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Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral

Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral (Ardeaglais Naomh Fionnbarra) is a Gothic Revival three-spire Church of Ireland cathedral in the city of Cork. It is located on the south bank of the River Lee and dedicated to Finbarr of Cork, patron saint of the city. Formerly the sole cathedral of the Diocese of Cork, it is now one of three co-cathedrals in the United Dioceses of Cork, Cloyne and Ross in the ecclesiastical province of Dublin. Christian use of the site dates back 7th-century AD when, according to local lore, Finbarr of Cork founded a monastery. The original building survived until the 12th century, when it either fell into disuse or was destroyed during the Norman invasion of Ireland. Around 1536, during the Protestant Reformation, the cathedral became part of the established church, later known as the Church of Ireland. The previous building was constructed in the 1730s, but was widely regarded as plain and featureless.

The cathedral's demolition and rebuild was commissioned in the mid-19th century by an Anglican church intent on strengthening its hand after the reforms of penal law. Work began in 1863, and resulted in the first major commissioned project for the Victorian architect William Burges, who designed most of the cathedral's architecture, sculpture, stained glass, mosaics and interior furniture. Saint Fin Barre's foundation stone was laid in 1865. The cathedral was consecrated in 1870 and the limestone spires completed by October 1879.

Saint Fin Barre's is mostly built from local stone sourced from Little Island and Fermoy. The exterior is capped by three spires: two on the west front and one above the nave, at the crossing with the transept. Many of the external sculptures, including the gargoyles, were modelled by Thomas Nicholls. The entrances contain figures of over a dozen biblical characters, surmounted by a tympanum showing a Resurrection scene.

Finbarr of Cork
The church grounds are south of the River Lee on Holy Island, on one of the many inlets forming the Great Marsh of Munster (Corcach Mor na Mumhan). Saint Fin Barre's is on the site of at least two previous church buildings, each dedicated to Fin Barre of Cork, patron saint of Cork city and founder of the monastic hermitage at Gougane Barra.

Finbarr was born in about 550. He was, by legend, given Gougane Barra as a place of contemplation, and visited Cork city to lay the foundation stones for the "one true Christian faith". According to tradition, after Finbarr died his remains were brought to Cork to be enclosed in a shrine near the site of today's cathedral.

Archaeological evidence suggests the first site at Fin Barre's probably dates from the 7th century, and consisted of a church and round tower that survived until the 12th century, after which it fell into neglect, or was destroyed during the Norman invasions.

Medieval and 18th-century churches

A 1644 reference to the site notes that "in one of the suburbs of Korq [Cork] there is an old tower ten or twelve feet [3.3 m] in circumference, and more than one hundred feet [30 m] high ... believ[ed] to have been built by St. Baril [Finbarr]". The building was badly damaged in 1690 during the siege of Cork, after which only the steeple remained intact, due to an outbreak of fire and the impact of a 24-pound (11-kg) shot from Elizabeth Fort in nearby Barrack Street. The cannonball was rediscovered during the 1865 demolition and is now on display in the cathedral. The church was demolished in 1735 and replaced the same year by a smaller building, as part of a citywide phase of construction and renovation.

Only the earlier spire was retained for the new building. The older part of this church was described in 1862 as Doric in style, attached to a featureless modern tower with an "ill-formed" spire. The building was widely considered to be poorly designed. The Dublin Builder called it "a shabby apology for a cathedral which has long disgraced Cork", while The Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland judged it "a plain, massive, dull, tasteless, oblong pile, totally destitute of what is usually regarded as cathedral character, and possessing hardly a claim to any sort of architectural consideration". It was demolished in 1865.

19th-century building
In April 1862, the Church of Ireland, in pursuit of a larger, more attractive cathedral, and determined to reassert its authority in response to resurgent Catholicism, initiated a competition for a replacement building, which became the commission for the first cathedral to be built in the British Isles since London's St Paul's. The next February, the designs of the architect William Burges, then 35, were declared the winner of the competition. Burges disregarded the £15,000 budget, producing a design that he estimated would cost twice as much. Despite the protestations of fellow competitors, it won. His diary records his reaction—"Got Cork!"—while cathedral accounts mention a payment of £100 as prize money. The foundation stone was laid on 12 January 1865, the unfinished cathedral consecrated in 1870 by Bishop John Gregg, and the spires topped out in 1879, though minor work continued on the cathedral for many years afterward.

Burges used a number of his earlier unrealised designs for the exterior, including those intended for the Crimea Memorial Church, Istanbul, St John's Cathedral, Brisbane and elevations for Lille Cathedral. The main obstacle was economics. Despite the efforts of fundraisers, Cork was unable to afford a large cathedral. Burges partially alleviated this by designing a three-spired exterior that enhanced the size of the building to viewers. He realised early on the build would vastly exceed the money the city had raised.

The superiority of his design was recognised by Gregg, who supported Burges and lobbied for additional funding. Gregg was instrumental in sourcing additional money, including local merchants such as William Crawford of the Crawford brewing family and Francis Wise, a local distiller. The final total was significantly over £100,000. Assured by Gregg's efforts, Burges was unconcerned. Gregg died before the completion of the project. In his place, his son Robert continued his father's support, and in 1879 ceremoniously placed the final stone on the eastern spire. By then the contractors estimated that the build was nearing its completion, with only a number of pre-designed stained glass fittings left to be installed.

The cathedral holds the book of estimates prepared for the decoration of the west front. Nicholls was paid £1,769 for the modelling, and Robert McLeod £5,153 for the carving. Burges took 10 per cent for the design, more than his usual 5 per cent, apparently due to his high level of personal involvement. Its construction took seven years before the first service was held in 1870. During the first building phase, three firms of contractors were employed, owned by, chronologically, Robert Walker, Gilbert Cockburn and John Delany, who completed the spires' construction in 1879. Building, carving and decoration continued into the 20th century, long after Burges's death in 1881, including the marble panelling of the aisles, the installation of the reredos and side choir walls, and the 1915 construction of the chapter house.

The architectural historians David Lawrence and Ann Wilson call Saint Fin Barre's "undoubtedly [Burges's] greatest work in ecclesiastical architecture", with an "overwhelming and intoxicating" interior. Through his ability, careful leadership of his team, artistic control, and by vastly exceeding the intended budget, Burges produced a building that—though not much larger than a parish church—has been called "a cathedral becoming such a city and one which posterity may regard as a monument to the Almighty's praise".

20th and 21st centuries
Mindful that the cathedral was unlikely to be finished in his lifetime, Burges produced comprehensive plans for its decoration and furnishing, recorded in his Book of Furniture and Book of Designs. At the end of the 20th century, a major restoration of the cathedral, costing £5 million, was undertaken. This included the reinstatement and restoration of the twin trumpets held by the resurrection angel which had been vandalised in 1999. The restoration programme also saw the cleaning, repointing and repair of the exterior of the building, including the re-carving of some of Burges's gargoyles, where repair proved impracticable. The cathedral's heating system was also replaced when it was found to be damaging the intricate mosaic floor.

In 2006, Lawrence and Wilson published the first detailed study of the cathedral's history and architecture, The Cathedral of Saint Fin Barre at Cork: William Burges in Ireland. The building is also covered in Frank Keohane's volume Cork: City and County, in the Buildings of Ireland series, published in 2020. The cathedral is one of the three cathedrals of the Anglican Diocese of Cork, Cloyne and Ross, the other two being Saint Colmán's Cathedral in Cloyne, and Saint Fachtna's Cathedral in Rosscarbery.

Notable interments in the graveyard include those of archbishop William Lyon (died 1617), Richard Boyle (died 1644), and, in a family vault, the first "Lady Freemason", Elizabeth Aldworth (died c. 1773–1775).

Architecture
The cathedral's style is Gothic Revival, Burges's preferred period, which he used for his own home, The Tower House, in London. He reused elements of unsuccessful designs he had produced for competitions for cathedrals at Lille and Brisbane. The shell of the building is mostly limestone, sourced from near Cork, with the interior walls formed from stone brought from Bath. The red marble came from Little Island, the purple-brown stone from Fermoy.

Each of the three spires supports a Celtic cross, a reference to Saint Patrick, seen as a foundational ancestor by both Irish Catholics and Protestants. This inclusion was an implicit statement of national identity, but was against Burges's wishes. His initial design included weather vanes, a choice rejected by the building committee, which, according to the historian Antóin O'Callaghan, wanted the church to "retain the continuity with the one true faith of the ancient past".

The northwestern tower hosts a ring of twelve bells, as well as an additional sharp second bell, which forms part of a diatonic ring of eight bells, for a total of 13 bells. Originally, eight bells were hung on a wooden frame in the tower in either 1752 or 1753, which were cast by Abel Rudman of Gloucester. The bells were taken down in 1865 in advance of the original cathedral's demolition. They were reinstated at some point before the new cathedral's consecration in 1870. But at this point, the towers and spires had not been constructed above the level of the nave, and consequently the bells were hung lower than is appropriate, which meant that they could not be rung properly. In 1902, an appeal was launched in an attempt to raise £500 to properly fit the bells, and the next year they were hung from a steel frame higher in the cathedral. Due to corrosion of the frame in 2007, the frame was replaced, which created an opportunity to expand on the collection of bells: in 2008 four trebles were added, along with the additional second bell. Between their initial installation and today, many of the bells have been recast, and all were restored in 2008.

