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Wang Xiaobo

Wang Xiaobo (May 13, 1952 – April 11, 1997) was a renowned contemporary Chinese novelist and essayist from Beijing.

Wang was born into a family of Intellectuals in Beijing. He was transferred to a collective farm in Yunnan during the Cultural Revolution, which later became the writing background for his most famous novel Golden Age. This novel won him the 1991 United Daily News novella award. In just a few years he wrote an avalanche of novels, stories, essays and newspaper articles, especially popular among young people. He died of a heart attack in 1997.

Wang is one of the most influential and popular novelists in China. The values upheld in his works, such as wisdom, fun, and freedom, are a unique example in the literature field of China. He has become a cultural icon of the country. "Wang Xiaobo hot" continues to this day.

Life
On May 13, 1952, Wang Xiaobo was born in a family of intellectuals in Beijing. From 1968 to 1970, he was transferred to a collective farm in Yunnan as an "educated youth". In 1971, he jumped to the team in Muping District, Yantai, province of Shandong, and later became a private teacher. In 1972, he worked in Beijing Niujie Teaching Instrument Factory, and in 1974 he worked in Beijing Xicheng District Semiconductor Factory. This period of working life is the writing background for novels of his such as Love in Revolutionary Period.

In 1977, he met and fell in love with Li Yinhe, who was the editor of the Guangming Daily. In 1980, they married and he published his debut work, Earth Forever. In 1978, he entered the Department of Trade and Economics of Renmin University of China with a bachelor's degree, studying trade economics and commodity science. In 1982, he worked as a teacher at Renmin and began to write The Golden Age. In 1968, he began to try to write in Yunnan Corps. This is the writing background of The Golden Age and the inspiration for The Endlessness. In 1984, he studied at the Center for East Asian Studies at the University of Pittsburgh and received a master's degree. He began to write novels based on the legend of the Tang dynasty, during which he received the guidance of historian Xu Zhuoyun. While studying in the United States, Wang traveled throughout the country and used his 1986 summer vacation to visit Western Europe.

Wang returned to China in 1988, and served as a lecturer in the Department of Sociology of Peking University. In 1991, he served as a lecturer in the accounting department of Renmin. He became a freelance writer in 1992. His only screenplay, East Palace West Palace, won the Best Screenplay Award at the Mar del Plata International Film Festival in Argentina and was nominated for the 1997 Cannes International Film Festival.

Wang passed away in Beijing on April 11, 1997, after a heart attack.

Writing style
Wang Xiaobo was best known for vernacular narration. He also published essays, which served as the primary entry point to his work. His experience of living and studying in the East and the West has made him a writer full of free humanistic spirit and independent intellectual character. In a letter to his teacher Xu Zhuoyun, Wang also stated that he tried not to be nudity but fascinating to write sexual content into his novels.

Wang's unique black humor runs throughout his works, which also show his attitude towards life. His novels were drawn from his life experiences, including his time as an "educated youth" in Yunnan and as an engineer engaged in technical work. The age and background of the works are also related to Wang’s life. Growth periods overlap. In these works, he portrays a reality: "I see a world without intelligence, but wisdom exists in chaos; I see a world without sex, but sex exists in chaos; I see a boring world, but interesting exists in the chaos".

Judging from his essays, the philosopher Bertrand Russell had a deep influence on Wang's thoughts. He admired and advocated science and rationality, and believed that people's lives should pursue the unknown. He opposed the imprisonment of thoughts and advocated that people's thinking should be diverse, to make life interesting, and that they should love wisdom. His work was particularly influential with college students in the 1990s, but his influence is still felt.

Wang Xiaobo phenomenon
Wang Xiaobo won the United Daily News novella award two times before his death and was widely praised in overseas Chinese literature circles. However, when he hoped to enter the mainland literary system, he was met with unprecedented coldness, and he found it difficult to publish his works. Wang confessed in the postscript of his collection of novels Golden Age: "This book was published thanks to an indomitable will and a positive attitude towards life. It must be said that these excellent qualities are not owned by the author. In view of the fact that publishing this book is better than writing this. This book is much more difficult, so if there is something about this book, it belongs to all the friends who helped publish it."

Wang's sudden death in 1997 marked the beginning of the Wang Xiaobo phenomenon. His works have been disseminated and accepted unprecedentedly, and have prompted serious reactions in both folk and intellectual circles. In the 21st century, he is among the most-read of 1990s Chinese novelists. Various forms of Wang Xiaobo commemorative meetings and work seminars continue.

The explosion of the Wang Xiaobo phenomenon lies in his essays. It is worth mentioning that his essays have received attention before him. Critics have compared Wang Xiaobo's sudden rise in popularity to that of Chen Yinke, signifying the second boom of the liberal wave in China.

Though Wang Xiabo continues to be very popular, mainstream critical reaction to his novels has been limited and the focus of interest is his essays.

Before his death, Wang once said, "One day we will all die, and there will be people walking on the path of pursuing wisdom. I can't see what happens after death. But when I was alive, I thought about it, and I thought about it in my heart. I'm very happy."

The famous contemporary Chinese writer Wang Meng commented: “Wang Xiaobo is a very thoughtful person. I am interested in his philosophical prose and essays. But for his novels, to be honest, I didn’t finish reading them because his style is not great to my appetite."

Huang Ping, a professor of the Chinese Department of East China Normal University and a young critic, said: "(Wang Xiaobo) joking about aesthetics, a masterpiece of a generation". Chinese American musician Gao Xiaosong regards him as a "god-like existence"; writer Feng Tang has said called Wang "a miracle" and "a very good start."

Wang has been identified as an inspiration for and early representative of minjian, grassroot intellectuals, a population of alternative intellectuals who were able to grow around the 2000s in China.

List of works
Wang Xiaobo wrote several novels, short story collections and essays, some of which have been translated into English, French and Italian.

Novels

 * 《红拂夜奔》 Running Away At Night
 * 《万寿寺》 Wan Show Temple
 * 《黄金时代》 Golden Age (Wang Xiaobo novel) : a novel, translated by Yan Yan, New York : Astra House, 2022, ISBN 978-1-6626-0121-7
 * 《白银时代》 The Silver Age
 * 《青铜时代》 The Bronze Age
 * 《黑铁时代》 The Iron Age
 * 《夜里两点钟》 Half Past Two At Night
 * 《茫茫黑夜漫游》 The Vast Tour
 * 《樱桃红》 Red Like Cherries
 * 《寻找无双》 Looking for Wushuang or In Search of Wushuang
 * 《三十而立》
 * 《似水流年》
 * 《革命时期的爱情》 Love in the Time of Revolution
 * 《我的阴阳两界》

Plays

 * 《东宫·西宫》

Short story collections and Essays

 * 《沉默的大多数》 The Silent Majority
 * 《思维的乐趣》 The Pleasure of Thought
 * 《我的精神家园》 My Spiritual Homeland
 * 《理想国与哲人王》 Utopia and the Philosopher King
 * 《爱你就像爱生命》 Loving You Is Like Loving Life
 * 《一只特立独行的猪》 A Maverick Pig
 * 《他们的世界：中国男同性恋群落透视》Their World: A Look at the Chinese Male Homosexuality Community (Coauthored with Li Yinhe)

Filmography

 * 1997 : East Palace, West Palace directed by Zhang Yuan, adapted from Wang's short story 《似水柔情》 (English: Sentiments Like Water).

Attitude
In response to the idea that Wang’s work lacked positive themes and inspiring messages, Wang wrote: “Though the author is a modest person, he cannot accept those opinions. Being positive is one of our norms, but it should not be always mentioned. I think my duty is writing interesting novels as possible as I can, and should not add some deliberate sermon. My writing attitude is to write some works for those people who read novels, not to teach undereducated youth...”

title: Wang Xiaobo


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Air-independent propulsion

Air-independent propulsion (AIP), or air-independent power, is any marine propulsion technology that allows a non-nuclear submarine to operate without access to atmospheric oxygen (by surfacing or using a snorkel). AIP can augment or replace the diesel-electric propulsion system of non-nuclear vessels.

Modern non-nuclear submarines are potentially stealthier than nuclear submarines; although some modern submarine reactors are designed to rely on natural circulation, most naval nuclear reactors use pumps to constantly circulate the reactor coolant, generating some amount of detectable noise. Non-nuclear submarines running on battery power or AIP, on the other hand, can be virtually silent. While nuclear-powered designs still dominate in submergence times, speed, range and deep-ocean performance, small, high-tech non-nuclear attack submarines can be highly effective in coastal operations and pose a significant threat to less-stealthy and less-maneuverable nuclear submarines.

AIP is usually implemented as an auxiliary source, with the traditional diesel engine handling surface propulsion. Most such systems generate electricity, which in turn drives an electric motor for propulsion or recharges the boat's batteries. The submarine's electrical system is also used for providing "hotel services"—ventilation, lighting, heating etc.—although this consumes a small amount of power compared to that required for propulsion.

AIP can be retrofitted into existing submarine hulls by inserting an additional hull section. AIP does not typically provide the endurance or power to replace atmospheric dependent propulsion, but allows for longer underwater endurance than a conventionally propelled submarine. A typical conventional power plant provides 3 megawatts maximum, and an AIP source around 10% of that. A nuclear submarine's propulsion plant is usually much greater than 20 megawatts.

The United States Navy uses the hull classification symbol "SSP" to designate boats powered by AIP, while retaining "SSK" for classic diesel-electric attack submarines.

History
In the development of the submarine, the problem of finding satisfactory forms of propulsion underwater has been persistent. The earliest submarines were man-powered with hand-cranked propellers, which quickly used up the air inside; these vessels had to move for much of the time on the surface with hatches open, or use some form of breathing tube, both inherently dangerous and resulting in a number of early accidents. Later, mechanically driven vessels used compressed air or steam, or electricity, which had to be re-charged from shore or from an on-board aerobic engine.

The earliest attempt at a fuel that would burn anaerobically was in 1867, when Spanish engineer Narciso Monturiol successfully developed a chemically powered anaerobic or air independent steam engine.

In 1908 the Imperial Russian Navy launched the submarine Pochtovy, which used a gasoline engine fed with compressed air and exhausted under water.

These two approaches, the use of a fuel that provides energy to an open-cycle system, and the provision of oxygen to an aerobic engine in a closed cycle, characterize AIP today.

Types
Air independent propulsion (non-nuclear) can take various forms. All currently active AIP submarines require oxygen for AIP, which is commonly stored as a liquid (LOX). AIP submarine range is primarily limited by the amount of LOX it can carry.

Open-cycle systems
During World War II the German firm Walter experimented with submarines that used high-test (concentrated) hydrogen peroxide as their source of oxygen under water. These used steam turbines, employing steam heated by burning diesel fuel in the steam/oxygen atmosphere created by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by a potassium permanganate catalyst.

