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Barcelona, Venezuela

Barcelona is the capital of Anzoátegui State, Venezuela, and was founded in 1671. Together with Puerto La Cruz, Lecheria and Guanta, Barcelona forms one of the most important urban areas of Venezuela, with a population of approximately 950,000.

Spanish Colonization
Unlike Puerto La Cruz, which was mostly built in the 20th century, Barcelona has a mish-mash of historical and modern architecture from its several years of growth and development. The settlement of Nueva Barcelona del Cerro Santo (New Barcelona of the Holy Mountain), was originally established by the Spanish conquistador Joan Orpí (a native of Piera, Catalonia in Spain) in 1638. It was later re-founded and populated by governor Sancho Fernández de Angulo two kilometres from the original settlement, and by a small community of Catalan colonists around 1671. Barcelona was one of the provinces under the governmental authority of the New Andalusia Province (Nueva Andalusía, or New Andalusia), and referred to commonly as New Barcelona. One of the remaining buildings of this period is the Museo de Anzoátegui, considered the oldest building in the city.

Many of the historical areas of Barcelona centre its main plazas: Bolivar, Miranda and Boyacá. The Plaza Boyacá was the main settlement in Barcelona, and is fronted by the Iglesia El Carmen (Carmelite Church) and the city's cathedral, the Catedral de San Cristobal (Cathedral of Saint Christopher), built between 1748 and 1773. Today, the cathedral houses the embalmed remains of San Celestino in a glass reliquary in a chapel off the main nave, which dates back to 1744.

By 1761, the territory had been delineated by the population of Pozuelos (to the north), west to the headlands of the River Unare, east to the Guanipa plateau and south to the Orinoco River.

Venezuelan Independence
After forced abdications of the King by Napoleon Bonaparte, the Spanish territories in the Americas began to agitate for autonomy. In Venezuela a series of Junta governments took authority in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand after 19 April 1810, that led to the formation of local juntas. A meeting was convened in the city of Barcelona to proclaim the independence of the province of Barcelona (which included both the district of Barcelona and the province of Cumana), on the 27 April. On 11 July 1810, the Supreme Junta of Caracas included Barcelona Province as one of the provinces that did not recognize the authority of the Spanish government. This led to a civil conflict between those who wanted independence from the Spanish crown and many who still recognized the authority of Spain.

The return of Francisco de Miranda to Venezuela ultimately led to the Declaration of Independence on 5 July 1811, which was quickly followed by a Civil War between those provinces who remained loyal to Spain, and the Cadiz Cortes, and those that sought complete independence. In 1811, during the Venezuelan Independence War, La Casa Fuerte (The House-Fort), a building near the centre of town, located on the Avenida 5 de Julio set the scene for the period. Built on the ruins of the old Convento de San Francisco, to house the administrative government of the area, but turned into a fortification by Republican defenders to protect the city from the attacks of the Spanish authorities. On 17 April 1817, the house was taken and destroyed by royalist forces, who killed all 1600 people barricaded inside.

After the fall of the First Republic, the royalist authorities continued to maintain the limits and structures of the province of Barcelona. But in 1821, it was integrated into the province of Guyana, and along with Cumana and Margarita, it began to function as part of the Department of the Orinoco.

Barcelona's autonomy was re-established in 1830, and became a center during a second round of Independence battles, where important men like General José Antonio Páez headquartered, or after Independence when Antonio Guzmán Blanco spent time.

Geography
Barcelona is located in the state of Anzoátegui along the northern coast of Venezuela, near the foothills of the western cordillera region. Its northern ocean boundary is peppered with many beaches, including Isla de Plata, Conoma, Arapito, Cangrejo, Lecherias and Playa Mansa, which cater to the tourist industry or local populations. Barcelona is the gateway to the Mochima National Park, an area of islands and islets that extends across the northern coast, and was designated a protected national monument.

Its hydrography is dominated by the River Neverí, which crosses the centre of town, and has been known for seasons of floodings caused excess volume. In 1972, the governor Francisco Arreaza Arreaza granted authority for the construction of cities canals to reduce these seasonal fluctuations. Similarly, the River Aragua, which also circle the settlement has been prone to flooding, most recently in 1999 in the area known as El Viñedo.

Climate
Owing to its location in the dry belt of the southern Caribbean Sea, Barcelona has a hot semi-arid climate with a wet season from June to September and a dry season from December to April. A strong rain shadow and jets parallel to the coast from the westerly monsoon winds during summer serves to preclude rainfall.

City
Over time Barcelona reached the status of town and municipal seat within this territory, growing into a historical centre of industry and commerce, causing sprawl that has started to meld the other metro-poles in the region: principally the tourist-oriented

In Barcelona, where the El Morro tourism complex is located. An immense network of canals built to house thousands of local and international tourists in houses, condominiums, apartments and hotels. The complex is home to many marinas and boatyards and is a popular cruising destination for yachtsmen and sport fishing. The canals criss-cross the complex, affording virtually every dwelling access to the sea. One of the most ambitious developments within El Morro is the Maremares Resort and Spa, originally built by Daniel Camejo. Close to El Morro is the modern shopping center Centro Comercial Plaza Mayor, built in the colorful Dutch colonial style, similar to those found in Curaçao.

Transport
Generál José Antonio Anzoátegui International Airport is the principal aerodrome in this region, with connections to Panama, to other Venezuelan states and to the nation's capital, (Caracas). In addition to bus services throughout the State of Anzoátegui, there are also maritime connections to the neighboring islands/islets (such as Las Chimanas, Cachicamo and Borracha) and a ferry to Margarita Island.

Places of interest

The Barcelona Metropolitan Area has a variety of historic sites that tell how was the place at that time. The city of Barcelona is full of historic sites, this is because it has been featured in various battles between the Spanish and Natives for its colonization. Likewise, this city has been characterized as religious and venerates various saints.

Economic activity is also history in Barcelona. There was great economic exchange through sea ports between the city and the rest of the country.

Each of these sites are intact at the time its various monuments, museums and cathedrals, which offers its visitors the most complete information about the history of the place.

Perhaps most important feature of this church is that under the main altar is a reliquary buried with a bone of each of the seven saints: St. Severino, St. Eustatius, St. Facundo, St. Pedro Alcantara, St. Pacific, St. Athanasius, and St. Pascual Bailon.
 * Cathedral of San Cristóbal of Barcelona: the Church of San Cristobal was begun in 1748, but due to an earthquake that left nearly destroyed, it was not until 1773 that the temple was finished.

Later in 1777, the Bishop of Puerto Rico, Manuel Jiménez Pérez, brought him from Rome to the church the remains of the martyr St. Celestino, who was one of the main actors of the Crusades. His remains were placed in a shrine located in Baroque and a small chapel on the left wing of the church.

The martyr St. Celestino has been revered since then by the inhabitants of Barcelona and in 1960 was proclaimed Third patron saint of Barcelona. Their celebrations are held on 3 and 4 May of each year.

 * Casa de la Cultura is a restored colonial house that was donated to the city of Barcelona for the Otero Silva family. On the second floor of the house is a large permanent exhibition of works by modern painters representative of Venezuela, which is owned by the family.
 * Basílica del Cristo de Jose is located on the National Highway of the Coast between Barcelona and Puerto Píritu.

Also known as "El Cristo de los Viajeros', where the faithful come daily that travel to be entrusted to him to protect them in their journey. This Basilica was built by Dr. Mariano Adrián de la Rosa with personal assets in gratitude for favors received.
 * Casa Fuerte de Barcelona: this building was a former Franciscan convent transformed into a fortress by the initiative of General Pedro María Freites and Santiago Mariño.

The Casa Fuerte provided shelter to the people of this area before the invasion in 1817 by royalist Aldana.

The ruins of this building were seen as a reminder of the slaughter of April 7 of 1817, where old men, women and children were murdered by royalist forces.

To reach this historic site has to cross the Neverí river by the Boyacá bridge, and turn on the small plaza at the end of the bridge. After crossing Neverí river again, follow straight on Miranda Avenue, four blocks ahead. Visitors come to the 5 de Julio Avenue where it will turn to the left, there you will see the Plaza Bolivar and Plaza Miranda. The Casa Fuerte is opposite the Plaza Bolivar.

 * Plaza Boyacá: since 1897, the city's central square is the Plaza Boyacá in honor of the most important battle won by the eponymous hero of the state, Major General José Antonio Anzoátegui. His statue stands in the center of the plaza.

This plaza was the largest in Barcelona Colonial and little has changed since its construction in 1671. the Government House and the Iglesia de San Cristóbal are still facing each other on both sides of the plaza.

To get to the Plaza Boyacá, follow by 5 de Julio Avenue, and walk five blocks, turn left on the run 11, walk three blocks and cross over to the left on 3rd Street, one block and cross move left to follow the run 12 to the plaza.
 * Plaza Bolívar: it's a public plaza located on Avenue 5 July in Barcelona. Pays tribute to the maximum military and political leader of the wars of independence of Venezuela, General Simon Bolivar.
 * Plaza Miranda
 * Theater Cajigal: it's a beautiful 19th-century building, built in the Neoclassical style.

This theater is small and charming, has a capacity for 300 people. Here are several plays and concerts.

Gallery Images
It is located in the run 15 Carabobo against Plaza Rolando, Barcelona, Anzoategui state.

 * Tradition Museum: built in 1671, the Museum of the Tradition is one of the oldest houses that the city of Barcelona. This house looks exactly the Venezuelan colonial era, when the house was built.

In the past this house had access to the Neverí River, which served as a dock for boats arriving from the neighboring islands. The Museo de la Tradición consists of more than 400 items, among them the indigenous crafts, sculpture and works of Spanish colonial religious art dating from the 16th century, as well as other historical objects from the city of Barcelona.

 * Plaza de La Raza
 * Royal Bridge of the Spaniards: it's a colonial-style arched bridge made of stone.
 * Antigua Aduana: Customs Corner is just the remnants of what was one of the most important customs houses throughout Venezuela from the colonial era. This historic site in Barcelona was for more than two centuries an important trading port between Los Llanos and the rest of Venezuela.

Currently there are only memories of the intense activity that took Barcelona port at that time and now only occupy extensive mangrove forests all over the place of what was once a customs house in the country.

 * Ruins of San Felipe Neri: the Iglesia de San Felipe Neri was founded by a religious society in 1564 to develop the oratorio as a musical form and to sing the recognized oratorios of the 18th century.

