text:
Multiuser DOS

Multiuser DOS is a real-time multi-user multi-tasking operating system for IBM PC-compatible microcomputers.

An evolution of the older Concurrent CP/M-86, Concurrent DOS and Concurrent DOS 386 operating systems, it was originally developed by Digital Research and acquired and further developed by Novell in 1991. Its ancestry lies in the earlier Digital Research 8-bit operating systems CP/M and MP/M, and the 16-bit single-tasking CP/M-86 which evolved from CP/M.

When Novell abandoned Multiuser DOS in 1992, the three master value-added resellers (VARs) DataPac Australasia, Concurrent Controls and Intelligent Micro Software were allowed to take over and continued independent development into Datapac Multiuser DOS and System Manager, CCI Multiuser DOS, and IMS Multiuser DOS and REAL/32.

The FlexOS line, which evolved from Concurrent DOS 286 and Concurrent DOS 68K, was sold off to Integrated Systems, Inc. (ISI) in July 1994.

Concurrent CP/M-86
The initial version of CP/M-86 1.0 (with BDOS 2.x) was adapted and became available to the IBM PC in 1982. It was commercially unsuccessful as IBM's PC DOS 1.0 offered much the same facilities for a considerably lower price. Neither PC DOS nor CP/M-86 could fully exploit the power and capabilities of the new 16-bit machine.

It was soon supplemented by an implementation of CP/M's multitasking 'big brother', MP/M-86 2.0, since September 1981. This turned a PC into a multiuser machine capable of supporting multiple concurrent users using dumb terminals attached by serial ports. The environment presented to each user made it seem as if they had the entire computer to themselves. Since terminals cost a fraction of the then-substantial price of a complete PC, this offered considerable cost savings, as well as facilitating multi-user applications such as accounts or stock control in a time when PC networks were rare, very expensive and difficult to implement.

CP/M-86 1.1 (with BDOS 2.2) and MP/M-86 2.1 were merged to create Concurrent CP/M-86 3.0 (also known as CCP/M-86) with BDOS 3.0 in late 1982. Kathryn Strutynski, the project manager for CP/M-86, was also the project manager for Concurrent CP/M-86. One of its designers was Francis "Frank" R. Holsworth. Initially, this was a single-user operating system supporting true multi-tasking of up to four (in its default configuration) CP/M-86 compatible programs. Like its predecessors it could be configured for multi-processor support (see e.g. Concurrent CP/M-86/80) and also added "virtual screens" letting an operator switch between the interactions of multiple programs. Later versions supported dumb terminals and so could be deployed as multiuser systems. Concurrent CP/M-86 3.1 (BDOS 3.1) shipped on 21 February 1984.

Concurrent CP/M-86 with Windows
In February 1984 Digital Research also offered a version of Concurrent CP/M-86 with windowing capabilities named Concurrent CP/M with Windows for the IBM Personal Computer and Personal Computer XT.

Concurrent CP/M-86/80
This was an adaptation of Concurrent CP/M-86 for the LSI-M4, LSI Octopus and CAL PC computers. These machines had both 16-bit and 8-bit processors, because in the early days of 16-bit personal computing, 8-bit software was more available and often ran faster than the corresponding 16-bit software. Concurrent CP/M-86/80 allowed users to run both CP/M (8-bit) and CP/M-86 (16-bit) applications. When a command was entered, the operating system ran the corresponding application on either the 8-bit or the 16-bit processor, depending on whether the executable file had a .COM or .CMD extension. It emulated a CP/M environment for 8-bit programs by translating CP/M system calls into CP/M-86 system calls, which were then executed by the 16-bit processor.

Concurrent DOS
In August 1983, Bruce Skidmore, Raymond D. Pedrizetti, Dave Brown and Gordon Edmonds teamed up to create PC-MODE, an optional module for Concurrent CP/M-86 3.1 (with BDOS 3.1) to provide basic compatibility with PC DOS 1.1 (and MS-DOS 1.1). This was shown publicly at COMDEX in December 1983 and shipped in March 1984 as Concurrent DOS 3.1 (a.k.a. CDOS with BDOS 3.1) to hardware vendors. Simple DOS applications, which did not directly access the screen or other hardware, could be run. For example, although a console program such as PKZIP worked perfectly and offered more facilities than the CP/M-native ARC archiver, applications which performed screen manipulations, such as the WordStar word processor for DOS, would not, and native Concurrent CP/M (or CP/M-86) versions were required.

While Concurrent DOS 3.1 up to 4.1 had been developed in the US, OEM adaptations and localizations were carried out by DR Europe's OEM Support Group in Newbury, UK, since 1983.

Digital Research positioned Concurrent DOS 4.1 with GEM as alternative for IBM's TopView in 1985.

Concurrent PC DOS
Concurrent DOS 3.2 (with BDOS 3.2) in 1984 was compatible with applications for CP/M-86 1.x, Concurrent CP/M-86 3.x and PC DOS 2.0. It was available for many different hardware platforms. The version with an IBM PC compatible BIOS/XIOS was named Concurrent PC DOS 3.2. Kathryn Strutynski was the product manager for Concurrent PC DOS.

Concurrent DOS 68K and FlexOS 68K
Efforts being part of a cooperation with Motorola since 1984 led to the development of Concurrent DOS 68K in Austin, Texas, as a successor to CP/M-68K written in C. One of its main architects was Francis "Frank" R. Holsworth (using siglum FRH). Concurrent DOS 68K 1.0 became available for OEM evaluation in early 1985. The effort received considerable funding worth several million dollars from Motorola and was designed for their 68000/68010 processors. Like the earlier GEMDOS system for 68000 processors it initially ran on the Motorola VME/10 development system. Concurrent DOS 68K 1.20/1.21 was available in April 1986,  offered for about $200,000 dollars$ to OEMs. This system evolved into FlexOS 68K in late 1986.

Known versions include:

 * Concurrent DOS 68K 1.0 (1985)
 * Concurrent DOS 68K 1.1
 * Concurrent DOS 68K 1.20 (April 1986,  1986-05-27 )
 * Concurrent DOS 68K 1.21 (1986)

Concurrent DOS 286 and FlexOS 286
In parallel to the Concurrent DOS 68K effort, Digital Research also previewed Concurrent DOS 286 in cooperation with Intel in January 1985. This was based on MP/M-286 and Concurrent CP/M-286, on which Digital Research had worked since 1982.

