text:
Interstate 270 (Maryland)

Interstate 270 (I-270) is a 34.7 mi auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Maryland that travels from I-495 (Capital Beltway) just north of Bethesda in Montgomery County north to I-70 in the city of Frederick in Frederick County. It consists of the 32.6 mi mainline as well as a 2.1 mi spur that provides access to and from southbound I-495. I-270 is known as the Washington National Pike, and makes up the easternmost stretch of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Highway. Most of the southern part of the route in Montgomery County passes through suburban areas around Rockville and Gaithersburg that are home to many biotech firms. This portion of I-270 is up to 12 lanes wide and consists of a local–express lane configuration as well as high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV lanes) that are in operation during peak travel times. North of the Gaithersburg area, the road continues through the northern part of Montgomery County, passing Germantown and Clarksburg as a six- to eight-lane highway with an HOV lane in the northbound direction only. North of here, I-270 continues through rural areas into Frederick County and toward the city of Frederick as a four-lane freeway.

The freeway was built between 1953 and 1960 as the Washington National Pike between Bethesda and Frederick and carried U.S. Route 240 (US 240), which was rerouted off what is now Maryland Route 355 (MD 355) between these two points. With the creation of the Interstate Highway System a few years later, the road was designated as I-70S along with US 240. There were plans to extend I-70S to I-95 in Washington, D.C., on the North Central Freeway from the Capital Beltway; however, they were canceled in the 1970s due to opposition from residents in the freeway's path. The concurrent US 240 designation was removed in 1972 and I-70S became I-270 in 1975. Increasing traffic levels led to a $200-million (equivalent to $ in ) widening of the road in Montgomery County to its current configuration. Many improvements are slated for I-270, including the widening of the route that would add high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT lanes).

Route description
I-270 heads northwest from an interchange with I-495 (Capital Beltway) and MD 355 (Rockville Pike) in suburban Bethesda, Montgomery County, as a six-lane freeway. The left lane on each side is used as an HOV lane for carpools with two or more people in the northbound direction between 3:30 and 6:30 pm on weekdays and in the southbound direction between 6:00 and 9:00 am on weekdays. At the southern terminus, I-270 only has access to and from the eastbound direction of I-495. The road turns west and comes to an interchange with MD 187 (Old Georgetown Road) and Rockledge Drive (unsigned MD 187B). From there, I-270 continues west as a 10-lane freeway and merges with I-270 Spur, which provides access to and from southbound I-495. Past this interchange, I-270 continues north as a 12-lane freeway with an HOV lane and five travel lanes in each direction. The route passes through wooded suburban areas, where, prior to the cloverleaf interchange with Montrose Road (unsigned MD 927), I-270 takes on a local–express lane configuration with the outer two lanes serving as local lanes and the inner three lanes and the HOV lane serving as express lanes. Past Montrose Road, I-270 continues north into the Rockville area, turning northwest before it comes to a single-point urban interchange with MD 189 (Falls Road), where the highway sees 253,620 vehicles daily. The road continues to a modified cloverleaf interchange with MD 28 (Montgomery Avenue). Past MD 28, the freeway passes numerous business parks and some wooded areas before coming to an interchange with Shady Grove Road.

Past this interchange, I-270 leaves Rockville and heads into Gaithersburg, where it intersects I-370. This highway provides access to a park and ride lot at the Shady Grove station, which serves Washington Metro's Red Line, and MD 200 (Intercounty Connector), which heads east to I-95 in Laurel. Past I-370, the local lane configuration ends in the southbound direction, which now has an HOV lane and four travel lanes while the northbound direction still has an HOV lane, three express lanes, and two local lanes. I-270 continues past more suburban development before coming to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with MD 117 (West Diamond Avenue). Past this interchange, the southbound HOV restrictions end and I-270 continues north with four travel lanes in the southbound direction and an HOV lane, three express lanes, and two local lanes in the northbound direction before reaching MD 124 (Quince Orchard Road). Past MD 124, the northbound local lanes continue to the diamond interchange at Watkins Mill Road, after which they end. From there, I-270 heads northwest as an eight-lane freeway with four southbound lanes, an HOV lane, and three travel lanes northbound. It passes through wooded areas, leaving Gaithersburg and comes to an interchange with Middlebrook Road. The freeway narrows to six lanes again past at this interchange, with three lanes in each direction, including a northbound HOV lane. I-270 continues into the Germantown area and interchanges with MD 118 (Germantown Road). A short distance later, after passing by some business parks, I-270 comes to an interchange with MD 27 (Ridge Road) and Father Hurley Boulevard. Past MD 27, I-270 heads into more rural areas of woods with some farm fields, paralleled by a set of power lines. The road has an interchange with MD 121 (Clarksburg Road) in Clarksburg near the Clarksburg Premium Outlets, and the northbound HOV restriction ends past this interchange, with I-270 continuing north as a four-lane freeway. The power lines stop paralleling the route, and it continues through more rural areas of woods and farms, running closely parallel to MD 355. The median widens, with trees in the middle, and I-270 has weigh stations on both sides. The highway reaches Hyattstown, where it has an interchange with MD 109 (Old Hundred Road).

A short distance past the MD 109 interchange, I-270 crosses into Frederick County, continuing northwest through rural woodland and farmland. It reaches the Urbana area, where the route has an interchange with MD 80 (Fingerboard Road). The highway briefly runs along the east side of MD 80 past this interchange before continuing through agricultural areas. It features a scenic overlook in the northbound direction as the road passes through Monocacy National Battlefield, which was the site of the Battle of Monocacy. I-270 eventually leaves the battlefield area and continues into the commercial outskirts of Frederick. Here, the road reaches an interchange with MD 85 (Buckeystown Pike) near the Francis Scott Key Mall. I-270 continues through commercial areas before coming to its northern terminus at an interchange with I-70 and US 40 (Baltimore National Pike). Past this interchange, the freeway continues north as the Frederick Freeway, a part of US 40 that interchanges with US 15 and US 340 a short distance north of I-270’s northern terminus.

History

On November 20, 1944, the National Capital Park and Planning Commission (NCPC) announced plans to build a freeway through Montgomery County. The freeway would bypass Bethesda, Rockville, and Gaithersburg. Under one proposed route, the freeway would end at US 240 (present-day MD 355) north of Gaithersburg, while another proposal had the freeway continuing to Hagerstown. South of Bethesda, one proposal had the freeway connecting with Macarthur Boulevard in the District of Columbia, while another proposal had the freeway going around Cabin John and connect with Macarthur Boulevard in Maryland. Bethesda residents objected to idea of a freeway running through residential areas. The NCPC agreed, and it approved the western route two years later. Further details about the routing were released in 1949, and construction began with the northern section in February 1950.

On January 25, 1953, the US 240 freeway was completed between Frederick to Urbana. The freeway's extension to Hyattstown opened on June 10, 1953. The extension to MD 118 in Germantown opened September 15, 1954.

A group of people opposed any highway in Rockville because of the perceived increase in traffic, and the group had threatened to form a human chain in the middle of the freeway, but they did not carry through with their threat. The freeway's extension to MD 28 in Rockville opened on May 18, 1956.

The Maryland State Roads Commission determined that a portion of Monroe Street in Rockville should be closed in order to avoid building a costly overpass to continue the road to the west side of the new freeway. The Montgomery County Council had opposed the idea, but it ultimately withdrew its opposition because the federal government had agreed to add and pay for a freeway interchange with Montrose Road, which had not been in the freeway's original plan. In 1956, the US 240 freeway was completed from US 15 north to US 40.

The US 240 freeway was extended south to Montrose Road in December 1957. I-70S was designated onto the US 240 freeway in 1959, while I-70N was designated onto the US 40 freeway to Baltimore. On December 17, 1958, the freeway extension to Old Georgetown Road opened.

With the completion of the freeway, the original US 240 was newly designated MD 355. The construction of the Washington National Pike resulted in suburban growth along the corridor between Washington, D.C., and Frederick, with several federal agencies including the United States Atomic Energy Commission and the National Bureau of Standards moving their headquarters to Montgomery County. A western spur that provided access to southbound I-495 was eventually built and became I-270.

I-70S was projected to continue past the Capital Beltway into Washington, D.C., on the North Central Freeway to connect directly to I-95. Plans for this freeway initially began in 1959 when a freeway was called for along the Georgia Avenue corridor. In the mid-1960s, a study was proposed for the freeway that recommended several different routings between Washington, D.C., and the Capital Beltway. By 1966, a route for the North Central Freeway was planned along a Baltimore and Ohio Railroad line running through the northeastern part of Washington and Takoma Park north to the Capital Beltway. In a 1971 study by DeLeuw, Cather Associates and Harry Wesse & Associates, LTD, I-70S was planned to run from its southern terminus at I-495 and run concurrent with that route before turning south on the North Central Freeway and ending at I-95 in Washington. The routing of the freeway through residential areas of Washington drew opposition from residents of the Takoma Park, Brookland, and Michigan Park neighborhoods who were successful in getting the freeway canceled through their neighborhoods in 1970. The North Central Freeway within Maryland was canceled by the Maryland State Highway Administration (MDSHA) in 1972 due to opposition from officials in Montgomery County. In 1975, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) officially approved withdrawal of plans to construct the road south of the Capital Beltway. Similar opposition also affected I-70N's eastward extension into Baltimore proper, although a small part of its planned spur, I-170 (now US 40, as the freeway never connected to any other Interstate), was built and opened in 1979. I-70 was eventually truncated to I-695 (the Baltimore Beltway) in 2014, with the freeway to its former terminus designated, but unsigned, as MD 570.

