking the city with Jagadhri, the other part of Twin city which is known for its brass and stainless steel utensils.

Tourism
Located at the base of Shivalik Hills, Yamuna Nagar has moderately developed tourism industry.
 * Kalesar National Park is one of the tourist spots which can be seen here. The place is located at the borders of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
 * Chaneti Buddhist Stupa is another notable tourist spot which according to Hieun Tsang, was built by King Ashoka.

Railways
Yamunanagar has Two Railway station named Yamuna Nagar-Jagadhri & Jagadhri Workshop Railway station. It is on the popular direct route Amritsar–Kolkata Main Line. The 1042 m long Railway Bridge on River Yamuna connects Yamuna Nagar-Jagadhri with Saharanpur. The bridge is named after Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.

Roadways
Yamunanagar is well-connected to Delhi and other cities in Haryana such as Panipat, Karnal, Ambala, Kurukshetra, Kaithal and Rohtak. Four-laning of the highway connecting Yamunanagar to the state capital of Chandigarh via Panchkula was recently completed.

Education
Colleges and other educational institutes include:
 * Mukand Lal National College
 * Seth Jai Parkash Mukand Lal Institute of Engineering and Technology

Notable people

 * Sunil Dutt, actor and politician, father of Sanjay Dutt
 * Karnam Malleswari, first Indian woman to win an Olympic medal
 * Sumeet Passi, footballer, plays for India national football team and Jamshedpur FC
 * Sanjeev Rajput, Arjuna awardee shooter
 * Rani Rampal, female hockey player
 * Deepika Thakur, India women's national field hockey team player
 * Darshan Lal Jain, Padma Bhushan awardee for social work
 * Mandeep Kaur, sprinter, Asian Games record holder in 4x400m relay

title: Yamunanagar


text:
Gustav Friedrich Oehler

Gustav Friedrich Oehler (10 June 1812 – 19 February 1872) was a German theologian.

Biography
He was born in Ebingen, Württemberg, and was educated privately and at the University of Tübingen where he was much influenced by J. C. F. Steudel, professor of Old Testament theology. In 1837, after a term of Oriental study at Berlin, he went to Tübingen as tutor (Repetent), becoming in 1840, a professor at the seminary and pastor in Schönthal.

In 1845, he published his Prolegomena zur Theologie des Alten Testaments, accepted an invitation to Breslau and received the degree of doctor from the University of Bonn. In 1852, he returned to Tübingen as the director of the seminary and professor of Old Testament theology at the university. He declined a call to Erlangen as successor to Franz Delitzsch, and died at Tübingen in 1872.

Theology
Oehler was one of the foremost Old Testament scholars of his time of the conservative school. He admitted the composite authorship of the Pentateuch and the Book of Isaiah, and did much to counteract the antipathy against the Old Testament that had been fostered by Schleiermacher. In church polity, he was Lutheran rather than Reformed. He opposed the union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches, and while declaring in favor of confessional Lutheranism, he held aloof from the old Lutheran party.

Works
Besides his Old Testament Theology (2 vols., 1873–74; English trans., Edinburgh, 1874–75; New York, 1883, Dutch translation by dr. J. Hartog, 1879), his works were Gesammelte Seminarreden (1872) and Lehrbuch der Symbolik (Manual of symbolism; 1876, edited by Johann Delitzsch), both published posthumously, and about forty articles for the first edition of Herzog's Realencyklopädie, which were largely retained in the second edition.

title: Gustav Friedrich Oehler


text:
International Transport Workers' Federation

The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) is a democratic global union federation of transport workers' trade unions, founded in 1896. In 2017 the ITF had 677 member organizations in 149 countries, representing a combined membership of 19.7 million transport workers in all industrial transport sectors: civil aviation, dockers, inland navigation, seafarers, road transport, railways, fisheries, urban transport  and tourism. The ITF represents the interests of transport workers' unions in bodies that take decisions affecting jobs, employment conditions or safety in the transport industry.

Organisation
The ITF works to improve the lives of transport workers globally, encouraging and organising international solidarity among its network of affiliates.

The ITF is allied with the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). Any independent trade union with members in the transport industry is eligible for membership of the organization.