Concurrent DOS 286 was a complete rewrite in the C language based on a new system architecture with dynamically loadable device drivers instead of a static BIOS or XIOS. One of its main architects was Francis "Frank" R. Holsworth. The operating system would function strictly in 80286 native mode, allowing protected mode multi-user, multitasking operation while running 8086 emulation. While this worked on the B-1 step of prototype chip samples, Digital Research, with evaluation copies of their operating system already shipping in April, discovered problems with the emulation on the production level C-1 step of the processor in May, which would not allow Concurrent DOS 286 to run 8086 software in protected mode. The release of Concurrent DOS 286 had been scheduled for late May, but was delayed until Intel could develop a new version of the chip. In August, after extensive testing E-1 step samples of the 80286, Digital Research said that Intel had corrected all documented 286 errata, but that there were still undocumented chip performance problems with the prerelease version of Concurrent DOS 286 running on the E-1 step. Intel said that the approach Digital Research wished to take in emulating 8086 software in protected mode differed from the original specifications; nevertheless they incorporated into the E-2 step minor changes in the microcode that allowed Digital Research to run emulation mode much faster (see LOADALL). These same limitations affected FlexOS 286 version 1.x, a reengineered derivation of Concurrent DOS 286, which was developed by Digital Research's new Flexible Automation Business Unit in Monterey, California, since 1986.

Later versions added compatibility with PC DOS 2.x and 3.x.

Known versions include:

 * Concurrent DOS 286 1.0 (1985)
 * Concurrent DOS 286 1.1 (1986-01-07)
 * Concurrent DOS 286 1.2 (1986)
 * FlexOS 286 1.3 (November 1986)
 * FlexOS 286 1.31 (May 1987)

Concurrent DOS XM and Concurrent DOS 386
The OEM Support Group was relocated into Digital Research's newly created European Development Centre (EDC) in Hungerford, UK in 1986, which started to take over further development of the Concurrent DOS family since Concurrent DOS 4.11, including siblings like DOS Plus and successors.

Developed in Hungerford, UK, versions 5 and 6 (Concurrent DOS XM, with XM standing for Expanded Memory) could bank switch up to 8 MB of EEMS to provide a real-mode environment to run multiple CP/M-86 and DOS programs concurrently and support up to three users (one local and up to two hooked up via serial terminals).

In 1987, Concurrent DOS 86 was rewritten to become Concurrent DOS 386, still a continuation of the classical XIOS & BDOS architecture. This ran on machines equipped with the Intel 80386 and later processors, using the 386's hardware facilities for virtualizing the hardware, allowing most DOS applications to run unmodified under Concurrent DOS 386, even on terminals. The OS supported concurrent multiuser file access, allowing multiuser applications to run as if they were on individual PCs attached to a network server. Concurrent DOS 386 allowed a single server to support a number of users on dumb terminals or inexpensive low-specification PCs running terminal emulation software, without the need for expensive workstations and then-expensive network cards. It was a true multiuser system; several users could use a single database with record locking to prevent mutual interference.

Concurrent DOS 6.0 represented also the starting point for the DR DOS family, which was carved out of it.

Known versions include:

 * DR Concurrent PC DOS XM 5.0 (BDOS 5.0)
 * DR Concurrent DOS XM 5.0 (BDOS 5.0, October 1986)
 * DR Concurrent DOS XM 5.1 (BDOS 5.1?, January 1987)
 * DR Concurrent DOS XM 5.2 (BDOS 5.2?, September 1987)
 * DR Concurrent DOS XM 6.0 (BDOS 6.0, 1987-11-18), 6.01 (1987)
 * DR Concurrent DOS XM 6.2 (BDOS 6.2), 6.21
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 1.0 (BDOS 5.0?, 1987)
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 1.1 (BDOS 5.2?, September 1987)
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 2.0 (BDOS 6.0, 1987-11-18), 2.01
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 3.0 (BDOS 6.2, December 1988, January 1989), 3.01 (1989-05-19), 3.02 (1989)
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 2.0 (BDOS 6.0, 1987-11-18), 2.01
 * DR Concurrent DOS 386 3.0 (BDOS 6.2, December 1988, January 1989), 3.01 (1989-05-19), 3.02 (1989)

Concurrent PC DOS XM 5.0 emulated IBM PC DOS 2.10, whereas Concurrent DOS XM 6.0 and Concurrent DOS 386 2.0 were compatible with IBM PC DOS 3.30.

Adaptations
Known CCI Concurrent DOS adaptations by Concurrent Controls, Inc. include:

 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 1.12 (BDOS 5.0?, October 1987)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 2.01 (BDOS 6.0?, May 1988)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 3.01 (BDOS 6.2?, March 1989)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 3.02 (April 1990)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 3.03 (March 1991)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 386 3.04 (July 1991) aka "CCI Concurrent DOS 4.0"
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 3.05 R1 (1992-02), R2 (1992), R3+R4 (1992), R5+R6 (1992), R7+R8 (1993), R9+R10 (1993), R11 (August 1993)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 3.06 R1 (December 1993), R2+R3 (1994), R4+R5+R6 (1994), R7 (July 1994)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 3.07 R1 (March 1995), R2 (1995), R3 (1996), R4 (1996), R5 (1997), R6 (1997), R7 (June 1998)
 * CCI Concurrent DOS 3.08

 * CCI Concurrent DOS 3.10 R1 (2003-10-05)

Other adaptations include:

 * Apricot Concurrent DOS 386 2.01 (1987) for Apricot Quad Version Level 4.3

Multiuser DOS
Later versions of Concurrent DOS 386 incorporated some of the enhanced functionality of DR's later single-user PC DOS clone DR DOS 5.0, after which the product was given the more explanatory name "Multiuser DOS" (a.k.a. MDOS), starting with version 5.0 (with BDOS 6.5) in 1991.

Multiuser DOS suffered from several technical limitations that restricted its ability to compete with LANs based on PC DOS. It required its own special device drivers for much common hardware, as PC DOS drivers were not multiuser or multi-tasking aware. Driver installation was more complex than the simple PC DOS method of copying the files onto the boot disk and modifying CONFIG.SYS appropriately – it was necessary to relink the Multiuser DOS kernel (known as a nucleus) using the SYSGEN command.