The 1812 earthquake destroyed the church, but soon built a grotto to the Virgin, known as the Gruta de San Felipe and leaving only what is now known as the Ruinas de San Felipe Neri.
 * The Shrine of Nuestra Señora del Carmen: the capital of Anzoategui (Barcelona) is one of the most architecturally rich cities of Venezuela. The best example is the Shrine of Nuestra Señora del Carmen that religious and relics whose forms and make it one of the most prized silver tasit of east.

Neoclassical Line History: the origins of this beautiful Eastern Church dating from the late 18th century a fervent Christian group of locals founded the Confraternity of Our Lady of Carmen. The purpose of the devotees of Carmen was devoted to the task of expanding the faith of the Virgin Mary and seek alms to build a shrine which was subsequently lifted slowly on land that donated Doña Felipa Chirinos.

The Shrine of Our Lady of Carmen had many setbacks during construction. The effects of the war of independence, the conflict between conservatives and liberals, the federal war and continuous revolutions of the 19th century led to the guild did not have enough money to finish quickly the temple which was stopped on several occasions.

After nearly two centuries of construction work the Shrine of Our Lady of Carmen was officially opened in 1896. The governor of Great State of Bermúdez (current Anzoátegui, Sucre and Monagas), General Nicolás Rolando, hired the architect Ramón Irigoyen to complete the work. Previously the bishop of the Diocese of Guiana and Eastern highest ecclesiastical authority, Bishop Manuel Felipe Rodríguez allowed the priest Federico Mendoza officiated the first Mass of the shrine, on July 31 of 1887, but concluded there were still part of the main facade of neoclassical lines, the two towers, the installation of fine black and white marble floor brought the famous Italian quarry of Carrara and finally the valuable stained glass of Italian origin, which are among the most striking of Venezuela.

 * Bolívar Bridge
 * Naricual Hot Springs: this tourist landscape is located in the kilometer 12 of the Barcelona-San Mateo Road. They are near the same village in the Bolívar municipality, at southeast of Barcelona.

The waters have a high content of iron and soda, its color is whitish due to large portions of silt in suspension. The temperature ranges between 40 and 50 °C.

In this beautiful place, the water comes from a rock and form a pool of 15 meters in diameter.

 * Chimana holiday resorts: the Chimana spa is a beautiful zone of coastal high, with coarse sand beaches. Its waters are crystal clear and shallow, the vegetation is xerophytic.

It is located about 45 minutes from Port Pamata Cualito. In this place is the island Chimana holiday resorts, which offers restaurant services, among others, to make visitors' stay as pleasant as possible.

 * Bergantín Resorts: this spa is located in a beautiful forest flivial landscape with clear water from the mountains.

Here tourists can enjoy service kiosks, restrooms, tennis Boccia, food, among others.

This heavenly place is situated in the town of Bergantín some 64 kilometers southeast of Puerto La Cruz.

 * Neverí River: born northwest of Caserío Las Culatas in Sucre state and formed at north of Cerro Tristeza (Parish Libertador of the Pedro María Freites Municipality, which is at an altitude of 2,280 meters above sea level in the Serranía de Turimiquire), "in line at the Eastern Massif, about 2,200 meters altitude".

Its course: take westbound from above leads to populations El Rincón, San Diego and Aragüita from there defines its bottom. From River receives water Macuaral Naricual and The Old Man and the streams Avocados, the still, Coricual, El Chamo, Chuponal, Higuerote, La Palma, Beijing, Peña Blanca, vicar, Seca, El Tigre, and so on.

It empties into the Caribbean Sea at the geographical coordinates 10° 10 '30 "North Latitude and 64° 43' 30" West Longitude. Its approximate distance is 103 kilometers.

Education
The city is home to numerous educational institutions, among which the following stand out:

 * Universidad de Oriente – Núcleo Anzoátegui, UDO. This is the main house of studies in the area and one of the most recognized nationally; it is located on Avenida Argimiro Gabaldón, at the height of the Pozuelos sector.
 * National University of Tourism – Main Campus
 * University Institute of Technology "General Pedro María Freites"
 * Universidad Central de Venezuela, UCV – Centro Regional Barcelona, one of the most popular, located on Avenida Centurión in Nueva Barcelona
 * Universidad Nacional Experimental Simón Rodríguez, UNESR, one of the most recognized. Is located on Avenida Caracas, diagonal to Plaza La Raza, and is currently building a new campus on Avenida Costanera.
 * National Open University, UNA
 * Universidad Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho, UGMA – Main Campus
 * Universidad Santa María, USM – Eastern Campus
 * Instituto Universitario Politécnico Santiago Mariño, IUPSM – Main Campus

Basketball
The city is also home to the professional basketball team Marinos de Anzoátegui (formerly Marinos de Oriente) 11 times champion of the Venezuelan Professional Basketball League. They play at the Polideportivo Simón Bolívar (formerly Polideportivo Luis Ramos) better known as La Caldera del Diablo which has a capacity for 5,500 spectators.

Soccer
The city has the José Antonio Anzoátegui Stadium with a capacity for 40,000 fans, venue of the 2007 Copa América where matches were played by teams from Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Ecuador. It also hosted the 2009 South American U-20 Championship, where Venezuela qualified for its first World Cup in this same stadium. This stadium is also the home of the state's soccer team: Deportivo Anzoátegui, whose first team participates in the First Division of Venezuela.

International relations
Barcelona is twinned with the following cities:

 * Coimbra, Portugal
 * 🇪🇸 Barcelona, Spain
 * 🇦🇷 Buenos Aires, Argentina

Notable people

 * Ángel Mottola
 * Jacob Baiz
 * Cayaurima
 * Cumanagoto
 * Diego Bautista Urbaneja
 * Eulalia Ramos Sánchez de Chamberlain (Eulalia Buroz)
 * Joan Orpí i del Pou
 * José Antonio Anzoátegui
 * Juan Manuel Cajigal
 * Eulalia Ramos
 * Miguel Otero Silva
 * Pedro María Freites
 * Ryan Vasquez, Singer, songwriter and Municipal Advisor for cultural policies in Humaitá, Amazonas
 * Willians Astudillo, baseball player for the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks
 * Víctor Reyes, baseball player for the Detroit Tigers

title: Barcelona, Venezuela


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Five Alive

Five Alive (Déli-cinq) is a line of fruit juice blends created by Minute Maid, a subsidiary of The Coca-Cola Company. Both the name and the five colors of the logo refer to the five fruit juices each variety contains.

The juice line was first introduced in the late 1970s in both 12 USoz and 16 USoz cans. Marketing for Five Alive featured the slant rhyme catchphrase “get a taste for life”.

Starting in 1981, Five Alive was released in traditional juice box cartons alongside cans. By the 1990s, the beverages were no longer produced for the U.S. market. Five Alive continues limited production in Canada.

Varieties

 * Citrus (orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangerine, and lime)
 * Passionate Peach Citrus (peach, grape, orange, passion fruit, and lemon)
 * Tropical Citrus (orange, apricot, guava, mango, and passion fruit)
 * Berry Citrus (apple, blackcurrant, grape, raspberry, and strawberry)
 * Mango Citrus (mango, kiwifruit, dragon fruit, granadilla, and banana)
 * Pomegranate Citrus (grape, orange, pomegranate, tangerine, and lemon)
 * Snow Crop (apple, grape, lemon, pineapple, and cherry)

Nutritional information
Five Alive is not a significant source of saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, fiber, vitamin A, calcium, or iron.

The Nutrition Facts label on the Canadian 341 mL ready-to-serve can of Five Alive claims the beverage contains 140% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C. Five Alive contains 110 calories and 27 grams of sugar per 240 mL.

U.S. Five Alive labels list 41% fruit juice, with high-fructose corn syrup as an ingredient after filtered water.

In the United Kingdom, quantitative ingredient labeling is mandatory; U.K. labels show that Five Alive contains 42% fruit juice, as well as 22% sugar and several artificial sweeteners.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Five Alive


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Nativitas metro station

Nativitas is a station on Line 2 of the Mexico City Metro system. It is located in the Colonia Nativitas and Colonia Lago neighborhoods of Benito Juárez borough of Mexico City, directly south of the city centre on Calzada de Tlalpan. It is a surface station.

General information
The station logo depicts a trajinera – a type of small punt-style boat, still used today in the canals of Xochimilco. The name Nativitas refers to a lake that formerly existed here, on which the inhabitants farmed on a network of artificial islands known as chinampas. The name later referred to a small villa built in the outskirts of Mexico City during the first half of the 20th century. The station opened on 1 August 1970.

Exits

 * East: Calzada de Tlalpan between Justina street and Don Luis street, Nativitas
 * West: Calzada de Tlalpan and Lago Poniente street, Colonia Lago

title: Nativitas metro station


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Georgia Train and Equip Program

The Georgia Train and Equip Program (GTEP) was an American-sponsored 18-month, $64-million program aimed at increasing the capabilities of the Georgian armed forces by training and equipping four 600-man battalions with light weapons, vehicles and communications. The program enabled the US to expedite funding for the Georgian military for Operation Enduring Freedom.

On 27 February 2002, the US media reported that the U.S. would send approximately two hundred United States Army Special Forces soldiers to Georgia to train Georgian troops. The program implemented President Bush's decision to respond to the Government of Georgia's request for assistance to enhance its counter-terrorism capabilities and addressed the situation in the Pankisi Gorge. The program was planned to be a 20-month long, $64 million effort.

The move drew protests from many Russians. On 1 March 2002, in response to the domestic outcry, Russian president Vladimir Putin met with Georgian president Eduard Shevardnadze in Kazakhstan and pledged his support for the American military initiative.

The program began in May 2002 when American special forces soldiers of the 10th Special Forces Group began training select units of the Georgian Armed Forces, including the 12th Commando Light Infantry Battalion, the 16th Mountain-Infantry Battalion, the 13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion, the 11th Light Infantry Battalion, a mechanized company, and small numbers of Interior Ministry troops and border guards. The goal of the program was to boost the proficiency of Georgia's security forces in areas including border security, anti-terrorism, disaster response.

Responsibility for training Georgian forces was eventually handed off to the U.S. Marine Corps in conjunction with the British Army. British and American teams worked as part of a joint effort to train each of the four infantry battalion staffs and their organic rifle companies. This training began with the individual soldier and continued through fire team, squad, platoon, company, and battalion level tactics as well as staff planning and organization. Upon completing training, each of the new Georgian infantry battalions began preparing for deployment rotations in support of the Global War on Terrorism. As part of the program Georgian troops were issued new uniforms, boots, weapons, and other articles of equipment.