The concurrent US 240 designation was removed from I-70S in 1972. On May 18, 1975, I-70S was designated I-270, with I-70N becoming simply I-70. The western spur is now signed and publicly known simply as I-270 Spur. By the 1980s, traffic congestion had grown on I-270 in Montgomery County; as a result, a $200-million (equivalent to $ in ) project widened the road between I-495 and MD 118 to its current configuration since October 12, 1990, with some portions being widened from 6 to 12 lanes. HOV lanes were later added on December 19, 1996. This widening led to growth of residences and businesses along the I-270 corridor as far north as Germantown and increased traffic counts along the road. Much of I-270 in Montgomery County is now a hub for biotech firms. By 1999, congestion on the road grew to then-projected 2010 levels.

In Montgomery County, an interchange was constructed to allow northbound and southbound I-270 access both to and from Watkins Mill Road in Gaithersburg. This interchange connects the eastern and western portions of Watkins Mill Road by a new overpass. In addition, a new southbound exit ramp at exit 11 (MD 124) was built. The exit provides better access to the Metropolitan Grove station and Gaithersburg Medical Center. The goal of the project was to lower congestion on I-270, MD 355, and MD 124. The State of Maryland approved the $99.71-million (equivalent to $ in ) project in July 2017, and construction began on July 11, 2017, with Governor Larry Hogan and County Executive Ike Leggett in attendance for a groundbreaking ceremony. The project was completed on June 11, 2020, a month ahead of schedule.

Future
MDSHA is studying improvements for the I-270 corridor between Shady Grove Road and Frederick. Options for improvement include widening the highway to include more lanes with HOV and HOT lanes, as well as initiating rapid bus or light rail service along I-270 between Shady Grove and Clarksburg. In September 2017, Governor Larry Hogan announced a plan to widen the entire length of I-270 by four lanes, adding HOT lanes to the median, as part of a $9-billion proposal to widen roads in Maryland. The project would be a public–private partnership with private companies responsible for constructing, operating, and maintaining the lanes. On June 5, 2019, the Maryland Board of Public Works voted 2–1 in favor of the proposal to construct express toll lanes along I-270, with Governor Hogan and State Comptroller Peter Franchot voting for it and State Treasurer Nancy Kopp voting against it. On June 12, 2019, the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NCPPC) sent a letter of nonconcurrence to MDSHA, triggering a mediation process with MDSHA. The M-NCPPC has jurisdiction over parkland MDSHA will need for its proposal.

In June 2021, the project was omitted by the Washington Council of Government's Transportation Planning Board, calling its future into question. In June 2022 Montgomery County Executive Marc Elrich asked the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) to extend its review period for the I-270 toll lane proposal, citing the need for additional time for local agencies and the public to review the environmental analysis. In July 2022 advocates of public transit questioned the validity of Maryland DOT's traffic models for the proposed highway widening project, in a letter submitted to USDOT. In August 2022 the FHWA announced a delay in its review of the proposed project.

In August 2023, Maryland DOT applied for a federal grant to support improvements on the American Legion Bridge and a portion of I-495 leading to the junction with I-270. The application did not include funding for improvements to I-270, but the state intends to include I-270 improvements in future grant applications.

Interstate 270 Spur
Interstate 270 Spur (I-270 Spur; referred to as I-270Y by the MDSHA) is a 2.1 mi spur off I-270 that connects I-270 and the Capital Beltway. It carries traffic headed southbound on I-270 to southbound I-495 and from northbound I-495 to northbound I-270, filling in the missing movements not available at the interchange between I-270 and I-495. The road heads north from I-495 as a six-lane freeway. The left lane in each direction serves as a HOV lane for carpools with two or more people that is in operation between 3:30 and 6:30 pm on weekdays in the northbound direction and between 6:00 and 9:00 am on weekdays in the southbound direction. I-270 Spur continues north through wooded suburban areas to an interchange with Democracy Boulevard adjacent to the Westfield Montgomery shopping mall. A short distance later, the road has a southbound exit and northbound entrance for the HOV lanes onto Fernwood Road. Past here, I-270 Spur merges into northbound I-270 with separate ramps for the travel lanes and the HOV lanes. Before 1975, when I-270 was called I-70S, this road was called I-270, without the word "Spur".

title: Interstate 270 (Maryland)


text:
Lizzy Borden (band)

Lizzy Borden is an American heavy metal band formed in Los Angeles in 1983. To date, the band has charted on the Billboard 200 four times. Lizzy Borden is eponymous of the band's lead vocalist.

Early career (1983–1986)
The band was founded in 1983 by brothers Lizzy Borden (born Gregory Charles Harges; June 23, 1960) and Joey Scott. The band got noticed after their song "Rod of Iron" featured on Metal Blade Records' Metal Massacre IV compilation LP. The band signed to Metal Blade in 1984 and released their debut EP Give 'Em the Axe in May of the same year. The band is named after the notorious Lizzie Borden, a woman accused and acquitted of murder in the late 19th century.

In 1985, late guitarist Alex Nelson replaced original guitarist Tony Matuzak and was first featured on the band's only live album to date, titled The Murderess Metal Road Show.

Commercial success and first hiatus (1987–1999)
In 1987, the band reached their commercial peak with the release of their third LP "Visual Lies" which saw guitarist Joe Holmes make his debut with the band. The first single from the album, "Me Against the World", was featured in the cult film Black Roses. Holmes later went on to join Ozzy Osbourne's band.

The band issued their fourth studio album Master of Disguise, via their label Metal Blade, on July 15, 1989, and it has since become a cult classic. The band frequently plays songs from this album live.

The band was featured prominently in the rockumentary The Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years (directed by Penelope Spheeris).

In the early 1990s, the band slowed down its activity due to the changing metal scene. The band went on a short hiatus in 1996 after the departure of their two guitarists, David Philips and Corey James. Singer Lizzy alongside bassist Michael White, guitarist Joe Steals and drummer Joey Scott went on to play in the glam band Diamond Dogs (later renamed Starwood) with bassist Marten Andersson.

Reunion, death of Alex Nelson and second hiatus (2000–2004)
In 1999, the band was once again fully active and touring with 3/5 of its classic lineup (Borden, Joey Scott & Alex Nelson) alongside longtime bassist Marten Andersson. Lizzy Borden previewed their new CD and tour, entitled Deal With the Devil, at the Wacken Open Air Festival, Germany, in front of 35,000 people followed by a worldwide tour. Longtime Lizzy Borden fan, artist and multimedia entrepreneur Todd McFarlane (best known for his creation of Spawn and stylistic revision of Spider-Man) was enlisted to capture the essence of Lizzy Borden for the stage show and the CD cover art. On May 17, 2004, guitarist Alex Nelson was killed in a head-on car collision. Lizzy Borden disbanded soon after.

In a 2008 interview with Lucem Fero, when asked about Alex Nelson, singer Lizzy Borden said:

""He had a connection to everybody. I'm usually very business like, and don't like to screw around too much when we're working. He felt it was his job to break that down, and try to have more fun. He was the only one that could break down the wall; for some reason, he had that ability with everyone. Even though I always told him he was the most talented musician I've ever worked with in every way, He never really thought he was all that talented. People would ask him who his influences are, and he would say 'everything I've ever seen or heard.' I used to love that quote as it was so true of all of us.""

Second reunion (2006–present)
Two years after Alex Nelson's death, Lizzy Borden regrouped with new guitarist Ira Black and on November 1, 2007, the album Appointment with Death was released worldwide. The album also features guest appearances by George Lynch (Lynch Mob, ex-Dokken), Dave Meniketti (Y&T), and Corey Beaulieu (Trivium), among others. The first video for "Tomorrow Never Comes" was nominated for video of the year and was in the Top 25 Metal Videos of 2008 on MTV Headbangers Ball. The follow-up video for "Under Your Skin" premiered in April the same year.

In early 2008, the band announced various festival appearances including Sweden Rock Festival (Sweden), Kobetasonik festival (Spain) and Bang Your Head festival (Germany). In November 2008, Lizzy Borden toured the United States with Finnish Monster Rockers Lordi. The band toured Europe as part of their headlining tour, performing in 11 countries. Lizzy Borden was the first-day headliner of the two-day Keep It True XII festival at Tauberfrankenhalle in Lauda-Königshofen Germany 2009, where they introduced Gogo Dancers as part of their regular show routine. North American festival appearances included Rocklahoma and Rock Gone Wild.

On January 24, 2009, former guitarist Corey James died in a car accident.

In 2010, Lizzy Borden toured North America and Europe, including festival appearances at Wacken Open Air 2010, Alcatraz Metal Festival, Leyendas del Rock festival (cancelled) and Elsrock Festival.