Several experimental boats were produced, though the work did not mature into any viable combat vessels. One drawback was the instability and scarcity of the fuel involved. Another was that while the system produced high underwater speeds, it was extravagant with fuel; the first boat, V-80, required 28 tons of fuel to travel 50 nmi, and the final designs were little better.

After the war one Type XVII boat, GS U-1407, which had been scuttled at the end of World War II, was salvaged and recommissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS Meteorite. The British built two improved models in the late 1950s, HMS Explorer (submarine) and HMS Excalibur. Meteorite was not popular with its crews, who regarded it as dangerous and volatile; she was officially described as 75% safe. The reputations of Excalibur and Explorer were little better; the boats were nicknamed Excruciater and Exploder.

The Soviet Union also experimented with the technology and one experimental boat was built which utilized hydrogen peroxide in a Walter engine.

The United States also received a Type XVII boat, U-1406, and went on to begin two AIP submarine projects. Project SCB 66 developed an experimental midget submarine, USS X-1, which was launched in September 1955. It was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to a diesel-electric.

The second U.S. Navy project was of a full sized AIP submarine under SCB 67 in 1950, later SCB 67A. This submarine, designated SSX, would have one of three propulsion plants under development: a Walther open cycle hydrogen peroxide plant (termed Alton), a liquid oxygen steam plant (Ellis), and an AIP gas turbine (Wolverine). By late 1951 the Navy realized that while the competing nuclear designs were heavier due to shielding, they were more compact than the three AIP plants: the SSX would be longer than the SSN by nearly 40 feet. The SSN would likely be quieter and less complicated than the AIP technology of this time. By 1952 the nuclear reactors were so far along in development it appeared that the SSX submarine would not be needed as a stopgap. The project was cancelled on 26 October 1953.

The USSR and the UK, the only other countries known to be experimenting with the technology at that time, also abandoned it when the US developed the nuclear reactor small enough for submarine propulsion. Other nations, including Germany and Sweden, would later recommence AIP development.

It was retained for propelling torpedoes by the British and the Soviet Union, although hastily abandoned by the former following the HMS Sidon (P259) tragedy. Both this and the loss of the RUSSIAN SUBMARINE Kursk were due to accidents involving hydrogen peroxide propelled torpedoes.

Closed-cycle diesel engines
This technology uses a submarine diesel engine which can be operated conventionally on the surface, but which can also be provided with oxidant, usually stored as liquid oxygen, when submerged. Since the metal of an engine would burn in pure oxygen, the oxygen is usually diluted with recycled exhaust gas. Argon replaces exhaust gas when the engine is started.

In the late 1930s the Soviet Union experimented with closed-cycle engines, and a number of small M-class vessels were built using the REDO system, but none were completed before the German invasion in 1941.

During World War II the German Kriegsmarine experimented with such a system as an alternative to the Walter peroxide system, designing variants of their Type XVII U-boat and their Type XXVIIB Seehund midget submarine, the Type XVIIK and Type XXVIIK respectively, though neither was completed before the war's end.

After the war the USSR developed the small 650-ton Quebec-class submarine submarine, of which thirty were built between 1953 and 1956. These had three diesel engines—two were conventional and one was closed cycle using liquid oxygen.

In the Soviet system, called a "single propulsion system", oxygen was added after the exhaust gases had been filtered through a lime-based chemical absorbent. The submarine could also run its diesel using a snorkel. The Quebec had three drive shafts: a 32D 900 bhp diesel on the centre shaft and two M-50P 700 bhp diesels on the outer shafts. In addition a 100 hp "creep" motor was coupled to the centre shaft. The boat could be run at slow speed using the centreline diesel only.

Because liquid oxygen cannot be stored indefinitely, these boats could not operate far from a base. It was dangerous; at least seven submarines suffered explosions, and one of these, SOVIET SUBMARINE M-256, sank following an explosion and fire. They were sometimes nicknamed cigarette lighters. The last submarine using this technology was scrapped in the early 1970s.

The German Navy's former Type 205 submarine GERMAN SUBMARINE U-1 (launched 1967) was fitted with an experimental 3000 hp unit.

Closed-cycle steam turbines
The French MESMA (Module d'Energie Sous-Marin Autonome) system is offered by French shipyard DCNS. MESMA is available for the Agosta 90B and Scorpène-class submarines. It is essentially a modified version of their nuclear propulsion system with heat generated by ethanol and oxygen. Specifically, a conventional steam turbine power plant is powered by steam generated from the combustion of ethanol and stored oxygen at a pressure of 60 atmospheres. This pressure-firing allows exhaust carbon dioxide to be expelled overboard at any depth without an exhaust compressor.

Each MESMA system costs around $50–60 million. As installed on the Scorpènes, it requires adding an 8.3 m, 305-tonne hull section to the submarine, and results in a submarine able to operate for greater than 21 days underwater, depending on variables such as speed. On the Agosta 90B, the AIP system allows the submarine to operate 16 days under water and gives it a range of 1400 nmi.

An article in Undersea Warfare Magazine notes that: "although MESMA can provide higher output power than the other alternatives, its inherent efficiency is the lowest of the four AIP candidates, and its rate of oxygen consumption is correspondingly higher."

Stirling cycle engines

The Swedish shipbuilder Kockums constructed three Gotland-class submarines for the Swedish Navy that are fitted with an auxiliary Stirling engine that burns diesel fuel with liquid oxygen to drive 75 kW electrical generators for either propulsion or charging batteries. The underwater endurance of the 1,500-tonne boats is around 14 days at 5 kn, with an approximate range of 1700 nautical miles.

Kockums refurbished and upgraded the Swedish Västergötland-class submarine submarines with a Stirling AIP plugin section. Two (Södermanland and Östergötland) are in service in Sweden as the Södermanland-class submarine, and two others are in service in Singapore as the Archer-class submarine (Archer and Swordsman).

Kockums also delivered Stirling engines to Japan. Ten Japanese submarines were equipped with Stirling engines. The first submarine in the class, Sōryū-class submarine, was launched on 5 December 2007 and delivered to the navy in March 2009. The eleventh of the class is the first one that is equipped with lithium-ion batteries without a Stirling engine. This submarine may have a range from AIP of 6500 nautical miles and can remain submerged for 40 days.

The new Swedish Blekinge-class submarine has the Stirling AIP system as its main energy source. The submerged endurance will be more than 18 days at 5 knots using AIP.

Fuel cells

Siemens has developed a 30–50 kilowatt fuel cell unit, a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel and oxidiser into electricity. Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel (such as hydrogen) and oxygen, which are carried in the vessel in pressurized tanks, to sustain the chemical reaction. Nine of these units are incorporated into Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG's 1,830 t submarine GERMAN SUBMARINE U-31, lead ship for the Type 212A of the German Navy. The other boats of this class and HDW's AIP equipped export submarines, Dolphin-class submarine, Type 209 mod and Type 214, use two 120 kW modules, also from Siemens. The Type 212 can remain submerged for 21 days; one such submarine conducted a 1600 nautical mile journey solely on AIP in 2016.

After the success of Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG in its export activities, several builders developed fuel-cell auxiliary units for submarines, but as of 2008 no other shipyard has a contract for a submarine so equipped.

The AIP implemented on the S-80-class submarine of the Spanish Navy is based on a bioethanol-processor (provided by Hynergreen from Abengoa) consisting of a reaction chamber and several intermediate Coprox reactors, that transform the BioEtOH into high purity hydrogen. The output feeds a series of fuel cells from Collins Aerospace (which also supplied fuel cells for the Space Shuttle).

The reformer is fed with bioethanol as fuel, and oxygen (stored as a liquid in a high pressure cryogenic tank), generating hydrogen as a sub-product. The produced hydrogen and more oxygen is fed to the fuel cells.

China has been researching fuel cell engines for AIP submarines. The Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics reportedly developed 100 kW and 1 MW fuel cell engines.

The Naval Materials Research Laboratory of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with Larsen & Toubro and Thermax has developed a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) to power the Kalvari-class submarines, which are based on the Scorpène-class submarine design. All six Kalvari-class submarines will be retrofitted with AIP during their first upgrade. It produces electricity by reacting with hydrogen generated from sodium borohydride and stored oxygen with phosphoric acid acting as an electrolyte.

The Portuguese Navy Tridente-class submarines are also equipped with fuel cells.

Nuclear power
Air-independent propulsion is a term normally used in the context of improving the performance of conventionally propelled submarines. However, as an auxiliary power supply, nuclear power falls into the technical definition of AIP. For example, a proposal to use a small 200-kilowatt reactor for auxiliary power—styled by AECL as a "nuclear battery"—could improve the under-ice capability of Canadian submarines.

Nuclear reactors have been used since the 1950s to power submarines. The first such submarine was USS Nautilus commissioned in 1954. Today, China, France, India, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are the only countries to have built and operated nuclear-powered submarines successfully.

Non-nuclear AIP submarines
As of 2017, some 10 nations are building AIP submarines with almost 20 nations operating AIP based submarines:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Air-independent propulsion


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Talk:Waypoint

Untitled
Here are some fun waypoints for Lake Erie Boaters:  Red buoy West of Kelly's Island: R "2" Fl R 4s L:41° 36.265‘ N Lo:082° 44.845‘ W  Marblehead Light: Fl G 6s 67ft 11 St M L: 41° 32.185‘ N Lo: 082° 42.707‘ W  13 foot sounding just outside entrance to West Harbour L: 41° 34.226‘ N Lo: 082° 48.466‘ W  About 300 feet South East of Lake Entrance to Bay Point
 L: 41° 30.816‘ N
 Lo: 082° 43.156‘ W

Plagiarism
I moved the article away from being all but completely plagiarised, by adding two published dictionary definitions of the term. However, with full sections having their facts and ideas taken from the sources of this expertise, unattributed, the article remains almost completely plagiarised in violation of WP:VERIFY (and/or a work of WP:OR). Le Prof 73.210.155.96 (talk) 03:40, 26 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Waypoint. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081002091244/http://www.orienteering.ca/about_orienteering.htm to http://www.orienteering.ca/about_orienteering.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:34, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Waypoint


text:
Ruby (Egyptian singer)

Rania Hussein Mohamed Tawfik (رانيا حسين محمد توفيق ; born October 8, 1981), known as Ruby (روبى, sometimes transliterated as Roubi), is an Egyptian singer, actress and occasional model who rose to fame with her debut single "Enta Aref Leih" ("Do You Know Why?") in 2003.

Musical career
The first music video of her debut single "Enta Aref Leih" (2003), was directed by Sherif Sabri and was a huge hit on most satellite music stations in the Middle East during the summer of 2003. Ruby was criticized by the media for appearing in the provocative costume of a belly dancer in the song's music video. Despite this criticism, the successful single brought Ruby into the limelight. Ruby's second video was released in early 2004. The video was titled "Leih Beydary Kedah" (Why Is He Hiding His Feelings Like This?) and directed by Sherif Sabri; the video again also featured provocative scenes. Her third music video "El Gharaam (Koll Amma A'ollo Ah)" was accompanied by clips from Ruby's movie, "Saba' Wara'aat Kotcheena" (7 Playing Cards). The film was banned by the governments of some Arabic countries due to its usage of erotic themes.