Although GTEP formally ended in April 2004, US military assistance to Georgia continued through the Georgia Sustainment and Stability Operations Program. Part of this program involved preparing Georgian units for operations in US-led Multinational Force Iraq. That program ended in September 2007.

title: Georgia Train and Equip Program


text: Category:Geography of Singapore

title: Category:Geography of Singapore


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GTEP

GTEP may refer to:

 * Georgia Train and Equip Program, a military program in Georgia
 * Grand Technion Energy Program, an education center in Israel

title: GTEP


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Richard Miles (diplomat)

Richard Monroe Miles (born January 8, 1937) is an American diplomat.

Life
Richard Miles was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, on January 8, 1937. He grew up in rural and small-town Indiana. After serving in the Marine Corps from 1954 to 1957, he obtained degrees from Bakersfield College, the University of California at Berkeley and Indiana University. He is also a graduate of the U.S. Army Russian Institute, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.

Miles worked for the South Carolina Voter Education Project from 1964 to 1967 in the field of voter registration and political leadership training.

Foreign service career
He entered the Foreign Service in 1967 and served abroad in Oslo, Belgrade, Moscow, and as Consul General in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg), and as Principal Officer of the U.S. Embassy Office in Berlin.

Miles served as Ambassador to Azerbaijan from 1992 to 1993, as Chief of Mission to Serbia-Montenegro from 1996 to 1999, as Ambassador to Bulgaria from 1999 to 2002 and as Ambassador to Georgia from 2002 to 2005.

In the State Department, he also worked in the Office for Soviet Affairs and the Office for East European and Yugoslav Affairs and in the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs.

Ambassador Miles worked for Senator Ernest F. Hollings (D-SC) on an American Political Science Fellowship in 1983-1984, and in 1987-1988 he was a fellow at Harvard University's Center for International Affairs.

Miles retired from the State Department in August 2005. From April 2006 until December 2006, he served as Executive Director of the Open World Leadership Center headquartered in the Library of Congress. In November 2008, Ambassador Miles was recalled to active duty to serve as Charge of the American Embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. He returned to Washington, DC, and retirement in September 2009. In February 2015, he was asked to go to Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan to serve as Charge of the American Embassy there. He returned to Washington and retirement in September 2015.

Miles has been awarded the State Department's Meritorious Honor Award and Group Superior Honor Award (twice). In 1992, he was awarded a Presidential Meritorious Service Award and a national award for reporting. In 2004, he was the recipient of the State Department's Robert C. Frasure Award for peaceful conflict resolution.

title: Richard Miles (diplomat)


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Enigma (Vertigo)

Enigma is an American comic book series written by Peter Milligan, with art by Duncan Fegredo, featuring a superhero named "The Enigma". It was published as an eight-issue limited series as part of the launch of Vertigo, an imprint of DC Comics, in 1993.

Publication history
Enigma was originally spearheaded by Vertigo editor Art Young. DC had recently acquired the characters from Charlton Comics, including Peter Cannon. Young was inspired by the description of Peter Cannon as the smartest man in the world. He reached out to Peter Milligan, who was working on comics like Shade the Changing Man with Vertigo, to create a pitch based on the character. Young, who is a gay man, wanted to introduce gay characters in Vertigo comics. When he was given the opportunity to lead the development of Enigma, he introduced the idea of making the character of Michael Smith gay. Young originally aimed to publish Enigma under his planned adult imprint with Disney Comics, Touchmark, but after Touchmark failed to materialize, he brought the pitch to Vertigo.

Young had worked with Duncan Fegredo on Kid Eternity and reached out to him to collaborate with Milligan on Enigma. Enigma was one of Fegredo's earliest projects and the first of several collaborations with Milligan. Fegredo would later work with Milligan on the Vertigo comics Face, Girl, and Shade the Changing Man.

Plot
Michael Smith is a telephone repairman in his late 20s who lives with his girlfriend in Pacific City, California. His father was killed in an earthquake that buried his childhood home, and he was abandoned by his mother soon after. His rigidly organized life is disrupted when he sees a lizard that seems to be floating down the street. After following the lizard, he happens upon a deformed monster called the Head. The Head attacks Michael, but before it can kill him, Michael is saved by a mysterious superhero. He recognizes the superhero as the Enigma, a fictional character from a short-run comic series that he loved as a child.

Michael's revelation about the superhero inspires him to abandon his structured life and travel to Arizona, where he meets up with Titus Bird, the man who wrote The Enigma comic series. Michael convinces Titus to follow him to Pacific City, which is being terrorized by the sudden appearance of supervillains. All of the supervillains were transformed from ordinary and seemingly unconnected people, and all are targets of the Enigma. In hopes of finding answers, Michael and Titus track down a relative of Roger Cliff, the man who originally morphed into the Head. They discover that Roger once took a lizard from a murder site in Arizona where a woman shot her husband. After returning home, Michael encounters the supervillain Envelope Girl, who forcibly teleports him to the farm in Arizona where the murder occurred years ago. He speaks with a relative of the murder victim, who tells him that the farm was exorcised due to a series of strange occurrences, including floating lizards.

After making his way back to Pacific City again, Michael realizes that he recognizes the motifs of several of the supervillains from the decor of his childhood home. He travels to his buried home and finds the Enigma living in the ruins. Enigma explains that he was born on the farm in Arizona that Michael visited and that he has the power to manipulate anything in his surroundings with his mind. As a baby, he inadvertently used his powers to mutilate his father, causing his mother to kill her husband in panic and abandon her son in a well. The Enigma grew up in the well until the exorcists who arrived at the farm set him free. After hearing the Enigma's story, Michael confesses that he has recently been struggling with his sexuality and a newfound attraction to men. He ends up sleeping with the Enigma.

Michael and Enigma visit Titus at the hospital, where he has been confined after an accident. The three of them are attacked by a new monster, who Enigma admits is his mother. He confesses that after he left the well, he was unable to cope with the lack of rigid limitations governing his life. He happened upon Michael's childhood home and his buried belongings, including the old Enigma comics that Titus wrote. Driven by a desire for purpose in his life, he decided to transform himself into the superhero Enigma. While using his mental powers to warp ordinary people into the supervillains from the comics, the Enigma accidentally warped his mother as well, creating an entity determined to destroy him. In the hopes of becoming more human and thus receiving some mercy from his mother, he manipulated Michael into falling for him so that he could experience compassion and love. Though Michael is initially horrified by this revelation, he finally declares that he is happy as a gay man and affirms his love for Enigma. The story ends on an open note, with Michael, Titus, and the Enigma joining hands and waiting as Enigma's mother approaches.

Reception
Steve Faragher reviewed the Enigma graphic novel for Arcane magazine, rating it a 6 out of 10 overall. Faragher comments that "this graphic novel features a deliberately bizarre mish-mash of styles and reminds me of avant-garde Italian literature that I was forced to read at university. It turns the genre on its head, attempts to explore the relationship between author and reader within the context of the story and challenges many of our preconceptions about the relationships we have with our heroes". A 2007 review by Comic Book Resources praised the series for the handling of its subject matter.

Collected editions
The series was collected into a trade paperback. A new edition of Enigma was released in 2015. A deluxe hardcover version of the comic, titled Enigma: The Definitive Edition, was published under Dark Horse Comics' Berger Books imprint in 2021, including exclusive development art from Fegredo.

title: Enigma (Vertigo)


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HMS Trafalgar (1887)

HMS Trafalgar was one of two Trafalgar-class battleships commissioned in 1890 and 1891, the other being HMS Nile (1888). The ship was designed as an improved version of existing battleships with greater displacement and a thicker armoured belt amidships. Trafalgar saw active service as a battleship from 1890 to 1897 and from 1909 to 1911 when she was sold. Between these two periods as a combatant, Trafalgar served as a guardship and as a drill ship.

Design
The two ships were designed to be improved versions of the Admiral-class battleship and Victoria-class battleship classes, having a greater displacement to allow for improved protection. However, they sacrificed a full armoured belt for greater thickness amidships in a partial belt.

As originally designed, Trafalgar was to have displaced 11,940 tons, and carried a secondary armament of ten guns of 5 in calibre, disposed in the broadside battery. Changes made during construction however, led to an increase in displacement to 12,590 tons; this led to the ships draught being increased by 12 in from the initial design, and 18 in with full bunkers. This in turn led to the main belt being immersed to a deeper level than had been intended, with a potential decrease in defensive effect in combat.

In October 1896 the secondary battery of 4.7 in guns was replaced by a more powerful battery of six 6 in quick firers.

The main artillery, while situated at a militarily effective height of 14 ft above sea level, were only 42 in above the deck. It was thought possible that firing along the keel line might cause structural damage; tests requested by the Chief Constructor, however, showed the potential damage to be minimal.

As compared to HMS Sans Pareil (1887), Trafalgar's under-water hull form was finer, with a larger rudder. Together with the reduced freeboard as compared to earlier ships, this had a significantly adverse effect on her handling; as she spent her active service in relatively calm water in the Mediterranean, however, this defect was of minimal importance.

Service history
Trafalgar was completed, except for her main armament, in only three years and three months. The delay in the production of her guns meant that she was not commissioned, as second flagship Mediterranean Fleet until 2 April 1890. She served in this position until October 1897, when she paid off at Portsmouth. She was recommissioned, and stayed there as guardship until August 1902, taking part in the fleet review held at Spithead on 16 August 1902 for the coronation of King Edward VII. Captain George Anson Primrose was appointed in command in December 1899. She remained thereafter in reserve until 1907, when she went to Sheerness to serve as a drill ship for crews of turrets and of submerged torpedo tubes. In April 1909 she reverted to active service with the fourth division of the Home Fleet, based at the Nore. She was sold on 9 March 1911.

title: HMS Trafalgar (1887)


text: User talk:69.244.67.75

title: User talk:69.244.67.75


text:
User talk:Voxexmachina

Greatest Paintings
Hi there - Welcome to Wikiland! Brookie here - couldn't see the article your were referring to on the Village Pump - was the article name slightly different? Brookie 08:09, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * yes thanks! Brookie 07:13, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Voxexmachina


text:
List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft

Microsoft is an American public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions. Established on April 4, 1975 to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800, Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems. Microsoft would also come to dominate the office suite market with Microsoft Office. The company has diversified in recent years into the video game industry with the Xbox, the Xbox 360, the Xbox One, and the Xbox Series X as well as into the consumer electronics and digital services market with Zune, MSN and the Windows Phone OS.