The spires had a troubled construction: it was a difficult build technically and thus expensive to fund. The cost reached £40,000 early in the build, with a further £60,000 spent by the time the spires were in place. Along the way, a number of sub-contractors were hired and dismissed; the contract was eventually completed by the Cork builder John Delaney, hired in May 1876. By the end of the next year the main and two ancillary spires were complete.

Sculpture
An 1881 estimate by the local stonemason McLeod suggests that Burges provided around 844 sculptures, of which around 412 were for the interior. The total of some 1,260 sculptures include 32 gargoyles, each with different animal heads. Burges oversaw nearly all aspects of the design, headquartered in his office in Buckingham Street and on numerous site visits. Most modern scholars agree that his overarching control over the design of the architecture, statuary, stained glass and internal decorations led to the cathedral's unity of style. He considered sculpture an "indispensable attribute of architectural effect" and, at Saint Fin Barre's, believed he was engaged upon "a work which has not been attempted since the West front of Wells Cathedral". In the designs for the pieces decorating the cathedral, Burges worked closely with Thomas Nicholls, who constructed each figure in plaster, and with McLeod and local stonemasons, who carved almost all of the sculptures in situ.

Burges's designs for the western façade were based on medieval French iconography. He considered this front to be the most important exterior feature, as it would be lit by the setting sun and thus the most dramatic. The theme is The Last Judgement, with representations of the twelve Apostles bearing instruments of their martyrdom, the Wise and the Foolish Virgins, the Resurrection of the Dead and the Beasts of The Evangelists. The gilded copper "resurrection angel" facing eastward on the main spire is locally the cathedral's most iconic feature, and colloquially known as the "goldie angel". It was designed by Burges and erected in 1870 free of charge as his gift to the city, in recognition of Cork's willingness to fund his original design, and positioned in place of an intended wrought-iron cross.

The imagery of the tympanum is taken from the Book of Revelation, with the divine on the upper register and mortals below. It shows an angel, accompanied by John the Evangelist, measuring the temple in Jerusalem, while beneath them the dead rise from their graves. Of these sculptures, the Victorian critic Charles Eastlake wrote in A History of the Gothic Revival, "no finer examples of decorative sculpture have been produced during the Revival".

Burges found it difficult to realise some of his original images for the sculptures and stained glass panels; a number of them contained frontal nudes, including the designs for the creation of the planets, the figures of Adam and Eve, Christ in Glory, Our Lord as King Crucified, the dead rising from their graves, and the welcoming angels. In August 1868, some Protestant committee members, led by the chancellor, George Webster, rejected the use of images of the naked human body in ecclesiastical iconography, especially in images of Christ, and forced Burges to provide clothed designs, modesty-providing loincloths, or strategically placed foliage or books. In frustration Burges wrote, "I am sorry to see Puritanism so rampant in Cork ... I wish we could transplant the building to England". His revised designs were reviewed in April and May 1869, but again rejected. Both Gregg and the dean, Arthur Edwards, supported Burges, and moved the decision from the general committee to a select vestry sub-committee. Webster continued to object, but the modified designs were finally approved.

Plan and elevation
The cathedral's plan is conventional; the west front is opened by three entrance doors leading to the nave, with internal vaulting, arcade, triforium and clerestory, rising to a timber roof. Beyond the nave, the pulpit, choir, bishop's throne and altar end in an ambulatory. The small floor plan drew criticism both at the time and in later years. The building is relatively short at 180 feet, but contains all of the traditional elements of a larger cathedral. A contemporary critic, Robert Rolt Brash, wrote, "the effect of this is to make the building look exceedingly short, and disproportionately high". Although modest in size, the compact design makes the most of the small footprint. The three spires allow the illusion of greater interior space.

Main features
Burges designed most of the interior, including the mosaic pavement, the altar, the pulpit and bishop's throne. The narrow and unusually high marble nave, from red and puce stone, is supported by large columns supporting the central tower and spire. The exterior gives the impression of a large structure, which is at odds with the reduced size of the interior, where the choir, sanctuary and ambulatory take up almost half of the floor space. The interior is filled with colour, most especially from the stained glass windows. This aspect of the interior is in marked contrast to the uniform and austere grey exterior.

The cylindrical pulpit is near the entrance and was completed in 1874, but not painted until 1935. Like the baptismal font, it is placed on four sculpted legs. It contains five stone relief figures, assumed to be the four evangelists, and Paul the Apostle sitting on an upturned "pagan" altar, and a winged dragon below the reading stand. The baptismal font is near the entrance. Its ledge is decorated with a carving of the head of John the Baptist. The font's bowl is of Cork red marble, and supported by a stem, also red marble, a marble shaft of sculpted capitals, and an octagonal base. Brass lettering reads "We are buried with Him by baptism into death".

The lectern (reading desk) is made of solid brass, from a design Burges originally intended for Lille Cathedral. It is decorated with the heads of Moses and King David. There is a "Heroes Column" (War Memorial) by the Choir, at the Dean's chapel. It contains the names of 400 men from the dioceses killed in battle during the First World War. A processional cross, completed in 1974 by Patrick Pye, is in front of the Dean's chapel. The 46-foot 'Great Oak Throne' of the Cork Dioceses Bishop was installed in 1878, alongside a statue of Fin Barre of Cork and a kneeling angel.

Stained glass
Burges conceived the iconographical scheme for the stained glass windows, designed the individual panels for each of the 74 windows, and oversaw every stage of their production. According to Maurice Carey, "in consequence, the windows have a consistent cohesive style and follow a logical sequence in subject matter". The panels were cartooned by H. W. Lonsdale and manufactured in London between 1868 and 1869 by William Gualbert Saunders, who worked in Burges's office before forming his own firm of stained glass makers. Doctrinal objections to some of the figures, particularly of Christ, lead to a four-year delay, with their eventual installation between 1873 and 1881. Four windows remain incomplete. Lonsdale's cartoons are kept at the cathedral.

Many of the figures relate to Christian iconography, and echo those in the tympanum, including, in the ambulatory a window showing God as the King of Heaven overlooking the evangelists Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. In the panel, Matthew takes human form, Mark is depicted as a lion, Luke as an ox, while John takes the form of an eagle. As elsewhere in the cathedral, the illustrations can be divided between the divine, wise and foolish.

The scheme begins and ends with two rose windows, at the west front and south transept respectively. The west rose window shows God as the creator resting on a rainbow and in the act of blessing. He is surrounded by eight compartments, each inspired by the scenes from Book of Genesis, beginning with the creation of light, and ending with the birth of Eve, and Adam naming the animals. The south transept rose window, known as the "Heavenly Hierarchies", places Christ the King in the centre, with the compartments containing a series of angels, archangels and cherubim. Separate glass sheets containing building tools are placed between each angelic compartment.

The nave windows contain signs of the Zodiac. Each lancet by the arcade contains a grisaille panel. These scenes are mostly from the Old Testament, while those from the transepts onward are of prophets who foretold Christ's coming, or from the New Testament. The clerestory panels above the high altar depict Christ reigning from his cross alongside His Mother, John, the Three Marys and various disciples. The windows around the ambulatory include scenes from the life of Christ, culminating in a representation of heaven at worship from the Book of Revelation.

Pipe organ
The organ was built in 1870 by William Hill & Sons. It consisted of three manuals, over 4,500 pipes and 40 stops. The main organ utilised a tubular-pneumatic action, with tracker action for the other two manuals. It was in place for the cathedral's grand opening on Saint Andrew's Day, 1870, and positioned in the west gallery, but moved to the north transept in 1889, to improve acoustics, maximise space, and avoid its interference with the view of the windows. That year, a 14-foot pit was dug in the floor beside the nave, as the new location for the organ.

Its maintenance has been one of the most expensive parts of the cathedral's upkeep. It was overhauled in 1889 by the Cork firm T.W. Magahy, which added three new stops. The organ was moved from the west gallery (balcony) down to a pit in the north transept, where it sits today. Most of the choir organ is housed in an enclosure attached to the console, the lid of which the organist can raise or lower electrically. The next major overhaul was in 1906 by Hele & Company of Plymouth, which added a fourth manual (the Solo). By this stage, the action of the organ was entirely pneumatic. In 1965–1966, J. W. Walker & Sons Ltd of London overhauled the soundboards, installed a new console with electropneumatic action, and lowered the pitch.