The ITF represents the interests of transport workers' unions in bodies such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The organization also informs and advises unions about developments in the transport industry in other countries or regions of the world, and organises international solidarity actions when member unions in one country are in conflict with employers or government.

The ITF's headquarters is located in London and it has offices in Abidjan, Amman, Brussels, Singapore, Montreal, Hong Kong, Nairobi, New Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney and Tokyo.

The International Transport Workers' Federation is governed by its constitution. The Constitution states that ITF is run by an elected executive board meeting twice a year.

The ITF executive is highly concerned about the effects of globalisation, the increased concentration of ownership of international transport companies, global warming, public service improvement, the privatisation of large formerly state-run transport enterprises and automation and the future of work. It notes that the World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a central role in this process and considers it necessary for unions to exert what pressure they can on the WTO to respect social and labour standards in its agreements. It is particularly concerned about the effect that the WTO's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) could have on transport workers by breaking down national transport regulations. It considers it important to oppose the inclusion of transport-related services in the GATS. It considers that the major international finance organisations, including the World Bank and regional development banks, have had a "serious negative impact both on the quality of transport services and on the employment and working conditions of transport workers." It also sees the neoliberal economic policies being promoted by regional blocks including the EU, MERCOSUR, ASEAN, NAFTA, and SADC as being generally injurious to transport workers. It believes it is necessary to create solidarity networks between trade unions, and to improve the coordination between ITF sections, so that effective responses can be made to large multinational business entities which span several regions and many sectors of workers.

History
The ITF was founded in 1896 at a meeting in London, organised by Havelock Wilson, Ben Tillett, Tom Mann and Charles Lindley. Initially named the International Federation of Ship, Dock and River Workers, in 1898, it absorbed the International Commission for Railwaymen, and so renamed itself as the "International Transport Workers' Federation". In 1904, its headquarters moved to Germany, then in 1919 to Amsterdam, where it grew, under the leadership of Edo Fimmen. By 1939, with World War II imminent, its headquarters moved to Bedford in England, then to London, where they remain.

The federation's first post-war conference was held in 1946 in Zurich, where a new constitution was adopted. In 1949, it established a section for civil aviation workers, and in 1974 one for workers in tourism. It has campaigned heavily against flags of convenience, and in the late 1990s, the ITF operated a floating museum, the mV Global Mariner, which sailed around the world. The vessel was originally built in England in 1979 as the mV Ruddbank, and sank in 2000 off the Venezuelan coast after colliding with a container ship.

The ITF holds a congress every five years in accordance with the ITF Constitution, Rule IV. The congress has supreme authority within the ITF. The 40th Congress was held in Vancouver, Canada, from 14 to 21 August 2002. The 41st Congress was held in Durban, South Africa in August, 2006. The 42nd Congress was held in Mexico City from 5–12 August 2010. The 43d Congress - from 10–16 August 2014 in Sofia, Bulgaria. The 44th Congress was held in Singapore from 14–20 October 2018.

The ITF set up an Arab world and Iran network to deal with, amongst other matters, what it described as the "cancer" of abandonment of ships. Following the 2013 abandonment of MV Rhosus in Beirut, Lebanon, the unloading and storing for years of its explosive cargo, and the ensuing catastrophic explosion on 4 August 2020, the network coordinator said "The flood of calls to ITF in the Arab region has never stopped. Since we created the network and seafarers [became] aware of us, the numbers of calls are going up and up".

In September 2023, Russian authorities designated the Federation as an "undesirable" organisation.

Affiliates
In January 2020, the following unions were affiliated to the ITF:

General Secretaries

 * 1896: Ben Tillett
 * 1896: Robert Peddie
 * 1896: Tom Chambers
 * 1904: Ben Tillett
 * 1904: Hermann Jochade
 * 1919: Edo Fimmen
 * 1942: Jacobus Oldenbroek
 * 1950: Omer Becu
 * 1960: Pieter de Vries
 * 1965: Hans Imhof
 * 1968: Charles Blyth
 * 1977: Harold Lewis
 * 1993: David Cockcroft
 * 2014: Stephen Cotton

