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Talk:ISG Weirton Steel

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There is a grand story to be told here. Weirton Steel is the heart and soul of Weirton, WV. When faced with closing after being jettisoned as a subsiderary of National Steel, Weirton Steel evolved into one of the world's largest employee-owned company. (Mikeheth)
 * So tell the story! --jpgordon∇∆∇∆ 18:32, 23 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Proposed merge
I would treat any content from the new Weirton Steel article with caution. Parts of the original were outright copyvio from Weirton Steel's old website. At best, the new article a POV fork based on primary sources. It should be filtered carefully if it is used at all. • Gene93k (talk) 04:57, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:ISG Weirton Steel


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Antigua and Barbuda Regiment

The Antigua and Barbuda Regiment is the infantry unit and main fighting arm of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force. Previously known as the Rifle Company, it was formed in 1995 and consists of a single light infantry battalion, commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel and made up of four companies:
 * Headquarters (HQ) Company
 * A Company: Regular infantry
 * B Company: Volunteers
 * C Company: Combat Support

The regiment main weapons include M-16 rifles and M60 machine guns.

The regiment has a number of roles - primarily it is responsible for maintaining the internal security of Antigua and Barbuda, which is linked to providing assistance to the police in maintaining law and order. However, it is also responsible for providing the Antiguan contingent to peacekeeping missions overseas, often in conjunction with other countries in the Eastern Caribbean. In its previous incarnation as the Rifle Company, the regiment participated in the invasion of Grenada alongside the Barbados Regiment and Jamaica Regiment in 1983.

In December 2004, Baldwin Spencer, the Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, announced that, as part of the reforms to the ABDF, the 1st Battalion, Antigua and Barbuda Regiment would convert from its current light infantry role into a marine role, enabling it to better support and serve the ABDF Coast Guard in its anti-drug and maritime security missions.

title: Antigua and Barbuda Regiment


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Aïssa Messaoudi

Aïssa Messaoudi, nom de guerre Tayeb el-Afghani, was an Algerian Islamist. He fought in the Afghan War. Together with a fellow Afghan veteran, Abderrahmane Dahane, he launched an attack on the Guemmar barracks on November 29, 1991, before the start of the Algerian Civil War proper; this attack is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of the Armed Islamic Movement (MIA). He was arrested on January 28, 1992.

He was sentenced to death on 4 May 1992. He died in November 1992.

title: Aïssa Messaoudi


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Natchez people

The Natchez are a Native American people who originally lived in the Natchez Bluffs area in the Lower Mississippi Valley, near the present-day city of Natchez, Mississippi, in the United States. They spoke a language with no known close relatives, although it may be very distantly related to the Muskogean languages of the Creek Confederacy. An early American geographer noted in his 1797 gazetteer that they were also known as the "Sun Set Indians".

The Natchez are noted for being the only Mississippian culture with complex chiefdom characteristics to have survived long into the period of European colonization. Other Mississippian societies in the southeast had generally experienced important transformations shortly after contact with the Spanish Empire or other newcomers from across the ocean. The Natchez are also noted for having had an unusual social system of nobility classes and exogamous marriage practices. It was a strongly matrilineal kinship society, with descent reckoned along female lines. The paramount chief named the Great Sun was always the son of the Female Sun, whose daughter would be the mother of the next Great Sun. This ensured that the chiefdom stayed under the control of the single Sun lineage. Ethnologists have not reached consensus on how the Natchez social system originally functioned, and the topic is somewhat controversial.

In 1731, after several wars with the French, the Natchez were defeated. Most of the captured survivors were shipped to Saint-Domingue and sold by into slavery; others took refuge with other tribes, such as the Muskogean Chickasaw and Creek, and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee. Today, most Natchez families and communities are found in Oklahoma, where Natchez members are enrolled in the federally recognized Cherokee and Muscogee (Creek) nations in Oklahoma. Two Natchez communities are recognized by the state of South Carolina.

Prehistoric

The historic Natchez were preceded in this area by what archaeologists call the indigenous Plaquemine culture, part of the larger, prehistoric Mississippian culture, which extended throughout the lower Mississippi Valley and its tributaries. Its largest center was at Cahokia in present-day Illinois near the confluence of the Illinois, Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Its peoples are noted for their hierarchical communities, building complex earthworks and platform mound architecture, and intensively cultivating maize.

Archaeological evidence indicates that people of the Plaquemine culture, an elaboration of the Coles Creek culture, had lived in the Natchez Bluffs region since at least as long ago as 700 CE. The Natchez Bluffs are located along the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Mississippi. During the late prehistoric era, around 1500, Plaquemine-culture people occupied territory from the Big Black River in the north to about the Homochitto River in the south. The Plaquemine people built many platform mounds, including Emerald Mound, the second-largest pre-Columbian structure in North America north of Mexico. Emerald Mound was an important ceremonial center.

The Natchez used Emerald Mound in their time, but they abandoned the site before 1700. Their center of power shifted to the Grand Village of the Natchez. The Grand Village had between three and five platform mounds.

By 1700, the Natchez occupied a territory that covered only an area roughly between Fairchilds Creek and South Fork Coles Creek in the north to St. Catherine's Creek in the south. This area is approximately that of the northern half of present-day Adams County, Mississippi.

Protohistoric
The earliest European account of the Natchez may be from the journals of the Spanish expedition of Hernando de Soto. In 1542 de Soto's expedition encountered a powerful chiefdom located on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. Native sources called it "Quigualtam," after the paramount chief's name. Various scholars have debated if this chiefdom was the Emerald Phase (1500–1680) of the Natchez chiefdom which was in its ascendancy at the time. The encounter was brief and violent; the natives attacked and chased the Spanish with their canoes. No further European contact with the indigenous people in this area occurred for more than 140 years, but they suffered from epidemics of infectious disease carried indirectly by other Native Americans from European traders. These and other intrusions had severely reduced the native populations. By the historic period local power had shifted to the Grand Village of the Natchez.

French contact era

The French explored the lower Mississippi River in the late 17th century. Initial French-Natchez encounters were mixed. In 1682 René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led an expedition down the Mississippi River. The Natchez received the party well, but when the French returned upriver, they were met by a hostile force of about 1,500 Natchez warriors and hurried away. At the time of the next French visit in the 1690s, the Natchez were welcoming and friendly. When Iberville visited the Natchez in 1700, he was given a three-day-long peace ceremony, which involved the smoking of a ceremonial pipe and a feast.

French Catholic missionaries from Canada began to settle among the Natchez in 1698. On the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, French colonists established Biloxi in 1699 and Mobile in 1702. Early French Louisiana was governed by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, among others. Both brothers played a major role in French-Natchez relations.

During the early 18th century, according to French sources, the Natchez lived in six to nine village districts with a population estimated at 4,000–6,000 people, and with the ability to muster 1,500 warriors. There were three village districts in the lower St. Catherine's Creek area, called Tioux, Flour, and the Grand Village of the Natchez. Three other village districts were located to the northeast, along upper St. Catherine's Creek and Fairchild's Creek, called White Apple (or White Earth), Grigra, and Jenzenaque (or Hickories). Historian James Barnett, Jr. described this dispersed leadership structure as developing in the post-epidemic years. It enabled the Natchez to maintain friendly diplomatic relations with European settlers of all nations, but eventually resulted in deeper internal divisions in Natchez society.

The Natchez chiefs were called Suns, and the paramount chief was called the Great Sun (Natchez: uwahšiL li∙kip). When the French arrived, the Natchez were ruled by the Great Sun and his brother, Tattooed Serpent, both hereditary positions. The Great Sun had supreme authority over civil affairs, and the Tattooed Serpent oversaw political issues of war and peace, and diplomacy with other nations. Both lived at the Grand Village of the Natchez. Lesser chiefs, mostly from the Sun royal family, presided at other Natchez villages.

The Natchez performed ritual human sacrifice upon the death of a Sun. When a male Sun died, his wives were expected to accompany him by performing ritual suicide. Great honor was associated with such sacrifice, and sometimes many Natchez chose to follow a Sun into death. For example, at the death of the Tattooed Serpent in 1725, two of his wives, one of his sisters (nicknamed La Glorieuse by the French), his first warrior, his doctor, his head servant and the servant's wife, his nurse, and a craftsman of war clubs, all chose to die with him.

Mothers sometimes sacrificed infants in such ceremonies, an act which conferred honor and special status to the mother. Relatives of adults who chose ritual suicide were likewise honored and rose in status. The practice of ritual suicide and infanticide upon the death of a chief existed among other Native Americans living along the lower Mississippi River, such as the Taensa.

During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, French colonists in the American Southeast initiated a power struggle with those living in the colony of Carolina. Traders from Carolina had established a large trading network among the indigenous peoples of the American Southeast, and by 1700 it stretched west as far as the Mississippi River. The Chickasaw tribe, who lived north of the Natchez, were frequently visited by Carolinian traders, thus giving them access to a source of firearms and alcohol. One of the most lucrative trades with Carolinian merchants involved trading in Indian slaves. For decades, the Chickasaw conducted slave raids over a wide region in the American Southeast, often being joined by allied Natchez and Yazoo warriors. These raiding parties moved over great distances to capture slaves from hostile tribes. In one instance, a 1713 raiding party of Chickasaw, Natchez, and Yazoo raiders attacked the Chaouachas, an Indian tribe living near the mouth of the Mississippi River. The grand chief of the Chaouachas was killed; his wife and ten others were carried off to Carolina where they were sold into slavery.