By 2010 the organ's electrics were unreliable. Trevor Crowe was employed to reconstruct and increase the number of pipes, and make tonal enhancements, including a 32′ extension to the pedal trombone. The project cost €1.2m and took three years to complete.

title: Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral


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Cleo

Cleo may refer to:

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 * Cleo (play), by Lawrence Wright
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 * Cleo (painter) (1943–2007), pseudonym of French fauvist neo-impressionist artist Clementina Cote
 * Cléo (born 1985), nickname of professional football player Cléverson Gabriel Córdova
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title: Cleo


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Music of Ossetia

Ossetia is a region located on both sides of the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The folk music of Ossetia (Ирыстоны музыкæ/Irystony musykæ) began to be collected and recorded in the late 19th and early 20th century. After the Revolution of 1917, professional music appeared in Ossetia and in the following decades, a number of symphonies, ballets, operas and other institutions were formed. There is an Ossetian State Philharmonic. The first Ossetian opera was Kosta, by Christopher Pliev.

Folk music
Ossetian folk music began to be collected in the late 19th and early 20th century. Boris Galaev made substantial contribution to the collection and documentation.

Ossetian folk songs were divided into categories:

 * Historic songs
 * Revolution songs
 * Heroic songs
 * Worker's songs
 * Wedding songs
 * Drinking songs
 * Humorous songs
 * Dance songs
 * Love songs
 * Lyrical songs

Traditional Ossetian musical instruments include:
 * Kisyn fandyr (хъисын фæндыр or хъисын фандыр), a vertical fiddle with 2 or 3 strings
 * Duadastanon (дуадастанон, sometimes spelled дыуадастанон or дыууадæстæнон), an angular harp

Notable musicians
Valery Gergiev is of Ossetian descent and has since 1978 pursued a notable international career. He currently conducts the Mariinsky Theatre the London Symphony Orchestra and is the artistic director of the White Nights Festival in St. Petersburg. He is also a guest conductor at the Metropolitan Opera.

Gergiev was born in Moscow, raised in Vladikavkaz and received his musical education from the St. Petersburg Conservatory. One of his teachers was the Prof. Ilya Musin the creator of the Leningrad Conducting School that enabled many talented conductors to prosper. Gergiev developed his own style of conducting. He also used his talent to calm the first of revenge in the Caucasus, believing that "music is able to change the world and a person listening to Tchaikovsky's symphonies will not shoot".

Classical musicians

 * Veronika Dudarova - she was the first woman to succeed as a symphony conductor in Russia. She was an ethnic Ossetian born in Baku and educated in Moscow. She created and conducted the Symphony Orchestra of Russia.
 * Zlata Chochieva is an Ossetian pianist, Merited Artist of the Russian Federation of the Republic of north Ossetia–Alania.
 * Tugan Sokhiev is a conductor of Ossetian origin. In 2008 he became a music director of the Orchestre national du Capitole de Toulouse.

title: Music of Ossetia


text: Talk:Music of Ossetia

title: Talk:Music of Ossetia


text: User talk:218.102.189.112

title: User talk:218.102.189.112


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Mangareva

Mangareva is the central and largest island of the Gambier Islands in French Polynesia. It is surrounded by smaller islands: Taravai in the southwest, Aukena and Akamaru in the southeast, and islands in the north. Mangareva has a permanent population of 1,239 (2012) and the largest village on the island, Rikitea, is the chief town of the Gambier Islands.

The island is approximately 8 km long and, at 15.4 km2, it comprises about 56% of the land area of the whole Gambier group. Mangareva has a high central ridge which runs the length of the island. The highest point in the Gambiers is Mount Duff, on Mangareva, rising to 441 m along the island's south coast. The island has a large lagoon 24 km in diameter containing reefs whose fish and shellfish helped ancient islanders survive much more successfully than on nearby islands with no reefs.

History
Mangareva was first settled by Polynesians in the first millennium CE. While carbon dating has so far only dated settlements to 1160–1220, there is evidence from the Pitcairn Islands of trade with Mangareva from 1000 CE, and it is likely settlement dates to around 800 CE. The island was once heavily forested and supported a large population that traded with other islands via canoes. However, excessive logging by the islanders between the 10th and 15th centuries resulted in deforestation of the island, with disastrous results for both its environment and its economy (see Gambier Islands for more details).

The first European to visit Mangareva was a British captain, James Wilson, who arrived in 1797 on the ship Duff. Wilson named the island group in honour of Admiral James Gambier, who had helped him to equip his vessel.

Mangareva and its dependencies in the Gambier Islands were ruled by a line of kings – and, later, regents – until the French formally annexed the islands. King Maputeoa requested a French protectorate on 16 February 1844, but the French government never ratified it. On 4 February 1870, the Mangarevan government and its prince regent, Arone Teikatoara, formally withdrew the protectorate request and asked the French not to intervene in the kingdom's affairs. However, after Father Honoré Laval was removed to Tahiti, the native government changed its stance: On 30 November 1871, Prince Regent Arone and the French colonial authority in Tahiti signed an agreement reaffirming the islands’ protectorate status. The Gambier Islands were finally annexed on 21 February 1881 under Prince Regent Bernardo Putairi, and the annexation was approved by the President of France on 30 January 1882.

In the 20th century, in July 1966, the Mangareviens were exposed to radioactive fallout due to the French military's nuclear tests at Moruroa and Fangataufa. Military officials were aware of the doses received by the island and their effects, but kept them secret. The information was made public in 1998 by journalist Vincent Jauvert, and acknowledged by the French government in 2006.

Climate
Mangareva has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af). The average annual temperature in Mangareva is 23.5 C. The average annual rainfall is 1913.5 mm with November the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in March, at around 26.0 C, and lowest in August, at around 21.3 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Mangareva was 31.4 C on 6 March 2016; the coldest temperature ever recorded was 13.2 C on 27 August 1992.

Transportation
Mangareva is reached by boat from the nearby airport across the lagoon.

Mangareva is an important travel link to Pitcairn Island. Practically the only way a traveler can reach Pitcairn Island is to fly to Tahiti, then to Mangareva. From there, a 32-hour boat ride will take the traveler to the island. Some reach Pitcairn by commercial shipping traffic, but that is uncommon, because shipping lanes do not typically pass close to Pitcairn.

Culture and fiction
Painter and author Robert Lee Eskridge's book Manga Reva: The Forgotten Islands (Bobbs Merrill; 1931) offers first-hand observations of the environment, peoples, and traditions of Mangareva. It includes original illustrations and photographs by the author. In 1962, the adventure-fiction writer Garland Roark acknowledged Eskridge's work in a foreword to his novel, The Witch of Manga Reva. Eskridge also wrote and illustrated a children's book about his visit to Mangareva: South Sea Playmates (Bobbs Merrill; 1933). Sailor and author W. I. B. (Bill) Crealock describes in his book Cloud of Islands a visit to Mangareva, which he considered the ideal island, on the yacht Arthur Rogers, in the company of Diana and Tom Hepworth, whose lives were later recounted in the book Faraway by Lucy Irvine.

Binary counting system
The Mangarevan people developed a binary number system centuries ahead of Europeans. In 2013, the islanders were discovered to have developed a novel binary system that allowed them to reduce the number of digits involved in binary counting: for example, representing 150 requires eight digits in binary (10010110) but only four in the Mangarevan system (VTPK, where V (varu) means 80, T (tataua) is 40, P (paua) is 20, and K (takau) is 10). As binary counting is unknown in other Polynesian societies, it most likely developed after Mangareva was settled (which was sometime between 1060 and 1360 AD). Since Gottfried Leibniz would not invent the modern binary number system until 1689, the Mangarevan binary steps prefigured the European invention of binary by as many as 300 to 600 years.

In 2020, Mangarevan binary counting was shown to be an extension of a traditional Polynesian method of counting. Polynesian societies are known to count specific types of objects differently, and they count objects both singly (one by one) and collectively (by twos, fours, or eights). In each case, counting remains decimal (one, two, three...), though the unit counted varies (one, two, four, or eight). In Mangareva, counting collective items decimally produced productive terms for ten (takau or ten singles), twenty (paua or ten pairs), forty (tataua or ten groups of four), and eighty (varu or ten groups of eight). Given the availability of these terms and their associated numerical values, binary counting was then a simple adaptation of traditional Polynesian counting, which set aside every tenth item to mark ten of the items being counted (in New Zealand, this method was misunderstood by Europeans as undecimal or base-11 counting). In the traditional method, the pile of set-asides would then be counted the same way, with every tenth item marking a hundred (second round), thousand (third round), ten thousand items (fourth round), and so on. In Mangarevan binary, in the first round items were counted as before, but in the second round and thereafter they were grouped into eights (varu) and then fours (tataua), twos (paua), and singles (takau). Once counting had shifted to binary units in the second and subsequent rounds, the method was no longer decimal, suggesting an explanation for the upper limit of 800 (for items counted singly) observed for the counting system.