In 2011, Lizzy Borden launched the "Summer of Blood" tour in North American Followed by the European version, entitled "Death Takes a Holiday Tour", festival appearances in 2011 included Heaven and Hell Metal Fest, Christmas Metal Festival and the Hard Rock Hell Festival.

In 2012, Lizzy Borden performed on various Open Air Festivals in Mexico and Europe. Festivals included Hellfest in France and Gods of Metal in Italy. Both festivals were with Ozzy Osbourne, Mötley Crüe, Guns N' Roses and more. They returned to Europe in July 2012 to play Zwarte Cross festival in the Netherlands, Headbangers Open Air in Germany and Bulgaria the first time in their career at the Kavarna Rock Festival.

In 2013, Lizzy Borden premiered their new tour "30 Years of American Metal" show created from the ground up at the 70000 Tons of Metal, followed by a string of North American shows and European Festivals, including the Swedish Festival Skogsrojet. On January 1, 2014, guitarist Dario Lorina left the band after joining American heavy metal band Black Label Society.

On August 1, 2014, Lizzy Borden performed on Incheon Pentaport Rock Festival with former guitarist Ira Black.

By 2014, Lizzy Borden had spent the last few years working on the follow up to 2007's Appointment with Death.

The band's first album in 11 years, My Midnight Things, was released on June 15, 2018, and peaked at number 148 in the Billboard Top 200 and number 84 on the Top Hard Music Charts in Canada. Lizzy Borden is currently working on a follow-up album, and the band released its first song in five years, "Death of Me", on August 23, 2023.

In February 2021, former guitar player and founding member Tony Matuzak died.

Current

 * Lizzy Borden – lead vocals (1983–1996, 1999–2004, 2006–present)
 * Joey Scott – drums (1983–1996, 1999–2004, 2006–present)
 * Brandon Paul – guitar
 * Colton Seaver – bass
 * AC Alexander – guitar

Former

 * Gene Allen – guitars (1983–1988)
 * Tony Matuzak – guitars (1983–1985; died 2021)
 * Steve Hochheiser – bass (1983)
 * Michael Davis – bass (1983–1988)
 * Alex Nelson – guitars (1985–1987, 1999–2004; died 2004)
 * Joe Holmes – guitars (1987–1988)
 * Brian Perry – bass  (1989–1992)
 * David Philips – guitars (1989–1996)
 * Corey James Daum – guitars (1989–1996; died 2009)
 * Ronnie Jude – guitars (1989)
 * Chris Sanders – guitars (2007-2010)
 * Dario Lorina – guitars (2010–2014)
 * Mårten Andersson – bass (1992–1996, 1999–2004, 2006–present)
 * Ira Black – guitars (2006–2008, 2014–present (live))

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lizzy Borden (band)


text:
Michael MacDonald

Michael MacDonald or Mike MacDonald may refer to:

Politics

 * Michael D. MacDonald, member of the Michigan Senate
 * Michael James MacDonald (1909–1997), union leader and politician in Nova Scotia
 * Michael L. MacDonald (born 1955), Canadian politician
 * Michael Patrick MacDonald (born 1966), Irish-American activist against crime and violence
 * Michael MacDonald (Green Party candidate)

Sports

 * Mike MacDonald (basketball), American basketball coach
 * Mike MacDonald (rugby union) (born 1980), rugby union footballer
 * Mike Macdonald (born 1987), head coach of the Seattle Seahawks

Other

 * Mike MacDonald (comedian) (1954–2018), Canadian comedian and actor
 * Mike MacDonald (photographer) (born 1960), American nature photographer
 * J. Michael MacDonald (born 1954), former Chief Justice of Nova Scotia
 * Michael C. A. Macdonald, specialist in the languages of ancient Syria, Jordan and Arabia

title: Michael MacDonald


text:
Local government in the United States

Most U.S. states and territories have at least two tiers of local government: counties and municipalities. Louisiana uses the term parish and Alaska uses the term borough for what the U.S. Census Bureau terms county equivalents in those states. Civil townships or towns are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest.

Population centers may be organized into incorporated municipalities of several types, including the city, town, borough, and village. The types and nature of these municipal entities vary from state to state. In addition to these general-purpose local governments, states may also create special-purpose local governments. Depending on the state, local governments may operate under their own charters or under general law, or a state may have a mix of chartered and general-law local governments. Generally, in a state having both chartered and general-law local governments, the chartered local governments have more local autonomy and home rule. Municipalities are typically subordinate to a county government, with some exceptions. Certain cities, for example, have consolidated with their county government as consolidated city-counties. In Virginia, cities are completely independent from the county in which they would otherwise be a part. In some states, particularly in New England, towns form the primary unit of local government below the state level, in some cases eliminating the need for county government entirely. Many rural areas and even some suburban areas of many states have no municipal government below the county level.

In addition to counties and municipalities, states often create special purpose authorities, such as school districts and districts for fire protection, sanitary sewer service, public transportation, public libraries, public parks or forests, water resource management, and conservation districts. Such special purpose districts may encompass areas in multiple municipalities or counties. According to the US Census Bureau's data collected in 2012, there were 89,004 local government units in the United States. This data shows a decline from 89,476 units since the last census of local governments performed in 2007.

Each of the five permanently inhabited U.S. territories is also subdivided into smaller entities. Puerto Rico has 78 municipalities, and the Northern Mariana Islands has four municipalities. Guam has villages, the U.S. Virgin Islands has districts, and American Samoa has districts and unorganized atolls.

Each Indian Reservation is subdivided in various ways. For example, the Navajo Nation is subdivided into agencies and Chapter houses, while the Blackfeet Nation is subdivided into Communities.

History
When North America was colonized by Europeans from the 17th century onward, there was initially little control from governments back in Europe. Many settlements began as shareholder or stockholder business enterprises, and while the king of Britain had technical sovereignty, in most instances "full governmental authority was vested in the company itself." Settlers had to fend for themselves; compact towns sprung up based as legal corporations in what has been described as "pure democracy":

The people, owing to the necessity of guarding against the Indians and wild animals, and to their desire to attend the same church, settled in small, compact communities, or townships, which they called towns. The town was a legal corporation, was the political unit, and was represented in the General Court. It was a democracy of the purest type. Several times a year the adult males met in town meeting to discuss public questions, to lay taxes, to make local laws, and to elect officers. The chief officers were the "selectmen," from three to nine in number, who should have the general management of the public business; the town clerk, treasurer, constables, assessors, and overseers of the poor. To this day the town government continues in a large measure in some parts of New England. ––historian Henry William Elson writing in 1904.

Propertied men voted; in no colonies was there universal suffrage. The founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 by a group of Puritans led by John Winthrop came with the understanding that the enterprise was to be "based in the new world rather than in London." The notion of self-government became accepted in the colonies, although it was not totally free from challenges; in the 1670s, the Lords of Trade and Plantations (a royal committee regulating mercantile trade in the colonies) tried to annul the Massachusetts Bay charter, but by 1691, the New England colonies had reinstalled their previous governments.

Voting was established as a precedent early on; in fact, one of the first things that Jamestown settlers did was conduct an election. Typically, voters were white males described as "property owners" aged twenty-one and older, but sometimes the restrictions were greater, and in practice, persons able to participate in elections were few. Women were prevented from voting (although there were a few exceptions) and African-Americans were excluded. The colonists never thought of themselves as subservient but rather as having a loose association with authorities in London. Representative government sprung up spontaneously in various colonies, and during the colonial years, it was recognized and ratified by later charters. But the colonial assemblies passed few bills and did not conduct much business, but dealt with a narrow range of issues, and legislative sessions lasted weeks (occasionally longer), and most legislators could not afford to neglect work for extended periods; so wealthier people tended to predominate in local legislatures. Office holders tended to serve from a sense of duty and prestige, and not for financial benefit.

Campaigning by candidates was different from today's. There were no mass media or advertising. Candidates talked with voters in person, walking a line between undue familiarity and aloofness. Prospective officeholders were expected to be at the polls on election day and made a point to greet all voters. Failure to appear or to be civil to all could be disastrous. In some areas, candidates offered voters food and drink, evenhandedly giving "treats" to opponents as well as supporters. ––Ed Crews. Taxes were generally based on real estate since it was fixed in place and plainly visible, its value was generally well known, and revenue could be allocated to the government unit where the property was located.

After the American Revolution, the electorate chose the governing councils in almost every American municipality, and state governments began issuing municipal charters. During the 19th century, many municipalities were granted charters by the state governments and became technically municipal corporations. Townships and county governments and city councils shared much of the responsibility for decision-making which varied from state to state. As the United States grew in size and complexity, decision-making authority for issues such as business regulation, taxation, environmental regulation moved to state governments and the national government, while local governments retained control over such matters as zoning issues, property taxes, and public parks. The concept of "zoning" originated in the U.S. during the 1920s, according to one source, in which state law gave certain townships or other local governing bodies authority to decide how land was used; a typical zoning ordinance has a map of a parcel of land attached with a statement specifying how that land can be used, how buildings can be laid out, and so forth. Zoning legitimacy was upheld by the Supreme Court in its Euclid v. Ambler decision.

