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Instant replay

Instant replay or action replay is a video reproduction of something that recently occurred which was both shot and broadcast live.

The video, having already been shown live, is replayed in order for viewers to see again and analyze what had just taken place.

Sports—such as American football, association football, Badminton, cricket, and tennis—allow officiating calls to be overturned after the review of a play. Instant replay is most commonly used in sports, but is also used in other fields of live TV.

While the first near-instant replay system was developed and used in Canada, the first instant replay was developed and deployed in the United States.

Apart from live action sports, instant replay is also used to cover large pageants or processions involving major dignitaries (e.g. monarchs, religious leaders such as the Catholic Pope, revolutionary leaders with mass appeal), political debate, legal proceedings (e.g. O.J. Simpson murder case), royal weddings, red carpet events at major award ceremonies (e.g. the Oscars), grandiose opening ceremonies (e.g. 2022 Winter Olympics opening ceremony), or live feeds to acts of terrorism currently in progress.

Instant replay is used because the events are too large to cover from a single camera angle or the events are too fast moving to catch all the nuance on the first viewing.

In media studies, the timing and length of the replay clips as well as the selection of camera angles is a form of editorial content with a large impact on how the audience perceives the events covered.

Because of the origin of television as a broadcast technology, a "channel" of coverage is traditionally a single video feed consumed in the same way by all viewers. In the age of streaming media, live current events can be accessed by the final viewer with multiple streams of the same content playing concurrently in different windows or on different devices, often with direct end-user control over rewinding to a past moment, as well as an ability to select accelerated, slow-motion or stop-action replay speed.

History
During a 1955 Hockey Night in Canada broadcast on CBC Television, producer George Retzlaff used a "wet-film" (kinescope) replay, which aired several minutes later. Videotape was introduced in 1956 with the Ampex Quadruplex system. However, it was incapable of displaying slow motion, instant replay, or freeze-frames, and it was difficult to rewind and set index points.

The end of the March 24, 1962, boxing match between Benny Paret and Emile Griffith was reviewed a few minutes after the bout ended, in slow motion, by Griffith and commentator Don Dunphy. In hindsight it has been cited as the first known use of slow motion replay in television history.

CBS Sports Director Tony Verna invented a system to enable a standard videotape machine to instantly replay on December 7, 1963, for the network's coverage of the US military's Army–Navy Game. The instant replay machine weighed 1300 lb. After technical hitches, the only replay broadcast was Rollie Stichweh's touchdown. It was replayed at the original speed, with commentator Lindsey Nelson advising viewers "Ladies and gentlemen, Army did not score again!" The problem with older technology was the difficulty of finding the desired starting point; Verna's system used audio tones activated as an interesting event unfolded, which technicians could hear during the rewinding process.

Replay from analog disk storage was tried out by CBS in 1965, and commercialized in 1967 by the Ampex HS-100, which had a 30-second capacity and freeze frame capability.

Instant replay has been credited as a primary factor in the rise of televised American football, although it was popular on television even before then. While one camera was set up to show the overall "live" action, other cameras, which were linked to a separate videotape machine, framed close-ups of key players. Within a few seconds of a crucial play, the videotape machine would replay the action from various, close-up angles, in slow motion.

Prior to instant replay, it was almost impossible to portray the essence of an American football game on television. Viewers struggled to assimilate the action from a wide shot of the field, on a small black-and-white television screen. However, as Erik Barnouw says in his book, "Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television", with replay technology, "brutal collisions became ballets, and end runs and forward passes became miracles of human coordination". Thanks in large part to instant replay, televised football became evening entertainment, perfected by ABC-TV's Monday Night Football, and enjoyed by a wide audience.

Marshall McLuhan, the noted communication theorist, famously said that any new medium contains all prior media within it. McLuhan gave Tony Verna's invention of instant replay as a good example. "Until the advent of the instant replay, televised football had served simply as a substitute for physically attending the game; the advent of instant replay – which is possible only with the television – marks a post-convergent moment in the medium of television".

In sports production for television
During the live television transmission of sports events, instant replay is often used to show again a passage of play which was especially important or remarkable, or which was unclear at first viewing.

Replays are typically shown during a break or lull in the action; in modern broadcasts, it will be at the next break in play, although older systems were sometimes less instant. The replay may be in slow motion or feature shots from multiple camera angles.

Video servers, with their advanced technology, have allowed for more complex replays, such as freeze frame, frame-by-frame review, replay at variable speeds, overlaying of virtual graphics, instant analysis tools such as ball speed or immediate distance calculation. Sports commentators analyze the replay footage when it is being played, rather than describing the concurrent live action.

Instant replays are used today in broadcasting extreme sports, where the speed of the action is too high to be easily interpreted by the naked eye, using combinations of advanced technologies such as video servers and high-speed cameras recording at up to several thousand frames per second.

Sports production facilities often dedicate one or more cameras to cover star players, or a key player likely to make a big play in a specific context (e.g. on last down and long in North American football, production crews will often isolate a wide receiver with sure hands in a crowd and/or superior foot speed). These are sometimes called isolation cameras, isolated cameras, or iso-cams for short.

Production equipment
EVS Broadcast Equipment is a leading manufacturer of replay production servers which have been used by major broadcasters for large events such as the FIFA World Cup, Olympics, Super Bowl, MLB Playoffs, and NBA Playoffs. A 2019 Sports Video Group survey revealed that 213 out of 257 HD mobile production trucks were using some form of EVS replay gear.

Evertz Microsystems' DreamCatcher replay system is also widely used by college and pro sports clubs including teams in the NBA, MLB and NHL.

Use by officials
Some sports organizations allow referees or other officials to consult replay footage before making or revising a decision about an unclear or dubious play. This is variously called video assisted referee (VAR), video referee, video umpire, instant replay official, television match official, third umpire or challenge. Other organizations allow video evidence only after the end of the contest, for example to penalize a player for misconduct not noticed by the officials during play.

The role of the video referee differs varies; often they can only be called upon to adjudicate on specific events. When instant replay does not provide conclusive proof, rules may say whether the original call stands, or whether a specific call must be done (most usually no score).

Leagues using instant replay in official decision making include the National Hockey League, National Football League, Canadian Football League, National Basketball Association, and Major League Baseball. It is used international in field hockey and rugby union as well. Since 2017, some association football competitions have employed the use of a "Video Assistant Referee" (aka "VAR").

Due to the cost of television cameras and other equipment needed for a video referee to function, most sports only employ them at a professional or top-class level.

Baseball

In Major League Baseball, instant replay has been introduced to address "boundary calls", which include questions on whether or not a hit should be considered a home run (HR). Among reviewable plays are: Fair Ball-HR; Foul Ball, Ball Clearing Wall-HR; Ball Staying in Play-Live Ball; Ball Leaving Field of Play-HR; and, Ball or Player interfered with by spectators (called Spectator Interference). The latest MLB collective bargaining agreement, expands instant replay to include: Fair Ball; Foul Ball along foul lines, or Ball Caught for Out; Ball Trapped Against Ground or Wall; as well as expanding Interference calls to all walls regardless of whether it is a "boundary call" or not.

In Little League Baseball, instant replay was initially adopted for the Little League World Series only but later was expanded to include the qualifying regional tournaments as well. It includes all "boundary call" plays reviewable at the Major League Level, in addition to adding review to plays involving force outs, tag plays on the base paths, hit batters, and for defensive appeals regarding whether a runner missed touching a base.

Basketball
In NBA basketball, the officials must watch an instant replay of a potential buzzer beater to determine if the shot was released before time expired. Since 2002, the NBA has mandated installation of LED light strips on both the backboard and the scorer's table that illuminate when time expires, to assist with any potential review.

Instant replay first came to NBA in the 2002–03 season. In Game 4 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals, Los Angeles Lakers forward Samaki Walker made a three-point field goal from the half court at the end of the second quarter. However, the replay showed that Walker's shot was late and that the ball was still in his hand when the clock expired. The use of instant replay was instituted afterward.

Beginning with the 2007–08 season, replay also can be used in determining players being ejected from contests involving brawls or flagrant fouls. In the 2008–09 season, replay may also be used to correctly determine whether a scored field goal is worth two or three points. It may also be used to determine the correct number of free throws awarded for a missed field goal. It may also be used in cases where the game clock malfunctions and play continues to decide how much time to take off the clock. In 2014, the NBA consolidated its replay work in remote instant replay center to support officials in multiple games.

In college basketball, the same procedure may also be used to determine if a shot was released before time expired in either half or an overtime period. In addition, NCAA rules allow the officials to use instant replay to determine if a field goal is worth two or three points, who is to take a free throw, whether a fight occurred and who participated in a fight. The officials may also check if the shot was made before the expiration of the shot clock, but only when such a situation occurs at the end of a half or an overtime period. Such rules have required the NCAA to write new rules stating that, when looking at instant replay video, the zeros on the clock, not the horn or red light, determine the end of the game.

In Italy, host broadcaster Sky agreed with Serie A to the adoption of instant replay for special tournaments and playoff games, and in 2005, for the entire season. Instant replay would be used automatically in situations similar to the NCAA, but coaches may, like the NFL, have one coach's challenge to challenge a two or three point shot. Officials may determine who last touched the ball in an out-of-bounds situation or back-court violations.