Mythology
Mangarevan mythology includes deities and gods commonly found across the Polynesian triangle. For instance, traditionally, in Mangareva, the most important god was named Tu, whereas in New Zealand and Hawai'i, the god of war was similarly named Kū. Other commonalities amongst the islands of the Polynesian triangle include the goddess Haumea, who is said to have been responsible for the creation of the world, and the demi-god Māui, who is said to have fished up the islands from the bottom of the sea.

title: Mangareva


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Gambier Islands

The Gambier Islands (Îles Gambier or Archipel des Gambier) are an archipelago in French Polynesia, located at the southeast terminus of the Tuamotu archipelago. They cover an area of 27.8 km2, and are made up of the Mangareva Islands, a group of high islands remnants of a caldera along with islets on the surrounding fringing reef, and the uninhabited Temoe atoll, which is located 45 km (28 mi) south-east of the Mangareva Islands. The Gambiers are generally considered a separate island group from Tuamotu both because their culture and language (Mangarevan) are much more closely related to those of the Marquesas Islands, and because, while the Tuamotus comprise several chains of coral atolls, the Mangareva Islands are of volcanic origin with central high islands.

Administratively, the Gambier Islands are inside the commune of Gambier, which also includes several atolls in the Tuamotu Archipelago. The town hall (mairie) of the commune of Gambier is located on Mangareva, which is the largest island in the Gambier Islands group.

The population of the Gambier Islands was 1,431 people at the 2017 census, all living in the Mangareva Islands.

Pre-European history
Ethnologist Kenneth P. Emory of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu assumed that the Gambier Islands, like the other islands of East Polynesia, were colonized from the Marquesas. However, it is now more likely that settlement originated in the Society Islands around 1000 A.D. There is archaeological evidence that the islands of Mangareva, Taravai, Agakauitai, Akamaru, Aukena and Kamaka were colonized by Polynesians in protohistoric times. The social form was a strictly stratified tribal society, with constant inter-clan warfare and intermittent food shortages; cannibalism was not unknown. There is evidence that, shortly before European influence, unrest was taking place that led to turmoil and civil war between the social classes. This social upheaval may have greatly facilitated the conquest of the archipelago by King Pomaré II of Tahiti in the early 19th century. Until the second half of the 19th century, the archipelago remained in the sphere of influence of the Pomaré royal dynasty of Tahiti.

European exploration and colonization
The Gambier Islands were discovered for Europe in 1797 by James Wilson, captain of the ship Duff of the London Missionary Society, which had left Great Britain to carry out missionary work in Tahiti, Tonga and the Marquesas. He named the islands after his role model, the Huguenot James Gambier, who had financially supported the expedition.

In 1825, the British Frederick William Beechey reached the Gambier Islands with his ship HMS Blossom during a long voyage of exploration to the Pacific and Arctic of North America.

In 1834 the missionaries of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts Honoré Laval and François Caret arrived in the islands to found the first Catholic mission in Polynesia, after the failed attempt of the Spaniards in Tahiti in 1775. The two priests ended up being protagonists of the French union of Tahiti. At first, King Maputeoa, the last king of Mangareva, resisted, but after attributing the recovery from a serious illness to the new god, he increasingly submitted to the influence of the Christian missionaries and was baptized in 1836.

First with the acquiescence and then with the active support of the ruler, the Picpusians deployed an extensive development program for the islands. Encouraged by their success, after baptizing the entire population of the Gambier Islands, they moved to Tahiti in 1836. On this island, since Wilson's expedition, there was a Protestant mission led by Pritchard, who was also British consul and advisor to Queen Pomare Vahine. Pritchard succeeded in expelling the Catholic missionaries, provoking a diplomatic conflict. France sent Admiral Dupetit-Thouars to try to remedy the matter. The admiral ended up establishing a protectorate, and later the annexation of Tahiti.

Meanwhile, the Gambier Islands suffered a strong earthquake and tsunami in 1837. Laval and Caret returned to the archipelago and established a theocratic regime. But, most notably, they taught the inhabitants of the islands to read and write, and protected them from European traders and whalers. According to a phrase of Father Laval, "civilization leads to contentment".

On the other hand, religious zeal led them to systematically replace all the idols and temples, and in their place they ordered the construction of more than a hundred stone buildings: churches, chapels, convents, seminaries, cemeteries, vicarages, triumphal arches. The cathedral of St. Michael in Mangareva alone could accommodate more than 2,000 people. The population, which was over 2,000 when Laval and Caret left, dropped to 500 at the end of the 19th century due to disease and emigration. Many laborers were sent from Mangareva to Tahiti to build the cathedral of Papeete in 1856.

The recruitment of labor for the large-scale projects depopulated the smaller Gambier Islands and led according to some sources to famine, as daily food procurement was neglected. This and the spread of previously unknown infectious diseases led to destitution and a drastic decline in population. On the other hand, the missionaries suppressed constant tribal warfare, as well as human sacrifice and combated cannibalism.

The French governor of Tahiti stood by and watched the actions on the islands for many years. Only when complaints from businessmen and merchant ships became more frequent did he intervene. Father Laval had to leave Mangareva in 1871 at the urging of the Bishop of Tahiti, Florentin Etienne "Tepano" Jaussen. He died on 1 November 1880, and was buried in Tahiti.

The Gambier Islands were finally annexed on 21 February 1881 under Prince Regent Bernardo Putairi and approved by the President of France on 30 January 1882.

Effects of French nuclear testing
The Gambiers served as a logistical staging base for French nuclear testing activity in Mururoa, approximately 400 kilometers away. During this time, the French military dragged a chain through some of the coral reef beds to cut a wider and deeper channel for deep draft vessels. Higher rate of infections by ciguatera were subsequently recorded.

Geography
The Gambier Islands include the Mangareva Islands (the Gambier Islands proper), which have an enclosing coral reef which is broken by only three passages to the open sea, and Temoe atoll, which is located 45 km (28 mi) south-east of the Mangareva Islands. In the Mangareva Islands, besides Mangareva proper (the main island), the other notable high islands of the group are Akamaru, Angakauitai, Aukena, Kamaka, Kouaku, Makapu, Makaroa, Manui, Mekiro and Taravai. These are primarily of volcanic origin. A number of others are actually coral islands, hence of secondary volcanic origin, including Papuri, Puaumu, Totengengie and the Tokorua group. The Mangareva Islands have a land area of 25.71 km2, with a population of 1,431 people at the 2017 census. The primary town is Rikitea, located on Mangareva, as is the highest point in the Gambiers, Mt. Duff, rising to 441 m along that island's south coast.

The islands of Gambier comprise:
 * Temoe atoll (2.1 km²; uninhabited): one main island and a dozen motus separated by passes over the coral reef, 45 km (28 mi) south-east of the Mangareva Islands.
 * Mangareva Islands (25.71 km²; 1,431 inh. at 2017 census )
 * islands in the central lagoon (only high islands are permanently inhabited):
 * to the north, the high island of Mangareva (13.93 km², the largest island of the atoll; 1,384 inh. at 2017 census), and the islet of Rumarei;
 * to the north-east, the high island of Aukena (1.41 km²; 25 inh. at 2017 census);
 * to the south-east, the high island of Akamaru (1.96 km²; 12 inh. at 2017 census), the two smaller islands Makapu (0.04 km²; uninhabited), Mekiro (0.07 km²; uninhabited), and the two islets of Atumata, Teohootepohatu;
 * to the south, the high island of Kamaka (0.47 km²; 1 inh. at 2017 census), the two smaller islands of Makaroa (0.17 km²; uninhabited), Manui (0.08 km²; uninhabited), and the islet of Motu Teiku (0.01 km²; uninhabited);
 * to the west, the high islands of Taravai (4,96 km²; 8 inh. at 2017 census) and Angakauitai (0.76 km²; 1 inh. at 2017 census), and the islets of Tepu Nui and Motu-O-Ari;
 * low islands on the coral reef (none of them are inhabited):
 * to the north-west, the islet of Tenoko;
 * to the north, the islet of Papuri; the three islands of Teauaone, Tepapuri and Puaumu;
 * to the north-east, the four islets of Vaiatekeue, Teauotu, Apou, and Tuaeu; the three islands of Totegegie (location of the Totegegie Airport), Tarauru Roa, Gaioio;
 * to the east, the two islets of Tauna and Tekava;
 * to the south-east, the island of Kouaku;
 * to the west, the reef of Tokorua (occasionally emerging).

Climate
The Gambier Islands have a typical maritime climate, tropical in character but relatively cool. Rainfall is relatively constant throughout the year. Temperatures are similar to those of the Austral Islands, with a warm season from November to April and a cool season from May to October. The minimum and maximum temperatures recorded at Gambier (Rikitea meteorological station; station météorologique de Rikitea) are 13.2 °C (27 August 1992) and 31.2 °C (23 January 1989).

Flora and fauna
The volcanic islands are covered with lush tropical vegetation. The windward side of Mount Duff is dry grassland.

The fringing reef coral islands are species-poor due to poor soil fertility. Here mainly coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) thrive, which are used economically for a small copra production.

The fauna of the coral islands, poor in species, is limited to birds, insects and lizards. In contrast, the underwater fauna is species-rich. All kinds of coral fish make the lagoon a paradise for divers.

Geology
The Gambier Islands formed from a hot spot under the Pacific Plate, which is moving northwestward at a rate of 12.5 cm per year. They are part of an atoll that formed between 5.6 and 5.7 million years ago. The central island has already partially subsided, so that ancient parts of the crater rim still protrude from the water as islands of igneous rocks. The long-sunken caldera can still be noted by the position of the islands in the lagoon.

The entire group sits on an underwater rise that sinks relatively rapidly in the south and east, so that the 65 km long fringing reef only rises above the water surface on three sides. From there, numerous low motus, composed of coral sand and rubble, rise just above the sea surface.

Economy
Today, pearl farming is practiced in the numerous pearl farms in the Gambier lagoons, whose relatively cold waters allow the production of quality pearls. There are 129 farms, including fourteen companies. In recent years, although far from the large population centers of French Polynesia, the archipelago has seen its population increase thanks to pearl farming and the exploitation of mother-of-pearl.In terms of tourism, the Gambier archipelago is one of the least visited in French Polynesia. The remoteness of Tahiti and the price of airfare to get there are largely responsible for this, but the islands have potential because of their climate, environment and unique historical past. A few sailboats call at Rikitea Bay and tourists wishing to visit the British Pitcairn Islands pass through Mangareva as a base. Local production in the Gambier Islands is limited to a few productive sectors, such as subsistence farming and fishing, and most consumer goods are transported by a cargo service operated by two schooners, which rotate every three weeks.

The inhabitants are self-sufficient. They grow yams, taro and breadfruit, as well as all kinds of tropical fruits and, to a lesser extent, coffee for export.

Politics and government
Politically, the Gambier Islands belong to French Polynesia. They form one of 17 municipalities (Commune des Gambier) administered by a subdivision (Subdivision administrative des Tuamotu-Gambier) of the High Commissariat of French Polynesia (Haut-commissariat de la République en Polynésie française) in Papeete, Tahiti. In addition to the Gambier Islands in the geographical sense (i.e. including the atolls of Gambier and Temoe), the following atolls in the southeast of the Tuamotu archipelago belong to the municipality of Gambier:

 * Maturei Vavao Atoll
 * Tenararo Atoll
 * Tenarunga (or Tenania) Atoll
 * Vahanga Atoll
 * Maria Atoll
 * Marutea Sud Atoll
 * Morane Atoll

The municipality of Gambier had a total population of 1,421 inhabitants according to 2012 data, with a population density of 43 p.e./km$2$.

The official language is French. The currency is (still) the CFP franc, which is pegged to the euro. The administrative budget of the Gambier Islands is largely subsidized with funds from France and the European Union.

The main island is Mangareva, on which, however, only the seat of the local administration is located.

Demographics
The Gambier Islands had a population of 1,431 inhabitants at the 2017 census.

The population was spread over the following islands:
 * Temoe atoll: uninhabited
 * Mangareva Islands:
 * Mangareva Island proper: 1,384
 * Aukena Island: 25
 * Akamaru Island: 12
 * Taravai Island: 8
 * Angakauitai Island: 1
 * Kamaka Island: 1

Religion
The majority of the islands' population follows Christianity, mostly the Catholic Church and various Protestant groups, a legacy of the missionary activity that began with the arrival of Europeans to the region. According to 1991 data, between 5 and 6% of the population belonged to a Protestant Christian group.

Recently restored after years of closure, the former cathedral of St. Michael of Mangareva, in the Gambier archipelago, bears witness to the time when the first Catholic missionaries settled there in the 19th century. It is a building protected as a historical monument of France. The structure is considered one of the centers of Catholicism in Polynesia.

The activity of the Catholic Church was boosted by the Missionary work of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary of Picpus. The Catholic missionaries quickly converted almost the entire population. They constructed many religious buildings and had the marae, the places of worship of the ancient local gods, destroyed.

Today the Catholic Church administers 6 buildings in the region the Church of Saint Gabriel in Agonoko, Taravai (Église de Saint-Gabriel), the Church of Our Lady of Peace in Akamaru (Église de Notre-Dame-de-Paix), the Church of Saint Raphael in Aukena (Église de Saint-Raphaël), the Church of Saint Joseph of Taku in Mangareva (Église de Saint-Joseph-de-Taku), the Church of Saint Joseph in Marutea (Église de Saint-Joseph), and the aforementioned Ancient Cathedral of Saint Michael in Rikitea (Ancienne cathédrale Saint-Michel) (Eastern Oceania cathedral between 1833 and 1848)

Culture
Little is known about the art and culture of the Gambier Islands before European influence. Ethnological studies on a scientific basis could not be carried out because the works of art were almost eliminated by the colonizers in a very short time. Father Laval claimed to have burned 40 wooden idols in a single day. The scant information that has survived on the religion and worship of the Gambier Islands comes mainly from letters written by the missionaries to their religious superiors. "A thatched hut twenty feet long, ten feet wide, and seven feet high contained the idols. In front of the structure was a space twenty feet square paved with hewn coral blocks and bordered with curbs. Inside the hut was a boundary one meter high along its entire length, in the center of which stood a finely carved and polished one meter high idol. The eyebrows, but not the eyes themselves, were molded and, from the way the figure was carved, one could deduce that no consideration had been given to human anatomy. The idol was placed in an upright position with its limbs attached to the wall of the hut. The head and loins were tied with a piece of white cloth and the feet were placed in a gourd filled with water. Next to the idol were various oars, mats, coils of rope and garments, obviously gifts for the deity. On each side of the idol were carved three-armed stands on which were presented various objects, such as decorated coconut shells and pieces of bamboo, possibly intended to represent musical instruments."

- Frederick William Beechey

Only eight artifacts from the pre-European period from the Gambier Islands remain in the world, including a carved deity of the type described by Beechey in the above text in the Musée national des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie in Paris. The wooden figure, about a meter high and only remotely human, represents the god Rao, supposedly the "god of inequity" according to Father Caret's description, the third most important deity in the Mangareva pantheon.

A four-armed stand, like the one described in the text fragment above, is on display at the Musée de l'Homme in Paris. Another naturalistic statue, approximately one meter high, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is believed to represent the god Rogo, the sixth son of Tagaroa and Haumea, the mythical founders of Mangareva. Rogo was the ancient deity of peace and hospitality and was revealed as a rainbow. His cult was associated with the cultivation of turmeric.

Languages
At the 2017 census, only 24.8% of the population age 15 and older in the Gambier Islands still reported that Mangarevan was the language they spoke the most at home (down from 38.6% at the 2007 census), while 62.6% reported French as the main language spoken at home (up from 52.3% at the 2007 census), 4.9% reported Tahitian (down from 6.4% in 2007), and 4.6% reported some Chinese dialects (predominantly Hakka) (up from 3.5% in 2007).

In the Gambier Islands, the number of people age 15 and older who reported that the language they spoke the most at home was Mangarevan declined from 300 at the 2007 census to 270 at the 2017 census. In the entire French Polynesia, the number of people age 15 and older who reported that the language they spoke the most at home was Mangarevan declined from 424 at the 2007 census to 332 at the 2017 census. Most of the people who spoke Mangarevan at home outside of the Gambier Islands at the 2017 census lived in Tahiti.

Speakers have some bilingualism in Tahitian, in which there is a 60% lexical similarity, and usually with French, as well. It is a member of the Marquesic subgroup, and as such is closely related to Hawaiian and Marquesan.

According to the Endangered Languages Project, Mangarevan is considered endangered with fewer than 900 speakers out of an ethnic population of 1,491. The larger portion of the population in the Gambier Islands speak French.

title: Gambier Islands


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User:JeremyLydellHaugen

Jeremy Lydell Haugen

title: User:JeremyLydellHaugen


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SN 1181

First observed between August 4 and August 6, 1181, Chinese and Japanese astronomers recorded the supernova now known as SN 1181 in eight separate texts. One of only five supernovae in the Milky Way confidently identified in pre-telescopic records, it appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia and was visible and motionless against the fixed stars for 185 days. F. R. Stephenson first recognized that the 1181 AD "guest star" must be a supernova, because such a bright transient that lasts for 185 days and does not move in the sky can only be a galactic supernova.

3C 58
Before 2013, the only plausible conventional supernova remnant in the old historical area for the supernova was the supernova remnant 3C 58. This remnant has a radio and X-ray pulsar that rotates about 15 times per second. So historically, SN 1181 had been associated with 3C 58 and its pulsar, although many researchers noted that this association is problematic. For example, if the supernova and pulsar are associated, then the star is still rotating about as quickly as it did when it first formed. This is in contrast to the Crab pulsar, known to be the remnant of the SN 1054 supernova in the year 1054, which has lost two-thirds of its rotational energy in essentially the same span of time.

The age of the 3C 58 remnant has been estimated by many measures. Most directly, the proper motion of the expanding shell of 3C 58 has been measured three times, resulting in a distance-independent estimated age of around 3500 years. The measures of the decline rate of the radio flux have substantial variability and uncertainty, so they are not useful for estimating the remnant's age. Age estimates involving the remnant's energy and the swept-up mass are both not useful due to large uncertainties with the distance as well as the presumed energetics and densities. The pulsar is offset from the center of 3C 58, implying an age of ~3700 years, although it is possible to be substantially younger if its transverse velocity happens to be high. The pulsar spin-down age is 5380 years. The neutron star cooling age is >5000 years. With these age estimates, 3C 58 is much too old a remnant to be associated with SN 1181.

The possible sky position of the 1181 supernova has been revised to include additional information on the proximity of the `guest star' to adjacent Chinese constellations, resulting in a greatly smaller error region. This improved region does not contain 3C 58, because the guest star does not have proximity to two constellations as reported. So SN 1181 is not associated with 3C 58. Rather, this new small region contains Pa 30, which is independently known to be a ~800 year old supernova remnant.

Pa 30
Pa 30 was discovered in 2013 by American amateur astronomer Dana Patchick while searching for planetary nebula in WISE infrared data. It was the 30th nebula discovered by his searches, and as a result it is designated Pa 30. Pa 30 appeared as a nearly-round nebula roughly 171x156 arc-seconds in size, with an extremely blue central star. Pa 30 refers to both the nebula (originally catalogued as IRAS 00500+6713) and the central star (designated as WD J005311). The shell is bright in the infrared, but very faint in the optical, at first visible only by light in the [O III] band.

In 2019, optical spectroscopy of the central star revealed a very hot star with an intense stellar wind expanding at a very high velocity of 16,000 km/s and a composition mainly of carbon, oxygen, and neon (with no hydrogen or helium). Such a speed could only arise from a supernova or an event of similar magnitude, more specifically from a merger of two white dwarfs. X-ray spectroscopy studies of the shell also revealed a very hot nebula containing carbon-burning ashes which can only be produced in a supernova. However, the remnant star of Pa 30 is a white dwarf, not one of the conventional supernova remnants (neutron stars or black holes). It has been suggested that Pa 30 is the remnant of a rare class of supernovae known as "sub-luminous Type Iax Supernova" and that a merger of a CO white dwarf and an ONe white dwarf produced the remnant shell along with its supermassive white dwarf remnant. More recent observations in the [SII] band also revealed fine filamentary structures within the shell that had not previously been seen.

A 2021 study measured the expansion velocity of ~1,100 km/s for the nebula from optical spectroscopy of the [S II] doublet. Together with the angular size of Pa 30 and the GAIA distance of 2.3 kpc, the age of the nebula could be estimated to be approximately 1,000 years. This made Pa 30 the new prime candidate for the remnant of the SN 1181 event. Furthermore, the expansion velocity of the nebula and the inferred absolute brightness of the 1181 event are consistent with a Type Iax Supernova, making Pa 30 the only SN Iax remnant in our Galaxy and the only one which can be studied in detail.

With a temperature near 200,000 K, WD J005311 is the hottest star known. The extreme properties of the central star are being powered by the residual radioactive decay of 56Ni, where the usual half-life of 6.0 days from electron capture is increased to many centuries due to the nickel being completely ionized.

title: SN 1181


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Privately held company

A privately held company (or simply a private company) is a company whose shares and related rights or obligations are not offered for public subscription or publicly negotiated in their respective listed markets. Instead, the company's stock is offered, owned, traded or exchanged privately, also known as 'over-the-counter'. Related terms are unlisted company, unquoted company and private equity.

While they are often less well-known than their publicly traded counterparts, private companies still have major importance in the world's economy. For example, in 2008, the 441 largest private companies in the United States accounted for $1.8 trillion in revenues and employed 6.2 million people, according to Forbes.

Separately, all non-government-owned companies are considered private enterprises. That meaning includes both publicly traded and privately held companies since their investors are individuals.

State, private and cooperative ownership
Private ownership of productive assets differs from state ownership or collective ownership (as in worker-owned companies). This usage is often found in former Eastern Bloc countries to differentiate from former state-owned enterprises, but it may be used anywhere when contrasting to a state-owned or a collectively owned company.

In the United States, a privately held company refers to a business entity owned by private stakeholders, investors, or company founders, and its shares are not available for public purchase on stock exchanges. This contrasts with public companies, where shares are publicly traded, allowing anyone in the general public to invest.

Ownership of stock
In countries with public trading markets, a privately held business is generally taken to mean one whose ownership shares or interests are not publicly traded. Often, privately held companies are owned by the company founders or their families and heirs or by a small group of investors. Sometimes employees also hold shares in private companies. Most small businesses are privately held.

Subsidiaries and joint ventures of publicly traded companies (for example, General Motors' Saturn Corporation), unless shares in the subsidiary itself are traded directly, have characteristics of both privately held companies and publicly traded companies. Such companies are usually subject to the same reporting requirements as privately held companies, but their assets, liabilities, and activities are also included in the reports of their parent companies, as required by the accountancy and securities industry rules relating to groups of companies.

Form of organization
Private companies may be called corporations, limited companies, limited liability companies, unlimited companies, or other names, depending on where and how they are organized and structured. In the United States, but not generally in the United Kingdom, the term is also extended to partnerships, sole proprietorships or business trusts. Each of these categories may have additional requirements and restrictions that may impact reporting requirements, income tax liabilities, governmental obligations, employee relations, marketing opportunities, and other business obligations and decisions.

In many countries, there are forms of organization that are restricted to and are commonly used by private companies, for example, the private company limited by shares in the United Kingdom (abbreviated Ltd) or unlimited company and the proprietary limited company (abbreviated Pty Ltd) or unlimited proprietary company (abbreviated Pty) in South Africa and Australia.

In India, private companies are registered by the Registrar of Companies, under the Ministry of Corporate Affairs. Indian private companies must contain the word Private Limited at the end of their names.

Reporting obligations and restrictions
Privately held companies generally have fewer or less comprehensive reporting requirements and obligations for transparency, via annual reports, etc. than publicly traded companies do. For example, in the United States, privately held companies are not generally required to publish their financial statements. By not being required to disclose details about their operations and financial outlook, private companies are not forced to disclose information that may potentially be valuable to competitors and can avoid the immediate erosion of customer and stakeholder confidence in the event of financial duress. Further, with limited reporting requirements and shareholder expectations, private firms are afforded a greater operational flexibility by being able to focus on long-term growth rather than quarterly earnings. In addition, private company executives may steer their ships without shareholder approval, allowing them to take significant action without delays. In Australia, Part 2E of the Corporations Act 2001 requires that publicly traded companies file certain documents relating to their annual general meeting with the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). There is a similar requirement for large proprietary companies, which are required to lodge Form 388H to the ASIC containing their financial report. In the United States, private companies are held to different accounting auditing standards than public companies, overseen by the Private Company Counsel division of the Financial Accounting Standards Board.(see external links)

Researching private companies and private companies' financials in the United States can involve contacting the secretary of state for the state of incorporation (or for LLC or partnership, state of formation), or using specialized private company databases such as Dun & Bradstreet. Other companies, like Sageworks, provide aggregated data on privately held companies, segmented by industry code. By contrast, in the United Kingdom, all incorporated companies are registered centrally with Companies House.

Privately held companies also sometimes have restrictions on how many shareholders they may have. For example, the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934, section 12(g), limits a privately held company, generally, to fewer than 2000 shareholders, and the U.S. Investment Company Act of 1940, requires registration of investment companies that have more than 100 holders. In Australia, section 113 of the Corporations Act 2001 limits a privately held company to fifty non-employee shareholders.

Privately owned enterprise
A privately owned enterprise is a commercial enterprise owned by private investors, shareholders or owners (usually collectively, but they can be owned by a single individual), and is in contrast to state institutions, such as publicly owned enterprises and government agencies. Private enterprises comprise the private sector of an economy. An economic system that 1) contains a large private sector where privately run businesses are the backbone of the economy, and 2) a business surplus is controlled by the owners, is referred to as capitalism. This contrasts with socialism, where the industry is owned by the state or by all of the community in common. The act of taking assets into the private sector is referred to as privatization.

A privately owned enterprise is one form that private property may take.

Types of privately owned businesses

 * Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person. The owner may operate on his or her own or may employ others. The owner of the business has total and unlimited personal liability for the debts incurred by the business. This form is usually relegated to small businesses.
 * Partnership: A partnership is a form of business in which two or more people operate for the common goal of making a profit. Each partner has total and unlimited personal liability for the debts incurred by the partnership.  There are three typical different types of classifications for partnerships: general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships.
 * Corporation: A business corporation is a for-profit, limited liability or unlimited liability entity that has a separate legal personality from its members. A corporation is owned by one or more shareholders and is overseen by a board of directors, which hires the business's managerial staff. Corporate models have also been applied to the state sector in the form of government-owned corporations. A corporation may be privately held (for example, a close company - see below) or publicly traded.
 * Hybrid Types: Some countries, like Germany, the United States, and the United Kingdom have created a hybrid type of entity that has characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership. In Germany, it is called a Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (Gmbh), in the United States it is called a Limited Liability Company (LLC), and in the United Kingdom it is called a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP). It is considered a corporate body similar to a corporation but is typically taxed like a partnership.

Close companies
In the United Kingdom, a close or closely held company is defined as a company which is controlled by either a) five or fewer shareholders, and/or b) shareholders who are also directors.

title: Privately held company


text:
User:Stevey7788

 Ongoing projects: WikiVocab — Swadesh lists

Hello, this is ! But you can just call me "Steve". I am a scientist, naturalist, linguist, and Wikipediholic who is eager to document Earth's astounding diversity on Wikipedia as we strive to build the world's largest free online encyclopedia that anyone can edit.

Most of Wikipedia's articles on languages and linguistics were created, expanded, cleaned up, and maintained by me and former admin. We are to languages as is to living species.

I'm expanding and improving Wikipedia whenever I can, and have a variety of interests here. Currently, I am particularly interested in the languages of Southeast Asia and Mesoamerica.

Wikipedia is not just one of the best reference tools ever created — it's a great place where everybody can get together, form a community, and write an online encyclopedia together. Although Wikipedia is a great place on the Internet, it's not 100% perfect. But let the encyclopedia writing go on.

 * Some of Wikipedia's pillars
 * WP:5P4 - includes WP:AGF and more
 * WP:5P5 - We are here to build an encyclopedia, not to enforce petty rules or engage in silly internal politics.

Some of my current tasks on Wikipedia include:
 * The usual task of reading, writing, and rewriting articles. I do mainly the cleanup, grammar fixes, section moving, racist tone check/cleanup, and other work.
 * RC patroling, sometimes new page patroling
 * Creating redirects and disambiguation pages. Currently, I mainly split or merge pages.
 * Patroling the Sandbox -- raking out content, putting headers back, fishing out offensive content, checking for vandalism
 * Dealing with vandals and warning them
 * Welcoming new users and being part of the Kindness Campaign

Anyways, please feel free to edit or improve my page any way you'd like. I'd really be pleased if someone would help re-organize my page for me. :)

 Portal

(Excited about Wikimania 2019 in Sweden? Me too. See you there soon!)

Stats
As of August 2005, my total edits amounted to approximately 4500 edits.
 * End of September 2010 - around 6,000.
 * End of October 2010 - around 7,000.
 * End of December 2010 - around 8,000.
 * End of April 2011 - around 9,000.
 * End of April 2012 - around 10,000.
 * End of September 2012 - around 11,000.
 * End of October 2012 - around 13,000.

I am an early Wikipedian. My first edit was on 07:17 UTC, 13 February 2005. As of 15 October 2005, I was ranked #709 in terms of total number of edits.

May 2019:
 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits: #2404, 34,218 edits

June 2018:
 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits: #2976, 27,322 edits; AP, ECo, Rv
 * List of Wikipedians by article count: #1024, 547 articles; 1,595 total

February 2018:
 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits: #3335. 24,421 edits

December 2017:
 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits: #3514. 23,000 edits

January 2017:
 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits: #3989, 19,283 edits; AP, ECo, Rv
 * List of Wikipedians by article count: #1282, 309 articles

What I've done on Wikipedia
A lot to do, and more to do. All voluntary and often when I'm bored.

Contributions list
Used to be mainly minor edits and tedious work. Due to the images I have uploaded recently, you may see my contributions list clogged up with uploaded images.

Before April 2005, redirects were marked as minor edits.

 * Stevey7788's contributions to Wikipedia
 * Stevey7788's contributions to Wikipedia - BIG LIST
 * Article contributions
 * Sandbox raking
 * All the images I have uploaded

A few examples of the work I've done on Wikipedia
As of now I'm doing lots of work on linguistics and languages.

 * Started:
 * Austro-Tai peoples (archived)
 * Sino-Austronesian languages
 * List of proto-languages
 * Proto-Mon-Khmer language
 * Proto-Tibeto-Burman language (archived)
 * Proto-Hmong-Mien language
 * Proto-Kra language
 * Proto-Hlai language
 * Intercontinental Dictionary Series
 * Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages (archived)
 * Austronesian personal pronouns
 * Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages
 * Writing systems of Southeast Asia
 * Classification of Mixtec dialects
 * List of archaeological sites in Veracruz
 * Linguistic areas of the Americas
 * Huehuetla Tepehua
 * Zhuang customs and culture
 * List of unclassified languages of South America
 * List of unrecognized ethnic groups of Guizhou
 * Yang people
 * List of lesser-known Loloish languages

 * Expanded:
 * List of administrative divisions of Yunnan
 * Languages of China
 * Luocheng Mulao Autonomous County, Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County
 * Hezhou, Ziyuan County, Quanzhou County, Guanyang County, Lingchuan County, Guangxi
 * Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Congjiang County
 * Longlin Various Nationalities Autonomous County
 * Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture
 * Funing County, Yunnan, Guangnan County, Malipo County, Napo County
 * Xinping Yi and Dai Autonomous County
 * Pakanic languages, Palaungic languages
 * Bugan language, Bolyu language (started)
 * Wa language
 * Tai-Kadai languages
 * Kra languages
 * Kam-Sui languages
 * Hlai languages
 * Gelao language
 * Zhuang language
 * Dong people, Sui people, Maonan people, Shan people, Tai peoples
 * Yao people, Phù Lá people, Lahu people, Qixingmin people, Thổ people
 * Demographics of Taiwan
 * Formosan languages
 * Bunun language, Tsou language, Seediq language, Saisiyat language
 * Siraya language, Pazeh language, Rukai language, Atayal language
 * Paiwan language, Puyuma language, Thao language, Kavalan language
 * Proto-Tai language (almost all content)
 * Proto-Austronesian language (almost all content)
 * Malayo-Polynesian languages
 * Malayic languages
 * Chamic languages
 * Philippine languages
 * Central Philippine languages
 * Bikol languages
 * Bikol language
 * Visayan languages
 * Oceanic languages
 * Hmongic languages, Mienic languages
 * Loloish languages
 * List of ethnic groups in Laos
 * Indigenous languages of the Americas
 * Tongva language
 * Mam language
 * Xincan languages, Lencan languages, Jicaquean languages, Paya language
 * Uto-Aztecan languages
 * Kiliwa language
 * Amerind languages
 * Dené-Yeniseian languages
 * Totonacapan (archived)
 * Chinatown, Mexicali

 * Created the following new templates:
 * Template:Formosan languages
 * Template:Bikol languages
 * Template:Visayan languages
 * Template:Tai-Kadai languages
 * Template:Tk-lang-stub
 * Template:Hmong-Mien languages
 * Template:Mesoamerican families
 * Template:Qiangic languages
 * Template:Lolo-Burmese languages
 * Template:Austroasiatic languages
 * Template:Sino-Tibetan branches

 * List of administrative divisions of Yunnan
 * Eshan Yi Autonomous County
 * Fengqing County
 * Changning County, Yunnan
 * Yun County, Yunnan
 * Zhenyuan Yi, Hani and Lahu Autonomous County
 * Jingdong Yi Autonomous County
 * Shuangbai County
 * Yongde County
 * Xiangyun County
 * Mojiang Hani Autonomous County
 * Xinping Yi and Dai Autonomous County
 * Yuanjiang Hani, Yi and Dai Autonomous County
 * Yuanyang County, Yunnan
 * Jinping Miao, Yao, and Dai Autonomous County
 * Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture
 * Luquan Yi and Miao Autonomous County
 * Wuding County
 * Nanjian Yi Autonomous County
 * Shidian County
 * Jinning County

 * Cleaned up:
 * Music of Mexico
 * 50 Cent
 * King and Story
 * Sandro Rosa do Nascimento
 * Santa Rosa, California
 * East Oakland
 * Indigenous languages of the Americas

Redirects are cheap, fun, and easier than votes for deletion!

 * Did a bunch of redirects on:
 * eBay
 * Amazon.com
 * 50 Cent
 * Voodoo
 * McDonald's Corporation
 * Advance fee fraud
 * Zahle
 * Encyclopaedia Britannica
 * Hong Kong
 * The maps
 * Encyclopedia
 * Norteño (gang)
 * California
 * Pope Benedict XVI
 * Igbo mythology
 * Hilary Duff
 * What's up
 * Button mushroom
 * Merged:
 * Norteño (music) and Norteña
 * Advance fee fraud and 419 guestbook spam
 * Gospel of Phillip and Gospel of Philip
 * Sidestroke and Side stroke
 * Spliting/disambiguation:
 * Afa
 * Stuff
 * Air Force One

Other stuff I had done:
 * Massive stub-sorting
 * Patroling the Sandbox
 * Welcoming new users
 * Warning vandals
 * The map project

 * Click here for more.