Presidents

 * 1893: Tom Mann
 * 1901: Tom Chambers
 * 1904: Ben Tillett
 * 1904: Hermann Jochade
 * 1920: Robert Williams
 * 1925: Charlie Cramp
 * 1933: Charles Lindley
 * 1946: John Benstead
 * 1947: Omer Becu
 * 1950: Robert Bratschi
 * 1954: Arthur Deakin
 * 1955: Hans Jahn
 * 1958: Frank Cousins
 * 1960: Roger Dekeyzer
 * 1962: Frank Cousins
 * 1965: Hans Düby
 * 1971: Fritz Prechtl
 * 1986: Jim Hunter
 * 1994: Eike Eulen
 * 1998: Umraomal Purohit
 * 2006: Randall Howard
 * 2010: Paddy Crumlin


text:
Trinity (2003 film)

Trinity is a 2003 British science fiction film written and directed by Gary Boulton-Brown. It stars Tom McCamus as Dr. Clerval, Lucy Akhurst as Schiller, and Stephen Moyer as Brach.

Premise
In a remote Arctic research station, government agents Brach and Schiller discover the mysterious genetic scientist Dr. Clerval. A psychological chess game ensues. It turns out that Schiller was a subject in one of Clerval's genetic breeding programs, and was co-dependent of him. Brach once was Clerval's henchman. He feels torn between his love for Schiller and his unadmitted, deep loyalty towards Clerval.

Production
Filming took place at Bushey Campus, Hertfordshire, North London.

Release
The film was shown on 3 March 2003 at the Cinequest Film & Creativity Festival and 7 April 2003 at the Philadelphia International Film Festival.

title: Trinity (2003 film)


text:
Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia

Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (Rosicrucian Society of England) or SRIA is a Rosicrucian esoteric Christian order formed by Robert Wentworth Little between 1865 and 1867. While the SRIA is not a Masonic order (unattached to any Grand Lodge structure or Masonic Rite), aspirants (people seeking membership) are strictly confirmed from the ranks of subscribing Master Masons of a Grand Lodge in amity with United Grand Lodge of England.

The structure and grade of this order, as A. E. Waite suggests, were derived from the 18th-century German Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross. It later became the same grade system used for the Golden Dawn.

The Fratres (singular. Frater) of the Society meet in Colleges, which are presided over by an annually elected Celebrant who also oversees all First Order ceremonial. Chief Adepts are responsible for all Colleges within their Province, they personally oversee all Second Order ceremonial activities and are appointed by The Supreme Magus who governs the Society worldwide via his High Council and oversees Third Order ceremonial.

SRIA Colleges can be found in England, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Wales, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Hungary, and India.

In addition to the ceremonial work within colleges, each Frater is encouraged to research, present, and discuss, papers covering a range of topics, including but not limited to Symbolism, Alchemy, Artificial Intelligence, philosophy, Esotericism, Spirituality, and Mysticism.

The society has a rare collection of 400 year old Rosicrucian books, letters and manuscripts, which are on loan to the Library and Museum of Freemasonry in Freemasons Hall, home of the United Grand Lodge of England.

History

The society is inspired by the original Rosicrucian Brotherhood but does not openly claim a provable link thereto. It bases its teachings on those found in the Fama and Confessio Fraternitatis published in the early 17th century in Germany, along with other similar publications from the same time such as the Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz.

The society was founded in 1867, derived from a pre-existing Rosicrucian 'non-Masonic' order in Scotland (which bore no relation to the similarly named Societas Rosicruciana in Scotia, which was a later creation), following the admission of William James Hughan and Robert Wentworth Little. Little was a clerk and cashier of the General Secretary of the United Grand Lodge of England, William Henry White. These Fratres were advanced quickly in Scotland and granted a warrant to form a Society in England. The formation meeting took place on 1 June 1867 in Aldermanbury, London with Frater Little elected Master Magus, the title of "Supreme Magus" not being invented until some years later.

The organisation was initially named the Rosicrucian Society of England or the Brethren of the Rosy Cross, these names are still used interchangeably to this day. However, the former name was Latinised to Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (or SRIA), and has been commonly used throughout the society since 1889.

They produced a journal, called The Rosicrucian, which was co-edited by William Robert Woodman.

The national headquarters of the Society was Stanfield Hall in Hampstead, London, until 2022 when the society relocated it's Library to the Museum of Freemasonry, and its Headquarters to Harlthorpe Hall in Yorkshire.