The adoption of instant replay was crucial in the 2005 Serie A championship between Armani Jeans Milano and Climamio Bologna. Bologna led the best-of-five series, 2–1, with Game 4 in Milan, and the home team leading 65–64, as Climamio's Ruben Douglas connected on a three-point basket at the end of the game to apparently win the Serie A championship.

Officials, knowing the 12,000 fans on both sides would learn the fate of the series on their call, watched replays of the shot before determining it was valid.

The EuroLeague Basketball (company) adopted instant replay for the 2006 EuroLeague Final Four and made a rule change determining the lights on the backboard, not the horn, will end a period, thus assisting with instant replay.

On April 6, 2006, FIBA announced instant replay for last-second shots would be legal for their competitions.

"The referee may use technical equipment to determine on a last shot made at the end of each period or extra period, whether the ball has or has not left the player's hand(s) within the playing time."

2019, FIBA updated their IRS (Instant Replay System) manual to further summarize the accepted workflows and methods for video review.

Before the beginning of the 2013-2014 NBA season, new instant replay rules were put into effect, saying that it can be used for: block/charge plays; to determine if an off-ball foul occurred before or after a shooting motion began in a successful shot attempt, or if the ball is released on a throw in. They also began to use instant replay to determine correct penalties for flagrant fouls.

Cricket
Cricket also uses an instant replay. It is used in the areas of run outs, stumpings, doubtful catches and whether the ball has crossed the boundary for a six or short of a four.

The International Cricket Council decided to trial a referral system during the Indian tour of Sri Lanka through late July and August 2008. This new referral system allows players to seek reviews, by the third umpire, of decisions by the on-field umpires on whether or not a batsman has been dismissed. Each team can make two unsuccessful requests per innings, which must be made within a few seconds of the ball becoming dead; once made, the requests cannot be withdrawn. Only the batsman involved in a dismissal can ask for a review of an "out" decision; in a "not out", only the captain or acting captain of the fielding team. In both cases players can consult on-field teammates but signals from off the field are not permitted.

A review request can be made by the player with a 'T' sign; the umpire will consult the TV umpire, who will review TV coverage of the incident before relaying back fact-based information. The field umpire can then either reverse his decision or stand by it; he indicates "out" with a raised finger and "not out" by crossing his hands in a horizontal position side to side in front and above his waist three times.

The TV umpire can use regular slow-motion or high-speed camera angles (usually called ultra-motion) or super-slow replays, the mat, sound from the stump mics and approved ball tracking technology, which refers to Hawk-Eye technology that would only show the TV umpire where the ball pitched and where it hit the batsman's leg and it is not to be used for predicting the height or the direction of the ball. Snicko and Hot Spot can also be used.

Fencing
Video-refereeing is compulsory at World Championships, Grand Prix competitions and at the Olympic Games, and is used when the referee cannot decide if a touch is to be awarded, at request of a player (although only two incorrect video appeals are allowed per player in individual competitions) or if the score is tied in the last point and both lights turn on. There is an assistant official, called "video-referee", who is watching the live match and helps the referee on the decision through a slow motion replay on a monitor close to the piste. It is specially used to decide the right of way in foil and sabre. To appeal, a player must make a gesture in the form of a rectangle (monitor) to the referee. In individual matches, if the player has appealed twice incorrectly, they can no longer appeal again.

Association football
In association football, FIFA did not formally permit video evidence during matches until the 2018 FIFA World Cup, although it had been on trial in various competitions beforehand, and it was permitted for subsequent disciplinary sanctions. The 1970 meeting of the International Football Association Board "agreed to request the television authorities to refrain from any slow-motion play-back which reflected, or might reflect, adversely on any decision of the referee". In 2005, Urs Linsi, general secretary of FIFA, said:
 * Players, coaches and referees all make mistakes. It's part of the game. It's what I would call the "first match". What you see after the fact on video simply doesn't come into it; that's the "second match", if you like. Video evidence is useful for disciplinary sanctions, but that's all. As we've always emphazised at FIFA, football's human element must be retained. It mirrors life itself and we have to protect it.

There have been allegations that referees had made or changed decisions on the advice of a fourth official who had seen the in-stadium replay of an incident. This was denied by FIFA in relation to the Zidane headbutt of Materazzi in the 2006 World Cup final, and in relation to the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup match between Brazil and Egypt, in which Howard Webb signaled initially for a corner kick but then a penalty kick.

It has been said that instant replay is needed given the difficulty of tracking the activities of 22 players on such a large field, FIFA officials approached researchers at the University of Glasgow in Scotland for help, but came up with nothing that could satisfy the league's stringent requirements. Opponents of instant replay like former FIFA President Sepp Blatter argue that refereeing mistakes add to the "fascination and popularity of football." It has been proposed that instant replay be limited to use in penalty incidents, fouls which lead to bookings or red cards and whether the ball has crossed the goal line, since those events are more likely than others to be game-changing.

In 2007, FIFA authorized tests of two systems, one involving an implanted chip in the ball and the other using a modified version of Tennis's Hawk-Eye system, to assist referees in deciding whether a ball had crossed over the goal line. The following year, however, the IFAB and FIFA halted testing of all goal-line technology, fearing that its success would lead to its possible expansion to other parts of the game. Sepp Blatter claimed the technologies were flawed and too expensive to be implemented on a widespread basis, adding, "Let it be as it is and let's leave (soccer) with errors. The television companies will have the right to say (the referee) was right or wrong, but still the referee makes the decision — a man, not a machine". This sudden change of course surprised and angered Paul Hawkins, as the inventor of the Hawk-Eye system had invested a great deal of money into adapting the Hawk-Eye technology to football. In 2009, Hawkins sent an open letter to Blatter refuting the FIFA president's assertion that the Hawk-Eye goal line technology was flawed and arguing that Hawk-Eye met all of the criteria established by the IFAB for a suitable goal line technology system.

The controversy over goal line technology was re-ignited in 2009 after Brazil had a potential equalizing goal disallowed during the 2009 Confederations Cup Final; and during the 2010 FIFA World Cup after England's Frank Lampard's shot off the underside of the crossbar during a 4–1 defeat against Germany was not ruled a goal, despite replays clearly showing it was 60 centimeters over the line.

In July 2012, International Football Association Board voted unanimously to officially amend the Laws of the Game to permit (but not require) goal-line technology. The technology was used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

In April 2016, it was announced that Serie A was selected by the International Football Association Board to test video replays, which were initially private for the 2016–17 season, allowing them to become a live pilot phase, with replay assistance implemented in the 2017–18 season. On the decision, FIGC President Carlo Tavecchio said, "We were among the first supporters of using technology on the pitch and we believe we have everything required to offer our contribution to this important experiment".

In September 2016, the video review system known as Video Assistant Referees (VAR), was first used in an international friendly between Italy and France. The system was implemented at a FIFA World Cup for the first time at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

Major League Soccer in the United States introduced VAR in competitive matches during its 2017 season after the 2017 MLS All-Star Game on 2 August 2017.

Gridiron football codes
In American and Canadian football, instant replay can take place in the event of a close or otherwise controversial call, either at the request of a team's head coach (with limitations) or the officials themselves. There are restrictions on what types of plays can be reviewed. In general, most penalty calls or lack thereof cannot be reviewed, nor can a play that is whistled dead by the officials before the play could come to its rightful end.

American and Canadian football leagues vary in their application and use of instant replay review. In the National Football League, each coach is allowed two opportunities per game to make a coach's challenge, and get a third challenge if both of the original two challenges were successful. A challenge can only be made on certain reviewable calls on plays that begin before the two-minute warning and only when a team has at least one timeout remaining in the half. The Canadian Football League uses similar rules as the NFL, except the game has a three-minute warning near the end of each half instead of two. In NCAA football, each team only has one challenge per game, and gets a second challenge if the first one is successful. In all three rules codes, the challenging team is charged with a timeout if their challenge is unsuccessful.

U.S. high school rules prohibited the use of replay review, even if the venue had equipment that allows the practice, before 2019, when the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) gave its member associations the option to allow its use in postseason games only. In Texas, where high schools have always based their rules on those of the NCAA, the University Interscholastic League, which governs public-school sports, allows its use only in state championship finals. The main governing body for Texas private schools, the Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools, follows pre-2019 NFHS practice by banning replay review.

Field hockey
In field hockey, the International Hockey Federation allows the match umpire to request the opinion of a video umpire as to whether or not a goal has been validly scored, and whether there was a violation in the build-up to a goal. The video umpire can advise on whether the ball crossed the line there was a violation. Ordinarily, teams are not allowed to make such a request or to press the match umpire to do so. On a trial basis, the 2009 Men's Champions Trophy allows for "team referral" by each team captain, to query a goal, penalty stroke, or penalty corner decision. The team retains the right to a referral if its previous referrals were upheld.