Stevey7788's map project
The big map project some of you noticed I have launched on Wikipedia:

 * The maps
 * About the maps

Awards

I, FP, in my official capacity as nobody-in-particular, hereby bestow upon you, Stevey7788, the mighty and presigious Atlas Award for your dedicated and ongoing work to ensure that one of Wikipedia's most visible pages — the Sandbox — is sanitary, inoffensive, tidy and welcoming to new Wikipedians.

"The Atlas Award For Raking the Sandbox Clean may be awarded to those who have gone above and beyond the call of duty in fishing disgusting and unwanted items from the Wikipedia sandbox. The Atlas award is named after Charles Atlas and is taken from his 'they kicked sand in my face' advertisement, and is in no way merely a masculine image. It is a symbol of self-empowerment. Charles Atlas was once a self-styled 98-pound weakling, and through his own diligence and effort, became a very succesful businessman and body builder. And his business empire began with the ad that this image is from."

Well done. -- FP 06:44, May 12, 2005 (UTC)

My beginnings on Wikipedia
Even though I wasn't ever welcomed, I was welcoming others later!

As a newbie on Wiki, I was amused when somebody wrote a short autobiography on my user page: All about Steve the Vandal

Stevey7788 on Wiktionary
I am also a very active Wiktionarian. Lexical companions to online encyclopedias can really be quite fun.

 * My user page
 * Contributions on Wiktionary

Toolbox
This is a toolbox containing various resources and links. Please improve and expand it for me if you'd like to — this is not a "no-edit" zone.

Useful links:

 * Utilities
 * Policies and guidelines
 * Vandalism in progress
 * Category:Wikipedia official policy
 * Category:Wikipedia guidelines
 * Kate's tool
 * Wikipedia Signpost

ADMINISTRATORS  • GUIDE • LIST • DISPUTE • VFD • RC • CSD • DEL • BLK • IFD • RFD • VP • CLEAN • NEW • RFA • REF • PNA • MWA • REQ • '''

Current time:

Odds and ends
 Proposed Wikipedia mascot:

 Boxes

title: User:Stevey7788


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Cleo

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was KEEP. Deathphoenix 02:12, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Cleo
Vanity, Delete. Gazpacho 07:18, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment As it stands, it is clearly not notable. However, there is a woman's magazine in Australia with that name which I consider. May also be a disaggregation page. Save my vote on this until later on. Capitalistroadster 07:31, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Cleanup. Article about magazine must be Cleo (magazine), because Cleo is actually cleopatra. Also, miss Cleo is around. Mikkalai 08:14, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm ahead of you both. Rewritten article.  Keep. Uncle G 08:30, 2005 Feb 13 (UTC)
 * Keep as rewritten. Gazpacho 08:59, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Someone is going through Mother's Big Book of Baby Names and they've reached C, apparently. --Wetman 09:02, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Please try a couple of other names, like peter or nick, or sally, and be surprised how far they've actually gone. AFAIK there has already been a debate about first names or list of first names; I don't quite remember. Mikkalai 09:20, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Nah. It really was a vanity article.  Read the original.  Rewriting such personal vanity articles to be about something entirely different and notable can be almost as satisfying as slapping a great big  on top of corporate vanity articles.  Moreover, you just know that if we do delete this, someone else will be along to write another Cleo vanity article sooner or later, or we'll end up with stub duplicates of Miss Cleo because someone omitted the "Miss". And this is no different in kind to Cleopatra, of course. Uncle G 10:01, 2005 Feb 13 (UTC)
 * Keep. Well done Uncle G.Capitalistroadster 10:50, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as disambiguation page. Megan1967 01:16, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. I'm sorry to be a spoil-sport, but the new article is not a proper disambiguation page.   A Cleo disambiguation page is needed when there are several articles (or redirects) on different subjects that might reasonably be titled Cleo.  Usually disambiguation pages are created where there is an article or redirect titled  X, and someone comes along to write an article on a different topic with an equally good claim to the title X.  The solution is to give the title to a disambiguation page which lists the other articles, and to give the various other articles competing for the title a longer title along the lines of X (in Y).   However, that is not the case here.   Few of the listed articles would properly be titled Cleo except for the magazine, which is a red-link, meaning it hasn't been created yet.  Rather than a disambiguation page, the proposed new content for the Cleo article is mostly a List of people whose first name is Cleo and other things somewhat related to the word Cleo.   That isn't a disambiguation page; it is just a list masquerading as a disambiguation page, in this case an especially dumb list.   Furthermore, as a process point, even if it was correct to edit the original article in this way, it seems to me very questionable  to do it before the VfD vote is completed.   This is not the article that was originally written, or even on the topic of the original article, and at least in principle, the article that was submitted to VfD has 5 days to be considered.  If it was OK to change the subject of an article submitted to VfD because it seems to an editor to be vanity, then it would be OK to let administrators simply speedy-delete such articles.  However, there has never been a consensus for allowing administrators to speedy-delete articles for reasons of vanity, however obvious the vanity might seem to the administrators. People voting on VfD should either leave the articles alone until they are deleted; or else clean them up on the subject on which they were originally written. In this case, that subject is the name "Cleo" But they shouldn't switch the subject to something else, even if that is a fake disambiguation page. People can comment in the VfD vote that the title should be used for a disambiguation page, but people should wait until there is a consensus from the VfD process before they mess around with articles that are submitted here. --BM 02:07, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Examples like peter or nick, or sally, or pick your faforite name show that given-name articles do not always abide this. Mikkalai 02:24, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Of those three, only Sally is really a disambiguation page, and only two of the several entries in that list are proper entries for a disambiguation page, meaning links to articles that otherwise would be titled Sally if there weren't competition for that title.  The other entries are miscellaneous Sally-cruft.  Disambiguation pages should be for disambiguation.  As for Peter that is really just a List of famous people named Peter masquerading as a disambiguation page, with a couple of sentences thrown in about the name.  Same thing for Nick.   So my opinion is that those pages are bad examples to be emulating, and arguably should be deleted.  --BM 02:38, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Quite. But these names are the first that came to my mind. Be sure that there are dosens of such. Did you try, say, er... Simon, Thomas... Mikkalai 05:46, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Simon, ditto what I said about Peter.  Thomas, ditto.  These are all just lists of people with that first name masquerading as disambiguation pages.  On this Simon list, there is only one article which might logically be titled Simon, and that is Simon (game).  On the Thomas list, there aren't any.   It seems like we have quite a few of these Lists of people with the first name X articles masquerading as disambiguation pages.  --BM 18:43, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I am not arguing with you. That's exactly what I am pointing at. Something must be done with it. Lists of people whose first name is Tom or Sam seem weird. But since there are lots of such articles, the issue must be discussed at administrative level, to have a common decidion for all such articles, rather than VfD them one by one. Mikkalai 20:44, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Discussion of VFD process moved to Wikipedia talk:Votes for deletion. Uncle G 21:12, 2005 Feb 18 (UTC)
 * Delete. Now finally regarding my vote. I vote to delete because once the apparent vanity is cleaned up, this article's topic is a sub-stub about the name Cleo. I don't think sub-stubs are preferable to red-links. If someone cares to expand the article during the VfD (on the subject of the name Cleo), then I will reconsider my vote.  --BM 01:47, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment It might have been helpful, at the time when the article was transformed, for someone to have provided the original text that was being voted on prior to its transformation. It sometimes can take quite a while to find and retrieve items from the history. Just in case it still is helpful, here it is. Dpbsmith (talk) 21:45, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Cleo, a female name. One of the examples who use this name is Cleo Leong. Her full name is Leong, whom she is a Risk Manangement science student living in Hong Kong.

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Keep as disambiguation page. FYI i just added Cleo (television) to the list. bbx 19:06, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as rewritten. I think name disambiguation articles are entirely valid, if some of the things or people concerned are commonly referred to by just that name.  For example, someone looking for the apostle Peter might reasonably expect to find him under Peter; so might someone looking for Peter Rabbit if they didn't realise that Rabbit functions as his surname as well as his species.  In addition, the history of the name can be encyclopaedic.  I do think that pages like Peter should be limited to those commonly known simply as 'Peter' though; so Peter Green and Peter Jackson have no place there.  On this specific case, Miss Cleo, the women's magazine, the TV series, the physicists' collaboration, and the programming language at least all look like things which people might reasonably expect to be able to look up as simply 'Cleo'. TSP 15:13, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep the disambig, and good save. —Korath (Talk) 02:31, Feb 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as a disambig. Jayjg (talk) 03:11, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Uncle G's version, well done. Gamaliel 21:15, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as rewritten. Good job. Don't have time to research the CLEO advertising awards, maybe someone else will add them... Dpbsmith (talk) 21:39, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Cleo