Types
The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution makes local government a matter of state rather than federal law, with special cases for territories and the District of Columbia. As a result, the states have adopted a wide variety of systems of local government. The United States Census Bureau conducts the Census of Governments every five years to compile statistics on government organization, public employment, and government finances. The categories of local government established in this Census of Governments is a convenient basis for understanding local government in the United States. The categories are as follows:
 * 1) County Governments
 * 2) Town or Township Governments
 * 3) Municipal Governments
 * 4) Special-Purpose Local Governments

County governments
County governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes. Counties and county-equivalents form the first-tier administrative division of the states. The county equivalents in Louisiana are called parishes, while those in Alaska are called boroughs.

All the states are divided into counties or county-equivalents for administrative purposes, with most, although not all counties or county-equivalents, having an organized county government. County government has been eliminated throughout Connecticut and Rhode Island, as well as in parts of Massachusetts. The Unorganized Borough in Alaska also does not operate under a county level government.

The specific governmental powers of counties vary widely between the states. In some states, mainly in New England, they are primarily used as judicial districts. In other states, counties have broad powers in housing, education, transportation and recreation. In areas lacking a county government, services are provided either by lower level townships or municipalities, or the state.

Counties may contain a number of cities, towns, villages, or hamlets. Some cities including Philadelphia, Honolulu, San Francisco, Nashville, and Denver are consolidated city-counties, where the municipality and the county have been merged into a unified, coterminous jurisdiction—that is to say, these counties consist in their entirety of a single municipality whose city government also operates as the county government. Some counties, such as Arlington County, Virginia, do not have any additional subdivisions. Some states contain independent cities that are not part of any county; although it may still function as if it was a consolidated city-county, an independent city was legally separated from any county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties; New York City is uniquely partitioned into five boroughs that are each coterminous with a county.

Town or township governments
In many states, most or all of the land area of counties is divided into townships, which may or may not be incorporated. In New York, Wisconsin and New England, county subdivisions are called towns. The U.S. Census divides counties in states not having such subdivisions into other minor civil divisions, sometimes using electoral districts.

The terms "township" and "town" are closely related (in many historical documents the terms are used interchangeably). However, the powers granted to townships or towns vary considerably from state to state. Many states grant townships some governmental powers (making them civil townships, either independently or as a part of the county government. In others, survey townships are non-governmental. Towns in the six New England states and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are included in this category by the Census Bureau, despite the fact that they are legally municipal corporations, since their structure has no necessary relation to concentration of population, which is typical of municipalities elsewhere in the United States. In particular, towns in New England have considerably more power than most townships elsewhere and often function as legally equivalent to cities, typically exercising the full range of powers that are divided between counties, townships, and cities in other states. In New England, towns are a principal form of local municipal government, providing many of the functions of counties in other states. In California, by contrast, the pertinent statutes of the Government Code clarify that "town" is simply another word for "city", especially a general law city as distinct from a charter city. In some states, large areas have no general-purpose local government below the county level.

Town or township governments are organized local governments authorized in the state constitutions and statutes of 20 Northeastern and Midwestern states, established to provide general government for a defined area, generally based on the geographic subdivision of a county.

An additional dimension that distinguishes township governments from municipalities is the historical circumstance surrounding their formation. For example, towns in New England are also defined by a tradition of local government presided over by town meetings — assemblies open to all voters to express their opinions on public policy.

The term "town" is also used for a local level of government in New York and Wisconsin. The terms "town" and "township" are used interchangeably in Minnesota.

Some townships or other incorporated areas like villages, boroughs, plantations, and hamlets have governments and political power; others are simply geographic designations. Townships in many states are generally the product of the Public Land Survey System.

Municipal governments
Municipal governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes, established to provide general government for a defined area, generally corresponding to a population center rather than one of a set of areas into which a county is divided. The category includes those governments designated as cities, boroughs (except in Alaska), towns (except in Minnesota and Wisconsin), and villages. This concept corresponds roughly to the "incorporated places" that are recognized in Census Bureau reporting of population and housing statistics, although the Census Bureau excludes New England towns from their statistics for this category, and the count of municipal governments excludes places that are governmentally inactive.

Municipalities range in size from the very small (e.g., the village of Monowi, Nebraska, with only 1 resident), to the very large (e.g., New York City, with about 8.5 million people), and this is reflected in the range of types of municipal governments that exist in different areas. There are approximately 30,000 incorporated cities in the United States, with varying degrees of self-rule.

In most states, county and municipal governments exist side by side. There are exceptions to this, however. In some states, a city can, either by separating from its county or counties or by merging with one or more counties, become independent of any separately functioning county government and function both as a county and as a city. Depending on the state, such a city is known as either an independent city or a consolidated city-county. A consolidated city-county differs from an independent city in that in a consolidated city-county, the city and county both nominally exist, although they have a consolidated government, whereas in an independent city, the county does not even nominally exist. Such a jurisdiction constitutes a county-equivalent and is analogous to a unitary authority in other countries. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and parts of Massachusetts, counties exist only to designate boundaries for such state-level functions as park districts or judicial offices (Massachusetts). In Puerto Rico, Guam, and Northern Mariana Islands, there are municipalities (villages in Guam) and no counties. (Municipalities in PR and the NMI are used as county equivalents by the U.S. Census, but Guam is treated as a single county. ) There are no municipal governments in the District of Columbia and the United States Virgin Islands; only the district-wide and territory-wide governments under federal jurisdiction.

Special-purpose local governments
In addition to general-purpose government entities legislating at the state, county, and city level, special-purpose areas may exist as well. Conservation districts are one such type of special purpose area, created for the purpose of conserving land, natural scenery, flora, and fauna.

There are also numerous "special district governments" in existence throughout the various states. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, such governments are: "independent, special-purpose governmental units (other than school district governments) that exist as separate entities with substantial administrative and fiscal independence from general-purpose local governments. Special district governments provide specific services that are not being supplied by existing general-purpose governments. Most perform a single function, but, in some instances, their enabling legislation allows them to provide several, usually related, types of services. The services provided by these districts range from such basic social needs as hospitals and fire protection to the less conspicuous tasks of mosquito abatement and upkeep of cemeteries. The Census Bureau classification of special district governments covers a wide variety of entities, most of which are officially called districts or authorities."

Additionally, U.S. courts have ruled that there are smaller areas which are to be considered as fulfilling government functions, and should therefore be bound by the same restrictions placed on "traditional" local government bodies. These include homeowners associations (determined in Shelley v. Kraemer, Loren v. Sasser, Committee for a Better Twin Rivers v. Twin Rivers Homeowners' Association), and company-owned towns (both for employees and for consumers, decided in the USSC case Marsh v. Alabama in 1946). Many homeowners' and neighborhood associations are considered non-profit organizations, but have the ability to raise taxes or fees, fine members for infractions against association-rules, and initiate lawsuits. The question of civil rights in such communities has not yet been conclusively determined, and varies from state to state.

School districts
School districts are organized local entities providing public elementary and secondary education which, under state law, have sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments. The category excludes dependent public school systems of county, municipal, township, or state governments (e.g., school divisions).

Special districts
Special districts are all organized local entities other than the four categories listed above, authorized by state law to provide designated functions as established in the district's charter or other founding document, and with sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments; known by a variety of titles, including districts, authorities, boards, commissions, etc., as specified in the enabling state legislation. A special district may serve areas of multiple states if established by an interstate compact. Special districts are widely popular, have enjoyed "phenomenal growth" and "nearly tripled in number" from 1957 to 2007.

Councils of governments
It is common for residents of major U.S. metropolitan areas to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city, and a county or township. In turn, a typical metro area often consists of several counties, several dozen towns or cities, and a hundred (or more) special districts. In one state, California, the fragmentation problem became so bad that in 1963 the California Legislature created Local Agency Formation Commissions in 57 of the state's 58 counties; that is, government agencies to supervise the orderly formation and development of other government agencies. One effect of all this complexity is that victims of government negligence occasionally sue the wrong entity and do not realize their error until the statute of limitations has run against them.

Because efforts at direct consolidation have proven futile, U.S. local government entities often form "councils of governments", "metropolitan regional councils", or "associations of governments". These organizations serve as regional planning agencies and as forums for debating issues of regional importance, but are generally powerless relative to their individual members. Since the late 1990s, "a movement, frequently called 'New Regionalism', accepts the futility of seeking consolidated regional governments and aims instead for regional structures that do not supplant local governments."

Dillon's Rule
Unlike the relationship of federalism that exists between the U.S. government and the states (in which power is shared), municipal governments have no power beyond what is granted to them by their states. This legal doctrine, called Dillon's Rule, was established by Judge John Forrest Dillon in 1872 and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hunter v. Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907), which upheld the power of Pennsylvania to consolidate the city of Allegheny into the city of Pittsburgh, despite the wishes of the majority of Allegheny residents.

In effect, state governments can place whatever restrictions they choose on their municipalities (including merging municipalities, controlling them directly, or abolishing them outright), as long as such rules do not violate the state's constitution. However, Dillon's Rule does not apply in all states of the United States, because some state constitutions provide specific rights for municipalities and counties.