Ice hockey
The video goal judge reviews replays of disputed goals. As the referee does not have access to television monitors, the video goal judge's decision in disputed goals is taken as final. In the NHL, goals may only be reviewed in the following situations: puck crossing the goal line completely and before time expired, puck in the net prior to goal frame being dislodged, puck being directed into the net by hand or foot, puck deflected into the net off an official, and puck deflected into the goal by a high stick (stick above the goal) by an attacking player. The video goal judge also reviews replays to establish the correct time on the game clock. All NHL goals and time remaining on the game clock are subject to review, and although most arenas have a video goal judge, often officials in the Situation Room (also known as the "War Room") at the NHL office in Toronto make the final decision.

Review challenges
Beginning in the 2015-16 NHL season, instant replay reviews have been expanded to include a coach's challenge. Each coach receives one challenge per game, which requires the use of a timeout. Coaches may only challenge over situations whether the goal should have been disallowed because of goaltender interference or an offside, or whether a goal disallowed because of goaltender interference should be allowed instead. The challenging team retains its timeout and its challenge after every goaltender interference call that has been overturned. There are two situations that happen when a challenge is upheld:
 * If an offside review is upheld, the challenging team receives a minor penalty for delay of game.
 * If a goaltender interference review is upheld, the challenging team loses its timeout.

Challenges are not allowed during the final minute of regulation, as well as at any point during overtime. In this situation, officials in the Situation Room reviews all instances where the puck entered the net, and then determines the final ruling. However, for reviews that take place during coach's challenges, the on-ice officials determine the final ruling.

Junior Hockey
Similar to the National Hockey League, Junior Hockey leagues, such as the CJHL also use instant replay with a Video Goal Judge to initiate and be responsible for the review of all goals. The Video Goal Judge may also be asked to verify the time during a game.

Referees utilize instant replay for on-ice review of Major Penalties as well as Match Penalties, in which they look to confirm or modify their original call on the ice.

Video review on a play involving a goal must be done immediately after the play has concluded, and before the puck is dropped again. On-ice calls cannot be overturned once the puck is dropped again and play has resumed.

Motorsports
In international motorsport championships, race stewards often use instant replay to decide whether to penalize competitors for avoidable contact or pitlane infractions.

NASCAR utilizes instant replay to supplement their electronic scoring system. Video replays are used to review rules infractions and scoring disputes.
 * Video replay supplements electronic scoring at the finish line (particularly the race winner) in "photo finish" situations.
 * Video replay supplements electronic scoring to determine the final positions when a race ends under the safety car on either the last lap (both in regulation and in a green-white-checker finish) or when it is evident the race will reach the expiration of time without a subsequent restart.
 * Starting in 2022, if the safety car situation subsequently results in the race being concluded for weather, curfew, other situation, video replay can be used to determine the final positions. Previously, if a race is prematurely ended, the race was determined by the last completed scoring loop.  This happened as a result of the October 2021 Talladega Superspeedway Sparks 300 Xfinity Series race that was curtailed because of darkness, where NASCAR determined results based on the last completed scoring loop.
 * Video replay is used to determine if a car has crossed the pit entrance before the pit was closed when a safety car situation begins. It also determines if drivers are following pit road speed limits.
 * Video replay supplements electronic scoring to determine the positions in which cars exit the pits (during the safety car).

IndyCar also utilizes instant replay for similar reasons.
 * The most notable use of replay in recent years occurred during the 2008 Peak 300 at Chicagoland Speedway. On the final lap, Scott Dixon and Hélio Castroneves crossed the finish line side by side, with computer scoring showing Dixon the winner by a margin of 0.0010 seconds. However, video replay evidence clearly showed that the nose of Castroneves' car touched the line first. Castroneves was declared the winner officially by 0.0033 seconds or 12⅛ inches, in the second closest finish in the twelve-year history of the series. It was later determined that the deliberate improper installation of Dixon's scoring transponder was the source of the scoring error.
 * Video replay was also used extensively in the aftermath of the controversial 2002 Indianapolis 500. However, fully conclusive evidence was lacking.

Broadcast stations utilize replays to show viewers a crash in greater detail.

Rodeo
The Professional Bull Riders, beginning with the 2006–07 season, has instituted an instant replay review system.

A bull rider, a fellow competitor, or a judge may request a replay review by filing a protest to the replay official within 30 seconds of any decision.

Any competitor (it does not have to be the rider who is riding the bull in question, as fellow riders can observe the action and spot fouls by bull or rider) may file the complaint to the replay official by sounding a signal at the arena and explaining to the replay official why he is filing the request.

The designated replay official (one of the four officials in the arena) may request different angles and/or slow motion, as well as freeze particular frames. The replay judge will use all available technology to assess the call in question and supply his ruling. This includes using his own hand-held stopwatch to time bull rides in case of a clock malfunction, as well as a graphic overlay of the official eight-second clock used in PBR competition that starts when the bull exits the bucking chute.

The replay will be used to evaluate timing issues, fouls against the rider for touching the bull or ground with his free hand or using the fence to stay on the bull, or fouls by the bull, such as dragging the rider across the fence.

If an appeal is successful, the decision will be overturned and there will be no charge to the individual filing the protest. If the appeal is unsuccessful, a $500 charge is levied against the protester which is donated to PBR charities such as the Western Sports Foundation to assist injured bull riders and western sports athletes.

Rugby league
Since being introduced by the Super League in 1996, video referees have been adopted in Australasia's National Rugby League and international competition as well. In rugby league the video referee can be called upon by the match official to determine the outcome of a possible try. The "video ref" can make judgements on knock-ons, offside, obstructions, hold-ups and whether or not a player has gone dead, but cannot rule on a forward pass. If a forward pass has gone un-noticed by the on-field officials it must be disregarded by the video ref, as such judgements cannot reliably be made due to camera angle effects.

Rugby union
Use of video referee by referees was introduced to rugby union in 2001. The laws of the game allow for "an official who uses technological devices" to be consulted by the referee in decisions relating to scoring a try or a kick at goal. The decision to call on the video referee (now called "Television Match Official (TMO)") is made by the referee following discussion with the assistant referees/touch judges and cannot be instigated by the players or coaches of either team. When concerning an act of foul play, the TMO may alert the referee and initiate the replay process.

In a possible try/no try situation, the referee shall signal his initial on-field decision (the "soft signal") and request the TMO to review all available footage and provide " advice and recommendations" to the on field referee. The referee should only change their decision where there is "clear and obvious" evidence that it was incorrect. In stadia with screens, the TMO may show footage directly to the referee. As per Law 6.5 A of the Laws of Rugby Union, "The referee is the sole judge of fact and of law during a match". Once a final decision is made, it is to be signaled by the referee.

Tennis
In tennis, systems such as Hawk-Eye and MacCAM calculate the trajectory of the ball by processing the input of several video cameras. They can play a computer rendering of the path and determine whether the ball landed in or out. Players can appeal to have the system's calculation used to override a disputed call by the umpire. In March 2008, the International Tennis Federation, Association of Tennis Professionals, Women's Tennis Association and Grand Slam Committee agreed unified challenge rules: a player can make up to three unsuccessful challenges per set, and a fourth in a tie-break. Television broadcasts may use the footage to replay points even when not challenged by a player.

title: Instant replay


text:
Talk:Mount Magazine

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 11 February 2020 and 4 April 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): GigglesTheHyena.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 04:32, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Improvements
how was it formed? what is its history? this article needs improvements. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.29.158.220 (talk) 00:43, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

It's not in the Ouachitas
Locally, nobody considers Mount Magazine to be in the Ouachitas. See, it's cut off from them by the Petit Jean River Valley. It was formed along with the Ozarks but it's physically separate so really it is a standalone mountain. 69.29.99.218 (talk) 03:15, 19 April 2014 (UTC)
 * The mountain does stand relatively alone, but according to the Arkansas state geological survey, Mt Magazine is a part of the Ouachita Mountains. In the references of the article there is a link to the information. —catsmoke talk 09:53, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Mount Magazine


text:
Talk:Old Rag Mountain

Section: The Dog
Does this really belong in an encyclopedia article? Sure, it's kind of cute, but seriously...an actual encyclopedia article would at least give the dog's name. Paulburnett (talk) 04:37, 21 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Agreed. There's not even a cute newspaper article or something to use as a source.  It's written more like a folksy story than an encylcopedia.  Way too subjective, I say nix it.
 * -LogisticEarth (talk) 19:26, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

Elevation
3,291 or 3,284 feet? The article says both, but it can only be one or the other. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.82.34.123 (talk) 03:04, 11 June 2011 (UTC)

Parking Confusion in Recreation Section
The recreation section mentions 3 parking areas: at the beginning of the paragraph a lot located at the end of "County Route 601" is mentioned, later it is noted that the "Old Rag" parking area was closed in 2010 and that the only parking is now at "the lower field parking area". Is the lot at the end of County Route 601 the same as the lower field lot? Or is it same lot as the now closed Old Rag lot?

If the Route 601 lot is the same as the still open lower field lot, I suggest that just after the sentence that currently mentions the Route 601 parking area at the beginning of the paragraph something like this is added. "As of 2012 this lower lot at the end of Route 601 is the closest to the trailhead. The Old Rag parking lot located a half mile closer was closed in 2010." (or closed in 2010 due to....?.) If the Route 601 is instead the same as the now closed Old Rag lot, similar clarifying changes should be made. First give the location of the lower field lot at the beginning of the paragraph then note the closure of the Old Rag lot in the next sentence. In either case, the portion should be removed that currently reads, "The Fire Road then descends 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to the Old Rag parking area . This pleasantly convenient parking area was closed in 2010. All parking is now limited to the lower field parking area adding a half mile walk on asphalt." In addition to being confusing, the excessive adjectives in this portion are opinion and do not belong in an encyclopedia.

