text:
WindowBlinds

WindowBlinds is a computer program that allows users to skin the Windows graphical user interface. It has been developed by Stardock since 1998, and is the most popular component of their flagship software suite, Object Desktop. It is also available separately, and as an ActiveX/COM component called DirectSkin. Introduced in its sixth version, it supports alpha blending effects similar to the compositing of Windows Vista, but on Windows XP.

WindowBlinds has been downloaded over 10 million times and was voted "Best Vertical Market Program or Utility" in the 2006 Shareware Industry Awards Foundation People's Choice Awards. As of November 2009 there were 4448 WindowBlinds skins available at WinCustomize, with an average of nine being added per week; another popular repository is deviantART.

Skin formats
WindowBlinds skins come in two formats: "Basic" (or "UIS1+") and "Advanced" (or "UIS2").

Basic (UIS1+)
Despite its name, the "Basic" skin format can be used to create fully featured skins, and it is still used today. The main limitation is that skin borders may only be "standard" sizes (four pixels wide for most of the side borders). This restriction was significantly relaxed when skin metrics—adjustments to using the standard Windows methods—were introduced, allowing changes to (among other things) the standard height of the titlebar. It is also only possible to put buttons on the titlebar, and scripting and titlebar background animation are not supported.

The advantages of UIS1+ are performance (Stardock has claimed that a UIS1+ version of the Windows XP "Luna" visual style is twice as fast as the original in repaint and resizing) and compatibility. Most msstyles can be converted to a UIS1+ skin.

Advanced (UIS2)
The Advanced skin format is provided for when a skin design cannot fit into the above restrictions. Typically these skins may have wider borders in some places, or none at all. They may also feature titlebar background animation, or the use of scripting features.

This format offers maximum flexibility at the cost of slightly reduced performance (as compared to UIS1+), and potentially more chance of incompatibility with applications. Some UIS2 skins include a UIS1+ subskin; if problems occur, this subskin may be substituted as a "per-app" skin.

History
WindowBlinds started in 1998 when lead developer Neil Banfield teamed up with Stardock. Stardock was looking for a developer to create a window skinning application, and Banfield had already created an application that he called "Window Blinds" in 1997. Previous attempts by Stardock had included "Object Look", a minimal skinning application, and "WindowFX", an application written in Delphi. That name would later be reused for WindowFX, also created by Banfield. For a short time there was also a scaled-back version of the original Window Blinds called "WBLiteFX", a name which was still present in WindowBlinds registry settings as of May 2006.

WindowBlinds (now re-branded as one word) quickly made its way to a 1.0 release, driven by the requests of users to add "freeform skinning" (customizable window border shapes), sounds, and animation. Scrollbars, the task bar, the start button, menu items, the menu itself, and other GUI elements were added later.

WindowBlinds 2 was a major redesign in C++ that added the following features:
 * The "Basic" (UIS1+) format, which offered greater program compatibility in exchange for a restricted feature set.
 * Compound skins (later known as "subskins") which made it easier to provide alternative versions of a skin. For example, a Macintosh skin could now have two subskins to offer control buttons at the left or right of the window.
 * User skin recoloring.
 * Scripting, though this was not widely used.
 * Font and color sections for specific controls and states.
 * Support for additional controls.

At this time, "BuilderBlinds"—re-branded as SkinStudio in February 2001—became a popular tool, as it enabled artists to create skins without spending a deal of time learning the intricacies of the UIS format. It also allowed experienced users to avoid trivial errors.

WindowBlinds 3 accompanied the release of Windows XP, which contained its own skinning system called "visual styles". It was thought that visual styles might deal a blow to commercial skinning systems. This proved not to be the case; in fact, sales of WindowBlinds rose, buoyed by a new set of users who had seen the changes offered by visual styles and wanted more. Even after modifications known as "uxtheme hacks" (named after the file they modified, uxtheme.dll) became available, WindowBlinds remained popular, since it had additional features that visual styles did not.

However, the program still contained flaws. WindowBlinds 3 had many new features, but with new features came new bugs, including compatibility problems. Additionally, performance was suboptimal. Interim releases addressed these issues and provided for those areas of the Windows XP user interface that could not initially be skinned.

By the time WindowBlinds 4 arrived, there were fewer problems, due in part to an increased focus on stability for DirectSkin clients. In addition, SkinStudio now provided a method to import the Microsoft msstyles format.

WindowBlinds 4.6 was released in August 2005, with the addition of mouseover "translucent glow" effects for the titlebar buttons, push buttons and other controls. Windowblinds 4.6 has now been renamed "WindowBlinds Classic", and is meant for non-XP Windows versions, which cannot run the new Windowblinds 5.

WindowBlinds 5, released in November 2005, extends translucency through per pixel alpha blending to the entire window frame, including the borders and taskbar.

WindowBlinds 6, released end 2007, adds Windows Vista-like blur effects on XP (although Microsoft said that such per-pixel alpha blending with blur is impossible to work on XP ), later also Windows Sidebar skinning and more additional features. The configuration GUI was redesigned to a completely horizontal look.

WindowBlinds 7, released in late 2009, added native support for Windows 7. Amongst its new features is the ability to "skin Aero" by using colors and textures. Other new features include a new user interface, and various tweaks.

WindowBlinds 8, released in June 2013, added native support for Windows 8 while officially dropping support for Windows XP and Vista. The most prominent change was to its user interface, streamlining its layout while portraying a more minimalistic, Metro-like feel. In addition, version 8 updated the bundled themes and refined the corresponding preview mode.

WindowBlinds 10, released in March 2016, added native support for Windows 10 and some minor new features.

Windowblinds 11, released in November 2022, updated the UI to fit the design language of Windows 11, added a Windows 9x styled theme to the collection of default themes and improved support for dark mode and HDR.

Competitors
WindowBlinds has had many competitors over the years. Initially, it was not clear which skinning program would be the most popular, and there was active competition between the programs from 1999 to early 2001. Most are still around, but they have generally faded in popularity, since WindowBlinds can alter more GUI elements. Examples of these competitors are eFX, Illumination, Chroma and CustomEyes and ShellWM.

Skin design
The popularity of various designs has changed along with the skinning community. Initially, remakes (or "ports") of older operating systems like BeOS and AmigaOS were very popular. Users then began to explore the potential of such features as freeform skinning, titlebar animation, and scripting, resulting in a number of unique skins.

SkinStudio is a popular software tool by Stardock used to create skins for WindowBlinds, as well as programs such as ObjectBar, WebBlinds, PocketBlinds, Koala Player and Windows Media Player. It is a component of Object Desktop, but is also sold separately, and a version is available as a free download. SkinStudio uses a Universal Skin Format (USF) that can be used to create one skin and export it to multiple skin formats. In practice, skins often need further editing after being created from this template, but it can be of use when developing a suite of skins. msstyle files are imported into USF before being converted to one of the WindowBlinds skin formats.

Performance issues
Stardock WindowBlinds generally has had a bad reputation within the Windows modification community due to various parts of the software being poorly optimized. For example, when titlebar transparency is enabled, window titlebars become very laggy when several windows are opened, regardless of whether they're shown on the screen or not. This is due to the software constantly refreshing the blurred areas, creating a needlessly heavy load on both the CPU and the GPU. Even when titlebar transparency is not enabled, performance still significantly suffers, with programs often taking up to one to two seconds longer to open due to the way the software hooks running processes. Users have also reported font preferences being ignored, and a small version of the Segoe UI font being forcibly used in Windows Explorer.

Legal actions
When Mac OS X was announced, its Aqua visual style was the subject of numerous ports, some of a high quality. This undermined Apple's marketing and they felt it infringed on their look and feel. Several skins were taken down at the company's request. Notably the skin "WinAqua" by Dangeruss. Similarly, the run-up to the release of Windows XP resulted in many Luna skins. Skins with "XP" in the title were very popular that year. Prior to the release of Windows Vista, numerous skins were created that replicated Vista's GUI. Microsoft has sent a cease and desist letter to the creator of at least one of these themes.

title: WindowBlinds


text:
Claw hammer

A claw hammer is a hammer primarily used in carpentry for driving nails into or pulling them from wood. Historically, a claw hammer has been associated with woodworking, but is also used in general applications. It is not suitable for heavy hammering on metal surfaces (such as in machining work), as the steel of its head is somewhat brittle; the ball-peen hammer is more suitable for such metalwork.

An early claw hammer is seen in Albrecht Dürer's etching "Melencolia I," dated 1514, halfway up the left side. There are several nails in the lower right corner.

Design
A claw hammer is composed of a metal head and a handle, which historically was made of wood but also may be of steel, fiberglass, or other composite. One side of the head has a poll with either a smooth or textured surface and used for driving, while the other is formed into a pair of downward curving V-shaped claws and used for prying—most commonly extracting nails from wood. The greater the curve of the claw(s), and longer the handle, the greater the leverage that may be applied.

Types

Claw hammers can be constructed many ways but generally come in one of two forms. The first, and most popular, type of hammer is the two-piece hammer. This hammer is constructed from a forged steel head with a hole for fixing a handle. One end is made to fit the hole in the hammer head, then a steel wedge is driven into the wood which forces it to expand and secure the hammer head to the handle. Other handle materials include glass fiber and even carbon fiber.

Another type of claw hammer is single-piece forged heat-treated steel where the head and handle are integral. These hammers often have polymer grips to add to their ergonomics and decrease vibrations when the hammer is used.

Another type of claw hammer is the framing hammer. This is an oversized claw hammer used in framing carpentry. The larger and heavier head can decrease the number of blows required to fully drive a nail, minimized further by increased leverage (torque) and head speed generated by longer handles. Framing hammers also characteristically have a checkered "milled" face, which reduces skip-off of the head if the blow is not precisely struck on the nail. The slight indentations left on the wood by the checkered face are considered unimportant in rough carpentry. Framing hammers also have a much straighter claw than regular claw hammers, as the claw is designed more for prying nailed boards apart, rather than removing nails (though its claw can also be used in that capacity).