Although Carolinian merchants had been operating in the American Southeast for decades, French merchants rapidly established economic networks throughout the region with a few years of their arrival. Most Indian tribes in the region sought to maintain trade links with as many Europeans as possible, encouraging competition and price reductions. By the 1710s, the Natchez had become solidly integrated with the French, trading furs for firearms, blankets, alcohol and other supplies. Despite this, the Natchez kept their markets open for all European merchants. The increasing pace of European colonization caused internal tensions to worsen within Natchez society. Several villages, led by the Grand Village of the Natchez and including the villages of Flour and Tioux, openly supported the French. Others, including White Apple, Jenzenaque, and Grigra, maintained their distance from the French and entertained the possibility of seeking alliances elsewhere. The Great Sun and Tattooed Serpent leaders lived in the Grand Village of the Natchez and were generally friendly toward the French. When violence broke out between the Natchez and the French, the village of White Apple was usually the main source of tensions, as in the Natchez revolt.

The French colonial authorities regularly described the Natchez as being ruled with absolute, despotic authority by the Great Sun and Tattooed Serpent. The existence of two opposing factions was well known and documented. The Great Sun and Tattooed Serpent repeatedly pointed out their difficulty in controlling the hostile Natchez. It is likely that the White Apple faction functioned at least semi-independently. Whatever power the family of the Great Sun and Tattooed Serpent did have over outlying villages was reduced in the late 1720s after both died. They were succeeded by relatively young, inexperienced leaders. While the new Great Sun was technically the paramount chief of the Natchez, the chief of White Apple became the eldest Sun chief and had more political clout than the Great Sun. The French continued to hold the Great Sun responsible for the conduct of all Natchez villages. They insisted on dealing with the Natchez as if the people were a unified nation ruled from its capital, the Grand Village of the Natchez.

During the 1710s and 1720s, French presence and settlement in Natchez territory increased from a handful of traders and missionaries to hundreds of settlers (some 400 French colonists and 200 enslaved Africans). They cultivated several large tobacco plantations, and maintained a military post at Fort Rosalie. French colonists often intermarried with Natchez women. At first the Natchez welcomed the French settlers and assigned them land grants, although historians have noted it was unlikely they had the same concept of land ownership as the French.

Conflicts with the French

In the 1710s and 1720s, war broke out four times between the French and the Natchez. The French called these the First Natchez War (1716), the Second Natchez War (1722), the Third Natchez War (1723), and the Natchez Rebellion of 1729.

The last of these wars was the largest, in which the Natchez destroyed the French settlements in their territory. In retaliation, the French eventually killed or deported most of the Natchez people. Overshadowing the first three in scale and importance, the 1729 rebellion is sometimes simply called the Natchez War. All four conflicts involved the two opposing factions within the Natchez nation. The Great Sun's faction was generally friendly toward the French. Violence usually began in or was triggered by events among the Natchez of White Apple. In all but the last war, peace was regained largely due to the efforts of Tattooed Serpent of the Grand Village of the Natchez.

The First Natchez War of 1716 was precipitated by Natchez raiders from White Apple killing four French traders. Bienville, seeking to resolve the conflict, called a meeting of chiefs at the Grand Village of the Natchez. The assembled chiefs proclaimed their innocence and implicated the war chiefs of White Apple. The Choctaw assisted the French in fighting the 1716 Natchez War. After the 1716 Natchez War, the French built Fort Rosalie near the Grand Village of the Natchez. The present-day city of Natchez, Mississippi developed from the 1716 establishment of Fort Rosalie.

War broke out again in 1722 and 1723. Called the Second and Third Natchez Wars by the French, they were essentially two phases of a single conflict. It began in White Apple, where an argument over a debt resulted in a French trader's killing one of the Natchez villagers. The French commander of Fort Rosalie reprimanded the murderer. Unsatisfied with that response, Natchez warriors of White Apple retaliated by attacking nearby French settlements. Tattooed Serpent's diplomatic efforts helped restore peace. But within a year, Bienville led a French army into Natchez territory, intent on punishing the warriors of White Apple. Bienville demanded the surrender of a White Apple chief as recompense for the earlier Natchez attacks. Under pressure from the French and other Natchez villages, White Apple turned the chief over to the French.

Natchez revolt in 1729 and aftermath

In August 1726, Étienne Perier arrived as the new governor of Louisiana with orders to further develop the Natchez settlement. Perier broke with Bienville's policy of diplomatic engagement with the Natchez and other tribes, and refused to recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands. To oversee Fort Rosalie and the Natchez settlement, Perier appointed the Sieur de Chépart (also known as Etcheparre and Chopart), who was described by as "rapacious, haughty, and tyrannical", abusing soldiers, settlers, and the Natchez alike. Perier and Chépart entered a partnership to develop a large plantation on Natchez land.

In November 1729, Chépart announced the complete removal of the Natchez from their land in the near future and ordered them to vacate the village of White Apple so that he could use its land for a new tobacco plantation. This turned out to be the final affront to the Natchez, and they were unwilling to yield to the French demands. The chiefs of White Apple sent emissaries to potential allies, including the Yazoo, Koroa, Illinois, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. They also sent messages to the African slaves of nearby French plantations, inviting them to join the Natchez in rising up to drive out the French.

On November 28, 1729, the Natchez led by Indian chief the Great Sun, attacked and destroyed the entire French settlement at Fort Rosalie, killing between 229 and 285 colonists and taking about 450 women and children captive.

After the attack on Fort Rosalie, Perier decided that the complete destruction of the Natchez was required to ensure the prosperity and safety of the French colony. He secured the neutrality of the Choctaw and engaged in the prosecution of the war of extermination against the Natchez.

The Natchez seized and occupied Fort Rosalie. Retaliation by the French and allied Choctaw forced the Natchez to evacuate, leaving the fort in ruins. In January 1730, the French attempted to besiege the main fort of the Natchez, but they were driven off. Two days later a force of about 500 Choctaw attacked and captured the fort, killing at least 100 Natchez, and recovered about 50 French captives and 50–100 African slaves. French leaders were delighted, but surprised when the Choctaw demanded ransoms for the captives.

The French and Natchez continued to attack each other until 1731. On January 21, 1731, Perier with the troops of the colony and two battalions of marines commanded by his brother, Perier de Salvert, attacked the stronghold of the Natchez at White Apple. On the 24th, the Natchez made propositions of peace and some chiefs met Perier who proposed they enter a cabin that seemed to be deserted, but as soon as they crossed its threshold, they were made prisoners by Perier. On January 25, 45 men, and 450 women and children surrendered and were taken as prisoners, but the rest of the Natchez and their chiefs escaped in the night. The next morning, only two sick men and one woman were found in the fort. Perier burned the fort and on the 28th, the French began their withdrawal. Perier sold the chiefs Great Sun, the Little Sun, the 45 other male prisoners and the 450 women and children into slavery in Saint-Domingue.

Although significantly weakened by the defeat, the Natchez managed to regroup and make one last attack on the French at Fort St. Jean Baptiste in October 1731. With reinforcements from Spain and Native American allies, the French under the fort's commander Louis Juchereau de St. Denis mounted a counter attack and defeated the Natchez.

The Natchez revolt expanded into a larger regional conflict with many repercussions. The Yazoo and Koroa Indians allied with the Natchez and suffered the same fate in defeat. The Tunica were initially reluctant to fight on either side. In the summer of 1730, a large group of Natchez asked for refuge with the Tunica, which was given. During the night, the Natchez turned on their hosts, killing 20 and plundering the town. In return, the Tunica attacked Natchez refugees throughout the 1730s and into the 1740s.

The Chickasaw tried to remain neutral, but when groups of Natchez began seeking refuge in 1730, the Chickasaw allied with the refugees against the French. By 1731 the Chickasaw had accepted many refugees. When in 1731 the French demanded the surrender of Natchez living among them, the Chickasaw refused. French-Chickasaw relations rapidly deteriorated, resulting in the Chickasaw Wars. Some of the Natchez warriors who had found refuge among the Chickasaw joined them in fighting the French. The Natchez Wars and the Chickasaw Wars were also related to French attempts to gain free passage along the Mississippi River. During the 1736 campaign against the Chickasaw, the French demanded again that the Natchez among them be turned over. The Chickasaw, compromising, turned over several Natchez, along with some French prisoners of war.

During the 1730s and 1740s, as the French–Natchez conflict developed into a French–Chickasaw war, the Choctaw fell into internal discord. The rift between pro-French and pro-English factions within the Choctaw nation reached the point of violence and civil war.

Louisiana's Africans, both slave and free blacks, were also affected by the Indian wars. The Natchez had encouraged African slaves to join them in rebellion. Most did not, but some did. In January 1730 a group of African slaves fought off a Choctaw attack, giving the Natchez time to regroup in their forts. In June 1731, a group of enslaved Bambara, inspired by the Natchez revolt, attempted to organize a slave uprising, but French authorities disputed the Samba rebellion before they could act. More slaves fought for the French, however, as did some free people of color (gens de couleur libres).