I can't make these changes without knowing which lot is being referred to at the end of route 601. If anyone is familiar with this area, please reply or clarify this section. Also, I came to this article looking for information on a natural staircase formation located on Old Rag Mountain (other wiki articles direct here for information on this natural formation). If anyone has any information or pictures this would be a great addition to this article. Swhitt21 (talk) 19:07, 9 July 2012 (UTC)

Parking lot is on 600, not 601
Like the subject says, it's on Route 600 not 601! The road is called Nethers Rd, which takes you to the lower parking lot. The old Upper parking is closed to public. PATC is building a middle parking lot, when it's done; the lower lot will be closed.The backside parking lot is called Berry Hollow Parking lot which is by Whiteoak Canyon. Also the summit is 3,291' not 3,284' which displays on the SNP Map.

title: Talk:Old Rag Mountain


text:
Talk:Mount Rogers

Untitled
The photo that is posted is not of Mt Rogers. Mt Rogers has a gentle, forested summit, not a bare, rocky one. The photo looks like one of the rock outcroppings that are at least a mile from the summit. Could somebody substitute a photo that is less misleading? 128.173.49.45 (talk) 20:34, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

____

This article attributes the loss of the spruce fir forests on Mt Rogers to increasing temperature, and a drier environment. Possible so, but elsewhere (Great Smoky Mountains), the loss of the Frazier fir is attributed to the balsam woolly adelgid which killed 95% of the Frasier firs over the past decade. I would guess that this is the cause of the loss fir on Mt. Rogers as well. 23:57, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I reworked the uncited paragraph about the effects of global warming on the forests of Mount Rogers into a discussion of the spruce-fir forests of Mount Rogers and the reasons for their decline (I could find no reliable sources that mentioned recent climate changes affecting the forests; the decline is mostly attributed to the balsam woolly adelgid). I also changed the name of the section from Global Warming Controversy to Spruce-Fir Forests. Although as I worked on it, it ended up being more concerned with the red spruce-fraser fir forests in general, rather than Mount Rogers itself. There is currently a poor article for Fir and spruce forests, so maybe we could clean that up and work some of this info into it. SheepNotGoats (talk) 20:57, 20 September 2008 (UTC)

Northenmost extent of southern Spruce-fir Forest

What about Beartown north of Saltville and Balsam Beartown Mountain at the NW Corner of Burkes Garden? Those are Spruce-Fir forests too. Are you saying those include the southernmost extent of Balsam and not then Northernmost extent of Fraiser Firs?107.4.166.57 (talk) 19:11, 22 July 2012 (UTC)

Article as primary topic
I just reverted 's move of this article to Mount Rogers (Virginia), per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC. Let's discuss whether this article is the primary topic: that is, whether it is "highly likely—much more likely than any other single topic, and more likely than all the other topics combined—to be the topic sought when a reader searches for that term".

The evidence that this is a primary topic includes:
 * Google Books search of "Mount Rogers" Virginia yields 14,000 results, while "Mount Rogers" Australia yields 2,870 results.
 * Google Scholar search of "Mount Rogers" Virginia yields 1,310 results, while "Mount Rogers" Australia yields 323 results.
 * |Mount_Rogers_(Australian_Capital_Territory) Wikipedia traffic over the last 90 days: 87 daily active readers for Virginia, 2 for Australia

I think these data show that the peak in Virginia is much more likely than the peak in Australia to be the topic sought in searches. What do other editors think? —hike395 (talk) 14:45, 22 January 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Rogers


text: Talk:Sassafras Mountain

title: Talk:Sassafras Mountain


text:
Talk:Mount Walter (New Mexico)

Minor peak
It's more consistent with usual methods of listing mountains if we clarify that this summit, while having a name, is not even close to being a separate peak by the local standard (300 foot prominence). -- Spireguy 03:41, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

Easiest route
I changed the easiest route to Bull-of-the-Woods. This might be a matter of opinion, but it is definitely a much lower-angle route, all on trail, even if it is a bit longer than the Williams Lake route. -- Spireguy 03:40, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Walter (New Mexico)


text: Talk:Wheeler Peak (New Mexico)

title: Talk:Wheeler Peak (New Mexico)


text: Talk:Whitetop Mountain

title: Talk:Whitetop Mountain


text:
File:KylieMinogueSpinningAround.ogg

Summary

 * Sound sample from the song "Spinning Around"
 * Song length: 3:28
 * Reduced quality: Yes
 * Source : Light Years
 * Songwriter(s): Ira Shickman, Osborne Bingham, Kara DioGuardi, Paula Abdul
 * Performed by: Kylie Minogue
 * Producer(s): Mike Spencer
 * Copyright © 2000 Parlophone

Rationale of fair use for "Spinning Around" sample
This is a sound sample from a commercial recording. Its inclusion here is claimed as fair use because:
 * It illustrates an educational article that specifically discusses the song from which this sample was taken. The section of music used is discussed in the article in relation to the song's lyrics, musical and vocal style, and may contain part of the song's chorus.
 * It is a sample of no more than 30 seconds from a much longer recording, and could not be used as a substitute for the original commercial recording or to recreate the original recording.
 * It is of a lower quality than the original recording.
 * It is not replaceable with an uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted sample of comparable educational value.
 * It is believed that this sample will not affect the value of the original work or limit the copyright holder's rights or ability to distribute the original recording.
 * The audio sample is a copyrighted work. U.S. copyright laws apply to this work. Should a free or public domain sample be located, it should be used in place of this audio sample.

title: File:KylieMinogueSpinningAround.ogg


text:
APSA

APSA may refer to :

 * Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See, an institution of the Holy See, Vatican City
 * Aerolíneas Peruanas S.A., the former national airline of Peru
 * African Peace and Security Architecture, a peace and security policy framework of the African Union
 * Alto Palermo S.A., an Argentine real estate company
 * American Pediatric Surgical Association, an American professional association
 * American Physician Scientists Association, a professional organization
 * American Political Science Association, a professional association
 * APSA Colombia, an airline based in Bogotá, Colombia
 * Asia Pacific Screen Awards, an international cultural initiative of the UN, based in Australia
 * London All Peoples' Sports Association football club, a non-League football team who play in the Essex Senior Football League

title: APSA


text:
Music in Astrakhan Oblast

Astrakhan Oblast is a southern region of Russia with a rich musical history. Modern institutions include the New Musical Theatre, Astrakhan Conservatory and the Astrakhan Regional Philharmonic.

title: Music in Astrakhan Oblast


text:
Coen, Queensland

Coen is a rural town and coastal locality in the Shire of Cook, Queensland, Australia. The town of Coen is inland on the Peninsula Developmental Road, the main road on the Cape York Peninsula in far northern Queensland. The community is quite busy, particularly in the dry season, with all tourists and visitors travelling the Peninsula Development Road up to the tip of Cape York having to pass through the town.

In the, the locality of Coen had a population of 320 people.

Geography
The locality of Coen is on the eastern side of Cape York Peninsula with the Coral Sea forming its eastern boundary. Part of the northern boundary follows the Archer River, while the Coen River forms part of its western boundary. The Peninsula Developmental Road runs roughly north to south through the locality.

Though the town falls within the boundaries of the Shire of Cook, the town is about 400 km from the shire's headquarters in Cooktown, about a 6.5 hour drive.

Moojeeba is a town in the south-east of the locality on the northern bank of the Stewart River (-14.0791°N, 143.6486°W).

Port Stewart is a town also on the northern bank of the Stewart River but closer to the river mount into the Coral Sea (-14.0669°N, 143.6861°W).

History
This is the traditional homelands of the Kaanju people. Kaanju (also known as Kaanju and Kandju) is a language of Cape York. The Kaanju language now known as Southern Kaantju language is the local language for the region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Shire of Cook.

In 1623, Jan Carstensz, the navigator of the ship Pera of the Dutch East India Company named a river on Cape York Peninsula after Jan Pieterszoon Coen, the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Today that river is known as the Archer River and the name Coen River is given to one of its tributaries.

The Coen district was first settled following the exploration of Cape York Peninsula by William Hann in 1872. Hann's exploration party discovered gold on the Palmer River, southwest of Cooktown. After hearing of the discovery, James Mulligan led an expedition to the Palmer River in 1873. A government surveyor, A C Macmillan, with a group of engineers protected by a consignment of Native Police, blazed a track from Cooktown to the Palmer River goldfields in October 1873.

In 1876, Robert Sefton found gold at the Coen River after leading a prospecting party into the interior of Cape York. He built a log fort there for protection from any hostility from local Aboriginal groups and prospected for gold in the surrounding country. In 1878, there was a gold rush to Coen following Sefton's return to Cooktown with 140 ounces of gold. About 500 miners flocked to the Coen field, but exploration further afield was not possible due to the danger of being attacked by local Aboriginal people. The alluvial gold was soon extracted and the miners began leaving, after the discovery of gold at Lukinville on the Lower Palmer River.

