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Zaghawa people

The Zaghawa people, also called Beri or Zakhawa, are an ethnic group primarily residing in southwestern Libya, northeastern Chad, and western Sudan, including Darfur.

Zaghawas speak the Zaghawa language, which is an eastern Saharan language. They are pastoralists, and a breed of sheep that they herd is called Zaghawa by the Arabs. They are nomadic and obtain much of their livelihood through herding cattle, camels and sheep and harvesting wild grains. It has been estimated that there are 384,150 people who belong to the Zaghawa ethnicity.

Names
The royal history of the Kanem–Bornu Empire, the Girgam, refers to the Zaghawa people as the Duguwa. Today, Zaghawa refer to themselves as the Beri, while Arabic speakers and literature refer to them as "Zaghawa". In literature related to African ethnic groups, the term Beri (sometimes Kegi) includes Zaghawas, Bideyat, and Bertis peoples, each clustered in different parts of Chad, Sudan and Libya.

History
The earliest recorded mention of the Zaghawa comes from the 9th century Arab geographer Ya'qubi, who wrote of them as the “Zaghawa who live in a place called Kanem”, and proceeded to list a string of other kingdoms under Zaghawa rule. Historically, the Zaghawa people held a sort of hegemony over most of the smaller societies that stretched along the Sahel between Lake Chad to the Nile valley kingdoms of Nubia, Makuria and Alwa.

The Zaghawa people were trading with the Nile region and the Maghreb regions by the 1st millennium. The earliest references to them in 8th-century texts are made jointly with the Toubou people of northern Chad and southern Libya, and scholars believe the two are related ethnic groups. The 11th century texts mention that the kings of the Zaghawa kingdom had accepted Islam, and were at least nominally Muslims.

Early Arabic accounts describe the Zaghawa to be "black nomads". The 12th-century geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi and the 13th-century Yaqut al-Hamawi describe the Zaghawa influence around an oasis-centered system and mention the towns of Kanem, Manan and Anjimi.

However, ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi, writing in 1270. states that Manan was the capital of Kanem kingdom until the Sayfawa dynasty rulers converted to Islam, conquered the region, and thereafter the capital shifted to Njimi. The Zaghawa continued to live in Manan, wrote ibn Said. The records of Kanem do not mention Zaghawa, and they were likely displaced and they then moved into the region they are currently found. This region is called Dar Zaghawa, or the "land of the Zaghawa".

Although Zaghawa power was broken by the rise of Kanem in the Lake Chad region, Zaghawa retained control over a considerable portion of the lands lying east of Kanem, and it is only in the late 14th century that Darfur is mentioned as an independent state by the Mamluk Sultanate historian and geographer al-Maqrizi. Following the rise of Darfur and the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the Zaghawa appear to have controlled only desert areas and ceased to be a major regional power.

Society and culture
The traditional Zaghawa society has led a predominantly pastoral life, made up of nomadic clans with horse, donkeys, goat and sheep herd keeping focus. At their peak strength before the Sayfawa dynasty displaced and disbanded them, they were noted merchants and traders with camels and horses, controlling some of the Trans-Saharan trade routes.

They accepted the Maliki school of Sunni Islam but retained some of their pre-Islamic rites such as karama, a ritual sacrifice of animals to ward off evil spirits. The century in which they converted has been a subject of debate and little consensus, with estimates ranging from the 13th to the early 17th century. In contemporary times, they lead a sedentary lifestyle, growing staples such as millet and sorghum, and other foods such as sesame, melons, pumpkins, peanuts and okra.

Roger Blench notes that the appearance of Nilo-Saharan speakers is associated with the green Sahara.

Social stratification
Zaghawa society has been socially stratified and has included castes. The upper strata has been of nobles and warriors, below them have been the traders and merchants, below whom have been the artisan castes called the Hadaheed (or Hadahid). These castes have been endogamous and their inherited occupations have included ironwork, hunters, pottery, leatherwork, and musicians such as drummers. The artisan work has traditionally been viewed within the Zaghawa society as dirty and of inferior status, being people from different pagan and Jewish roots who slowly assimilated into the Islamic society. Some of the early Arab texts refer to the Zaghawa royalty as "blacksmith kings with inconceivable arrogance".

The term "blacksmith" has been derogatory in Zaghawa culture, states Anne Haour, a professor of African Studies and Medieval Archaeology, and "if born a blacksmith one will always be a blacksmith". Non-blacksmith castes of Zaghawa neither eat nor associate with the blacksmith castes. The lowest strata has been the slaves. The social stratification and castes such as for the leatherworker strata within the Zaghawa people is similar to those found in nearby Fur people.

Contemporary influence
While they are not very powerful in Sudan, they politically dominate Chad. The former president, Idriss Déby and several former prime ministers of Chad are Zaghawa, as well as many other members of the government. Thus the Chadian Zaghawa have been influential people in the regional politics. In contemporary wars in Chad, Libya and Sudan, the Zaghawa ethnic group has been deeply involved, particularly through strategic alliances with other ethnic groups such as the Fur people.

However, in Sudan, the Zaghawa are caught up in the Darfur crisis, and have suffered much loss from the troubles there. The Zaghawa of Sudan are among the peoples living in the refugee camps in Darfur and eastern Chad where the recruitment of child soldiers into rebel movements is an ongoing problem.

The Zaghawa have been among the tribes in Darfur who have been referred to as "African" even as other tribes that have fought with them have been called "Arab".

As a result of Tijani Muslim missionaries from West Africa traveling through their area to make the Hajj, the Zaghawa leadership converted to Islam. In the 1940s, the Zaghawa began to turn to Islam from their traditional religion en masse. In Darfur, the Zaghawa are well-known for their piety. Due to the fighting in the War in Darfur, where they are targeted by the Janjaweed Arab militias due to their ethnic heritage, 100,000 have become refugees across the border in Chad. A Zaghawa tribesman named Daoud Hari wrote a memoir about Darfur called The Translator and a Zaghawa woman named Halima Bashir co-authored a memoir with Damien Lewis called Tears of the Desert, which both spread knowledge about the atrocities in Darfur.

Among Sudan's ethnic minorities, Zaghawas Islamists were also one of the most active within the al-Bashir regime at its beginning, participating in security, police and the Popular Defense Forces. After the 1989 coup, Khalil Ibrahim, a Zaghawa from Tina, was placed at the head of the tanzim in Darfur. Other Zaghawas, such as Adam Tahir Hamdoun, Yusuf Libis, Sulieman Jammous or Khalil's brother, Gibril Ibrahim, will also play key roles in the new regime. However, after al-Turabi's break with al-Bashir and the crisis of '98, most of the Islamist Zaghawas will defect from the NCP and become anti-regime activists, with many of them aligning themselves with the al-Turabi's Popular Congress Party, participating in the publication of The Black Book or leading the al-Fashir protests in September 2000.

title: Zaghawa people


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Bedrock (The Flintstones)

Bedrock is a fictional city from the animated television series The Flintstones. It is the primary setting of The Flintstones where the main characters (the Flintstone family) and their neighbors live.

Size and layout
Bedrock's layout is largely unspecified. The town features both suburban areas and a developed downtown with multi-story skyscrapers. Despite being portrayed with a population of 2,500 in the opening credits of the first two seasons, it has a freeway system prone to traffic jams in many episodes. Additionally, the original series shows that Bedrock has a subway system.

In the original series of "The Flintstones," the street where the Flintstones and the Rubbles live has been called several names, such as "Cobblestone Lane," "Cobblestone Road," "Stone Cave Road," "Grease Pit Terrace," "Gravelpit Terrace," and "Rocky Way." The Flintstones' neighbors included the Gruesomes, who lived in Tombstone Manor. In later spin-offs, the Frankenstones were introduced as another set of monster-themed neighbors.

Features
The portrayal of Bedrock's climate varies throughout the series. While the presence of palm trees and cycads suggests a warm climate, there are episodes and movies set at Christmastime that depict snowy scenes. In different portrayals, the areas around Bedrock vary significantly. Sometimes they are shown as desert-like, while other times they appear as tropical or subtropical jungles. For instance, in the opening scenes of the animated movie "The Man Called Flintstone," the outskirts are depicted as a lush jungle.

The residents of Bedrock are portrayed as friendly and quirky. They have a strong community spirit and often take part in charities and parades. Bedrock features several service organizations, the most famous being the Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes, which includes Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble as members.

Law and government
A police department is located in the city, where the main characters Fred and Barney are sometimes employed as part-time police officers.

Bedrock also has a volunteer fire department that members use as a social club. The capability of its fire department wavers throughout different episodes, with several episodes featuring a more traditional full-time firefighting service.

There is also a military presence near Bedrock; Fred and Barney get stationed at Camp Millstone Army Base after being mistakenly inducted into the army.

Bedrock's city government plays a role in The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show, episode "Mayor May Not," in which Pebbles becomes the city's temporary student mayor for a week.

Regarding health care, Bedrock has the Bedrock Rockapedic Hospital, where Pebbles Flintstone was born.

Media
For a fictional town of its size, Bedrock has a high number of media outlets. Several radio stations (one of which has the call letters BDRX ), television stations and newspapers have been depicted. One TV station is an affiliate of ABC (the Abbadabba Broadcasting Company). Later spin-offs have the people of Bedrock also enjoying a cable and satellite television service.

Television programs produced in Bedrock include the cooking program The Happy Housewife Show (which for a time starred Wilma) and the teen dance program Shinrock. Other depicted programs of Bedrock citizens, though not produced there, include such fare as Peek-a-Boo Camera ', Hum-Along-With-Herman and variety program The Ed Sulleystone Show.

One of Bedrock's fictional newspapers is The Daily Granite, edited by Lou Granite. For a time, The Daily Granite employed Wilma Flintstone and Betty Rubble as reporters. Another newspaper is The Daily Slab.

There are also two recording companies located in Bedrock: The Keen Teen Record Company and the Flippo Record Company.

Cultural and educational institutions
Bedrock is depicted as only having one high school, Bedrock High School, which is the alma mater of Fred Flintstone, his wife, Wilma, and later his daughter, Pebbles.

Universities shown in or near Bedrock include Prinstone University. Prinstone's arch-rival school is Shale University, and both universities are members of the Poison Ivy League.

In the Flintstones, Bedrock is also not far from the Oceanrock Aquarium, the home of Dripper the Sealasaurus.