Because of the contributions of the free men of color during the Natchez War, the French allowed them to join Louisiana's militias. This gave them important connections into the colonial society, contributing to their achieving an independent social status between the French colonists and slaves. In the 19th century, the free people of color established a relatively large class, especially in New Orleans. Many worked as highly skilled artisans; others became educated; they established businesses and acquired property. Of French and African ancestry, the base of most Louisiana Creoles of color, they chiefly spoke French and practiced Catholicism, while sometimes retaining ties to voodou and African practices.

Natchez after 1730
After the war of 1729–1731, Natchez society was in flux and the people scattered. Most survivors eventually settled among the Creek (Muscogee), Chickasaw, or with British colonists in the Thirteen Colonies. Most of the latter two Natchez groups ended up integrating with the Cherokee.

The Natchez settled mostly along the Hiwassee River in North Carolina. The main Natchez town, dating to about 1755, was located near present-day Murphy, North Carolina. Around 1740 a small group of Natchez refugees settled along a creek near the confluence of the Tellico River and the Little Tennessee River. The creek became known as Notchy Creek after the Natchez. The settlement was called Natchey Town or Natsi-yi (Cherokee for "Natchez Place"). It was the birthplace of the Cherokee leader Dragging Canoe, whose mother was Natchez and kidnapped as a young girl. In later years Dragging Canoe's Cherokee father, Attacullaculla, lived in Natchey Town. Most of the Natchez living with the Cherokee accompanied them in the 1830's on the forced removal, the Trail of Tears to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma).

A few remained in North Carolina. Their descendants are part of the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. Some Cherokee-Natchez were permitted to remain in South Carolina as settlers along with the Kusso, Eastern Band Natchez and the PeeDee. (The state of South Carolina recognized the Natchez-Kusso tribe, Eastern Band Natchez and the PeeDee Tribe.) Most of the balance of Natchez citizens are within the Cherokee Nation (est. 185,000), the Mvskoke Nation, Seminole Nation, Chickasaw Nation, with a few in the modern Choctaw Nation on their respective reservations in Oklahoma; nearly half of the state.

There are significant numbers of Natchez citizens within the federally recognized tribe of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation; approximately 12,000. The Natchez were constituent members of the historic Creek Confederacy and signatories on the 1790 Treaty of New York, 1796 Treaty of Colerain,  and 1814 Treaty of Fort Jackson. During this time, the Natchez enjoyed signatory status and membership within the Creek Confederacy and established their town near the Coosa River in Talladega County, Alabama.

Contemporary nation
Today the primary settlements of the Natchez Nation (Nvce or Nahchee), a treaty tribe, are within the southern halves of the Muscogee and Cherokee Nations in Oklahoma. The nation developed a constitution in 2003, which confirms its long-held traditions of self-government. Approximately 197,000 Natchez are members of the nation. Membership is based on matrilineal descent from people listed on the Dawes Rolls or the updated records of 1973. The nation allows citizens to have more than one tribal affiliation, asking only for volunteer work or donations to support the nation and its programs.

Natchez families are also found as members among the balance of the Five Civilized Tribes. They are represented as corporations within the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma and Sac & Fox Nation.

Small Natchez communities and settlements may be found in and throughout the Southeast and as far north as North Carolina. There are three state-recognized Natchez communities in South Carolina, each of which have independent governments: the Eastern Band Natchez, formerly Natchez-PeeDee; the Edisto Natchez-Kusso (Four Holes Indian Organization); and the PeeDee Indian Tribe of South Carolina.

The current leadership of the Natchez Nation consists of a Peace Chief (called the "Great Sun"), a War Chief, and four primary Clan Mothers. Other Natchez Sun leaders have included K.T. "Hutke" Fields (Principal Peace Chief/Great Sun, 1996–), Eliza Jane Sumpka (Primary Clan Mother), William Harjo LoneFight, Robert M. Riviera (Principal War Chief, 1997), Watt Sam, Archie Sam, White Tobacco Sam, Creek Sam and others.

Language
The Natchez language is generally considered a language isolate. As originally proposed by John Swanton in the early 20th century, some scholars believe that it may be related to the Muskogean languages. Its two last fluent speakers, Watt Sam and Nancy Raven, died in 1944 and 1957 respectively. In the 21st century, the Natchez nation is working to revive it as a spoken language among its people.

Descent system
The Natchez are noted for having an unusual social system of noble classes and exogamous marriage. Members of the highest ranking class, called Suns, are thought to have been required to marry only members of the lowest commoner class, called Stinkards or commoners. The Natchez descent system has received a great deal of academic study. Scholars debate how the system functioned before the 1730 diaspora and the topic has generated controversy.

Primary source documentation on the pre-1730 Natchez kinship and descent system is based on a relatively small number of French colonists who recorded information about Natchez social life between about 1700 and 1730. Fragmentary and ambiguous, the French accounts are the only historic accounts of Natchez society before 1730. Natchez oral traditions have also been studied. The first modern ethnographic study was done by John R. Swanton in 1911. Swanton's interpretations and conclusions are still generally accepted and widely cited. Later researchers have addressed various problems with Swanton's interpretation. Some researchers have proposed modifications of Swanton's model, while others have rejected most of it.

In Swanton's interpretation, social status among the Natchez was divided into two major categories, commoners and nobility. The nobility was further divided into three classes (or castes) called Suns, Nobles, and Honored People. Noble exogamy was practiced, meaning that members of the noble classes could marry only commoners. A person's social status and class were determined matrilineally. That is, the children of female Suns, Nobles, or Honoreds were born into the status of their mothers. However, the children of male Suns and Nobles did not take on commoner status from their mothers, as noble exogamy and matrilineal descent would appear to dictate, but rather were ranked one class below their fathers. In other words, children of male Suns became Nobles, while children of male Nobles became Honored, according to Swanton.

Many later researchers have focused on the so-called "Natchez Paradox" that Swanton's model is said to engender. The paradox is that if the rules described were followed strictly, over time the commoner class would become depleted, while the lower nobility classes would grow larger.

Three general changes to Swanton's interpretation have been proposed to address the Natchez Paradox. First, a type of asymmetrical descent may have been practiced in which only male children of male nobility inherited the social class one step below their fathers, while female children of male nobles inherited their mothers' commoner status in matrilineal descent. Related to this is the idea that the Honored category was not a social class but rather an honorific title given to commoner men and was not hereditary.

Second, the assimilation of foreign people, such as groups of Timucua, could have at least delayed the Natchez Paradox's effects. Researchers who argue for this idea often couple it with the proposal that the Natchez system of noble exogamy in the early 18th century was a relatively recent development in their society. According to this argument, during the relatively chaotic 16th and 17th centuries, the Natchez maintained their traditional social system by adapting it to new conditions. They assimilated foreigners as commoners and made a new requirement of noble exogamy.

Third, the social classes described by Swanton were not classes or castes, as the terms are generally used in English, but exogamous ranked clans or moieties, with patterns of descent common to most Native peoples of the American southeast. Tribes such as the Chickasaw, Creek, Timucua, Caddo, and Apalachee were organized into ranked clans, with the requirement that one cannot marry within one's clan. Related to this theory is the idea that Honored status was not a class or a clan, but a title. Sun status, likewise, may not have been a class but rather a term for the royal family. If true, Natchez society would have been a moiety of just two groups, commoners and nobles. The requirement of exogamy may have applied to Suns only, rather than the entire nobility.

Some researchers argue that the prohibition against Suns' marrying Suns was largely a matter of incest taboo. In the early 18th century, all the Suns of a given generation appear to have been related within three degrees of consanguinity (siblings, first cousins, and second cousins). The custom of Suns' marrying commoners rather than Nobles may have been a preference rather than a requirement. Finally, while Swanton's interpretation claims that Nobles were also required to marry commoners, later researchers have questioned this idea. They have noted in particular a mistranslation of the primary sources and a misreading by Swanton. In other words, it could be that exogamous marriage was required only of Suns, and this requirement may have been mainly a result of the taboo against incest.

Lorenz proposes that the entire kinship system was not based on classes, castes, or clans, but rather degrees of genealogical separation from the ruling Sun matriline. Lorenz's interpretation does not include asymmetrical descent or noble exogamy. Rather, a person was a Sun if he or she was within three degrees of matrilateral separation from the ruling matriline's eldest female Sun (called the "White Woman"). Nobles were those people who were four, five, or six degrees removed from the White Woman, while people seven degrees or more removed were commoners. In this system, the male children of male ruling Suns would naturally descend one "class" per generation, and would be required to marry outside the "class" to avoid incest. The only exception was the case of a male child of a male Noble, who acquired the Honored title by birth. Many researchers agree that the Honored group was not a noble class but rather a title of prestige given to commoner men for acts of valor in war, or to commoner women who ritually sacrificed their babies upon the death of a Sun as part of funeral and mourning practices. In addition, people of Honored status could be promoted to Nobles for meritorious deeds.

Ethnobotany
The Natchez give Potentilla canadensis as a drug to those who are believed to be bewitched.

Notable people

 * Tattooed Arm, 18th-century female Sun (mother of a Great Sun)
 * Tattooed Serpent (died 1725), war chief
 * William Harjo LoneFight (born 1966), president and CEO of American Native Services
 * Nancy Raven (ca. 1850 – 1930s) storyteller, cultural historian, one of the last native speakers of Natchez
 * Archie Sam (1914–1986), traditionalist, scholar, and stomp dance leader
 * Watt Sam (ca. 1857 – 1930s), medicine man, cultural historian, one of the last native speakers of Natchez
 * Marguerite Scypion (ca. 1770s – after 1836), slave in Saint Louis, Missouri who won a freedom suit in a state court after a 30-year fight, on the basis of descent from a Natchez mother after the Spanish had banned trade in Indian slaves (1764)
 * Tommy Wildcat (born 1967), traditionalist, flautist, cultural historian

title: Natchez people


text:
Lynn Lowry

Linda Kay "Lynn" Lowry (born October 15, 1947) is an American actress, screenwriter and producer.

She is perhaps best known for her work in horror films, having appeared in the cult films I Drink Your Blood (1970), George A. Romero's The Crazies (1973) and David Cronenberg's Shivers (1975).

Early life
Lowry was born in East St. Louis, Illinois, and lived in Cahokia, Illinois during her early childhood. At age twelve, she relocated with her family to Burbank, California, and later, Atlanta, Georgia, where her father transferred for work.

She enrolled at the University of Georgia on a scholarship in 1966, studying theater for two years. She later worked as a Playboy Bunny at the Atlanta Playboy Club, and gave birth to her son. In 1969, Lowry moved with her son to New York City, working as a bartender while auditioning for acting roles.

Career
While auditioning for a role in Joe (1970) in New York City, Lowry met Lloyd Kaufman, who asked her to appear in a supporting part in The Battle of Love's Return (1971), which she accepted. After completing the film in early 1970, she was cast in David Durston's horror film I Drink Your Blood (1970).

She appeared in two key 1970s horror films, George A. Romero's The Crazies (1973) and David Cronenberg's Shivers (1975), followed by a sixteen-month role as the adulterer-heroine Sandra on NBC's short-lived soap opera How to Survive a Marriage, as well as a brief part on the daytime serial Another World. She also appeared opposite Peter Fonda in Jonathan Demme's vigilante thriller Fighting Mad (1976).

Lowry was also one of the two female leads in Radley Metzger's film Score (1974). She and Carl Parker are the only actors from the film who are still alive as of 2007.

Lowry moved to Los Angeles in the early 1980s, but ended up abandoning her acting career after appearing in Cat People (1982). "I was in Hollywood and I just got tired of the bullshit," she said. "I wasn’t doing horror movies when I was in Hollywood, I was just going out for TV and other auditions and I got tired so I gave it up; I focused on doing theatre and even sang in a band."

Her later films include Splatter Disco, Basement Jack and Schism, which she co-wrote and co-produced. Lowry also starred in Dante Tomaselli's Torture Chamber. She can be seen in the twenty-fourth minute of the film. In 2015, she co-starred with Debbie Rochon in the horror film The House of Covered Mirrors. In 2010, Lowry had a cameo appearance in the 2010 remake of The Crazies. In 2022, Lowry starred as Gina Cochran in Richard Burgin's Fang, for which she won 4 film festival awards.

title: Lynn Lowry


text:
Enemy combatant

Enemy combatant is a term for a person who, either lawfully or unlawfully, engages in hostilities for the other side in an armed conflict, used by the U.S. government and media during the War on Terror. Usually enemy combatants are members of the armed forces of the state with which another state is at war. In the case of a civil war or an insurrection "state" may be replaced by the more general term "party to the conflict" (as described in the 1949 Geneva Conventions Article 3).

After the September 11 attacks, the term "enemy combatant" was used by the George W. Bush administration to include an alleged member of al-Qaeda or the Taliban being held in detention by the U.S. government. In this sense, "enemy combatant" actually refers to persons the United States regards as unlawful combatants, a category of persons who do not qualify for prisoner-of-war status under the Geneva Conventions. However, unlike unlawful combatants who qualify for some protections under the Fourth Geneva Convention, enemy combatants, under the Bush administration, were not covered by the Geneva Convention. Thus, the term "enemy combatant" has to be read in context to determine whether it means any combatant belonging to an enemy state or non-state actor, whether lawful or unlawful, or if it means an alleged member of al-Qaeda or of the Taliban being detained as an unlawful combatant by the United States.

In the United States on March 13, 2009, the Obama administration announced its abandonment of the Bush administration's use of the term "enemy combatant".

Change of meaning in the United States
In the 1942 Supreme Court of the United States ruling Ex Parte Quirin, the Court uses the terms with their historical meanings to distinguish between unlawful combatants and lawful combatants: "Unlawful combatants are likewise subject to capture and detention, but in addition they are subject to trial and punishment by military tribunals for acts which render their belligerency unlawful. The spy who secretly and without uniform passes the military lines of a belligerent in time of war, seeking to gather military information and communicate it to the enemy, or an enemy combatant who without uniform comes secretly through the lines for the purpose of waging war by destruction of life or property, are familiar examples of belligerents who are generally deemed not to be entitled to the status of prisoners of war, but to be offenders against the law of war subject to trial and punishment by military tribunals. (Emphasis added)"

Johnson v. Eisentrager (1950) reaffirmed the idea that the Constitution does not apply to enemy combatants, and that U.S. courts lack jurisdiction over them.

In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks the United States Congress passed a resolution known as the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists (AUMF) on September 14, 2001, wherein the Congress invoked the War Powers Resolution. Using this authorization granted to him by Congress, on November 13, 2001, President George W. Bush issued a Presidential Military Order: "Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism". The administration chose to call those who it detained under the Presidential Military Orders "enemy combatants". The Bush administration began using the term in March 2002. William Lietzau, a legal advisor in the Bush administration first proposed using the term. According to Lietzau, America was detaining people not because they were criminals, but because they were the enemy. While the term was not drawn from the Quirin case, the administration looked to Quirin as validation of the term. Since then, the administration has formalized its usage of the term by using it specifically for detained alleged members and supporters of al-Qaida or the Taliban. For example: "Under the provisions of the Secretary of the Navy Memorandum Implementation of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Procedures for Enemy Combatant Detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Cuba ... An enemy combatant has been defined as "an individual who was part of or supporting the Taliban or al Qaida forces, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners. This includes any person who committed a belligerent act or has directly supported hostilities in aid of enemy armed forces.""

This lead has been followed by other parts of the Government and some section of the American news media. The result of this new usage means that the term "enemy combatant" has to be read in the context of the article in which it appears as to whether it means a member of the armed forces of an enemy state, or if it means an alleged member of al Qaida held prisoner by the United States.

Military Commissions Act
Following the Supreme Court's ruling of lexi Hamdan v. Rumsfeld the United States Congress passed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 which contained definitions for lawful and unlawful enemy combatants. The Military Commissions Act mandated that Guantanamo captives were no longer entitled to access the US civil justice system, so all outstanding habeas corpus petitions were stayed.

Boumediene v. Bush
On June 12, 2008, the United States Supreme Court ruled, in Boumediene v. Bush, that the Military Commissions Act could not remove the right for Guantanamo captives to access the US Federal Court system. And all previous Guantanamo captives' habeas petitions were eligible to be re-instated. The judges considering the captives' habeas petitions would be considering whether the evidence used to compile the allegations that the detainees were enemy combatants justified a classification of "enemy combatant".

Following the Supreme Court's Boumediene v. Bush ruling
On February 20, 2009, the administration of President Barack Obama sided with the Bush administration's interpretation of law when they argued to bar access to civil courts sought by enemy combatants held at the Bagram Airfield in Afghanistan.

During a hearing on October 23, 2008, US District Court Judge Richard J. Leon commented on the ambiguity of the term "enemy combatant". Farah Stockman, writing in The Boston Globe, quoted Leon's remarks characterizing him as having "lashed out" at Congress and the Supreme Court for leaving the term undefined: "We are here today, much to my dismay, I might add, to deal with a legal question that in my judgment should have been resolved a long time ago. I don't understand, I really don't, how the Supreme Court made the decision it made and left that question open. ... I don't understand how the Congress could let it go this long without resolving."

On October 27, 2008, Leon ruled that the definition of "enemy combatant" he would use was that set forth in the 2004 rules for Combatant Status Review Tribunals. ""Enemy combatant" shall mean an individual who was part of or supporting Taliban or al Qaeda forces, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners. This includes any person who has committed belligerent act or has directly supported hostilities in aid of enemy armed forces."

Defense attorneys for Lakhdar Boumediene and his fellow Bosnians of Algerians descent were pleased with the definition because the DoD had long since dropped the allegation that they had plotted to attack the US Embassy in Sarajevo, and they felt that none of the remaining allegations met Leon's definition.

Obama presidency abandons the term
On March 13, 2009, United States Attorney General Eric Holder issued a statement that the United States had abandoned the Bush administration term "enemy combatant". The statement said, "As we work toward developing a new policy to govern detainees, it is essential that we operate in a manner that strengthens our national security, is consistent with our values, and is governed by law." However, various human rights groups noted it as primarily a symbolic act. As of 2019 the United States continues to hold 40 detainees at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp.

title: Enemy combatant


text:
Talk:Enemy combatant

Merge with Unlawful combatant
See discussion on merger at: Talk:Unlawful combatant/Archive 4'' --Assawyer 01:12, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

NPOV
This presents little to no discussion on opposing viewpoints on the abuse of enemy combatant status. '' —Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.126.138.6 (talk • contribs) 16:25, 2006 October 4

Legal status
Removed parts of "legal status" for blatant non-NPOV anti-US/anti-Bush statements, until further edits can be made to fix it. Anapologetos 16:06, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Removed the rest of the section. The term "unlawful combatant" is not used in the 1949 Geneva conventions, it does not mean that the concept does not exist under international law. (The legal situation of unlawful/unprivileged combatants (IRRC March 2003 Vol.85 No 849)). unprivileged belligerent/unlawful combatant is a well known concept under international law. See for example the Hostages Trial "We are obliged to hold that such guerrillas were francs tireurs who, upon capture, could be subjected to the death penalty. Consequently, no criminal responsibility attaches to the defendant List because of the execution of captured partisans." Furthe both Protocol I article 47 ""A mercenary shall not have the right to be a combatant or a prisoner of war." and Article 38 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, (1989): "State parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure that persons who have not attained the age of 15 years do not take a direct part in hostilities" are international recognition that not all combatants are privileged. --Philip Baird Shearer 10:27, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Globalize-USA
I've added the Globalize tag because the article overwhelmingly addresses the issues related to the USA. I would appreciate very much if the editors globalize the article rather than remove the tag without discussion. --Javit 11:43, 9 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree with you, although there is some content in this article I could not even rate it start class because of this very biased view. Arnoutf 15:51, 19 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Globalize? This term exists in US law, and, so far as I know, in no other nation's laws.  So then what, exactly, would it mean to globalize this article?  It would make as much sense to globalize the so-called "World Series".  ( No.  I am not an American. )  Geo Swan 20:20, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

Enemy combatant my be a term that exists under US law, but it is a general term for a hostile combatant as opposed to a friendly combatant. As the US use it in a legal framework there needs to be a section on the term from a US perspective, but the term is already globalised. So I am removing the American spelt globalize template. --Philip Baird Shearer (talk) 12:42, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

Spelling of Al-Qaeda
I propose changing the spelling of al-Qaida to al-Qaeda. Any objections?  Lester  20:30, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Are you talking about in this article? Or everywhere?

 * The DoD spells it "al Qaida" or "al-Qaida" about 99% of the time. I think any instance that quotes a DoD document should spell it as it was spelled in the original.

 * Cheers! Geo Swan (talk) 21:38, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

 * OK. Fair enough :)  Lester  21:49, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

Treaty of Westphalia
In this interview, Morris Davis states that the Treaty of Westphalia legitimizes the detention of enemy combatants by nations. Is this mentioned in the article? Badagnani (talk) 17:47, 16 July 2008 (UTC)

Makes no sense
The judges considering the captives' habeas petitions would be considering whether the evidence used to compile the allegations the men and boys were enemy combatants justified a classification of "enemy combatant".

What? I don't even know what s/he is trying to say here. SineSwiper (talk) 22:11, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree, I cant parse that sentence at all.Bonewah (talk) 18:12, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

Combatant in State of War
A historic example of a combatant in civil versus military justice:

Following a 29 Dec 1890 clash at Wounded Knee Creek, a Sioux Indian Plenty Horses (of Rosebud Reservation, South Dakota) shot and killed a US Army Officer Lt Edward W. Casey. The Army arrested Plenty Horses and jailed him at Fort Meade. The Army considered him a combatant and the killing an act of war; once the state of war was over, the Army felt that Plenty Horses should have been sent back to the reservation. Somehow, murder charges were filed in civilian court and Plenty Horses was tried in criminal court and convicted of murder. A federal judge who heard the appeal of the murder conviction ruled that criminal law on murder did not apply to a combatant during a state of war, and Plenty Horses was released, since the war was over. (Robert M. Utley, Peace on Paper, War on the Plains, Wild West, Oct 2008, p. 37) Historically for a lawful or even unlawful combatant, being tried for an act of war in court martial can be different from being tried for murder in court civil. Naaman Brown (talk) 13:06, 25 June 2009 (UTC)

Party to the Conflict
The final sentence of the lede graf makes a claim I cannot parse. 'In the case of a civil war or an insurrection the term "enemy state" may be replaced by the more general term "Party to the conflict"'. On first reading it, I thought that the phrase "enemy of the state" was removed. But then I opened the documents to which the footnote links and the word "enemy" doesn't even appear. It speaks of "enemies", but the quotation argues for a high level connection. I'm no expert on the subject, and it may be simply an inaccurate link, but the point isn't even clear. Perhaps there's some point about non-state actors differing from agents of an "enemy state"? Can anyone clear this up?Czrisher (talk) 20:46, 16 February 2010 (UTC)

"Historically"
Is it even remotely accurate to describe a phrase as being used "historically" when it goes back less than a decade, and, at the same time, appears to overthrow centuries of historical language usage? — Preceding unsigned comment added by JoshNarins (talk • contribs) 21:37, 30 November 2011 (UTC)

 * The first paragraph is about its historical meaning, the it one had and has on the rest of the planet outside the USA. The second and third paragraph describe its usage in the USA under the Bush administration and its abandonment by the Obama administration. So in the context of the article its usage in the first paragraph relates to its usage that goes back decades if not centuries, it is therefore historical. For example here is a quote from a book written in 1918:

":The Prussians in 1870 required every enemy combatant not merely to have evidence of his enrolment in a military force organized by the French government, but also to wear a distinctive uniform or mark of dress."

 * --PBS (talk) 21:58, 3 December 2011 (UTC)
 * --PBS (talk) 21:58, 3 December 2011 (UTC)

Moving definition
The introduction refers to differing meanings over time. But what is not clear is whether these are legal definitions or "officialise"/slang, and whether they apply only to the USA or are definitions under international law.119.224.100.246 (talk) 02:32, 4 August 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Enemy combatant


text:
David Allyn

David Allyn (born April 30, 1969) is an American author, educator, and consultant to nonprofit organizations.

Personal life
Allyn is the stepson of the late John Wallach, founder of the nonprofit organization Seeds of Peace. Allyn graduated from the Georgetown Day School in Washington, D.C. He holds a BA from Brown University and a PhD from Harvard University. From 1996–1999, he taught at Princeton University. In 2014 he was named CEO of The Oliver Scholars Program. In February 2016 he was elected to the board of trustees of the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS).

Books and articles
Allyn is the author of four books, including Make Love, Not War and I Can't Believe I Just Did That,   and has served as a faculty member at Princeton University and a visiting scholar at Columbia University at the Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy. He is currently a visiting scholar at The New School. His essays have appeared in The New York Times Magazine and other publications. While an undergraduate at Brown University, Allyn co-authored a book on transferring from one college to another. He and his co-author (later wife) were profiled in The Washington Post and featured on CNN. He has also published articles in Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, The Journal of American Studies, Teachers College Record, The Advocate, The Washington Post, The New York Daily News, The Boston Globe and The San Francisco Chronicle. As an expert on the 1960s, Allyn has appeared on Vh1, The History Channel, and CNN.

Plays
Allyn's play, Buying In, was a semi-finalist for the 2017 Eugene O'Neill National Playwrights Conference. His play, Commencement, was selected for the Baltimore Playwrights Festival. and won a Writer's Digest award. His play Punctuated Equilibrium received a staged reading by the Hangar Theatre Lab in Ithaca, New York. His play Writers Colony appeared in the Fresh Fruit Festival in New York City, and Baptizing Adam won the James H. Wilson Award for Best-Full Length Play. According to The New York Times, Allyn is "a wicked observer of self-conscious people at their less than best."

Concepts
Allyn's original concepts include "strategic empathy," denoting the deliberate use of perspective-taking to achieve certain desired ends; "mission mirroring," the phenomenon that occurs when mission-based organizations become plagued by the very problems they were created to solve; and "sexual optimism (pessimism)," the view of human sexuality as benign (or dangerous).

title: David Allyn


text:
Monod

Monod is a surname, and may refer to:

 * Adolphe Monod (1802–1856), French Protestant churchman; brother of Frédéric Monod.
 * Frédéric Monod (1794–1863), French Protestant pastor.
 * Gabriel Monod, French historian
 * Jacques Monod (1910–1976), French biologist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
 * Jacques-Louis Monod (b. 1927), French musician.
 * Jérôme Monod (1930-2016), French business executive and political advisor.
 * Nicolas Monod, Swiss mathematician.
 * Théodore Monod (1836–1921), French Protestant pastor and hymn writer; son of Frédéric Monod.
 * Théodore André Monod (1902–2000), French naturalist, explorer, and humanist scholar; son of Théodore Monod.
 * Wilfred Monod (1867-1943) French Protestant theologian

title: Monod


text:
Eastern European Summer Time

Eastern European Summer Time (EEST) is one of the names of the UTC+03:00 time zone, which is 3 hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is used as a summer daylight saving time in some European and Middle Eastern countries, which makes it the same as Arabia Standard Time, East Africa Time, and Moscow Time. During the winter periods, Eastern European Time (UTC+02:00) is used.

Since 1996, European Summer Time has been applied from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October. Previously, the rules were not uniform across the European Union.

Usage
The following countries and territories use Eastern European Summer Time during the summer:

 * Belarus, Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–89, regular EEST from 1991-2011
 * Bulgaria, regular EEST since 1979
 * Cyprus, regular EEST since 1979 (Northern Cyprus stopped using EEST in September 2016, but returned to EEST in March 2018 )
 * Estonia, Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–88, regular EEST since 1989
 * Egypt, since 2023
 * Finland, regular EEST since 1981
 * Greece, regular EEST since 1975
 * Israel, Israel Daylight Time since 1948 (which tracks EEST when the two overlap)
 * Jordan, since 1985
 * Latvia, Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–88, regular EEST since 1989
 * Lebanon, since 1984
 * Lithuania, Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–88, regular EEST since 1989, apart from in years 1998-2003 when it was Central European Summer Time
 * Moldova, Moscow Summer Time in years 1932–40 and 1981–89, regular EEST since 1991
 * Romania, unofficial EEST in years 1932–40, regular EEST since 1979
 * Russia (Kaliningrad), Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–90, regular EEST since 1991, as standard time from March 2011.
 * Syria, since 1983
 * Ukraine, Moscow Summer Time in years 1981–89, regular EEST from 1992 to 2024.

In 1991, EEST was used also in Moscow and Samara time zones of Russia. Egypt has previously used EEST in 1957–2010 and 2014–2015. Turkey, has previously used EEST in 1970–1978, EEST and Moscow Summer Time in 1979–1983, and EEST in 1985–2016. From 27 October 2024, Ukraine will use permanent Kyiv Time (UTC+2) year-round.

title: Eastern European Summer Time


text:
User:Monk

Welcome!

I live in Minsk, Belarus.

My pages on other projects:

commons:User:Monk

m:User:Monk

be-x-old:Удзельнік:Monk

Few links to Wikipedia service pages

 * Images with unknown source - unusable for now
 * Images & articles with known source, but possible infringements

Few links to service templates

 * No source - no source info
 * No license - has source info, no license info

Links to useful pages on meta

 * Wiki is not paper

title: User:Monk


text:
Governing body

A governing body is a group of people that has the authority to exercise governance over an organization or political entity. The most formal is a government, a body whose sole responsibility and authority is to make binding decisions in a taken geopolitical system (such as a state) by establishing laws. Other types of governing include an organization (such as a corporation recognized as a legal entity by a government), a socio-political group (chiefdom, tribe, family, religious denomination, etc.), or another, informal group of people.

In business and outsourcing relationships, governance frameworks are built into relational contracts that foster long-term collaboration and innovation. A board of governors is often the governing body of a public institution, while a board of directors typically serves as the governing body of a corporation or other company larger or more complex than a partnership. Many professional sports have a sports governing body that serves as their regulating authority.

Governing bodies can vary widely in size, which is "important not only for acquiring the necessary range of skills to oversee the entity, but also in promoting cohesion, flexibility, and effective participation of the members to achieve their governance objectives". A governing body is only one component of a system of governance, which also requires a written framework under which the body must operate, and governance mechanisms to both carry out directives of the governing body, and to report information back to the governing body.

Examples
Examples of governing bodies include: board of director and owners.

Education

 * The school governing body of a school, particularly in Commonwealth areas
 * Board of education, the governing body of a school or higher administrative level
 * University Court, the governing body of a university in Scotland

Religion

 * The Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, the ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses
 * Governing Bodies of the Conference of European Churches

Sport

 * FIFA, governing body of association football among others.
 * FIA, governing body of motor racing.

title: Governing body


text:
Redevelopment

Redevelopment is any new construction on a site that has pre-existing uses. It represents a process of land development uses to revitalize the physical, economic and social fabric of urban space.

Description
Variations on redevelopment include:

 * Urban infill on vacant parcels that have no existing activity but were previously developed, especially on brownfield land, such as the redevelopment of an industrial site into a mixed-use development.
 * Constructing with a denser land usage, such as the redevelopment of a block of townhouses into a large apartment building.
 * Adaptive reuse, where older structures are converted for improved current market use, such as an industrial mill into housing lofts.

Redevelopment projects can be small or large ranging from a single building to entire new neighborhoods or "new town in town" projects.

Redevelopment also refers to state and federal statutes which give cities and counties the authority to establish redevelopment agencies and give the agencies the authority to attack problems of urban decay. The fundamental tools of a redevelopment agency include the authority to acquire real property,  the power of eminent domain, to develop and sell property without bidding and  the authority and responsibility of relocating persons who have interests in the property acquired by the agency. The financing/funding of such operations might come from government grants, borrowing from federal or state governments and selling bonds and from tax increment financing.

Other terms sometimes used to describe redevelopment include urban renewal (urban revitalization). While efforts described as urban revitalization often involve redevelopment, they do not always involve redevelopment as they do not always involve the demolition of any existing structures but may instead describe the rehabilitation of existing buildings or other neighborhood improvement initiatives.

A new example of other neighborhood improvement initiatives is the funding mechanism associated with high carbon footprint air quality urban blight. Assembly Bill AB811 is the State of California's answer to funding renewable energy and allows cities to craft their own sustainability action plans. These cutting edge action plans needs the funding structure; which can easily come forward through redevelopment funding.

Urban renewal
Some redevelopment projects and programs have been incredibly controversial including the Urban Renewal program in the United States in the mid-twentieth century or the urban regeneration program in Great Britain. Controversy usually results either from the use of eminent domain, from objections to the change in use or increases in density and intensity on the site or from disagreement on the appropriate use of taxpayer funds to pay for some element of the project. Urban redevelopment in the United States has been controversial because it can displace poor and lower middle class residents, often transferring residents' land and homes to developers for free or a below-market-value price. This is done on the condition that the developer will use that land to construct new commercial and residential developments.

The residents displaced by redevelopment are often undercompensated, and some (notably month-to-month tenants and business owners) are not compensated at all. Historically, redevelopment agencies have been buying many properties in redevelopment areas for prices below fair market value, or even below the agencies' own appraisal figures because the displaced people are often unaware of their legal rights and lack the will and the funds to mount a proper legal defense in a valuation trial. Those who do so usually recover more in compensation than what is offered by the redevelopment agencies.

The controversy over misuse of eminent domain for redevelopment reached a climax in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court's 2005 decision in Kelo v. City of New London, which ruled that the general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified private redevelopment plans as a permissible "public use" under the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment. The Kelo decision was widely denounced and remains the subject of severe criticism. Remedial legislation to restrict the use of eminent domain for private development has been enacted or introduced in a number of states.

Golf course redevelopment
Golf course redevelopment, also known as golf course conversion is a real estate niche, in which investors purchase failing golf courses. Investors then subdivide the golf course into individual plots of lands. They then resell the plots of land for builders, or build on the plots then resell it to residential home buyers. This process is usually done with the assistance of a real estate broker.

The main challenge of this niche is the difficulties that investors face in requesting a variance from cities.

Notable examples
North America:
 * Atlantic Station, Atlanta, Georgia
 * Atlantic Yards, Brooklyn, New York
 * American Tobacco Historic District, Durham, North Carolina
 * CFB Downsview -> Downsview Park, Toronto, Ontario
 * CFB Griesbach -> Griesbach, Edmonton, Alberta
 * CN rail yard -> Station Lands (Edmonton), MacEwan University, Edmonton downtown arena; Edmonton, Alberta
 * Edmonton City Centre (Blatchford Field) Airport -> Blatchford, Edmonton, Alberta
 * HOPE VI
 * Hudson Yards, New York, New York
 * Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York, New York
 * Midtown Detroit, Michigan
 * Mission Bay, Treasure Island, Western Addition, and the part of South of Market that become Moscone Center and Yerba Buena Gardens in San Francisco, California
 * Pearl District, Portland, Oregon
 * Old Port of Montreal, Quebec
 * Downtown San Diego, California
 * Central Park, Denver, Colorado, on a former airport site
 * Toronto Waterfront, Toronto, Canada
 * West End, Boston, Massachusetts
 * World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan following the September 11 attacks

Europe:
 * Canary Wharf, London (UK)
 * Edinburgh Waterfront, UK
 * Redevelopment of Norrmalm (Sweden)
 * Liverpool One, Liverpool (UK)
 * Greenwich Millennium Village, London (UK)
 * Tigné Point, Sliema (Malta)
 * Porta Nuova, Milan (Italy)

Asia:
 * Taichung's seventh Redevelopment Zone, Taichung, Taiwan
 * Beijing Olympic Village, Beijing, China
 * Sheung Wan, Hong Kong, China

Central America:
 * Panama in Casco Antiguo (Casco Viejo)

title: Redevelopment


text:
Talk:Alpha (Charmed)

Previously redirected to: Talk:List of Charmed characters

title: Talk:Alpha (Charmed)


text:
Francis Boyle

Francis Anthony Boyle (born March 25, 1950) is an American human rights lawyer and professor of international law at the University of Illinois College of Law. He has served as counsel for Bosnia and Herzegovina and has supported the rights of Palestinians and indigenous peoples. Boyle was one of the architects behind the formulation of the Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam and author of the The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka. He is a long time conspiracy theorist about bioengineered viruses and in Jan 2020 declared COVID was "a genetically engineered bioweapon."