Ruby was questioned in numerous interviews about her provocative style and suggestive moves, to which she responded that she does not consider herself to be a sex symbol. She was also rumoured to be married to her manager, Sherif Sabri, but they have both denied the rumour.

In 2008, she released a single Yal Ramoush (Wonderful Eyelashes). She is also the one who sang the theme song of Al Wa3d Movie Awwel Marra.

Acting career
Ruby's debut in Egyptian cinema was in 2000 and has 25 films in the Egyptian film Film Saqafi (Cultural Film). In 2019, she participated in two Egyptian films including Hamlet Pheroun and The Treasure 2. Ruby's last artistic work is The Treasure 2 (Al Kanz 2). Her father’s family from assuit government Ruby had a prominent role in the viral 2020 advertisement for Edita's Molto croissants.

Discography

 * Eba'a Abelni (2004)
 * Meshit Wara Ehsasi (مشيت ورا إحساسى 2007)
 * Eb'a Abelni (2009)

Singles

 * Enta Aref Leh (2003)
 * Yal Remoush (2008)
 * Hetta Tanya (2021)
 * Ana Laww Za'lana (2021)
 * Albi Plastic (2021)
 * ''Hetta Tanya (Harout Zadikian Remix) (2021)
 * Nemt Nenna (2022)

title: Ruby (Egyptian singer)


text:
Biblical infallibility

Biblical infallibility is the belief that what the Bible says regarding matters of faith and Christian practice is wholly useful and true. It is the "belief that the Bible is completely trustworthy as a guide to salvation and the life of faith and will not fail to accomplish its purpose."

Background
Historically, Jewish and Christian interpreters of the Bible have seen it as reliable and trustworthy, but such views do not equate veracity with historicity, scientificity or even facticity. The idea of biblical infallibility gained ground in Protestant churches as a fundamentalist reaction against a general movement towards modernism within mainstream Christian denominations in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the Catholic church, the reaction produced the concept of papal infallibility whereas, in the evangelical churches, the infallibility of the Bible was asserted. "Both movements represent a synthesis of a theological position and an ideological-political stance against the erosion of traditional authorities. Both are antimoderne and literalist." "No matter how little common ground was apparent at the time between Roman Catholicism and the Evangelical Right, these two reformulations of scriptural and papal supremacy represented a defiant assertiveness in reaction against the crisis of religious authority that was engulfing Western religion."

Patristic
Clement of Rome in his Letter to the Corinthians (AD 90) says:
 * 1Clem 45:1-5:
 * You are contentious, brethren, and zealous for the things which lead to salvation. You have studied the Holy Scriptures, which are true, and given by the Holy Spirit. You know that nothing unjust or counterfeit is written in them. You will not find that the righteous have been cast out by holy men. The righteous were persecuted, but it was by the wicked. They were put in prison; but it was by the unholy. They were stoned by law-breakers, they were killed by men who had conceived foul and unrighteous envy. These things they suffered, and gained glory by their endurance.

Catholicism
The Catholic Church speaks not about infallibility of scripture but about its freedom from error, holding "the doctrine of the inerrancy of Scripture". The Second Vatican Council, citing earlier declarations, stated: "Since everything asserted by the inspired authors or sacred writers must be held to be asserted by the Holy Spirit, it follows that the books of Scripture must be acknowledged as teaching solidly, faithfully and without error that truth which God wanted put into sacred writings for the sake of salvation." It added: "Since God speaks in Sacred Scripture through men in human fashion, the interpreter of Sacred Scripture, in order to see clearly what God wanted to communicate to us, should carefully investigate what meaning the sacred writers really intended, and what God wanted to manifest by means of their words."

Methodism
The Methodist theologian Thomas A. Lambrecht notes that John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, "...used the word 'infallible' to describe the Scriptures. In his sermon on 'The Means of Grace,' Wesley says, 'The same truth (namely, that this is the great means God has ordained for conveying his manifold grace to man) is delivered, in the fullest manner that can be conceived, in the words which immediately follow: 'All Scripture is given by inspiration of God;' consequently, ; 'and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness;' to the end 'that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works' (2 Tim. 3:16, 17)' (emphasis added)."

As such, Lambrecht notes that "orthodox, evangelical, and traditionalist United Methodists believe in the 'infallibility' of Scripture." "Article V—Of the Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation" in the Articles of Religion states that: "The Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an article of faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. In the name of the Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical books of the Old and New Testament of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church."

Lambrecht, therefore, writes that: "The Bible is not God, and those who believe in its infallibility do not worship the Bible. But the Bible is God's most objective and detailed way of communicating with us, God's people. Its infallibility means we can trust the Bible to truly communicate to us what God wants us to believe and how God wants us to live. To ignore or disobey the teachings of Scripture is to contradict its infallibility, which puts us on a completely different theological path altogether."

Evangelicalism
While the doctrines of inerrancy and infallibility are cornerstone doctrines for many quarters of the US Evangelicalism, it is not so for many Evangelicals around the world, for whom God only is inerrant and infallible.

"For many British evangelicals, inerrancy was American in origin, exotic in its implications, and was associated with various obscurantist attitudes and beliefs for which British evangelicals had no enthusiasm."

Infallibility and inerrancy
Some theologians and denominations equate "inerrancy" and "infallibility"; others do not. For example, Davis suggests: "The Bible is inerrant if and only if it makes no false or misleading statements on any topic whatsoever. The Bible is infallible if and only if it makes no false or misleading statements on any matter of faith and practice." In this sense it is seen as distinct from biblical inerrancy.

There is a widespread confusion among Evangelical and Christian fundamentalist circles that biblical infallibility means that the Bible cannot contain errors while inerrancy implies that the Bible contains no errors. However, the concept of infallibility has no relation to errors, but the impossibility of failure.

The confusion between the terms is consistent. Old Testament scholar John Walton uses the term inerrancy in the sense that the "Scripture is not to be understood as making scientific affirmations, particularly in the realms of cosmology, anatomy, and physiology"; however, this definition actually refers to infallibility rather than inerrancy. Using non-theological dictionary definitions, Frame (2002) insists that infallibility is a stronger term than inerrancy. Inerrant' means there are no errors; 'infallible' means there can be no errors." Yet he agrees that "modern theologians insist on redefining that word also, so that it actually says less than 'inerrancy.

Some denominations that teach infallibility hold that the historical or scientific details, which may be irrelevant to matters of faith and Christian practice, may contain errors. This contrasts with the doctrine of biblical inerrancy, which holds that the scientific, geographic, and historic details of the scriptural texts in their original manuscripts are completely true and without error, though the scientific claims of scripture must be interpreted in the light of the phenomenological nature of the biblical narratives. The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy uses the term in this sense, saying, "Infallibility and inerrancy may be distinguished but not separated." And "We deny that Biblical infallibility and inerrancy are limited to spiritual, religious, or Redemptive themes, exclusive of assertions in the fields of history and science. We further deny that scientific hypotheses about earth history may properly be used to overturn the teaching of Scripture on Creation and the Flood."

title: Biblical infallibility


text:
Eleanor Scott

Eleanor Roberta Scott (née Ettles, born 23 July 1951) is a Scottish politician and physician. She was Scottish Greens Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Highlands and Islands from 2003–2007, then female co-convener of the party from 2008–2011 with Patrick Harvie.

Early life and education
Eleanor Roberta Ettles was born in Inverness on 23 July 1951. Her parents were Roberta (née Reid) and William Ettles. She educated at Bearsden Academy, and studied medicine at the University of Glasgow, graduating with a MBChB in 1974.

Career
She worked as a community paediatrician in Inverness 1980−87 and in Ross and Cromarty 1987−2003, providing a service for special needs children in the Scottish Highlands.

Since joining the Scottish Green Party in 1989, Scott has campaigned on many issues, most recently against the building of new incinerators, GM crops in the Black Isle and the movement against war in Iraq.

In 1999, the Scottish Green Party selected her at the top of its regional list for the Highlands and Islands, although it did not gain a seat in that region. The same year she was also selected to stand as a Scottish Green Party candidate for the Scotland European Parliament election, the Party did not win any of the six seats. She stood unsuccessfully for the United Kingdom Parliament for Ross, Skye and Inverness West in the 2001 election and again in 2010 when the Scottish Green Party fielded candidates in 20 constituencies across Scotland.

Scottish Parliament
She was elected to the Scottish Parliament in 2003, when the Scottish Green Party gained a Highlands and Islands regional seat. Her partner Rob Gibson, was also first elected from the Highlands and Islands regional list in 2003, as a Scottish National Party MSP. She took her oath as MSP in Scottish Gaelic, as enthusiast for the language. She was Party spokesperson for health, and from June 2005, also spokesperson on rural development.

She stood again in the 2007 Scottish election, and was not re-elected.

In September 2008, she was involved in a leadership contest against Nina Baker and Maggie Chapman. Scott was elected to the position of co-convener of the Scottish Green Party alongside Patrick Harvie, a position she held until 2011.

For the 2011 election she was again placed at the top of the Scottish Green Party's regional list for the Highlands and Islands, however the Party were unsuccessful in gaining a seat in the region. The following year she participated in the Yes Highland meetings ahead of the 2014 Scottish independence referendum.

Personal life
Scott is married to former Scottish National Party MSP Rob Gibson. They have two children; a son and a daughter.

title: Eleanor Scott


text:
Atelecyclus rotundatus

Atelecyclus rotundatus is a medium-sized crab found on the west coast of Europe and Africa as well as almost all the Mediterranean Sea and on the Cape Verde and Canary islands. It has many common names, including circular crab, round crab and old man's face crab. It measures about 40 mm across its almost circular, reddish-brown carapace and lives on coarse soft bottoms at shallow depths. There are 9–11 sharp teeth on the front and 3 teeth between the eyes.

This crab is sometimes mistaken for the more common Atelecyclus undecimdentatus. However, Atelecyclus undecimdentatus can be distinguished by its wider carapace and coarser granulations.

title: Atelecyclus rotundatus


text:
C.A.I. First

C.A.I. First S.p.A. was an Italian airline operating flights for its parent company, Alitalia, to preserve slots at Milan Linate Airport. For this reason Alitalia when merged with Air One didn't close C.A.I. First, which at that time still operated as Alitalia Express. It used to have bases at Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport in Rome and Malpensa Airport in Milan. C.A.I. First was dissolved and merged into Alitalia mainline by February 2015.

The name C.A.I. First was only a legal name and wasn't used in public, all of its flights were branded as Alitalia.

Early years
The airline was established as a subsidiary of Alitalia and started operations on 1 October 1997. It was founded from the defunct Avianova. It was announced that Minerva Airlines would be acquired by Alitalia in March 2003 and that Alitalia Express's fleet would be transferred, but the plan did not go through.