The company's initial public offering was held on March 14, 1986. The stock, which eventually closed at $27.75 a share, peaked at $29.25 a share shortly after the market opened for trading. After the offering, Microsoft had a market capitalization of $519.777 million. Microsoft has subsequently acquired over 225 companies, purchased stakes in 64 companies, and made 25 divestments. Of the companies that Microsoft has acquired, 107 were based in the United States. Microsoft has not released financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions.

Since Microsoft's first acquisition in 1986, it has purchased an average of six companies a year. The company purchased more than ten companies a year between 2005 and 2008, and it acquired 18 firms in 2006, the most in a single year, including Onfolio, Lionhead Studios, Massive Incorporated, ProClarity, Winternals Software, and Colloquis. Microsoft has made fourteen acquisitions worth over one billion dollars: Skype (2011), aQuantive (2007), Fast Search & Transfer (2008), Navision (2002), Visio Corporation (2000), Yammer (2012), Nokia's mobile and devices division (2013), Mojang (2014), LinkedIn (2016), GitHub (2018), Affirmed Networks (2020), ZeniMax Media (2020), Nuance Communications (2021), and Activision Blizzard (2022).

Microsoft has also purchased several stakes valued at more than a billion dollars. It obtained an 11.5% stake in Comcast for $1 billion, a 22.98% stake in Telewest for $2.263 billion, and a 3% stake in AT&T for $5 billion. Among Microsoft's divestments, in which parts of the company are sold to another company, only Expedia Group was sold for more than a billion dollars; USA Networks purchased the company on February 5, 2002, for $1.372 billion (~$ in ).

Key acquisitions
One of Microsoft's first acquisitions was Forethought on July 30, 1987. Forethought was founded in 1983 and developed a presentation program that would later be known as Microsoft PowerPoint.

On December 31, 1997, Microsoft acquired Hotmail.com for $500 million (~$ in ), its largest acquisition at the time, and integrated Hotmail into its MSN group of services. Hotmail, a free webmail service founded in 1996 by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia, had more than 8.5 million subscribers earlier that month.

In 1999, Microsoft reportedly discussed a buyout of Nintendo. However, execs failed to negotiate a deal, with Xbox co-inventor Kevin Bachus explaining "They just laughed their asses off."

Microsoft acquired Seattle-based Visio Corporation on January 7, 2000, for $1.375 billion (~$ in ). Visio, a software company, was founded in 1990 as Axon Corporation, and had its initial public offering in November 1995. The company developed the diagramming application software, Visio, which was integrated into Microsoft's product line as Microsoft Visio after its acquisition.

On July 12, 2002, Microsoft purchased Navision for $1.33 billion (~$ in ). The company, which developed the technology for the Microsoft Dynamics NAV enterprise resource planning software, was integrated into Microsoft as a new division named Microsoft Business Solutions, later renamed to Microsoft Dynamics.

Microsoft purchased aQuantive, an advertising company, on August 13, 2007, for $6.333 billion (~$ in ). Before the acquisition, aQuantive was ranked 14th in terms of revenue among advertising agencies worldwide. aQuantive had three subsidiaries at the time of the acquisition: Avenue A/Razorfish, one of the world's largest digital agencies, Atlas Solutions, and DRIVE Performance Solutions.

Microsoft acquired the Norwegian enterprise search company Fast Search & Transfer on April 25, 2008, for $1.191 billion (~$ in ) to boost its search technology.

On May 10, 2011, Microsoft announced its acquisition of Skype Technologies, creator of the VoIP service Skype, for $8.5 billion (~$ in ). With a value 32 times larger than Skype's operating profits, the deal was Microsoft's largest acquisition at the time. Skype would become a division within Microsoft, with Skype's former CEO Tony Bates —then the division's first president —reporting to the CEO of Microsoft.

On September 2, 2013, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire the mobile hardware division of Nokia (which had established a long-term partnership with Microsoft to produce smartphones built off its Windows Phone platform) in a deal worth 3.79 billion euros, along with another 1.65 billion to license Nokia's portfolio of patents. Steve Ballmer considered the purchase to be a "bold step into the future" for both companies, primarily as a result of its recent collaborations. The acquisition, scheduled to close in early 2014 pending regulatory approval, did not include the Here mapping service or the infrastructure division Nokia Solutions and Networks, which will be retained by Nokia. While the deal went through, in May 2016 Microsoft abandoned its mobile business and sold the Nokia feature phone line.

In September 2014, Microsoft purchased Mojang for $2.5 billion (~$ in ).

On June 13, 2016, Microsoft announced it planned to acquire the professional networking site LinkedIn for $26.2 billion, to be completed by the end of 2016. The acquisition would keep LinkedIn as a distinct brand and retain its current CEO, Jeff Weiner, who will subsequently report to Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella. The acquisition was completed on December 8, 2016.

On June 4, 2018, Microsoft acquired the popular code repository site GitHub for $7.5 billion (~$ in ) in Microsoft stock.

On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire ZeniMax Media and all its subsidiaries for $7.5 billion (~$ in ). The acquisition was completed on March 9, 2021.

On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard, an American video game holding company, for $68.7 billion in cash. The deal has been approved by both companies' board of directors and was finalized on October 13, 2023, with the total cost of the acquisition amounting to $75.4 billion, following international government regulatory review of the action.


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Ketevan the Martyr

Ketevan the Martyr (ქეთევან წამებული) (c. 1560 – September 13, 1624) was a queen consort of Kakheti, a kingdom in eastern Georgia. She was regent of Kakheti during the minority of her son Teimuraz I of Kakheti from 1605 to 1614. She was killed at Shiraz, Iran, after prolonged tortures by the Safavid suzerains of Kakheti for refusing to give up the Christian faith and convert to Islam. She has been canonized as a saint by the Georgian Orthodox Church.

Life
Ketevan was born to Prince Ashotan of Mukhrani (Bagrationi) and married Prince David of Kakheti, the future David I, king of Kakheti from 1601 to 1602.

After David's death, she engaged in religious building and charity. However, when David's brother Constantine I killed his reigning father, Alexander II, and usurped the crown with the Safavid Iranian support in 1605, Ketevan rallied the Kakhetian nobles against the patricide and routed Constantine's loyal force. The usurper died in battle. According to the Safavid official and chronicler, Fażli Ḵuzāni, Ketevan showed characteristic mercy to Constantine's surviving supporters and his Qizilbash officers. She ordered that the wounded enemy soldiers be treated accordingly and accepted in service if they desired. The Muslim merchants, who suffered in the war, were compensated and set free. Ketevan had Constantine's body laid in rest and sent to Ardebil.

After the uprising she negotiated with Shah Abbas I of Iran who was the suzerain over Georgia, to confirm her underage son, Teimuraz I, as king of Kakheti, while she assumed the function of a regent.

In 1614, sent by Teimuraz as a negotiator to Shah Abbas, Ketevan effectively surrendered herself as an honorary hostage in a failed attempt to prevent Kakheti from being attacked by the Iranian armies. She was held in Shiraz for several years until Abbas I, in an act of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz, ordered the queen to renounce Christianity, and upon her refusal, had her tortured to death with red-hot pincers in 1624.

Portions of her relics were clandestinely taken by the St. Augustine Portuguese Catholic missioners, eyewitnesses of her martyrdom, to Georgia, where they were interred at the Alaverdi Monastery. The rest of her remains were said to have been buried at the Church of St. Augustine in Goa, India. After several expeditions to Goa in the 21st century to search for the remains, they were believed to be found in late 2013.

Sainthood
Queen Ketevan was canonized by Patriarch Zachary of Georgia (1613–1630), and September 13 (corresponding to September 26 in the modern Gregorian calendar) was instituted by the Georgian Orthodox Church as the day of her commemoration.

The account of Ketevan's martyrdom related by the Augustinians missioners was exploited by her son, Teimuraz, in his poem The Book and Passion of Queen Ketevan (წიგნი და წამება ქეთევან დედოფლისა, ts'igni da ts'ameba ketevan dedoplisa; 1625) as well as by the German author Andreas Gryphius in his classical tragedy Catharina von Georgien (1657). The Georgian monk Grigol Dodorkeli-Vakhvakhishvili of the David Gareja Monastery was another near-contemporaneous author whose writings, a hagiographic work as well as several hymns, focus on Ketevan's life and martyrdom. The Scottish poet William Forsyth composed the poem The Martyrdom of Kelavane (1861), based on Jean Chardin's account of Ketevan's death.

Portugal
In 2008, it was discovered that Graça Convent in Lisbon, Portugal contained a previously unknown, large panoramic azulejo depicting Queen Ketavan's martyrdom in Persia. The scenes were based on accounts of her martyrdom by Portuguese Augustinian missionaries who witnessed her death. Panoramic tilework was in a state of disrepair and Georgia offered thousands of euros for repairs.

In 2017, a full replica of the Portuguese depiction of Ketevan's martyrdom was unveiled in Georgia and displayed at Château Mukhrani.

In October 2017, President of Georgia Giorgi Margvelashvili visited Queen Ketevan's mural at the Graça Convent during his official trip to Portugal. Restoration works continued and an agreement was signed between the convent and the National Agency of Cultural Heritage Preservation of the Ministry of Culture of Georgia.

India (Goa)
The importance of Queen Ketevan for the Georgian people has led to a relic "hunt" during the last decades, notably in Goa. Since 1989, various delegations coming from Georgia have worked together with the Archaeological Survey of India to try to locate Ketevan's grave within the ruins of the Augustinian convent of Our Lady of Grace, at Old Goa, Goa. These efforts were thwarted because the teams were unable to correctly interpret the Portuguese documents that provided clues as to Ketevan's burial place.

These historical sources stated that Ketevan's palm and arm bone fragments were kept inside a stone urn beneath a specific window within the Chapter Chapel of the Augustinian convent. In May 2004, the Chapter Chapel and window mentioned in the sources were found during a collaboration work between Portuguese and Overseas Citizen of India architect Sidh Losa Mendiratta and the Archaeological Survey of India, Goa-circle (at the time when Nizammudin Taher was superintendent archaeologist). Although the stone urn itself was missing, its coping stone and a number of bone fragments were found close to the window mentioned in the Portuguese sources.

The CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India and Estonian Biocentre Estonia carried out ancient DNA analysis on these human bone remains excavated from the St. Augustine convent by sequencing and genotyping of the mitochondrial DNA. The investigations of the remains revealed an unusual mtDNA haplogroup U1b, which is absent in India, but present in Georgia and surrounding regions. Since the genetic analysis corroborates archaeological and literary evidence, it is likely that the excavated bone belongs to Queen Ketevan of Georgia. However, it is important to keep in mind that Ketevan's palm and arm bone fragments were kept in the same urn as the complete remains of two European missionaries, friar Jerónimo da Cruz and friar Guilherme de Santo Agostinho. Therefore, it would be crucial to determine the sex and the kind of bone of the fragments tested in order to have conclusive results. According to a story in India's Mint on Sunday newspaper, "additional tests confirmed that the U1b bone came from a woman. So, in 2013, it was established that the bone found in two pieces in 2005 was consistent with being from a Georgian woman".

In 2017, celebrating twenty-five years of diplomatic relations between India and Georgia, the relics were sent to Georgia for a period of six months during which both religious and scientific events were staged.

The Indian government has offered some parts of the holy relics of Goa to Georgia. On July 9, 2021, the relics were handed over to the Georgian government and to Catholicos-Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia by Indian Foreign Minister S. Jaishankar.

title: Ketevan the Martyr


text:
Portales metro station

Portales is a station on Line 2 of the Mexico City Metro system. It is located in the Colonia Albert and Colonia Portales neighborhoods of the Benito Juárez borough of Mexico City, directly south of the city centre in the median of Calzada de Tlalpan. It is a surface station.

General information
The station logo depicts an architectural portal. In the early 20th century there were many ranches in the surrounding zone, which were later divided up by Emiliano Zapata as part of his land redistribution plans. The area later became famous for the manufacture of bricks for the construction area. The station opened on 1 August 1970.

Portales provides a transfer to trolleybus Line "D", which runs between Metro Mixcoac and the San Andrés Tetepilco neighbourhood.

Exits

 * East: Calzada de Tlalpan between Av. Victor Hugo and Hamburgo street, Colonia Albert
 * West: Calzada de Tlalpan between Av. Victor Hugo and Calzada Santa Cruz, Colonia Portales

title: Portales metro station


text: Template:Victoria class battleship

title: Template:Victoria class battleship


text:
1993 in games

This page lists board and card games, wargames, miniatures games, and tabletop role-playing games published in 1993. For video games, see 1993 in video gaming.

Games released or invented in 1993
• Amazing Engine (role-playing game)

• Carat

• Cartoon Game

• Cybergeneration (role-playing game)

• Dirty Money (game)

• DragonStrike

• Earthdawn (role-playing game)

• Forgotten Futures (role-playing game)

• Hacker II: The Dark Side

• Mage: The Ascension (role-playing game)

• Magic: The Gathering

• Pandemonium (role-playing game)

• Prime Directive (role-playing game)

• Risus: The Anything RPG (role-playing game system)

• SLA Industries (role-playing game)

• Star Riders (role-playing game)

• Uncle Happy's Train Game

• Underground (role-playing game)

• We the People (board wargame)

Game awards given in 1993

 * Spiel des Jahres: Call My Bluff
 * Deutscher Spiele Preis: Modern Art
 * Best Children's Game: Verflixt Gemixt
 * Games: Inklings

Significant games-related events in 1993

 * Magic: The Gathering released by Wizards of the Coast, to become the first popular collectible card game.
 * Alderac Entertainment Group founded.

title: 1993 in games


text:
Epiphany Monastery

The Epiphany Monastery (Богоявленский монастырь, Bogoyavlensky monastyr; better translated as "Theophany Monastery") is the oldest male monastery in Moscow, situated in the Kitai gorod, just one block away from the Moscow Kremlin.

According to a legend, it was founded by Daniel, the first prince of Moscow, around 1296. It is also believed that a would-be metropolitan Alexis was one of the monks at this monastery. Stefan, Sergii Radonezhski's older brother, was the first recorded hegumen of this cloister.

The first stone church at the Bogoyavlensky monastery was founded in 1342. In 1382, the monastery was sacked by Tokhtamysh's horde. In 1427, it suffered an outbreak of pestilence. The monastery also survived numerous fires, the most important being recorded in 1547, 1551, 1687 and 1737.

The Epiphany monastery has always been under the patronage of grand princes and tsars. By the order of Ivan the Terrible, the monastery became a collection facility for metayage, quitrent, and fodder. In 1584, the tsar donated a substantial amount of money for the remembrance of the disgraced. In 1632, the Epiphany monastery was granted an exclusive right for tax free floating of a certain amount of building materials and firewood. The monastery had its own stables, forge and rented out its own facilities.

Vasili III, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, the Romodanovsky boyars, Xenia Repnina, and others donated some of their sizeable estates to the monastery. In 1680-1687, the Epiphany monastery was home to a school of the Likhud brothers, which would later be transferred to the Zaikonospassky monastery and transformed into the famous Slavic Greek Latin Academy.

The now-existing Epiphany cathedral was consecrated in 1696. A splendid specimen of the Muscovite baroque style, it incorporated some notable medieval sepulchres. In the 1690s, they also built cells for monks and abbot's chamber, which would be re-built in the 1880s. In 1739, a belltower was erected. By 1744, the monastery had already owned 216 peasant homesteads and 1014 peasants.

In 1764, monastic real estate was confiscated. Thenceforth monastery's staff rarely included more than 17 monks. In 1788, the Epiphany monastery was proclaimed a residence of the vicarian bishop of the Moscow bishopric. In the late 18th century, the buildings enclosing the monastery were rented out to the haberdashers.

In 1905-1909, they built the so-called dokhodniy dom, or a building with "office space" for rent. By 1907, The Bogoyavlensky monastery had already had 14 monks and 18 novitiates and owned 60 desyatinas of land. It was also receiving an allowance of 1245 rubles from the state treasury.

After the October Revolution, the Epiphany monastery was closed down. In 1929, they stopped holding services in the Bogoyavlensky cathedral. The monastic facilities were first transformed into a campus for students of the Mining Academy and workers, engaged in the subway construction, and later - into metalworks. In the 1950s, they built an office building on the site of the monastery. The cathedral, belltower, monk cells and abbot's chamber were the only buildings to survive. In May, 1991, the Epiphany monastery was restored and officially returned to the Russian Orthodox Church.

title: Epiphany Monastery


text:
George XI of Kartli

George XI (გიორგი XI; 1651 – 21 April 1709), known as Gurgin Khan in Iran, was a Georgian monarch (mepe) who ruled the Kingdom of Kartli as a Safavid Persian subject from 1676 to 1688 and again from 1703 to 1709. He is best known for his struggle against the Safavids which dominated his weakened kingdom and later as a Safavid commander-in-chief in what is now Afghanistan. Being an Eastern Orthodox Christian, he converted to Shia Islam prior to his appointment as governor of Kandahar.

Life
He was the son of Vakhtang V, whom he succeeded as the ruler of Kartli in 1676. As with many other Georgian rulers, he had to nominally accept Islam and take the name of Shahnawaz II before being able to be confirmed as a viceroy by Shah Solayman I. However, Georgians continued to consider him as their king under his Christian name Giorgi (George).

When nearly half-century-long peaceful relations between Kartli and its Persian suzerains significantly deteriorated, George attempted to centralise loose royal authority in Kartli and weaken the Persian influence. He patronised Catholic missionaries and had correspondence with Innocent XI. After the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Vienna, George XI hoped to exploit that Empire's new weakness. In a letter to Innocent XI dated April 29, 1687 he vowed to be a Catholic King and declared his readiness and willingness and that of his troops to obey any order of the Roman Pope. According to Catholic missionaries, George remained until his death a faithful Catholic.

In 1688, George headed an abortive coup against a Persian governor of the neighboring Georgian region of Kakheti, and attempted, though vainly, to gain Ottoman support against the Safavid overlordship. In response, Shah Solayman deposed George and gave his crown to the rival Kakhetian prince Erekle I, who then embraced Islam and took the name Nazar-Ali Khan. Abbas Qoli-Khan, the beglarbeg (governor general) of Ganja, was placed in charge of the government in Kakheti and commissioned to reinforce Erekle's positions in Kartli. George fled to Racha in western Georgia, whence he made several attempts to reclaim his possession. In 1696, he managed to stage a temporary comeback and helped his brother Archil to temporarily regain the crown of Imereti in western Georgia, but was eventually forced to withdraw from Kartli again. In 1694, following the death of Solayman, there was a change in the government in Georgia: Abbas-Quli Khan was accused by his rivals of supporting George XI. On the orders of the new shah Soltan Hosayn, he was promptly arrested by Erekle and sent to Isfahan under guard, while his possessions were confiscated. Qalb-Ali Khan was appointed Abbas-Quli Khan's successor as Persian governor of Kakheti. However, the strife in Georgia as well as the Safavid empire in general forced Husayn to make peace with George who was summoned to Isfahan in 1696. The shah entrusted him with restoring order along the eastern frontiers of the empire and appointed him beglarbeg of Kerman in 1699. It was the beginning of an illustrious but, ultimately, tragic career in the service of the Safavids. George, aided by his brother Levan, by 1700 had reestablished the shah's sovereignty in Kerman. As a reward, George was restored to the throne of Kartli in 1703, but was not allowed to return to his country. Instead, he was soon assigned to suppress the Afghan rebellion in May 1704. He was granted the title of Gurgin Khan by the Shah and was appointed the viceroy of Kandahar province and sipah salar (commander-in-chief) of the Persian armies. While he was in the field, he entrusted the administration of his country of Kartli to a nephew, the future King Vakhtang VI. Gurgin managed to crush the revolts of Afghan tribes and ruled Kandahar with uncompromising severity. He subdued many of the local leaders and sent Mirwais Khan Hotak, a powerful chieftain of the Ghilji Afghans (Pashtuns), in chains to Isfahan. However, Mirwais Khan managed to gain the favour of the Shah and even to arouse his suspicion against the beglarbeg. Determined to bring about the overthrow of Gurgin, Mirwais Khan staged a carefully planned coup. On April 21, 1709, when the majority of the Georgian troops under Gurgin's nephew, Alexander, were away from Kandahar on a raid against the rebels, Mirwais invited Gurgin on a banquet at his country estate at Kokaron in Kandahar City and assassinated him. The assassin was supposedly an Afghan warrior, Younis Kakar, one of a tribal chiefs of Mirwais Khan Hotak. Gurgin's small escort was also massacred and Mirwais seized power in Kandahar. He sent to Isfahan the cross and psalms, found at the murdered Georgian general, as the proof of the latter's covert defection.