The size of this type of hammer is commonly designated by the weight of its head, which may range from 7 - 32 oz.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Claw hammer


text:
User:Rachel1

he:משתמש:רחל1 lad:User:Rachel1 User:Rachel1/monobook.js

 * /Authors
 * /Actors
 * /Films
 * /Books
 * /TV Series

title: User:Rachel1


text:
James McGovern

James McGovern may refer to:

 * James F. McGovern (born 1946), United States Under Secretary of the Air Force, 1986–1989
 * James F. McGovern (coach) (1893–1976), American college football and basketball player and coach
 * James J. McGovern, president of A.T. Still University
 * James B. McGovern Jr. (1922–1954), World War II fighter pilot and aviator with the Central Intelligence Agency
 * Jim McGovern (American politician) (born 1959), member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts, 1997–present
 * Jim McGovern (golfer) (born 1965), American PGA Tour player
 * Jim McGovern (British politician) (born 1956), Member of the United Kingdom Parliament, 2005–2015
 * Jimmy McGovern (born 1949), English television scriptwriter

title: James McGovern


text:
Citroën G Van

The Citroën G Van was the 1948 prototype built by Citroën of a small truck which looked like a scaled down version of the H Van, and equipped with an enlarged version of the 2CV flat twin enlarged to 475 cc. Front suspension was akin to that of the 2 CV but with twin suspension arms, while the springing medium was by torsion bars front and rear.

It was never put into production, the decision was made to employ the 2 CV running gear instead in the AZU/AK series, which had a lower volumetric efficiency. One copy of the G Van has survived till today and is on display at Conservatoire Citroën, The Private Museum in Paris.

Type HG
In 2020 Caselani an Italy based coach builder developed their Type HG body kit on Citroën Jumpy van which was inspired by the original G van's design cues like the vertical grill, far out headlights and corrugated body panels. Caselani offers the body kit in a passenger van, crew-cab van, and panel van versions of the short wheel based jumpy van powered by a 100-horsepower, four-cylinder turbo diesel engine. The kit was developed with the help of Citroën and is also licensed by the manufacturer. The coach builder has also developed two more body kits based on the H van and 2CV.

title: Citroën G Van


text:
User:Albatross2147

Thanks to the activities of this administrator and his mindless bot I have left Wikipedia and am no longer a donor. '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=User_talk:Albatross2147&action=edit&section=new Please click here to leave me a new message. ]''' I have a life and may not respond swiftly to queries - probably not at all. Particularly I normally don't respond to anything written by those who suggest I should assume good faith or be civil or if they are pathetic deletionistas. Although some anally retentive tories find that being told something like "go and stick your head up a dead bear's bum" is upsetting they may assume that this is my default response to their dribblings.

Albatross2147 lives in Seven Hills, New South Wales, Australia. He is a big fan of the big sea birds and the post code of Sevo is 2147.

Far too many User's pages here on Wikipedia reveal that they are sad and pathetic. They have quotes from the text book of their crutch errr... belief system such as the Bible front and centre. I have decided if you can't beat 'em you might as well join 'em so here for your delectation are a few memorable verses errr... quotes.

 * You can't convince a believer of anything; for their belief is not based on evidence, it's based on a deep-seated need to believe. - Carl Sagan
 * You're basically killing each other to see who's got the better imaginary friend - Richard Jeni
 * The way to see by faith is to shut the eye of reason - Benjamin Franklin
 * All national institutions of churches, whether Jewish, Christian or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit. - Thomas Paine
 * Shake off all the fears of servile prejudices, under which weak minds are servilely crouched. Fix reason firmly in her seat, and call on her tribunal for every fact, every opinion. Question with boldness even the existence of a God; because, if there be one, he must more approve of the homage of reason than that of blindfolded fear. - Thomas Jefferson
 * The day will come when the mystical generation of Jesus…will be classed with the fable of the generation of Minerva in the brain of Jupiter. - Thomas Jefferson
 * It is science that discovers frauds within its ranks. That is the very reason science can be trusted. Fundamentalists always miss that point. Religion doesn’t appreciate critical review. If it did, it would self destruct. The unexamined belief is not worth believing. - Anon

To Do

 * Emergency Scientific Research Bureau

Sandbox

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Albatross2147/Sandbox

Images I have contributed
You have to put them into a gallery like this in case some one deletes from an article and a lunatic or their equally mindless robot deletes the file as an "orphan".

Useful stuff for me

 * Citation templates
 * Articleissues
 * Copyedit

 * anon-welcome
 * nofootnotes
 * calm talk

 * User:RazorICE/Template:SharedIP-
 * Template_messages/User_talk_namespace

 * counts_link

 * Special:Newpages

title: User:Albatross2147


text:
Stringer Lawrence

Major-General Stringer Lawrence (February 1698–10 January 1775) was an English soldier, the first Commander-in-Chief of Fort William.

Origins
Lawrence was born at Hereford, England, the son of John Lawrence of Hereford by his wife Mary, about either of whom little is known. He was baptised in the Church of All Saints, Hereford, on 27 February 1697 (Old Style). Concerning his possible ancestry, in 1660 "James Lawrence, junior, gentleman", was admitted to the freedom of the City of Hereford, and became Mayor in 1661. In 1682 "John Lawrence, apothecary", and in 1702 "John Lawrence, brewer", were admitted to the freedom of the city. In the opinion of Biddulph (1901) one of these last "must, almost certainly, have been the father of Stringer Lawrence". In the All Saints' Church burial register is recorded the burial of a certain Michael Stringer on 13 November 1698, from which fact Biddulph (1901) presumed that Stringer was the maiden name of his mother.

Career
For Discipline Established, Fortresses Protected, Settlements Extended, French and Indian Armies Defeated, and Peace Concluded in the Carnatic He seems to have entered the army in 1727 and served in Gibraltar and Flanders, subsequently taking part in the Battle of Culloden. In 1748, with the rank of major and the reputation of an experienced soldier, he went out to India to command the East India Company's troops. Dupleix's schemes for the French conquest of southern India were on the point of taking effect, and not long after his arrival at Fort St David, Lawrence was actively engaged. He successfully foiled an attempted surprise by French troops at Cuddalore, but was captured by a French cavalry patrol at Ariancopang (modern Ariankuppam) whilst leading forces to assist Admiral Edward Boscawen in enforcing the Siege of Pondicherry in 1748. He was kept prisoner by the French until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

In 1749 he was in command at the capture of Devicota, during which one of his subordinate officers was Robert Clive (1725–1774), the future Commander-in-Chief of British India, with whom a lifelong friendship began. When Clive had become famous he honoured Lawrence by refusing to accept a sword of honour unless one was voted to him also, as the creator of the Indian army.

In 1750 Lawrence returned to England, but he was back in India by 1752. Here he found Clive in command of a force intended for the relief of Trichinopoly. As senior officer Lawrence took over the command, but was careful to allow Clive every credit for his share in the subsequent operations, which included the relief of Trichinopoly and the surrender of the entire French besieging force. In 1752 with an inferior force he defeated the French at Bahour and in 1753 again relieved Trichinopoly. For the next seventeen months he fought a series of actions in defence of that place, and finally arranged an armistice of three months, afterwards converted into a conditional treaty. He was commander-in-chief until the arrival of the first detachment of regular forces of the crown.

In 1757 he served in the operations against Wandiwash, and in 1758-1759 was in command of Fort St George, Madras, during the siege by the French under Lally. In 1759 failing health compelled him to return to England, but in 1761 he resumed his command as major-general and commander-in-chief. Clive supplemented his old friend's limited income by settling on him an annuity of £500 a year. In 1765 he presided over the board charged with arranging the reorganisation of the Madras army, and he finally retired the following year.

Retirement, death and succession
His retirement years in England were spent as an honoured guest of his friend Sir Robert Palk, 1st Baronet (1717-1798) at Haldon House in the parish of Dunchideock in Devon, a fellow officer of the British East India Company who served as Governor of the Madras Presidency.

He died in London on 10 January 1775, and was buried in Dunchideock Church in Devon, the parish church of Haldon House.

Lawrence bequeathed the huge sum of £50,000 to his friend Palk, as whose guest Lawrence spent his retirement. Palk erected lavish monuments in Lawrence's memory, namely the 26 metres (85 ft) high triangular 'Lawrence Tower' (at Haldon House), containing a life-size statue of Lawrence dressed as a Roman general and decorated with three large tablets inscribed with details of his career, and also a mural monument in Dunchideock Church. Palk named his son and heir Lawrence in his honour, which became a tradition in the Palk family.

Armorials
His arms were: Ermine, a cross raguly gules, as is visible without tinctures on his monuments in Westminster Abbey and Dunchideock, and with tinctures on the vestry screen of Dunchideock Church. These are the arms of Sir John Lawrence (d.1692) Lord Mayor of London in 1665, which in 1839 were visible on the monument to Sir Thomas Gresham in St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, City of London, apparently a difference of the ancient arms of Lawrence of Ashton Hall, Lancashire. They also feature in the arms of John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence (1811-1879), Viceroy of India.

Westminster Abbey
The East India Company erected a monument to Stringer in white and coloured marble by the sculptor William Tyler (1728-1801), situated in the north aisle of the nave of Westminster Abbey. His bust stands on a pedestal at the top, below which is a medal inscribed "Born March 6, 1697; died January 10, 1775". On the left side below is a winged figure of Fame holding an oval shield inscribed: "For Discipline Established, Fortresses Protected, Settlements Extended, French and Indian Armies Defeated, and Peace Concluded in the Carnatic". On the right side below is a female figure seated on a bale, representing the East India Company. She points towards Lawrence's bust and at her feet are shown various French and Indian flags. An heraldic escutcheon on the front of the pedestal shows the arms of Lawrence: Ermine, a cross raguly gules. Also on the pedestal is a panel containing a relief sculpted perspective of a city and an encampment, inscribed: "Tritchinopoly", which town Lawrence defended against the French from May 1753 to October 1754. The main inscription on the black marble base is as follows:
 * "Erected by the East India Company to the memory of Major General Stringer Lawrence in testimony of their gratitude for his eminent services in the command of their forces on the coast of Coromandel from the year MDCCXLVI to the year MDCCLXVI".

Foreign and Commonwealth Office
A life-size marble statue of him sculpted in 1764 by Peter Scheemakers (1691-1781) stands in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London. The statue is 5 ft 8 inches (172 cm) high and shows him dressed as a Roman general. It was commissioned by the East India Company in 1760 and is inscribed on the front: "Major General Stringer Lawrence. A.D. 1764" and on the side: "P. Scheemakers Ft". A drawing of the statue was published in Neill, J.G.S., Historical Record of the First Madras European Regiment, London, 1843, p. 205.