Air One and Alitalia merger
In December 2008, Compagnia Aerea Italiana (C.A.I.) took over Alitalia - Linee Aeree Italiane and Air One, merging the two companies together to create the "new Alitalia". With the take over, CAI also received Alitalia Express and Air One CityLiner. The Alitalia Express brand has been phased out and the regional arm of Alitalia is now Alitalia CityLiner by rebranding Air One CityLiner.

The last fleet of Alitalia Express, 10 Embraer 170, was completely phased out by March 2013. Only one Airbus A320-200 (EI-DSC) from mainline Alitalia was moved in the fleet to preserve the slots. The same solution had been used with C.A.I. Second which used to be Volareweb.com.

On 6 February 2015, the airline was dissolved and its operations integrated into Alitalia mainline.

Fleet
Prior to its shutdown in February 2015, the fleet consisted of the following aircraft:

Fleet history
Over the years, Alitalia Express has operated the following aircraft types:

title: C.A.I. First


text: Template:Tuscany

title: Template:Tuscany


text:
Talk:Calculus (disambiguation)

Deleted text from main article
I deleted the following text, which I think was inaccurate, and goes into too much depth for a disambig page:
 * In the most general sense, the term calculus refers to a system of formal rules of inference and axioms that are used for computation. MathWorld defines it as "an abstract theory developed in a purely formal way".
 * The more generalized usage is particularly common in mathematical logic, where a calculus is applied to compute universally true statements of a certain formal logic. Examples include the calculus of natural deduction, the sequent calculus, as well as many other calculi that are deviced in proof theory.

The preceding unsigned statement by Chalst (talk), 14:47, 10 February 2005 (UTC)

. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.26.167.191 (talk) 00:41, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

I added it back in as a shorter link to Logical calculus, as it seemed odd that the "calculus" disambiguation page made no reference to the meaning of calculus itself. --PA — Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.168.147.59 (talk) 23:53, 11 October 2011 (UTC)

Science
Molecules 136.158.28.210 (talk) 22:50, 30 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calculus (disambiguation)


text:
List of Munros in Scotland by Section

, this is the list of the 282 Munros, recognised by the Scottish Mountaineering Club ("SMC") and The Munro Society. The Munros are listed by "Section" per the Munro's Tables, and in descending order of height within each section. Hills are divided by sub-region, and hills with less than 200 m relative height (or prominence) are indented. The term Real Munro is used for hills with a prominence above 150 m, which is the threshold for a Marilyn. For a single table of all 282 Munros, or all 226 Munro Tops, ranked by height and by prominence, see the "List of Munro mountains in Scotland".

Section one: Firth of Clyde to Strathtay

'''1c. Loch Lomond to Strathyre'''
 * Beinn a' Chroin (941.4 m) Gaelic: Beinn a' Chroin
 * Ben Lomond (974 m) Gaelic: Beinn Laomainn
 * Beinn Chabhair (932.1 m) Gaelic: Beinn a' Chabhair

'''1d. Inveraray to Crianlarich'''
 * Ben Lui (1130 m) Gaelic: Beinn Laoigh
 * Beinn a' Chleibh (916.3 m) Gaelic: Beinn a' Chlèibh
 * Ben Oss (1029 m) Gaelic: Beinn Ois
 * Beinn Dubhchraig (978 m) Gaelic: Beinn Dubh-chreig
 * Beinn Ìme (1011 m) Gaelic: Beinn Ime
 * Beinn Bhuidhe (948.5 m) Gaelic: A' Bheinn Bhuidhe
 * Ben Vorlich (943 m) Gaelic: Beinn Mhùrlaig
 * Beinn Narnain (927 m) Gaelic: Beinn Nàrnain
 * Ben Vane (915.76 m) Gaelic: A' Bheinn Mheadhain

Section two: Loch Rannoch to Loch Tay

'''2a. Loch Rannoch to Glen Lyon'''
 * Schiehallion (1083 m)
 * Beinn a' Chreachain (1080.6 m)
 * Beinn Dorain (1076 m)
 * Càrn Mairg (1042 m)
 * Càrn Gorm (1029 m)
 * Meall nan Aighean (981 m)
 * Meall Garbh (Càrn Mairg Group) (968 m)
 * Beinn Achaladair (1038.5 m)
 * Beinn an Dothaidh (1004 m)
 * Stuchd an Lochain (960 m)
 * Beinn Mhanach (953 m)
 * Meall Buidhe (932.1 m)

'''2b. Glen Lyon to Glen Dochart and Loch Tay'''
 * Ben Lawers (1214 m)
 * An Stùc (1117.1 m)
 * Meall Garbh (Lawers Group) (1123.1 m)
 * Beinn Ghlas (1103 m)
 * Meall Greigh (1001 m)
 * Beinn Heasgarnich (1077.4 m)
 * Meall Corranaich (1069 m)
 * Meall a' Choire Leith (925.6 m)
 * Creag Mhòr (1047 m)
 * Meall nan Tarmachan (1043.5 m)
 * Meall Ghaordaidh (1039.8 m)
 * Ben Challum (1025 m)
 * Meall Glas (959 m)
 * Sgiath Chuil (920 m)

Section three: Loch Leven to Connel Bridge and Glen Lochy

'''3a. Loch Leven to Rannoch Station'''
 * Aonach Eagach - Sgor nam Fiannaidh (967.7 m)
 * Meall Dearg (952.2 m)

'''3b. Loch Linnhe to Loch Etive'''
 * Bidean nam Bian (1149.4 m)
 * Stob Coire Sgreamhach (1072 m)
 * Beinn a' Bheithir - Sgorr Dhearg (1024 m)
 * Sgorr Dhonuill (1001 m)
 * Buachaille Etive Mòr - Stob Dearg (1021.4 m)
 * Sgor na Bròige (953.4 m)
 * Sgùrr na h-Ulaidh (994 m)
 * Beinn Fhionnlaidh (959 m)
 * Buachaille Etive Beag - Stob Dubh (958 m)
 * Stob Coire Raineach (925 m)
 * Beinn Sgulaird (937 m)

'''3c. Glen Etive to Glen Lochy'''
 * Ben Cruachan (1127 m)
 * Stob Diamh (999.2 m)
 * Meall a' Bhùiridh (1107.9 m)
 * Creise (1099.8 m)
 * Stob Ghabhar (1090 m)
 * Ben Starav (1078 m)
 * Stob Coir' an Albannaich (1044 m)
 * Meall nan Eun (928 m)
 * Glas Bheinn Mhòr (997 m)
 * Beinn Eunaich (989 m)
 * Beinn a' Chochuill (980 m)
 * Beinn nan Aighenan (960 m)
 * Stob a' Choire Odhair (945 m)

Section four: Fort William to Loch Ericht

'''4a. Fort William to Loch Treig'''

 * Ben Nevis (1345 m)
 * Càrn Mòr Dearg (1220 m)
 * Aonach Beag (1234 m)
 * Aonach Mòr (1221 m)
 * Stob Choire Claurigh (1177 m)
 * Stob Coire an Laoigh (1116 m)
 * Sgùrr Choinnich Mòr (1094 m)
 * Stob Bàn (977 m)
 * Stob Coire Easain (1115 m)
 * Stob a' Choire Mheadhoin (1105 m)

'''4b. The Mamores'''

 * Binnein Mòr (1130 m)
 * Na Gruagaichean (1054.2 m)
 * Binnein Beag (943 m)
 * Sgùrr a' Mhàim (1099 m)
 * Am Bodach (1031.8 m)
 * An Gearanach (981.4 m)
 * Stob Coire a' Chàirn (981.4 m)
 * Sgùrr Eilde Mòr (1010 m)
 * Stob Bàn (999.7 m)
 * Mullach nan Coirean (939.3 m)

'''4c. Loch Treig to Loch Ericht'''

 * Ben Alder (1148 m)
 * Beinn Bheòil (1019 m)
 * Geal-Chàrn (1132 m)
 * Aonach Beag (1115.8 m)
 * Beinn Eibhinn (1103.2 m)
 * Càrn Dearg (1034 m)
 * Beinn a' Chlachair (1087 m)
 * Geal Charn (1049 m)
 * Creag Pitridh (924 m)
 * Chno Dearg (1046 m)
 * Stob Coire Sgriodain (979 m)
 * Sgor Gaibhre (955 m)
 * Càrn Dearg (941 m)
 * Beinn na Lap (935 m)

Section five: Loch Ericht to Glen Tromie and Glen Garry

'''5a. Loch Ericht to Glen Garry'''
 * Beinn Udlamain (1010.2 m)
 * Sgairneach Mhòr (991 m)
 * Geal-chàrn (917.1 m)
 * A' Mharconaich (973.2 m)

'''5b. Glen Garry to Gaick Pass'''
 * Meall Chuaich (951 m)
 * Càrn na Caim (940.8 m)
 * A' Bhuidheanach Bheag (936 m)

Section six: Forest of Atholl to Braemar and Blairgowrie

'''6a. Glen Tromie to Glen Tilt'''
 * Beinn Dearg (1008.7 m)
 * An Sgarsoch (1006.5 m)
 * Càrn an Fhidhleir (994 m)
 * Càrn a' Chlamhain (963.5 m)

'''6b. Pitlochry to Braemar and Blairgowrie'''
 * Beinn a' Ghlò - Càrn nan Gabhar (1121.9 m)
 * Bràigh Coire Chruinn-bhalgain (1070 m)
 * Glas Tulaichean (1051 m)
 * Beinn Iutharn Mhòr (1045 m)
 * Càrn Bhac (945.1 m)
 * An Socach (944 m)
 * Càrn an Rìgh (1029 m)
 * Càrn Liath (976 m)
 * Càrn a' Gheòidh (975 m)
 * The Cairnwell (933 m)
 * Carn Aosda (915.3 m)

Section seven: Braemar to Montrose

 * Lochnagar (1156 m)
 * Càrn a' Coire Boidheach (1109.9 m)
 * Glas Maol (1068 m)
 * Cairn of Claise (1064 m)
 * Càrn an t-Sagairt Mòr (1047 m)
 * Càrn an Tuirc (1019 m)
 * Cairn Bannoch (1012 m)
 * Broad Cairn (998 m)
 * Creag Leacach (988.2 m)
 * Tolmount (958 m)
 * Tom Buidhe (957 m)
 * Driesh (947 m)
 * Mayar (928 m)
 * Mount Keen (939 m)

Section eight: The Cairngorms

 * Ben Macdui (1309 m)
 * Cairn Gorm (1244.8 m)
 * Derry Cairngorm (1155 m)
 * Braeriach (1296 m)
 * Cairn Toul (1291 m)
 * Sgor an Lochain Uaine (1258 m)
 * The Devil's Point (1004 m)
 * Beinn a' Bhùird (1197 m)
 * Ben Avon - Leabaidh an Daimh Bhuidhe (1171 m)
 * Beinn Mheadhoin (1182.9 m)
 * Beinn Bhrotain (1157 m)
 * Monadh Mòr (1113 m)
 * Sgor Gaoith (1118 m)
 * Mullach Clach a' Bhlàir (1019 m)
 * Bynack More (1090 m)
 * Beinn a' Chaorainn (Cairngorms) (1083 m)
 * Beinn Bhreac (931 m)
 * Càrn a' Mhàim (1037 m)