State constitutions which allow counties or municipalities to enact ordinances without the legislature's permission are said to provide home rule authority. New Jersey, for example, provides for home rule.

A state which is a Dillon's Rule state, but which also allows for home rule in specified circumstances, applies Dillon's Rule to matters or governmental units where home rule is not specifically authorized.

Structure
The nature of both county and municipal government varies not only between states, but also between different counties and municipalities within them. Local voters are generally free to choose the basic framework of government from a selection established by state law.

In most cases both counties and municipalities have a governing council, governing in conjunction with a mayor or president. Alternatively, the institution may be of the council–manager government form, run by a city manager under direction of the city council. In the past the municipal commission was also common. Across the US, local governments employ more than ten million people.

The ICMA has classified local governments into five common forms: mayor–council, council–manager, commission, town meeting, and representative town meeting.

Elections
In addition to elections for a council or mayor, elections are often also held for positions such as local judges, the sheriff, prosecutors, and other offices. Local governments across the US consist of hundreds of thousands of elected officials. Local elections are often marked by "abysmally low" voter turnout, as these elections are de-synchronized from state and federal elections. A 2009 study found that less than 40% of registered voters participate in local elections for mayor and city council. Turnout is highest among homeowners, the elderly, and the wealthy.

Indian reservations
While their territory nominally falls within the boundaries of individual states, Indian reservations actually function outside of state control. The reservation is usually controlled by an elected tribal council which provides local services, and some reservations have their own determined subdivisions.

Chapter (Navajo Nation)
Navajo Nation is divided into five agencies. The most local form of government in the Navajo Nation is the Chapter, which deals with local responsibilities expected of a municipal government.

Census of local government
A census of all local governments in the country is performed every five years by the United States Census Bureau, in accordance with 13 USC 161.

* note: Municipalities are any incorporated places, such as cities, towns, villages, boroughs, etc. ** note: New England towns and towns in New York and Wisconsin are classified as civil townships for census purposes.

Examples in individual states
The following sections provide details of the operation of local government in a selection of states, by way of example of the variety that exists across the country.

Alaska
Alaska calls its county equivalents "boroughs", functioning similarly to counties in the Lower 48; however, unlike any other state, not all of Alaska is subdivided into county-equivalent boroughs. Owing to the state's low population density, most of the land is contained in what the state terms the Unorganized Borough which, as the name implies, has no intermediate borough government of its own, but is administered directly by the state government. Many of Alaska's boroughs are consolidated city-borough governments; other cities exist both within organized boroughs and the Unorganized Borough.

California
California has several different and overlapping forms of local government. Cities, counties, and the one consolidated city-county can make ordinances (local laws), including the establishment and enforcement of civil and criminal penalties. The entire state is subdivided into 58 counties. The only type of municipal entity is the city, although cities may either operate under "general law" or a custom-drafted charter. California has never had villages or townships. Some cities call themselves "towns", but the name "town" is purely cosmetic with no legal effect. As a result, California has several towns with large populations in the tens of thousands and several cities that are home to only a few hundred people.

California cities are granted broad plenary powers under the California Constitution. For example, Los Angeles runs its own water and power utilities and its own elevator inspection department, while many other cities rely upon private utilities and the state elevator inspectors. San Francisco is the only consolidated city-county in the state.

The city of Lakewood pioneered the Lakewood Plan, a plan under which the city reimburses a county for performing services which are more efficiently performed on a countywide basis. Such contracts have become more widespread throughout California, as they enable city governments to concentrate on particular local concerns. A city that contracts out most of its services is known as a contract city.

There are also "special districts", which are areas with a defined territory in which a specific service is provided, such as port or fire districts. These districts lack plenary power to enact laws, but do have the power to promulgate administrative regulations that often carry the force of law within land directly regulated by such districts. Many special districts, particularly those created to provide public transportation or education, have their own police departments.

District of Columbia
The District of Columbia is unique within the United States in that it is under the direct authority of the U.S. Congress, rather than forming part of any state. Actual government has been delegated under the District of Columbia Home Rule Act to a city council which effectively also has the powers given to county or state governments in other areas. Under the act, the Council of the District of Columbia has the power to write laws, as a state's legislature would, moving the bill to the mayor to sign into law. Following this, the United States Congress has the power to overturn the law.

Georgia
The state of Georgia is divided into 159 counties (the largest number of any state other than Texas), each of which has had home rule since at least 1980. This means that Georgia's counties not only act as units of state government, but also in much the same way as municipalities.

All municipalities are classed as a "city", regardless of population size. For an area to be incorporated as a city, special legislation has to be passed by the General Assembly (state legislature); typically the legislation requires a referendum amongst local voters to approve incorporation, to be passed by a simple majority. This most recently happened in 2005 and 2006 in several communities near Atlanta. Sandy Springs, a city of 85,000 bordering the north side of Atlanta, incorporated in December 2005. One year later, Johns Creek (62,000) and Milton (20,000) incorporated, which meant that the entirety of north Fulton County was now municipalized. The General Assembly also approved a plan that would potentially establish two new cities in the remaining unincorporated portions of Fulton County south of Atlanta: South Fulton and Chattahoochee Hills. Chattahoochee Hills voted to incorporate in December 2007; South Fulton voted against incorporation, and was the only remaining unincorporated portion of Fulton County until 2017.

City charters may be revoked either by the legislature or by a simple majority referendum of the city's residents; the latter last happened in 2004, in Lithia Springs. Revocation by the legislature last occurred in 1995, when dozens of cities were eliminated en masse for not having active governments, or even for not offering at least three municipal services required of all cities.

New cities may not incorporate land less than 3 mi from an existing city without approval from the General Assembly. The body approved all of the recent and upcoming creations of new cities in Fulton County.

Four areas have a "consolidated city-county" government: Columbus, since 1971; Athens, since 1991; Augusta, since 1996; and Macon, which was approved by voters in 2012.

Hawaii
Hawaii is the only U.S. state that has no incorporated municipalities. Instead it has five counties, generally coextensive with one or more of the islands. Most of the state's population resides in the "consolidated city-county" of Honolulu, on Oahu. All communities are considered to be census-designated places, with the exact boundaries being decided upon by co-operative agreement between the Governor's office and the U.S. Census Bureau.

Kalawao County, formed exclusively as a leper colony, is the second smallest county in the United States by population, lacks most government powers, and is often considered part of adjoining Maui County.

Louisiana
In Louisiana, counties are called parishes; likewise, the county seat is known as the parish seat. The difference in nomenclature does not reflect a fundamental difference in the nature of government, but is rather a reflection of the state's unique status as a former French and Spanish colony (although a small number of other states once had parishes too).

Maryland
Maryland has 23 counties. The State Constitution charters the City of Baltimore as an independent city, which is the functional equivalent of a county, and is separate from any county — e.g., there is also a Baltimore County, but its county seat is in Towson, not in the City of Baltimore. Other than Baltimore, all cities are the same, and there is no difference between a municipality called a city or a town. Cities and towns are chartered by the legislature.

North Carolina
North Carolina has 100 counties, the seventh highest number in the country.

The North Carolina Councils of Government (or the Regional Councils of Government) are voluntary associations of county and municipal governments, established by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1972 that serve as an avenue for local governments across North Carolina to discuss issues that are particular to their region. In banding together at the regional level, the voice of one community becomes the voice of many, thus providing a better opportunity for those issues to be addressed. Today the majority of citizens and local governments in North Carolina are represented by regional councils, making them an increasingly important facet of local government operations.

Today North Carolina calls itself home to 16 regional councils of government. Regional councils in North Carolina are committed to working together. In 2010 the seventeen regional councils existing at that time signed an inter-regional cooperative agreement that established a policy to enhance their value by sharing member resources and capacity to deliver services to the state of North Carolina. This agreement also endorses regional councils, to carry out activities in regions outside their boundaries with consent when those services are to benefit the region and the state. Regional boundaries correspond to county borders, with each council being made up of both county and municipal governments. Although the number of regional councils in North Carolina has decreased over the years, the number of citizens served by the councils continues to rise. As of 2007, it is reported that the number of local governments served by regional councils in North Carolina has increased by 16% since 1994. Throughout this same time period the number of citizens served by regional councils has increased by 35% or approximately 2.3 million. This equates to 92% of local governments and 97% of all North Carolina citizens being represented by regional councils as of July 1, 2007.

Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania has 67 counties. With the exception of Philadelphia and Allegheny County, counties are governed by three to seven county commissioners who are elected every four years; the district attorney, county treasurer, sheriff, and certain classes of judge ("judges of election") are also elected separately. Philadelphia has been a consolidated city-county since 1854 and has had a consolidated city-county government since 1952. Allegheny County has had a council/chief executive government since 2001, while still retaining its townships, boroughs and cities.

Each county is divided into municipal corporations, which can be one of four types: cities, boroughs, townships, and incorporated towns. The Commonwealth does not contain any unincorporated land that is not served by a local government. However, the US Postal Service has given names to places within townships that are not incorporated separately. For instance King of Prussia is a census-designated place, having no local government of its own. It is rather contained within Upper Merion Township, governed by Upper Merion's supervisors, and considered to be a part of the township.