Businesses
Businesses in Bedrock include bowling alleys, pool halls (including Boulder Dan's, which Fred and Barney almost bought ), health clubs, hotels, supermarkets (including Safestone's ), the Cobblestone Caterers catering service (as the owner proclaimed, "We're the only caterer in town!" ), a costume store, and an amusement park.

Several fictional department stores service Bedrock; among them are Macyrock's (where Fred once worked as a department store Santa Claus during the Christmas season ) and Gimbelstone's (where Pebbles briefly worked as a teenager).

Bedrock also features the Pyrite Advertising Agency, where Pebbles works as an adult.

In the first-season episode "The Tycoon" (in which Fred switches places with his double, J.P. Gotrocks), Bedrock is introduced by a narrator as having "a butcher, a baker and a pizza pie maker."

In the episode "The Long, Long, Long Weekend," which originally aired on January 21, 1966, Slate Rock and Gravel Company is shown as still being in business after two million years, with Mr. Slate depicted as the company's founder. In the future, the company is run by his descendant, George Slate the Eighty Thousandth. However, in Fred's dream sequence "Rip Van Flintstone," it was mentioned as having been out of business for twenty years.

In one instance, sauropod dinosaurs are seen being used as cranes at the town's most well-known employer, Slate Rock and Gravel (also known as Rockhead and Quarry Cave Construction Company in the series' earlier episodes).

Entertainment
Bedrock is depicted as having a drive-in movie theater where films such as The Monster (as seen on the marquee in the original series' opening and closing credits) and Tar Wars (produced by Gorge Lucas, as seen in the 1994 live-action movie) would play. Other features include the amphitheater the Bedrock Bowl and several nightclubs, ranging from middle-class to high-end exclusive clubs for the city's wealthy residents. The 1994 live-action movie featured the exclusive nightclub Cavern on the Green featuring its house band, The B.C. 52s. At the other end of the scale was The Poiple Dinosaur, a dive located by the wharf that was known for attracting seedy, criminal types.

Dining
Bedrock features plenty of fictional dining options including a drive-in restaurant serving brontosaurus ribs (as seen in the original series' closing credits) as well as several dinners.

The two live-action films also showed Bedrock with fast-food outlets including RocDonald's and Bronto King.

Bedrock also has several upscale restaurants including the Rockadero, Maison-LaRock, and Le Chateau Rockinbleau.

Sports
Baseball, boxing, and football are all watched in Bedrock. The episode Big League Freddie shows a baseball team named the Boulder City Giants, whose home stadium is Candlestone Park. The 1981 prime-time unique Wind-Up Wilma also shows Bedrock has a baseball team called the Bedrock Dodgers.

Bedrock also features a professional football team, the Bedrock Brontos. Their rival team is the Rock Bay Pachyderms.

Boxing matches are also popular in Bedrock; a season three episode features Fred and Barney trying to see a match featuring boxer Floyd Patterstone.

"Stone Age" names
The Stone Age setting allowed for gags and wordplay involving rocks and minerals.

Cities/Places
San Antonio becomes "Sand-and-Stony-o"; the country to the south of Bedrock's land is called "Mexirock" (Mexico). Travel to "Hollyrock", a parody of Hollywood, and Sun Valley becomes "Stone Valley", run by "Conrad Hailstone" (Conrad Hilton).

Bedrock store names include:

 * Toy-S-aurus (Toys "R" Us)
 * Bronto King (Burger King)
 * Bank of Ameroka (Bank of America)

People/Celebrities
The last names "Flintstone" and "Rubble", as well as other common Bedrock surnames such as "Shale" and "Quartz", are in line with these puns, as are the names of Bedrock's celebrities:

 * "Cary Granite" (Cary Grant)
 * "Stony Curtis" (Tony Curtis)
 * "Ed Sulleyrock/Sulleystone" (Ed Sullivan)
 * "Rock Pile/Quarry/Hudstone" (Rock Hudson)
 * "Ann-Margrock" (Ann-Margret)
 * "Jimmy Darrock" (James Darren)
 * "Alvin Brickrock" (Alfred Hitchcock)
 * "Perry Masonary/Masonite" (Perry Mason as played by Raymond Burr)
 * "Gina Loadabricks" (Gina Lollobrigida)
 * "Mick Jadestone and The Rolling Boulders" (Mick Jagger and The Rolling Stones, called "Mick Jagged and the Stones" in the live-action film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas)
 * "Eppy Brianstone" (Brian Epstein)
 * "The Beau Brummelstones" (The Beau Brummels).
 * A character refers to a style in "Haute Couture" as "the new Jackie Kennerock look" (Jackie Kennedy)

In some cases, the celebrity featured also provided the voice: characters Samantha and Darrin from Bewitched were voiced by Elizabeth Montgomery and Dick York. Examples from the above list include Ann-Margret, Curtis, Darren, and the Beau Brummels. Other celebrities, such as "Ed Sulleystone" and "Alvin Brickrock", were rendered by impersonators.

Some of Bedrock's sports heroes include:

 * Football player "Red Granite" (Red Grange)
 * Wrestler "Bronto Crushrock" (Bronko Nagurski)
 * Golfer "Arnold Palmrock" (Arnold Palmer)
 * Boxer "Floyd Patterstone" (Floyd Patterson)
 * Boxer "Sonny Listone" (Sonny Liston)
 * Baseball player "Sandy Stoneaxe" (Sandy Koufax)
 * Baseball player "Lindy McShale" (Lindy McDaniel)
 * Baseball player "Roger Marble" (Roger Maris)
 * Baseball player "Mickey Marble" or "Mickey Mantlepiece" (Mickey Mantle)

Ace reporter "Daisy Kilgranite" (Dorothy Kilgallen) was a friend of Wilma.

Monster names include:

 * "Count Rockula" (Count Dracula)
 * "Rockzilla" (Godzilla)
 * "Rocky Race's Penelope Pitrock" (Wacky Races's Penelope Pitstop)
 * "The Frankenstone Monster" (Frankenstein's monster)

Location
Bedrock is the county seat of fictional Cobblestone County and is described in the first-season episode, "The Tycoon," as being 200 feet below sea level. Presumably, the nearby town of Red Rock was located in Cobblestone County as well. However, no further information was ever given for any of these locations besides being set in a prehistoric version of the United States. Near Bedrock lies Granitetown, given in one episode as the one-time childhood hometown of Barney Rubble and Fred's boss, Mr. Slate.

Bedrock in one episode is shown as being a two-day drive from Rock Vegas, and in another episode, several hours' drive from Indianrockolis, which suggests that Bedrock might be located in what is today the Midwestern United States.

Travel to Hollyrock, the prehistoric entertainment capital of the country, usually involves an "airplane" flight—the "plane" in this case often shown as either a giant pterodactyl, with the passenger compartment being a hollowed-out log strapped to the pterodactyl's back, or a wooden plane with smaller pterodactyls on each wing as the "engines."

The season three episode "The Buffalo Convention" shows Fred and Barney going to a lodge convention in Frantic City.

The season two episode "The Rock Vegas Caper" shows the Flintstones and the Rubbles, while driving to Rock Vegas, passing the Grand Canyon; However, in prehistoric times the "canyon" is little more than a small stream. Fred, however, notes it "might be a big thing someday."

The season one episode "The Monster from the Tar Pit" shows Mr. Sandstone of the movie studio Miracle Pictures talking to one of his directors about staging his movie in a real town. When asked where Sandstone walks to a flat earth globe, closes his eyes, points to an area of the map that appears to be in modern-day Northern Iowa or Southern Minnesota, and chooses Bedrock.

It has also been suggested that Bedrock is fairly close to the ocean or the Great Lakes, as the city has a yacht club, plus the Flintstones and Rubbles have taken several trips to the beach.

The episode "Shinrock-A-Go-Go" which originally aired on December 3, 1965, featured a dream sequence from Fred with an animated caricature of President Lyndon B. Johnson, as well as the United States Capitol in a prehistoric version of Washington DC.

Real life
Several small tourist attractions and/or camper parks have been built in honor of Bedrock. The most famous and oldest is Bedrock City in Custer, South Dakota, which opened in 1966 and closed in 2015. There is also a Bedrock City in Valle, Arizona which opened in 1972. Two Canadian Bedrock Cities, both in British Columbia, were closed and/or demolished in the late 1990s. One in Kelowna, British Columbia was closed in 1998, demolished, and changed into the Landmark Grand 10 multiplex theatre and a strip mall. The second one located in Bridal Falls, British Columbia (near Chilliwack) was closed in 1994 and was changed into a dinosaur theme park called Dinotown,   in turn shut down on September 6, 2010. Another Flintstones-themed park in Canada was Calaway Park near Calgary, Alberta. It is still in operation, although the Hanna-Barbera licensing was dropped several years ago.

The reason for the closure of the two Canadian theme parks was due to licensing. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the licensing for any intellectual properties of Hanna-Barbera changed hands numerous times before they ended up in the possession of Time Warner.

In the late 1970s, plans were developed for a Flintstone Fun Park to be located in suburban Jackson, Mississippi but never got past the initial planning stage.

For the Flintstones feature film (1994), a street in Bedrock was built adjacent to Vasquez Rocks in California. It was open for a short time to visitors before being demolished.

In 2018, the City of Helsinki proposed adding English as the 3rd official language after Finnish and Swedish. This led to the local area of Kallio, which translates to "bedrock" in English, to be colloquially known as the namesake of the fictional city in The Flintstones. This has been exacerbated by the cultural ambiance in the area that is home to non-conformist bohemian souls, including artists and vagrants, some of whom are living in conditions very similar to the ones depicted in the prehistoric animated series.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bedrock (The Flintstones)


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Mario Pei

Mario Andrew Pei (February 16, 1901 – March 2, 1978) was an Italian-born American linguist and polyglot who wrote a number of popular books known for their accessibility to readers without a professional background in linguistics. His book The Story of Language (1949) was acclaimed for its presentation of technical linguistics concepts in ways that were entertaining and accessible to a general audience.

Pei was a supporter of uniting humans under one language, and in 1958 published a book entitled One Language For the World and How to Achieve It and sent a copy to the leader of every nation in existence at the time. The book argued that the United Nations should select one language—regardless of whether it was an existing natural language like English or a constructed language like Esperanto—and require it to be taught as a second language to every schoolchild in the world.

Life and career
Pei was born in Rome, Italy, and emigrated to the United States with his mother in order to join his father in April 1908. By the time that he was out of high school, he spoke not only English and his native Italian but also French and had studied Latin as well. Over the years, he became fluent in several other languages (including Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, and German) capable of speaking some thirty others, having become acquainted with the structure of at least one hundred of the world's languages.