Section nine: Spean Bridge to Elgin

'''9a. The Monadh Liath'''
 * Càrn Dearg (945.7 m)
 * A' Chailleach (929.2 m)
 * Geal Chàrn (926 m)
 * Càrn Sgulain (920.3 m)

'''9b. Loch Lochy to Loch Laggan'''
 * Creag Meagaidh (1128 m)
 * Stob Poite Coire Ardair (1054 m)
 * Càrn Liath (1006 m)
 * Beinn a' Chaorainn (1052 m)
 * Beinn Teallach (914.6 m)

Section ten: Glen Shiel to Glenfinnan

'''10a. Glen Shiel to Loch Hourn and Glen Quoich'''
 * Gleouraich (1035 m)
 * Sgùrr a' Mhaoraich (1027 m)
 * Aonach air Chrith (1019.5 m)
 * Sgùrr an Doire Leathain (1010 m)
 * Sgùrr an Lochain (1004 m)
 * Druim Shionnach (987 m)
 * Maol Chinn-dearg (980.3 m)
 * Creag a' Mhaim (946 m)
 * Creag nan Damh (917.2 m)
 * The Saddle (1011.4 m)
 * Spidean Mialach (996 m)
 * Beinn Sgritheall (974 m)
 * Sgùrr na Sgine (946 m)

'''10b. Knoydart to Glen Kingie'''
 * Sgùrr na Cìche (1040 m)
 * Garbh Chioch Mhòr (1013 m)
 * Ladhar Bheinn (1020 m)
 * Sgùrr Mòr (1003 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Coireachan (956 m)
 * Meall Buidhe (946 m)
 * Luinne Bheinn (939 m)
 * Gairich (919 m)

'''10c. Loch Arkaig to Glen Moriston'''
 * Sròn a' Choire Ghairbh (937 m)
 * Meall na Teanga (916.8 m)

'''10d. Mallaig to Fort William'''
 * Gaor Bheinn or Gulvain (987 m)
 * Sgùrr Thuilm (963 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Coireachan (956 m)

Section eleven: Loch Duich to Loch Ness, South of Loch Mullardoch

'''11a. Loch Duich to Cannich'''
 * Càrn Eige (1182.8 m)
 * Mam Sodhail (1179.4 m)
 * Tom a' Choinich (1112 m)
 * Toll Creagach (1054 m)
 * Beinn Fhionnlaidh (1004.7 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Ceathreamhnan (1151 m)
 * Mullach na Dheireagain (982 m)
 * An Socach (921 m)
 * Sgùrr Fhuaran (1068.7 m)
 * Sgùrr na Ciste Duibhe (1027 m)
 * Sgùrr na Càrnach (1002 m)
 * Sgùrr a' Bhealaich Dheirg (1036 m)
 * Aonach Meadhoin (1001 m)
 * Sàileag (956 m)
 * Beinn Fhada (1032 m)
 * Ciste Dhubh (979 m)
 * A' Ghlas-bheinn (918 m)

'''11b. Glen Affric to Glen Moriston'''
 * A' Chràlaig (1120 m)
 * Mullach Fraoch-choire (1102 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Conbhairean (1109 m)
 * Sail Chaorainn (1002 m)
 * Càrn Ghluasaid (957 m)

Section twelve: Kyle of Lochalsh to Inverness, North of Loch Mullardoch

'''12a. Kyle of Lochalsh to Garve'''
 * Sgùrr a' Choire Ghlais (1083 m)
 * Sgùrr Fhuar-thuill (1049 m)
 * Càrn nan Gobhar (Strathfarrar) (992 m)
 * Sgurr a' Chaorachain (1053 m)
 * Sgùrr Choinnich (999.2 m)
 * Maoile Lunndaidh (1004.9 m)
 * Sgùrr na Ruaidhe (993 m)
 * Lurg Mhòr (987 m)
 * Bidein a' Choire Sheasgaich (945 m)
 * Mòruisg (928 m)

'''12b. Killilan to Inverness'''
 * Sgùrr na Lapaich (1151 m)
 * Càrn nan Gobhar (Mullardoch)(992 m)
 * An Riabhachan (1129 m)
 * An Socach (1069 m)

Section thirteen: Loch Carron to Loch Maree

'''13a. Loch Torridon to Loch Maree'''
 * Liathach - Spidean a' Choire Leith (1055 m)
 * Mullach an Rathain (1023.8 m)
 * Beinn Eighe - Ruadh-stac Mòr (1010 m)
 * Spidean Coire nan Clach (993 m)
 * Beinn Alligin - Sgùrr Mhòr (986 m)
 * Tom na Gruagaich (922 m)

'''13b. Applecross to Achnasheen'''
 * Sgorr Ruadh (960.7 m)
 * Maol Chean-dearg (933 m)
 * Beinn Liath Mhòr (926 m)

Section fourteen: Loch Maree to Loch Broom and Garve

'''14a. Loch Maree to Loch Broom'''
 * An Teallach - Bidein a' Ghlas Thuill (1062.5 m)
 * Sgùrr Fiona (1058.6 m)
 * Mullach Coire Mhic Fhearchair (1015.2 m)
 * Sgùrr Bàn (989 m)
 * Slioch (981 m)
 * A' Mhaighdean (967 m)
 * Ruadh Stac Mòr (918.7 m)
 * Beinn Tarsuinn (933.8 m)

'''14b. The Fannaichs'''
 * Sgùrr Mòr (1109 m)
 * Beinn Liath Mhòr Fannaich (954 m)
 * Meall Gorm (949 m)
 * Meall a' Chrasgaidh (934 m)
 * An Coileachan (923.9 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Clach Geala (1093 m)
 * Sgùrr nan Each (923 m)
 * Sgùrr Breac (999 m)
 * A' Chailleach (997 m)
 * Fionn Bheinn (933 m)

Section fifteen: Ullapool to the Moray Firth

'''15a. Loch Broom to Strath Oykel'''
 * Beinn Dearg (1084 m)
 * Cona' Mheall (978 m)
 * Meall nan Ceapraichean (977 m)
 * Eididh nan Clach Geala (927 m)
 * Am Faochagach (953 m)
 * Seana Bhràigh (926 m)

'''15b. Loch Vaich to the Moray Firth'''
 * Ben Wyvis - Glas Leathad Mòr (1046 m)

Section sixteen: The Far North

'''16a. Durness to Loch Shin'''
 * Ben Hope (927 m)

'''16b. Altnaharra to Dornoch'''
 * Ben Klibreck - Meall nan Con (962.1 m)

'''16c. Scourie to Lairg'''
 * Ben More Assynt (998 m)
 * Conival (987 m)

title: List of Munros in Scotland by Section


text:
Electroactive polymer

An electroactive polymer (EAP) is a polymer that exhibits a change in size or shape when stimulated by an electric field. The most common applications of this type of material are in actuators and sensors. A typical characteristic property of an EAP is that they will undergo a large amount of deformation while sustaining large forces.

The majority of historic actuators are made of ceramic piezoelectric materials. While these materials are able to withstand large forces, they commonly will only deform a fraction of a percent. In the late 1990s, it has been demonstrated that some EAPs can exhibit up to a 380% strain, which is much more than any ceramic actuator. One of the most common applications for EAPs is in the field of robotics in the development of artificial muscles; thus, an electroactive polymer is often referred to as an artificial muscle.

History
The field of EAPs emerged back in 1880, when Wilhelm Röntgen designed an experiment in which he tested the effect of an electrostatic field on the mechanical properties of a stripe of natural rubber. The rubber stripe was fixed at one end and was attached to a mass at the other. Electric charges were then sprayed onto the rubber, and it was observed that the length changed. It was in 1925 that the first piezoelectric polymer was discovered (Electret). Electret was formed by combining carnauba wax, rosin and beeswax, and then cooling the solution while it is subject to an applied DC electrical bias. The mixture would then solidify into a polymeric material that exhibited a piezoelectric effect.

Polymers that respond to environmental conditions, other than an applied electric current, have also been a large part of this area of study. In 1949 Katchalsky et al. demonstrated that when collagen filaments are dipped in acid or alkali solutions, they would respond with a change in volume. The collagen filaments were found to expand in an acidic solution and contract in an alkali solution. Although other stimuli (such as pH) have been investigated, due to its ease and practicality most research has been devoted to developing polymers that respond to electrical stimuli in order to mimic biological systems.

The next major breakthrough in EAPs took place in the late 1960s. In 1969 Kawai demonstrated that polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) exhibits a large piezoelectric effect. This sparked research interest in developing other polymers systems that would show a similar effect. In 1977 the first electrically conducting polymers were discovered by Hideki Shirakawa et al. Shirakawa, along with Alan MacDiarmid and Alan Heeger, demonstrated that polyacetylene was electrically conductive, and that by doping it with iodine vapor, they could enhance its conductivity by 8 orders of magnitude. Thus the conductance was close to that of a metal. By the late 1980s a number of other polymers had been shown to exhibit a piezoelectric effect or were demonstrated to be conductive.

In the early 1990s, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) were developed and shown to exhibit electroactive properties far superior to previous EAPs. The major advantage of IPMCs was that they were able to show activation (deformation) at voltages as low as 1 or 2 volts. This is orders of magnitude less than any previous EAP. Not only was the activation energy for these materials much lower, but they could also undergo much larger deformations. IPMCs were shown to exhibit anywhere up to 380% strain, orders of magnitude larger than previously developed EAPs.

In 1999, Yoseph Bar-Cohen proposed the Armwrestling Match of EAP Robotic Arm Against Human Challenge. This was a challenge in which research groups around the world competed to design a robotic arm consisting of EAP muscles that could defeat a human in an arm wrestling match. The first challenge was held at the Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices Conference in 2005. Another major milestone of the field is that the first commercially developed device including EAPs as an artificial muscle was produced in 2002 by Eamex in Japan. This device was a fish that was able to swim on its own, moving its tail using an EAP muscle. But the progress in practical development has not been satisfactory.

DARPA-funded research in the 1990s at SRI International and led by Ron Pelrine developed an electroactive polymer using silicone and acrylic polymers; the technology was spun off into the company Artificial Muscle in 2003, with industrial production beginning in 2008. In 2010, Artificial Muscle became a subsidiary of Bayer MaterialScience.

Types
EAP can have several configurations, but are generally divided in two principal classes: Dielectric and Ionic.