Townships are divided into two classes, depending on their population size and density. Townships of the "First Class" have a board made up of five to fifteen commissioners who are elected either at-large or for a particular ward to four-year terms, while those of the "Second Class" have a board of three to five supervisors who are elected at-large to six-year terms. Some townships have adopted a home rule charter which allows them to choose their form of government. One example is Upper Darby Township, in Delaware County, which has chosen to have a "mayor-council" system similar to that of a borough.

Boroughs in Pennsylvania are governed by a "mayor-council" system in which the mayor has only a few powers (usually that of overseeing the municipal police department, if the borough has one), while the borough council has very broad appointment and oversight. The council president, who is elected by the majority party every two years, is equivalent to the leader of a council in the United Kingdom; his or her powers operate within boundaries set by the state constitution and the borough's charter. A small minority of the boroughs have dropped the mayor-council system in favor of the council-manager system, in which the council appoints a borough manager to oversee the day-to-day operations of the borough. As in the case of townships, a number of boroughs have adopted home rule charters; one example is State College, which retains the mayor-council system that it had as a borough.

Bloomsburg is the Commonwealth's only incorporated town; McCandless Township in Allegheny County calls itself a town, but it officially remains a township with a home rule charter.

Cities in Pennsylvania are divided into four classes: Class 1, Class 2, Class 2A, and Class 3. Class 3 cities, which are the smallest, have either a mayor-council system or a council-manager system like that of a borough, although the mayor or city manager has more oversight and duties compared to their borough counterparts. Pittsburgh and Scranton are the state's only Class 2 and Class 2A cities respectively, and have mayors with some veto power, but are otherwise still governed mostly by their city councils.

Philadelphia is the Commonwealth's only Class 1 city. It has a government similar to that of the Commonwealth itself, with a mayor with strong appointment and veto powers and a 17-member city council that has both law-making and confirmation powers. Certain types of legislation that can be passed by the city government require state legislation before coming into force. Unlike the other cities in Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia city government also has oversight of county government, and as such controls the budget for the district attorney, sheriff, and other county offices that have been retained from the county's one-time separate existence; these offices are elected for separately than those for the city government proper.

Texas
Texas has 254 counties, the most of any state.

Each county is governed by a five-member Commissioners Court, which consists of a county judge (elected at-large) and four commissioners (elected from single-member precincts). The county judge has no veto authority over the decisions of the court; and has one vote along with the other commissioners. In smaller counties, the county judge also performs judicial functions, while in larger counties the county judge's role is limited to the court. Elections are held on a partisan basis.

Counties have no home rule authority; their authority is strictly limited by the State. They operate in areas which are considered "unincorporated" (those parts not within the territory of a city; Texas does not have townships) unless the city has contracted with the county for essential services. In plain English, Texas counties merely exist to deliver specific types of services at the local level as prescribed by state law, but cannot enact or enforce local ordinances.

As one textbook produced for use in Texas schools has openly acknowledged, Texas counties are prone to inefficient operations and are vulnerable to corruption, for several reasons. First, most of them do not have a merit system but operate on a spoils system, so that many county employees obtain their positions through loyalty to a particular political party and commissioner rather than whether they actually have the skills and experience appropriate to their positions. Second, most counties have not centralized purchasing into a single procurement department which would be able to seek quantity discounts and carefully scrutinize bids and contract awards for unusual patterns. Third, in 90 percent of Texas counties, each commissioner is individually responsible for planning and executing their own road construction and maintenance program for their own precinct, which results in poor coordination and duplicate construction machinery.

All incorporated municipalities are technically considered cities, even though the municipality may refer to itself as a town or village. Cities may be either general law or home rule. Once a city reaches 5,000 in population, it may submit a ballot petition to create a "city charter" and operate under home rule status (they will maintain that status even if the population falls under 5,000) and may choose its own form of government (weak or strong mayor-council, commission, council-manager). Otherwise the city operates under general law; those cities have only those powers authorized by the State. Annexation policies are highly dependent on whether the city is general law (annexation can only occur with the consent of the landowners) or home rule (no consent is required, but if the city fails to provide essential services, the landowners can petition for de-annexation), and city boundaries can cross county ones. The city council can be elected either at-large or from single-member districts (Houston uses a two-layer single-member district structure), or a mixture of the two. Ballots are on a nonpartisan basis (though, generally, the political affiliation of the candidates is commonly known).

With the exception of the Stafford Municipal School District, all 1,000+ school districts in Texas are "independent" school districts. State law requires seven trustees, which can be elected either at-large or from single-member districts. Ballots are non-partisan. Although Texas law allows for home rule school districts, no district has applied to become such. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) has state authority to order closure and consolidation of school districts, generally for repeated failing performance; the former Wilmer-Hutchins Independent School District was an example of a failing district closed by TEA.

In addition, state law allows the creation of special districts, such as hospital districts or water supply districts. All of these districts are governed by state law; there is no home rule option.

Texas does not provide for independent cities nor for consolidated city-county governments. However, local governments are free to enter into "interlocal agreements" with other ones, primarily for efficiency purposes. (A common example is for cities and school districts in a county to contract with the county for property tax collection; thus, each resident receives only one property bill.)

Virginia
Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 38 cities. All cities are independent cities, which mean that they are separate from, and independent of, any county they may be near or within. Cities in Virginia thus are the equivalent of counties, as they have no higher local government intervening between them and the state government. The equivalent in Virginia to what would normally be an incorporated city in any other state, e.g. a municipality subordinate to a county, is a town. For example, there is a County of Fairfax as well as a totally independent City of Fairfax, which technically is not part of Fairfax County even though the City of Fairfax is the county seat of Fairfax County. Within Fairfax County, however, is the incorporated town of Vienna, which is part of Fairfax County. Similar names do not necessarily reflect relationships; Franklin County is far from the city of Franklin, while Charles City is an unincorporated community in Charles City County, and there is no city of Charles.

Other states

 * Local government in Connecticut
 * Administrative divisions of Indiana
 * Administrative divisions of Massachusetts
 * Administrative divisions of Michigan
 * Local government in New Hampshire
 * Local government in New Jersey
 * Local government in New Mexico
 * Administrative divisions of New York
 * Administrative divisions of Ohio
 * Administrative divisions of Wisconsin

title: Local government in the United States


text:
Birthday cake interview

The birthday cake interview was a live interview on Australian television in March 1993 in which Liberal Party Opposition Leader John Hewson was unable to clearly explain to reporter Mike Willesee whether a birthday cake would cost more or less under his proposed tax reforms. It is remembered as contributing to Hewson's unexpected failure as leader of the Coalition to win the federal election that took place ten days later.

Background
After winning leadership of the Liberal Party, in November 1991 Hewson launched a comprehensive package of proposed reforms called Fightback!, after years of Australian Labor Party dominance in federal politics. The package included new social structures, industrial reforms and radical economic policies. One of its key elements was the introduction of a consumption tax called the Goods and Services Tax (GST), to be balanced by abolition of a range of other taxes such as sales tax, deep cuts in income tax for the middle and upper-middle classes, and increases in pensions and benefits to compensate the poor for the rise in prices flowing from the GST.

Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke and his Treasurer John Kerin were unable to mount an effective response, and in December 1991, Paul Keating successfully challenged Hawke and became Prime Minister.

Through 1992, Keating mounted a campaign against the Fightback! package and, particularly, against the GST, which he described as an attack on the working class in that it shifted the tax burden from direct taxation of the wealthy to indirect taxation of the mass of consumers. He famously described Hewson as a "feral abacus".

Interview
This assault forced Hewson into a partial backdown, agreeing not to levy the GST on food. However, this concession opened him to charges of weakness and inconsistency, and it also complicated the arithmetic of the taxes and benefits package by reducing the scope for the tax cuts, which were the most attractive elements of the package for middle-class voters. A particular problem was coming up with a precise legal definition for 'food'. The complications of the new package were demonstrated in the interview with Mike Willessee on 3 March 1993 on the Nine Network's A Current Affair, in which Hewson was unable to answer a seemingly straightforward question about whether a birthday cake would cost more or less under a Coalition government. He instead made a series of conditional responses about whether the cake would be decorated, have candles on it, and so on.

Willesee: "If I buy a birthday cake from a cake shop and GST is in place, do I pay more or less for that birthday cake?"

Hewson: "...If it is a cake shop, a cake from a cake shop that has sales tax, and it's decorated and has candles as you say, that attracts sales tax, then of course we scrap the sales tax, before the GST is..."

Willesee: "OK — it's just an example. If the answer to a birthday cake is so complex — you do have a problem with the overall GST?"

Aftermath
The following day, Keating paid a televised visit to a bakery, but the owner told him that although he disliked the proposed GST, taxes under the Labor government already had an adverse effect on his business. Keating appeared surprised that the owner paid both payroll and wholesale sales tax. The Coalition led by Hewson continued to be favoured to win the election on 13 March, with polls until election day predicting a Coalition victory.

However, Hewson was defeated. The birthday cake interview was widely seen as crucial in the loss of what many of his supporters had called an "unloseable election", making his tax proposal seem too complicated and Hewson himself ignorant about it.

After the election Fightback! was declared dead, and Hewson lost the Liberal leadership to Alexander Downer in May 1994 and retired from Parliament in 1995. The GST was dropped from the Liberal Party's agenda until the 1998 election campaign (by which time they had been in government for two years).

In August 2006, Andrew Denton conducted an in-depth interview with Hewson on the ABC TV program Enough Rope. Upon being shown footage of the birthday cake interview, Hewson commented, "Well I answered the question honestly. The answer's actually right. That doesn't count... I should have told him [Willesee] to get stuffed!"

title: Birthday cake interview


text:
Arnamagnæan Institute

The Arnamagnæan Institute (Den Arnamagnæanske Samling, formerly Det Arnamagnæanske Institut) is a teaching and research institute established in 1956 to further the study of the manuscripts in the Arnamagnæan Manuscript Collection, the collection bequeathed by the Icelandic scholar and antiquarian Árni Magnússon to the University of Copenhagen in 1730.

History and function
On 1 July 2003 the Arnamagnæan Institute joined with the institutes for Danish dialectology (Institut for Dialektforskning) and onomastics (Institut for Navneforskning) to form The Department of Scandinavian Research (Nordisk Forskningsinstitut), part of the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Humanities. In September 2017, the Department of Scandinavian Research was merged with the Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics (Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab).

The Arnamagnæan Commission (Den Arnamagnæanske Kommission), created in 1772, is the administrating body of the Arnamagnæan Foundation (Det Arnamagnæanske Legat, Legati Arnæ-Magnæani), the endowment from Árni Magnússon's private estate from which money was to be drawn for the publication of text editions and studies pertaining to the manuscripts in the collection.

The chief function of The Arnamagnæan Institute is to preserve and further the study of the manuscripts in the Arnamagnæan Manuscript Collection, in accordance with the terms of the Arnamagnæan Foundation, established in 1760. The Arnamagnæan Manuscript Collection, which comprises some 3000 items, is now divided between Copenhagen and Reykjavík. Since 2009 it has been inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register. The institute's academic staff are responsible for research and instruction in the areas of Old West Norse (Old Icelandic), Old Danish and Old Swedish, as well as Modern Icelandic and Faroese language and literature. Attached to the institute there is a photographic studio and a conservation workshop, the former with one and the latter two full-time members of staff. The institute publishes a series of scholarly monographs under the title Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana and a series of critical editions of Old Norse/Icelandic texts under the title Editiones Arnamagnæanæ as well as a scholarly journal titled Opuscula. The institute also organises, together with Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, an annual summer school in manuscript studies, held alternately in Copenhagen and Reykjavík, and an international seminar on the Care and Conservation of Manuscripts, held in Copenhagen every other year.

title: Arnamagnæan Institute


text:
Angel and the Ape

Angel and the Ape is a humor comic book created by E. Nelson Bridwell & Bob Oksner published by DC Comics. The characters first appeared in 1968 in Showcase #77 then graduated to their own title, with art by comic artist Bob Oksner, most often inked by Wally Wood. The title lasted for seven issues, being renamed to Meet Angel for its final appearance.

Series overview
Angel O'Day is a private investigator who manages the O'Day and Simeon Detective Agency with her partner Sam Simeon. Sam differs from many stereotypical detectives; besides helping Angel, Sam is both a comic book artist and a talking gorilla. Sam's name is a double-pun on the word "simian" ("of or pertaining to an ape or monkey") and the San Simeon estate of publisher William Randolph Hearst. In the first few stories, Sam draws comics for a self-obsessed editor named Stan Bragg, then moves to a competitor, working for Morton Stoops.

Revivals
The series has been revived twice. The first was by Phil Foglio in the 1990s, where Angel and the Ape stuck true to its zany roots. In Phil Foglio's 1991 mini-series, Angel is revealed to be the half-sister of the Dumb Bunny, a member of the super-heroic group the Inferior Five, also created by Bridwell. Sam is changed, too; he is not only employed by "DZ Comics" as an artist, but is also the grandson of Gorilla Grodd, a nemesis of the Flash. As such, Sam has mental powers that he can use to make a limited number of people see him as a human being. However, a break in his concentration allows people to see him in his true form. This is in contrast to the original series, wherein people see Sam's true form but convince themselves he is simply an unusually ape-like human male, since it is "impossible" for there to be such a thing as a talking gorilla.

A second revival was made in early 2001 under DC's Vertigo imprint, with a vastly different take. The four-issue limited series was written by Howard Chaykin and David Tischman, with art by Philip Bond and covers by Arthur Adams.

The two appeared in a one-page story in DC Holiday Special '09, written and drawn by Andrew Pepoy.

In 2011, "The New 52" rebooted the DC universe. Sam Simeon was a scientist at A.R.G.U.S. where he was paired with Dr. O'Day. An accident involving gorilla DNA from Gorilla City turned Sam into a humanoid gorilla. During the "Forever Evil" storyline, Simeon fell under the control of Cheetah who had him operate as Primeape.

In 2012, Angel and Sam appeared in a segment of the anthology title Joe Kubert Presents.

Angel and Sam are briefly seen when they sense Miguel Montez using the H-Dial for the first time.

Appearances

 * 1) Showcase #77 (September 1968): "Angel and the Ape"
 * 2) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #1 (November–December 1968)
 * 3) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #2 (January–February 1969)
 * 4) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #3 (March–April 1969)
 * 5) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #4 (May–June 1969)
 * 6) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #5 (July–August 1969)
 * 7) Angel and the Ape Vol. 1 #6 (September–October 1969)
 * 8) Meet Angel #7 (November–December 1969)
 * 9) Limited Collectors' Edition #C-34 (February–March 1975) (Christmas with the Super-Heroes)
 * 10) Showcase #100 (May 1978): "There Shall Come a Gathering"
 * 11) Crisis on Infinite Earths #11 (February 1986): "Aftershock" (Angel appears with Harvey Bullock and Jonni Thunder and Sam appears with Detective Chimp, but they do not appear together)
 * 12) Swamp Thing Annual Vol. 2 #3 (1987): "Distant Cousins"
 * 13) Angel and the Ape Vol. 2 #1 (March 1991): "Shaking the Family Tree"
 * 14) Angel and the Ape Vol. 2 #2 (April 1991): "The Apes of Wrath"
 * 15) Angel and the Ape Vol. 2 #3 (May 1991): "Family Feud"
 * 16) Angel and the Ape Vol. 2 #4 (June 1991): "Monkey See - Monkey Doom"
 * 17) Guy Gardner: Warrior #29 (March 1995): "It's My Party And I'll Fight If I Want To"
 * 18) Martian Manhunter Annual #2 (1999): "Fear and Loathing on the Planet of Apes"
 * 19) Angel and the Ape Vol. 3 #1 (October 2001): "Model Behavior"
 * 20) Angel and the Ape Vol. 3 #2 (November 2001): "Death Becomes Her"
 * 21) Angel and the Ape Vol. 3 #3 (December 2001): "36DD For Death"
 * 22) Angel and the Ape Vol. 3 #4 (January 2002): "Deux Ex Machina"
 * 23) Infinite Crisis #5 (April 2006)
 * 24) DC Holiday Special 2009 (February 2010): "Angel and The Ape"
 * 25) Joe Kubert Presents #1 (December 2012)
 * 26) Joe Kubert Presents #2 (January 2013)
 * 27) Joe Kubert Presents #3 (February 2013)
 * 28) Joe Kubert Presents #4 (March 2013)
 * 29) Joe Kubert Presents #5 (April 2013)
 * 30) Joe Kubert Presents #6 (May 2013)

In other media

 * Angel O'Day appears in the Young Justice episode "Influence", voiced by Danica McKellar. This version is a civilian.
 * Sam Simeon appears in the Young Justice tie-in comic as the son of Gorilla Grodd and Primat.

title: Angel and the Ape


text:
Talk:Lake Garda

Shape of the lake
Should a wiki on Lake Garda point out the phallic nature of its shape? Discuss.

 * Mmmmm - possibly not - Ballista 13:21, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

I spent my summers on Lago Di Garda
As a Canadian/Italian, I was sent to stay with my grandparents who lived in Maderno, every summer for many years. While at first I was not happy to be there,and it seemed a burden, sent on a plane from Canada and living with my grandparents, I quickly realized how lucky I was to be there each summer. There is not a more beautiful place than Lake Garda in all of Italy. Within a half hour is Verona. Two hours away is Milano. Two hours away is Venice. Three hours south is Firenze (Florence). Four hours away is Rome. A half hour away in Summer is skiing....ski in the Alps in the morning then windsurf in a bikini on Lago Di Garda in the afternoon.