A punitive expedition into the Afghan lands led by George's nephew, Kay Khusrau, ended in October 1711 disastrously with his death and the destruction of nearly his entire force of 30,000.

Family and children
George XI was married twice. He married first Tamar, daughter of Prince David Davitishvili in 1676. She died on 4 December 1683, having mothered two children:
 * Prince Bagrat (died 1692/94), who was sent to the shah as a political hostage and died at Herat;
 * Princess Mariam (died 1715), who married in 1687 David Kvenipniveli, Duke of Ksani Duchy of Ksani and had nine children.

George XI married his second wife Khoreshan (died 24 February 1695), daughter of Prince Giorgi Mikeladze, at Kojori in 1687. They had a daughter.
 * Princess Rodam of Kartli (d. 1730)

title: George XI of Kartli


text:
Kallang River

The Kallang River (, Sungei Kallang) is the longest river in Singapore, flowing for 10 kilometers from the Lower Peirce Reservoir (originally named "Kallang River Reservoir") to the Kallang Basin. It originates in the planning area of Central Water Catchment, flows in a southeast direction through Bishan and Toa Payoh, before finally arriving in Kallang.

Prior to extensive land reclamation along Singapore's southeastern coast, the Kallang River used to empty into the Singapore Straits at the Kallang Basin, near where Merdeka Bridge is standing. Today, the Kallang River flows into the open sea via the Marina Channel.

Tributaries of the Kallang River include Sungei Whampoa, the Pelton Canal, and the Bukit Timah Second Diversion Canal. Other rivers that empty into the Kallang Basin, other than the Kallang River, include the Geylang River and Rochor River. All these aforementioned waterways form part of the Marina Reservoir, as a result of the Marina Barrage.

The Kallang Park Connector of the Park Connector Network (PCN) runs almost parallel to the Kallang River, providing a stretch of recreational space along the river. The Kallang Riverside Park straddles both sides of the Kallang River near the river mouth.

History
In pre-colonial times, the aboriginal Biduanda Orang Kallang tribe lived in the swamps at the mouth of the Kallang River, and fished from their boats, seldom venturing out into the open sea. At the time of Sir Stamford Raffles landing in Singapore in 1819, half of the population of 1,000 were the Orang Kallang.

Kallang River was also the place, where in the early days the Bugis traders from Sulawesi (Celebes) unloaded their cargoes of spices and tortoise shells, gold dust and slaves from their palari or their leteh-leteh. These sailing boats were a common sight off the sea front even up to the 1960s. Today, this long, winding river has little or no industry except for a short distance, although a new industrial estate at Kallang Basin, near Kallang Bahru, has been built.

Pelton Canal
The Pelton Canal is a canalised river that flows from Ubi via MacPherson into the Kallang River in Kallang. It is one of the numerous tributaries of the Kallang River.

A section of the underground Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) follows the course of the Pelton Canal.

Sungei Whampoa
Sungei Whampoa (Malay for "Whampoa River", ) begins in Whampoa, near Jalan Rajah, and flows into the Kallang River in Kallang.

Bukit Timah Second Diversion Canal
The Bukit Timah Second Diversion Canal is a canalised river flowing from Whampoa to Kallang, following closely the path of the Pan Island Expressway (PIE). It joins the Kallang River near the traffic interchange at Whampoa Flyover.

Others
Other than those listed above, there is another unnamed Kallang River tributary in Toa Payoh. It flows from Braddell Road, via Toa Payoh North and Lorong 6 Toa Payoh, before meeting the Kallang River at Lorong 8 Toa Payoh.

Redevelopment
Kallang River is now part of the water catchment area for the Marina Reservoir. A dam, the Marina Barrage, was built at the mouth of the Marina Channel at Marina South. With the completion of the Marina Barrage in 2008, the entire region comprising the basins of the Singapore River, Rochor River, Geylang River and Kallang River has transformed into a water catchment area.

In April 2006, the Singapore government announced plans to give a 200-metre stretch of the Kallang River at Kolam Ayer a S$2.5 million facelift.

The "demonstration project" by the National Parks Board (NParks) and the Public Utilities Board (PUB) is part of the Active, Beautiful and Clean Waters Programme to transform rivers and reservoirs into vibrant community hubs, and to get Singaporeans to cherish and take care of their waterways. NParks and the PUB reviewed some of the world's best rivers such as the Charles River in the United States and the Cheonggye Stream in Seoul to draw inspiration and learn best practices.

By August 2007, the Kolam Ayer stretch of the river was transformed to include more greenery, floating decks, pathways and boardwalks for recreational activities. A water wheel was introduced as the centrepiece of the project. The water level was kept at a constant level — 3 metres deep — making activities such as kayaking and dragon boating possible.

Kallang River at Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park

The upstream of the Kallang River is located at Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park. Officially opened on 17 March 2012 by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, the meandering river's capacity is now 40% more than when it was a canal. The river helps to slow the flow of rainwater so that downstream waterways have more time to drain. Bio-engineering techniques such as soil bioengineering and intensive hydraulic calculations were applied to create this. Besides slowing down rainwater, it now also offers residents a new recreational experience – soft planted river banks encourage people to get close to the water.

External references

 * Norman Edwards, Peter Keys (1996), Singapore - A Guide to Buildings, Streets, Places, Times Books International, ISBN 9971-65-231-5
 * Today, Making a splash with $2.5m, 17 April 2006,

title: Kallang River


text: Template:Trafalgar class battleship

title: Template:Trafalgar class battleship


text:
Snelson

Snelson may refer to:

Places

 * Snelson, Cheshire, village in Cheshire, England

People

 * George Matthew Snelson (1837–1901), considered the founding father of Palmerston North, New Zealand
 * Kenneth Snelson, sculptor
 * Wallace Eugene "Pete" Snelson, American politician

title: Snelson


text:
José Miguel Gómez

José Miguel Gómez y Arias (6 July 1858 – 13 June 1921) was a Cuban politician and revolutionary who was one of the leaders of the rebel forces in the Cuban War of Independence. He later served as President of Cuba from 1909 to 1913.

Early career
At the Constitutional Convention, Gómez was one of those who voted in favor of adopting the Platt Amendment. Born in Sancti Spíritus, in the former Las Villas Province, Gómez went on to govern Santa Clara and became quite popular in Cuba. In 1905, Gómez planned to run for the presidency with Alfredo Zayas on behalf of the Liberals. Violence prevented the Liberals from winning much in the election so Gómez dropped out of the running.

Gómez and Zayas began to split the Liberal party. A strong showing by the Conservatives against the divided Liberals convinced them to rejoin.

Term in office
Gómez and Zayas won the 1908 election as the candidates for the Liberal Party. He was very well liked among the people and Gómez was also viewed as a kind president in the eyes of the people. However, political corruption boomed during his presidency and several major scandals occurred.

During his presidency the government also began funding newspapers, influencing them towards pro-government positions. On 9 September 1909 President Gomez signed a decree establishing the Cuban Telephone Company, an U.S. based company having a highly dominant control of the telecommunications market of Cuba at the time and many years in the future. He earned the nickname of "Tiburon" (lit. 'The Shark'; "when he swims, he splashes") in reference to the fact that he shared and handed out many public offices and posts to friends and relatives.

According to U.S. Consul in 1911 the value of U.S. nationals resident in Cuba was estimated at being $205 million (in 1911 U.S. dollars). The raising and final sinking of the USS Maine in the Straits of Florida were accomplished during Gomez' administration. President Gomez also had to confront with severe agitations and protests of various associations or organizations of Veterans of the Cuban War of Independence. Part of the agitation stemmed from the Veterans protesting the holding of public or civil office by Cubans or Spaniards who defended or “bore arms for the Spanish cause” during Cuba's War of Independence.

In 1912, conflict between Afro-Cuban rebels and the armed forces of Cuba took place mainly in the eastern region of the island where most Afro-Cubans were employed. After a widespread massacre of Afro-Cubans by the Cuban Army and the intervention by the U.S. military the rebellion was brought to an end in a matter of weeks.

On 18 June 1912, President Gomez issued a decree granting a forestry privilege/right to the Compania de Agricultura de Zapata, which decreed corresponded to the large Zapata Swamp in southern Matanzas. Apparently, U.S. Ambassador of Cuba at the time, Arthur M. Beaupre, made a fuss of the incident and the U.S. government sent a note to the Cuban government disapproving of such decree. Weeks later on 13 August 1912, President Gomez suspended his decree.

Under his administration, Gomez promoted the development of the Navy. The cruiser “Cuba” was made, and the vessel “Patria” among others, was commissioned.

Throughout his administration, Gomez and/or the Cuban Congress at the time undertook various actions which included: (1) the establishment of diplomatic legations in Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Norway, Germany and the Netherlands, (2) the legalization of cockfighting, (3) the establishment of the National Lottery, which was a great source of government revenue, (4) the founding of the Banco Territorial de Cuba, (5) the onset of pharmaceutical regulation, (6) the creation of multiple municipalities throughout the island. Probably one of his greatest achievements was not seeking re-election during the 1912 Cuban general election. It is said that the ghost of Tomas Estrada Palma's actions in seeking re-election during the 1905 Cuban general election may have played a role in Gomez' decision not to seek re-election

Later life
Following the highly contested, and allegedly fraudulent, 1916 Cuban general election Gomez rose up in revolt against President Menocal in 1917. The rebellion was quashed, and Gomez would be captured and placed under house arrest. Gomez would be released under an amnesty bill in March 1918. He ran for President unsuccessfully during the 1920 Cuban general election. Following his defeat, he sought the assistance of the U.S. and met directly with U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes on 16 April 1921 in Washington D.C. in attempts to seek “justice” or a new election or any other measure that would help his cause. The U.S. was unwilling to concede to his demands and it accepted the results of 1920 Cuban general election as valid.

He would later go into exile to the United States. He died in New York City at the age of 63 in 1921. His remains were brought back to Cuba for burial in the Colon Cemetery, Havana.

Personal life
In 1907, José López Rodríguez, Pote, (father of José Antonio López Serrano) financed the electoral campaign that would propel Gómez to the Presidency of the Republic.

A friend of Gómez, Gerardo Machado, became the president of Cuba a few years later.