Dielectric
Dielectric EAPs are materials in which actuation is caused by electrostatic forces between two electrodes which squeeze the polymer. Dielectric elastomers are capable of very high strains and are fundamentally a capacitor that changes its capacitance when a voltage is applied by allowing the polymer to compress in thickness and expand in area due to the electric field. This type of EAP typically requires a large actuation voltage to produce high electric fields (hundreds to thousands of volts), but very low electrical power consumption. Dielectric EAPs require no power to keep the actuator at a given position. Examples are electrostrictive polymers and dielectric elastomers.

Ferroelectric polymers
Ferroelectric polymers are a group of crystalline polar polymers that are also ferroelectric, meaning that they maintain a permanent electric polarization that can be reversed, or switched, in an external electric field. Ferroelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators because of their inherent piezoelectric response, and as heat sensors because of their inherent pyroelectric response.

Electrostrictive graft polymers

Electrostrictive graft polymers consist of flexible backbone chains with branching side chains. The side chains on neighboring backbone polymers cross link and form crystal units. The backbone and side chain crystal units can then form polarized monomers, which contain atoms with partial charges and generate dipole moments, shown in Figure 2. When an electrical field is applied, a force is applied to each partial charge and causes rotation of the whole polymer unit. This rotation causes electrostrictive strain and deformation of the polymer.

Liquid crystalline polymers
Main-chain liquid crystalline polymers have mesogenic groups linked to each other by a flexible spacer. The mesogens within a backbone form the mesophase structure causing the polymer itself to adopt a conformation compatible with the structure of the mesophase. The direct coupling of the liquid crystalline order with the polymer conformation has given main-chain liquid crystalline elastomers a large amount of interest. The synthesis of highly oriented elastomers leads to have a large strain thermal actuation along the polymer chain direction with temperature variation resulting in unique mechanical properties and potential applications as mechanical actuators.

Ionic
Ionic EAPs are polymers in which actuation is caused by the displacement of ions inside the polymer. Only a few volts are needed for actuation, but the ionic flow implies a higher electrical power needed for actuation, and energy is needed to keep the actuator at a given position. Examples of ionic EAPS are conductive polymers, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs), and responsive gels. Yet another example is a Bucky gel actuator, which is a polymer-supported layer of polyelectrolyte material consisting of an ionic liquid sandwiched between two electrode layers consisting of a gel of ionic liquid containing single-wall carbon nanotubes. The name comes from the similarity of the gel to the paper that can be made by filtering carbon nanotubes, the so-called buckypaper.

Electrorheological fluid

Electrorheological fluids change the viscosity of a solution with the application of an electric field. The fluid is a suspension of polymers in a low dielectric-constant liquid. With the application of a large electric field the viscosity of the suspension increases. Potential applications of these fluids include shock absorbers, engine mounts and acoustic dampers.

Ionic polymer-metal composite
Ionic polymer-metal composites consist of a thin ionomeric membrane with noble metal electrodes plated on its surface. It also has cations to balance the charge of the anions fixed to the polymer backbone. They are very active actuators that show very high deformation at low applied voltage and show low impedance. Ionic polymer-metal composites work through electrostatic attraction between the cationic counter ions and the cathode of the applied electric field, a schematic representation is shown in Figure 3. These types of polymers show the greatest promise for bio-mimetic uses as collagen fibers are essentially composed of natural charged ionic polymers. Nafion and Flemion are commonly used ionic polymer metal composites.

Stimuli-responsive gels
Stimuli-responsive gels (hydrogels, when the swelling agent is an aqueous solution) are a special kind of swellable polymer networks with volume phase transition behaviour. These materials change reversibly their volume, optical, mechanical and other properties by very small alterations of certain physical (e.g. electric field, light, temperature) or chemical (concentrations) stimuli. The volume change of these materials occurs by swelling/shrinking and is diffusion-based. Gels provide the biggest change in volume of solid-state materials. Combined with an excellent compatibility with micro-fabrication technologies, especially stimuli-responsive hydrogels are of strong increasing interest for microsystems with sensors and actuators. Current fields of research and application are chemical sensor systems, microfluidics and multimodal imaging systems.

Comparison of dielectric and ionic EAPs
Dielectric polymers are able to hold their induced displacement while activated under a DC voltage. This allows dielectric polymers to be considered for robotic applications. These types of materials also have high mechanical energy density and can be operated in air without a major decrease in performance. However, dielectric polymers require very high activation fields (>10 V/μm) that are close to the breakdown level.

The activation of ionic polymers, on the other hand, requires only 1-2 volts. They however need to maintain wetness, though some polymers have been developed as self-contained encapsulated activators which allows their use in dry environments. Ionic polymers also have a low electromechanical coupling. They are however ideal for bio-mimetic devices.

Characterization
While there are many different ways electroactive polymers can be characterized, only three will be addressed here: stress–strain curve, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, and dielectric thermal analysis.

Stress–strain curve
Stress strain curves provide information about the polymer's mechanical properties such as the brittleness, elasticity and yield strength of the polymer. This is done by providing a force to the polymer at a uniform rate and measuring the deformation that results. An example of this deformation is shown in Figure 4. This technique is useful for determining the type of material (brittle, tough, etc.), but it is a destructive technique as the stress is increased until the polymer fractures.

Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA)
Both dynamic mechanical analysis is a non destructive technique that is useful in understanding the mechanism of deformation at a molecular level. In DMTA a sinusoidal stress is applied to the polymer, and based on the polymer's deformation the elastic modulus and damping characteristics are obtained (assuming the polymer is a damped harmonic oscillator). Elastic materials take the mechanical energy of the stress and convert it into potential energy which can later be recovered. An ideal spring will use all the potential energy to regain its original shape (no damping), while a liquid will use all the potential energy to flow, never returning to its original position or shape (high damping). A viscoeleastic polymer will exhibit a combination of both types of behavior.

Dielectric thermal analysis (DETA)
DETA is similar to DMTA, but instead of an alternating mechanical force an alternating electric field is applied. The applied field can lead to polarization of the sample, and if the polymer contains groups that have permanent dipoles (as in Figure 2), they will align with the electrical field. The permittivity can be measured from the change in amplitude and resolved into dielectric storage and loss components. The electric displacement field can also be measured by following the current. Once the field is removed, the dipoles will relax back into a random orientation.

Applications
EAP materials can be easily manufactured into various shapes due to the ease in processing many polymeric materials, making them very versatile materials. One potential application for EAPs is that they can potentially be integrated into microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to produce smart actuators.

Artificial muscles
As the most prospective practical research direction, EAPs have been used in artificial muscles. Their ability to emulate the operation of biological muscles with high fracture toughness, large actuation strain and inherent vibration damping draw the attention of scientists in this field. EAPs have even successfully been used to make a type of hand.

Tactile displays
In recent years, "electro active polymers for refreshable Braille displays" has emerged to aid the visually impaired in fast reading and computer assisted communication. This concept is based on using an EAP actuator configured in an array form. Rows of electrodes on one side of an EAP film and columns on the other activate individual elements in the array. Each element is mounted with a Braille dot and is lowered by applying a voltage across the thickness of the selected element, causing local thickness reduction. Under computer control, dots would be activated to create tactile patterns of highs and lows representing the information to be read.

Visual and tactile impressions of a virtual surface are displayed by a high resolution tactile display, a so-called "artificial skin" (Fig. 6). These monolithic devices consist of an array of thousands of multimodal modulators (actuator pixels) based on stimuli-responsive hydrogels. Each modulator is able to change individually their transmission, height and softness. Besides their possible use as graphic displays for visually impaired such displays are interesting as free programmable keys of touchpads and consoles.

Microfluidics
EAP materials have huge potential for microfluidics e.g. as drug delivery systems, microfluidic devices and lab-on-a-chip. A first microfluidic platform technology reported in literature is based on stimuli-responsive gels. To avoid the electrolysis of water hydrogel-based microfluidic devices are mainly based on temperature-responsive polymers with lower critical solution temperature (LCST) characteristics, which are controlled by an electrothermic interface. Two types of micropumps are known, a diffusion micropump and a displacement micropump. Microvalves based on stimuli-responsive hydrogels show some advantageous properties such as particle tolerance, no leakage and outstanding pressure resistance. Besides these microfluidic standard components the hydrogel platform provides also chemical sensors and a novel class of microfluidic components, the chemical transistors (also referred as chemostat valves). These devices regulate a liquid flow if a threshold concentration of certain chemical is reached. Chemical transistors form the basis of microchemomechanical fluidic integrated circuits. "Chemical ICs" process exclusively chemical information, are energy-self-powered, operate automatically and are able for large-scale integration.

Another microfluidic platform is based on ionomeric materials. Pumps made from that material could offer low voltage (battery) operation, extremely low noise signature, high system efficiency, and highly accurate control of flow rate.

Another technology that can benefit from the unique properties of EAP actuators is optical membranes. Due to their low modulus, the mechanical impedance of the actuators, they are well-matched to common optical membrane materials. Also, a single EAP actuator is capable of generating displacements that range from micrometers to centimeters. For this reason, these materials can be used for static shape correction and jitter suppression. These actuators could also be used to correct for optical aberrations due to atmospheric interference.

Since these materials exhibit excellent electroactive character, EAP materials show potential in biomimetic-robot research, stress sensors and acoustics field, which will make EAPs become a more attractive study topic in the near future. They have been used for various actuators such as face muscles and arm muscles in humanoid robots.

Future directions
The field of EAPs is far from mature, which leaves several issues that still need to be worked on. The performance and long-term stability of the EAP should be improved by designing a water impermeable surface. This will prevent the evaporation of water contained in the EAP, and also reduce the potential loss of the positive counter ions when the EAP is operating submerged in an aqueous environment. Improved surface conductivity should be explored using methods to produce a defect-free conductive surface. This could possibly be done using metal vapor deposition or other doping methods. It may also be possible to utilize conductive polymers to form a thick conductive layer. Heat resistant EAP would be desirable to allow operation at higher voltages without damaging the internal structure of the EAP due to the generation of heat in the EAP composite. Development of EAPs in different configurations (e.g., fibers and fiber bundles), would also be beneficial, in order to increase the range of possible modes of motion.

title: Electroactive polymer


text:
National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia

The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia, (Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia), abbreviated as Colombian Coffee Growers Federation or Fedecafé, is a non-profit business organization, popularly known for its "Juan Valdez" marketing campaign. The Federation was founded in 1927 as a business association that promotes production and exportation of Colombian coffee. It currently represents over 540,000 producers, most of whom are small family owned farms.

While many factors contributed to the impressive increase in production and revenue, the rise and success of the Colombian coffee industry reflects the Federation's rigid adherence to the three objectives which were originally offered to justify its creation: 1) to protect the industry, 2) to study its problems, and 3) to further its interests.

The Federation supports research and development in the production of coffee through grants to local universities and through Federation sponsored research institutes. The Federation also monitors production to ensure export quality standards are met.

The highly successful Juan Valdez branding concept was launched in 1960 to distinguish 100% Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries. The trademark character made its debut on a whole-page ad in the Sunday edition of The New York Times on January 6, 1960, featuring a country farmer (campesino) carrying coffee on his mule Conchita.