Multiuser DOS was also unable to use many common PC DOS additions such as network stacks, and it was limited in its ability to support later developments in the PC-compatible world, such as graphics adaptors, sound cards, CD-ROM drives and mice. Although many of these were soon rectified – for example, graphical terminals were developed, allowing users to use CGA, EGA and VGA software –  it was less flexible in this regard than a network of individual PCs, and as the prices of these fell, it became less and less competitive, although it still offered benefits in terms of management and lower total cost of ownership. As a multi-user operating system its price was higher than a single-user system, of course, and it required special device drivers, unlike single-user multitasking DOS add-ons such as Quarterdeck's DESQview. Unlike MP/M, it never became popular for single-user but multitasking use.

When Novell acquired Digital Research in 1991  and abandoned Multiuser DOS in 1992, the three Master VARs DataPac Australasia, Concurrent Controls and Intelligent Micro Software were allowed to license the source code of the system to take over and continue independent development of their derivations in 1994.

Known versions include:

 * DR Multiuser DOS 5.00 (1991), 5.01
 * Novell DR Multiuser DOS 5.10 (1992-04-13), 5.11
 * Novell DR Multiuser DOS 5.13 (BDOS 6.6, 1992)

All versions of Digital Research and Novell DR Multiuser DOS reported themselves as "IBM PC DOS" version 3.31.

DataPac Australasia
Known versions by DataPac Australasia Pty Limited include:

 * Datapac Multiuser DOS 5.0
 * Datapac Multiuser DOS 5.1 (BDOS 6.6)

 * Datapac System Manager 7.0 (1996-08-22)

In 1997, Datapac was bought by Citrix Systems, Inc.,  and System Manager was abandoned soon after. In 2002 the Sydney-based unit was spun out into Citrix' Advanced Products Group.

Concurrent Controls
Known CCI Multiuser DOS versions by Concurrent Controls, Inc. (CCI) include:

 * CCI Multiuser DOS 7.00
 * CCI Multiuser DOS 7.10
 * CCI Multiuser DOS 7.21
 * CCI Multiuser DOS 7.22 R1 (September 1996), R2 (1996), R3 (1997), R4 GOLD/PLUS/LITE (BDOS 6.6, 1997-02-10), R5 GOLD (1997), R6 GOLD (1997), R7 GOLD (June 1998), R8 GOLD, R9 GOLD, R10 GOLD, R11 GOLD (2000-09-25), R12 GOLD (2002-05-15), R13 GOLD (2002-07-15), R14 GOLD (2002-09-13), R15 GOLD, R16 GOLD (2003-10-10), R17 GOLD (2004-02-09), R18 GOLD (2005-04-21)

All versions of CCI Multiuser DOS report themselves as "IBM PC DOS" version 3.31. Similar to SETVER under DOS, this can be changed using the Multiuser DOS DOSVER x.y utility.

In 1999, CCI changed its name to Applica, Inc. In 2002 Applica Technology became Aplycon Technologies, Inc.

IMS Multiuser DOS
Known adaptations of IMS Multiuser DOS include:

 * IMS Multiuser DOS Enhanced Release 5.1 (1992)
 * IMS Multiuser DOS 5.11
 * IMS Multiuser DOS 5.14
 * IMS Multiuser DOS 7.0
 * IMS Multiuser DOS 7.1 (BDOS 6.7, 1994)

All versions of IMS Multiuser DOS report themselves as "IBM PC DOS" version 3.31.

REAL/32
Intelligent Micro Software Ltd. (IMS) of Thatcham, UK, acquired a license to further develop Multiuser DOS from Novell in 1994 and renamed their product REAL/32 in 1995.

Similar to FlexOS/4690 OS before, IBM in 1995 licensed REAL/32 7.50 to bundle it with their 4695 POS terminals.

IMS REAL/32 versions:

 * IMS REAL/32 7.50 (BDOS 6.8, 1995-07-01), 7.51 (BDOS 6.8), 7.52 (BDOS 6.9), 7.53 (BDOS 6.9, 1996-04-01), 7.54 (BDOS 6.9, 1996-08-01)
 * IMS REAL/32 7.60 (BDOS 6.9, February 1997), 7.61, 7.62, 7.63
 * IMS REAL/32 7.70 (November 1997), 7.71, 7.72, 7.73, 7.74 (1998)
 * IMS REAL/32 7.80, 7.81 (February 1999), 7.82, 7.83 (BDOS 6.10)
 * IMS REAL/32 7.90 (1999), 7.91, 7.92
 * ITERA IMS REAL/32 7.93 (June 2002), 7.94 (BDOS 6.13, 2003-01-31)
 * Integrated Solutions IMS REAL/32 7.95

REAL/32 7.50 to 7.74 report themselves as "IBM PC DOS" version 3.31, whereas 7.80 and higher report a version of 6.20. LBA and FAT32 support was added with REAL/32 7.90 in 1999. On 19 April 2002, Intelligent Micro Software Ltd. filed for insolvency and was taken over by one of its major customers, Barry Quittenton's Itera Ltd. This company was dissolved on 2006-03-28. As of 2010 REAL/32 was supplied by Integrated Solutions of Thatcham, UK, but the company, at the same address, was later listed as builders.

REAL/NG
REAL/NG was IMS' attempt to create the "Next Generation" of REAL/32, also named "REAL/32 for the internet age". REAL/NG promised "increased range of hardware from PCs to x86 multi-processor server systems".

Advertised feature list, as of 2003:

 * Runs with Red Hat 7.3 or later version of Linux
 * Backward compatible with DOS and REAL/32
 * Max 65535 virtual consoles; each of these can be a user
 * No Linux expertise required
 * Administration/setup/upgrade by web browser (local and remote)
 * Supplied with TCP/IP Linux-/Windows-based terminal emulator for the number of users purchased
 * Print and file sharing built in
 * Drive mapping between Linux and REAL/NG servers built in
 * User hardware support
 * Increased performance
 * Vastly increased TPA
 * Multi-processor support
 * Improved hardware support
 * Built-in firewall support
 * Very low cost per seat
 * Low total cost of ownership
 * Supplied on CD
 * Supplied with a set of Red Hat CDs

By 10 December 2003, IMS made "REALNG V1.60-V1.19-V1.12" available, which, based on the Internet Archive, seems to be the latest release.

By 2005, the realng.com website was mirroring the IMS main website, and had no mention of REAL/NG, only REAL/32.

Application software
While the various releases of this operating system had increasing ability to run DOS programs, software written for the platform could take advantage of its features by using function calls specifically suitable for multiuser operation. It used pre-emptive multitasking, preventing badly-written applications from delaying other processes by retaining control of the processor. To this day, Multiuser DOS is supported by popular SSL/TLS libraries such as wolfSSL.