In 1923, he began his career teaching languages at City College of New York, and in 1928 he published his translation of Vittorio Ermete de Fiori's Mussolini: The Man of Destiny. Pei received a PhD from Columbia University in 1937, focusing on Sanskrit, Old Church Slavonic, and Old French.

That year, he joined the Department of Romance Languages at Columbia University, becoming a full professor in 1952. In 1941, he published his first language book, The Italian Language. His facility with languages was in demand in World War II, and Pei served as a language consultant with two agencies of the Department of War. In this role, he wrote language textbooks, developed language courses, and wrote language guidebooks.

While working as a professor of Romance Philology at Columbia University, Pei wrote over 50 books, including the best-sellers The Story of Language (1949) and The Story of English (1952). His other books included Languages for War and Peace (1943; later retitled The World's Chief Languages), A Dictionary of Linguistics (written with Frank Gaynor, 1954), All About Language (1954), Invitation to Linguistics: A Basic Introduction to the Science of Language (1965), and Weasel Words: Saying What You Don't Mean (1978).

Pei wrote The America We Lost: The Concerns of a Conservative (1968), a book advocating individualism and constitutional literalism. In the book, Pei denounces the income tax as well as communism and other forms of collectivism.

Pei was also an internationalist and advocated the introduction of Esperanto into school curricula across the world to supplement local languages.

He died on March 2, 1978. Arrangements were made with George Van Tassel's Community Funeral Home in Bloomfield, N.J., and burial at St. Raymond's Cemetery in the Bronx followed.

Pei and Esperanto
Pei was fond of Esperanto, an international auxiliary language. He wrote his positive views on it in his book called One Language for the World. He also wrote a 21-page pamphlet entirely on world language and Esperanto called Wanted: a World Language.

Value of neologisms
Noting that neologisms are of immense value to the continued existence of a living language, as most words are developed as neologisms from root words, Pei stated in The Story of Language:

"Of all the words that exist in any language only a bare minority are pure, unadulterated, original roots. The majority are 'coined' words, forms that have been in one way or another created, augmented, cut down, combined, and recombined to convey new needed meanings. The language mint is more than a mint; it is a great manufacturing center, where all sorts of productive activities go on unceasingly."

Creative innovation and slang
"While slang may be condemned by purists and schoolteachers, it should be remembered that it is a monument to the language's force of growth by creative innovation, a living example of the democratic, normally anonymous process of language change, and the chief means whereby all the languages spoken today have evolved from earlier tongues."

Language

 * Languages for War and Peace (later retitled The World's Chief Languages), 1949, Vanni/George Allen & Unwin
 * One Language for the World, 1958, Biblio-Moser, ISBN 0-8196-0218-3
 * ''Wanted: a World Language, New York: 1969, Public Affairs Committee
 * French Precursors of the Chanson de Roland, 1949, AMS Press
 * Story of Language, 1949, Lippincott, ISBN 0-397-00400-1
 * All About Language, 1950, Lippincott
 * Liberal arts dictionary in English, French, German [and] Spanish, 1952, Philosophical Library
 * Liberal Arts Dictionary (with Frank Gaynor), 1952, Philosophical Library
 * A Dictionary Of Linguistics (with Frank Gaynor), 1954, Philosophical Library
 * Language For Everybody;: What It Is And How To Master It, 1956, New American Library
 * Getting Along in Italian, 1958, Bantam
 * Getting Along in Russian, 1959, Harper
 * Getting Along in French (with John Fisher), 1961, Bantam
 * 109 Most Useful Foreign Phrases for the Traveler, 1962, Curtis
 * Voices of Man: The Meaning and Function of Language, 1962, Harper & Row
 * The Story of English: A Modern Approach, 1962, Premier
 * Invitation to Linguistics: A Basic Introduction to the Science of Language, 1965, Doubleday, ISBN 0-385-06584-1
 * Glossary of Linguistic Terminology, 1966, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-03012-6
 * Studies In Romance Philology And Literature, 1966, Garnett Publishing
 * Words in Sheep's Clothing, 1969
 * Talking Your Way Around the World, 1971, Harper-Collins, ISBN 0-06-013327-9
 * Getting along in Spanish, 1972, Bantam
 * Weasel Words, 1972, Harper & Row
 * How To Learn Languages And What Languages To Learn, 1973, Harper & Row, ISBN 0-06-013323-6
 * Families of Words, 1974, St Martins Press, 0312280351
 * Dictionary Of Foreign Terms, 1975, Delacorte Press, ISBN 0-440-01779-3
 * What's In A Word? Language: yesterday, today, and tomorrow, 1975, Universal
 * The Story of Latin and the Romance Languages, 1976, Harper-Collins, ISBN 0-9773264-0-3
 * New Italian Self-Taught, 1982, Harpercollins, ISBN 0-06-463616-X

Discography

 * Medieval Romance Poetry, 1961 (Folkways Records)
 * One Language for the World, 1961 (Folkways)
 * Getting Along in Russian, Vol. 1, 1962 (Folkways)
 * Getting Along in Russian, Vol. 2, 1962 (Folkways)
 * Getting Along in French, Vol. 1, 1962 (Folkways)
 * Readings in Church Latin – Caesar and Cicero: Read by Dr. Mario A. Pei, 1962 (Folkways)
 * Readings in Church Latin – Virgil and Horace: Read by Dr. Mario A. Pei, 1962 (Folkways)
 * Getting Along in English, Vol. 1, 1964 (Folkways)

Other

 * The American road to peace: a constitution for the world, 1945, S.F. Vanni
 * Introduction to Ada Boni, Talisman Italian Cookbook. 1950. Crown Publishers
 * Swords of Anjou, 1953, John Day Company. Pei's first and only novel, praised in HISPANICA [1953] as "an admirable combination of absorbing narrative and sound scholarship ..."
 * THE CONSUMER'S MANIFESTO: A Bill Of Rights to Protect the Consumer in the Wars Between Capital and Labor, 1960, Crown Publishers
 * Our National Heritage, 1965, Houghton Mifflin
 * America We Lost: The Concerns of a Conservative, 1968, World Publishing
 * Tales of the natural and supernatural,, 1971, Devin-Adair

title: Mario Pei


text:
Helene Johnson

Helene Johnson (July 7, 1906 – July 7, 1995) was an African-American poet during the Harlem Renaissance. She is remembered today for her poetry that captures both the challenges and the excitement of this era during her short-lived career.

Background
Helen (Helene) Johnson was born on July 7, 1906, to Ella Benson and George William Johnson in Boston, Massachusetts.

Her mother, Ella Benson, is categorized as a domestic worker. Her father, George William, left soon after her birth and there is minimal information about him. She was raised by her mother and her grandfather, Benjamin Benson. Her mother was the child of former slaves. When growing up, Johnson was raised in a town near Boston that was named Brookline.

Johnson was named after her maternal grandmother, Helen Pease Benson, who, along with her maternal grandfather, Benjamin Benson, was born into slavery in Camden, South Carolina. The pair produced three daughters together, Ella (Helene's mother), Minnie, and Rachel.

During her formidable years, Johnson lived with her two aunts, Minnie and Rachel, who gave her the nickname Helene, even though her birth name was Helen. Johnson was raised with her cousin and future Harlem Renaissance novelist writer, Dorothy West, in Brookline, Massachusetts. Dorothy West was also known for writing short stories. The two spent summers together in Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts.

Helene received her high school education at the Boston Girls' Latin School, which was considered an exceptional public school for adolescents to attend at the time.

After high school, Johnson attended both Boston University and Columbia University but did not successfully graduate from either.

After the year 1929, Johnson left New York, New York, and returned to Boston. In 1933, Johnson married William Warner Hubbell III. Together, they had one child, whom they named Abigail. Years after the birth of her child, it is understood that Helene and her husband William divorced. Although it is known that a divorce occurred from sources close to the pair, there is no legal documentation of this occurring. Helene never remarried.

After her move to Boston where these family issues occurred, she did not publish any more poetry. Helene made this decision regardless of her previous awards and recognition and decided to stop writing for the public completely. Many of Johnson's readers were confused by her disappearance, but Johnson never explained the reason she made this decision.

Although she was well known for the poetry that she and already produced, she left Boston and resettled down in Manhattan, in New York City, New York, and worked jobs that were unrelated to poetry. Along with ending her formal career in poetry, she also began staying away from all media, even if it was praise. She made sure to stay away from cameras and curious media outlets. However, even out of the eye of the public, Johnson continued to write, and eventually, her work appeared in anthologies.

After a long and quiet life, Helene Johnson died on July 6, 1995 in Manhattan at the age of 89.

Career
The start of Johnson's literary career began when she became affiliated with the Saturday Evening Quill Club, where she claimed first prize in a short story competition sponsored by the Boston Chronicle.

Johnson published several periodicals throughout the 1920s and early 1930s when she was 19 years old. During this time, she published over thirty different pieces of poetry in many different magazines. These magazines typically were African-American known, and included the NAACP's The Crisis, edited by W.E.B. DuBois. She gained most of her notoriety from her work published in the journal of the National Urban League, Opportunity, which was a leading platform that showcased the talents of African-American artists. In 1925, Johnson collected multiple honorable mentions in a poetry contest organized by Opportunity. It was also in 1925 that Johnson received her first poetry award in the National Urban League's Inaugural Contest. In 1926, six of her poems were published by Opportunity. Her poetry also appears in the first, and only, issue of Fire!!, a magazine edited by Wallace Thurman, Langston Hughes, and Richard Bruce Nugent. Because of this recognition, many renowned poets of the time began recognizing her potential and considered her to be outstanding for her age. These awarded poets include Zora Neale Hurston, Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, and others.

She, along with Dorothy West, moved to Harlem in 1927, where they began taking classes at Colombia University to improve their writing. It was during this time they met and became friends with writers mentioned previously, such as Zora Neale Hurston.

She reached the height of her popularity in 1927, when her poem, "Bottled", was published in the May issue of Vanity Fair. The poem was known to illustrate varying aspects of African-American culture through vivid writing:

"And he wouldn't be carrying no cane.

He'd be carrying a spear with a sharp fine point

Like the bayonets we had “over there."

And the end of it would be dipped in some kind of

Hoo-doo poison. And he'd be dancin' black and naked and gleaming.