He was married to América Arias y López, a philanthropist, supporter of Cuban independence, and the second First Lady of Cuba. Their son, Miguel Mariano Gómez, served as the sixth President of Cuba.

title: José Miguel Gómez


text:
Talk:Dark Horse Comics

To do
OK I thought it worth starting up a discussion on what is needed to fix the entry up - I started a similar one for 2000 AD which does seem to help keep the focus on what is needed. I was thinking:

 * The list of titles should point to the appropriate entry. The problem is there is often no such entry (Xena, Predator and Alien) - I have popped over to the Xena and Predator Talk pages and dropped in a note about their possibly starting the entry but experience shows you probably have to do it yourself as I did with the Planet of the Apes entry. So should the list here point to the non-existent entry to prompt people to start the entry or should we leave it pointing to the the entry for the licensed property?
 * Should we make more use of List of current Dark Horse Comics publications? Move a lot of the titles out of the main entry into the currently anorexic side entry? Or junk the side entry?

Any other ideas? (Emperor 15:38, 11 April 2006 (UTC))

 * the side entry doesn't make sense to me really.. unless they all go to the side entry.. or something.
 * should we be adding just general titles, or series titles as well? List of comic books has a general titles list too, although even more scant..WarBaCoN 05:49, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

Overall Tone of the company History section
This seems very close to a history of the company that was included in one of Dark Horse's own publications. In fact, the language of the article sounds like it came from a press release. Maybe someone should do a rewrite to give give this section a more objective tone. I might do this if no-one else does.--Drvanthorp 16:19, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, I have edited the first paragraph of the history section to try to give it a more objective tone and get rid of some of the public-relations press-release phraseology. The paragraph is shorter, but I don't believe that any real content has been removed. The second paragraph is an even more agregious example of advertising posing as fact, and I am going to need more time before I tackle it.--Drvanthorp 02:34, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I think it's possible to include some of his motivation back into the first paragraph without it sounding like a sales pitch. Perhaps something like, "In an effort to improve the comic medium as a whole..." or somesuch.  I agree that the second para is even worse.  Just an idea.  Mmoyer 17:10, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

Size matters
Fourth biggest company? What're the others? (Besides DC and Marvel obviously) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.67.155.113  (talk • contribs) 00:21, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I believe that Image is number three. Jimcripps 02:15, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

Hero Zero
Just added another title to the 'originals' section for a comic published by Dark Horse called Hero Zero. It was only two issues long and featured a size changing superhero who had his debut episode before Godzilla destroyed him in his second. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.174.178.144   (talk • contribs) 14:16, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Copyvio
As I suspected, this entry is copied directly from Dark Horse's Web Site: — Preceding unsigned comment added by  Drvanthorp  (talk • contribs) 22:26, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Dark Horse Book of
I added a link to The Dark Horse Book Of - my thinking was that it could then be broken up to deal with the series of graphic novel anthologies, ), ,  and ). Hope that makes sense. (Emperor 20:13, 18 December 2006 (UTC))

Expanding
Other companies like IDW Publishing were recently expanded to demonstrate notability (we know they are but it needs proving) and there should be more flesh on the bones here. I think this has been trimmed back hard from a previous version which was basically a press release and it does look sparse. Any suggestions on expanding it? (Emperor 23:01, 14 March 2007 (UTC))
 * Not a suggestion but a note that the Maverick article seemed to be longer. I think now there's room to move, room to reabsorb some of the imprint info, a longer history, etc... Duggy 1138 (talk)

Dark Horse Comics to Dark Horse
Didn't the name change from Dark Horse Comics to Dark Horse due to the lines Dark Horse Manga and Dark Horse Manhwa. Jump Guru 21:41, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

Article on DH
Here is an article that could be used to really expand ours. - Peregrine Fisher (talk) (contribs) 17:29, 9 September 2008 (UTC)
 * http://www.boston.com/ae/media/articles/2008/08/12/he_rode_dark_horse_comics_to_fame_his_way
 * It is: WhisperToMe (talk) 18:22, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

TV Shows -- Duckman?
The Duckman article says that it was based on characters originated in a Dark Horse comic. Should Duckman be added to the list of TV shows? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.12.69.26 (talk) 18:59, 26 September 2010 (UTC)

Marvel Comics to take back the Star Wars comic license from Dark Horse Comics
I just found out that Marvel Comics is going to take back the Star Wars comic license from Dark Horse Comics sometime next year. Is this true? Here's a reliable source of what I have found out so far: AdamDeanHall (talk) 21:55, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

Top Importance?
There's a discussion on which comic-related articles should be listed as "Top Importance" on the importance scale, and I feel this article should not be included. If any user disagrees or wishes to contribute, please do so there. Argento Surfer (talk) 14:47, 1 February 2013 (UTC)

True or false
"Like Dell and Gold Key, Dark Horse was one of the few major American publishers of comic books never to display the Comics Code Authority seal on its covers." Was this true or false? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:C8:C001:8A3A:60CF:3D7F:FBE:98F7 (talk) 14:25, 2 September 2015 (UTC)

True Luninha Palito (talk) 09:52, 5 November 2021 (UTC)

External links modified
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Edit Request: Dark Horse does not have a parent company
In the sidebar (top right) summarizing the company, a Parent Company is listed (Marvel Comics). This is incorrect; Dark Horse Comics is privately held and has no parent company. Requesting removal of this information from this article. History of the company, for reference if needed: https://www.darkhorse.com/Company/History Full disclosure: I am an employee of Dark Horse Comics, and have been asked to see that this article be updated to show Dark Horse is a current publisher of this series.

Caleil1212 (talk) 19:36, 19 January 2018 (UTC)

 * I've removed the parent company. Bennv3771 (talk) 19:54, 19 January 2018 (UTC)

Editing the page
Hi! I'm going to be editing this page over the next few days. I will add several headings, new information, project updates, and several thoroughly researched citations. Additionally, I will be removing anything that doesn't have a reliable source. Just giving a heads up to other editors! Thanks, SunRey451 (talk) 22:46, 4 May 2022 (UTC).

Added some edits
Hi all! I added some edits and fixed a few mistakes I made while editing. I am very new to this, so if there's any additional mistakes please feel free to fix them. Also, I will not be changing anything else on the page. If you would like to change anything back to how it originally looked, please do so! Just doing a project. Thanks! SunRey451 (talk) 23:46, 8 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dark Horse Comics


text: User talk:69.119.125.254

title: User talk:69.119.125.254


text:
Bill Edwards

Bill Edwards may refer to:

 * Big Bill Edwards (1877–1943), American football player, guard for Princeton University football team, first president of first American Football League
 * Bill Edwards (basketball) (born 1971), retired American basketball player
 * Bill Edwards (actor) (1918–1999), American film and TV actor
 * Bill Edwards (English footballer) (1874–after 1896), English footballer with Small Heath
 * Bill Edwards (Australian footballer) (1933–2018), Australian rules footballer with Richmond
 * Bill Edwards (American football coach) (1905–1987), American football player and coach
 * Bill Edwards (offensive lineman) (1920–2009), American football offensive lineman for the New York Giants
 * Bill Edwards (businessman), St. Petersburg, Florida businessman
 * Billy Edwards (boxer) (1844–1907), boxer
 * Billy Edwards (footballer, born 1952), English footballer
 * Billy Edwards (footballer, born 1895) (1896–1952), English footballer

title: Bill Edwards


text:
Singapore River

The Singapore River is a river that flows parallel to Alexandra Road and feeds into the Marina Reservoir in the southern part of Singapore. The immediate upper watershed of the Singapore River is known as the Singapore River Planning Area, although the western part of the watershed is classified under the River Valley planning area.

Singapore River planning area sits within the Central Area of the Central Region of Singapore, as defined by the Urban Redevelopment Authority. The planning area shares boundaries with the following – River Valley and Museum to the north, Tanglin and Bukit Merah to the west, Outram to the south, and the Downtown Core to the east.

Since 2008, the Singapore River was turned into a fresh water river after the completion of the Marina Barrage at Marina South.

Geography
The Singapore River is approximately 3.2 kilometers long from its source at Kim Seng Bridge to where it empties into Marina Bay; the river extends more than two kilometers beyond its original source at Kim Seng Bridge as Alexandra Canal, as far as the junction of Commonwealth Avenue.

History
The mouth of the Singapore River was the old Port of Singapore, being naturally sheltered by the southern islands. Historically, the city of Singapore initially grew around the port so the river mouth became the centre of trade, commerce and finance.

Old maps of the river state that it actually originates from Bukit Larangan (currently Fort Canning Hill).

Heavy traffic

Starting in 1819, there was heavy traffic on the Singapore River due to rapid urbanization and expanding trade. At the same time, it brought in water pollution caused by the disposal of garbage, sewage and other by-products of industries located along the river's banks. The sources of water pollution in the Singapore River and Kallang Basin included waste from pig and duck farms, unsewered premises, street hawkers and vegetable whole sellers. Riverine activities such as transport, boat building and repairs were also found along the Singapore River. Some 750 lighters plied along the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in 1977. Waste, oil spills and wastewater from these boats and lighters added to the pollution of the rivers. In 1977, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew called for a clean-up of Singapore's rivers, which included the Singapore River and the Kallang River. The clean-up cost the government $300 million at the time and involved the relocation of about 4,000 squatters, along with hawkers and vegetable sellers, whose daily waste flowed into the river. Public housing was found for the squatters, while street hawkers were persuaded to move to established hawker centres. The government then completely dredged foul-smelling mud from the banks and the bottom of the river, clearing the debris and other rubbish.

Singapore River today
Due to such cleaning efforts, the Singapore River has significantly changed from one that was heavily busy and polluted to one that is clean for marine animals. The re-emergence of monitor lizards and otters in the Singapore River has been attributed to the success of the river's cleanup.

Whereas the original mouth of the Singapore River emptied into Singapore Straits and its southern islands before major land reclamation took place, the Singapore River now empties into Marina Bay – an area of water partially enclosed by the reclamation work.

The Port of Singapore is now located to the west of the island, using most of the south-west coast, and passenger ships to Singapore now typically berth at the Singapore Cruise Centre at Harbourfront. Thus the Singapore River's economic role has shifted away from one that of trade, towards more a role accommodated for tourism and aesthetics for the commercial zone which encloses it. Traversing across the river is available via water taxis.

The river is now part of the Marina Reservoir after damming the Singapore River at its outlet to the sea to create a new reservoir of freshwater. The dam is known as the Marina Barrage.

Sculptures
There are a number of sculptures along the Singapore River. Many of these depict the life of people living and working along the river during the early days of Singapore.