Visit Riva Del Garda in the north, Sirmione Castle in the south....drive around the other side of the lake and experience the greatest vineyards in all of Italy! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.232.24.235 (talk) 05:54, 18 June 2011 (UTC)

Sources section
I have removed this list from the article as these tour guides are not quoted or referenced in the article body. Such a random list is dubious against WP:IINFO. If any are good sources they should be referenced. Fæ (talk) 13:44, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

Windmills
Last Friday, while ridig the LN026 bus line from Peschiera del Garda to the Scaliger Castle of Sirmione, I saw a small group of tall wind-electric turbine towers on a hillside on the other side of the lake. Maybe the name of this (newly built ???) "parco eolico" could be included in the article? I couldn't find it on Google Maps / Earth. Thanks! 79.120.165.185 (talk) 19:26, 25 November 2013 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:34, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Needs a map
This article badly needs a map of Italy showing where the lake is located.—104.244.192.34 (talk) 11:07, 16 March 2018 (UTC)

Submerged fault?
The article currently says this in the Geography section: 'The main tributary of Lake Garda is the Sarca River, others include the Ponale River (fed by Lago di Ledro), the Varone/Magnone River (via the Cascate del Varone) and various streams from both mountainsides, while the only outlet is the Mincio River (79 metres (259 ft), at Peschiera). The subdivision is created by the presence of a fault submerged between Sirmione and Punta San Vigilio which is almost a natural barrier that hampers the homogenization between the water of the two zones.' It is not clear to me what this 'subdivision' that is mentioned actually is, though if lake waters are prevented from thorough mixing, it would suggest a submerged topographic high. It is unlikely that this high is 'a fault' though faulting could be associated with the presence of a 'natural barrier'. Faults are (to put it simply) two-dimensional planes (or indeed zones) within a body of rock, where movement has taken place and they may or may not result in a fault scarp for example. Geopersona (talk) 17:43, 21 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lake Garda


text:
Index calculus algorithm

In computational number theory, the index calculus algorithm is a probabilistic algorithm for computing discrete logarithms. Dedicated to the discrete logarithm in $$(\mathbb{Z}/q\mathbb{Z})^*$$ where $$q$$ is a prime, index calculus leads to a family of algorithms adapted to finite fields and to some families of elliptic curves. The algorithm collects relations among the discrete logarithms of small primes, computes them by a linear algebra procedure and finally expresses the desired discrete logarithm with respect to the discrete logarithms of small primes.

Description
Roughly speaking, the discrete log problem asks us to find an x such that $$g^x \equiv h \pmod{n}$$, where g, h, and the modulus n are given.

The algorithm (described in detail below) applies to the group $$(\mathbb{Z}/q\mathbb{Z})^*$$ where q is prime. It requires a factor base as input. This factor base is usually chosen to be the number −1 and the first r primes starting with 2. From the point of view of efficiency, we want this factor base to be small, but in order to solve the discrete log for a large group we require the factor base to be (relatively) large. In practical implementations of the algorithm, those conflicting objectives are compromised one way or another.

The algorithm is performed in three stages. The first two stages depend only on the generator g and prime modulus q, and find the discrete logarithms of a factor base of r small primes. The third stage finds the discrete log of the desired number h in terms of the discrete logs of the factor base.

The first stage consists of searching for a set of r linearly independent relations between the factor base and power of the generator g. Each relation contributes one equation to a system of linear equations in r unknowns, namely the discrete logarithms of the r primes in the factor base. This stage is embarrassingly parallel and easy to divide among many computers.

The second stage solves the system of linear equations to compute the discrete logs of the factor base. A system of hundreds of thousands or millions of equations is a significant computation requiring large amounts of memory, and it is not embarrassingly parallel, so a supercomputer is typically used. This was considered a minor step compared to the others for smaller discrete log computations. However, larger discrete logarithm records were made possible only by shifting the work away from the linear algebra and onto the sieve (i.e., increasing the number of equations while reducing the number of variables).

The third stage searches for a power s of the generator g which, when multiplied by the argument h, may be factored in terms of the factor base gsh = (−1)f0 2f1 3f2···prfr.

Finally, in an operation too simple to really be called a fourth stage, the results of the second and third stages can be rearranged by simple algebraic manipulation to work out the desired discrete logarithm x = f0logg(−1) + f1logg2 + f2logg3 + ··· + frloggpr − s.

The first and third stages are both embarrassingly parallel, and in fact the third stage does not depend on the results of the first two stages, so it may be done in parallel with them.

The choice of the factor base size r is critical, and the details are too intricate to explain here. The larger the factor base, the easier it is to find relations in stage 1, and the easier it is to complete stage 3, but the more relations you need before you can proceed to stage 2, and the more difficult stage 2 is. The relative availability of computers suitable for the different types of computation required for stages 1 and 2 is also important.

Applications in other groups
The lack of the notion of prime elements in the group of points on elliptic curves makes it impossible to find an efficient factor base to run index calculus method as presented here in these groups. Therefore this algorithm is incapable of solving discrete logarithms efficiently in elliptic curve groups. However: For special kinds of curves (so called supersingular elliptic curves) there are specialized algorithms for solving the problem faster than with generic methods. While the use of these special curves can easily be avoided, in 2009 it has been proven that for certain fields the discrete logarithm problem in the group of points on general elliptic curves over these fields can be solved faster than with generic methods. The algorithms are indeed adaptations of the index calculus method.

The algorithm
Input: Discrete logarithm generator $$g$$, modulus $$q$$ and argument $$h$$. Factor base $$\{-1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, \ldots, p_r\}$$, of length $$r+1$$. Output: $$x$$ such that $$g^x=h \mod q$$.

 * relations ← empty_list
 * for $$k = 1, 2, \ldots$$
 * Using an integer factorization algorithm optimized for smooth numbers, try to factor $$g^k \bmod q$$ (Euclidean residue) using the factor base, i.e. find $$e_i$$'s such that $$g^k \bmod q= (-1)^{e_0}2^{e_1}3^{e_2}\cdots p_r^{e_r}$$
 * Each time a factorization is found:
 * Store $$k$$ and the computed $$e_i$$'s as a vector $$(e_0,e_1,e_2,\ldots,e_r,k)$$ (this is a called a relation)
 * If this relation is linearly independent to the other relations:
 * Add it to the list of relations
 * If there are at least $$r+1$$ relations, exit loop
 * Form a matrix whose rows are the relations
 * Obtain the reduced echelon form of the matrix
 * The first element in the last column is the discrete log of $$-1$$ and the second element is the discrete log of $$2$$ and so on
 * for $$s = 1, 2, \ldots$$
 * Try to factor $$g^s h \bmod q= (-1)^{f_0}2^{f_1}3^{f_2}\cdots p_r^{f_r}$$ over the factor base
 * When a factorization is found:
 * Output $$x = f_0 \log_g(-1) + f_1 \log_g2 + \cdots + f_r \log_g p_r - s.$$

Complexity
Assuming an optimal selection of the factor base, the expected running time (using L-notation) of the index-calculus algorithm can be stated as $$L_n[1/2,\sqrt{2}+o(1)] $$.

History
The basic idea of the algorithm is due to Western and Miller (1968), which ultimately relies on ideas from Kraitchik (1922). The first practical implementations followed the 1976 introduction of the Diffie-Hellman cryptosystem which relies on the discrete logarithm. Merkle's Stanford University dissertation (1979) was credited by Pohlig (1977) and Hellman and Reyneri (1983), who also made improvements to the implementation. Adleman optimized the algorithm and presented it in the present form.

The Index Calculus family
Index Calculus inspired a large family of algorithms. In finite fields $$\mathbb{F}_{q} $$ with $$q=p^n$$ for some prime $$p$$, the state-of-art algorithms are the Number Field Sieve for Discrete Logarithms, $ L_{q}\left[1/3,\sqrt[3]{64/9}\,\right]$, when $$ p $$ is large compared to $$q$$, the function field sieve, $L_q\left[1/3,\sqrt[3]{32/9}\,\right]$ , and Joux, $$L_{q}\left[1/4+\varepsilon,c\right] $$ for $$c>0$$, when $$p$$ is small compared to $$q $$ and the Number Field Sieve in High Degree, $$L_q[1/3,c]$$ for $$c>0$$ when $$p $$ is middle-sided. Discrete logarithm in some families of elliptic curves can be solved in time $$L_q\left[1/3,c\right]$$ for $$ c>0$$, but the general case remains exponential.

title: Index calculus algorithm


text:
User talk:Pasug

i dont want to spam. voc is not a tamil?. why u removed voc?. why rajan u removed manonmaniam sundaranar?. i wanted to like www.saivaneri.org/pillai_greats.htm page. but it is not linking to pages. so i linked to directory. only OBC, SC ST MBC are tamils?. - now i think some people started thinking also i added some bramins, i will also add many SC ST OBC also dont worry. i am not castiest. infact i am only affectionate to my community in which i am born. i do service to them. i think as per valluvan, if u can do a community service, it is a praiseworthy thing

Image:Vocfull70.jpg listed for deletion
An image or media file that you uploaded, Image:Vocfull70.jpg, has been listed at Images and media for deletion. Please look there to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. Admrboltz (T | C) 18:02, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Image:8bhar85.jpg listed for deletion
An image or media file that you uploaded, Image:8bhar85.jpg, has been listed at Images and media for deletion. Please look there to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. — J3ff 22:43, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Image:Tiruchendur.jpg listed for deletion
An image or media file that you uploaded, Image:Tiruchendur.jpg, has been listed at Images and media for deletion. Please look there to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. Admrb♉ltz (T | C) 02:00, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Vallalaar.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Vallalaar.gif. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then you can use GFDL-self to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Dethomas 05:19, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pasug