The API provided support for blocking and non-blocking message queues, mutual-exclusion queues, the ability to create sub-process threads which executed independently from the parent, and a method of pausing execution which did not waste processor cycles, unlike idle loops used by single-user operating systems. Applications were started as "attached" to a console. However, if an application did not need user interaction it could "detach" from the console and run as a background process, later reattaching to a console if needed.

Another key feature was that the memory management supported a "shared" memory model for processes (in addition to the usual models available to normal DOS programs). In the shared memory model the "code" and "data" sections of a program were isolated from each other. Because the "code" contained no modifiable data, code sections in memory could be shared by several processes running the same program, thereby reducing memory requirements.

Programs written, or adapted, for any multitasking platform need to avoid the technique used by single-tasking systems of going into endless loops until interrupted when, for example, waiting for a user to press a key; this wasted processor time that could be used by other processes. Instead, Concurrent DOS provided an API call which a process could call to "sleep" for a period of time. Later versions of the Concurrent DOS kernel included Idle Detection, which monitored DOS API calls to determine whether the application was doing useful work or in fact idle, in which case the process was suspended allowing other processes to run. Idle Detection was the catalyst for the patented DR-DOS Dynamic Idle Detection power management feature invented in 1989 by Roger Alan Gross and John P. Constant and marketed as BatteryMAX.

title: Multiuser DOS


text:
Paul Armentano

Paul Armentano is an American cannabis activist. He is the Deputy Director of NORML. He also serves on the faculty of Oaksterdam University in Oakland, where he is the Chair of Science.

His writing on cannabis and cannabis policy has appeared in over 1,000 publications, scholarly and/or peer-reviewed journals, as well as in more than two dozen textbooks and anthologies. He is a regulator contributor to The Hill newspaper as well as to numerous other print and online publications. Mr. Armentano is the co-author of the book Marijuana is Safer: So Why Are We Driving People to Drink? (2009, Chelsea Green), which has been licensed and translated internationally. He is also the author of the book The Citizen’s Guide to State-By-State Marijuana Laws (2015), available from Whitman Publishing. He is the author and editor of the NORML-produced publication Emerging Clinical Applications for Cannabis and Cannabinoids, which summarizes over 400 peer-reviewed studies specific to the safety and efficacy of cannabis among different patient populations.

Mr. Armentano was the principal investigator for defense counsel in the federal case US v Schweder et al., one of the first legal cases in decades to challenge the constitutionality of cannabis as a schedule I controlled substance. He was also an expert in the successful Canadian constitutional challenge, Allard v Canada, which preserved qualified patients right to grow cannabis at home.

He is the 2013 Freedom Law School Health Freedom Champion of the Year and the 2013 Alfred R. Lindesmith award recipient in the achievement in the field of scholarship. He is the 2019 Al Horn Memorial Award recipient in appreciation of advancing the cause of justice.

Mr. Armentano works closely with numerous state and federal politicians with regard to drafting and enacting marijuana policy reforms, and he is a frequently sought speaker on the topic at legal and academic seminars.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Paul Armentano


text:
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October 2020
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title: User talk:66.99.223.250


text:
Talk:Thai Bangkaew Dog

Content on this page
Hi, all of the content on this page is our personel pictures and work. All of it is given to Wikipedia without any restrictions. We put it here, now put it back.

The we in this is Tim and Amanda Gibney, owners of the tbdca.org web page and the people who put all of the information on this page. Who needs to fix this.

 * Thanks, that's all we need to know - I will restore the page and images -- sannse (talk) 16:49, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Sannse,
 * thanks for taking care of this and also for monitoring parts of Wikipeidia.

Take it down a thousand, folks, Sannse was quite right to question this. Glad it's all resolved. Quill 09:16, 19 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * S'all OK :), I was lackadaisical in monitoring the talk pages I should have been, and was too slow to respond to the permission - so understandable tension resulted, but all is cool now :) -- sannse (talk) 12:28, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Removed material copied from another site
To wit:

 * http://www.chumsang.net/index2.php
 * "Sing" Thai Bangkaew dog on the Boat.
 * [[Image:Bangkaew.jpg]]
 * The first breeder Thaibangkaew dog in Thailand
 * Former Vilage headman Mr.Tueng KongcharoenPalyed a crucial role in restoring Thai :Bangkaew dog breed to Phitsanulok.

Because:
 * no license or copyright given on photo, taken from specified site
 * site is private breeder
 * rest of info (dog name, breeder name), not relevant to article nears'I can tell.

Elf | Talk 21:11, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

Sorry: tried to start this as a new section but didn't manage to somehow.Foxi tails (talk) 03:26, 27 August 2011 (UTC)

Does anyone have a reference for the suggestion that TBDs are a hybrid of jackals and dogs? I would challenge the assertion unless I could see a reference, as I have looked for one myself and have never found one.Foxi tails (talk) 03:25, 27 August 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thai Bangkaew Dog


text:
Elizabeth Nickson

Elizabeth Nickson is a Canadian writer and journalist. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, she was European bureau chief of Life magazine.

In 1994, Bloomsbury UK, Knopf Canada and Steidl published her novel The Monkey Puzzle Tree, an account of the CIA brainwashing trials in Montreal in the 1950s and 1960s.

In 2012, HarperCollins US published Nickson's Eco-fascists, How Radical Conservationists Are Destroying Our Natural Heritage, under editor Adam Bellow's imprint Broadside Books.

In 2016, Nickson wrote a series of papers for a Canadian think tank, the Frontier Centre for Public Policy, detailing the policy implication of environmental land use in Canada.

Nickson has also written for Harpers Magazine, The Sunday Times Magazine, and The Guardian, and was a weekly columnist for the Globe and Mail and the National Post from 1999 to 2004.