Early life, education and practice
Boyle has stated that he "was born Irish", and does not consider himself to be a "White North American". He received a Bachelor of Arts in political science from the University of Chicago in 1971. He earned a Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School in 1976 and Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy in political science from Harvard University in 1983. Boyle practiced tax and international tax law with Bingham, Dana & Gould.

Background and legal work
Boyle serves as counsel to Bosnia and Herzegovina and to the Provisional Government of the Palestinian Authority. He also represents two associations of citizens within Bosnia and was involved in developing the indictment against Slobodan Milošević for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Over his career, he has represented national and international bodies including the Blackfoot Nation (Canada), the Nation of Hawaii, and the Lakota Nation, as well as numerous individual death penalty and human rights cases. He has advised numerous international bodies in the areas of human rights, war crimes and genocide, nuclear policy, and bio-warfare. From 1991 to 1992, Boyle served as Legal Advisor to the Palestinian Delegation to the Middle East Peace Negotiations.

He served on the board of directors of Amnesty International, as a consultant to the American Friends Service Committee, and on the advisory board for the Council for Responsible Genetics. He drafted the US domestic implementing legislation for the Biological Weapons Convention, known as the Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989, that was approved unanimously by both Houses of the US Congress and signed into law by President George H.W. Bush. He served as an adviser to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) between 1987–89 and 1991–93.

Amnesty International
As member of the board of Amnesty International USA at the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, he claimed that Amnesty International USA acted in ways closely related to United States foreign policy interests. He stated that Amnesty, along with other human rights organisations in the US, failed to sufficiently criticise the Sabra and Shatila Massacre in Lebanon. Boyle stated his suspicion that Amnesty International, which is headquartered in London, was also subject to this bias. He attributes alleged links between Amnesty International and Western foreign policy interests to the relatively large financial contribution of Amnesty International USA to AI's international budget, which he estimated at 20%. Boyle added that Amnesty International was instrumental in publicizing the "Iraqi soldiers dumping children from incubators in Kuwait" hoax. He claimed aspects of organizational continuity and survival came ahead of human rights aims in Amnesty International. He stated "Amnesty International is primarily motivated not by human rights but by publicity. Second comes money. Third comes getting more members. Fourth, internal turf battles. And then finally, human rights, genuine human rights concerns."

Bosnian genocide case
During the war for independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Boyle became the first international-law legal adviser to the first Bosnia-Herzegovinian president, Alija Izetbegovic. Boyle prepared and filed with the International Court of Justice Case 91, also known as the Bosnian genocide case claiming that genocide took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina and that Serbia was responsible for and complicit in that genocide. The final verdict of the case in 2007 stated that while Serbia had not committed genocide, genocide indeed had taken place in Bosnia and Herzegovina and that Serbia was responsible for "failing to prevent and punish the genocide which it knew was taking place."

COVID-19 conspiracy theories
Based on circumstantial evidence, Boyle has claimed that SARS-CoV-2 is a genetically engineered bioweapon that escaped from a high-level lab in Wuhan, China. Boyle has no academic degree in virology or biology but has criticised research on pathogens. The lab-leak theory was found to be unlikely by the World Health Organization and researchers have found no evidence that the virus was created by genetic manipulation.

Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam
Boyle was one of the architects behind the formulation of the Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam (TGTE) following the end of the Sri Lankan Civil War having served as a member of the Advisory Committee on the formation of a Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam was established "to explore the modalities for the establishment of a Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam, and to recommend the objectives that should be achieved by such a Transnational Government". He spoke at the inaugural session of the TGTE in May 2010.

Federal government of the United States
In October 1992, Boyle participated in the International Tribunal of Indigenous Peoples and Oppressed Nationalities in the United States of America that convened in San Francisco. Boyle, acting as a "special prosecutor", petitioned the tribunal to issue the following:
 * "An Order proscribing the Federal Government of the United States of America as an International Criminal Conspiracy and a Criminal organization under the Nuremberg Charter, Judgment, and Principles;" and
 * "an Order dissolving the Federal Government of the United States of America as a legal and political entity."

In the conclusion of a 37-point legal brief, Boyle wrote that the Federal Government of the United States:

"is hostis humani generis: The enemy of all humankind! For the good of all humanity, this Tribunal must condemn and repudiate the Federal Government of the United States of America and its grotesque vision of a New World Order that is constructed upon warfare, bloodshed, violence, criminality, genocide, racism, colonialism, apartheid, massive violations of fundamental human rights, and the denial of the international legal right of self-determination to the Indigenous Peoples and Peoples of Color living in North America and elsewhere around the world."

Hawaiian sovereignty movement
In 1993, Boyle gave a speech in which he called for Hawaiian independence from the United States.

In December 2004, Boyle stated that the United States is illegally occupying the state of Hawaii and he has encouraged Native Hawaiians to press for independence and, if necessary, unilaterally proclaim their own state. In a three-hour speech entitled "The Restoration of Hawaii's Independence," Boyle claimed that the United States has conceded it unlawfully occupied the Kingdom of Hawaii and that fact alone "gives the Kanaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians) the entitlement to restore their independent status as a sovereign nation state."

Boyle argued that, like the Palestinians, Hawaiians should "exercise their right of self-determination", instead of asking the permission for it. Boyle stated that "the plight of the Hawaiian people is generally well known in the world and there's a great deal of sympathy." He concluded his speech by stating that "Hawaii should send the strongest message to Washington it can. Letters carry no weight. The number of people in the street do. Gandhi threw the mighty British out of India with peaceful, nonviolent force. People power, submit to it."

Boyle, who has been advising Hawaiian independence groups since 1992, has argued that "The legal cause for the restoration of the kingdom is air-tight". In addition to devising a draft constitution for one group, the Nation of Hawaii, Boyle filed suit in the United States Supreme Court in 1998 to demand the restoration of Hawaiian independence and reparations "for all the harm inflicted on the Kingdom of Hawaii". The court later determined that the kingdom "was a non-recognised sovereign that does not have access to the US courts". Boyle added that Hawaiian independence groups will "have to wait until the Kingdom of Hawaii has achieved substantial diplomatic recognition and then I could file something in the international court of justice." Boyle further stated that "Native Hawaiians operate in accordance with the Aloha spirit, which is similar to Mahatma Gandhi's Satyagraha force, and I take the position that if Gandhi can throw the mighty British Empire out of India with Satyagraha, Native Hawaiians can throw the mighty American empire out of Hawaii with Aloha." In a 2008 interview, Boyle restated his confidence that Hawaii will eventually achieve independence from the United States.

Administrations since 1992
Boyle endorsed the impeachment of Bill Clinton, though not for the reasons stated in the Articles passed by the House of Representatives. Instead, Professor Boyle called on Clinton to be impeached for the "right reasons"—specifically: launching military attacks against Sudan, Afghanistan, and Iraq in violation of the War Powers Resolution and the U.S. Constitution.

Boyle appealed in January 2010 to the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) to take action against George W. Bush and Dick Cheney among other members of the Bush administration. The United States does not recognize the jurisdiction of the ICC. In November 2011, Boyle was involved as a prosecutor in the four-day Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Tribunal in Malaysia, an organisation established by former Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, an opponent of the Iraq War, to decide if President George W. Bush had violated international law. At the conclusion of the event, the two men were found guilty of committing war crimes.

In April 2018, Boyle gave a statement regarding Trump's missile strike in Syria, asserting that it was a violation of multiple charters and legal statutes, a crime against peace, and an illegal and impeachable offense. In a column, Boyle referred to Trump as "another representative for U.S. imperialism and neoliberal capitalism."

US foreign policy since 9/11
Boyle has been critical of the U.S. interventionist foreign policy, especially humanitarian intervention.

Boyle was a critic of the foreign policy of former American President George W. Bush. In 2007 Boyle claimed that the G. W. Bush administration had been conducting criminal activities alongside associates in allied countries and that the administration would welcome conflict with Muslim and Arab states. He also claimed that American treatment of Muslims and Arabs since 9/11 was similar to that of the Japanese and Japanese Americans after Pearl Harbor.

Israel and Palestine
Boyle is a long-standing critic of Israel, Zionism, and American foreign policy towards Israel. In 1986, Boyle filed a lawsuit against Israeli General Amos Yaron for purported involvement in the Sabra and Shatila massacre on behalf of several relatives of victims, but lost when the United States State Department said that Yaron could not be tried due to the diplomatic immunity he enjoyed as a military attaché to the United States. Boyle countered that under the Nuremberg Principles, there are no privileges or immunities for suspected war criminals, but the court decided that since President Ronald Reagan had given Yaron a "formal certification" that "this was a political question and the court could not do anything to the contrary". Boyle has since followed all lawsuits against Israelis internationally, and blames "Zionist control and domination of the American judiciary" for the failure of these lawsuits in the United States. Boyle proposed that the United Nations General Assembly set up the "International Criminal Tribunal for Israel" (ICTI) as a "subsidiary organ" under Article 22 of the United Nations Charter. His suggestion was endorsed in the UN by Malaysia and Iran, and supported by several dozen Arab and Muslim countries.