And he'd have rings in his ears and on his nose

And bracelets and necklaces of elephants' teeth.

Gee, I bet he'd be beautiful then all right.

No one would laugh at him then, I bet".

This passage from her poem, "Bottled", is a strong example of her poetry and depiction of African-American culture.

In 1935, Johnson's last published poems appeared in Challenge: A Literary Quarterly. Though her free verse poems are more often anthologized, her sonnets offer complex and sometimes deliberately ambiguous portrayals of black women's integrity. In particular, in two of her sonnets, “Missionary Brings a Young Native to America “and “Sonnet to a Negro in Harlem” the shared contrast between sonnet and song is illuminated. This is one way that Johnson exploits the nuances of the form to simultaneously embody and critique the American sonnet tradition through her writing.

She continued to write one poem a day for the rest of her life, even after leaving the public eye.

Writing Style
A notable point to be made about Johnson is her style of writing. Her style and topics included in her poetry were curated from the era in which her writing became known.

She is known for her descriptive poems that deal with major social topics such as gender and femininity, music, and the most evident social topic of race.

Johnson's tone in her poems was generally considered to conform to the standard of what formal, female writing was. This meant that while coping with difficult topics in her poetry, the tone is soft, constant, and conventional, making her work stand out in its simplicity and gentle nature while still being able to get across bold points. We see this in her poem, "A Missionary Brings a Young Native to America". This poem portrays the gentleness of Johnson while writing about difficult topics:

All day she heard the mad stampede of feet

Push by her in a thick unbroken haste.

A thousand unknown terrors of the street

Caught at her timid heart, and she could taste

The city of grit upon her tongue. She felt

A steel-spiked wave of brick and light submerge

Her mind in cold immensity. A belt

Of alien tenets choked the songs that surged

Within her when alone each night she knelt

At prayer. And as the moon grew large and white

Above the roof, afraid that she would scream

Aloud her young abandon to the night,

She mumbled Latin litanies and dream

Unholy dreams while waiting for the light.

This poem exemplifies her use of soft language integrated into her work while framing the harsh realities that live in her writing.

As mentioned before, the Harlem Renaissance was in full bloom. Johnson was able to write and make a name for herself in this era of emerging African-American artists, which speaks to how powerful her works of writing are. Her poems were often said to be extremely relatable and comforting for those reading her work. Other notable pieces from Johnson that highlight these social topics include “Trees at Night”, “The Road”, and several others. She published over 30 pieces of poetry.

Influences
Helene had many influences on her writing. Some of these influences would later grow into friendships because of Johnson's role in the African-American poetry community.

In William Stanley Braithwaite's writing, Anthology of Magazine Verse for 1926, there is a brief note that includes a list of a few of Helene Johnson's favorite poets. This list includes Walt Whitman, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Carl Sandburg.

Johnson was also acquainted with other major literary figures of the Harlem Renaissance, including Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Weldon Johnson.

Even though many of these writers were Johnson's friends, she still accredited them as influencing her writing.

Poetry Topics
The Harlem Renaissance is a major depiction of Johnson's writing and is an inspiration for a lot of her poetry. Strong social topics were a consistent theme across her writing.

As an African-American woman in the United States, she was a member of many marginalized groups. Not only do her poems discuss difficult attitudes toward race that were prevalent at the time, but they also discuss gender and age. Her poetry attested to different movements and issues that were a reality for many other African-American women. Some of the notable poems that provide these issues include, "Fulfillment" which includes pieces that discuss women and society, "Bottled" which shows issues of African-Americans in the English world, and many other famous pieces of writing.

Johnson's inspiration for her writing tended to come from the world around her and what she observed in societal interactions between different categories of individuals.

title: Helene Johnson


text:
Talk:Nick Girdler

Accusations of being unpopular among colleagues HAVE to be backed up. RickK 00:09, Feb 5, 2005 (UTC)

Moved from article page
Good luck to Nick, I'm sure you jumped before they pushed you! 9 till 12.30 has been bad this week, I'm sure his army of listeners have missed him.

This appeared soon after Nick ‘left’ in 2006 For those who are fans of Nick Girdler, as you know he was axed from Radio Solent a couple of weeks ago. What's really insulting is that Solent management think that people believe the official line that he left of his own accord. Can't abide those who think you're stupid and will believe anything they say. A Yahoo group has been set up with non-restricted membership. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/nickgirdlerhasleftthebuilding/ I was a real fan because he was definitely un-PC, called a spade a spade, didn't suffer fools, was funny and entertaining, was knowledgeable in all sorts of areas, deflated the pompous, as well as never charging for personal appearances for the selected causes he supported (unlike most so-called celebs), said he was well-looked after by society and therefore gave 21 days of his time for free back to it, was a school governor and still is a magistrate. Really brightened the mornings with his totally interactive show for those who wanted to be part of it. He wasn't everyone's cup of tea, and something went wrong so he's no longer with the BBC.

Jean in Poole, Dorset, UK

Nick Appreared in Panto during 2010/2011 At the Kings Theatre Southsea Jack and the Beanstalk Published Friday 10 December 2010 at 13:34 by John Hannam How times have changed at the Kings, Southsea. Just a few years ago, there was considerable doubt about the venue’s future, and they had to resort to amateur pantomimes. This Jack and the Beanstalk is very traditional - laced with audience participation, good comedy, colourful dance routines - and is a tonic for all ages. The star of the show is unquestionably Aiden J Harvey, who flies to Britain from Spain for his pantomime seasons. As Simple Simon he has the energy, enthusiasm and experience to keep everything moving. He has seen it all before and the kids love him from his first entrance. Lynne McGranger makes an impact as Witch Blackweed, and her confrontations with Britt Ekland, as Fairy Pea-Pod - who flew in from the Australian jungle and virtually went straight on stage - are most enjoyable. Richard Stride, in only his second time as a dame, really scores as Tilly Trott. He plays it simply, with real tradition and it works very well. Nick Girdler, as King Willy, is the best local radio presenter I have ever seen in pantomime. The Radio Solent legend is an integral part of this production and looks at home. Daniella Gibb sings strongly as Princess Jill and she enjoys several effective scenes with Steven Arnold (Ashley Peacock from Coronation Street) as Jack. The opening company number sets up this very fine show at a venue that has such an amazing atmosphere for pantomime. The Twelve Days of Christmas comedy routine is one of the best I have ever seen in 40 years of watching pantomimes —Preceding unsigned comment added by Radioman72 (talk • contribs) 15:18, 15 May 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nick Girdler


text:
Westgate

Westgate or West Gate may refer to:

Companies

 * Westgate Resorts, a real estate company and timeshare company
 * Westgate Department Stores, the department store division of Anglia Regional Co-operative Society in the United Kingdom

Events

 * Westgate shopping mall shooting, a 2013 attack on the Westgate mall in Nairobi, Kenya

United Kingdom

 * Wakefield Westgate Railway Station, the main railway station in Wakefield, West Yorkshire
 * Westgate, County Durham
 * Westgate, Gloucester, Gloucestershire
 * Westgate, Lincolnshire, a location
 * Westgate, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear
 * Westgate, Norfolk, a location
 * Westgate-on-Sea, Kent
 * Westgate, the main street in Guisborough, North Yorkshire
 * Westgate, Oxford
 * Westgate (Wakefield), a street in West Yorkshire

United States

 * Westgate, Alaska, see List of places in Alaska (W)
 * Westgate, Baltimore, Maryland
 * Westgate, Georgia, see List of places in Georgia (U.S. state) (S–Z)
 * Westgate, Iowa
 * Westgate, Los Angeles
 * Westgate, Columbus, Ohio
 * Westgate, Austin, Texas, a neighborhood in Austin, Texas
 * West Gate, Prince William County, Virginia
 * Westgate, Florida
 * Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino in Nevada
 * Westgate City Center, Glendale, Arizona
 * Westgate Center, in San Jose, California

Other countries

 * Westgate, Calgary, a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Westgate, Manitoba, Canada
 * Westgate, New Zealand, a suburb of Auckland, New Zealand
 * Westgate, NSW is the western approach to Sydney, NSW, Australia
 * Westgate, Queensland, Australia
 * Westgate, Mitchells Plain, a neighbourhood in Cape Town, South Africa.

Canada

 * Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, a high school in Thunder Bay, Ontario
 * Westgate Mennonite Collegiate, a private school serving grades 7-12 in Winnipeg, Manitoba

United Kingdom

 * The Westgate School (disambiguation)

Historic city gates

 * Westgate, Canterbury, England, a medieval gatehouse situated in the Canterbury ward of Westgate
 * West Gate, Ipswich, Suffolk
 * Westgate, Winchester, a medieval fortified gateway in Winchester, Hampshire

Shopping centres

 * Westgate Mall (disambiguation), various shopping centers around the world
 * Westgate, Nairobi, Kenya, a shopping mall in the Westlands division of Nairobi
 * Westgate, Oxford, a shopping centre in Oxford, England
 * Westgate, Singapore

Other structures

 * Westgate Hotel, in Newport, United Kingdom
 * West Gate Bridge, Melbourne, Australia
 * West Gate Freeway, Melbourne, Australia
 * Wakefield Westgate railway station, England
 * Westgate Tower, Austin, Texas

Other uses

 * Westgate (surname), a surname
 * Westgate (album), a 2007 album by Mark Seymour
 * Westgate (Metro Transit station), a planned light rail stop along the Central Corridor line in Saint Paul, Minnesota
 * Westgate (Pacific Electric), a suburban line operated by the Pacific Electric Railway from 1911 to 1940
 * Westgate FC, an association football club based in Melbourne, Australia
 * USS West Gate (ID-3216), a cargo ship of the US Navy

title: Westgate


text:
List of settlements in Thesprotia

This is a list of settlements in Thesprotia, Greece:

 * Achladea
 * Aetos
 * Agia Kyriaki
 * Agia Marina
 * Agioi Pantes
 * Agios Nikolaos
 * Agios Vlasios
 * Ampelia
 * Ampelonas
 * Anavryto
 * Argyrotopos
 * Asprokklisi
 * Avlotopos
 * Charavgi
 * Choika
 * Chrysavgi
 * Drimitsa
 * Elataria
 * Eleftheri
 * Faneromeni
 * Faskomilia
 * Filiates
 * Foiniki
 * Frosyni
 * Gardiki, Filiates
 * Gardiki, Souli
 * Geroplatanos
 * Giromeri
 * Glyki
 * Gola
 * Graikochori
 * Grika
 * Igoumenitsa
 * Kallithea, Filiates
 * Kallithea, Souli
 * Karioti
 * Karteri
 * Karvounari
 * Kastri
 * Katavothra
 * Kato Xechoro
 * Kefalochori
 * Keramitsa
 * Kerasochori
 * Kestrini
 * Kokkinia
 * Kokkinolithari
 * Koritiani
 * Koukoulioi
 * Kouremadi
 * Kryoneri
 * Kryovrysi
 * Krystallopigi
 * Kyparisso
 * Ladochori
 * Leptokarya
 * Lia
 * Lista
 * Malouni
 * Margariti
 * Mavroudi
 * Mazarakia
 * Mesovouni
 * Milea
 * Nea Selefkeia
 * Neochori
 * Pagkrates
 * Palaiochori
 * Palaiokklisi
 * Palampas
 * Paramythia
 * Parapotamos
 * Pente Ekklisies
 * Perdika
 * Petousi
 * Petrovitsa
 * Pigadoulia
 * Plaisio
 * Plakoti
 * Platanos
 * Plataria
 * Polydroso
 * Prodromi
 * Psaka
 * Ragi
 * Raveni
 * Rizo
 * Sagiada
 * Saloniki
 * Samonida
 * Sevasto
 * Sideri
 * Skandalo
 * Smertos
 * Spatharaioi
 * Syvota
 * Trikoryfo
 * Tsamantas
 * Tsangari
 * Vavouri
 * Vrysella
 * Xechoro
 * Xirolofos
 * Zervochori

title: List of settlements in Thesprotia


text:
Talk:Recursionism

Is 'recursionism' a word? How does it differ from recursion? A Google search of 'recursionism' brings up copies of this article. The only justification for this article seems to be recursive. Wikiwikifast 00:11, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

it's a word of Subhash Kak's vocabulary, who writes articles about himself here. dab (ᛏ) 15:25, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

I have heard of recursion, but never recursionism. I would like the page to include some sort of etymology or history of the term, not just a description of what it means (and the description given seems very vague). thither 04:04, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

Why hasn't this been merged with recursion, really? I'm actually quite curious, because it seems that this article would serve well as a "Recursion in other areas" section in the larger and better referenced recursion article. --FreelanceWizard 03:42, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Apart from copies of this page, the only Google hits that I can find for "recursionism" refer to the philosophy of Subhash Kak. I removed the non-philosphical parts of the article. There is no evidence that the artists and scientific discoveries that were referred to were influenced by Kak - they mostly pre-date Kak's writings - and I cannot find anywhere that Kak specifically refers to them as examples of "recursionism". So the non-philosophical parts of the article were OR - an independent amalgamation of ideas not found in Kak's work. Gandalf61 09:05, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I also favor a merge/deletion if someone who knows the system will get it going. Ryoutou 15:49, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Reverted redirect
I have reverted the change that replaced this article with a redirect to recursion. As no attempt was made to merge the contents of this article into recursion, this appears to be an undiscussed deletion of the article. If the intention is to merge then this should be proposed here or at Talk:Recursion first. If the intention is to delete then this should be proposed via Template:prod or nominated at AfD. Not saying that I oppose either of these options - just saying it should be done properly. Gandalf61 13:39, 24 September 2007 (UTC)
 * the burden of establishing this as a standalone topic would lie with whichever party insists on keeping it separate. I can find no content worth merging. --dab (𒁳) 08:20, 12 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but I've reverted your change that replaced the page with a redirect. This looks like a back-door deletion to me. I think the fate of this article deserves wider discussion to determine consensus. If you want to merge, propose a merger; if you want to delete, take it to AfD. Gandalf61 (talk) 16:56, 15 July 2008 (UTC)

if you have any evidence that this concept is notable, there can be discussion. Until you do that, there is nothing to discuss. --dab (𒁳) 14:39, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Recursionism


text:
Drongan

Drongan is a former mining village in East Ayrshire, some 8 mi east of Ayr and west of Cumnock. It had a population of 4686 in 2011.

History
The earliest references to Drongan lands are to be found in documents dating to the 14th century. In the 1390s, these lands were granted to the Craufurds, whose stronghold for 250 years was Drongan Castle. The remains of the castle can be seen on Drongan Mains Farm. The estate passed from the Craufurds to the Cunninghames, then to the Earls of Stair. About 1760, the Drongan Estate was purchased by the Smith family – who built Drongan House, set up a pottery near Coalhall and introduced pioneering agricultural improvements.

The village of Drongan (originally known as Taiglum) grew up near the early coal mine and by 1900 consisted of 65 houses and a few shops. These rows at Taiglum were demolished in the 1930s and the inhabitants were housed in new housing schemes. In 1946, it was proposed that Drongan should be developed as a "new town" and families from various small mining communities were also re-housed there.

Like many other villages in this part of East Ayrshire, Drongan saw prosperity when the Killoch and Barony pit mines were operational.

The Drongan Centre, opened in 2002, provides health, Local Authority and police services within a modern purpose-built facility and received funding from the Scottish Executive Health Department's Primary and Community Premises Modernisation Fund.

A small loch known as Loch Shield was located near Drongan House and Lochmark Farm, its waters once helping to power the nearby Mill of Shield.

title: Drongan


text:
Talk:Holographic will

Discussion
Thanks SteveHFish, for starting this article. I hope you don't mind my edits. In the United States, holographic wills are generally unwitnessed and are only recognized in half the jurisdictions. Things may be differeint in Canada though. Perhaps we can expand the article in the future and have separate Canadian and U.S. sections? - David.rand

List of Jurisdictions where Holographic Wills are valid.
Let's add a list that shows which jurisdictions in the U.S. that holographic wills are valid. Serialized 23:54, 6 December 2006 (UTC) Sorry I don't have the skills to offer this more properly - but the information about the validity of holographic wills in Hawaii is based on a secondary source, and is simply wrong - holographic wills CAN be validly written in Hawaii - here's the law: http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/hrscurrent/Vol12_Ch0501-0588/HRS0560/HRS_0560-0002-0502.htm. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.234.139.149 (talk) 17:42, 12 April 2014 (UTC)

I agree
This article needs to say what the jurisdictions are, and cite its sources.Dave Foster 05:29, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

United Kingdom
Something more needs to be said about the law in England & Wales.Felix Folio Secundus (talk) 20:01, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

Reference 19 - Wills and Probate: a consumer publication. London: Consumers' Association; p. 72 - at the time of writing does not refer to edition or ISBN. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.114.131.162 (talk) 16:10, 17 August 2012 (UTC)

Etymology
Why is this kind of will named 'Holographic'? Some etymology details are needed. --Ozhiker (talk) 00:47, 7 May 2011 (UTC)

 * "Holographic" comes from Greek roots meaning "entirely written"--so it's a fairly sensible term for such wills. Though holographic images are more commonly known, the term "holographic" is actually applied much less literally in that sense. Knight of Truth (talk) 20:13, 19 July 2012 (UTC)

United Kingdom section
In the United Kingdom, unwitnessed holographic wills were valid in Scotland until the Requirements of Writing Scotland Act 1995 which abolished the provision; such wills written after 1 August 1995 are now invalid in England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.[17] Holographic wills need not be signed, when subscription to the writing appearing on the last page of such sheet is "your loving mother," or words to the effect which designates the family or personal relationship, if it is a material consideration, the signature is sufficient

I don't understand the last part. Since holographic wills are invalid across the United Kingdom, what does it matter whether you sign your worthless, invalid Will with a squiggle or "your loving mother" or "Mickey Mouse"? --83.218.138.8 (talk) 09:57, 23 July 2018 (UTC)

The Image Shown Here. ..
With the William Shakspere signature is NOT a holograph of Shakspere. This very misleading and should be clarified. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:14D:4300:8A9:C8CF:B55A:7FAC:80B9 (talk) 03:53, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Agreed! If the definition is that the entire thing needs to be hand-written by the testator themself, then this will (mostly written by a scribe, not Shakespeare, if the description is true) is not holographic. 2001:B011:1006:D11E:9941:D694:32B6:CC03 (talk) 01:30, 25 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Holographic will


text: Template:Middle kingdoms of India

title: Template:Middle kingdoms of India


text: Category:Welsh composers

title: Category:Welsh composers


text:
Talk:Rock music in Norway

Something
What is written about the band Gartnerlosjen is not correct. They started earlier, in the mid seventees, and the style was called "kram nepe", which translates roughly as "Rythm comedy". Petter.

hmm
hmmmm i dunno

Deleted the whole paragraph on Gartnerlosjen, as it is both incorrect and irrelevant. The paragraph was probably written by someone connected to this band, who thought this was funny. It was, kind of. But as I said: both incorrect and irrelevant.

Even though they did not sing in Norwegian, I added TNT (and Stage Dolls), because these bands had a degree of commercial success outside Norway not repeated before black metal. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.248.16.64 (talk) 14:53, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

Perhaps the most important band of Norway, Motorpsycho, is missing. The had a one number one album there (walking with jesus) if not more. They startet out as a metal band but ended up with very catchy and yet ambitious progressive rock. They should be added.31.17.108.212 (talk) 09:41, 16 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rock music in Norway


text: Category:Scots composers

title: Category:Scots composers


text: Category:Scottish composers

title: Category:Scottish composers


text:
Coins of the Indian rupee

Coins of the Indian rupee (₹) were first minted in 1950. New coins have been produced annually since then and they make up a valuable aspect of the Indian currency system. Today, circulating coins exist in denominations of One Rupee, Two Rupees, Five Rupees, Ten Rupees and Twenty Rupees. All of these are produced by four mints located across India, in Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Noida.

History
After Indian independence in 1947, British Indian coins were in use as a frozen currency until the dominion of India became a republic in 1950. The first rupee coins of the Republic of India were minted in 1950. These included 1/2 ₹, 1/4 ₹, 2 anna, 1 anna, 1/2 anna & 1 pice coins, and are referred to as the anna series or pre-decimal coinage. Under the anna series, one rupee was divided into 16 annas or 64 pice, with each anna equal to 4 pice.

In 1957, India shifted to the decimal system, though for a short period of time, both decimal and non-decimal coins were in circulation. To distinguish between the two pice coins in circulation, the coins minted between 1957 and 1964 were printed with the legend “Naya Paisa” (“New Paisa”). The denominations in circulation were 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 (naya) paisa and one rupee. Since rupees retained their pre-decimal value, pre-decimal coins of one, half and quarter rupees remained in circulation after decimalisation. With effect from 30 September 1968, all anna coins and British Indian (pre-decimalisation) rupee coins minted in quarternary alloy (1/2 silver composition) were officially demonetised, though pre-decimalisation rupee coins minted in pure nickel, including British Indian issues from June 1946 onwards, continued to be legal tender.

The word "naya" was dropped in 1964 and a new denomination, the 3 paisa, was introduced into circulation. A 20 paisa coin was minted in 1968. Neither of these coins gained much popularity. The 1, 2 and 3 paisa coins were phased out gradually in the 1970s. In 1982, a new 2 rupee coin was introduced experimentally to replace 2 rupee notes. The 2 rupee coin was not minted again till 1990, after which it was minted every following year.

Stainless steel coinage of 10, 25 and 50 paisa was introduced in 1988. In 1992, a new stainless steel rupee coin, smaller and lighter than the older rupee, was minted, alongside a 5 rupee Cupronickel coin.

In 2005, the 10 rupee coin was minted for the first time. Higher denomination coins were introduced due to an increasing demand for change and the increasing cost of printing ₹2, ₹5 and ₹10 banknotes.

On 30 June 2011, all coins in denominations of 25 paisa and below were officially demonetised.

Commemorative coins in circulation can be found in various denominations. They depict various special events or people, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, B. R. Ambedkar, Rajiv Gandhi, Dnyaneshwar, the 1982 Asian Games, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sri Aurobindo, Chittaranjan Das, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, Shivaji, Bhagat Singh, Rabindranath Tagore, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Bal Gangadhar Tilak etc.

Union of India 1947–1950
At Independence on 15 August 1947, India was partitioned into the new Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The new Dominion (or Union) of India retained the previous imperial currency with the portrait of King George VI. The basic unit of currency was the Indian rupee, which was itself divided into annas (16 annas to a rupee) and pice (the old spelling of paisa – 64 pice to a rupee). The lowest-denomination Indian coins, the half-pice (128 to a rupee) and the pie (192 to a rupee) were officially demonetized in 1947; while both denominations had continued to circulate up to that time, new examples were not minted after 1942 as they were practically worthless (India remained a member of the sterling area after independence and the rupee remained pegged to the pound sterling. Until 1966, the rupee was worth 1s.6d, or 18 old British pence; a half-pice was therefore worth 0.141 old pence and a pie 0.09 old pence.)

From 15 August 1947 until 26 January 1950, the Indian coinage structure was as follows:

(bold - denominations minted by the Government of India)

This represented the currency arrangements during the transition period up to the establishment of the Republic of India.

The British India coins which were mostly in circulation from 1947 to 1950 until the first Republic of India (Pre-decimalization Series) coins were introduced as follows:

Republic of India 1950-1957
On 26 January 1950, India became an independent republic in the Commonwealth of Nations. This series was introduced on 15 August 1950 and represented the first coinage of Republic of India. The British King's portrait was replaced by the Lion Capital of the Ashoka Pillar. A corn sheaf replaced the Tiger on the one rupee coin. In some ways this symbolised a shift in focus to progress and prosperity. Indian motifs were incorporated on other coins. The previous monetary system and the old units of currency were retained unchanged.

Decimalization
The move towards decimalization was afoot for over a century. However, it was in September, 1955 that the Indian Coinage Act was amended for the country to adopt a metric system for coinage. The Act came into force with effect from 1 April 1957, after which anna and pice denominations were demonetised.

The rupee remained unchanged in value and nomenclature. It, however, was now divided into 100 'paisa' instead of 16 annas or 64 pice. Effective from 30 June 2011, all coins in denominations of 25 paisa and below were officially demonetized.

Naya Paisa series 1957–1963
The antiquated spelling of "pice" was modified to "paisa" in the singular and "paise" in the plural. For public recognition, the new decimal paisa was termed 'Naya Paisa' (New Paisa) till 1 June 1964 when the term 'Naya' was dropped. The coins of 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 25p, and 50p had a legend in Devanagari script explaining the value of coin in terms of fraction of a rupee.

Paisa Series I with Devanagari Legend 1964 onwards
In June 1964, the term 'Naya' was dropped and the coins were as follows reminted. The legend in Devanagari script explaining the value of coin in terms of fraction of a rupee continued till it was finally dropped from the new design minted 1964 onwards.

Series II without the Devanagari Legend (1965–1983)
The coin minted from 1965 did not have the legend in Devanagari, explaining the value of the coin as a fraction of the rupee. Small-denomination coins which were formerly made of bronze, nickel-brass, cupro-nickel and aluminium-bronze were gradually minted in aluminium. The first coin minted in such type was the 3 paisa coin in 1964, which was a new denomination, and continued to be minted till 1971. One and Two paisa coins were changed to aluminium and were minted without the Devanagari legend from 1965. 20 paisa coin was introduced in 1968, which continued to be minted till 1971.

Series III 1982 Onwards
From 1982, New series was launched. the 20 paisa coin which was last minted in 1971, was reintroduced again, but in Aluminium. The size and the design of 10 paisa, 50 paisa and 1 rupee was changed, though they continued to be minted in the same metal. Coins of 3p, 2p and 1p were discontinued but continued to be the legal tender.

Series IV 1988 Onwards
In Series IV, 5 paisa and 20 paisa coins were discontinued though they continued to be minted in Series III till 1994 and 1997 respectively. 10 paisa, 25 paisa and 50 paisa coins were minted in Stainless Steel. 1992 onwards, ₹1 coin was also minted in Steel and ₹2 and ₹5 coins in Copper Nickel were introduced. The very considerable costs of managing note issues of ₹1, ₹2, and ₹5 led to the gradual coinage of these denominations. These coins continued to be minted till 2004, when the Unity in diversity series was launched.

Cupro-Nickel coins are not minted anymore. Ferritic Stainless Steel coins of two and five rupee denominations are currently in production.

2004 Unity in Diversity Series
In 2004, RBI issued a series in denominations of 1 rupee, followed by 2 rupee and 10 rupee in 2005. These issues however came into circulation in 2006, and created a controversy over their design. 10 rupee coins were the first bimetallic coins issued in India, and because of the controversy and being minted in only one mint, most of the coinage never found its way into circulation. The ones which did were hoarded by Coin collectors and Coin hoarders.

2007 Hasta Mudra Series
In 2007 RBI issued a new series of Coins, The Hasta Mudra Series, in coins of 50 paisa, 1 rupee and 2 rupee denominations. These coins are stainless steel and feature various Hasta Mudras (hand gestures in Indian Classical dance). The 5 rupee piece that features waves in its design was also issued in 2007, along with a new 10 rupee coin. However, the design of the 10 rupee piece changed in 2008. The 5 rupee coin design was again reverted to the previous design, though it was issued in Nickel-brass instead of Copper-nickel. However, these 5 rupee and 10 rupee coins were not the part of the Hasta Mudra series.

2007 Common Circulation Series
The 5 rupee and 10 rupee coins were issued for common circulation in 2007, 2008, 2009 with changed designs and continued to be minted until the introduction of the Rupee Symbol series in 2011.

2011 Series with the Rupee Symbol (₹)
In 2011, RBI issued a series in denominations of 50 paise, ₹1, ₹2, ₹5, and ₹10. The 50p, ₹1, ₹2, and ₹5 designs are identical except the absence of the rupee symbol in 50p coin. The ₹10 coin continued to be issued in bimetallic issues as previously.

2019 Grain Series
The Ministry of Finance has issued a notification on March 6 announcing the launch of 5 new coins in the country, namely the new ₹1, ₹2, ₹5, ₹10 and ₹20. The new series of coins are accessible to those with visual impairments and have an enhanced design. The coins were launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Finance Minister Arun Jaitley. The design of the coins were prepared by the National Institute of Design while Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited and the Ministry of Finance played the key role in the introduction of new coins in the country.

Various new features have been incorporated in the new series of circulation coins to make them more easy for the visually impaired people to use. The coins are characterized by increasing size and weight from lower to higher denominations from ₹1 to ₹20. All of the denominations would be of round shape, except the newly included coin of ₹20, which will be a 12 sided coin with no serrations.

Mints
Each currency coin minted in India (and anywhere in the world) has a special mint mark on it to identify the mint.

Foreign Mint Marks
Due to the increasing demand for the circulation of coins, the Indian government was forced to mint coins in foreign countries at various points in the country's history.

Commemorative coins
The first Indian commemorative coin was issued in 1964 in remembrance of Jawaharlal Nehru's birth anniversary. Since then, numerous coins from 5 paise (INR 0.05) to ₹1000 (INR 1000.00) have been issued. These coins based on birth or death centenary of famous personalities or on recently dead, commemoration of special government programs or sport events, anniversaries of historical incidents, government organisation etc.

List of Commemorative Coins
Note: Bold Marks are Silver Coins, Mint index: K = Kolkata (no mark), H = Hyderabad (⋆), M = Mumbai (◆ or B), Noida = (●).

Controversy over 2006 two-rupee coin
The two-rupee coin issued from 2006 by the Reserve Bank, in stark contrast to the earlier coin, is rounded and simpler in design, without the map of India. The coin has already been criticized for being difficult to recognize by the visually impaired.

Most controversially, it features an equal-armed cross with the beams divided into two rays and with dots between adjacent beams. According to RBI, this design represents "four heads sharing a common body" under a new "unity in diversity" theme.

However, people have charged that the symbol is a Christian cross resembling the symbol on the deniers issued by Louis the Pious.

title: Coins of the Indian rupee


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Shadow Lass

Shadow Lass (Tasmia Mallor) is a superheroine appearing in books published by DC Comics. She first appeared as a statue in Adventure Comics #354 (March 1967), and was created by Jim Shooter and Curt Swan. She was called Shadow Woman, was depicted as Caucasian, and as having been killed in action defending the science asteroid, in an Adult Legion story. Her official first appearance is Adventure Comics #365 (February 1968).

Fictional character biography
Tasmia Mallor originates from the planet Talok VIII, and possesses darkness-manipulating abilities, which she and her cousin Grev (Shadow Kid) received from their ancestors, whose spirits reside in a cave on Talok VIII (Talokians practice ancestor worship). As her ancestors before her from the past thousand years, Tasmia is the hereditary shadow champion of Talok VIII. Her 20th century ancestors, Lydea Mallor and Lyrissa Mallor, were also shadow champions and members of the interstellar police force L.E.G.I.O.N.

Her cousin Grev, who also wielded the shadow power thanks to his bloodline, went on to join the Legion Academy as Shadow Kid, though aware that he could never join the team while she was an active member (due to the LSH rules regarding duplication of powers), he hoped to be better prepared to protect Talok in Tasmia's absence.

Shadow Lass joined the Legion after her homeworld was invaded by the Fatal Five. She helped the Legion to defeat them. After joining, she became romantically involved with Lar Gand and eventually married him after he was mortally wounded fighting the Time Trapper as part of the conspiracy to avenge Superboy's death at the Trapper's hands. Their marriage was rocky for many years despite their strong feelings for each other, and Tasmia went into mourning when Gand died. The mourning was temporary, as he returned to her, inhabited briefly by the Time Trapper's essence, until a cataclysmic battle erased the Trapper from existence and rewrote reality.

1994 reboot
In 1994, after the Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! event, the Legion's continuity was restarted. In this storyline, Shadow Lass used the codename Umbra and exhibited a much more aggressive and businesslike attitude. While Umbra never became involved with the Post-ZH reimagining of Lar Gand, she did make several attempts to garner his attention, only to be rebuffed.

Empowerment
Tasmia Mallor was the latest in a long line of Shadow Champions of Talok VIII. At birth she was taken from her mother, the then-current Champion, in a bid to ensure that no single accident or attack could ever claim both of them, and saw her only seven times during her lifetime, all at solemn ceremonies in which they were forbidden to speak. As she grew up, she was raised by priests and was trained in combat and drilled in the order of her bloodline.

Finally, one day, her mother was killed in battle and she was brought before the leaders of Talok VIII's twelve tribes - the only time they would ever congregate peacefully - before entering the Shadow Cave, where she met the spirits of her mother and the other prior Champions. After they chastised her for never wondering how her mother died, she took to heart their counsel to protect Talok VIII (but not their warning against egocentrism) and they told her to Go In Power.

On leaving the cave, she found the inhabitants of Talok VIII on their knees, waiting for a sign - which she provided when she let the Shadows loose. After that, she became the Champion, using her position to give orders to leaders and priests, all in maintenance of the Old Ways. This lasted until the ship came.

The United Planets ship came in peace, proselytizing the benefits of U.P. membership. Sent to greet the "invaders", she understood none of it, and she set about dismantling the "hideous" ship and crew. Despite their best efforts, she caused an explosion that caused the ship's landing gear to collapse. After that, the priests (who had already been harboring doubts about the "zealot") kept her drugged until UP entry negotiations were complete. Profoundly disturbed by the cultural influx and Talok's "captitulance", she was eventually "dismissed", and told to study the galaxy to "open her mind".

Legion
She eventually made her way to Earth, and entered the Legion tryouts and was accepted as Umbra, although her curt attitude irritated Sensor. As part of the Legion, she fought Mordru, and later played a key part in saving Wildfire - despite, after her initial fierce compassion, being disgusted at the thought of the forcible integration of his two original souls.

Blighted
Far later, the Blight enslaved most of Earth, including all but a few of the Legionnaires. Umbra was not among these escapees. When she was freed, she began to have a mental breakdown, prompted not only by the fact of her enslavement and what she'd been forced to do, but by the fact that the Blight's touching of her mind had meant that she'd enjoyed it. Shortly thereafter, she became one of the Legionnaires lost through a space rift and catapulted into another galaxy.

There, she became harder and colder than ever in lieu of breaking down completely and showing the fear that now guided her, while the voices of her ancestors from the shadow became faint and hard to understand. Then Saturn Girl tried to telepathically calm her, and it all went wrong - a telepathic matrix over a whole planet interfered with her powers, and the result left Saturn Girl in a coma, a shadow-creature fueled by Umbra and Saturn Girl's combined pain and fear loose on the ship - and an Umbra completely without pain or anxiety, leaving only anger and arrogant self-confidence.

She went down to the planet, where she began to fight Singularity (a Superman-like being), for whom the telepathic illusion which had caused the trouble was being maintained (to keep him from causing trouble on his race's real planet). When Ultra Boy and Monstress went down to get her, she began to fight them too. Finally, she was knocked out by Singularity while the Legion, having captured the shadow-creature and realized what it was, knocked out the illusion causing Singularity to go looking for his original planet. Then Brainiac 5 managed to restore Umbra and Saturn Girl's minds, and Umbra finally broke down in a crying heap.

Recovery
After this she finally began to heal from everything that had happened to her - until, after they managed to return to UP space, her power mysteriously cut out. To find out what had happened, she finally returned to Talok VIII for the first time since her dismissal. There she found a planet completely cloaked in shadow, and a shadow which knocked her out. Shadow Maven, one of the priests who had trained her, found her and told her that after her loss in the rift, they had believed her dead and managed to empower her "distant cousin Grev" with the shadows through the use of technology, and had him cloak the planet completely, withdrawing from the United Planets.

Angry at the thought that just as she had accepted the galaxy Talok had turned away from it, she went to confront Grev. The shadow gradually leeched back to her, until she split open the suit Grev used to control the shadow - and found a withered corpse inside, as he had been unable to withstand being a conduit for the Shadow, while the suit ran on its last programmed directives. She cast the shadow-cloak from the planet, and spent some time there before returning to the Legion.

2004 reboot
In 2004, the Legion continuity was again restarted. Shadow Lass has appeared in this reimagining, but little has been revealed about this version of the character. She is portrayed as an aggressive warrior. At one point, she was in a relationship with Karate Kid, but they had broken up by the time the series started. She has been dating Ultra Boy.

When the Legion visited Talok VIII, they were surprised at the degree of favor Shadow Lass commanded, including a large banquet in her honor. Tasmia explained that if the Shadow Champion did not accept such gifts, people would see her as aloof. Nonetheless, this inspired Atom Girl to suggest Shadow Lass run for Legion leader on a hedonism platform.

Tasmia also has a friendly rivalry with Grev, who in this continuity is her brother, rather than cousin.

Post-Infinite Crisis: Retroboot Legion
The events of the Infinite Crisis miniseries restored a close analogue of the Pre-Crisis Legion to continuity, as seen in "The Lightning Saga" story arc in Justice League of America and Justice Society of America, and in the "Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes" story arc in Action Comics. Shadow Lass is included in their number, and is among the group of Legionnaires who help Superman defeat the villainous Justice League of Earth in the "Action Comics" storyline.

During the Justice League of Earth's xenophobic reign, Shadow Lass worked with Night Girl, Timber Wolf, and Lightning Lass to help thousands of extraterrestrials escape Earth via an "underground" interstellar portal zone. She also debuts a reworked version of her classic Grell-era bikini in the Action Comics arc.

Shadow Lass is shown prominently in the teaser image for the Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds mini-series, using her powers to keep Mordru and Saturn Queen in the dark. In the story itself, she, Phantom Girl, and Lightning Lass rescue Mon-El from the Phantom Zone, where Earth-Man and the villainous Justice League of Earth had imprisoned him. Upon leaving the Zone, Mon-El once again suffers the effects of lead poisoning, but as in the past, is inoculated with an antidote created by Brainiac 5.

Recently in issue #2 of the new Legion comic, Shadow Lass appears to have broken up with Mon-El, with no reason truly given. In #5, she is seen in bed with the reformed xenophobe Earth-Man. When she found out that Mon-El was chosen to be a Green Lantern, she felt a bit uneasy about it. However Mon-El told her that even though he's part of the Corps, the Legion and Earth will always be his family.

In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Shadow Lass is among the Legion of Super-Heroes members who appear in the present after Doctor Manhattan undoes the experiment that erased the Legion and the Justice Society of America.

Powers and abilities
Shadow Lass in all her incarnations can cast dark fields that block all light. These can either be complete, effectively rendering useless all light sources within the area, or hollow to allow the interior to be lit. She can also solidify these fields, to use as a more direct weapon.

She is also an expert hand-to-hand combatant, and can see in complete darkness (both her own and otherwise).

Equipment
As a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, Shadow Lass is provided a Legion Flight Ring, which allows her to fly and protects her from the vacuum of space and other dangerous environments.

Television
Shadow Lass makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Justice League Unlimited episode "Far From Home".

Film

 * Shadow Lass makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League vs. the Fatal Five.
 * Shadow Lass appears in Legion of Super-Heroes, voiced by Victoria Grace. This version is a council member of the Legion Academy.

Video games
Shadow Lass appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.

Miscellaneous

 * Shadow Lass appears in Adventures in the DC Universe #10.
 * Shadow Lass appears in the one-shot comic Batman '66 Meets the Legion of Super-Heroes.

title: Shadow Lass


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Pascal Yoadimnadji

Pascal Yoadimnadji (April 8, 1950 – February 23, 2007) was a Chadian politician. He was Prime Minister of Chad from February 2005 to his death in February 2007.

Biography
Yoadimnadji was born in Béboto in the Logone Oriental Region of southern Chad, on April 8, 1950. He was a member of the Gor ethnic group, and was a lawyer.

He served as head of the National Electoral Commission from 1995 to 1997, during which time the 1996 presidential election was held. He was appointed as Minister of Mines, Energy and Oil on May 21, 1997, and subsequently he became Minister of Tourist Development in 1998 and Minister of the Environment and Water in 1999. He then served as President of the Constitutional Council from 1999 to 2004 and was appointed as Minister of Agriculture on July 23, 2004.

Yoadimnadji headed La Francophonie's observer mission for the January 2003 parliamentary election in Djibouti.

He became Prime Minister on February 3, 2005, when he was appointed by President Idriss Déby following the resignation of Moussa Faki. On August 24, 2005, Yoadimnadji announced that the government of Chad would remove all the accomplices of Chad's former leader, Hissène Habré, from official positions. He approved extending a state of emergency in November 2006 for six months in eastern provinces due to a rise in ethnic clashes that killed as many as 400 people. Yoadimnadji called for a mobilization of soldiers after the Darfur conflict spilled into Chad. The Los Angeles Times reported that "although he was a senior government figure, Yoadimnadji was not a major player in Chadian politics."

On February 21, 2007, Yoadimnadji suffered a heart attack and fell into a coma, and he was flown to France for medical treatment. He died of a brain hemorrhage on February 23 at a hospital in Paris. Seven days of mourning were declared for him in Chad, beginning on February 23. On February 26, he received a state funeral in N'Djamena, in which he was praised by Déby. His body was then given to his family for burial in Béboto. A school has been named after him.

title: Pascal Yoadimnadji


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Papal regalia and insignia

Papal regalia and insignia are the official items of attire and decoration proper to the Pope in his capacity as the visible head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State.

Regalia

The regalia of the papacy include the triregnum, a headgear with three crowns or levels, also called the triple tiara    or triple crown. "Tiara" is the name of the headdress, even in the forms it had before a third crown was added to it. For several centuries, popes wore it during processions, as when entering or leaving Saint Peter's Basilica, but during liturgies they used an episcopal mitre instead. Paul VI used it on 30 June 1963 at his coronation, but abandoned its use later. None of his successors have used it. On his personal coat of arms, Pope Benedict XVI replaced the tiara with a mitre, but the tiara remains on the coat of arms of the Holy See and of Vatican City State.

The Ring of the Fisherman, another item of papal regalia, is a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope surrounding it. It was first mentioned in 1265 by Pope Clement IV, who wrote in a letter to his nephew that popes were accustomed to sealing public documents with a leaden "bulla" attached and private letters with "the seal of the Fisherman". By the fifteenth century, the Fisherman's Ring was used to seal papal briefs. The Fisherman's Ring is placed on the newly elected pope's finger by the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church; on the Pope's death, the Cardinal Chamberlain used to deface and smash the Fisherman's Ring with a hammer as a symbolic representation of the end of the late pope's authority.

Modern popes bear the papal ferula, a staff topped by a crucifix, rather than a crozier, a bent pastoral staff styled after a shepherd's crook. The use of the papal ferula is an ancient custom, established before the thirteenth century, though some popes since that time, notably Pope Leo XIII, have used a crozier-like staff.

The use of other items of papal regalia has been discontinued, though they have not been abolished. The Sedia gestatoria, a portable throne or armchair carried by twelve footmen (palafrenieri) in red uniforms, was accompanied by two attendants bearing the flabella, large ceremonial fans made of white ostrich-feathers. The sedia gestatoria was used for the Pope's solemn entrance into a church or hall and for his departure on the occasion of liturgical celebrations such as a papal Mass and for papal audiences. The use of the flabella was discontinued by Pope Paul VI, and that of the sedia gestatoria by Pope John Paul II.

Vestments

The Pope wears the pallium over his chasuble when celebrating Mass. The pallium is a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, from which two twelve-inch-long pendants hang down, one in the front and one in back. It is ornamented with six small, black crosses distributed about the shoulders, breast and back, and is fixed in place by three golden pins, symbolic of the nails with which Christ was crucified. Only the Pope wears the pallium by right, and he may wear it at all ecclesiastical functions without restriction. In the Latin/Western rite of the church, metropolitans (that is, archbishops who are the senior bishops of an ecclesiastical province) also wear a form of the pallium within their own province, and which they must receive from the Pope, either personally or in a ceremony at which another bishop delegated by the Pope presides. Pope Benedict XVI, for his inauguration in 2005, introduced a special type of pallium that is worn only by the Pope. The new papal pallium is based upon the earlier form of the pallium, similar to the omophorion which is still worn by Eastern Christian bishops. The papal pallium is wider and longer than the ordinary pallium, and has red crosses on it. On the Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul in 2014, Pope Francis returned to the use of the usual black pallium. A vestment which is restricted to the Pope alone is the fanon made out of alternating silver and gold stripes. The fanon is similar to a shawl, one end of which is passed under the stole and the second over the chasuble; the pallium is then placed over the fanon. The fanon has gone out of common use, but Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI wore the fanon on a few occasions.

Prior to the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council, there were a number of other vestments which were worn only by the Pope: When the Pope would stand on his throne or at the sedia gestatoria, both the falda and the mantum would flow down to the lower steps, and had the effect of making the Pope look taller than the other dignitaries present. All three of these vestments were discontinued during the reign of Pope Paul VI.
 * The sub-cinctorium—a strip of embroidered fabric similar to a maniple which was suspended from the cincture. It was embroidered with a cross and the Agnus Dei.
 * The falda—a particular papal vestment which forms a long skirt extending beneath the hem of the alb. The skirts of the falda were so long that the Pope had train-bearers both in front and in back whenever he walked.
 * The mantum—a very long cope worn only by the Pope. Originally, it was red in color, but later was made to correspond to the liturgical colours.
 * A special maniple, much the same in form as maniples formerly worn by priests, but with intertwined red and gold threads to symbolize the union of the Eastern and Western Churches.

Choir dress
When not celebrating religious services, the Pope wears a cassock. Choir dress is worn when attending—but not celebrating—services, and formal occasions, such as audiences. The most immediately noticeable feature is a white cassock and zucchetto (skull cap). The cassock used to have a train on it, but Pope Pius XII discontinued this custom. For convenience, the train could be folded up and fastened to the back of the cassock. He used to wear a tufted fascia (white sash-like belt fastened about the waist, the ends of which fall down past the knees and are often embroidered with the Pope's coat of arms), until Paul VI replaced it with a simpler fringed sash. Previously, the tufted fascia (terminating in gold tassels) was worn with choir dress, and the fringed fascia (terminating in a simpler gold fringe) was worn with ordinary dress. Over his cassock the Pope will wear a lace rochet. Over the rochet is worn the red papal mozzetta, a shoulder cape that has a collar and is buttoned all the way down the front. The red color is a vestige from the days when scarlet was the papal color (white only became associated with the papacy after the Napoleonic Wars). The papal mozzetta had a small hood on the back, which disappeared after Vatican II but has recently been restored. In wintertime, the papal mozzetta is of red velvet trimmed with ermine (this also fell out of use after Vatican II, but Pope Benedict XVI began again to wear a winter mozzetta trimmed in ermine fur). In summer, the papal mozzetta is of red satin. The pope wears a pectoral cross suspended on a gold cord over the mozzetta. He may also choose to wear a red stole with gold embroidery over the mozzetta, even when he is not officiating at a service.

Traditionally during the Octave of Easter, the Pope wears the white paschal mozzetta, which is of white damask silk trimmed with white ermine. While the paschal mozzetta fell out of use during the pontificate of Pope John Paul II, it was returned to use in 2008 by Pope Benedict XVI. Since the 13th century many papal portraits have shown the pontiff wearing the camauro, a red velvet cap which covers the ears, and is trimmed with ermine. The camauro fell out of fashion with the death of Pope John XXIII, but has recently been revived by Pope Benedict XVI. Traditionally, he wears special red satin or velvet papal slippers indoors, and red leather papal shoes outdoors. The papal shoes were traditionally red, although Pope John Paul II would sometimes wear black or brown leather shoes. Pope Benedict XVI restored the use of the traditional red papal shoes, but Pope Francis has reverted to black shoes.

Ordinary dress
The Pope's ordinary dress (also called house dress), which is worn for daily use outside of liturgical functions, consists of a white cassock with attached pellegrina and girded with a fringed white fascia (often with the papal coat of arms embroidered on it), a pectoral cross suspended from a gold cord, red papal shoes, and a white zucchetto. On more formal occasions, the Pope may wear a red cape similar to the ferraiuolo except for its gold decoration. Alternatively, he may wear a red cape with a shoulder cape attached. Outdoors, the Pope may wear the cappello romano, a wide-brimmed hat used by all grades of clergy. While most other clergy wear a black cappello romano, the Pope's is usually red (although it may also be white).

Insignia
The insignia of the papacy includes the image of two crossed keys, one gold and one silver, bound with a red cord. This represents the "keys to the Kingdom of Heaven" (Matthew ; cf. Isaiah ) and is in many ways the quintessential symbol of the papacy as an institution and of its central role within the Catholic Church. Jesus's statement to Simon Peter, "whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven", is understood in Roman Catholic theology as establishing two jurisdictions, Heaven and Earth; the silver and gold keys are said to represent these two jurisdictions. The silver key symbolises the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven (another interpretation says that the silver key represents "binding" and the golden key represents "loosing").

The primary emblem of the papacy is these two keys beneath a triregnum (papal tiara). This symbol is used in several instances. The Pope's personal arms are surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them the silver triregnum bearing three gold crowns and red infulae (the lappets which hang down from the back of the tiara and fall over the shoulders when it is worn). This tradition goes back to the 15th century, the symbolism of the keys of Peter was first used by Pope Nicholas V (elected 1447).

The latest two popes (as of 2013; Benedict XVI and Pope Francis) have replaced the tiara with a simple mitre on which is depicted the three tiered cross of the papacy, reminiscent of the three tiers of the tiara. A listing of the coats of arms of the popes can be found at: papal coats of arms.

The yellow and white flag of Vatican City also makes use of this emblem on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. The yellow and white colours were first adopted in 1808 as the flag of the personal guard of Pius VII, when the other forces of what had been the Papal States were brought under Napoleon's control. The previous flag was red and gold, the traditional colours of the city of Rome. The 1808 flag was of course not that of Vatican City, which did not come into existence until 1929.

The coat of arms of the Holy See and that of Vatican City also use this papal emblem. The arms of the Holy See are blazoned: gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or. This means: on a red field are placed two keys, crossed as in the letter X, one gold, the other silver, bound by a gold cord placed through the rings, and, above the keys, a silver (white-coloured) tiara with gold (yellow-coloured) crowns. The arms of Vatican City are identical, except that the gold and silver keys are reversed and the cord is red ("gules") and interlaced at the intersection of the two keys, as illustrated in Appendix B of the Fundamental Law of Vatican City State, 7 June 1929.

The umbraculum (Latin form for little umbrella) is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, the traditional colours of the city of Rome and so, until 1808, of the papacy) whose original function was quite simply to provide shade. As it was traditionally a royal prerogative to walk beneath a canopy, Pope Alexander VI began using the umbraculum to symbolise the temporal powers of the papacy; it was formerly carried by a man standing behind the Pope. It featured in the former arms of the Papal States. The practice of walking with the umbraculum has been discontinued, although it continues to feature in ecclesiastical heraldry and remains the insigne of a basilica, usually displayed to the right of the main altar. It is sometimes carried in processions as a sign of a basilica's dignity. It also currently features in the coat of arms of the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church: because the Camerlengo administers the property of the Holy See during a sede vacante, there isn't any papal insignia when there is not a Pope in office, and the umbraculum represents the powers of Holy See, which did not cease with Pope's death, since they are entrusted to the Church itself. (see figure below).

title: Papal regalia and insignia