Notable sculptures include:
 * First Generation, made by Chong Fah Cheong
 * Fishing at Singapore River, made by Chern Lian Shan
 * The River Merchants, made by Aw Tee Hong
 * A Great Emporium, made by Malcolm Koh
 * From Chettiars to Financiers, made by Chern Lian Shan
 * Singapura Cats, made by various artists

Bridges and tunnels
Between 1819, when the first wooden jetty and the first bridge were built over the Singapore River in Singapore, and in 2015, 14 bridges were built across the river (or 17, although the Marina Reservoir, where the estuary is now located, is considered a Singapore River). Until 1819, the river could only be crossed by boats and ferries. Some of the bridges were demolished and rebuilt or their purpose was changed. The first bridge in Singapore was built over the Singapore river in 1819 where the Elgin Bridge now stands. There have been two Elgin bridges at some point. The first iron-made Elgin Bridge was built in 1862 and named after Lord Elgin. It was later demolished and replaced with the current Elgin bridge in 1926. Other bridges along the river include the Coleman Bridge (1840), Kim Seng Bridge (1862), Cavenagh Bridge (1869), and Read Bridge (1889). The most recent bridges are the Helix Bridge (2010), Bayfront Bridge (2010), and the Jubilee Bridge (2015). e
 * Coleman Bridge (1840/1985)
 * Kim Seng Bridge (1862)
 * Elgin Bridge (1862/1926)
 * Cavenagh Bridge (1870)
 * Ord Bridge (1886)
 * Read Bridge (1889)
 * Pulau Saigon Bridge (1890)
 * Anderson Bridge (1910)
 * Clemenceau Bridge (1940)
 * Benjamin Sheares Bridge (1981)
 * East West MRT line and North South MRT line between City Hall and Raffles Place (1987/1989)Aerial Panorama of Merlion Park and its surrounds.jpg
 * Chin Swee Tunnel carrying the Central Expressway (1991)
 * Esplanade Bridge (1997)
 * Robertson Bridge (1998)
 * Jiak Kim Bridge (1999)
 * Alkaff Bridge (1999)
 * North East MRT line between Clarke Quay and Dhoby Ghaut (2003)
 * Helix Bridge (2010)
 * Bayfront Bridge (2010)
 * Downtown MRT line and Circle MRT line between Promenade and Bayfront (2012)
 * Jubilee Bridge (2015)
 * Downtown MRT line between Fort Canning and Chinatown (2017)
 * Thomson–East Coast MRT line between Great World and Havelock (2022)

title: Singapore River


text:
Roman client kingdoms in Britain

The Roman client kingdoms in Britain were native tribes which chose to align themselves with the Roman Empire because they saw it as the best option for self-preservation or for protection from other hostile tribes. Alternatively, the Romans created (or enlisted) some client kingdoms when they felt influence without direct rule was desirable. Client kingdoms were ruled by client kings. In Latin these kings were referred to as rex sociusque et amicus, which translates to "king, ally, and friend". The type of relationships between client kingdoms and Rome was reliant on the individual circumstances in each kingdom.

The beginnings of the system are to be found in Caesar's re-enthroning of Mandubracius as king of the Trinovantes, who had been dethroned by Cassivellaunus and then aided Caesar's second invasion of Britain in 54 BC. The system further developed in the following hundred years, particularly under Augustus's influence, so that by the time of the Roman invasion in 43 AD several Roman client kingdoms had become established in the south of Britain. Client kingdoms were annexed when Rome needed to reaffirm their power in Britain or when the client kings could not manage the kingdoms and surrounding areas any more.

These were also partially due to the expansion of the Catuvellauni under Cunobelinus in the southeast, and partly as a result of the invasion itself, and included Cogidubnus of the Regni, Prasutagus of the Iceni and Cartimandua of the Brigantes and, probably, Boduocus of the Dobunni. The antecedents of the Regni, the Atrebates, had (in their Gallic and British forms) been client kingdoms of Rome since Caesar's first invasion in 55 BC. In the north of Britain, ongoing border struggles across the defensive walls led to the establishment of buffer states, including the Votadini in Northumberland.

Invasions of Britain and establishment of client kingdoms
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BC. and 54 BC. His initial invasion was unsuccessful, and the Celtic tribes of Britain fought with more strength than expected. In 54 BC the invasion was considered a success but in Caesar's eyes the island yielded little reward and he left without leaving a garrison to watch over his latest conquest.

Client kingdoms were initially established as auxiliary support for the Roman army under Claudius in the expanding empire, but were reimagined as the way for Rome to achieve the power status of a unified empire. Each kingdom had their own systems in place to operate within the Roman model, most notably in relation to trading and defence; and they created a national identity aligned with Roman values.

Evidence exists of rebellion against the empire among client kingdoms like the Catuvellauni and the Iceni tribes. The relationships between the different client kingdoms and Celtic tribes of the area were always changing as loyalties shifted between the indigenous populations and Roman invaders. The changing political relations with the Roman Empire and their conquest of Britain led to conflicts between tribes like the Atrebates and the Catuvellauni in 40 AD. There was also recorded conflicts between the Brigantes tribe and the Catuvellauni in 50 AD.

Trinovantes and Catuvellauni
Client status: 54 BC -c.39 AD

Location: lands in south-East England

In 54 BC, Julius Caesar set up Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a client king and established the Catuvellauni as a tributary state of Rome. The centralization of the client kingdoms in southern Britain led to some resemblance of one British society ruled by the Catuvellauni. Coin evidence suggests that since 10 AD, both areas were ruled by Cunobelinus until around 39-40 AD when after his death anti-Roman factions led by his son Caratacus had the most power.  In 40 AD, Caratacus overthrew Verica of the Atrebates client kingdom, who was a known ally to the emperor, Claudius. Caratacus led anti-Roman forces against the Roman invasion in 43 AD. The next that was recorded of them was in 50 AD when Caratacus led forces against governor Publius Ostorius Scapula with tribes from Wales.  This led to his defeat in 50 AD and search of refuge with the Brigantes, and ultimately a betrayal by Cartimandua in 51 AD. Following Caratacus' defeat, the lands belonging to the Catuvellauni were annexed, the settlement of Verulamium was given municipum status in 50 AD, and its settlers were given a level of citizenship with certain rights.

Atrebates, later Regni or Regnenses
Client status: 55 BC-70s AD

Location: Roughly modern-day Hampshire and West Sussex (capitals now Silchester and Chichester)

The Belgic Atrebates were led by a semi independent client king, Commius, in Gaul when Caesar left Britain after his first invasion. When Commius began to conspire against Rome, he was forced to flee to Britain in 54 BC. He named himself king of his people and ruled until approximately 20 BC.  Commius was succeeded by three of his sons. First, Tincomarus, from 25/20 BC to 7/8 AD. He was more sympathetic to Rome than his father had been, and based on numismatic evidence styled himself rex, implying client kingship status under the Empire. He was expelled in 7/8 AD, seeking refuge with the Romans.

After Tincomarus, Augustus chose to recognize his brother, Eppillus, as the next client king. After ruling jointly with Tincomarus, he apparently became sole ruler c.7 AD, and may have been the one who drove out Tincomarus.

Eppillus was succeeded by another of Commius' sons, Verica, who reigned from Silchester. During his rule, the Atrebates were under pressure from the Catuvellauni to the east. Around 10 AD, Verica was dethroned by the brother of Cunobelinus, Epaticcus. Verica did not regain control until 37 AD. Caratacus, of the Catuvellauni, conquered the kingdom and Verica was driven out of Britain in roughly 40 AD. As a Roman ally, it has been argued that when Verica sought refuge in Rome, he helped convince Claudius to invade Britain.

Following the Roman conquest, Cogidubnus, who was at some point given the Roman names Tiberius Claudius. Cogidubnus ruled the lands of the Atrebates and the Regni, taking the latter as the new name for all people who lived in the regions.

Iceni
Client status: c.47-60 AD

Location: Roughly modern-day Norfolk

The Iceni tribe were located in the south east region of Britain. The Iceni had a coin system in place before the Roman invasion, and these coins show evidence that a king named Antedios was in power through the Roman Invasion by Claudius in 43 AD. When the kingdom rebelled in 47 AD after an attempt to disarmour the Iceni, it is suggested he was removed from power by Rome and that Prasutagus was installed as king.

Upon Parsutagus' death in 60 AD, he wanted to give half of the power to his daughters and the other half to the emperor. This went against Roman law which dictated the land of the Iceni would be annexed to the emperor, Nero. The Romans seized control and committed assault against Prasutagus' wife Boudica, and her daughters. These actions of the Romans ignited a long lasting revolt throughout multiple British client kingdoms, including the Iceni and Trinovantes kingdoms. This revolt led to the destruction of the municipums of Colchester, Londinium and Verulamium, which were all promptly rebuilt following the suppression of this revolt. The story of Boudica ends with mystery as there are conflicting stories of her death. The territory once ruled by Boudica and Prasutagus was considered part of the Roman province after Boudica's defeat.

Brigantes
Main Articles: Brigantes

Client status: c. 46 AD-

Location: Pennines of South Yorkshire to north of the Tyne.

The Brigantes were given client status but were not considered a conquered Celtic tribe, despite accepting the Romans as the governing power. Notable rulers include Client king Venutius and Queen Cartimandua, who joined the ranks of power female leaders, a concept foreign to the Roman invaders. Cartimandua is known for her betrayal of Caratacus after his rebellion in 51 AD, by handing him over to the Roman army. This action caused unrest in the Brigantia areas of Britain, where the people were split between supporting Cartimandua and the Romans by extension, or supporting her husband Venutius and the British rebellion.

Venutius went on to take control of the Brigantes tribe and lead his own rebellion against the Romans and his wife Cartimandua, his supporters eventually forcing Cartimandua out of her land in response to her betrayal of rebel Caratacus. This rebellion was defeated at an unknown date.

Over the next century, relationships with the Brigantes tribe shifted and changed. Tensions and war broke out during the conquest of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who was the governor of Roman Britain from 78 AD- 85 AD. Turmoil with the Brigantes tribe continued into the second century as the construction of Hadrian's Wall and Antonine Wall.

Votadini
Client status: c.140s-c.410 AD

Location: Southeast Scotland and northeast England, including modern-day Northumberland

The Votadini were a Brythonic people who lived under the direct rule of Rome between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall from 138 to 162 AD. When the Romans withdrew behind Hadrian's Wall in 164 AD, they left the Votadini as a client kingdom, a buffer zone against the Picts in the north. They maintained client status until the Romans pulled out of Britain in 410 AD. Through a series of linguistic changes, the Votadini became known as the Gododdin, and maintained a kingdom until their defeat by the Angles c.600 AD.

title: Roman client kingdoms in Britain