In 1879, geologist Robert Logan Jack led a government-sponsored exploration of Cape York Peninsula. Jack left Cooktown and travelled up the Coen track previously marked out by Sefton, where they encountered Aboriginal people in great numbers: "'Most of them were frightened of the white men having, no doubt, learnt a few lessons at the muzzles of Snider rifles in the hands of the diggers travelling the Coen track'."In 1880, it was reported that about 350 Chinese miners had returned to the Coen goldfield.

Due to the fierce resistance of local Aboriginal people, settlement on the McIvor and Coen Rivers only took a tentative hold during the early 1880s. In 1881, the first settlers on these rivers had to retreat to Cooktown. A Cooktown newspaper correspondent reported that: "'The McIvor country is now completely abandoned …I fear it will be some time before there is any attempt to stock the country again, as the blacks are likely to be very troublesome to the next party which goes out. I am informed that there are still two Europeans and ten Chinese prospecting about the Coen, but all the teams and cattle have come in'." The Overland Telegraph to Cape York was built between 1883 and 1887 and European expansion and settlement accelerated. European settlement progressed into Cape York with the help of Native Police protection after a Native Police camp was established at McIvor in 1886 and at Coen in 1888. The Aboriginal people in the Coen district adapted to European settlement by moving onto the newly established cattle stations where they became stockmen and domestic labour. Some worked in the mines and a few were employed in Coen. Several men were attached to the Coen police station as trackers. Others continued to live as they always had. In 1947, an extended family group was found by the police near the Archer River and brought into Coen. The police reported that the group were living a "traditional" lifestyle and had had very little contact with western civilisation.

Around 1890, reef gold was found at Coen and mining recommenced. In 1892, Coen had a population of approximately 125 people, including a small population of 25 Chinese immigrants who prospected for gold and worked their market gardens. The buildings at Coen comprised a hotel, store, butcher's shop, blacksmith's shop and a row of 6 cottages occupied by miners and their families. The police camp was situated 2 miles from town on the Coen River and the telegraph station was 1 mile from town on Lankelly Creek. Supplies to Coen were transported from Cooktown to the Port Stewart store and from there bullock teams transported goods the 40 miles to Coen.

Coen Post Office opened on 20 June 1893 (a receiving office had been open from 1888).

Coen Provisional School opened on 6 May 1895. On 1 January 1909, it became Coen State School. It closed in 1929 but reopened circa 1948. In January 2010, it became a campus of the Western Cape College. In January 2012, it became a campus of the Cape York Aboriginal Australian Academy.

In 1897, the Queensland Parliament passed the Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897, which granted the Home Secretar the power "to cause every aboriginal within any District, not being an aboriginal exempted from the provisions of this section, to be removed to, and kept within the limits of, any reserve situated within such District, in such manner, and subject to such conditions, as may be prescribed". Over 300 Aboriginal people were removed from the Coen district to Aboriginal reserves. Almost half of those removed were sent to Palm Island. Included in this number were the Lama Lama people of the Stewart River area who had been dispossessed of their lands by European pastoral expansion into their country in the late 19th century. They formed a community at the Stewart River on what is now Silver Plains Station, near the site of the Moojeeba township. In the 1930s, they were removed to Lockhart River Mission but later returned to Port Stewart. The Great Northern mine continued operations until 1916 and produced some 52,000 ozt of gold before it closed.

As gold mining declined from around the 1930s, Coen still remained an important administrative and social centre for the surrounding Cape York communities.

In the 1930s, mainly older Aboriginal people from the Munkan, Kaanju and Lama Lama lived scattered around Coen, living in bark and stick huts. In 1939, there was an influx of Aboriginal people who had earlier been removed from Coen to Lockhart River, and others from Ebagoola and the Archer River. A more permanent camp was then established. As the camp increased in size, the Director of Native Affairs was in favour of removing everyone to Lockhart River Mission to avoid the expense associated with providing services to the camp. However, the local protector opposed the proposal saying that: "'your suggestion to send these old people to Lockhart River is unthinkable. If you send them there they will only walk back to their own native country. Coen is their home, their native land, and at least they might be happy in the knowledge that they might die in the place where they first saw the light of day'"The local Coen protector arranged for the Aboriginal people who were working to contribute to the cost of camp improvements and, under those terms, they were allowed to stay at Coen.

During World War II, Coen was an important part of the forward defence network. In October 1942, detachments of 16 Australian Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers travelled to Cooktown, Mount Surprise and Coen to build Repeater Huts.

In May 1944, 14 acres were gazetted near Coen as an Aboriginal reserve. The reserve was located south of the town on the Coen River between Oscar and Spring Creeks. Over time, more buildings were erected on the reserve and a market garden established. In 1961, the reserve between Oscar and Spring Creeks was closed and a new Aboriginal reserve established. The new reserve was located closer to the town on the Coen River, opposite the cemetery.

Isolation was a challenge in Coen, in particular in regard to communication, with one of the last pack horse runs in Queensland operating out of Coen as late as the 1950s. As well, until the 1960s, when the Weipa-Bamaga area was developed, Coen was the most northerly town on Cape York Peninsula.

In 1961, the owner of the Silver Plains Station falsely accused the Lama Lama people of harassing stock. The accusations came as a response to the Lama Lama people refusing to work on the station at under-award rates of pay. The Lama Lama were removed to Cowal Creek, after being tricked into believing they were going to Thursday Island for a medical check-up. Some families walked back to Coen. Eventually, the majority resettled themselves at Coen. In the late 1970s, the introduction of equal wages for Aboriginal pastoral workers saw the disappearance of work on pastoral stations for many Aboriginal people, and the permanent population of Coen grew to its present size. The Queensland Government funded the construction of houses at Coen during the 1970s.

In 1987, the Lama Lama people at Coen started petitioning the Queensland Government for a grant of land on their traditional country at Port Stewart. In 1989, the Department of Aboriginal and Islander Affairs gave the Lama Lama people a vehicle so that they could maintain an outstation at Port Stewart.

By 1990, the Department of Family Services and Aboriginal and Islander Affairs owned 12 houses in the town of Coen, and 12 at the Aboriginal reserve opposite the cemetery. In the 1990s, the Aboriginal population of Coen had split into two different family groups. One group continued to live at the Aboriginal reserve opposite the cemetery and the other had taken up residence down the river at the council camping reserve. These two groups continue to live separately today.

In 1993, the Coen Regional Aboriginal Corporation was established, with its administration centre located in Coen. This was a non-statutory corporation, incorporated under the Commonwealth Aboriginal Councils and Association Act 1976, and provides services to the Coen Aboriginal community and outstations in the region. The corporation helped facilitate the increase in the outstation or ‘homelands’ movement in the region. Many more people were now able to use the semi-permanent camps they have established on their traditional lands]. Outstations belonging to the different groups in the Coen district include Stoney Creek, Langi, Port Stewart, Wenlock, Puntimu and Glen Garland. As at 2017, there were up to 12 outstations in the district.

On 3 July 2014, Barry Port retired from the Queensland Police. He was Australia's last Aboriginal police tracker. In his 36 years working for the police, he has tracked criminals, missing people and stowaways.

Demographics
In the, the locality of Coen had a population of 416 people.

In the, the locality of Coen had a population of 364 people.

In the, the locality of Coen had a population of 320 people.

Education
Coen Campus is a primary (Prep-6) campus of the Cape York Aboriginal Australian Academy. It is on Peninsula Developmental Road (-13.9455°N, 143.1999°W).

There are no secondary schools in Coen nor nearby. Distance education and boarding schools are other options.

Facilities
Today Coen provides services to the region, and is an important supply point on the long unpaved road leading to Weipa and other northern communities. It is a popular stopping point for tourists driving to the tip of Cape York - the northernmost part of the Australian mainland.

It has an airstrip at Coen Airport (24 km north of the town), public library, hotel/motel, guest house, two general stores and fuel outlets, hospital, post office, police station, camping grounds, primary school kindergarten, ranger base and more. There is a scheduled air service to Lockhart and Cairns four times a week.

Our Lady of the Way Catholic Church is at 1 Armbrust Street (corner of Taylor Street, -13.94527°N, 143.20074°W). It is within the Cooktown Parish of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cairns.

There is a boat ramp at Port Stewart into the Stewart River (-14.0652°N, 143.6876°W). It is managed by the Cook Shire Council.

Attractions
Coen is an ideal destination for birdwatchers: there are good accommodations and a large and varied bird fauna with representatives from rain forest, monsoon forest and coastal forests.

Heritage listings
Coen has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * Coen Carrier Station, Coleman Close (-13.9399°N, 143.1989°W).

Climate
Coen has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons. Daytime temperatures are usually over 30 C most of the year. The dry season runs from May to October. The temperatures in this season can drop below 10 C in the coolest months between May and August, and it can peak further above 35 C in the build up months between September and November. The wet season occurs from December to March and is characterized by frequent torrential downpours and high humidity. This season is also generally associated with the arrival of the monsoon trough and tropical cyclones.

Attibution
This article contains text from Published under CC-BY-4.0 licence

title: Coen, Queensland


text: Talk:Music in Astrakhan Oblast

title: Talk:Music in Astrakhan Oblast


text:
Median wasp

The median wasp (Dolichovespula media) is a species of social wasp of the family Vespidae found throughout Europe and Asia. It builds aerial paper nests often in shrubs or trees, and occasionally under the eaves of buildings. It is most common to see this wasp between May and October during its 3.3 month colony cycle. Behaviours of this wasp include nest defense, curling which is believed to function in brood incubation, and gastral vibration which is involved in larval feeding. The median wasp has a halplodiploid sex determination system that results in a high level of relatedness within the colony. This species is not usually aggressive but will sting if they feel their nest is threatened. Most foraging in the nest is done by the workers once the first ones reach adulthood. These workers forage for insects, nectar, and wood for nest construction in temperatures as low as 7 C. The median wasp is known to be occasionally affected by the fungus Cordyceps sphecocephala and the Cricket paralysis virus.

Taxonomy and phylogeny
The median wasp was first classified by Anders Jahan Retzius in 1783. This wasp is part of the subfamily Vespinae which includes all hornets and yellowjackets. It is part of the genus Dolichovespula, a genus whose species include the tree wasp (D. sylvestris), the Saxon wasp (D. saxonica), the bald-faced hornet (D. maculata), the Arctic yellowjacket (D. norvegicoides), and the parasitic hornet (D. adulterina).

Description and identification
D. media is a medium to large species of wasp around 16-22 mm in length with yellow and black stripes on its abdomen. It can be identified by its yellow clypeus with a thin black central line and large areas of yellow behind the eyes and on the ocular sinus. The median wasp also has a shiny black thorax with four yellow spots that are tinted orange or red. Queens are often mistaken for hornets due to their reddish colouration, but can be distinguished by their thoracic spots and deep black color.

Distribution and habitat
The median wasp has a Palearctic distribution and is found throughout Europe and temperate regions of Asia all the way east to Japan. It prefers temperate climates and high humidity. This species was identified in the United Kingdom for the first time in 1980 after having spread there from continental Europe. It has also been sighted in New Zealand, but it is not known if the wasp is widespread in the area or if this was an isolated occurrence.

D. media builds aerial paper nests 1 to 5 m above ground. These nests are typically found in shrubs, trees, and sometimes under the eaves of buildings. Nests are made of paper that comes from the digestion of wood and are generally 12-23 cm wide and 10-30 cm tall. Colonies are often found in both urban and rural areas. These wasps prefer to build nests close to the ground where humidity levels are higher as well as in open areas where the nest is subject to large amounts of sunlight.

Colony cycle
The colony cycle of D. media is about 3.3 months and occurs between early May and the end of August. The nests are initiated in early May when a single queen emerges from her overwintering hibernation site. All queens in the same region tend to emerge from hibernation and initiate nests at about the same time and do not disperse over weeks or months as in some other species. The queen rears about 10 workers by herself and it takes about 30 days for these workers to mature to adults from eggs. The first workers emerge around early June and start small cell building, where males and workers will be reared, and begin foraging for the colony. The colony continues to grow and large cell construction begins in early July which is where the new queens and some males will be raised. A mature median wasp nest will have about 1000 total cells. Around 320 will be small cells, 680 large cells, with an average of 800 wasps reaching adulthood. The first queens will emerge in early August and disperse to find hibernation sites. The rest of the workers, the old queen, and the males will begin to die off with the colony terminating by the end of August. However, workers are sometimes seen as late as early November.

Nest structure
The median wasp like many other species of wasps builds its nest out of pulp that comes from the digestion of wood. Their nests have been reported to be light yellow or light to dark grey in color depending on the material used to build the nest. These nests are about 10-30 cm tall and 12-23 cm wide with a 2-5 cm thick roof. Mature nests have 2-4 circular or oval shaped combs that are surrounded by a thick envelope. There are two types of elements connecting combs. One is a rigid column down the center of the nest and the other is thin ribbon like pieces between the combs. Both are made of pulp and help to give the nest support. The entrance hole is at the bottom of the nest and often has spiraled sheets of paper surrounding it. The entrance of young nests sometimes consists of a long vestibule, or entry compartment, whose function is unknown. This long vestibule has only been observed in D. media and D. maculata species and tends to disappear as the nest matures. It may function in thermoregulation or defense. This species lives in cooler temperate climates and nests in the open so thermoregulation is a plausible explanation, but so far no other vestibule of this length have been observed in species that live in similar climates. A mature nest will house about 800 mature adults between May and October. Come October the males and workers being to die off and the queen hibernates until next spring when she will begin a new nest.

Foraging
In the median wasp foraging activities take place throughout the day and can be done in temperatures as low as 7 C. The queen is responsible for all nest construction and foraging until after the first workers emerge from the nest as adults. This means the queen does all of the foraging for about 30 days before workers take over. At the beginning she mainly focuses on collecting fiber for envelope construction, but as the colony begins to develop she allots more time for foraging for food including both flesh and liquid. Workers begin helping with larval feeding and nest development when just a few days old and take their orientation flight at about 5 days old. At this point they begin to take over food and material collection for the nest. These foraging trips can last between a few minutes to one hour, but most are less than 10 minutes in length. As D. media searches for prey it stops for a moment over each flower in contrast to other species such as V. flaviceps which quickly fly up and down each plant. They will fly up to a couple hundred meters to forage for food.

Defence
This species of wasp is not particularly aggressive. When a young nest is disturbed the foundress will first place her head at the entrance in an alert position. Then she flies quickly around the nest and may fall suddenly to the ground. This falling to the ground has only been observed in Dolichovespula species and its purpose is unclear. When small insects such as ants or spiders crawl on the nest the wasp responds by grabbing them in her mandibles and dropping to the ground. It is usually not necessary for her to try to keep these insects out of the nest as they are rarely seen to try and enter. Once there are some workers in a young nest the queen and workers cooperate to defend it.

Curling
Curling is one behaviour that is known only in the subfamily Vespinae and has been observed in nine species among three separate genera including the species D. media. Curling is an act of the queen where she curls her body around the pedicel of the nest when resting. The pedicel is the vertical part of the nest that gives it structure and what the combs are built around. This behaviour is almost always preceded by the queen turning around the pedicel before starting to curl. The queen most often curls at the pedicel for several minutes at a time. It is thought that this behaviour functions in brood incubation. This idea is supported by the evidence that the behaviour is present while there are only eggs and larvae in the nest but stops after many of the larvae have pupated. In addition, one study involving Vespa simillima showed that cell wall temperature rose by an average of 2.5 - 4.0 C and remained constant during curling. The rise in temperature and timing of the behaviour suggest that it is important in incubation for the offspring while they are eggs and larvae. Heat for later eggs and larvae is believed to be generated by pupa and other larvae as the colony size increases.

Gastral vibration and tapping
Another behaviour observed in D. media workers is gastral vibration. This is observed in workers of many Dolichovespula and Vespula species. Workers tap their gaster rapidly up and down onto the comb of the nest and this is associated with feeding of larvae. The behaviour typically occurs while wasps are walking on the comb and ceases after feeding each larvae a small amount of flesh and then resumes before feeding the next larvae. A behaviour that appears to be homologous to this is observed in the foundresses queen and is called tapping. Queens have been observed tapping mid or hind legs on the comb after returning with prey. These taps can last from a few seconds to a couple of minutes and are loud enough to be heard outside of the nest. This signal is believed to function in the same way as gastral vibration in workers and is to signal to the larvae when it is time to feed. Sometimes this tapping or vibration occurs even when there is no pellet to feed the larvae and it is speculated that this corresponds to the feeding of liquids, but this has not been confirmed. Tapping continues in the queen even after she has ceased foraging when she feeding larvae pellets that she receives from the workers. This supports the idea that it is involved in signaling larvae during feeding.

Haplodiploidy
The median wasp, as in all other Hymenoptera species, produces females from fertilised diploid eggs, but males are produced from unfertilised haploid eggs. This means that although workers are unable to mate they can still produce male offspring. This type of sex determination is known as haplodiploidy. The result is that brothers have a relatedness of 0.5 as expected of full siblings, but sisters have a higher relatedness of 0.75. Sisters receive half of their mother's genes as well as all their father's genes because all of the sperm he produces are identical. Mothers have a relatedness of 0.5 to both their sons and daughters.

Worker-worker relatedness
Most Dolichovespula species including D. media mate only once or fertilise most eggs with sperm from a single male. In addition, there are only 1-2 queens per colony. These specific characteristics result in a high level of worker-worker relatedness within the colony. One study estimated this relatedness to be as high as 0.71. This was determined by analysing 20 workers from each of 10 nests at 3 DNA microsatellite locuses. The DNA analysis allowed the researchers to determine if males were queen's or workers’ sons and from there calculate an estimated relatedness. There is evidence that workers in this species attempt to reproduce with about 4 reproducing workers per colony that sometimes lay eggs, however, only 7.4% of the male population are produced by the workers. It has been observed that the median wasp participates in worker policing where the queen or other workers throw worker laid eggs out of the nest or otherwise destroy them. All of this information helps to explain the high level of relatedness in the colony and that relatedness helps to explain the eusocial behaviour of these wasps.

Worker-queen conflict
Conflict often develops between queens and workers of haplodiploid species because workers are more related to their sisters than their brothers or their parental queens. This results in them trying to push the sex ratio so that there are more females produced by the queen than males. At the same time, however, it is best for the queen to keep a 1:1 ratio of male and female offspring because she is equally related to both. D. media workers and queens have been observed policing worker laid eggs which helps to push the ratio more towards the females. This may help to keep worker-queen conflict from getting worse since workers do not produce many offspring in the nest.

Parasites and pathogens
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is a type of fungus that is known to attack wasps including D. media. It produces red-yellow fruiting bodies on long white or yellow stalks. It is not known if this fungus kills living wasps or if it simply attacks dead insects, but there is some evidence to suggest that overwintering queens can be infected. Either way this fungus is not a major threat to a wasp colony. A pathogen that has been found to infect the median wasp is the Cricket paralysis virus. This virus causes insects to become paralyzed and die with a nearly 100% mortality rate once infected. Once a nest is infected this virus could quickly destroy the entire colony, however, there is little data documenting how widespread this virus is among D. media.

Human importance
Median wasps may be considered a pest by some because its nests are usually built in shrubs or on houses where they are easily disturbed. These nests are typically built out in the open and are often destroyed by people. Despite this the species is not very aggressive and tends to fly away instead of attack if disturbed. However, it may sting if it feels its nest is threatened. The sting of the median wasp is comparable to many other wasp species and should be treated with a cold compress and an antihistamine to reduce swelling unless a more serious allergic reaction occurs. D. media is attracted to sweet foods and as such may fly near food when people are eating. Median wasps are easily scared off and do not usually become aggressive. This species is more likely to be seen as a pest when it invades a new area due to its impact on the environment. One example is a median wasp that has been spotted in New Zealand. If the wasp becomes widespread and feeds on native flies, moths, and nectar it will compete for resources with other species. Its large size may also cause alarm in new areas.

title: Median wasp


text:
Boat-billed flycatcher

The boat-billed flycatcher (Megarynchus pitangua) is a passerine bird. It is a large tyrant flycatcher, the only member of the monotypic genus Megarynchus.

It breeds in open woodland with some tall trees from Mexico south to Bolivia and Argentina, and through to Trinidad.

The nest, built by the female, is an open saucer of sticks. The typical clutch is two or three whitish eggs heavily blotched with brown. These are incubated mostly by the female for 17–18 days with a further 24 days to fledging.

Description
Adult boat-billed flycatchers are one of the largest species of tyrant flycatcher, measuring 23 cm long and weighing 70 g. The head is black with a strong white eyestripe and a concealed yellow crown stripe. The upperparts are olive-brown, and the wings and tail are brown with only faint rufous fringes. The underparts are yellow and the throat is white.

The massive black bill, which gives this species its English and generic names, is the best distinction from the similar great kiskadee, which also has more rufous tail and wings, and lacks the olive tone to the upperparts. The call is a strident trilled nya, nya, nya.

Diet
Boat-billed flycatchers wait on a concealed perch high in a tree and sally out to catch insects (such as cicadas) in flight. They will also take invertebrates off the foliage and eat some berries (of the genera Cissus and Miconia), small wild figs and dry green fruits of Cecropia.

title: Boat-billed flycatcher


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Rapa language

Rapa (or Rapan) is the language of Rapa Iti, in the Austral Islands of French Polynesia, and of Mangaia in the Cook Islands. It is an Eastern Polynesian language. There are three varieties of the Rapa language currently being spoken in French Polynesia: Old Rapa, Reo Rapa and New Rapa. Old Rapa has been mostly replaced by Reo Rapa, a mix of the more commonly spoken Tahitian and Old Rapa. New Rapa – revitalized Old Rapa – is commonly spoken by middle-aged and younger speakers. Rapa is a critically endangered language, and there are only around 300 speakers of Reo Rapa, with only 15% of them able to speak Old Rapa. It may be more vibrant on Mangaia, but there the population has been declining for half a century due to emigration.

Varieties
There are three varieties of the Rapa language currently being spoken: Old Rapa, Reo Rapa and New Rapa. Old Rapa is the indigenous form of Rapa. Reo Rapa as a language was created, not simply by incorporating lexical terms from Tahitian to Old Rapa, but from bilingualism and language shift due to the dominance of Tahitian. While Reo Rapa is a mix of Tahitian and Old Rapa, speakers can generally tell if the words they are speaking are sourced from Tahitian or Old Rapa due to phonemes absent in one language and present in the other. Based on the phonological form, speakers of Reo Rapa are aware that certain words they speak belong to Old Rapa or Tahitian. For instance, velar nasal sounds such as and velar stop sounds like  are not present in Tahitian but are in Old Rapa.

The most common variety on the island of Rapa Iti is Reo Rapa. It was formed from Tahitian and Old Rapa and developed due to language shift. However, this shift halted at some point in the language's development. Walworth defines this as a shift-break language. Reo Rapa is not a koine language, where a language is created due to interaction between two groups speaking mutually intelligible languages. Contact between Old Rapa and Tahitian speakers was indirect and never prolonged, violating a requirement to be called a koiné language. Reo Rapa was the result of a monolingual community that began to shift to the more dominant Tahitian Language, thus creating a bilingual community, which eventually led to Reo Rapa.

Although they are sister languages, it is important to note that neither Reo Rapa nor Old Rapa should be confused with the Rapa Nui language. Additionally, the language is sufficiently different from the rest of the Austral Islands languages to be considered a separate language.

New Rapa is a form or variety of Reo Rapa starting to be used by people under 50 as an attempt by the younger generation to reverse the language shift to the Tahitian Language. In New Rapa, the Tahitian elements are phonologically modified as an attempt to create words that sound more similar to Old Rapa instead of Tahitian. As a means of being identified as a "true local" Rapa speaker, the newer generation is modifying the Reo Rapa language so that it sounds less like Tahitian and more like Old Rapa.

History
The loss of the indigenous Old Rapa began with an enormous population decrease due to disease brought by foreigners (mainly Europeans). Within the span of five years the population decreased by 75%. By 1867 the population was down to 120 residents from its estimated original of two thousand. Of the islands of French Polynesia, Tahiti had become a large influence and had become a filter for Western influence, so before anything entered the islands it would have to pass through Tahiti. Being the powerful influence it was, its ways of religion, education, and government were easily adopted by the people of Rapa Iti, and the language of Tahiti followed. The language known as Reo Rapa was not created by the combination of two languages but through the introduction of Tahitian to the Rapa monolingual community. Reo Rapa is not a completely different language from Old Rapa or Tahitian but a mixed language.

Old Rapa is considered to be endangered. It has few speakers and the only people who speak Old Rapa proficiently, as of 2015, are in their 60s. The oldest published documentation of Old Rapa dates back to 1864, a short word list compiled by James L. Green under the London Missionary Society. The most comprehensive study of the language is Walworth's 2015 description of the language, following only the 1930 five-volume unpublished manuscript by John F.G. Stokes. Additionally, a book of legends was published in 2008 that was the product of the work of French ethnologist Christian Ghasarian and a Rapa elder, Alfred Make.

Phonology of Old Rapa
Vowels are noted as /,, , , /.

Similar to other languages that fall within the Eastern Polynesian language family, the consonant phoneme inventory of Old Rapa is relatively small. Consisting of only nine distinct consonants, Old Rapa is constructed of eight voiceless phonemes and one voiced phoneme.

Of the nine phonemes, four are a result of a stop –, , , and. While is constantly bilabial and  is dento-alveolar, the place where  is articulated can range anywhere from pre-velar to uvular. When spoken, the place of articulation of depends on the succeeding vowel segment. Walworth uses the following examples to demonstrate these differing occurrences: The alveolar and post-alveolar stops, while distinguishable in the linguistic study of Old Rapa, are often misinterpreted as the phoneme /k/ to native speakers. This observation was noted multiple times in Walworth's conversations with native speakers; for example, the difference between and  was not perceived by the native speaker.
 * Before a high-fronted : in the word kite 'know', is pre-velar
 * Before a mid-fronted : in the word kete 'basket', is velar
 * Before a low-back : in the word karakua 'parent', is distinguishably more backed
 * Before a mid-back : in the word komo 'sleep', is uvular

In the study of velar stops, there are instances in which lenition, the weakened articulation of a consonant, occurs. In the first case, the velar stop transitions more into a velar fricative when placed in the unstressed syllables. In Walworth's example in the word 'water', the  phoneme is pronounced as ; however, in the word  'head', the  is pronounced as. The second case is very similar to the first, but on a phrase level. In this sense, when placed in a word that is not stressed, lenition occurs.