Works

 * The Monkey Puzzle Tree, Bloomsbury UK, Knopf Canada (1994) ISBN 0-7475-2038-0
 * Eco-Fascists: How Radical Conservationists Are Destroying Our Natural Heritage, Broadside (2012) ISBN 0-06-208003-2

title: Elizabeth Nickson


text:
User talk:Bdesham/Images

Spaghetti!
Your recreation of this image is amazing. Well done! --MaxPower 17:07, 2005 Feb 16 (UTC)

Old music pictures
Shall I delete my old pictures which you are replacing? Don't I get any credit? Hyacinth 18:59, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * No problem. My images are blurry at 850px. I don't need the credit (except for the one time) but I do recommend you transfer my sources from my image descriptions to yours. Hyacinth 00:30, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bdesham/Images


text:
User:BBCRules

BBCRules is a British citizen living in the County of Cheshire.

title: User:BBCRules


text:
Audie Awards

The Audie Awards (, rhymes with "gaudy"; abbreviated from audiobook), or simply the Audies, are awards for achievement in spoken word, particularly audiobook narration and audiodrama performance, published in the United States of America. They are presented by the Audio Publishers Association (APA) annually in March.

The Audies are sometimes likened to the Academy Awards for their public recognition of merit in the audio industry. In order to win, works must be submitted for nomination. A panel of judges considers candidates based on consumer acceptance, sales performance, and marketing, and winners and finalists are chosen based on narration, production quality, and source content; formerly packaging was also evaluated.

Awards
Twenty-five Audies are currently awarded by the Audio Publishers' Association. The APA presently categorizes the awards as follows:

 * Audiobook of the Year
 * Audie Award for Audiobook of the Year

 * Narration
 * Audie Award for Audio Drama
 * Audie Award for Best Female Narrator
 * Audie Award for Best Male Narrator
 * Audie Award for Fiction Narrator
 * Audie Award for Narration by the Author
 * Audie Award for Nonfiction Narrator
 * Audie Award for Multi-Voiced Performance

 * General
 * Audie Award for Autobiography or Memoir
 * Audie Award for Business and Personal Development
 * Audie Award for Faith-Based Fiction and Nonfiction
 * Audie Award for Erotica
 * Audie Award for Fantasy
 * Audie Award for Fiction
 * Audie Award for History or Biography
 * Audie Award for Humor
 * Audie Award for Literary Fiction or Classics
 * Audie Award for Middle Grade Title
 * Audie Award for Mystery
 * Audie Award for Nonfiction
 * Audie Award for Original Work
 * Audie Award for Romance
 * Audie Award for Science Fiction
 * Audie Award for Short Stories or Collection
 * Audie Award for Spanish Language Title
 * Audie Award for Thriller or Suspense
 * Audie Award for Young Adult Title
 * Audie Award for Young Listeners' Title

Numerous other awards have been discontinued or merged since the Audies' inception in 1996.

Audie Awards galas
The Audie Awards gala is the annual awards ceremony during which most of the Audie Awards are presented. It is hosted by the Audio Publishers Association and features a guest master of ceremonies (emcee), usually a notable figure in the world of audiobook narration or a celebrity audiobook enthusiast.

Initially the Audies were handed out during a casual afternoon hosted by an industry insider. […] Now it's a formal evening, with cocktails beforehand and Champagne and dessert afterward.

The Audiobook of the Year award was not presented before 2004.

title: Audie Awards


text:
User talk:Krotko Dmitry

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Brilliant prose
 * Featured pictures
 * Boilerplate text
 * Current polls
 * Mailing lists
 * IRC channel

Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also

a place to go for answers to general questions. To read up on the latest wikinews,

have a look at the Wikipedia Signpost.

You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

(Sam Spade | talk | contributions) 17:08, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

PIE Image
hello Dmitry, and welcome to WP! I would like to inquire about Image:Indo-Europeans 3000-1000 BC.gif you uploaded. You do not give information as to its source, so we do not know whether we may use it as in the public domain, or under the GFDL. Also, the content of the map is of course controversial, and we need to know from which publication the data was taken. regards, dab (ᛏ) 19:24, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

File:Indo-European migrations 4000-1000 BCE.png listed for deletion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Indo-European migrations 4000-1000 BCE.png, has been listed at Files for deletion. Please see the to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Kelly hi! 19:21, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Krotko Dmitry


text:
Talk:Gran Canaria

translation
As of the time this is written, I have started translating this article, since no one has come forward and it's up for deletion soon enough. No problem, I'm a translator, and so is my mom :)

Diego440 17:08, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I made a change to the last paragraph of the article; it mentioned some of the attractions of the islands. It needed an update because one of the attractions mentioned, Dedo de Dios, was destroyed by Tropical Storm Delta a couple of days ago. I also tried to make Delta's name link to the correct page, but apparently I'm not that sophisticated at this yet because it didn't work, so I changed it back and let it continue linking to the disambiguation page. Toroca 02:46, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

500 BC is more accurate than 3000 BC

Friends, today anybody defend 3000, but 500 BC

-Fco

Several things I'd like to point out.

Fist - Guanches refer to the native inhabitants of Tenerife island. Old Gran Canarians were known as "canarians" or "canarii".

Most probably the name of Tamaran only refered to one part of the island (namely Southwest, ie the area comprising from Maspalomas to Mogan more or less). The name was Canaria, see Viera Y Clavijo "Historia de la Conquista de Canarias" (still quite valuable) and other present-day works

I have not edited anything but simply would like the authors to correct those misconceptions.

JPJ

Only the geologist refer to the southwest portion "Tamarán". The island always have one name, and was "Canaria". --Bentaguayre 18:36, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Hello, I am from Gran Canaria. I have participated in some sections (Flora f.e.) in the spanish version of Gran Canaria. I would like to help to improve this information about the island. How could I start? I am not english native, but I have medium level. My idea is to sum up some sections from the spanish version in order to translate them to complete this article. Thanks a lot.

Hello, I am from Gran Canaria. I have participated in some sections (Flora f.e.) in the spanish version of Gran Canaria. I would like to help to improve this information about the island. How could I start? Thanks a lot. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Smarlor (talk • contribs) 22:46, 25 May 2011 (UTC)

hey
Is Gran Canaria a country?

- Patelco

No in any way. --Bentaguayre 18:34, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

"rarely Grand Canary (archaic)"
"rarely Grand Canary (archaic)" - isn't this so rare and archaic that it's not even worth including in the opening line?