In Devon
The 26 m triangular Lawrence Tower, now known as the Haldon Belvedere, was erected in 1788 to Lawrence's memory by Sir Robert Palk of Haldon House, where Lawrence had spent his retirement as a guest.

In the centre of the tower's ground floor stands a statue made of Coade stone similar to the one in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and on the walls are three large inscribed tablets recounting Lawrence's career. There is also a reproduction of the Thomas Gainsborough portrait in the National Portrait Gallery in London.

Lawrence was buried in St Michael's Church, Dunchideock, the parish church of Haldon House, where Palk erected a mural monument to him. Like the larger monument in Westminster Abbey, this was also by William Tyler. It contains a marble profile (see photograph in the gallery below) and three inscriptions.

title: Stringer Lawrence


text: File:Plate XX-Vima.jpg

title: File:Plate XX-Vima.jpg


text:
Doxylamine

Doxylamine, sold under the brand name Unisom among others, is an antihistamine medication which is used in the treatment of insomnia and allergies. It is also used to treat morning sickness in pregnant women in combination with pyridoxine (vitamin B6). Doxylamine is available over-the-counter, and is used in nighttime cold medicines, such as NyQuil, as well as in pain medications containing acetaminophen and codeine, to help with sleep. The medication is taken by mouth.

Side effects of doxylamine include dizziness, drowsiness, grogginess, and dry mouth, among others. Doxylamine is an antihistamine—specifically an inverse agonist of the histamine H1 receptor—and to a lesser extent an anticholinergic—specifically an antagonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors M1 through M5. It is a first-generation antihistamine and crosses the blood–brain barrier into the brain, thereby producing centrally mediated sedative and hypnotic effects.

Doxylamine was first described in 1948 or 1949. Several of the first-generation antihistamines, including doxylamine, are the most widely used sleep medications in the world. Doxylamine is also a potent anticholinergic, which means it also works as a deliriant at much higher than recommended doses as a result. Its sedative and deliriant effects have led to some cases of recreational use.

Medical uses
Doxylamine is an antihistamine used to treat sneezing, runny nose, watery eyes, hives, skin rash, itching, and other cold or allergy symptoms. It is also used as a short-term treatment for insomnia.

Insomnia
The first-generation sedating antihistamines diphenhydramine, doxepin, doxylamine, and pyrilamine are the most widely used medications in the world for preventing and treating insomnia. As of 2004, doxylamine and diphenhydramine, which are both over-the-counter medications, were the agents most commonly used to treat short-term insomnia. As of 2008 and 2017, over-the-counter antihistamines were not recommended by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine for treatment of chronic insomnia "due to the relative lack of efficacy and safety data". Neither version of their guidelines explicitly included or mentioned doxylamine, although diphenhydramine was discussed. A 2015 systematic review of over-the-counter sleep aids including doxylamine found little evidence to inform the use of doxylamine for treatment of insomnia.

A major systematic review and network meta-analysis of medications for the treatment of insomnia published in 2022 found that doxylamine had an effect size (standardized mean difference (SMD)) against placebo for treatment of insomnia at 4weeks of 0.47 (95% CI 0.06 to 0.89). The certainty of evidence was rated as moderate. No data were available for doxylamine in terms of longer-term treatment (3months). For comparison, the other sedating medicines assessed, doxepin and trimipramine (both of which are tricyclic antidepressants) had effect sizes (SMD) at 4weeks of 0.30 (95% CI –0.05 to 0.64) (very low certainty evidence) and 0.55 (95% CI –0.11 to 1.21) (very low certainty evidence), respectively.

Doses of doxylamine that have been used for sleep range from 5 to 50mg, with 25mg being the typical dose.

Morning sickness
Doxylamine is used in the combination drug pyridoxine/doxylamine to treat morning sickness (nausea and vomiting of pregnancy). It is the only medication approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of morning sickness.

Available forms
Doxylamine is used medically as doxylamine succinate, the succinate salt of doxylamine, and is available both alone (brand names Decapryn, Doxy-Sleep-Aid, Unisom) and in combination with pyridoxine (a form of vitamin B6) (brand names Bendectin, Bonjesta, Diclegis). Doxylamine is available alone as immediate-release oral tablets containing 25mg doxylamine succinate. Oral tablets containing 12.5mg doxylamine succinate as well as oral capsules containing 25mg doxylamine succinate were also previously available but were discontinued. The combination of doxylamine and pyridoxine is available in the form of extended- and delayed-release oral tablets containing 10 to 20mg doxylamine succinate and 10 to 20mg pyridoxine hydrochloride. Doxylamine alone is available over-the-counter, whereas doxylamine in combination with pyridoxine is a prescription-only medication. Doxylamine is also available in over-the-counter nighttime cold medicine products such as NyQuil Cold & Flu (contains acetaminophen, doxylamine succinate 6.25 to 12.5mg, and dextromethorphan hydrobromide), where it serves as the sedating component.

Contraindications
The fetal safety rating of doxylamine is "A" (no evidence of risk).

Side effects
Side effects of doxylamine include dizziness, drowsiness, and dry mouth, among others. Doxylamine is a potent anticholinergic and has a side-effect profile common to such drugs, including blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, muscle incoordination, urinary retention, mental confusion, and delirium.

Because of its relatively long elimination half-life (10–12hours), doxylamine is associated with next-day effects including sedation, drowsiness, grogginess, dry mouth, and tiredness when used as a hypnotic. This may be described as a "hangover effect". The shorter elimination half-life of diphenhydramine (4–8hours) compared to doxylamine may give it an advantage over doxylamine as a sleep aid in this regard.

Antihistamines like doxylamine are sedating initially but tolerance occurs with repeated use and can result in rebound insomnia upon discontinuation.

Occasional case reports of coma and rhabdomyolysis have been reported with doxylamine. This is in contrast to diphenhydramine.

Studies of doxylamine's carcinogenicity in mice and rats have produced positive results for both liver and thyroid cancer, especially in the mouse. The carcinogenicity of the drug in humans is not well-studied, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer lists the drug as "not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans".

Continuous and/or cumulative use of anticholinergic medications, including first-generation antihistamines, is associated with a higher risk of cognitive decline and dementia in older people.

Overdose
Doxylamine is generally safe for administration to healthy adults. Doses of doxylamine of up to 1,600mg/day for 6months have been given to adults with schizophrenia, with little toxicity encountered. The median lethal dose is estimated to be 50–500mg/kg in humans. Symptoms of overdose may include dry mouth, dilated pupils, insomnia, night terrors, euphoria, hallucinations, seizures, rhabdomyolysis, and death. Fatalities have been reported from doxylamine overdose. These have been characterized by coma, tonic-clonic (or grand mal) seizures and cardiopulmonary arrest. Children appear to be at a high risk for cardiopulmonary arrest. A toxic dose for children of more than 1.8mg/kg has been reported. A 3-year-old child died 18 hours after ingesting 1,000mg doxylamine succinate. Rarely, an overdose results in rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury.

Pharmacodynamics
Doxylamine acts primarily as an antagonist or inverse agonist of the histamine H1 receptor. This action is responsible for its antihistamine and sedative properties. To a lesser extent, doxylamine acts as an antagonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, an action responsible for its anticholinergic and (at high doses) deliriant effects.

Pharmacokinetics
The bioavailability of doxylamine is 24.7% for oral administration and 70.8% for intranasal administration. The Tmax of doxylamine is 1.5 to 2.5 hours. Its elimination half-life is 10 to 12hours (range 7 to 15hours). Doxylamine is metabolized in the liver primarily by the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2D6, CYP1A2, and CYP2C9. The main metabolites are N-desmethyldoxylamine, N,N-didesmethyldoxylamine, and doxylamine N-oxide. Doxylamine is eliminated 60% in the urine and 40% in feces.

Chemistry
Doxylamine is a member of the ethanolamine class of antihistamines. Other antihistamines from this group include bromodiphenhydramine, carbinoxamine, clemastine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, orphenadrine, and phenyltoloxamine.

History
Doxylamine is a first-generation antihistamine and was discovered by Nathan Sperber and colleagues and was first reported in 1948 or 1949. It has been the antihistamine component of NyQuil since 1966.

Bendectin, a combination of doxylamine, pyridoxine (vitamin B6), and dicyclomine (an anticholinergic antispasmodic agent), was marketed for treatment of morning sickness in 1956. This product was reformulated in 1976 to remove dicyclomine. The reformulated product was voluntarily discontinued by the manufacturer in the United States in 1983 due to concerns about an alleged association with congenital limb defects. However, these concerns have not been supported by studies. In 2013, doxylamine/pyridoxine was reintroduced in the United States under the brand name Diclegis. The combination was not removed from the market in Canada, where it had been marketed since 1979.

Formulations
Doxylamine is primarily used as the succinic acid salt, doxylamine succinate.

 * It is the sedating ingredient of NyQuil (generally in combination with dextromethorphan and acetaminophen).
 * In Commonwealth countries, such as Australia, Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom, doxylamine is available prepared with paracetamol (acetaminophen) and codeine under the brand name Dolased, Propain Plus, Syndol, or Mersyndol, as treatment for tension headache and other types of pain.
 * Doxylamine succinate is used in general over-the-counter sleep-aids branded as Somnil (South Africa), Dozile, Donormyl, Lidène (France, Russian Federation), Dormidina (Spain, Portugal), Restavit, Unisom-2, Sominar (Thailand), Sleep Aid (generic, Australia) and Dorminox (Poland).
 * In the United States:
 * Doxylamine succinate is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter sleep-aids branded under various names.
 * Doxylamine succinate and pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) are the ingredients of Diclegis, approved by the FDA in April 2013 becoming the only drug approved for morning sickness with a class A safety rating for pregnancy (no evidence of risk).
 * In Canada:
 * Doxylamine succinate and pyridoxine (vitamin B6) are the ingredients of Diclectin, which is used to prevent morning sickness.
 * It is also available in combination with vitamin B6 and folic acid under the brand name Evanorm (marketed by Ion Healthcare).
 * In India
 * Doxylamine preparations are available typically in combination with pyridoxine that may also contain folic acid. Doxylamine usage is thus restricted for pregnant women.

title: Doxylamine


text:
Fritos

Fritos is an American brand of corn chips that was created in 1932 by Charles Elmer Doolin and has been produced since 1961 by the Frito-Lay division of PepsiCo. Fritos are made by deep-frying extruded whole cornmeal, unlike the similar tortilla chips, which are made from cornmeal and use the nixtamalization process (known as masa). It is one of two brands representing Frito-Lay along with Lay's. The Fritos brand also appears on a line of cheese sauces and bean dip.

Origins
Frito means "fried" in Spanish.

According to the Handbook of Texas, published by the Texas State Historical Association:

"The Frito Company was born in 1932 at the height of the Great Depression. The family of Charles Elmer (C. E.) Doolin (1903–1959) owned the Highland Park Confectionary in San Antonio, and Doolin, twenty-eight at the time, wanted to add a salty snack to their repertoire. He responded to an ad in the San Antonio Express. The ad, placed by Gustavo Olguin, listed for sale an original recipe for fried corn chips along with an adapted potato ricer and nineteen retail accounts. Doolin bought the small business venture for $100, and began to manufacture the chips in his mother’s kitchen with the help of his father, Charles Bernard Doolin; mother, Daisy Dean Stephenson Doolin; and brother, Earl Doolin. These four founders made up the first board of directors, with Charles Bernard Doolin serving as the first chairman."

The Doolin family began selling Fritos in 1932 under the name of the Frito Corporation, located first in their garage; they soon bought the house next door to expand their operation. In 1933–34, they opened plants in Dallas and Tulsa. In 1936, Fritos were displayed at the Texas Centennial Exposition and the exhibit was moved to the 'Castle of Foods' during the 1938 State Fair of Texas. By 1947, the company had plants in Los Angeles and Denver, and licensed franchises nationwide, including H. W. Lay and Company, which had an exclusive franchise to produce and sell Fritos in the Southeastern United States. As its business expanded, the Frito Company also produced other items, including Cheetos (1948), chili, bean dip, tortilla chips, and other Mexican-inspired treats, along with potato chips, roasted peanuts, fried pork skins, and other snack-food products.

By 1955, the company owned more than fifty production plants, including ones in Hawaii and Venezuela, as well as a number of "Frito farms" across Texas, where Doolin grew corn and other crops for use in his products. The Frito Company was one of the first to invest in Disneyland, and from the park's opening in 1955 had a Casa de Fritos Restaurant there. In 1961, the Frito Company merged with H. W. Lay and Company to become Frito-Lay. In 1965, Frito-Lay merged with the Pepsi-Cola Company to become PepsiCo, one of the world's largest producers of soft drinks and snack foods.

According to Smithsonian magazine, C. E. Doolin did not eat meat or salt and was a follower of fellow Texan Herbert M. Shelton, a naturopath who advocated raw foods and fasting as a cure for diseases.

Company mascots
From 1952 to 1967, Frito Kid was the company's official mascot, designed by Keitz & Herndon. The Frito Bandito was its mascot from 1967 until about 1971, and was discontinued due to complaints about the racist Bandito image. He was initially replaced by the Muncha Bunch, a group of cowboys, which then were replaced by W.C. Fritos, modeled after comedian W. C. Fields.

Varieties

 * Adobados (in Mexico)
 * Bar-B-Q
 * Bar-B-Q Hoops (in Canada)
 * Jalapeño Hoops (in Canada)
 * BBQ (in Spain)
 * Chili Cheese
 * Chile and Lime (in Mexico)
 * Chorizo and Chipotle (in Mexico)
 * Chutney (in South Africa)
 * Classic Ranch
 * Flamin' Hot
 * Flamin' Hot BBQ
 * Lightly Salted (a version of the original flavor Fritos that contain 50% less sodium)
 * Original
 * Peri Peri Waves (rippled chips – in South Africa)
 * Pinch of Salt
 * Queso
 * Salt and Lime (in Mexico)
 * Scoops! (wider, cupped chips intended for dipping like for a chips and dip)
 * Spicy Jalapeño (Only available as Scoops!)
 * Sweet Chilli (in South Africa)
 * Sweet Chilli Twists (fusilli-shaped chips – in South Africa)
 * Tomato Sauce (in South Africa)
 * Tomato Ribbons (similar shape to regular Fritos – in South Africa)

Flavor twists
A spiral-shaped variation of Fritos chips, currently only available in the United States.

 * Cheddar Ranch (Available only in Munchies Totally Ranch snack mix)
 * Honey BBQ

Dipping sauces

 * Bean Dip
 * Hot Bean Dip
 * Jalapeño Cheddar Cheese Dip
 * Mild Cheddar Cheese Dip

Discontinued variations

 * King Size
 * Fritos Lite
 * Nacho Cheese
 * Tabasco
 * Fritos Racerz (late 1990s), the Fritos material formed into a more crunchy race car shape were sold for a short while before the introduction of Twists. They were marketed by Jeff Gordon.
 * Limited Edition Wild 'n Mild Ranch (Limited re-release of discontinued flavor – late 2012)
 * Wild 'n Mild Ranch (1986–late 1990s)
 * Cheddar Ranch Twists (late 1990s–early 2000s)
 * Jalapeño Cheddar Twists (late 1990s–early 2000s)
 * Texas Grill, a thicker version of the original with "grill strips" on the chips. The honey barbecue flavor transitioned over to the twists.
 * McGraw's Spicy Jalapeño (limited edition; 2008, 2009)
 * Ballpark Nacho (limited edition; 2010)
 * Tapatio Flavor Twists
 * Tex-Mex Flavor Twists
 * Tangy Roasted Corn
 * Mayonnaise flavor (late 1980s early 1990s)
 * Mustard flavor

title: Fritos


text:
WinCustomize

WinCustomize is a website that provides content for users to customize Microsoft Windows. The site hosts thousands of skins, themes, icons, wallpapers, and other graphical content to modify the Windows graphical user interface. There is some premium or paid content, however, the vast majority of the content is free for users to download.

Site history
WinCustomize was launched in March 2001 by Brad Wardell and Pat Ford, both of whom work at Stardock. After the dot-com recession had taken down many popular skin sites, WinCustomize quickly grew in popularity due to a combination of wide variety of content, uptime reliability, and being the preferred content destination by Stardock customers.

The site has grown at a far greater pace than its founders had anticipated. It has managed to avoid having to put many limitations on users or having to resort to pop-up advertising because of its corporate patron Stardock subsidizing its costs. This growth has prompted several site redesigns to offer improved functionality and reliability to users.

Since launch, WinCustomize has undergone several iterations:

WinCustomize 2k5 — Launched at the end of 2004, WinCustomize was redesigned for improved stability, and added functionality, such as personal pages for subscribers, an articles system, tutorials etc.

WinCustomize 2k7 — Launched January 15, 2007, WC2k7 was a fundamental rewrite using ASP.NET. The focus was to build a foundation that was easier to maintain and, in the future, expand.

WinCustomize v6 — Planned for Late 2008/Early 2009, the WC v6 project aims be a major revision to how users navigate and interact with the site and the community as a whole. Where 2k7 was focused on the core codebase, v6 is focused on the user interface and experience.

In July 2007 the WinCustomize Wiki was launched.

WinCustomize 2010 — WinCustomize 2010 was launched on April 20, 2010. This major revision represents a major change in the sites look and navigation for users. A guided tour of the new site was published for users.

Popular skinning programs
Programs heavily associated with Windows customization include:

 * WindowBlinds – enables users to customize the look and feel of the Windows GUI.
 * Winamp – A skinnable media player from Nullsoft.
 * IconPackager – A program that enables users to change their Windows icons.
 * Rainlendar — A skinnable calendar and small desktop application (widgets & monitoring) program.
 * DesktopX — A program that enables users to build their own desktop with objects and widgets.
 * Windows Media Player — Microsoft's skinnable media player.
 * LiteStep – A noted desktop shell replacement for Windows.
 * ObjectDock — provides a dock that adds functionality to the Windows interface, similar but not an emulation of the dock in Mac OS X.
 * LogonStudio — alters the Windows XP and Windows Vista welcome screen.
 * BootSkin — alters the Windows 2000 and Windows XP boot screen.

title: WinCustomize


text: User talk:141.209.237.225

title: User talk:141.209.237.225


text:
White marlin

The white marlin (Kajikia albida), also known as Atlantic white marlin, marlin, skilligalee, is a species of billfish that lives in the epipelagic zone of the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. They are found between the latitudes of 45° N and 45° S in waters deeper than 100 m. Even though white marlin are found in bodies of water that are deeper than 100 m they tend to stay near the surface. White marlin have been found near banks, shoals, and canyons, but they are not limited to those locations. They prefer warm surface temperatures greater than 22 °C.

Identification
White marlin are commonly misidentified as roundscale spearfish (Tetrapturus georgii). This likely caused a miscount of the population size of white marlin and roundscale spearfish before they were determined genetically different in 2001. Differentiation between the two species can be done with close external examination. As described in the name, roundscale spearfish have a broadband, round anterior end of their scales. White marlin scales are more rigid and rounded on the posterior region of the scale. Another way to identify between the two species without doing a genetic test is by looking at the distance between the anal opening and the anal fin. In roundscale spearfish, the anal opening is further way from the anal fin (greater than half the length of the anal fin) than it is in the white marlin.

Taxonomy and evolution
In 1860, Felipe Poey gave the white marlin the name Tetrapturus albidus. This classification places the species in the same genus as shortbill spearfish, Mediterranean spearfish, roundscale spearfish, and longbill spearfish. Researchers have identified fossils from the genus Tetrapturus dating back to the Langhian Age 15 million years ago (Mya). Extinct ancestors, such as species from the genus Palaeorhynchus date to as early as 56 Mya.

Tetrapturus albidus was the accepted name for white marlin until 2006. At this time, Collette and his colleagues' genetic testing suggested that white marlin and Indo-Pacific striped marlin should be classified in the genus Kajikia. Today, Kajikia albida and its close relative Kajikia audax (striped marlin) have been scientifically determined to be genetically distinct from the species in the genus Tetrapturus.

Appearance and anatomy
White marlin are mid-sized billfish with a bill that is round in cross section, and distinctly forked caudal fin. Their body structure is designed for fast swimming with a long, streamlined appearance. The length of K. albida is measured from the lower jaw to the fork of the tail (lower-jaw fork length; LJFL). The largest white marlin reported was 2.8 m (9.2 ft) LJFL and weighed over 82 kg (181 lb). The coloring of white marlin is used as countershading, with a dark blue dorsal side and a dirty white ventral side. Though all white marlin have the same coloring pattern, they are sexually dimorphic, with the females usually larger. One of the most noticeable features of white marlin is the dorsal fin, which extends along the majority of the dorsal portion of its body. The dorsal fin consists of typically 28 to 46 rays. These rays make up a fin tall and rounded in the anterior, but quickly levels off and then decreases as it extends to the posterior. Behind the large primary dorsal fin is the secondary dorsal fin, which is made up of five to six rays. White marlin have a set of similar pectoral fins and pelvic fins. These two sets of fin are rounded and wide at the tip. They also have two anal fins which can be used for identification between species. The lateral line on this species is prominent, with a hump above the pectoral fin and extends the length of the fish toward the caudal fin. Internally, white marlin do not have a swim bladder, but instead have small, bubble-shaped chambers that act as a swim bladder. Similarly to most vertebrates, they have symmetrical gonads. Unlike other marine fish, white marlin do not have gill rakers which are involved in suspension feeding. White marlin do have small but sharp teeth that are used when eating fish and cephalopods.

Distribution
White marlin are found throughout warmer waters of the Atlantic between 45°N to 45°S, it is found in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea, although records from the Mediterranean Sea and from as far north as Brittany, France, appear to refer to vagrants.

Feeding and diet
White marlin are near the top of the food chain and will consume any prey they can find that is manageable for their size. Schooling flyingfish, small tuna, mahi-mahi (dolphinfish, dorado), and squid are the preferred prey of white marlin. They sometime forage for food with help of other predators. White marlin usually keep to themselves, but associate with other apex predators to increase the efficiency of foraging. They also obtain food is by diving down in a V- or U-shaped parabola to about 200 m in search of food that is not at the surface. To survive in these lower temperatures and darker environments, white marlin have larger eyes and a way to selectively warm their eye and brain tissue.

Lifecycle and migration
The lifecycle of K. albida begins with a large spawning in warm tropical waters near the equator. Each female can lay 190,000 to 586,000 eggs. The Gulf of Mexico, Mona Passage, Southwest Bermuda, and northwest Grand Bahama Island are a few locations that have been located as prime spawning ground for white marlin. They return to the warm, shallow, equatorial waters each year to spawn. Growth of white marlin is very rapid, with males reaching sexual maturity at only 153.2 cm LJFL and females becoming sexually mature at 189.9 cm LJFL. The lifespan of white marlin has been identified as 15 or more years.

White marlin are ram ventilators, which means they have to be constantly moving to breathe. Many have made long transatlantic journeys. One white marlin resurfaced 6,517 km (4,083 miles) from where it was tagged 474 days later.

Fishing and conservation
Prior to 2001, roundscale spearfish and white marlin were identified as the same species. Researchers from Nova Southeastern University's Guy Harvey Research Institute, Dania Beach, Florida, first discovered that these two species were significantly different in 2001 through genetic tests. Before this discovery. the two species made up a population that was of least concern to the IUCN. Placement into the endangered species list was not established until 2007, when the population numbers had already dropped below easily recoverable levels.

White marlin fishing is a multimillion-dollar organization in well-developed countries. Restrictions are in place to limit the size of fish that can be taken, but the angling process can be devastating to fish. The time spent on the hook, outside handling, dehooking, and releasing a white marlin exhaust enough energy that up to 32% of the time, the marlin cannot maintain buoyancy in the water. When fishing for any billfish, use of a circle hook, which can be dehooked more quickly than other hooks, is recommended. In the U.S. Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean waters, the fish is required by federal regulations to be kept in the water, boatside, to maximize its chances of surviving after release. Research indicates that removing a billfish from the water may increase their risk of death after release by ~30 percent (research ongoing).

About 90% of the annual catch is caught accidentally in bycatch from fishing around the world. Many billfish are caught in gillnets or on longline hooks that were meant to catch other fish species. Since these hooks and nets are set for long periods of time, white marlin become food to sharks, pilot whales, and killer whales. In response to the decrease in white marlin, marine life agencies have developed acts and plans such as the Atlantic Tunas Conservation Act and the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act to protect vulnerable species. The U.S. Fishery Management plan for the Atlantic billfish has, as an objective, to educate and increase knowledge about billfish and their roles in the ecosystem. In the United States, billfishing is reserved for recreational fishing only.

Additional information
Ocean City, Maryland, is known as the White Marlin Capital of the World. The city hosts the annual White Marlin Open, a big-game tournament which attracts anglers from all over the world, and which frequently pays out over a million dollars to the winning team. The tournament encourages tag-and-release (nonlethal) handling of the fish, although winning marlin are often brought back to the marina for verification of the size and weight. The 2010 White Marlin Open was held at Harbour Island Marina on 14th Street and the Bay.

The 2016 White Marlin Open created controversy when the only fish that met the minimum weight requirement of 70 lb, was disqualified when the crew of the winning boat, Kallianassa, was deemed to have failed a polygraph which implied that tournament rules were broken during the clash. The boat's owner, Phillip G. Heasley, was denied the $2.8 million of prize money.

title: White marlin


text:
St. Thomas Episcopal Church

St. Thomas Episcopal Church, and variations with St. Thomas' or St. Thomas's, may refer to:

In the United States (by state):
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Alamosa, Colorado)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Denver, Colorado), a Denver Landmark
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Newark, Delaware)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Sioux City, Iowa)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Beattyville, Kentucky)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Taunton, Massachusetts)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Dover, New Hampshire)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Glassboro, New Jersey)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Pittstown, New Jersey)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Amenia Union, New York)
 * St. Thomas' Episcopal Church Complex (Mamaroneck, New York)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (New Windsor, New York)
 * Saint Thomas Church (Manhattan), New York City, New York, an Episcopal church
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Slaterville Springs, New York)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Bath, North Carolina)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Port Clinton, Ohio)
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Terrace Park, Ohio)
 * St. Thomas' Episcopal Church (Canyon City, Oregon)
 * African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Middletown, Virginia)
 * St. Thomas’ Episcopal Church, Whitemarsh

title: St. Thomas Episcopal Church


text: Talk:St. Thomas Episcopal Church

title: Talk:St. Thomas Episcopal Church


text:
Atlantic blue marlin

The Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a species of marlin endemic to the Atlantic Ocean. It is closely related to, and usually considered conspecific with, the Indo-Pacific blue marlin, then simply called blue marlin. Some authorities consider both species distinct.

The Atlantic blue marlin (hereafter, blue marlin) feeds on a wide variety of organisms near the surface. It uses its bill to stun, injure, or kill while knifing through a school of fish or other prey, then returns to eat the injured or stunned fish. Marlin is a popular game fish. The relatively high fat content of its meat makes it commercially valuable in certain markets. It is the national fish of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and is featured on its coat of arms.

Blue marlin are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. A bluewater fish that spends the majority of its life in the open sea far from land, the blue marlin preys on a wide variety of marine organisms, mostly near the surface, often using its bill to stun or injure its prey. Females can grow up to four times the weight of males. The maximum published weight is 818 kg and length 5 m. Greater lengths have been claimed unofficially.

They are sought after as a highly prized game fish by anglers and are taken by commercial fishermen, both as a directed catch and as bycatch in major industrial tuna fisheries. Blue marlin are currently considered a threatened species by the IUCN due to overfishing, particularly in the international waters off the coast of Portugal where they migrate to breed in the June/July months. Some other historic English names for the blue marlin are Cuban black marlin,  ocean gar, and ocean guard.

Taxonomy and naming
The blue marlin is placed in the genus Makaira. This name is derived from the Greek word machaira, meaning "a short sword or bent dagger", and the Latin machaera, "sword". The specific epithet nigricans is Latin for "becoming black". The blue marlin is part of the billfish family Istiophoridae and is in the perch-like order Perciformes. In addition, it is in the suborder Xiphioidei and is a member of the subclass Neopterygii, which means "new wings". It is also in the class of Actinopterygii, which includes ray-finned fishes and spiny-rayed fishes, and the superclass Osteichthyes, which includes all of the bony fishes.

The classification of the Atlantic blue marlin (M. nigricans) and the Indo-Pacific blue marlin (M. mazara) as separate species is under debate. Genetic data suggest, although the two groups are isolated from each other, they are both the same species, with the only genetic exchange occurring when Indo-Pacific blue marlin migrate to and contribute genes to the Atlantic population. A separate study by V. P. Buonaccorsi, J. R. Mcdowell, and Graves indicated that both Indo-Pacific and Atlantic show "striking phylogeographic partitioning" of mitochondrial and microsatellite loci.

Synonyms
Synonyms of M. nigricans are:

 * Maikaira nigricans (sic) Lacepède, 1802
 * Makaira nigricans nigricans Lacepède, 1802
 * Xiphias ensis Lacepède, 1800 (ambiguous)
 * Makaira ensis (Lacepède, 1800) (ambiguous)
 * Tetrapturus herschelii J. E. Gray, 1838
 * Histiophorus herschelii (J. E. Gray, 1838)
 * Makaira herschelii (J. E. Gray, 1838)
 * Tetrapturus amplus Poey, 1860
 * Makaira ampla (Poey, 1860)
 * Makaira ampla ampla (Poey, 1860)
 * Makaira nigricans ampla (Poey, 1860)
 * Makaira bermudae Mowbray, 1931
 * Orthocraeros bermudae (Mowbray, 1931)
 * Eumakaira nigra Hirasaka & H. Nakamura, 1947
 * Makaira nigra (Hirasaka & H. Nakamura, 1947)
 * Makaira perezi F. de Buen, 1950
 * Istiompax howardi Whitley, 1954

Description
The biggest females are more than four times as heavy as the biggest males, which rarely exceed 160 kg in weight. The longest females can reach a length of 5 m with the bill, from eye to tip, constituting about 20% of the total body length.

Body mass in the largest female specimens has been reported from 540 to 820 kg, depending on the source (few large specimens are scientifically verified). The largest blue marlin caught by IGFA angling rules is from Vitoria, Brazil, which weighed 1402 lb.; fishermen often refer to individual marlins that reach or exceed 1,000 pounds as "granders".

Both sexes have 24 vertebrae, of which 11 are precaudal and 13 are caudal.

The marlin has two dorsal fins and two anal fins. The fins are supported by bony spines known as rays. Its first dorsal fin has 39 to 43 rays from front to back. Its second dorsal fin has six or seven rays. Its first anal fin, which is similar in shape and size to the second dorsal fin, has 13 to 16 rays, and the second anal fin has six or seven rays. The pectoral fins, which have 19 to 22 rays, are long and narrow and can be drawn in to the sides of the body. The pelvic fins are shorter than the pectorals, have a poorly developed membrane, and are depressible into ventral grooves. Its first anal fin, along with its pectoral and caudal fins, can be folded into grooves. This streamlines the fish and thereby reduces drag.

Blue marlin, like other billfish, can rapidly change color, an effect created by pigment-containing iridophores and light-reflecting skin cells.

Most often, however, the body is blue-black on top with a silvery white underside. It has about 15 rows of pale, cobalt-colored stripes, each of which has round dots and/or thin bars, located on both sides of the fish. The first dorsal fin membrane is dark blue or almost black and has no dots or marks. Other fins are normally brownish-black, sometimes with a hint of dark blue. The bases of the first and second anal fins have a hint of silvery white.

The body is covered with thick, bony, elongated scales that have one, two, or three posterior points, with one being the most common form.

The bill is long and stout. Both the jaws and the palatines (the roof of the mouth) are covered with small, file-like teeth. The lateral line system is a group of neuromasts rooted in lateral line canals that can sense weak water motions and large changes in pressure. It has the appearance of a net. It is obvious in immature specimens but unclear in adults, becoming progressively embedded in the skin. The anus is just in front of the origin of the first anal fin.

Range and migration
Blue marlin are found year-round in tropical oceanic waters of the Atlantic. The range expands into temperate waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres during the warmer months and contracts towards the Equator during colder months. Warm currents such as the Gulf Stream in the western Atlantic have a major influence on their seasonal distribution.

Being the most tropic of all the billfishes, they spend a lot of time in the water column shifting from the top to a depth of 100 meters. They spend most nights near the surface and dive to deeper depths during the day. Limited from going any lower by the water temperature and oxygen levels.

The blue marlin's latitudinal range extends from about 45°N to about 35°S. It is less abundant in the eastern Atlantic, where it mostly occurs off Africa between the latitudes of 25°N and 25°S. The largest numbers are usually found in waters warmer than 24 °C (75 °F), but blue marlin have been found at surface water temperatures as high as 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) and as low as 21.7 °C (71.1 °F).

Tagging studies, using conventional "spaghetti" tags, and more recently pop-up satellite tags, have given researchers a glimpse into blue marlin migration patterns and habits. Recaptures of tagged fish have shown multiple movements between the Caribbean Islands and Venezuela and the Bahamas, as well as between the Caribbean Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands and West Africa, and interocean travel. Most notably, a blue marlin tagged off the coast of Delaware was recovered near the island of Mauritius off the southeast coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean – a voyage of 9,254 miles. Several fish have been recaptured in the same general area where they were tagged, implying reverse migration after/over several years, but the data are insufficient to accurately determine seasonality.

Predators and parasites
Once blue marlin reach maturity, they have few predators, with the most important being killer whales and large pelagic sharks, such as the shortfin mako and great white shark.

Blue marlin have many parasites, including from these groups: Digenea (flukes), Didymozoidea (tissue flukes), Monogenea (gillworms), Cestoda (tapeworms), Nematoda (roundworms), Acanthocephala (spiny-headed worms), copepods, barnacles, and cookiecutter sharks.

Lifecycle
Growth and maturity

Atlantic blue marlin reach sexual maturity at the age of two to four years. Males reach sexual maturity at a weight of 35 - 44 kg and females at 47 - 61 kg. Blue marlin breed in late summer and fall. Females may spawn as many as four times in one season. They often release over seven million eggs at once, each about 1 mm in diameter. Few reach sexual maturity. The planktonic young drift freely in the ocean's pelagic zone. Larvae inhabit the west central Atlantic off the Southern United States, Jamaica, The Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, and also the southwest Atlantic off Brazil. The larvae may grow as much as 16 mm in a day. On their sides and dorsal surfaces, they are blue-black in color, while ventrally they are white. Both the caudal fin and the caudal peduncle (the narrow part of the fish's body to which the caudal or tail fin is attached) are clear. Two iridescent blue patches occur on the head, and some individuals have darker spots on their backs. In adolescents, the first dorsal fin is large and concave, gradually reducing in proportion to body size with continued growth. Males may live for 18 years, and females up to 27.

Diet and feeding

The larvae feed upon a variety of zooplankton along with drifting fish eggs and other larvae. They progress to feeding on a wide range of fishes, particularly scombrids, such as mackerel and tuna, squid, and especially near oceanic islands and coral reefs, on juvenile inshore fish. Studies of stomach contents have found that smaller schooling scombrids such as frigate mackerel, bullet tuna, and skipjack tuna make up a substantial proportion of their diet. Squid and deep-sea fishes such as pomfret and snake mackerel are also important prey items in certain areas. Blue marlin have been recorded to take prey as large as white marlin, as well as yellowfin and bigeye tuna in the 100-lb range. Conversely, they are also capable of feeding on small but numerous prey such as filefish and snipefish.

Scientists and fishermen have long debated the extent to which blue marlin and other billfish use their elongated upper jaw in feeding. A 2007 Japanese study of stomach contents of fish captured in a commercial trolling fishery found that 130 undigested prey items obtained from 227 blue marlin had spearing, slashing, and other injuries that were judged to have been inflicted by the bill.

Bioaccumulation

Heavy metals have been known to accumulate in the Atlantic blue marlin, a process known as bioaccumulation. In 2017, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department issued a consumption advisory for all blue marlin caught along the coast of Texas based on the presence of mercury.

Commercial fishery
Marlin has commercial value throughout the world, with landings totalling 3,064 metric tons in 2000. It is particularly valued in Japan for sashimi. Blue marlin meat is sometimes smoked and sold by roadside vendors.

Blue marlin are often caught as bycatch in tuna longline fisheries.

Recreational fishery
Sport fishermen first encountered blue marlin in the Bahamas in the 1920s and early 1930s, when pioneering big-game fishermen such as Van Campen Heilner and S. Kip Farrington began exploring the waters offshore of Bimini and Cat Cay. Since then, blue marlin have been renowned as one of the world's greatest game fishes. The sportfishing pursuit of marlin and other billfish has developed into a multimillion dollar industry that includes hundreds of companies and thousands of jobs for boat operators, boat builders, marinas, dealerships, and fishing tackle manufacturers and dealers.

The most established sport fisheries for blue marlin are found along the eastern seaboard and the Gulf Coast of the United States, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and several other Caribbean islands (notably St Thomas and Puerto Rico). Recreational fishing for blue marlin also takes place in Hawaii, Brazil, Venezuela, and the Atlantic coast of Mexico, particularly the Yucatan peninsula. In the eastern Atlantic, blue marlin sport fisheries exist from the Algarve coast of Portugal in the north to Angola in the south and include the islands of the Azores, Canaries, Cape Verde, Madeira, and Ascension Island.

The International Game Fish Association all-tackle world record for blue marlin currently stands at 1,402 lb 2 oz (636 kg). This fish was captured in Vitoria, Brazil.

Conservation
The blue marlin is under intense pressure from longline fishing. In the Caribbean region alone, Japanese and Cuban fishermen annually take over a thousand tons. All vessels within 200 mi of the U.S. coastline are required to release any billfish caught. However, the survival rate of released fish is low because of damage during capture.

Makaira nigricans is listed as a threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In 2010, Greenpeace International added the blue marlin to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."

Sport fishermen have been at the forefront of efforts to conserve blue marlin populations. The initial efforts to develop electronic tags for tracking highly migratory fish were carried out on marlin in Hawaii, in collaboration with anglers in the Hawaiian International Billfish Tournament.

In culture
Both Zane Grey and Ernest Hemingway, who fished for blue marlin off the Florida Keys, The Bahamas, and most famously in Cuba, wrote extensively about their pursuit.

The blue marlin is featured prominently on the obverse of the 5 Bermudian dollar note.

In Hemingway's novella The Old Man and the Sea, a fisherman named Santiago battles a blue marlin for three days off the coast of Cuba.

title: Atlantic blue marlin


text:
Lay's

Lay's is a brand of potato chips with different flavors, as well as the name of the company that founded the chip brand in the United States. The brand is also referred to as Frito-Lay, as both Lay's and Fritos are brands sold by the Frito-Lay company, which has been a wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo since 1965. Frito-Lay primarily uses the brand name "Lay's" in the United States, and uses other brand names in some other countries, such as Walkers in the UK and Ireland, and Smith's in Australia.

History
In 1932, salesman Herman Lay opened a snack food operation in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1938, he purchased the Atlanta, Georgia-based potato chip manufacturer "Barrett Food Company", renaming it "H.W. Lay Lingo & Company". Lay crisscrossed the southern United States, selling the product from the trunk of his car.

The business shortened its name to "the Lay's Lay Lingo Company" in 1944 and became the first snack food manufacturer to purchase television commercials, using Bert Lahr as its celebrity spokesperson.

In 1961, the Frito Company, founded by Charles E. Doolin, merged with Lay’s, forming Frito-Lay Inc., a snack food giant with combined sales of over $127 million annually, which was then the highest sales revenue earned by any manufacturer. Shortly thereafter, Lay's introduced what became its best-known slogan: "betcha can't eat just one". Sales of the chips became international, with marketing assisted by a number of celebrity endorsers. Annual revenues for Frito-Lay exceeded $180 million by 1965, when the company had more than 8,000 employees and 46 manufacturing plants.

In 1965, Frito-Lay merged with the Pepsi-Cola Company to form PepsiCo, Inc. In 1991, the company introduced a new formulation of their chip that was crisper and kept fresher longer. Shortly thereafter, the company introduced the "Wavy Lay's" products to grocery shelves, with a national rollout in 1994. In the mid- to late 1990s, Lay's introduced a lower-calorie baked variety, and a fat-free variety (Lay's WOW chips) that contained the fat substitute olestra.

In the 2000s, the company introduced “kettle-cooked” varieties, as well as a more highly processed variety (Lay's Stax) that was intended to compete with Pringles, and several differently flavored varieties.

In 2012, Frito-Lay products comprised 59% of the United States savory snack-food market.

In April 2019, PepsiCo's Indian subsidiary sued four farmers in Gujarat, India for copyright infringement, claiming they were growing a variety of potatoes trademarked by the company for exclusive use in its Lay's potato chips. Two years later, the ruling was done in the farmers' favour under the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001.

International branding
Frito-Lay primarily uses the brand name "Lay's" in the United States, and uses other brand names in some other countries, including Walkers (UK and Ireland); Smith's (Australia); Chipsy (Egypt and the West Balkans ); Tapuchips (Israel); Margarita (Colombia); and Sabritas (Mexico).

Nutritional information
As with most snack foods, the Lay's brands contain very few vitamins and minerals in any variety. At ten percent of the daily requirement per serving, vitamin C is the highest. Salt content is particularly high, with a serving containing as much as 380 mg of sodium.

A one-ounce (28 gram) serving of Lay's regular potato chips has 160 Calories, and contains ten grams of fat, with one gram of saturated fat. Kettle-cooked brands have seven to eight grams of fat and one gram of saturated fat, and are 140 Calories. Lay's Natural has nine grams of fat, two grams of saturated fat and 150 Calories. Stax chips typically contain ten grams of fat, 2.5 grams saturated fat and are 160 calories per serving. Wavy Lay's are identical to the regular brand, except for a half-gram less of saturated fat in some combinations. Now the various brands do not contain any trans fats.

A 50 gram serving of Lay's BarBQ chips contains 270 calories, and 17 grams of fat. It also contains 270 mg of sodium, and 15% of the daily recommended dose of Vitamin C.

The baked variety, introduced in the mid 1990s, feature 1.5 grams of fat per one ounce serving, and have no saturated fat. Each serving has 110 to 120 Calories. Lay's Light servings are 75 Calories per ounce and have no fat.

Lay's Classic Potato chips were cooked in hydrogenated oil until 2003. Currently, the chips are made with sunflower, corn and/or canola oil.

title: Lay's


text:
Sailfish

The sailfish is one of two species of marine fish in the genus Istiophorus, which belong to the family Istiophoridae (marlins). They are predominantly blue to gray in colour and have a characteristically large dorsal fin known as the sail, which often stretches the entire length of the back. Another notable characteristic is the elongated rostrum (bill) consistent with that of other marlins and the swordfish, which together constitute what are known as billfish in sport fishing circles. Sailfish live in colder pelagic waters of all Earth's oceans, and hold the record for the highest speed of any marine animal.

Species
There is a dispute based on the taxonomy of the sailfish, and either one or two species have been recognized. No differences have been found in mtDNA, morphometrics or meristics between the two supposed species and most authorities now only recognize a single species, Istiophorus platypterus, found in warmer oceans around the world. FishBase continues to recognize two species:
 * Atlantic sailfish (I. albicans).
 * Indo-Pacific sailfish (I. platypterus).

Description
Considered by many scientists the fastest fish in the ocean, sailfish grow quickly, reaching 1.2 - 1.5 m in length in a single year, and feed on the surface or at middle depths on smaller pelagic forage fish and squid. Sailfish were previously estimated to reach maximum swimming speeds of 35 m/s, but research published in 2015 and 2016 indicate sailfish do not exceed speeds between 10-15 m/s. During predator–prey interactions, sailfish reached burst speeds of 7 m/s and did not surpass 10 m/s. Generally, sailfish do not grow to more than 3 m in length and rarely weigh over 90 kg.

Some sources indicate that sailfish are capable of changing colours as a method of confusing prey, displaying emotion, and/or communicating with other sailfish.

Sailfish have been documented attacking humans in self-defense; a 100 lb sailfish stabbed a woman in the groin when her party tried to catch it.

Hunting behaviour
Sailfish have been reported to use their bills for hitting schooling fish by tapping (short-range movement) or slashing (horizontal large-range movement) at them.

The sail is normally kept folded down when swimming and only raised when the sailfish attack their prey. The raised sail has been shown to reduce sideways oscillations of the head, which is likely to make the bill less detectable by prey fish. This strategy allows sailfish to put their bills close to fish schools or even into them without being noticed by the prey before hitting them.

Sailfish usually attack one at a time, and the small teeth on their bills inflict injuries on their prey fish in terms of scale and tissue removal. Typically, about two prey fish are injured during a sailfish attack, but only 24% of attacks result in capture. As a result, injured fish increase in number over time in a fish school under attack. Given that injured fish are easier to catch, sailfish benefit from the attacks of their conspecifics but only up to a particular group size. A mathematical model showed that sailfish in groups of up to 70 individuals should gain benefits in this way. The underlying mechanism was termed proto-cooperation because it does not require any spatial coordination of attacks and could be a precursor to more complex forms of group hunting.

The bill movement of sailfish during attacks on fish is usually either to the left or to the right side. Identification of individual sailfish based on the shape of their dorsal fins identified individual preferences for hitting to the right or left side. The strength of this side preference was positively correlated with capture success. These side-preferences are believed to be a form of behavioural specialization that improves performance. However, a possibility exists that sailfish with strong side preferences could become predictable to their prey because fish could learn after repeated interactions in which direction the predator will hit. Given that individuals with right- and left-sided preferences are about equally frequent in sailfish populations, living in groups possibly offers a way out of this predictability. The larger the sailfish group, the greater the possibility that individuals with right- and left-sided preferences are about equally frequent. Therefore, prey fish should find it hard to predict in which direction the next attack will take place. Taken together, these results suggest a potential novel benefit of group hunting which allows individual predators to specialize in their hunting strategy without becoming predictable to their prey.

The injuries that sailfish inflict on their prey appear to reduce their swimming speeds, with injured fish being more frequently found in the back (compared with the front) of the school than uninjured ones. When a sardine school is approached by a sailfish, the sardines usually turn away and flee in the opposite direction. As a result, the sailfish usually attacks sardine schools from behind, putting at risk those fish that are the rear of the school because of their reduced swimming speeds.

Habitat
The sailfish is an epipelagic and oceanic species and shows a strong tendency to approach continental coasts, islands and reefs tropical and temperate waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Sailfish in some areas are reliant on coral reefs as areas for feeding and breeding. As witnessed in the Persian Gulf, the disappearance of coral reefs in a sailfish's habitat may be followed by the disappearance of the species from that area.

Predators
When freshly hatched, sailfish are hunted by other fishes that mainly survive on eating plankton. The size of their predators increases as they grow, and adult sailfish are not eaten by anything other than larger predatory fish like open ocean shark species and orcas.

title: Sailfish


text:
Rold Gold

Rold Gold refers to first a company and then a remaining brand of pretzels, now owned by Frito-Lay. The company, originally named "American Cone and Pretzel Company", was founded in 1917 by Philadelphia businessman Lorraine Schumaker.

Run for its first half century as a family business, Rold Gold expanded its operations to St. Louis, Missouri, and El Segundo, California, and established a reputation for producing pretzels. From 1921 until 1955, the company also owned the Continental Packing Company, a pimento canning plant located near Macon, Georgia, but sold that part of the business in 1955, in response to increasing competition from overseas canners. The Schumaker family sold Rold Gold to Red Dot Foods Inc. of Madison, Wisconsin, in 1960, but the deal fell through when Red Dot went bankrupt and its principal owner committed suicide. Frito-Lay then purchased Rold Gold in 1961, and has owned the pretzel company ever since.

In the years since its purchase by Frito-Lay, Rold Gold has expanded its sales nationwide. While on-bag advertising formerly stated that Rold Gold was "America's No. 1 Pretzel", when measured by total dollar sales in the United States, Rold Gold was the #2 pretzel brand behind Snyder's of Hanover as of 2014.

Rold Gold pretzels offer a range of pretzel and snack products. All of these items are baked, not fried, and most are lactose free.

title: Rold Gold


text:
Nintendo Cereal System

Nintendo Cereal System is a breakfast cereal which was produced by Ralston Cereals in 1988 and discontinued in 1989. The name of the cereal was based on the Nintendo Entertainment System, and represents two of the most popular video games for the NES at the time: Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda. Over the years, the cereal has been sold as memorabilia for collectors on online auction sites, at prices exceeding $100 per box. In 2010, a box was sold on eBay for over $200.

Description
The cereal box has two vertical bags inside, each containing a different cereal. One side, called the "Super Mario Bros. Action Series", consists of fruity-flavored characters and items: Marios, Super Mushrooms, Goombas, Koopa Troopas, and Bowsers. The other side of the box, known as the "Zelda Adventure Series", consists of berry-flavored characters and items: Links, hearts, keys, boomerangs, and shields. Inside the box is a sticker of a Nintendo character, and on the back panel is a set of twelve trading cards called "Nintendo Power Cards". It also presents now-defunct offers to win a Power Pad NES accessory or a Super Mario cereal bowl.

title: Nintendo Cereal System


text:
Category:Legendary Danish people

Danish people depicted in legend.

title: Category:Legendary Danish people


text:
Harold Clurman

Harold Edgar Clurman (September 18, 1901 – September 9, 1980) was an American theatre director and drama critic. In 2003, he was named one of the most influential figures in U.S. theater by PBS. He was one of the three founders of New York City's Group Theatre (1931–1941). He directed more than 40 plays in his career and, during the 1950s, was nominated for a Tony Award as director for several productions. In addition to his directing career, he was drama critic for The New Republic (1948–1952) and The Nation (1953–1980), helping shape American theater by writing about it. Clurman wrote seven books about the theatre, including his memoir The Fervent Years: The Group Theatre and the Thirties (1961).

Early life and education
Clurman was born on the Lower East Side of New York City, the son of Jewish parents from Kamenets Podolsky, Russia now Ukraine, in Eastern Europe, Samuel, a doctor, and Bertha Clurman. He had three older brothers, Morris, Albert, and William. His parents took him at age six to Yiddish theater, and Jacob Adler's performances in Yiddish translations of Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's Nathan the Wise fascinated him, although he did not understand Yiddish.

He attended Columbia and, at the age of 20, moved to France to study at the University of Paris. There he shared an apartment with the young composer Aaron Copland. In Paris, he saw all sorts of theatrical productions. He was influenced especially by the work of Jacques Copeau and the Moscow Art Theatre, whose permanent company built a strong creative force. He wrote his thesis on the history of French drama from 1890 to 1914.

Clurman returned to New York in 1924 and started working as an extra in plays, despite his lack of experience. He became a stage manager and play reader for the Theatre Guild. He briefly studied Stanislavski's system under the tutelage of Richard Boleslavsky, and became Jacques Copeau's translator/assistant on his production of The Brothers Karamazov, based on the novel by the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky.

Career
Clurman began work as an actor in New York. He felt that the standard American theater, though successful at the box office, was not culturally significant. He said, "I was interested in what the theater was going to say [...]. The theater must say something. It must relate to society. It must relate to the world we live in."

Together with the like-minded Cheryl Crawford and Lee Strasberg, he began to create what would become the Group Theatre. In November 1930, Clurman led weekly lectures, in which they talked about founding a permanent theatrical company to produce plays dealing with important modern social issues. Together with 28 other young people, they formed a group that developed a groundbreaking style of theater that strongly influenced American productions, including such elements as Stanislavski-trained actors, realism based on American stories, and political content. By building a permanent company, they expected to increase the synergy and trust among the members, who included Stella Adler, Morris Carnovsky, Phoebe Brand, Elia Kazan, Clifford Odets, and Sanford Meisner.

In the summer of 1931, the first members of the Group Theatre rehearsed for several weeks in the countryside of Nichols, Connecticut, at the Pine Brook Country Club. They were preparing The House of Connelly by Paul Green, their first production, directed by Strasberg. Clurman was the scholar of the group — he knew multiple languages, read widely, and listened to a broad array of music. Strasberg dealt with acting and directing, and Crawford dealt with the business.

The first play which Clurman directed for the Group Theatre was Awake and Sing! by Clifford Odets in 1935. The play's success led Clurman to develop his directing style. He believed that all the elements of a play—text, acting, lighting, scenery and direction—needed to work together to convey a unified message. Clurman would read the script over and over, each time focusing on a different element or character. He tried to inspire, guide and constructively critique his designers rather than dictate to them. He also used Richard Boleslavsky's technique of identifying the "spine," or main action, of each character, then using those to determine the spine of the play. He encouraged his actors to find "active verbs" to describe what their characters were trying to accomplish.

In 1937, tensions among Clurman, Crawford and Strasberg caused the latter two to resign from the Group; four years later, the Group Theatre permanently disbanded. Clurman went on to direct plays on Broadway, more than 40 in all, and write as a newspaper theatre critic.

Marriage and family
In 1943 Clurman married Stella Adler, a charismatic theatre actress and later a renowned New York acting coach. A member of the Group Theatre since its founding, Adler was the daughter of the notable Yiddish actor Jacob Adler. Clurman was her second husband. They divorced in 1960. Clurman's second marriage was to the independent filmmaker Juleen Compton.

Director and drama critic
Clurman had an active career as a director, over the decades leading more than 40 productions, and helping bring many new works to the stage. He is considered "one of the most influential theater directors in America".

In addition, Clurman helped shape American theater by writing about it, as drama critic for The New Republic (1948–1952), The Nation (1953–1980), and New York (1968). He encouraged new styles of production, such as that of the Living Theater, and championed contemporary plays and playwrights.

Author
He wrote a memoir about the Group Theatre's beginning and their making art within American culture, called The Fervent Years: The Group Theatre and the Thirties. His six other books about the theater include On Directing (1972); his autobiography, All People are Famous (1974); The Divine Pastime (1974); Ibsen (1977); and Nine Plays of the Modern Theater (1981). Most of his essays and reviews can be found in The Collected Works of Harold Clurman.

On acting
Uta Hagen in Respect for Acting credits Clurman with a new perspective on acting. She summarized his approach as demanding the human being within the character:

"In 1947, I worked in a play under the direction of Harold Clurman. He opened a new world in the professional theatre for me. He took away my 'tricks.' He imposed no line readings, no gestures, no positions on the actors. At first I floundered badly because for many years I had become accustomed to using specific outer directions as the material from which to construct the mask for my character, the mask behind which I would hide throughout the performance. Mr. Clurman refused to accept a mask. He demanded ME in the role. My love of acting was slowly reawakened as I began to deal with a strange new technique of evolving in the character. I was not allowed to begin with, or concern myself at any time with, a preconceived form. I was assured that a form would result from the work we were doing."

Clurman died a week before what would have been his 79th birthday, on September 9, 1980, in New York City of cancer. He is buried in Mt. Carmel Cemetery, Glendale, Queens.

Works on Broadway
Note: All works are plays and are the original productions unless otherwise noted.
 * Caesar and Cleopatra (1925) (revival) - actor
 * The Goat Song (1926) - actor
 * The Chief Thing (1926) - actor
 * Juarez and Maximilian (1926) - actor
 * Night Over Taos (1932) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Big Night (1933) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Men in White (1934) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Awake and Sing! (1935) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * Waiting for Lefty (1935) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Till the Day I Die (1935) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Weep for the Virgins (1935) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Paradise Lost (1935) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * Case of Clyde Griffiths (1936) - co-produced by the Group Theater
 * Johnny Johnson (1936) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Golden Boy (1937) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * Casey Jones (1938) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Rocket to the Moon (1938) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * The Gentle People (1939) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * Awake and Sing! (1939) (revival) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * My Heart's in the Highlands (1939) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Thunder Rock (1939) - produced by the Group Theater
 * Night Music (1940) - director, produced by the Group Theater
 * Retreat to Pleasure (1940) - director
 * The Russian People (1942) - director
 * Deadline at Dawn (1945) - movie, director
 * Beggars Are Coming to Town (1945) - director
 * Truckline Cafe (1946) - director and co-producer
 * All My Sons (1947) - co-producer
 * The Whole World Over (1947) - director
 * The Young and Fair (1948) - director
 * The Member of the Wedding (1950) - director
 * The Bird Cage (1950) - director
 * The Autumn Garden (1951) - director
 * Desire Under the Elms (1952) (revival) - director
 * The Time of the Cuckoo (1953) - director
 * The Emperor's Clothes (1953) - director
 * The Ladies of the Corridor (1953) - director
 * Mademoiselle Colombe (1954) - director
 * Bus Stop (1955) - director, Tony nomination for Best Director
 * Tiger at the Gates (1955) - director, Tony nomination for Best Director
 * Pipe Dream (1955) - director, Tony nomination for Best Director
 * The Waltz of the Toreadors (1957) - director, Tony nomination for Best Director
 * Orpheus Descending (1957) - director
 * The Day the Money Stopped (1958) - director
 * The Waltz of the Toreadors (1958) (revival) - director
 * A Touch of the Poet (1958) - director
 * The Cold Wind And The Warm (1958) - director
 * Heartbreak House (1959) (revival) - director
 * A Shot in the Dark (1961) - director
 * After the Fall, The Changeling, Incident at Vichy - director, and Tartuffe (all played in repertory) (1964–1965) - executive consultant to the producer, Repertory Theater of Lincoln Center
 * Where's Daddy? (1966) - director

Legacy and honors
Clurman's legacy is his contribution to the creation of a uniquely American theater. The Harold Clurman Theatre, within the Off-Broadway Theatre Row Building complex, was named for him; it has since been renamed Theatre Five, after all theatres in the complex were renamed in a numbered format. Ronald Rand brought Harold Clurman to life in his acclaimed solo play, LET IT BE ART!, which has been performed for 22 years in 26 countries, 20 U.S. states, and at the Theatre Olympics in New Delhi and Kerala. Harold Clurman was awarded the Republic of France's Legion d'Honneur.

The Stella Adler and Harold Clurman Collection came to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 2003. The collection includes original and reproduced materials gathered by Marjorie Loggia. Of particular interest are a handwritten draft of The Fervent Years, a photocopy typescript of "Plans for a First Studio," handwritten and typescript drafts of Lies Like Truth, and an edited typescript of Reminiscences: An Oral History. Among other noteworthy Clurman material are his correspondence (with Stella Adler and others), contracts and royalties, a diary, and theater programs he collected from 1926 to 1930.

Clurman is a character in Names, Mark Kemble's play about former Group Theatre members' struggles with the House Un-American Activities Committee.

title: Harold Clurman


text:
Breather

In physics, a breather is a nonlinear wave in which energy concentrates in a localized and oscillatory fashion. This contradicts with the expectations derived from the corresponding linear system for infinitesimal amplitudes, which tends towards an even distribution of initially localized energy.

A discrete breather is a breather solution on a nonlinear lattice.

The term breather originates from the characteristic that most breathers are localized in space and oscillate (breathe) in time. But also the opposite situation: oscillations in space and localized in time, is denoted as a breather.

Overview
A breather is a localized periodic solution of either continuous media equations or discrete lattice equations. The exactly solvable sine-Gordon equation and the focusing nonlinear Schrödinger equation are examples of one-dimensional partial differential equations that possess breather solutions. Discrete nonlinear Hamiltonian lattices in many cases support breather solutions.

Breathers are solitonic structures. There are two types of breathers: standing or traveling ones. Standing breathers correspond to localized solutions whose amplitude vary in time (they are sometimes called oscillons). A necessary condition for the existence of breathers in discrete lattices is that the breather main frequency and all its multipliers are located outside of the phonon spectrum of the lattice.

Example of a breather solution for the sine-Gordon equation
The sine-Gordon equation is the nonlinear dispersive partial differential equation

 * $$\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} - \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + \sin u = 0,$$

with the field u a function of the spatial coordinate x and time t.

An exact solution found by using the inverse scattering transform is:

 * $$u = 4 \arctan\left(\frac{\sqrt{1-\omega^2}\;\cos(\omega t)}{\omega\;\cosh(\sqrt{1-\omega^2}\; x)}\right),$$

which, for ω < 1, is periodic in time t and decays exponentially when moving away from x = 0.

Example of a breather solution for the nonlinear Schrödinger equation
The focusing nonlinear Schrödinger equation is the dispersive partial differential equation:

 * $$i\,\frac{\partial u}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + |u|^2 u = 0,$$

with u a complex field as a function of x and t. Further i denotes the imaginary unit.

One of the breather solutions is

u = \left(   \frac{2 b^2 \cosh(\theta) + 2 i b \sqrt{2-b^2} \sinh(\theta)}         {2 \cosh(\theta)-\sqrt{2}\sqrt{2-b^2} \cos(a b x)} - 1  \right)a\,e^{i a^2 t} $$

with

\theta=a^2\,b\,\sqrt{2-b^2}\;t, $$

which gives breathers periodic in space x and approaching the uniform value a when moving away from the focus time t = 0. These breathers exist for values of the modulation parameter b less than $\sqrt{2}$. Note that a limiting case of the breather solution is the Peregrine soliton.

title: Breather