In November 2019, the Federation received the Distinguished Leadership Award for Social Equity from the Inter-American Dialogue. The award was presented by the vice president of Colombia, Marta Lucía Ramírez.

The arrival of coffee in Colombia
First cultivated in the Dutch East Indies, the species of Coffea arabica came to Americas around the year 1690. The Dutch sent the coffee seeds to their colonies in Surinam, and thereafter to the French Guiana and Brazil. The French, through other routes, took it to Guadeloupe and Martinique, their main two colonies in the Caribbean.

It seems that the Jesuits were the first to introduce seeds of coffee in the "Nueva Granada" (today Colombia) by the year 1723. The first experiments in growing coffee in Colombia are recorded in the 18th century. Although some coffee plantations were initiated during the first half of the 19th century, it was not until the second half of the Century that the coffee industry was consolidated as an economic generator of employment, wealth, and hard currencies.

Coffee seeds arrived late in Colombia, compared with other Latin American countries. According to historians, the first seeds came in through Cúcuta, coming from the Venezuelan Andes, and penetrated all across the Santander provinces. From there, its cultivation spread to Cundinamarca and other provinces.

Nobody knows for sure who brought the first coffee seeds into the country. Some historians give credit to the Jesuits monks, who had farming lands in the "Llanos Orientales", Valle del Cauca and other regions. Other historians point to father Romero, the parochial priest of Salazar de las Palmas, Norte de Santander. There are stories that narrate that father Romero would impose to his parishioners, in penance for their sins, to plant coffee seeds in their backyards.

The advancement of coffee in Colombia
It was during the 19th century that the transformation of the Colombian economy took place, going from a system of mules, tobacco and gold into a system based on coffee, railways and the banks, which created the favorable conditions for a robust economic growth. The initiative for the development, investment and expansion of coffee growing in Colombia came from a group of national dignitaries and pioneers, who devoted their personal talents and resources into a venture of slow turnaround and high risk. Especially Colombian magnate Mr. Carlos Pinzón, virtually the founder of Colombia's modern coffee export business. In many ways, Mr. Carlos Pinzon's coffee empire was the precursor of the present-day Coffee Grower's Federation, overlording consignments, tying up export orders, arranging insurance, and, in many cases, financing.

From 1870 on, large coffee plantations began to flourish, and this translated into a vigorous expansion of the nation's economy in international trade and commerce. The Colombian coffee industry began to operate as a powerful engine for the development of the nation's economy.

In 1879, the Colombian Congress passed the Coffee Act, known as the Law 29, by which the government would foment and sponsor the growing of coffee in the provinces better qualified for it, according to climate and terroir. As a result of this promotional effort, the production of coffee in Colombia grew enormously, which between 1880 and 1920 went from 107,000 to 2.4 million bags per year (60 kilograms per bag).

By 1920, small growers had done more to develop the industry than any other group. For many decades they planted, processed and sold their coffee virtually unnoticed by Colombia's government. On the other hand, the large growers began voicing their opinions and grievances against the Government through the Agricultural Society of Colombia (Sociedad de Agricultores de Colombia). By the start of the 20th century, there were about 750 coffee farms and plantations. Between 1910 and 1932, this number had increased to more than 150,000 farms and plantations, according to the Coffee Census of 1932.

History of the Coffee Federation
Given the positive advancement of coffee growing in Colombia, an important group of coffee growers, dedicated to the export of the beans, organized an association to regulate the market. Thus, in 1904, the coffee producers organization ("Sociedad de Productores de Café") was established. Although its good intentions, it failed to regulate the industry and the market. It was a difficult task, as the global conditions were complicated due to overproduction, price volatility and the events of World War I. The coffee industry in the nation was evolving and growers, merchants and exporters could not agree on policies and regulations to organize and consolidate it.

In the province of Antioquia, Epifánio Montoya Uribe, a tenacious and visionary coffee grower, promoted the creation of an association to look after the interest of the coffee growers. He created this organization under the name of Colombian coffee union ("Unión Cafetera Colombiana"). His ideas and association efforts were well received by the industry and took hold and, the institution prospered.

On August 25, 1920, the First National Congress of Coffee Growers to convene in Bogotá, promoted and sponsored by the Agricultural Society of Colombia ("Sociead e Agricultores de Colombia") (S.A.C.). This first congress was presided over by Epifánio Montoya. Other dignitaries that attended this event were General Ramón González Valencia (former Vice-President of the country), General Alfredo Vásquez Cobo (presidential candidate), Antonio Samper (president of S.A.C.), Tulio Ospina Vásquez, José de Jesús Salazar, Germán del Corral, Luis Montoya Santamaría, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson and Lucas Caballero. This congress laid the foundation for the successful organization and establishment of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia. Much was analyzed and discussed during this congress, mainly regarding transportation infrastructure, financial institutions, trade association and protection of the industry. The magnitude of the issues studied and the challenges addressed by the delegates were overwhelming. At the end, the congress adjourned without any major resolution adopted. Nevertheless, the delegates returned to their provinces with a fervent desire to create a national trade association capable to protect the industry and guide its members.

The response to the efforts and foundations laid by the First National Congress of Coffee Growers would take seven years to materialize. In June 1927, the "Agrarian Association of Antioquia", ("Sociead Antioqueña de Agricultores") (S.A.A.), decide to make a second effort to try to organize and confederate the nation's coffee growers. Thus, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Medellín in 1927. The main speaker was former President of Colombia Carlos Eugenio Restrepo, who gave the opening speech. Twenty nine delegates participated in this Congress and several dignitaries from the political and economic elite of the nation, and among them two of the sons of Tulio Ospina Vásquez, Rafael Ospina Pérez (president of the S.A.A.) who presided over this Congress and Mariano Ospina Pérez, future president of Colombia. Other participants were Daniel Uribe Botero (vice-president of the S.A.A.), Epifánio Montoya, Julio C. Gaitán (representing the government), Pedro Bernal Escobar and Joaquín Santamaría.

By the end of deliberations, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers had agreed to establish the "National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia" (Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia). The Federation was created as a trade association, private entity and non-profit organization.

Few months later that same year of 1927, the National Congress approved the Law 76, by which duties were imposed on all exports of the country and gave to the National Federation of Coffee Growers the authority to administer and manage all these revenue. Thus, the Federation and the national government signed a contract, on October 15, 1928, by which the government was obliged to transfer to the Federation all revenue generated by this tax. This revenue propelled and fortified the Federation and these resources were used to create the National Coffee Fund.

In 1928, the first regional committee was established as the Coffee Growers Committee of Antioquia (Comité de Cafeteros de Antioquia). Mariano Ospina Pérez was its first President, and the first registered member of the association.

The first Board of Directors of the newly organized Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia assembled in Bogotá, on August 3, 1929. Its first members were Mariano Ospina Vásquez, Alberto Camilo Suárez, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson, Carlos Caballero, Jesús del Corral and Mariano Ospina Pérez, for whom the organization of the national coffee industry was one of his most serious and ambitious concerns.

In December 1930, the Fourth National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Bogotá. Due to the knowledge and experience of the coffee industry, acquired by running his own coffee business, Mariano Ospina Pérez was summoned by the Minister of Industry, Francisco J. Chaux, and by President Enrique Olaya Herrera to preside over this congress. At the adjournment of this congress, Ospina Pérez was elected, by the unanimous vote of the delegates, as General Director of the Federation serving in this position for four years, until 1934.

In the election of members of the Board of Directors in 1954, Ospina Pérez was installed as President of the Board of Directors. His return to the Federation marked the reappearance of one of Colombia's most important coffee names in an active role in the industry. Under Ospina Pérez' aegis, the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia successfully consolidated the nation's coffee industry and promoted it in the world markets to great effect. Colombia became the largest producer of prime Coffea arabica coffee in the world. He laid a very solid corporative foundation, and today, the Colombian Coffee Federation congregates and supports over 500,000 independent coffee growers and small farmers.

The managers of the Coffee Federation
The general managers or directors of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia do not just function as business managers or administrators, given the fact that in furtherance of their normal business activities in running efficiently and effectively a private enterprise, they actively participate in the formulation and implementation of national policy for the coffee industry and they may substantially influence the macro-economic policy of the country. The general Managers have had a seat in the board of directors of the Banco de la República, in the Council of Economic and Social Policy (Consejo de Política Económica y Social) and in the Council of International Trade and Commerce. Furthermore, they direct and preside the diplomatic missions that represent the nation in international conferences and forums, which may influence foreign policy as well.

Three of the most influential "Gerentes" (general managers) of the 20th century have been Mariano Ospina Pérez, Manuel Mejía Jaramillo and Arturo Gómez Jaramillo. Ospina Pérez (1930–1934), consolidated the organizational structure of the raising institution, promoted the creation of the national network of "almacenes generals de deposito" and established the "Caja Agraria" (a credit and financial institution to aid the small farmers and coffee growers). Mejía Jaramillo (1937–1958), gave to the national coffee industry the international prestige that it now enjoys, was instrumental in the creation of the "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana" (the nation's ocean freighter company), the creation of the "Banco Cafetero", and the "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros". Arturo Gómez (1958–1982), was the leader of the international economic policy in the global markets and the "Convenios Internacionales del Café" (International Coffee Agreement). Arturo Gómez, during his 18 years tenure as "Gerente de la Federación", had a wonderful collaborator as second in command, Jorge Cárdenas Gutiérrez, as deputy General Manager. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was a lawyer with a master's degree in administration. Prior to working for the Federation he had been vice-president of Ecopetrol. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was appointed as "Gerente de la Federación" in 1983, and managed extreme situations form "crisis" to "bonanza". By 2001, he was considered as the most experienced coffee leader in the world".

The enterprises of the Coffee Federation
The Colombian Coffee Federation has created and promoted various enterprises to further support and provide adequate service to the coffee growers. The most significant of these enterprises are the "Flota Mercanmte Grancolombiana", the "Banco Cafetero" and the "Compañia Agricola de Seguros". Although some of these institutions have faced financial difficulties, and one has been sold, it is relevant to describe the nature of their services and performance.

Flota Mercante Grancolombiana
The "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana" (Colombian ocean freight merchant fleet) was created in 1946, with the purpose of establishing new routes and offering better rates for the exportation of Colombian coffee, and thus, to make this commodity more accessible and affordable in international markets. At that time, the shipping consortium "Grace Line" dominated the ocean forwarding lines and had very high freight rates.

During the time of the postwar, "la Flota" (the fleet) facilitated the sale and shipping of increasing quantities of coffee to the European and Asian markets. In addition to the substantial reduction in freight costs, "la Flota" contributed significant dividends to its major shareholder, the "Fondo Nacional del Café" (the national coffee fund).