 * Britannica deems it worthy of inclusion: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037642/Gran-Canaria --85.181.226.141 (talk) 13:33, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

A section on 'Tourism'?
I would object to including the whole section on 'Tourism', which would be more fitting to a travel guide, not an encyclopedia. I understand that the inhabitants of Gran Canaria are proud of their island and make money out of tourism, but I don't think an encyclopedia is the right place to publicize touristic attractions. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Polifemo (talk • contribs) 11:03, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Plenty of other Wikipedia pages have sections on tourism, but they are integrated into a larger discussion on economy. I have to admit, it's a few years on and parts of the page do read like a brochure as a few people have said here and below. ZarhanFastfire (talk) 18:21, 31 March 2013 (UTC)

Info for disabled on the 'homepage' of Gran Canaria?
There's quite a bit of info for disabled people on the homepage, which would be better at a sub page or am I wrong? 88.28.224.222 (talk) 11:18, 27 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Actually, one could question the whole encyclopedicity of information aimed at the disabled. Would be nice in like Wikitravel, but not maybe something I'd put in Wikipedia hydrox (talk) 15:05, 14 September 2008 (UTC)

Mistake
The former inhabitants of island were canarii not Canarios. Canarios it is the current genticidio for the whole archipelago, verify it in the web page in Spanish.

City las palmas
Las Palmas de GC is not the largest city in the Canary Islands, is only the most populated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.49.250.148 (talk) 16:03, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

Not Much on Volcanoes
There is not much on volcanoes. Can someone add a section on it? Guanlongwucaii (talk) 07:46, 6 May 2009 (UTC)Guanlongwucaii

Just added some basic info on volcanic periods and such. Hope that provides a starting point :) --Mariannep (talk) 12:27, 4 September 2010 (UTC)

population and name of the island
Despite its name Gran Canaria is not the largest island in the archipelago, which is Tenerife. Gran Canaria is the most populated island of province and the second most populated island of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife.

Check the wikipedia page in Spanish: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.148.88.210 (talk) 18:04, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

poblation
Gran Canaria is the second most populated island of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.154.235.217 (talk) 14:45, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

At part, you guys sound like a brochure.
"This island is called a "Miniature Continent" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with its long golden beaches and endless dunes of white sand, its green ravines and picturesque villages." Reads like a tourist brochure to me, which is supposed to put the beauty of the landscape in best-possible words. I even agree to everything described in the article; yet it does not belong into an encyclopedia. -andy 92.229.88.233 (talk) 16:22, 17 November 2009 (UTC)

Dangerous Animals
Sorry, if my question is not for here, but I am soon going to Gran Canaria for 3 months and my question is about poisonous or otherwise dangerous animals living in the wild - like for example deadly snakes, scorpions, spiders, lizards, etc. Thanks in advance for any serious advice! -Dimitar —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.215.42.96 (talk) 18:36, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Actually, Gran Canaria is one of the safest places on earth in this regard. The biggest "wild" animals you'll encounter will be rabbits, if you're lucky enough to see them. There are no poisonous or dangerous animals on the island. In fact, there are no snakes or scorpions, poisonous or not, and although there are lizards and spiders living in the countryside, they pose no danger to humans. --Virso2 (talk) 12:32, 5 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Please take your travel queries elsewhere. This page is for discussing the associated article, not its subject. There's little point apologising in advance and then asking anyway. Thanks. Acasson (talk) 17:13, 5 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Well you answered anyway! :) I think there's no problem with having this kind of thing appear occasionally on a talk page because it can sometimes lead to improvements in the articles. Jonnyboy5 (talk) 08:20, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

Name of the island in English
To whomever it was that changed the name throughout the article to "Grand Canary". The de facto name of the island in English nowadays is "Gran Canaria". Airlines use it, holiday firms use it, the BBC uses it... and it is therefore entirely correct for Wikipedia to use the Spanish name too. Acasson (talk) 16:20, 10 December 2010 (UTC)

Gran Canaria NOT is the most populated island of the archipelago
Gran Canaria NOT is the most populated island of the archipelago. Not is the second most populated island of Spain after Mallorca. Gran Canaria is the SECOND most populated island of the archipelago (after Tenerife), and the THIRD most populated island of the Spain, after Tenerife and Mallorca.

 * Tenerife - 906.854 inhabitants
 * Mallorca - 862.397 inhabitants
 * Gran Canaria - 845.676 inhabitants — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.37.85.151 (talk) 17:17, 4 August 2011 (UTC)

Wrong coordinates
Wikipedia is my favorite source of information. But there is a mistake in this article: It gives the coordinates of Gran Canaria as 27°58′S 15°36′W. It should say 27°58′ NORTH, 15°36′W. Regards, Bernd Riechelmann briechelx@gmail.com 166.137.209.145 (talk) 07:23, 27 January 2013 (UTC)
 * So fix it! That's what Wikipedia is all about (and it would have taken you less time to correct the error than to write this note). Acasson (talk) 10:33, 27 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Likewise. And please don't bite newcomers.--130.34.156.239 (talk) 06:48, 17 October 2013 (UTC)

Larger Map would be nice
It would be nice to include a map showing the location of Gran Canaria on a larger scale. CuriousOliver (talk) 20:04, 31 May 2013 (UTC)

Gran Canaria is not the most populated island of the archipielago of Canarias
As per the INE census, the population in 2014, of each of the most important islands of Spain is as follows: 07 Balears, Illes

35 Palmas, Las
 * 07 Formentera	11,545
 * 07 Eivissa	140,271
 * 07 Mallorca	858,313
 * 07 Menorca	93,313

 * 35 Fuerteventura 106,930
 * 35 Gran Canaria	851,157
 * 35 Lanzarote	141,940

38 Santa Cruz de Tenerife

 * 38 Gomera, La	20,721
 * 38 Hierro, El	10,675
 * 38 Palma, La	83,456
 * 38 Tenerife	889,936

-- ("Cifras Oficiales de Población de los Municipios Españoles: Revisión del Padrón Municipal. Resumen por Islas": http://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=2910)

190.45.171.74 (talk) 18:56, 30 July 2015 (UTC) -

Flag
Why the flag isn't there? Flag of the Canary Islands has it, at least. 85.76.77.241 (talk) 22:03, 8 November 2015 (UTC)

El Hierro is the other one the islands which do have a flag and it is not in the article. 85.76.77.241 (talk) 22:16, 8 November 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Gran Canaria


text:
C-52 (cipher machine)

The (Hagelin) C-52 and CX-52 were cipher machines manufactured by Crypto AG starting 1951/1952. These pin-and-lug type cipher machines were advanced successors of the C-38/M-209. The machine measures 8+1/2 x. The device is mechanical, but when combined with an electric keyboard attachment, the B-52, the resultant system is termed the BC-52. The B-52 is larger, measuring 12+1/2 x.

The Hell 54 was a licensed copy of the C-52 by German company Hell.

Structure and operation
Both C and CX models are equipped with six pinwheels. In the C-52 version, these six wheels are chosen from a possible set of 12, with the number of pins on each wheel being 25, 26, 29, 31, 34, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 46, and 47. The C model had a fixed stepping system with a large wheel cycle due to the mutually prime factors in the pin counts. The CX-52 version has 6 pinwheels with 47 pins each and a flexible wheel movement system. The lug cage of both models contains 32 movable bars: 27 of the bars are used for encryption and the remaining 5 bars control the stepping of the pinwheels. The early CX models used the control bars also for encryption but due to complications in creating acceptable lug settings later CX models used these bars only for controlling of the wheel stepping. The stepping of the CX wheels was controlled by adjustable lugs on the control bars.

The C-52 and CX-52 were very flexible machines that could be produced in various ways, creating a unique machine with unique cryptographic characteristics for each customer. There were special detachable wheel movement bars and their position on the drum could change, interchangeable print wheels, custom pinwheel labels, versions with One-time Tape reader instead of wheels, versions that only enciphered numbers, and many other details that influenced the enciphering process.

Breaking and compromising
There is some speculation that the CX-52 might have been broken by the signals intelligence services of Communist East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.

Many of the C-52 and CX-52 machines sold by Crypto AG were compromised to benefit the US and British national signals intelligence agencies, National Security Agency (NSA) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), respectively. For details, see Crypto AG § Compromised machines.

title: C-52 (cipher machine)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Evil Rabid Jigglypuff Of Doom

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Speedy Delete. Per the deletion log:

 * 20:18, 2005 Feb 16 Curps deleted The Evil Rabid Jigglypuff Of Doom

The Evil Rabid Jigglypuff Of Doom
I don't believe this character merits its own article. Johntex 17:09, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I think this has been deleted or speedy deleted already. Kappa 17:13, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Hmmm... It's still there for me, even now.  Johntex 17:16, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * I mean it was deleted a while ago, and this is a recreation. Kappa 17:27, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Yup. Uncle G 18:21, 2005 Feb 16 (UTC)
 * Delete, or speedy of course if it was deleted before. Trilobite (Talk) 17:37, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, nanocruft. Wyss 18:14, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
W. H. F. Lee

William Henry Fitzhugh Lee (May 31, 1837 – October 15, 1891), known as Rooney Lee (often spelled "Roony" among friends and family) or W. H. F. Lee, was the second son of General Robert E. Lee and Mary Anna Custis. He was a planter, a Confederate cavalry General in the American Civil War, and later a Democratic Congressman from Virginia.

Early life
Lee was born at Arlington House in Arlington, Virginia, and named for William Henry Fitzhugh (d. 1830), his mother's uncle. At an early age, his father began to call him Rooney; what prompted him to use this nickname is not known, but it stuck as a way to differentiate him from his cousin Fitzhugh Lee.

Education
Rooney Lee attended Harvard University, where he befriended Henry Adams, who wrote about his relationship with Lee in chapter four of his autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams.

Early military career
Lee followed in his father's footsteps after graduation, entering the United States Army in 1857 as a second lieutenant. He served with the 6th U.S. Infantry under Albert Sidney Johnston, and participated in the Utah War against the Mormons.

Planter
In 1859, Lee resigned from the U.S. Army to operate his White House Plantation, on the south shore of the Pamunkey River, in New Kent County, Virginia.

Civil War
With the outbreak of the Civil War, Lee was commissioned as a captain in the Confederate Army cavalry and was soon promoted to major. He initially served as a cavalry commander for Brig. Gen. William Loring in the mountains of western Virginia during his father's Western Virginia Campaign. Loring's forces were transferred to the lower Shenandoah Valley and the command of Stonewall Jackson in late 1861 and occupied the town of Romney in early 1862. Lee was soon after assigned to the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart, who was leading the cavalry forces for Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Northern Virginia, in the Peninsula Campaign. After joining Stuart, Rooney Lee's regiment participated in Stuart's first ride around the Union army, as well as the subsequent Seven Days Battles around Richmond. During this time, Rooney's nearby White House plantation was burned to the ground, and his son Robert died of typhoid fever.

During the Northern Virginia Campaign, Rooney played a leading role in Stuart's well-crafted attack on General John Pope's supply base at Catlett's Station on August 22, 1862, capturing a paymaster's safe full of Yankee greenbacks. His cavalry regiment was assigned to the brigade of Brig. Gen. Fitzhugh Lee, his cousin, for the Maryland Campaign. Following the Battle of South Mountain, Lee was knocked unconscious after a horse fell from under him, and was unable to participate in the Battle of Antietam. Upon his recovery, he temporarily commanded Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry brigade in Stuart's Chambersburg Raid, his conduct earning him promotion to brigadier general. He then commanded the 3rd Brigade of Stuart's Cavalry Division at the Battles of Fredericksburg mere weeks after the death of his infant daughter. During the Battle of Chancellorsville the following year, Lee was detached from Stuart's cavalry to defend against Stoneman's 1863 Raid.

At the beginning of the Gettysburg Campaign, Lee was shot in the thigh during combat at Brandy Station. He spent the next two weeks recovering at Hickory Hill, Virginia, before being captured by Union forces. As a prisoner of war, he was sent to Fort Monroe for several months, before being shipped to New York, where he was held until returned to the Confederate Army on February 25, 1864, in exchange for Union Brig. Gen. Neal S. Dow.

In April 1864, Lee was promoted to major general and commanded a division in the Cavalry Corps during the battles of The Wilderness, Todd's Tavern, Spotsylvania Court House, and North Anna in the Overland Campaign. With the death of Jeb Stuart, Rooney Lee's role increased. Lee's cavalry division patrolled the extreme right of the Confederate lines during the Siege of Petersburg, defending against the Wilson-Kautz Raid at Staunton River Bridge, Sappony Church and First Ream's Station. His division was then sent north to briefly aid in the defense of Richmond at the Second Battle of Deep Bottom, before supporting General Wade Hampton III's Beefsteak Raid, and then returning to Petersburg for the Battle of Boydton Plank Road.

By the last year of the war, Rooney Lee had risen to second-in-command of the Confederate cavalry in Virginia, General Hampton having been transferred to South Carolina to raise troops, and Lee's cousin, Fitzhugh, promoted to overall command. Lee's cavalry division screened the Confederate evacuation of Petersburg, notably at the Battle of Namozine Church during the Appomattox Campaign. He surrendered along with his father at Appomattox Court House with only 300 officers and men, one-tenth the size of the command during the Petersburg Campaign.