Membership requirements
The society requires that all aspirants for membership apply from the ranks of subscribing Master Masons of a Grand Lodge in amity with United Grand Lodge of England to declare a belief in the fundamental principles of the Trinitarian Christian faith and offers assistance to all its members in working out the great problems of nature and science.

Structure and governance
The Society is subdivided into three Orders:

1st Order
Members of the 1st Order(Fratres) meet in a College. A College is empowered to confer the first four degrees of the society which are known as Grades. A minimum of six months must elapse between the receipt of grades. However, the emphasis in the work of the society is learning, therefore every member is encouraged to deliver a paper of their own work on some topic of interest in open college.

2nd Order
The Second Order is managed at a provincial level, headed by a Chief Adept and his deputy (Suffragan) who have jurisdiction over all first order Colleges within a Province. The Chief Adept is empowered to personally confer three further Grades at this level to deserving Fratres of Grade IV who have been a member of the Society for a minimum of four years.

A minimum of one year must elapse between the receipt of grades at this level. A member can only serve as the Celebrant (Master) of a College of the First Order after receiving the Grade of Adeptus Exemptus.

3rd Order
The Third Order is headed by the Supreme Magus, Senior Substitute Magus, and Junior Substitute Magus. Members of the second order who have given service to the Society and have been selected by the Supreme Magus for such advancement may be awarded these two further Grades.

Acting recipients receive Grade VIII or Grade IX, however, the Supreme Magus can also grant the grades honorifically (8° & 9°). All recipients receive the full ceremony, which is personally overseen by the Supreme Magus and his team.

Regalia
Fraters within the First Order wear a jewel (medal) hanging on a green ribbon, the ribbon changes to yellow for Fraters within the Second Order.

When a frater becomes a Celebrant he wears a red robe, and thereafter he continues to wear a red robe.

Certain officers within a College wear regalia specific to their office.

Supreme Magus
There have been 14 Supreme Magi since the founding of the SRIA:

Known members

 * William Robert Woodman
 * William Wynn Westcott
 * Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie
 * Samuel Liddell "MacGregor" Mathers
 * Arthur Edward Waite
 * John Yarker
 * Robert Felkin
 * Frederick Bligh Bond

SRIA Colleges

 * Bishop Wilkins College

Other organisations
There are multiple orders and societies that are associated with or inspired by the SRIA.

Societas Rosicruciana
The Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia has led to several Societas Rosicruciana organisations in different countries such as Scotland (SRIS), Portugal (SRIL), and The Americas (SRICF).

Royal Order of Eri
An invitational Irish order requiring membership of both Freemasonry and the SRIA. Members must be 5th grade or above in SRIA to be considered for invitation. The Masonic order is derived from an ancient Order in Ireland which was founded by the historic Kings of Ireland. The order's name relates to Erin the ancient Irish name for Ireland. In Canada and the United States, this order forms part of the Allied Masonic Degrees, but remains invite only.

Golden Dawn
In 1888, three members of SRIA formed the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which removed the restriction on membership, allowing non-Christians, non-Freemasons, and women to join. A great deal of the SRIA structure survived in the new order, which went on to greatly influence the modern occult revival in the 20th century. While SRIA inspired several aspects, there is no active link between the SRIA and any modern-day Golden Dawn organisation.

Official SRIA websites

 * Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia - Official Website.
 * The SRIA Province of Greater London & Metropolitan Study Group - The official website for SRIA in London.
 * Rosicrucian Society of Freemasons in Victoria - The official website for SRIA in Victoria, Australia.
 * North West SRIA - The official website for the SRIA Province of North West Counties (England).
 * Western Counties & North Wales SRIA - The official website for the SRIA Province of Western Counties & North Wales.
 * Province of the South Western Counties SRIA - The official website for the SRIA Province of South Western Counties (England).
 * Bishop Wilkins SRIA College - An SRIA college with papers, Rosicrucian texts and information about the Society.

Third-party websites

 * All About John Yarker - includes two talks written by John Yarker for the SRIA in 1875 and 1879.
 * Seven Steps of Wisdom - an online course of introduction to the principles of the SRIA.

Rose-Croix

title: Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia