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Eighth Cambridge Survey

The 8C Survey (8C) or Rees 38 MHz survey is an astronomical catalogue of celestial radio sources as measured at 38 MHz. It was published in 1990 by the Radio Astronomy Group of the University of Cambridge. Sources are labelled 8C HHMM+DDd where HHMM is the Right Ascension in hours and minutes, and DDd is the Declination in degrees and tenths of a degree, e.g. 8C 0014+861 for a source at Right Ascension 00 14 and 86.1 degrees Declination in 1950 coordinates.

title: Eighth Cambridge Survey


text: User talk:210.49.35.106

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:210.49.35.106


text:
Pat Nolan

Patrick James Nolan (born June 16, 1950) is an American lawyer, politician and conservative activist.

Political career
In 1978, Nolan was elected to the California State Assembly, serving the 41st district comprising Glendale, Burbank, Toluca Lake and Sunland-Tujunga. He also served the 43rd district. from 1992 to 1994.

In 1984, he was elected Assembly Republican Leader, and began an aggressive campaign to elect a Republican majority in the Assembly.

Conviction
Nolan was part of an FBI sting operation called Shrimpscam which targeted officials who accepted illegal campaign contributions. He was charged with seven counts of corruption. He entered into a plea deal and admitted to one count of racketeering in 1993. As a now convicted felon, Nolan resigned his seat and was sentenced to thirty three months in prison. He served 25 months in a federal prison and four months in a halfway house.

His experiences in prison changed his outlook and the course of his life.

Corrections work
After his release, he was recruited by Chuck Colson's Prison Fellowship Ministries to be President of Justice Fellowship, the Prison Fellowship affiliate that works to reform the criminal justice system. During Nolan's time at Prison Fellowship, they have formed broad bi-partisan coalitions with civil rights and religious organizations to support important issues in Congress. They successfully protected religious freedom for prisoners in the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, and the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act. A similar coalition successfully pressed for the passage of the Prison Rape Elimination Act. Nolan was later appointed to serve on the National Prison Rape Elimination Commission, a bipartisan panel aimed at curbing prison rape. Nolan also served on the Commission on Safety and Abuse in America's Prisons.

Prison Fellowship was a major force in another left-right coalition that developed legislation to focus prisons on preparing inmates to successfully return to their communities. Called the Second Chance Act, the bill had strong bi-partisan support and passed both houses overwhelmingly.

Nolan authored "When Prisoners Return" a guide for churches and community groups on ways they can help prisoners as they make the difficult transition from prison to their home community.

His racketeering conviction was pardoned by Donald Trump on May 15, 2019.

Personal life
Nolan's family includes his wife, Gail, and three children, Courtney, Katie and Jamie. They live in Leesburg, Virginia.

title: Pat Nolan


text:
Outside the Lines

Outside the Lines is an American sports news and analysis program that was broadcast by ESPN from 1990 to 2022. The series featured segments with discussions and investigative journalism surrounding prominent headlines and topics within sports.

The series had aired on ESPN in some form since 1990, initially as a monthly newsmagazine hosted by Bob Ley, and later expanding into a weekly Sunday-morning program. In 2003, Outside the Lines added a weekday edition as part of ESPN's lineup of studio programs. In 2017, both The Sports Reporters and the Sunday edition of Outside the Lines were cancelled and replaced by a weekly edition of E:60 hosted by Ley and Jeremy Schaap, which would be produced by the OTL staff.

After Ley's retirement in June 2019, ESPN announced in October 2019 that the weekday edition of Outside the Lines would be cancelled and replaced by a new weekly edition on Saturday mornings outside the football season, hosted by Schaap. In February 2023, the weekly program was cancelled. The show's staff will continue to produce feature segments under the Outside the Lines branding for SportsCenter and ESPN.com.

History
The show premiered in 1990 as a monthly one-hour program with Bob Ley as host. After a noticeable increase in ratings, ESPN decided to expand the program for thirty minutes to their Sunday morning lineup at 9:30 am ET, where the show covered one or two of the more notable sporting news stories of the week.

After the ratings continued to grow, on May 12, 2003, ESPN premiered Outside the Lines Nightly. The Sunday morning program was still seen at 9:30 am ET, along with the nightly show that was seen during The Trifecta at midnight and noon on ESPN. On June 12, 2006, ESPN announced that Outside the Lines Nightly would be known as Outside the Lines First Report and moved to 3:30 pm ET as part of the afternoon lineup on ESPN, and eventually moved to 3:00 pm ET. Following the addition of NFL Insiders to ESPN's schedule on August 5, 2013, the weekday OTL program (which by this point carried the same name as the Sunday series) began to be moved to air in the late afternoons on ESPN2 during the football season; it returns to the 3 p.m. ET slot on ESPN after the Super Bowl and would air there until the start of training camp in August, with occasional moves to ESPNEWS depending on sporting events scheduled for ESPN2. On September 8, 2014, it began to be preceded on ESPN2 by Olbermann, with Keith Olbermann and Ley having a cross-talk segment with each other leading out of Olbermann and into OTL; OTL moved back to its regular 3 p.m. ESPN berth at the start of February 2015.

The program, both in the weekday and Sunday form, usually ran commercial-free from the top of the hour to 22 minutes past the hour, with the program's commercial load taking up most of the last eight minutes and ending with a note of video and audio on-demand options and promotions for primetime programming, along with Twitter and Facebook responses to that day's listed discussion hashtag.

The final Sunday morning edition of Outside the Lines aired on May 7, 2017. It was replaced in the same 9:00 a.m. ET time slot with a new hour-long weekly edition of E:60 the following Sunday (May 14, 2017), which features contributions from the OTL staff. Bob Ley and Jeremy Schaap (son of the late Dick Schaap, the original host of The Sports Reporters, which ended its 29-year run that year on May 7) would become the co-hosts of the new Sunday edition of E:60.

On June 26, 2019, Bob Ley announced his retirement from ESPN after a 40-year tenure.

On October 22, 2019, ESPN canceled the weekday edition of Outside the Lines, its final airing being December 20, 2019. The series reverted to being a weekly, Saturday-morning broadcast beginning in January 2020. In addition, it was stated that the show would contribute content for ESPN.com and segments during SportsCenter. The weekly show would air during the college and NFL football offseason, running from February (following the Super Bowl) through August. In February 2023, it was reported that the weekly show had been cancelled, with Outside the Lines continuing to be used as a content brand on ESPN's digital platforms and SportsCenter.

Format
All of the different versions of the show, whether OTL Sunday, OTL Nightly or OTL First Report, share the same basic format. Like the program's title, the show looks "outside the lines" at some of the most controversial and even inspirational stories in the sports world today. The program also often interviews story makers, such as members of Pat Tillman's platoon after he was killed in Afghanistan. The program also is joined by former players and sports writers to get all different opinions of the subject at hand.

Segments
Listed below are the numerous segments that appear throughout ''Outside the Lines'; note that for certain stories or sports news topics of heavy interest, the format is dropped and consists only of "At This Hour" followed by a debate segment with guests. They include:
 * Big Story: This segment appears at the beginning of the program when the host goes over the hottest stories from around the sports world.
 * The B Block: This segment usually entails a deep dive into a topic that may have flown under the radar. B Block stories range from inspirational, to lighthearted to troubling from across the entire sports spectrum.
 * The Bob Ley Take or Not BLT: At the end of the show, the host shares their commentary on a topic ranging from serious (like Baylor University's handling of sexual assault) to whimsical (the Philadelphia Flyers introduction of a new mascot, Gritty).

Stories covered
Over the years, Outside the Lines has covered several Sports Emmy Award winning pieces such as Finding Bobby Fischer, Ben Comen, and Rainbow Man. It also covered the NFL's concussion crisis in the Peabody Award winning piece NFL at a Crossroads: Investigating a Health Crisis.

Some of the other memorable pieces the show has covered include: Two Man Band (about Patrick Hughes, a blind member of the University of Louisville band and his dad), The Jason McElwain Story (about the autistic high school basketball manager who came into a game and scored 20 points), Athletes Carrying Guns (about whether it is appropriate for athletes to carry guns), Katrina's Impact on New Orleans (prior to the Saints' first game back in New Orleans) and Steroids impact on the Little Leagues (and how much they affect them). It also heavily covered the USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal, including extended coverage of the victim impact statements against Larry Nassar in Ingham County, Michigan Circuit Court, and the effects it had on Michigan State University and other intervening stories around the school.

The program has also featured exclusive interviews with newsmakers such as: President George W. Bush, Senators John McCain, Amy Klobuchar, Heidi Heitkamp, Pete Rose, Phil Jackson (after leaving the Lakers the first time) and the Army Rangers of Pat Tillman's platoon about what really happened. More recently, former NBA player John Amaechi appeared on the February 11, 2007 edition to publicly come out as gay, and the May 11, 2008 edition reported that former USC basketball star O. J. Mayo had allegedly received thousands of dollars in cash and merchandise from a runner for a sports agent dating back to his high school career.

title: Outside the Lines


text: Category:History of Kyiv city

title: Category:History of Kyiv city


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Cologne (disambiguation)

Cologne (German: Köln) is a city in Germany.

Cologne may also refer to:

France

 * Cologne, Gers, a commune in the Département of Gers

Germany

 * Cologne (region), a governmental district of North Rhine-Westphalia
 * Electorate of Cologne, a state and electorate until 1803
 * Free Imperial City of Cologne, within the Holy Roman Empire 1475–1796

Italy

 * Cologne, Lombardy, a commune in the Province of Brescia

United States

 * Cologne, Minnesota, a city
 * Cologne, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
 * Cologne, Virginia, an unincorporated community

Arts and entertainment

 * Cologne (Ranma ½), a character in the Japanese Ranma ½ manga series
 * Cologne: From the Diary of Ray and Esther, a 1939 American short documentary film
 * "Cologne", a 2008 song by Ben Folds from Way to Normal
 * "Cologne", a 2015 song by Selena Gomez from Revival

Other uses

 * Cologne (perfume) or Eau de Cologne, a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany, also generically a type of perfume
 * Perfume, as a generic term

 * Cologne (pigeon), a World War II RAF messenger pigeon
 * Cologne phonetics, a phonetic algorithm
 * Ford Cologne V6 engine, an automobile engine built in Germany by the Ford Motor Company
 * .cologne, a geographic top-level domain for Cologne, Germany in the Domain Name System of the Internet

title: Cologne (disambiguation)


text: User talk:69.31.132.79

title: User talk:69.31.132.79


text:
Low-Frequency Array

The Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) is a large radio telescope, with an antenna network located mainly in the Netherlands, and spreading across 7 other European countries as of 2019. Originally designed and built by ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, it was first opened by Queen Beatrix of The Netherlands in 2010, and has since been operated on behalf of the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) partnership by ASTRON.

LOFAR consists of a vast array of omnidirectional radio antennas using a modern concept, in which the signals from the separate antennas are not connected directly electrically to act as a single large antenna, as they are in most array antennas. Instead, the LOFAR dipole antennas (of two types) are distributed in stations, within which the antenna signals can be partly combined in analogue electronics, then digitised, then combined again across the full station. This step-wise approach provides great flexibility in setting and rapidly changing the directional sensitivity on the sky of an antenna station. The data from all stations are then transported over fiber to a central digital processor, and combined in software to emulate a conventional radio telescope dish with a resolving power corresponding to the greatest distance between the antenna stations across Europe. LOFAR is thus an interferometric array, using about 20,000 small antennas concentrated in 52 stations since 2019. 38 of these stations are distributed across the Netherlands, built with regional and national funding. The six stations in Germany, three in Poland, and one each in France, Great Britain, Ireland, Latvia, and Sweden, with various national, regional, and local funding and ownership. Italy officially joined the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) in 2018; construction at the INAF observatory site in Medicina, near Bologna, is planned as soon as upgraded (so-called LOFAR2.0) hardware becomes available. Further stations in other European countries are in various stages of planning. The total effective collecting area is approximately 300,000 square meters, depending on frequency and antenna configuration. Until 2014, data processing was performed by a Blue Gene/P supercomputer situated in the Netherlands at the University of Groningen. Since 2014 LOFAR uses a GPU-based correlator and beamformer, COBALT, for that task. LOFAR is also a technology and science pathfinder for the Square Kilometre Array.

Technical information
LOFAR was conceived as an innovative effort to force a breakthrough in sensitivity for astronomical observations at radio-frequencies below 250 MHz. Astronomical radio interferometers usually consist either of arrays of parabolic dishes (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope or the Very Large Array), arrays of one-dimensional antennas (e.g. the Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope) or two-dimensional arrays of omnidirectional antennas (e.g. Antony Hewish's Interplanetary Scintillation Array).

LOFAR combines aspects of many of these earlier telescopes; in particular, it uses omnidirectional dipole antennas as elements of a phased array at individual stations, and combines those phased arrays using the aperture synthesis technique developed in the 1950s. Like the earlier Cambridge Low Frequency Synthesis Telescope (CLFST) low-frequency radio telescope, the design of LOFAR has concentrated on the use of large numbers of relatively cheap antennas without any moving parts, concentrated in stations, with the mapping performed using aperture synthesis software. The direction of observation ("beam") of the stations is chosen electronically by phase delays between the antennas. LOFAR can observe in several directions simultaneously, as long as the aggregated data rate remains under its cap. This in principle allows a multi-user operation.

LOFAR makes observations in the 10 MHz to 240 MHz frequency range with two types of antennas: Low Band Antenna (LBA) and High Band Antenna (HBA), optimized for 10–80 MHz and 120–240 MHz respectively. The electric signals from the LOFAR stations are digitised, transported to a central digital processor, and combined in software in order to map the sky. Therefore, LOFAR is a "software telescope". The cost of such telescopes is dominated by the cost of electronics and will therefore mostly follow Moore's law, becoming cheaper with time and allowing increasingly large telescopes to be built. Each antenna is fairly simple- but there are about 20,000 of them in the LOFAR array.

LOFAR stations
To make radio surveys of the sky with adequate resolution, the antennas are arranged in clusters that are spread out over an area of more than 1000 km in diameter. The LOFAR stations in the Netherlands reach baselines of about 100 km. LOFAR currently receives data from 24 core stations (in Exloo), 14 'remote' stations in The Netherlands, and 14 international stations. Each of the core and remote stations has 48 HBAs and 96 LBAs and a total of 48 digital Receiver Units (RCUs). International stations have 96 LBAs and 96 HBAs and a total of 96 digital Receiver Units (RCUs).

The locations of the international LOFAR stations are:
 * Germany
 * Effelsberg – run by Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, at the site of the Effelsberg Radio Telescope
 * Unterweilenbach/Garching – run by Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics
 * Tautenburg – at the site of the Thüringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg (Thuringian State Observatory)
 * Potsdam-Bornim – run by Astrophysikalisches Institut Potsdam
 * Jülich – run by the University of Bochum, Jacobs University Bremen, and Forschungszentrum Jülich
 * Norderstedt – run by Hamburger Sternwarte and Universität Bielefeld
 * United Kingdom
 * Chilbolton – at the site of the Chilbolton Observatory
 * France
 * Nançay – at the site of the Nançay Radio Telescope
 * Sweden
 * Onsala – at the site Onsala Space Observatory
 * Poland
 * Bałdy – run by the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
 * Borówiec – run by the Space Research Centre of Polish Academy of Sciences
 * Łazy – run by Jagiellonian University
 * Ireland
 * Birr – run by Trinity College Dublin at the Rosse Observatory on the grounds of Birr Castle
 * Latvia
 * Ventspils – at the site of Ventspils International Radio Astronomy Centre in Irbene
 * Italy – planned at the site of the Medicina Observatory
 * Bulgaria – planned at the site of the National Astronomical Observatory Rozhen

NenuFAR
The NenuFAR telescope is co-located at the Nançay radio telescope. It is an extension of the Nançay LOFAR station (FR606), adding 96 low frequency tiles, each consisting of a "mini-array" of 19 crossed-dipole antennas, distributed in a circle with a diameter of approximately 400 m. The tiles are a hexagonal cluster with analogically phased antennas. The telescope can capture radio frequencies in the 10–85 MHz range, covering the LOFAR-Low Band (30–80 MHz) range as well. The NenuFAR array can work as a high-sensitivity LOFAR-compatible super-LBA station (LSS), operating together with rest of LOFAR to increase to array's global sensitivity by nearly a factor of two, and improve the array's imaging capabilities. It can also function as a second supercore to improve array availability. Due to its dedicated receiver, NenuFAR can also operate as a standalone instrument, known as NenuFAR/Standalone in this mode.

Other stations
Additionally, a set of LOFAR antennas is deployed at the KAIRA (Kilpisjärvi Atmospheric Imaging Receiver Array) near Kilpisjärvi, Finland. This installation functions as a VHF receiver either in stand-alone mode or part of a bistatic radar system together with EISCAT transmitter in Tromsø.

Data transfer
Data transport requirements are in the range of several gigabits per second per station and the processing power needed is several tens of TeraFLOPS. The data from LOFAR is stored in the LOFAR long-term archive. The archive is implemented as distributed storage, with data spread over the Target data centre located in the Donald Smits Center for Information Technology at the University of Groningen, centre in Amsterdam, and the Forschungszentrum Jülich in Germany.

Sensitivity
The mission of LOFAR is to map the Universe at radio frequencies from ~10–240 MHz with greater resolution and greater sensitivity than previous surveys, such as the 7C and 8C surveys, and surveys by the Very Large Array (VLA) and Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope (GMRT).

LOFAR will be the most sensitive radio observatory at its low observing frequencies until the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) comes online in the late 2020s. Even then, the SKA will only observe at frequencies >50 MHz and LOFAR's angular resolution will remain far superior.

Science case

The sensitivities and spatial resolutions attainable with LOFAR make possible several fundamental new studies of the Universe as well as facilitating unique practical investigations of the Earth's environment. In the following list the term $z$ is a dimensionless quantity indicating the redshift of the radio sources seen by LOFAR.
 * In the very distant Universe ($6 < z < 10$), LOFAR can search for the signature produced by the reionization of neutral hydrogen. This crucial phase change is predicted to occur at the epoch of the formation of the first stars and galaxies, marking the end of the so-called "dark ages". The redshift at which reionization is thought to occur will shift the 21 cm line of neutral hydrogen at 1420.40575 MHz into the LOFAR observing window. The frequency observed today is lower by a factor of 1/(z+1).
 * In the distant "formative" Universe ($1.5 < z < 7$), LOFAR is capable of detecting the most distant massive galaxies and will study the processes by which the earliest structures in the Universe (galaxies, clusters and active nuclei) form and probe the intergalactic gas.
 * In the magnetic Universe, LOFAR is mapping the distribution of cosmic rays and global magnetic fields in our own and nearby galaxies, in galaxy clusters and in the intergalactic medium.
 * The high-energy Universe, LOFAR detects the ultra high energy cosmic rays as they pierce the Earth's atmosphere. A dedicated test station for this purpose, LOPES, has been in operation since 2003.
 * Within the Milky Way galaxy, LOFAR has detected many new pulsars within a few kpc from the Sun, has searched for short-lived transient events produced by stellar mergers or black hole accretion, and will search for bursts from Jupiter-like extrasolar planets.
 * Within the Solar System, LOFAR detects coronal mass ejections from the Sun and provide continuous large-scale maps of the solar wind. This crucial information about solar weather and its effect on Earth facilitates predictions of costly and damaging geomagnetic storms.
 * Within the Earth's immediate environment, LOFAR will map irregularities in the ionosphere continuously, detect the ionizing effects of distant gamma-ray bursts and the flashes predicted to arise from the highest energy cosmic rays, the origins of which are unclear.
 * By exploring a new spectral window LOFAR is likely to make serendipitous discoveries. Detection of new classes of objects or new astrophysical phenomena have resulted from almost all previous facilities that open new regions of the spectrum, or pushed instrumental parameters, such as sensitivity by more than an order of magnitude.

The epoch of reionization
One of the most exciting, but technically most challenging, applications of LOFAR will be the search for redshifted 21 cm line emission from the Epoch of Reionization (EoR). It is thought that the 'Dark Ages', the period after recombination when the Universe turned neutral, lasted until around z=20. WMAP polarization results appear to suggest that there may have been extended, or even multiple phases of reionisation, the start possibly being around z~15–20 and ending at z~6. Using LOFAR, the redshift range from z=11.4 (115 MHz) to z=6 (200 MHz) can be probed. The expected signal is small, and disentangling it from the much stronger foreground emission is challenging.

Deep extragalactic surveys
One of the most important applications of LOFAR will be to carry out large-sky surveys. Such surveys are well suited to the characteristics of LOFAR and have been designated as one of the key projects that have driven LOFAR since its inception. Such deep LOFAR surveys of the accessible sky at several frequencies will provide unique catalogues of radio sources for investigating several fundamental areas of astrophysics, including the formation of massive black holes, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Because the LOFAR surveys will probe an unexplored parameter of the Universe, it is likely that they will discover new phenomena. In February 2021, astronomers released, for the first time, a very high-resolution image of 25,000 active supermassive black holes, covering four percent of the Northern celestial hemisphere, based on ultra-low radio wavelengths, as detected by LOFAR.

Transient radio phenomena and pulsars
The combination of low frequencies, omnidirectional antennae, high-speed data transport and computing means that LOFAR will open a new era in the monitoring of the radio sky. It will be possible to make sensitive radio maps of the entire sky visible from The Netherlands (about 60% of the entire sky) in only one night. Transient radio phenomena, only hinted at by previous narrow-field surveys, will be discovered, rapidly localised with unprecedented accuracy, and automatically compared to data from other facilities (e.g. gamma-ray, optical, and X-ray observatories). Such transient phenomena may be associated with exploding stars, black holes, flares on Sun-like stars, radio bursts from exoplanets or even SETI signals. In addition, this key science project will make a deep survey for radio pulsars at low radio frequencies, and will attempt to detect giant radio bursts from rotating neutron stars in distant galaxies.

Ultra high-energy cosmic rays
LOFAR offers a unique possibility in particle physics for studying the origin of high-energy and ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (HECRs and UHECRs) at energies between – eV. Both the sites and processes for accelerating particles are unknown. Possible candidate sources of these HECRs are shocks in radio lobes of powerful radio galaxies, intergalactic shocks created during the epoch of galaxy formation, so-called Hyper-novae, gamma-ray bursts, or decay products of super-massive particles from topological defects, left over from phase transitions in the early Universe. The primary observable is the intense radio pulse that is produced when a primary CR hits the atmosphere and produces an extensive air shower (EAS). An EAS is aligned along the direction of motion of the primary particle, and a substantial part of its component consists of electron-positron pairs which emit radio emission in the terrestrial magnetosphere (e.g., geo-synchrotron emission).

Cosmic magnetism
LOFAR opens the window to the so far unexplored low-energy synchrotron radio waves, emitted by cosmic-ray electrons in weak magnetic fields. Very little is known about the origin and evolution of cosmic magnetic fields. The space around galaxies and between galaxies may all be magnetic, and LOFAR may be the first to detect weak radio emission from such regions. LOFAR will also measure the Faraday effect, which is the rotation of polarization plane of low-frequency radio waves, and gives another tool to detect weak magnetic fields.

Solar physics and space weather
The Sun is an intense radio source. The already strong thermal radiation of the K hot solar corona is superimposed by intense radio bursts that are associated with phenomena of the solar activity, like flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Solar radio radiation in the LOFAR frequency range is emitted in the middle and upper corona. So LOFAR is an ideal instrument for studies of the launch of CMEs heading towards interplanetary space. LOFAR's imaging capabilities will yield information on whether such a CMEs might hit the Earth. This makes LOFAR is a valuable instrument for space weather studies.

Solar observations with LOFAR will include routine monitoring of the solar activity as the root of space weather. Furthermore, LOFAR's flexibility enables rapid responses to solar radio bursts with follow-up observations. Solar flares produce energetic electrons that not only lead to the emission of non-thermal solar radio radiation. The electrons also emit X-rays and heat the ambient plasma. So joint observation campaigns with other ground- and space-based instruments, e.g. RHESSI, Hinode, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), and eventually the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope and the Solar Orbiter provide insights into this fundamental astrophysical process.

Timeline
In the early 1990s, the study of aperture array technology for radio astronomy was being actively studied by ASTRON – the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy. At the same time, scientific interest in a low-frequency radio telescope began to emerge at ASTRON and at the Dutch Universities. A feasibility study was carried out and international partners sought during 1999. In 2000 the Netherlands LOFAR Steering Committee was set up by the ASTRON Board with representatives from all interested Dutch university departments and ASTRON.

In November 2003 the Dutch Government allocated 52 million euro to fund the infrastructure of LOFAR under the Bsik programme. In accordance with Bsik guidelines, LOFAR was funded as a multidisciplinary sensor array to facilitate research in geophysics, computer sciences and agriculture as well as astronomy.

In December 2003 LOFAR's Initial Test Station (ITS) became operational. The ITS system consists of 60 inverse V-shaped dipoles; each dipole is connected to a low-noise amplifier (LNA), which provides enough amplification of the incoming signals to transport them over a 110 m long coaxial cable to the receiver unit (RCU).

On April 26, 2005, an IBM Blue Gene/L supercomputer was installed at the University of Groningen's math centre, for LOFAR's data processing. At that time it was the second most powerful supercomputer in Europe, after the MareNostrum in Barcelona. Since 2014 an even more powerful computing cluster (correlator) called COBALT performs the correlation of signals from all individual stations.

In August/September 2006 the first LOFAR station (Core Station CS001, aka. CS1 52.90889°N, 6.86889°W) was put in the field using pre-production hardware. A total of 96 dual-dipole antennas (the equivalent of a full LOFAR station) are grouped in four clusters, the central cluster with 48 dipoles and other three clusters with 16 dipoles each. Each cluster is about 100 m in size. The clusters are distributed over an area of ~500 m in diameter.

In November 2007 the first international LOFAR station (DE601) next to the Effelsberg 100 m radio telescope became the first operational station. The first fully complete station, (CS302) on the edge of the LOFAR core, was delivered in May 2009, with a total of 40 Dutch stations scheduled for completion in 2013. By 2014, 38 stations in the Netherlands, five stations in Germany (Effelsberg, Tautenburg, Unterweilenbach, Bornim/Potsdam, and Jülich), and one each in the UK (Chilbolton), in France (Nançay) and in Sweden (Onsala) were operational.

LOFAR was officially opened on 12 June 2010 by Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Regular observations started in December 2012.

title: Low-Frequency Array


text:
List of text editors

The following is a list of notable text editors.

Graphical and text user interface
The following editors can either be used with a graphical user interface or a text user interface.

vi clones
Sources:

ASCII and ANSI art
Editors that are specifically designed for the creation of ASCII and ANSI text art.
 * ACiDDraw – designed for editing ASCII text art. Supports ANSI color (ANSI X3.64)
 * TheDraw – ANSI/ASCII text editor for DOS and PCBoard file format support

ASCII font editors

 * FIGlet – for creating ASCII art text
 * TheDraw – DOS ANSI/ASCII text editor with built-in editor and manager of ASCII fonts

Visual and full-screen editors
• Brief – a programmer's editor for DOS and OS/2

• Edit application – a programmer's editor for Classic Mac OS

• EDIT – a menu-based editor introduced to supersede EDLIN in MS-DOS version 5.0 and up and available in most Microsoft Windows

• EDT – a character-based editor used on DEC PDP-11s and VMS

• O26 – written for the operator console of the CDC 6000 series machines in the mid-1960s

• Red – a VMS editor, written in Forth variant STOIC

• se – an early screen-based editor for Unix

• SED – cross-platform editor from the 1980s, ran on TOPS-10, TOPS-20 and VMS

• STET (the 'STructured Editing Tool') – may have been the first folding editor; its first version was written in 1977

• TeachText

• TECO – a character-based editor, which included a programming language.

Line editors
• Colossal Typewriter – an early editor thought to be written for the PDP-1

• ed:

• *Unix's early line editor

• *CP/M's line editor

• EDLIN – a line editor delivered with MS-DOS

• EDT (Univac) – a line editor for Unisys VS/9 and Fujitsu BS2000 systems

• ex – an EXtended version of Unix's ed, later evolved into the visual editor vi

• fred – sed-like line editor used on the CDC 7600 at Los Alamos

• GEDIT (aka George 3 EDITor) – a TECO-like editor including a programming language for the GEC 4000 series computers. GEDIT was originally written by David Toll of Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, and then adopted by GEC Computers for OS4000.

• sed – a non-interactive programmable stream editor available in Unix

• TECO – one of the most advanced character-based editors, which included a programming language

• TEDIT – GEC 4000 series editor based on the Cambridge Titan EDIT

• QED

title: List of text editors


text:
Talk:History of French Guiana

Untitled

 * After the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001, the French Guianese government closed all unsupervised roads in an attempt to prevent anthrax from passing across the border.

Any reference for this? I don't see any other site but WP mentioning this, including no site in French. Furthermore, what is the French Guianese government? The prefect? David.Monniaux 11:14, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * "After the fall of France to Nazis in World War II the local government declared its allegiance to the Vichy government, despite widespread support for Charles de Gaulle. This government was later removed by the Allies in August 1944."

"removed" how? Invaded/by force? Or did they just see which way the wind was blowing and agree to leave quietly? BillMasen (talk) 23:16, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

Blacklisted Links Found on the Main Page
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I have a question, what was the first presidnt in french Guiana
thank you for this info. 98.48.163.211 (talk) 20:30, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of French Guiana


text:
Ansan (disambiguation)

Ansan is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea.

Ansan may also refer to:

Places

 * Ansan (Gangwon), a mountain in Gangwon Province, South Korea
 * Ansan, Gers, a commune of the Gers département, France
 * Ansan (Seoul), a mountain in Seoul, South Korea

Other uses

 * Ansan (karate), a kata
 * An San, a South Korean archer

title: Ansan (disambiguation)


text:
Ernst Fraenkel (political scientist)

Ernst Fraenkel (26 December 1898 – 28 March 1975) was a German-Jewish lawyer and political scientist. Prior to World War II, Fraenkel served as a criminal defense lawyer for Jews who were targeted by the Nazi regime. After the war, he authored the book The Dual State on the political structure of the Nazi regime and subsequently became one of the founding fathers of German political science.

During the Weimar Republic Fraenkel was a member of the social democrats and one of the few jurists who held socialist opinions. According to some historians in the 1930s he was designated to be Attorney General of a possible social-democratic German government. In 1939 he immigrated to the United States where he began to develop his respect for the politics of that country, especially its pluralism and its checks and balances.

Life
Fraenkel was born in a Jewish family in Cologne. He served during the First World War from 1916 to 1918 in the German Army. He wrote his dissertation in law about The void labour contract (Der nichtige Arbeitsvertrag), under Hugo Sinzheimer.

During the Weimar Republic he worked as a lawyer for labor law with Franz Leopold Neumann, published scientific publications and was engaged in socialist politics. Having been a soldier in World War I, he was still allowed to work to a limited extent even after the Nazis came to power in 1933. He was connected to several resistance groups such as the Internationaler Sozialistischer Kampfbund (International Socialist Fighting Alliance). In 1938 he finally immigrated to the United Kingdom, in 1939 to the United States.

Shortly after arriving in New York Fraenkel moved to Chicago, where he studied American law at the University of Chicago Law School, graduating in 1941. During this period he revised and completed a manuscript that he had brought with him from Germany. In this work, published in 1941 as The Dual State, he analyses the political system of the Nazi state. For Fraenkel there coexisted in the Nazi government a "normative state" (Normenstaat), which secured the continuation of capitalist society for those Germans not threatened by Nazism, and a "prerogative state" (Maßnahmenstaat), which used both legal and extralegal violence against people considered to be enemies of Nazism and Nazi Germany.

Fraenkel lectured at the New School for Social Research.

From 1945 on Fraenkel was an adviser to the American government but was soon dissatisfied with its policy of occupation in Korea. For the United Nations he was supposed to be one of the people to prepare free elections in Korea, but the Korean War made the elections impossible and forced Fraenkel to leave the country.

In 1951 Fraenkel returned to Germany. He became a lecturer at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Berlin and later a professor at the Freie Universität Berlin, where he founded the John F. Kennedy-Institute for North American Studies. He considered his writings to be normative, his concept of pluralism was meant to criticize the existing political system. Those among his students who were active in the 1968 movement, however, saw his American-influenced theories as defending monopolistic capitalism. He died in Berlin in 1975.

Works

 * 1927 – Zur Soziologie der Klassenjustiz (Sociology of Class Justice)
 * 1931–1933 – "Chronik" des republikanischen Richterbundes (Chronicles of the Republikanischer Richterbund)
 * 1941 – The Dual State
 * 1960 – Das amerikanische Regierungssystem (The American System of Government)
 * 1964 – Deutschland und die westlichen Demokratien (Germany and the Western Democracies)

title: Ernst Fraenkel (political scientist)


text:
Diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally. The triad of protein leaking into the urine (proteinuria or albuminuria), rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of CKD. Protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling (edema) so called nephrotic syndrome. Likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml/min/1.73m2 to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end-stage renal disease. It usually is slowly progressive over years.

Pathophysiologic abnormalities in diabetic nephropathy usually begin with long-standing poorly controlled blood glucose levels. This is followed by multiple changes in the filtration units of the kidneys, the nephrons. (There are normally about 750,000–1.5 million nephrons in each adult kidney). Initially, there is constriction of the efferent arterioles and dilation of afferent arterioles, with resulting glomerular capillary hypertension and hyperfiltration particularly as nephrons become obsolescent and the adaption of hyperfiltration paradoxically causes further shear stress related damage to the delicate glomerular capillaries, further proteinuria, rising blood pressure and a vicious circle of additional nephron damage and decline in overall renal function. Concurrently, there are changes within the glomerulus itself: these include a thickening of the basement membrane, a widening of the slit membranes of the podocytes, an increase in the number of mesangial cells, and an increase in mesangial matrix. This matrix invades the glomerular capillaries and produces deposits called Kimmelstiel-Wilson nodules. The mesangial cells and matrix can progressively expand and consume the entire glomerulus, shutting off filtration.

The status of diabetic nephropathy may be monitored by measuring two values: the amount of protein in the urine - proteinuria; and a blood test called the serum creatinine. The amount of the proteinuria reflects the degree of damage to any still-functioning glomeruli. The value of the serum creatinine can be used to calculate the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), which reflects the percentage of glomeruli which are no longer filtering the blood. Treatment with an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker, which dilates the arteriole exiting the glomerulus, thus reducing the blood pressure within the glomerular capillaries, may slow (but not stop) progression of the disease. Three classes of diabetes medications – GLP-1 agonists, DPP-4 inhibitors, and SGLT2 inhibitors– are also thought to slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy.

Diabetic nephropathy is the most common cause of end-stage renal disease and is a serious complication that affects approximately one quarter of adults with diabetes in the United States. Affected individuals with end-stage kidney disease often require hemodialysis and eventually kidney transplantation to replace the failed kidney function. Diabetic nephropathy is associated with an increased risk of death in general, particularly from cardiovascular disease.

Signs and symptoms
The onset of symptoms is 5 to 10 years after the disease begins. A usual first symptom is frequent urination at night: nocturia. Other symptoms include tiredness, headaches, a general feeling of illness, nausea, vomiting, frequent daytime urination, lack of appetite, itchy skin, and leg swelling. The clinical presentation of diabetic nephropathy (DN) is characterized by proteinuria (protein in the urine), hypertension and progressive loss of kidney function. The process may be initially indolent, making regular screening for diabetic nephropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus of great importance.

Risk factors
Not all patients with diabetes go on to develop diabetic nephropathy. The main risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing diabetic nephropathy are:
 * Poor control of blood glucose
 * Uncontrolled high blood pressure
 * Type 1 diabetes mellitus, with onset before age 20
 * Past or current cigarette use
 * A family history of diabetic nephropathy- certain genes have been identified that are associated with DN. ( However, no direct correlation has been established yet. One of these genes is APOL1, which has been found to be associated with nephropathy in African American individuals. )
 * Certain racial groups (African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Pima Indians are at higher risk).

Pathophysiology

The disease progression of diabetic nephropathy involves various clinical stages: hyperfiltration, microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, nephrotic proteinuria to progressive chronic kidney disease leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The damage is exerted on all compartments of the kidney: the glomerulus, the renal tubules, the vasculature (afferent and efferent renal arterioles) and the interstitium. Renal fibrosis is the final common pathway of DN. This fibrosis is a product of multiple mechanisms including renal hemodynamic changes, glucose metabolism abnormalities associated with oxidative stress as well as inflammatory processes and an overactive renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).

The pathophysiology of diabetic nephropathy is thought to involve an interaction between hemodynamic and metabolic factors.

Hemodynamic factors include an increase in systemic and intraglomerular pressure, as well as the over-activation of the RAAS. Studies have shown that in the setting of diabetes, various factors stimulate the RAAS, which is one of the most important pathways in diabetic nephropathy pathophysiology. Due to the higher load of filtered glucose, there is an up-regulation in the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) in the proximal tubules, which cotransports sodium and glucose back into circulation. This leads to a decrease in the delivery of sodium chloride to the macula densa in the distal tubules, promoting the release of renin and over-activating RAAS. Hyperfiltration is one of the earliest features of DN. Several mechanisms have been proposed to cause hyperfiltration. One of these mechanisms is that as glomeruli becomes hypertrophied, filtration surface area initially increases. Another possible mechanism is that abnormal vascular control in diabetic nephropathy leads to a reduction in afferent glomerular arteriolar resistance and an increase in efferent glomerular arteriolar resistance, leading to a net increase in renal blood flow (RBF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Glomerular hyperfiltration and an aberrant regulation of RAAS lead to increased intraglomerular pressure, causing stress on the endothelial cells, the mesangial cells and the podocytes. This exacerbates the dysfunction caused by the metabolic effects of hyperglycemia.

Metabolic factors include the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which have a central role in the pathophysiology of many of the complications of diabetes mellitus, including cardiovascular complications. AGEs are chemical groups that form when a reducing sugar (glucose in this case) reacts non-enzymatically with an amine group, predominantly lysine and arginine, which are attached on proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. These glycation products accumulate on the proteins of vessel wall collagen, forming an irreversible complex of cross-linked AGEs. An important way AGEs exert their effect is through a receptor-mediated mechanism, most importantly by the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). RAGE is a signal transduction receptor found on a number of cell types including macrophages, endothelial cells, renal mesangial cells and podocytes in the glomerulus. Bindings of AGEs to RAGE receptors enhances production of cytosolic Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) as well as stimulates intracellular molecules such as Protein Kinase C (PKC), NF-κB and the activation of growth factors TGF-B and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These factors, along with the hemodynamic changes that occur, lead to podocyte injury, oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis. As injury worsens, kidney function decreases and glomerular basement membrane (GBM) become more permeable and less efficient at filtration. This is accompanied by a steady decline in kidney function.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based on the measurement of abnormal levels of urinary albumin in an individual with diabetes coupled with exclusion of other causes of albuminuria. Albumin measurements are defined as follows:

 * Normal albuminuria: urinary albumin excretion <30 mg/24h;
 * Microalbuminuria: urinary albumin excretion in the range of 30–299 mg/24h;
 * Macroalbuminuria: urinary albumin excretion ≥300 mg/24h
 * Urinary albumin excretion can also be measured by urinary albumin/creatinine ratio in a spot urine sample, which is as accurate but more convenient than a 24-hour urine collection.

It is recommended that individuals with diabetes have their albumin levels checked annually, beginning immediately after a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and five years after a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes. Medical imaging of the kidneys, generally by ultrasonography, is recommended as part of a differential diagnosis if there is suspicion of urinary tract obstruction, urinary tract infection, kidney stones or polycystic kidney disease. Conformation kidney biopsy should only be performed if non-diabetic kidney disease is suspected.

Urine analysis in patients with diabetic kidney disease is often bland. In cases of severely increased microalbuminuria, hematuria might be present. fat bodies might be present in patients who develop nephrotic-range proteinuria.

Staging
To clinically stage the degree of damage in this (and any) kidney disease, the serum creatinine is determined and used to calculate the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Normal eGFR is equal to or greater than 90ml/min/1.73 m2. On biopsy, the following classification has been suggested by Tervaert et al.:

Biomarkers
Although albuminuria is the most frequently used marker of DN, it has a limited sensitivity as many patients with diabetic nephropathy experience GFR loss and glomerulosclerosis without immediate elevation in albuminuria. Many novel markers are currently being studied that potentially detect diabetic nephropathy at earlier stages and identify progression risk. Cystatin C is a protein that is freely filtered in the glomeruli before it is reabsorbed and catabolized in the renal tubular cells. Its serum level is independent of muscle mass, making more accurate at estimating GFR than creatinine serum levels.

Treatment
The goals of treatment are to slow the progression of kidney damage and control related complications. Management of diabetic nephropathy currently centers over four main areas: Cardiovascular risk reduction, glycemic control, blood pressure control as well as inhibition of the RAAS system.

Cardiovascular risk reduction: Patients with diabetes mellitus are at significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease, which is also an independent risk factor for kidney failure. Therefore, it is important to aggressively manage cardiovascular risk factors in patients with diabetes mellitus and in particular those with diabetic nephropathy. The main components of managing cardiovascular disease is with tobacco cessation, lipid-lowering therapies (e.g., statins) as well as regular exercise and healthy eating. In patients with kidney disease, atorvastatin is preferred over other statins as it does not require dose-adjustment based on GFR.

Glycemic control: Multiple studies have found a positive effect of improved glycemic control on clinical outcomes of patients with diabetic nephropathy. Intensive glycemic control also reduces the rate of other DM complications, such as retinopathy and neuropathy. Glycemic control is maintained mainly with insulin in patients with Type 1 DM and with hypoglycemic agents and/or insulin in patients with type 2 DM. Studies showed a decrease in microvascular complications of diabetic nephropathy with a target goal HbA1c concentration of 7%. Further reduction in the HbA1c did not correlate with better outcomes and is thus not recommended in most patients as it could increase the risk of hypoglycemic episodes.

Blood pressure control: Multiple randomized clinical trials have demonstrated a benefit of decreasing systolic blood pressure to <140 mmHg in patients with diabetic nephropathy. High blood pressure is associated with accelerated development of microalbuminuria, over proteinuria and declining kidney function. Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors, as well as angiotensin II receptor blockers, are particularly helpful in patients with diabetes to lower blood pressure and slow the progression of nephropathy. More intensive blood pressure lower (125-130/<80) in patients with diabetic mellitus has been shown to decrease the risk of progression of diabetic nephropathy as well as other diabetic complications. Some patients might require dual therapy to adequately control pressure, in which case calcium channel blockers or diuretics are a good second-line option.

RAAS inhibition: Inhibition can be achieved with multiple therapies, mainly ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, direct renin inhibitors, and mineralocorticoid antagonists. RAAS inhibition has been proven to be the most effective therapy to slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy in all stages. Although RAAS blockade using more than one agent may further reduce proteinuria, the risk of adverse events (such as hyperkalemia, acute kidney injury) outweigh the potential benefits. Therefore, it is recommended that only one agent is used in patients with DM who have hypertension or any signs of microalbuminuria or diabetic nephropathy.

About half of insulin is metabolized and cleared by the kidneys. This means that as kidney function worsens in the setting of DN, some patients with insulin-dependent DM may find that their regular insulin doses are lasting longer than normal, or that they are experiencing an increasing frequency of hypoglycemic episodes. It is also crucial to closely monitor kidney function to properly dose medications that are cleared by the kidneys. Some of the most commonly used nephrotoxic medications are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen. With worsening kidney function, it might also be necessary to follow a renal-diet to avoid complications such as hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis. Some evidence suggests that limiting dietary protein could slow the progression of DN, but further evidence is needed to confirm this benefit. Patients with diabetic nephropathy might go on to develop end stage renal disease and require kidney transplantation or hemodialysis.

Emerging therapies
A relatively new medication that has been approved for treatment for DM is sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. The mechanism of action of this drug is to the sodium-glucose uptake cotransporter in the proximal tubule, thereby generating natriuresis and glucosuria. In multiple clinical trials, SGLT2 inhibitors showed improved cardiovascular outcomes in patients with DM as well a positive effect on kidney outcomes, mainly a reduction in albuminuria and progression of renal damage. Other classes of diabetic medications that have been shown to have a positive effect on the progression of diabetic nephropathy are GLP-1 agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors.

Education and self-management
The success of diabetic nephropathy management depends greatly upon the ability of individuals to self-manage this condition, encompassing glycaemic control, and the adoption of healthy lifestyles. Appropriate self-management often requires patient education and behavioural counselling. However, there is still insufficient evidence to draw conclusions regarding the effects, regarding both benefits and harms, of educational programmes for people with diabetic nephropathy. Further high-quality studies are warranted.

Prognosis
Diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetes can be more difficult to predict because the onset of diabetes is not usually well established. Without intervention, 20–40 percent of patients with type 2 diabetes/microalbuminuria, will evolve to macroalbuminuria. Diabetic nephropathy is the most common cause of end-stage kidney disease, which may require hemodialysis or even kidney transplantation. It is associated with an increased risk of death in general, particularly from cardiovascular disease.

Epidemiology
Diabetic nephropathy affects approximately a third of patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is responsible for about a third of cases of ESRD worldwide, and an even larger fraction in the developed countries. Worldwide, the prevalence of diabetes is projected to increase from 382 million in 2013, to over 592 million by 2035. This increase is projected to be sharpest in developed countries. The prevalence of type 2 DM is particularly increasing due to the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. Diabetic kidney disease progression could lead to ESRD as well as an increased risk of cardiovascular complications, all of which cause a substantial economic burden. The estimated cost of management of patients with ESRD due to diabetic nephropathy in the US is US$39.35 billion in 2010. Within developed countries, certain ethnic groups such as African Americans and Native Americans are at higher risk of developing diabetic nephropathy and ESRD.

title: Diabetic nephropathy


text: User talk:82.40.6.249

title: User talk:82.40.6.249


text:
Hugh Speke

Hugh Speke (1656 – c. 1724) was an English writer and agitator.

Life
He was a son of George and Mary Speke of Whitelackington, Somerset. His father was a member of the Green Ribbon Club, the Whig organization founded in 1675, and was a supporter of the Duke of Monmouth, voting for the Exclusion Bill in 1681.

Educated at St John's College, Oxford, Hugh Speke joined the Green Ribbon Club, and in 1683 he was put in prison for asserting that Arthur Capell, Earl of Essex, another of Monmouth's supporters, had been murdered by the friends of James, Duke of York. He was tried and sentenced to pay a fine, but he refused to find the money, and remained in prison for three years, being in captivity during Monmouth's rebellion, in consequence of which his brother Charles was hanged at Ilminster. In prison Speke kept a printing-press, and from this he issued the Address to all the English Protestants in the Present Army, a manifesto written by the Whig divine Samuel Johnson, urging the soldiers to mutiny.

In 1687 he was released, and in 1688 he served James II as a spy in the camp of William of Orange. In December of this year a document, apparently official, was found by a London bookseller. This called upon the Protestants to disarm their Roman Catholic neighbours; it was freely circulated, and much damage was done to property in London before it was found that it was a forgery. It appears to have been the work of Speke, although this was not known until 1709, when he asserted his authorship in his Memoirs of the Most Remarkable Passages and Transactions of the Revolution. He afterwards issued these memoirs with modifications as The Secret History of the Happy Revolution in 1688 (1715).

After imploring both Anne and George I to reward his past services, Speke died in obscurity before 1725.

title: Hugh Speke


text:
Category:Salicaceae

The Salicaceae are a family of trees.

title: Category:Salicaceae


text: User talk:211.252.47.222

title: User talk:211.252.47.222


text:
Battle of Dynekilen

The naval Battle of Dynekilen (Slaget ved Dynekilen) took place on 8 July 1716 during the Great Northern War between a Dano-Norwegian fleet under Peter Tordenskjold and a Swedish fleet under Olof Strömstierna. The battle resulted in a Dano-Norwegian victory.

Background
On 28 October 1709 Frederik IV of Denmark, the Danish-Norwegian king declared war against Sweden. The war declaration came after the Swedish defeat at the Battle of Poltava, which resulted in a decisive victory for Peter I of Russia over Charles XII of Sweden.

In the naval enactment, a light Danish-Norwegian force of 7 ships under Peter Tordenskjold trapped and defeated a Swedish transport fleet of 44 ships in Dynekilen fjord, just north of Strömstad, on the west coast of Sweden. The Swedish transport fleet was transporting troops, ammunition and supplies from Göteborg, destined for the land forces under the command of Charles XII invading Norway.

Battle
The Danish-Norwegian flotilla ambushed the Swedish fleet while it was positioned in the harbour of Dynekilen. In the process, it overcame and destroyed a small island fort equipped with six 12-pounder guns positioned in the harbour entrance. The largest Swedish ship, Stenbock, a former ship of the line converted into a cannon barge, surrendered, after which the lighter vessels were run aground, and an attempt made to destroy most of them. The Dano-Norwegian forces worked to put out fires and salvage as many of the ships as possible. They managed to save and capture 30 ships, while 14 ships, consisting of various galleys and transport ships, were successfully destroyed by the Swedish. Swedish land forces continued to fire muskets from the surrounding hills during these operations, eventually forcing Tordenskjold to leave, but not preventing him from taking with him all of 30 captured Swedish ships. The Dano-Norwegian force suffered 76 casualties, 19 killed and 57 wounded.

On account of the loss of this transport fleet at Dynekilen, Charles XII was forced to abandon the invasion of Norway and withdraw his troops to Sweden, where he was soon preoccupied with setting up defences against the expected combined Danish and Russian invasion force.

Denmark-Norway (Tordenskjold)

 * HDMS Hjælper 47 (barge)
 * HDMS Hvide Ørn 30 (frigate)
 * HDMS Vindhund 16 (frigate)
 * HDMS Charlotte Amalia 7 (galley)
 * HDMS Louisa 7 (galley)
 * HDMS Prinds Christian 7 (galley)

Sweden

 * Stenbock 24 (barge) - Surrendered
 * Proserpina 5 (galley) - Captured
 * Ulysses 5 (galley) - Captured
 * Lucretia 12 (galley) - Captured
 * Wreden 21 (galley) - Sunk, later salvaged by the Swedes.
 * Achilles 5 (half-galley) - Captured
 * Pollux 5 (half-galley) - Captured
 * Hector 5 (half-galley) - destroyed.
 * Castor 5 (half-galley) - Sunk, later salvaged by the Swedes
 * Biorn 4 (double-sloop) - Captured
 * Svarte Maeren 4 (double-sloop) - Captured
 * Schelpaden 12 (Gallioth) - Sunk, later salvaged by the Swedes
 * TRANSPORTS - 5 captured, 3 destroyed

All according to Tordenskiolds own report. (printed at pages 229- 230, in the book, "Tordenskiolds Brev" (by Komandor, Olav Bergersen 1963)

title: Battle of Dynekilen


text:
Jacob Spon

Jacob Spon (or Jacques; in English dictionaries given as James; 1647 – 25 December 1685) was a French doctor and archaeologist. He was a pioneer in the exploration of the monuments of Greece, and a scholar of international reputation in the developing "Republic of Letters".

Biography
Jacob Spon was born in 1647 in Lyon. His father was Charles Spon, a doctor and Hellenist, of a wealthy and cultured Calvinist banking family from Ulm that had been established since 1551 at Lyon, where they were members of the bourgeois élite. Following medical studies at Strasbourg, the younger Spon first met the son of a friend of his father, Charles Patin, who introduced him to antiquarian interests and the study of numismatics, then as now a window into the world of Classical Antiquity. In Paris, Jacob Spon lodged with Patin's father, Guy Patin. At Montpellier he received his doctorate in medicine (1668) and subsequently practiced in Lyon to a wealthy clientele. There his first publication appeared, a Recherche des antiquités et curiosités de la ville de Lyon and he entered into correspondence with a wider circle of savants: the abbé Claude Nicaise at Dijon, du Cange at Paris, the erudite circles that gravitated to le Grand Dauphin and the duc d'Aumont. Among his correspondents were the courtier-theologian Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, the philosopher Pierre Bayle, Pierre Carcavy, the Jesuit scholar François d'Aix de la Chaise, confessor to the King, and François Charpentier. He met Jean Mabillon when Mabillon passed through Lyon in 1682.

Spon traveled to Italy, and then to Greece, to Constantinople and the Levant in 1675–1676 in the company of the English connoisseur and botanist Sir George Wheler (1650–1723), whose collection of antiquities was afterwards bequeathed to Oxford University. They were among the first knowledgeable Western European antiquaries to see the antiquities of Greece at first hand. Spon's Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant (1678) remained a useful reference work even in the time of Chateaubriand, who employed it on his trip to the East.

Spon brought back many valuable treasures, coins, inscriptions and manuscripts. In January 1680, he quarrelled with Père de La Chaise, who pressed him to convert to Catholicism. That year Spon published his Histoire de la république de Genève, followed by his Récherches curieuses d'antiquité (Lyon 1683) and in 1685 a collection of transcriptions of Roman inscriptions gleaned over the years, Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis, in the preface to which he offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged.

In 1681 Spon published a brief (95pp.) treatise on fevers, which, being well-received, he expanded to 264 pp. to include the latest remedies, including "Quinquina" from "Perou," which he considers especially effective, but which, he says, the "Ameriquains" did not recognize: "le quinquina n'etoit pas connu pour la guerison des fievres par les Ameriquains meme...". "Observations sur les Fievres et les Febrifuges" was published by Thomas Amaulry at Lyon in 1684 and posthumously in 1687. Spon points out that he is an expert on fevers because Lyon includes a swampy area (the Dombes) that produces "mauvais air" responsible for fevers—probably actually malaria. As Spon's book illustrates, in the 17th century a whole range of diseases were classified as different "fevers." In its time, "Observations sur les Fievres" was a learned, technical manual for a physician who wanted to be current.

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, October 1685, was indirectly the cause of Spon's death. Rather than abjure his Calvinist faith, he preferred to leave for Zürich, an illegal move. His money and baggage were stolen from him, and in fragile health, he died of tuberculosis in the canton hospital at Vevey, Christmas Day 1685, at the age of 38.

Works

 * Histoire de la ville et de l'Estat de Genève, Lyon, 1620, ibid., Amaulry, 1680, 1682, Utrecht : Halma, 1685
 * The history of the city and state of Geneva, London : White, 1687
 * Historie van de Stad en Staat van Geneve, Amsterdam : Oossaan, 1688
 * Histoire de Genève rectifiée et augmentée, Genève : Fabri et Barrillot, 1730
 * De l'origine des estrenes, [Lyon], 1673, Paris : Didot et de Bure, 1781
 * Recherche des antiquités et curiosités de la ville de Lyon, Lyon, 1673
 * Relation de l'état présent de la ville d'Athènes, Lyon, 1674
 * Réponse à la critique publiée par M. de Guillet sur le Voyage de Grèce, Lyon, 1679
 * Ignotorum atque obscurorum quorundam deorum arae, Lugduni : Faeton, 1676
 * Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, Lyon : Cellier, 1678, Amsterdam : Boom, 1679
 * Viaggi per la Dalmazia, Grecia, e Levante, Bologna : Monti, 1688
 * Italiänische, Dalmatische, Griechische und Orientalische Reise-Beschreibung, Nürnberg : Hofmann, 1690, 1713
 * Lettres sur l'antiquité de la véritable religion, Lausanne : [Gentil ?], 1681
 * Lettres curieuses touchant la religion, Cologne, 1682
 * Recherches curieuses d'antiquité, Lyon : Amaulry, 1683
 * Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis, Lugduni : [l'auteur], 1685
 * Observations sur les fievres et les febrifuges, Lyon : Amaulry, 1684, 1687
 * Novi tractatus de potu caphé, de Chinensium thé et de chocolata, Genavæ : Cramer et Perachon, 1699

title: Jacob Spon


text:
ATP hydrolysis

ATP hydrolysis is the catabolic reaction process by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released after splitting these bonds, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. The product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (Pi). ADP can be further hydrolyzed to give energy, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and another inorganic phosphate (Pi). ATP hydrolysis is the final link between the energy derived from food or sunlight and useful work such as muscle contraction, the establishment of electrochemical gradients across membranes, and biosynthetic processes necessary to maintain life.

Anhydridic bonds are often labelled as "high-energy bonds". P-O bonds are in fact fairly strong (~30 kJ/mol stronger than C-N bonds) and themselves not particularly easy to break. As noted below, energy is released by the hydrolysis of ATP. However, when the P-O bonds are broken, input of energy is required. It is the formation of new bonds and lower-energy inorganic phosphate with a release of a larger amount of energy that lowers the total energy of the system and makes it more stable.

Hydrolysis of the phosphate groups in ATP is especially exergonic, because the resulting inorganic phosphate molecular ion is greatly stabilized by multiple resonance structures, making the products (ADP and Pi) lower in energy than the reactant (ATP). The high negative charge density associated with the three adjacent phosphate units of ATP also destabilizes the molecule, making it higher in energy. Hydrolysis relieves some of these electrostatic repulsions, liberating useful energy in the process by causing conformational changes in enzyme structure.

In humans, approximately 60 percent of the energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP produces metabolic heat rather than fuel the actual reactions taking place. Due to the acid-base properties of ATP, ADP, and inorganic phosphate, the hydrolysis of ATP has the effect of lowering the pH of the reaction medium. Under certain conditions, high levels of ATP hydrolysis can contribute to lactic acidosis.

Amount of energy produced
Hydrolysis of the terminal phosphoanhydridic bond is a highly exergonic process. The amount of released energy depends on the conditions in a particular cell. Specifically, the energy released is dependent on concentrations of ATP, ADP and Pi. As the concentrations of these molecules deviate from values at equilibrium, the value of Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) will be increasingly different. In standard conditions (ATP, ADP and Pi concentrations are equal to 1M, water concentration is equal to 55 M) the value of ΔG is between -28 and -34 kJ/mol.

The range of the ΔG value exists because this reaction is dependent on the concentration of Mg2+ cations, which stabilize the ATP molecule. The cellular environment also contributes to differences in the ΔG value since ATP hydrolysis is dependent not only on the studied cell, but also on the surrounding tissue and even the compartment within the cell. Variability in the ΔG values is therefore to be expected.

The relationship between the standard Gibbs free energy change ΔrGo and chemical equilibrium is revealing. This relationship is defined by the equation ΔrGo = -RT ln(K), where K is the equilibrium constant, which is equal to the reaction quotient Q in equilibrium. The standard value of ΔG for this reaction is, as mentioned, between -28 and -34 kJ/mol; however, experimentally determined concentrations of the involved molecules reveal that the reaction is not at equilibrium. Given this fact, a comparison between the equilibrium constant, K, and the reaction quotient, Q, provides insight. K takes into consideration reactions taking place in standard conditions, but in the cellular environment the concentrations of the involved molecules (namely, ATP, ADP, and Pi) are far from the standard 1 M. In fact, the concentrations are more appropriately measured in mM, which is smaller than M by three orders of magnitude. Using these nonstandard concentrations, the calculated value of Q is much less than one. By relating Q to ΔG using the equation ΔG = ΔrGo + RT ln(Q), where ΔrGo is the standard change in Gibbs free energy for the hydrolysis of ATP, it is found that the magnitude of ΔG is much greater than the standard value. The nonstandard conditions of the cell actually result in a more favorable reaction.

In one particular study, to determine ΔG in vivo in humans, the concentration of ATP, ADP, and Pi was measured using nuclear magnetic resonance. In human muscle cells at rest, the concentration of ATP was found to be around 4 mM and the concentration of ADP was around 9 μM. Inputing these values into the above equations yields ΔG = -64 kJ/mol. After ischemia, when the muscle is recovering from exercise, the concentration of ATP is as low as 1 mM and the concentration of ADP is around 7 μM. Therefore, the absolute ΔG would be as high as -69 kJ/mol.

By comparing the standard value of ΔG and the experimental value of ΔG, one can see that the energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP, as measured in humans, is almost twice as much as the energy produced under standard conditions.

title: ATP hydrolysis


text:
Tingwall

Tingwall may refer to the following places in Scotland:

 * Tingwall, Orkney
 * Tingwall, Shetland
 * Tingwall Airport, Shetland Islands.

It may also refer to:
 * Albin Tingwall (born 2003), Swedish singer

title: Tingwall


text:
Category talk:Space

This category would be the appropriate place for a sub-category entitled "Space Law". For instance a general Space Law article as well as the SPACEPOL article would belong there. The Hans
 * Category Space Law exists. SPACEPOL has been put under it. --Exodio 05:10, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

People, I think we need a special space/space exploration/spacecraft stub template. I particularly need it for developing Category:Ukrainian space program Who's gonna make it? Best wishes, AlexPU

title: Category talk:Space


text:
Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp

Josiah Charles Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp, (21 June 1880 – 16 April 1941) was an English industrialist, economist, civil servant, statistician, writer, and banker. He was a director of the Bank of England and chairman of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway.

Life and career
Stamp was born in Hampstead, London, the third of seven children; his youngest brother L. Dudley Stamp was known as a geographer. At the time of his birth his father owned and managed a provision and general shop in London.

Stamp was educated at Bethany School, Goudhurst in Kent. He left at 16 and joined the Civil Service as a boy clerk in the Inland Revenue Department. With a brief interval in the Board of Trade, he rose to assistant inspector of taxes at Hereford in 1903, an inspector of taxes in London in 1909, and assistant secretary in 1916.

Meanwhile, Stamp was studying economics as an external student. He was awarded a first class degree (1911) by the University of London and a doctorate (1916) by the London School of Economics. The thesis, published as British Incomes and Property, became a standard work on the subject and established his academic reputation. In 1919 he changed career, leaving the civil service for business, to join as secretary and director of Nobel Industries Ltd, from which Imperial Chemical Industries developed. In 1926 he became Chairman of the LMS and was instrumental in getting William Stanier appointed in 1932 as Chief Mechanical Engineer to resolve the locomotive problems of the company. In 1928 he was appointed a director of the Bank of England.

Stamp was often called to serve on public commissions, committees and boards: he was a member of the Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919, the Northern Ireland Finance Arbitration Committee, 1923–24, the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924, the Dawes Reparation Commission's Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924, the Young Committee in 1929 and the Economic Advisory Council, 1930–39. In 1935, he was a founding member of the Anglo-German Fellowship and had made low key visits to Nuremberg in 1936 (when he met Adolf Hitler – whom Stamp noted was a "statesman and demagogue combined" – and Franz von Papen), and 1937, to view the Nazi Party Congress with the unspoken support of the then Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax. Stamp expressed sympathy for Nazi Germany, saying he supported "reasonable counteraction of Jewish domination."

From 1927 until his death Stamp was Colonel commanding the Royal Engineers Railway and Transport Corps, and became Honorary Colonel of Transportation Units in the Royal Engineers Supplementary Reserve in 1938.

Stamp was widely regarded as the leading British expert on taxation, and took an active part in the work of the Royal Statistical Society, serving as president from 1930 to 1932.

Stamp refused to be moved out of his house, 'Tantallon', in Park Hill Road, Shortlands, during the German bombing of The Blitz. He, aged sixty, and his wife, aged sixty-three, were killed by a bomb's direct hit on the air-raid shelter at their home on 16 April 1941. They were buried at Beckenham Cemetery. Stamp was regarded to be the second wealthiest man in Britain at the time of his death.

Honours and awards
Stamp was invested as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1918, Knight in the Order (KBE) in 1920, and Knight Grand Cross (GBE) in 1924 and Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (GCB) in 1936. He was a Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. He also held the Grand Cross of the Austrian Order of Merit (awarded 1936) and the Afghan Order of Astaur. He was raised to the peerage on 28 June 1938 as Baron Stamp, of Shortlands in the County of Kent.

Stamp was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1933 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society.

He was first Mayor of the Borough of Beckenham, Kent, within which he had settled at Shortlands, in 1935. He was made an honorary Freeman of the same borough in 1936 and of Blackpool in 1937. In 1936, he served as President of the Geographical Association; his brother L Dudley Stamp, also became President of the Association, in 1950.

Family
Stamp met his future wife, Olive Jessie Marsh, a soprano and student teacher, when he was seventeen. Pursuing their work and studies separately for several years until their marriage in 1903, they engaged in a correspondence (Jones 1964). Between 1904 and 1917 they had four sons, Wilfred, Trevor, Maxwell and Colin. It was as a result of this marriage that Stamp, son of a Baptist father and Church of England mother, converted to the Wesleyan Methodist Church. A few of his writings (see below), such as Christianity and Economics (1939), discuss the relevance of Christian values to contemporary economics systems.

Stamp's son Wilfred was killed at the same time and in the same place as his father, but English law has a legal fiction that in the event of the order of deaths being indeterminable, the elder is deemed to have died first. Legally therefore, Wilfred momentarily inherited the peerage: and as a consequence the family had to pay death duty twice. The peerage passed to the second of Stamp's four sons, Trevor.

Quotes
A well known quote from Stamp (often referred to as Stamp's Law) is:

 * "The government are very keen on amassing statistics. They collect them, add them, raise them to the nth power, take the cube root and prepare wonderful diagrams. But you must never forget that every one of these figures comes in the first instance from the chowky dar (village watchman in India), who just puts down what he damn pleases." (Stamp recounting a story from Harold Cox who quotes an anonymous English judge).

Another quote attributed to Stamp is:

 * "Banking was conceived in iniquity and was born in sin. The bankers own the earth. Take it away from them, but leave them the power to create money, and with the flick of the pen they will create enough deposits to buy it back again. However, take away from them the power to create money and all the great fortunes like mine will disappear and they ought to disappear, for this would be a happier and better world to live in. But, if you wish to remain the slaves of bankers and pay the cost of your own slavery, let them continue to create money." (Said to be from an informal talk at the University of Texas in the 1920s).

Books by Josiah Stamp
Sourced from Who Was Who.

 * British Incomes and Property 1916
 * Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers 1919
 * The Fundamental Principles of Taxation 1921
 * The National Income 1924 with A. L. Bowley 1927
 * The Christian Ethic as an Economic Factor 1926
 * On Stimulus 1927
 * Some Economic Matters in Modern Life 1929
 * Criticism and other addresses 1931
 * Internationalism 1931
 * The Financial Aftermath of War 1932
 * Taxation During the [Great] War 1932
 * Ideals of a Student 1933
 * Motive and Method in a Christian Order 1936
 * The National Capital and Other Statistical Studies 1937
 * The Science of Social Adjustment 1937
 * We live and learn 1937
 * Christianity and Economics 1939

title: Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp


text: User talk:12.72.31.217

title: User talk:12.72.31.217


text:
Edinburgh Law School

Edinburgh Law School, founded in 1707, is a school within the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom dedicated to research and teaching in law. It is located in the historic Old College, the original site of the University. Two of the twelve currently sitting Supreme Court of the United Kingdom justices are graduates of Edinburgh, including the current President and Deputy President.

In 2014, the Research Excellence Framework commissioned by the UK government, ranked the University of Edinburgh 1st in Scotland and 4th in the UK. The 2022 league table rankings from The Guardian placed Edinburgh at 10th in the UK. The 2022 Complete University Guide league rankings placed Edinburgh at 8th in the UK. The 2018 The Times league rankings placed Edinburgh at 11th in the UK. Edinburgh Law School was placed 17th in the world and 6th in the UK for law in the 2023 QS World University Rankings by Subject: Law & Legal Studies.

History
In 1707, the year of the unification of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England into the Kingdom of Great Britain, Queen Anne established the Chair of Public Law and the Law of Nature and Nations in the University of Edinburgh, to which Charles Erskine (or Areskine) was appointed; this was the formal start of the Faculty of Law. By 1722 the University had four Professors of Law, and classes—in Civil Law, Scots Law and History—were usually given in their respective homes or offices. Numbers grew with the expansion of the legal profession in the 19th century, and by 1830 there were over 200 students attending the Scots Law class alone. Scholarship amongst the academics at Edinburgh continued to grow in reputation, with the work of Muirhead, Lorimer and Rankine achieving international renown.

The Faculty of Law had moved to Old College, built in 1789, and in 1862 the new degree of LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) was introduced, following the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858. The degree was only open to graduates, usually those who had studied for the M.A.(Arts) at a Scottish University or the B.A. at Oxford or Cambridge. Students of the LL.B. had to attend courses and be examined in Civil Law, Conveyancing, Public law, Constitutional law and History, and Medical Jurisprudence; Edinburgh was the only University to offer this degree for some time. In 1909 Eveline MacLaren and Josephine Gordon Stuart became Scotland's first two female law graduates when they each obtained an LL.B degree from Edinburgh. By 1966, the LL.B. had become a full-time undergraduate course, although many would continue to study for an Arts degree beforehand. In 1981, Edinburgh first offered the Diploma in Legal Practice, for LL.B. students wishing to enter the legal profession.

Today, the School of Law is associated both with traditional Scots law and with innovation across a wide range of subjects. The School retains a reputation for scholarship in topics such as Roman Law but is also known as a centre for research in topics such as European law, criminology, commercial law, intellectual property and information technology law, labour law, European private law, medical law and ethics, international law, comparative law, and human rights law. In 2007 the School celebrated its Tercentenary year, marked by a series of events and of lectures by world-renowned legal experts.

Academics

Throughout its history the School (or Faculty) of Law has accommodated some of the leading legal scholars in Europe. James Muirhead's work on Roman Law garnered international praise, Professor Erskine's Principles (1754) became a standard text in Scots Law, as did those of Professor George Joseph Bell. In the 20th-century, the eminent legal theorist Professor Sir Neil MacCormick wrote his seminal texts on legal philosophy as Regius Professor at Edinburgh.

Current members of Edinburgh Law School include current Regius Professor Neil Walker; Lord President Reid Professor of Law Alexandra Braun; Professor of European Union Law Professor Niamh Nic Shuibhne; the academic and novelist Professor Alexander McCall Smith; former Judge at the European Court of First Instance Sir David Edward KC, former Scottish Law Commissioners Emeritus Professor George Gretton, Professor Hector MacQueen, Professor Andrew Steven, Professor Kenneth Reid and Emeritus Professor Robert Black KC architect of the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial).

Student activity
Students of the School of Law are represented by the Law Students' Council. The University of Edinburgh Law Society, known as LawSoc, provides a programme of social events. In addition, there is a Postgraduate Students' Research Committee for doctoral level students, as well as a Graduate Law Students' Society. The University Mooting Society is active, with two internal competitions and several external competitions running during each academic session, giving students the opportunity to develop the skills of oral legal argument. For graduate-level students there are a number of subject-specific discussion groups which meet on a regular basis. Since 2008, the students have published the Edinburgh Student Law Review.

Research centres

 * The Centre for Law and Society
 * The Centre for Legal History
 * "SCRIPT" (The AHRC Centre for Studies in Intellectual Property and Technology Law)
 * The Edinburgh Centre for Legal Theory
 * The Edinburgh Centre for Private Law
 * The Europa Institute
 * The Scottish Centre for International Law
 * The Joseph Bell Centre for Forensic Statistics and Legal Reasoning, joint research collaboration with Glasgow Caledonian University
 * The Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime
 * The Centre for Commercial Law, Chaired by The Rt Hon. Lord Reed

Famous graduates
Notable alumni of Edinburgh Law School include:

 * Douglas Alexander MP, former Secretary of State for International Development
 * Michael Ancram QC, Marquess of Lothian, former MP and Chairman of the Conservative Party
 * Henry Brougham, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, co-founder of the University College London
 * Joanna Cherry, current Scottish National Party MP for Edinburgh South-West
 * James Clyde, Baron Clyde, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary
 * Thomas Campbell, poet
 * George Combe, founder of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society
 * William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk, Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord of Appeal in Ordinary
 * Alistair Duff, former Director of the Judicial Institute of Scotland
 * Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, Lord Advocate of Scotland, British Home Secretary, first Secretary of State for War and First Lord of the Admiralty
 * Robert Dundas of Arniston, the younger, Lord Advocate of Scotland, Lord President of the Court of Session
 * Sir David Edward QC, former Judge at the European Court of Justice
 * Nicholas Fairbairn, Conservative MP for Perth and Kinross and Solicitor General for Scotland
 * Robert J. Faucher, U.S Assistant Secretary of State for Conflict and Stabilization Operations
 * Brian Gill, Lord Gill, former Lord President (Ph.D)
 * Peter Goodrich, Director of Law and Humanities at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law (Ph.D.)
 * Katherine Grainger, 2012 Olympic Gold Medallist
 * Arthur Hamilton, Lord Hamilton, former Lord President of the Court of Session
 * Lord Hodge, sitting Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
 * Michael Hay, founder of Hay, Kalb & Associates, the first (and to date only) foreign law firm in North Korea
 * Lord Hope of Craighead, former Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and inaugural Deputy President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
 * Eleanor Laing, Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons
 * Lord Mackay of Clashfern, former Lord Chancellor and Lord Advocate of Scotland
 * Eveline MacLaren, one of Scotland's first women to complete her legal studies and graduate from the Faculty of Law
 * Stuart McDonald, current Scottish National Party MP for Cumbernauld, Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch East
 * David McLetchie MSP, former Scottish Conservative leader
 * David Mundell, current Conservative MP and Secretary of State for Scotland
 * Ian Murray, current Labour MP and Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland
 * Lord Reed, sitting Justice and current President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
 * Sir Malcolm Rifkind QC MP, former Foreign Secretary
 * Sir Walter Scott, writer and poet, (Sheriff-Deputy of Selkirk)
 * Julia Sebutinde, current member of the International Court of Justice and first African woman to serve as member of the Court
 * Alexander McCall Smith, Emeritus Professor of Medical Law at the University of Edinburgh, co-founder of the law school at the University of Botswana, adult mystery author
 * Matt Soper, current member of the Colorado House of Representatives and first Seventh-day Adventist to serve as member of the Colorado Legislature
 * David Steel, Baron Steel of Aikwood, former Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament and former leader of the Liberal Party
 * Robert Louis Stevenson, writer
 * Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway, Lord President of the Court of Session
 * Simon Taylor, Scottish Rugby Footballer
 * Lord Wallace QC, former Deputy First Minister of Scotland and Advocate General for Scotland
 * Sir Thomas Winsor, HM Chief Inspector of Constabulary and former Rail Regulator and International Rail Regulator

Famous faculty

 * Sir Neil MacCormick, Regius Professor of Public Law and the Law of Nature and Nations
 * Harvey McGregor QC, visiting professor, Warden of New College, Oxford

title: Edinburgh Law School


text: User talk:64.31.6.158

title: User talk:64.31.6.158


text:
Thomas Spens

Thomas Spens [de Spens] (c. 1415–15 April 1480), Scottish statesman and prelate, received his education at Edinburgh, was the second son of John de Spens, custodian of Prince James of Scotland, and of Lady Isabel Wemyss.

Biography
By his exceptional abilities, he attracted the notice the Scottish king, James II, who sent him on errands to England and to France, where he negotiated several treaties. About 1450 he became bishop of Galloway; soon afterwards he was made Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland, and in 1459 he was chosen bishop of Aberdeen.

Much of his time, however, was passed in journeys to France and to England, and in 1464 he and Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, a son of James II, were captured at sea by some English sailors. Edward IV, to whom the bishop had previously revealed an assassination plot, set him at liberty, and he was perhaps partly responsible for the treaty of peace made about this time between the English king and James III.

He also helped to bring about the meeting between Edward IV and Louis XI of France at Picquigny, and another treaty of peace between England and Scotland in 1474. Spens was a frequent attender at the Scottish parliaments, and contributed very generously to the decoration of his cathedral at Aberdeen. In 1479 Spens founded a hospital dedicated to Mary at the foot of Leith Wynd in Edinburgh, catering for up to 12 poor men. A chapel later attached and dedicated to St Paul brought about the name of Paul's Hospital.

He died in Edinburgh on 15 April 1480 and was buried in the north aisle of Trinity College Kirk close to the hospital which he founded.

In 1582 Edinburgh council forbade "papists" from operating Paul's Hospital and in 1619 had the building rebuilt under the new name of "Paul's Work" which had a function both as hospice and as college. Five Dutchmen were brought to teach production of "coarse woollen stuffs" but this was not a success and around 1621 the building became a house of correction.

title: Thomas Spens


text:
SS Patrick Henry

SS Patrick Henry was the first Liberty ship launched. It was built by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation at their Bethlehem-Fairfield Shipyard in Baltimore, Maryland. She was named after Patrick Henry, an American attorney, planter, and Founding Father as well as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and 1784 to 1786.

Background
Liberty ships initially had a poor public image and to try to assuage public opinion, 27 September 1941, was designated Liberty Fleet Day, and the first 14 "Emergency" vessels were launched that day. The first of these (with MC hull number 14) was Patrick Henry, launched by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Other "Emergency" vessels launched that day, in various yards around the country included: SS John C. Fremont, SS Louise Lykes (1941), SS Ocean Venture, SS Ocean Voice, SS Star of Oregon, and SS Steel Artisan.

Launching
In the speech delivered at the launching, Roosevelt referred to Patrick Henry's "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech of 23 March 1775. Roosevelt said that this new class of ships would bring liberty to Europe, which gave rise to the name "Liberty ship". Patrick Henry was sponsored by Ilo Browne Wallace, wife of Vice President Henry A. Wallace, with Mrs. Robert H. Jackson, wife of the Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and Madame Bruggmann, wife of the Minister of Switzerland Karl Bruggmann and sister of the vice president. Ilo Wallace christened the ship. The ship's fitting was completed on December 30, 1941.

Service history
Her maiden voyage was to the Middle East. During World War II she made 12 voyages to ports including Murmansk (as part of Convoy PQ 18), Trinidad, Cape Town, Naples, and Dakar.

She survived the war, but was seriously damaged when she went aground on a reef off the coast of Florida, 25.13333°N, -80.26667°W, in July 1946. The ship was laid up at National Defense Reserve Fleet, Mobile, Alabama. On 18 September 1958, she was sold to Bethlehem Steel, for $76,191. She was withdrawn from the fleet on 22 October 1958, and was scrapped at Baltimore.

title: SS Patrick Henry