The globalization of world economies and the interdependence of the ocean freight industry during the decade of the 90s, made shipping business more efficient and competitive. Major shipping companies sought strategic alliances and partners. In order to compete in the global market, "la Flota", in 1996-97, entered in partnership with the "Transportacion Marítima Mexicana", a Mexican company with ample experience in ocean shipping. The "Fondo Nacional del Café" acquired 40% of the new company, called "Transportacion Marítima Grancolombiana".

El Banco Cafetero
"El Banco Cafetero" (the bank of the coffee growers) was established in 1954 because "la Caja Agraria" (agricultural financial institution), also created by the Coffee Federation during the 1930s, was not providing adequate service to the coffee growers. This banking and financial institution was created with the purpose of facilitating and financing the production, harvesting, processing, transport and exporting of coffee and other agricultural products.

Eventually, the bank established over 300 branches throughout the country; its assets amounted to 10% of the nation's banking assets and handled over one million seven hundred thousand bank accounts. It became the third largest bank in Colombia, offering every financial services to all the industries and sectors of the national economy.

Compañia Agrícola de Seguros
The "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros" (agrarian insurance company) was created in 1952. The Coffee Federation decided to establish this insurance company because the premiums being charged to its members to insure and protect the warehousing and transportation of coffee, by commercial insurance companies were ever increasing.

The company eventually extended its services to cover production risk and liability, hedging, calamity, auto, life and health insurance to all of the members of the Coffee Federation, offering if lower premiums and higher benefits. The company suffered heavy losses during the earthquake that destroyed Armenia, as this was a highly concentrated area of coffee growers.

The National Coffee Fund
The national coffee fund ("Fondo Nacional del Café") (FNC) has served for several decades as the primary instrument of Colombian coffee policy formulation and implementation. The FNC has two main investment sub-funds, the stabilizer fund and the investment fund. The stabilizer fund manages resources for the internal and external administration of product, prices and commerce. The investment fund manages the resources for the investment in the Federation's enterprises and, for the lines of credit and production financing for coffee growers.

During the 20th century, Colombia became the number one producer and exporter of premium mild washed coffee in the world. This has been a very significant achievement, attained by the combined efforts of the private sector, the gremial organizations and the Federation's institutions. The successful model of Colombian coffee production and commerce is the outcome of a well balanced combination of efficient private enterprise and a well planned macroeconomic policy by the government. This economic model has become the organizational archetype for more than fifty coffee producing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

The 21st century has brought new challenges to the coffee industry, such as the volatility of international prices, the erosion of international agreements and the increased production by Brazil and Vietnam. In order to keep the edge, Colombia must increase its efficiency and productivity, by investing in new technologies, infrastructure, training and replanting. Here is where the Federation and the FNC play a decisive role.

The program for restructuring and modernizing the coffee industry in Colombia has estimated an investment of two billion dollars. These monetary funds need to be generated from domestic and international sources. The Colombian coffee institutions and the policy making entities are facing the new realities of globalization and monetary volatility and economic uncertainties. Technological advances are being made in electronic commerce, production engineering and quality control, in an effort to reduce production costs and increase productivity. The historical evidence demonstrates that the institutions, organizations and policy making instruments of the coffee industry in Colombia are very dynamic and shall continue to adapt to changing circumstances and perform with leadership, innovation and positive results.

Trademarks and patents of the Federation
The FNC owns several trademarks for its products. Its first trademark, "Juan Valdez", was registered with the USPTO back in 1960, and the word mark for "100% Colombian coffee" was registered in 1969. The letters and stylized form of the name "Juan Valdez" is internationally protected through the Madrid system, and registered in many countries including the European countries and United States. Other trademarks registered with the USPTO include, among others, Buendia, Variedad Castillo and Juan O’Clock. Many of these as well as other marks are registered in the European countries.

The FNC applied for a patent for an invention related to a protein from coffee berry borer (a small beetle) with the USPTO; a PCT application for the same invention has also been filed and FNC entered into the regional phase at the European Patent Office and national phase in Japan.


text:
1961 in rail transport

January events

 * January – The American Car and Foundry Company delivers the last passenger car it will build, an R28 (New York City Subway car).
 * January 4 – Lokomotivbau Elektrotechnische Werke delivers the first electric locomotives built in the German Democratic Republic to Deutsche Reichsbahn.
 * January 16 – Eastern Region of British Railways takes delivery of D9001, the first production "Deltic" class diesel locomotive.

February events

 * February 4 – Lehigh Valley Railroad discontinues its Black Diamond passenger train service.
 * February 6 – The first automatic level crossing on British Railways is installed at Spath, Staffordshire.

March events

 * March 27 – Black demonstrators stage a "ride-in" on Charleston, South Carolina, streetcars.
 * March 28 – Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line opens between Minami-senju and Naka-okachimachi. The first railway line in the world without any lineside signals.

April events

 * April – D5151, the first Sulzer Type 2 diesel locomotive, later British Rail Class 25, is completed at B.R. Darlington Works.
 * April 9 – The Long Beach Line, the last operating service of the former Pacific Electric Railway, is replaced by buses.
 * April 25 – Osaka Loop Line, circular line system start operation in Japan.

May events

 * May 24 – The Milwaukee Road's Olympian Hiawatha passenger train makes its final run between Chicago, Illinois, and Seattle, Washington.
 * May 28 – The Orient Express makes its last run between Paris, France, and Bucharest, Romania.

June events

 * June – The last of the Bradshaw railway timetables, first published by George Bradshaw in 1839, is published in Britain.
 * June 1 – Dr Richard Beeching takes office as chairman of the British Transport Commission and British Railways Board.
 * June 17 – A Paris–Strasbourg train derails near Vitry-le-François; 24 are killed, 109 injured.

August events

 * August 31 – Portland, Maine's Union Station is demolished to make room for a shopping plaza.

September events

 * September 23 – Maritime, Coal Railway and Power Company, in Nova Scotia, ceases operations.
 * September 30 – Southern Pacific Railroad closes the Centerville (SP station).

October events

 * October 18 – General Motors Electro-Motive Division completes construction of the first GP30 diesel locomotive.
 * October 26 – Two cars of a commuter train operated by Oita Traffic Company are involved in a mudslide during a massive rainstorm at Ōita, eastern Kyūshū, Japan, 31 killed, 36 injured. Most of the passengers are senior high school students.
 * October 28 – Bangor and Aroostook Railroad ends passenger service.
 * October – Work starts on demolition of Euston Arch in London.

November events

 * November 20 – Union Pacific 844 makes its first excursion run following retirement from regular revenue service on the Union Pacific Railroad.

Unknown date events

 * Atlantic Coast Line's headquarters are moved from Wilmington, North Carolina, to Jacksonville, Florida.
 * Construction is completed on Mexico's Chihuahua al Pacífico which linked the city of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, to the town of Los Mochis, Sinaloa, near the Pacific coast.
 * Nationalization of rail transport in Paraguay.
 * The first eight DC powered VL10 (i.e. Vladimir Lenin class) freight locomotives built at Tbilisi.
 * The introduction in Sweden of the first SJ T43 locomotives opens the way for the phasing out of steam power on Swedish railways.
 * The world's last Mallet locomotive is built in Japan, BB84 for the Indonesian State Railway Corporation's gauge Atjeh Tramway on Sumatra.

title: 1961 in rail transport


text:
Rhydyfelin

Rhydyfelin is a large village (originally known as Rhydfelen) and part of the community of Pontypridd Town, about two miles to its south east of Pontypridd, in the county borough of Rhondda Cynon Taf. It is on the eastern bank of the River Taff close to the A470, and historically was in the parish of Eglwysilan.

History
Rhydyfelin is also known as Rhydfelen, and means Mill ford in the Welsh language. It grew from a rural hamlet to a thriving village in the 19th century, due to its location on the Glamorganshire Canal which took iron from Merthyr Tydfil to the city of Cardiff, and linking to this Dr Richard Griffiths' canal and tramway which took coal from the Rhondda Valleys. Also of note was the nearby Iron and Tin works at Treforest. Other minor works included an ironworks on the site of the tram shed buildings.

Neighbouring villages are Hawthorn, Treforest and Glyntaff. The village is split into two electoral wards: the lower, largely historic part of the village is in Hawthorn Ward along with the settlement of Upper Boat, which comprises some of the nearby Treforest Estate, while the largely social housing of the estates of upper Rhydyfelin are in the ward of Rhydyfelen Central and Ilan.

The original name was Rhydfelen, and the version "Rhydyfelin" is believed to be a corruption.

Rhydyfelin was once served by two railway stations: one on the Cardiff Railway, and one on the Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway. After the Grouping, the former Cardiff Railway halt became Rhydyfelin Low Level Halt and the halt of the Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway became Rhydyfelin High Level Halt. The halts closed in 1931 and 1953 respectively.

The Church of St Luke is in the Church in Wales Parish of Rhydyfelin, Diocese of Llandaff.

Population
The populations of the Central Rhydyfelin ward and Hawthorn wards, which together serve Rhydyfelin, were 4,672 and 3,652 respectively (8,324 in total) in the 2001 Census (the 2009 electorates were 3,084 and 2,781, respectively) out of the total 33,000 residents for Pontypridd as a whole.

Governance
Rhydfelen was the name of the electoral ward to Mid Glamorgan County Council between 1989 and 1996. Until 1996 Rhydfelen Central and Rhydfelen Lower were wards to Taff-Ely Borough Council.

It is now split between the electoral wards of Hawthorn and of central Rhydfelen, with the more prosperous and historic lower Rhydyfelin falling within the Hawthorn ward to the south.

Notable residents
Rhydyfelin was home to guitarist Lee Gaze of the band LostProphets.

Places of interest
The village is on the 55 mile Taff Trail from Brecon to Cardiff Bay. The view from lower Rhydyfelin of Eglwysilan mountain shows the locally known 'Monkeys Tump'.

Education
The first Welsh language secondary school in South Wales, Ysgol Gyfun Rhydfelen, was established at Rhydyfelin in 1962. It closed in 2006 when it was relocated to Church Village and renamed Garth Olwg.

Schools in Rhydyfelin include Cardinal Newman RC School (Roman Catholic), Hawthorn High School (English medium), Heol-Y-Celyn Primary School (Welsh and English medium). It is the former home of Coleg Morgannwg (English medium further education college) and Glantâf infants school (English medium).

title: Rhydyfelin


text: User talk:216.125.163.56

title: User talk:216.125.163.56


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Paul Menchini

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy delete. -- AllyUnion (talk) 14:24, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Paul Menchini
Vanity. Nateji77 14:58, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Abuse is more the word I'd use. Average Earthman 16:21, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy deleted, CSD case #3 pure vandalism. Entire content was Paul Menchini is an engineer with over 30 years of experience doing absolutly nothing. Paul Menchini enjoys such activities as looking at half-naked pictures of usher, eating hamburgers and hotdogs, and eating whelks. Paul Menchini's favorite show is Barney. Paul Menchini weights over 300 pounds and intends someday to go for the world record of world's fattest man. Contributor is an IP whose only other contribution has been to vandalise and then restore the whelk article. Andrewa 18:58, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.