When referring to the Rapa usage of the phoneme, there is a distinct difference between the alveolar tap and a trill. When pronounced in words where it is located at the beginning of the stressed syllable, the alveolar tap becomes better defined as a trill. The usage of this phoneme and its variants is evident in Walworth's examples:

Examples where a trill is perceived: Examples where a tap is retained:
 * 'name of island' >
 * 'taro-bed' >
 * 'plant-life' >
 * 'parent' >
 * 'house' >
 * 'ridge' >

While currently indeterminable, it is plausible that in Old Rapa the phoneme existed closer resembling the lateral approximate. In an article published by John Stokes in 1955, what is now taken to be the phoneme was approximated to be a mix between "a clear l as in English and soft r." However, Walworth states that even in the oldest of her consultants, there was no recollection of the phoneme.

When observing the usage of the labiodental fricative, the shift period away from Old Rapa becomes more evident. In the older generations of native speakers, this phoneme is articulated more like that of the labiodental approximant. The usage of the labiodental fricative is almost always used by the newer generations of native speakers, whereas the approximant is almost never used. This change is directly attributed to the Tahitian influence of the labiodental fricative.

Grammar
Some examples of Reo Rapa grammar are shown below. ka rahi17 para te taofe
 * Perfective TAM (Tense – Aspect – Mood)

PFV much ripe ART coffee

'Some coffee was really ripe.' e hina’aro na vau tō mei’a ra
 * Definite word

IPFV like DEI SG DEF banana DEIXIS

'I would like those you bananas (you mentioned).' e a’a tō-koe huru
 * Question words
 * (What)
 * (Where)
 * (When)
 * (How)
 * (How many)

IPFV what ART.POSS-PL state

'How are you' (lit. 'What is your state?') ki’ere vau i haere i te fare
 * Past negative

NEG SG PFV go PREP ART house

'I did not go to a house' kāre tā-koe puta
 * Non-past negative (Regular negative)

NEG ART.POSS-PL book

'You don't have your book.' (Literal translation – 'your book doesn't exist') me rahi ake teie eika i
 * Adverbial

thing big ADV DEM fish PREP

'This fish is bigger than my fish the other day'

While Old Rapa contributes a majority of Reo Rapa grammar words, some are taken from the Tahitian language as well such as the negative words, 'aita and 'eiaha. While 'aita is used as a simple "no" in Reo Rapa, 'eiaha is used to add a negative to a sentence to change a positive "yes" sentence to a negative "no" sentence. ’eiaha ’a haere mai i tō -ku fare
 * Negative particle

NEG IPFV go EV PREP ART-POSS-PAT-SG house

title: Rapa language


text: Template talk:Wwdb name

title: Template talk:Wwdb name


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Jurong Port

Jurong Port Pte Ltd is a port operator headquartered in Singapore. Jurong Port, which operates the only multi-purpose port in Singapore, handles bulk, break-bulk and containerised cargo. It handled over 40,000 vessel-calls annually in 2019.

The port owns and operates its own subzone located in the town of Jurong East in Singapore. It is bounded by Jalan Ahmad Ibrahim, Jurong Pier Road, Jurong Island Highway, Seraya Avenue and Sugnei Jurong, including Pulau Damar Laut.

History
Corporate

In 1963, Jurong Port was set up by the Singapore Economic Development Board (EDB) to support the growth of Singapore's first and biggest industrial estate, Jurong Industrial Estate. In 1965, the port officially commenced operations. In 1968, Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) was set up to drive the industrial estate development in Singapore and Jurong Port became a business division under JTC. On 1 January 2001, Jurong Port was corporatised and became a fully owned subsidiary of JTC Corporation.

Infrastructure

Jurong Port commenced operations with only two berths. Growing in tandem with the rapid growth of industries in JTC, cargo traffic in Jurong Port passed the million ton mark for the first time in 1970. In 1971, Jurong Port embarked on an expansion programme that provided for four additional deep water general purpose berths, the extension of an existing berth and the addition of warehouses and transit sheds. Further extensions on the five berths were carried out again in 1971.

As the Company continued to grow, additional capacity was required and Jurong Port announced the construction and reclamation of Pulau Damar Laut (PDL) in 1989. PDL provided additional land area and created more deepwater multi-purpose berths. In 1996, Singapore went through a land intensification program to increase land utilisation. Resulting from the program was the Jurong Port Cement Terminal, a dedicated common-user cement facility.

In 2001, Jurong Port started its Container Terminal on PDL becoming a full-fledged multi-purpose port. In 2008, Jurong Port started the Penjuru Terminal to handle lighterage and shipchandling businesses.

In 2019, Jurong Port started the operation of its Jurong Port Tank Terminals (JPTT). JPTT is a 60:40 joint venture between Jurong Port Pte Ltd and Advario. It is Located in Pulau Damar Laut in Jurong Port, the liquid bulk terminal is designed to store and handle clean petroleum products and petrochemicals. JPTT has a total capacity of about 580,000 cubic metres.

In March 2021, Jurong Port acquired a 41% stake in Universal Terminal, one of the world's largest commercial storage terminal, and the country's largest petroleum storage terminal, with a total of 15 jetties, including two for VLCCs very large crude carriers. There are nine bunker barge berths in its inner basin, with capabilities to load 1,000m³ an hour per hose. The other existing owners of the terminal are PetroChina (25%) and MAIF Investments Singapore (34%), a unit of Australian investment bank Macquarie Group. Jurong Port Universal Terminal (JPUT) has a total capacity of about 2.33 million cubic metres.

Facilities
Jurong Port is an international Multi-Purpose Port Operator operating a General Cargo Terminal, Bulk Cargo Terminal, Container Terminal, Energy Terminals, Penjuru Terminal and Marina South Wharves for lighter Services, a Small Craft Terminal and mechanical ramps for Roll-On Roll-Off landing crafts. Jurong Port handled about 17.33 million tonnes and 320,000 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU)s of containers in 2014. Its port facilities are as follows:

 * Total Land Area:155 ha
 * Land Area under Free Trade Zone (FTZ): 127 ha
 * Total Berth Length: 5.6 km
 * Total No. of Berths: 30 + 2 Roll-on Roll-off mechanical ramps
 * Maximum Permissible Draft Alongside: 15.7 m
 * Maximum Vessel Size: 150,000 deadweight tonnes(DWT)
 * FTZ Warehouses: 178,000 m2
 * Non-FTZ Warehouses: 15,000 m2

General cargo terminal
The General Cargo Terminal handles a diverse range of cargoes including steel products, project cargo, machinery and mechanical appliances. As a transshipment and storage hub accredited by the London Metal Exchange, Jurong Port's General Cargo Terminal also handles metal ingots.

Bulk cargo terminal
The Bulk Cargo Terminal handles bulk cargo like bulk cement, furnace slag, copper slag and liquid bulk. Jurong Port has a dedicated common-user facility to handle bulk cement. The Cement Terminal is one of the world's largest common-user cement facilities and consists of two dedicated berths equipped with three cement screw unloaders linked to a fully enclosed air-slide, non-pollutive conveyor system. Jurong Port handles more than 90% of cement throughput into Singapore.

Container terminal
Operations started in July 2001. The terminal has an annual handling capacity of 500,000 TEUs. The terminal has a global direct connectivity to over 80 ports in 45 countries.

Energy terminals
Jurong Port owns stakes in 2 of the largest Energy Terminals in Singapore - Jurong Port Tank Terminals (JPTT) and Jurong Port Universal Terminal (JPUT), with a combined capacity of about 2.9 million cubic metres.

Solar power
Jurong Port is building a 10MWp solar installation on the roofs of its warehouses. The system is expected online by the second quarter of 2016.

Ro-Ro
Wallenius Wilhelmsen Logistics plans to develop a ro-ro hub at the port.

Accolades
Singapore Quality Class (SQC) Certification Frost and Sullivan BCA Green Mark Award (Gold) BCA Green Mark Award (Platinum) Singapore National Infocomm Awards IDC Awards Lloyd's List Asia Award Asian Freight and Supply Chain Awards (AFSCA) Supply Chain & Management Logistics World Awards
 * 2015 – The award recognises Jurong Port's quality management in the seven dimensions of Leadership, Planning, Information, People, Processes, Customers and Results.
 * 2010 – 2015 Best Multi-purpose Terminal Operator of the Year (Asia Pacific)
 * 2015 – The award recognises the green construction methods and environmental sustainability features during the upgrading of two berths'.
 * 2012 – The award recognises Jurong Port's success in creating an environment-friendly work space.
 * 2010 – Merit Award under the category "Most Innovative Use of Infocomm Technology" (Private Sector)
 * 2010 – IDC Enterprise Innovation Awards
 * 2009 – Award for Achievement in Safety
 * 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 – Best Emerging Container Terminal Operator – Asia
 * 2008, 2009, 2010 – Best Container Terminal Operator (Under 1 million TEUs per Annum) – Asia
 * 2007 – Best Asia Pacific Container Terminal

Safety
On 8 May 2007 some workers were injured while loading containers on board MV'Rickmers New Orleans' when they tripped and fell over steel plates, which were improperly stacked. Operations were halted temporarily for investigations. Following this incident, steps were taken to further enhance the safety management of the port; it subsequently won a safety award from Lloyd's List.

After an accident in 2008, Jurong Port re-doubled its efforts to build and consolidate its safety culture through a series of programs and initiatives. As a result, Jurong Port was recognised with the Award for Achievement in Safety from Lloyd's List in 2009.

title: Jurong Port


text: Talk:Reparation

title: Talk:Reparation