Boyle advocated the creation of a Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement in a speech on November 30, 2000, at Illinois State University in which Boyle called for "the establishment of a worldwide campaign of disinvestment/divestment against Israel" and has since campaigned for BDS. He referred to Israel's blockade of the Gaza Strip as "genocide", and the 2008-09 Gaza War as a "massacre", claiming that Israel's actions raise the element in the Genocide Convention "of murder, torture, and things of that nature", and urged the Obama administration to force Israel to lift its blockade.

In January 2009, he wrote that "Israel's genocidal policy against the Palestinians has been unremitting, extending from before the very foundation of the State of Israel in 1948 ... Zionism's "final solution" to Israel's much touted "demographic threat" allegedly posed by the very existence of the Palestinians has always been genocide." Following the Gaza War, he advised Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas to file a declaration under Article 12, Paragraph 3 of the Rome Statute, requesting the prosecution of Israeli officials.

Prediction of the collapse of Israel
In an article published by Veterans Today in 2010 titled "The Impending Collapse of Israel", Boyle stated that "God had no right to steal Palestine from the Palestinians and give Palestine to the Jews to begin with. A fortiori the United Nations had no right to steal Palestine from the Palestinians and give Palestine to the Zionists in 1947." In the same article, Boyle predicted that the state of Israel "will continue its rapid descent into pariah state status" and that "When Israel collapses, most Zionists will have already left or will soon leave for other states around the world. The Palestinians will then be able to claim all of the historic Mandate for Palestine as their State, including the entire City of Jerusalem as their Capital."

According to Boyle, "the Jewish Bantustan (will) collapse of its own racist and genocidal weight over the next two decades if not much sooner. In the meantime, the Palestinians must stall and delay the so-called peace negotiations until then. Time is on their side."

Israel as a "Jewish Bantustan"
In an article published by the Atlantic Free Press, in October 2010, Boyle suggested that Israel change its name to "Jewistan - The State of the Jews", claiming:

"In fact, Israel has never been anything but a Bantustan for Jews set up in the Middle East by the White racist and genocidal Western colonial imperial powers in order to serve as their racist attack dog and genocidal enforcer against the Arab and Muslim world. From the very moment of Western imperialism's genocidal conception of Israel in 1947-1948, Israel has historically always functioned as Jewistan – the world's Bantustan for the Jews. So Israel might as well finally change its name today to Jewistan, own up to its racist birthright, and make it official for the rest of the world to acknowledge."

He concluded the article by stating: "In the meantime, the Palestinians should sign nothing with Jewistan/Israel and let this Bantustan for Jews collapse of its own racist and genocidal weight. Good riddance!"

Iran
In May 2008, Boyle offered to "represent Iran in an international tribunal for trying Israel on charges of genocide of Palestinians", and reportedly demanded that his proposal be submitted to Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei and President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.

Boyle has urged Iran to sue the United States in the International Court of Justice to discourage a military strike on Iran's nuclear facilities and prevent the imposition of new sanctions by the U.N. Security Council. He offered to represent Iran and recommended that Iran begin drafting lawsuits for presentation to the International Court of Justice.

Ireland and the Great Famine
Boyle supports the concept of a United Ireland, advocating for a "peaceful decolonization" of Northern Ireland. Against mainstream scholarship, Boyle has claimed that the Great Famine in Ireland constituted a "genocide" under the Genocide Convention. Irish historian Liam Kennedy criticized Boyle's claim, writing that:

"The evidence for genocidal intent, however, is merely a string of quotations from a small number historians of Ireland, principally Christine Kinealy and the late Cecil Woodham-Smith. Most of the voluminous literature on the Famine is simply ignored. Neither is there any apparent attempt to engage with primary source materials or undertake original archival research. The style of writing is self-referential, and the quotations are not used in a systematic way to an argument for deliberate intent."

Books

 * The Criminality of Nuclear Deterrence (Clarity Press, 2013)
 * Destroying Libya and World Order: The Three-Decade U.S. Campaign to Terminate the Qaddafi Revolution (Clarity Press, 2013); ISBN 978-0985335373
 * World Politics and International Law (Duke University Press, 2012).
 * The Palestinian Right of Return Under International Law (Clarity Press, 2011); ISBN 978-0932863935
 * United Ireland, Human Rights and International Law (Clarity Press, 2011); ISBN 978-0983353928
 * Palestine, Palestinians and International Law (Clarity Press, 2009); ISBN 978-0932863379
 * Tackling America's Toughest Questions: Alternative Media Interviews (Clarity, 2009); ISBN 978-0932863621
 * The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka: The Global Failure to Protect Tamil Rights Under International Law (Clarity Press, 2009); ISBN 978-0932863706
 * Breaking All The Rules: Palestine, Iraq, Iran and the Case for Impeachment (Clarity Press, 2008); ISBN 978-0932863591
 * Protesting Power: War, Resistance and Law (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007); ISBN 978-0742538924
 * Biowarfare and Terrorism (Clarity Press, 2006); ISBN 978-0932863461
 * Destroying World Order: US Imperialism in the Middle East Before and After September 11 (CreateSpace Independent Publishing, 2004); ISBN 978-1452884875
 * Foundations of World Order: The Legalist Approach to International Relations, 1898–1922 (Duke University Press Books, 1999); ISBN 978-0822323648

Audio

 * Radio interview by Robert W. McChesney on UIC Media Matters program December 23, 2007.
 * "Interview with Professor Francis Boyle" (58 minutes), May 1, 2010. Peter B. Collins and Sibel Edmonds, interviewers.

title: Francis Boyle


text:
Post-encephalitic parkinsonism

Post-encephalitic parkinsonism is a disease believed to be caused by a viral illness that triggers degeneration of the nerve cells in the substantia nigra. Overall, this degeneration leads to clinical parkinsonism.

Historically, starting in 1917 an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica, also called von Economo's encephalitis or "sleepy-disease" occurred, possibly related to the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic; however, even with the use of modern molecular diagnostic tests on appropriate corpses, no firm link between encephalitis lethargica with influenza has been made. Although parkinsonism was occasionally seen during the acute encephalitic phase of encephalitis lethargica, it was often encountered in the post-encephalitic phase. The onset of post-encephalitic parkinsonism may occur several years after the resolution of encephalitis lethargica. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was thought to have suffered from this ailment.

The brain regions affected contain neurofibrillary tangles, similar to those seen in Alzheimer's disease. Nevertheless, the senile plaques common in Alzheimer's disease are not found.

title: Post-encephalitic parkinsonism


text:
Talk:Steve Avery (baseball)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Stephen Avery which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 01:48, 18 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Steve Avery (baseball)


text:
Talk:Ashtabula, Ohio

Untitled
I removed the reference to the 'trash-tabula' website. Irrelevant, at best. I left the terms 'Trash-tabula' and 'Ashta-beautiful'. Anyone who has lived there knows that both of these terms are used freely to describe one's attitude towards the city.

Some additional trivia about Ashtabula: Father Guido Sarducci, a character created and played by Jay Novello, who was born in Ashtabula, became a regular on Saturday Night Live shows.

Patti Prince (formerly Patti Del Prince of Harmon Road in Ashtabula) is the wife of Pat Cooper, ethnic Italian comedian and actor.

Kurt Vonnegut mentions "Ashtabula" in his novel Breakfast of Champions on page 192 of my Bantam paperback copy.

In the movie Abbott and Costello In the Navy there is a jackass whose name is "Ashtabula."

Lou Mazzola

More Ashtabula trivia: In the Novel Serpico, the hero's birthplace is stated as Ashtabula, Ohio. Interestingly, the Wikipedia article makes no mention of Ashtabula's annual Blessing of the Fleet, its Marine Museum, or the history of Ashtabula Harbor. Other ethnic groups in Ashtabula until the 1980's had significant numbers of Americans of Irish, Portuguese, and Eastern European descent. Ashtabula historically was industrialized by trade on the Great Lakes and the shipment of coal and iron ore. This was shipped to Ashtabula via large cargo vessels and then transferred at its railhead. These materials were then shipped to Youngstown, Pittsburgh and other venues for the manufacture of steel. Ashtabulans who attend college often resettle in Columbus or Cleveland after graduation. Like many young Ohioans, they may leave the state and be drawn to urban centers like Chicago, Washington D.C., and other venues. M.E. Copas

Pronunciation
I think someone needs to add a pronunciation key to the article. I've always pronounced it "ash-tuh-BYU-la", but I heard someone on the radio today pronounce it "ash-TAB-yula". Oldiesmann (talk) 02:19, 5 October 2008 (UTC)
 * You are correct, it is pronounced "ash-tuh-BYU-la". Automated voices and those unfamiliar with the town will mis-pronounce it, often emphasizing the "TAB" or sometimes, "STAB" in the middle of the name. I lived in this city for 18 years. [If I knew]/[When I learn] how to make a pronunciation key, I [would]/[will] do so. -- Avic enna  sis  @ 03:52, 11 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, correcting it. 173.90.75.20 (talk) 04:19, 8 August 2020 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 4 one external links on Ashtabula, Ohio. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html to http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html

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title: Talk:Ashtabula, Ohio