Postbellum career
Lee returned to White House Plantation and planting after the war. Nearby, his younger brother Rob lived at Romancoke Plantation across the river in King William County.

After their mother died in 1873, Rooney inherited Ravensworth Plantation, the old Fitzhugh family property (near present-day Springfield) in Fairfax County with 563 acre of land. He moved there with his family from White House.

In 1875 Rooney was elected to the Virginia Senate, serving until 1878. He was elected as a Democrat to the United States House of Representatives in 1887. He served in the House until his death at Ravensworth in 1891. He is interred in the University Chapel at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, with his parents and siblings.

Marriage and family
Lee married twice, first in 1859 to Charlotte Georgiana Wickham, daughter of George and Charlotte Carter Wickham and a descendant of the attorney John Wickham and his wife. They had two children, Robert Edward Lee (March 11, 1860 – June 30, 1862) and Charlotte Carter Lee (October 19, 1862 – December 6, 1862). Charlotte Georgiana Wickham Lee died December 26, 1863.

On November 28, 1867, he married Mary Tabb Bolling. They had two sons, who both lived to adulthood: Robert Edward Lee III (February 11, 1869, at Petersburg – September 7, 1922, at Roanoke, VA) and George Bolling Lee (August 30, 1872 at Lexington – July 13, 1948, at New York, NY).

Lee's mother, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, was the only surviving child of George Washington Parke Custis and Mary Lee Fitzhugh. George was the grandson of Martha Dandridge and step-grandson of President George Washington. Lee was also a descendant of Charles II of England through Lady Charlotte Lee (granddaughter of Barbara Villiers), who married the 4th Baron Baltimore, and possibly, a descendant of George I, through Benedict Swingate Calvert (grandson of Lady Charlotte Lee), the illegitimate son of 5th Baron Baltimore and of an unknown mother, who was supposed to be Melusina von der Schulenburg, illegitimate daughter of the King.

title: W. H. F. Lee


text:
Ramat Aviv

Ramat Aviv Alef or Ramat Aviv HaYeruka, and originally plainly Ramat Aviv (רָמַת אָבִיב, lit. Spring Heights), is a neighborhood in northwest Tel Aviv, Israel.

History
Ramat Aviv was founded in 1950s following the great influx of immigrants from Eastern Europe. Golda Meir lived in the neighborhood from 1959 to 1978.

In January 2011 it was published that remains of a building, believed to be 7,800–8,400 years old, were discovered in an archaeological excavation carried out in 8 Fichman Street in Ramat Aviv, by the Israel Antiquities Authority. The findings attest to permanent habitation on the northern bank of the Yarkon River.

Streets, boundaries, and transit
Ramat Aviv is bordered by Einstein Street in the north, Chaim Levanon Street to the east and south, and Namir Road in the west. The main streets in the neighborhood are Brodetzki and Reading. These five arterials are served by several bus lines each.

Landmarks
In the neighborhood are the Alliance High School and Ramat Aviv Mall. In the northeast of the neighborhood, opposite university campus, are student dorms of Tel Aviv University.

Nearby landmarks are Tel Aviv University, the Eretz Israel Museum, the Palmach Museum, and Beth Hatefutsoth.

Other neighborhoods of Tel Aviv with Ramat Aviv in the name

 * Ramat Aviv Bet, usually referred to as Neve Avivim – north of Ramat Aviv Alef
 * Ramat Aviv Gimel – to the north of Neve Avivim.
 * Ramat Aviv HaHadasha (New Ramat Aviv) – to the west of Neve Avivim

title: Ramat Aviv


text:
IJA

IJA may refer to:

 * Imperial Japanese Army
 * International Journal of Astrobiology
 * International Jugglers' Association
 * International Journal of Audiology
 * International Juridical Association (1931–1942)

title: IJA


text:
Alfred Pleasonton

Alfred Pleasonton (June 7, 1824 – February 17, 1897) was a United States Army officer and major general of volunteers in the Union cavalry during the American Civil War. He commanded the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac during the Gettysburg campaign, including the largest predominantly cavalry battle of the war, Brandy Station. In 1864, he was transferred to the Trans-Mississippi theater, where he defeated Confederate General Sterling Price in two key battles, including the Battle of Mine Creek, the second largest cavalry battle of the war, effectively ending the war in Missouri. He was the son of Stephen Pleasonton and younger brother of Augustus Pleasonton.

Early life
Pleasonton was born in Washington, D.C., on June 7, 1824. He was the son of Stephen and Mary Hopkins Pleasonton. Stephen was well known at the time of Alfred's birth. During the War of 1812, as a U.S. State Department employee, he saved crucial documents in the National Archives from destruction by the British invaders of Washington, including the original Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. As Fifth Auditor of the U.S. Treasury, Stephen Pleasonton was the de facto superintendent of lighthouses of the United States from 1820 to 1852. His conservative approach and emphasis on the economy held back advancements in lighthouse construction and technology and led to the deterioration of some lighthouses. Since he had no technical knowledge of the field, he delegated many responsibilities to local customs inspectors. In 1852, the U.S. Congress decided reform was needed and established the Lighthouse Board to take over fiscal and administrative duties for U.S. lighthouses.

Alfred's much older brother, Augustus, attended the United States Military Academy and served as Assistant Adjutant General and paymaster of the state of Pennsylvania; his career direction obviously affected his younger brother's and both boys were assured nomination to the Academy by their father's fame from the War of 1812. Alfred graduated from West Point on July 1, 1844, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Dragoons (heavy cavalry). He was stationed first at Fort Atkinson, Iowa. He followed his unit for frontier duty in Minnesota, Iowa, and Texas. He was promoted to second lieutenant with the 2nd U.S. Dragoons on November 3, 1845. With the 2nd Dragoons, he fought in the Mexican–American War and received a brevet promotion to first lieutenant for gallantry in the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas, in 1846. He was promoted to first lieutenant on September 30, 1849. He served as regimental adjutant from July 1, 1854, to March 3, 1855. Pleasonton was promoted to captain on March 3, 1855.

Peninsula to Chancellorsville
At the start of the Civil War in 1861, Captain Pleasonton traveled with the 2nd Dragoons from Fort Crittenden, Utah Territory, to Washington D.C. Despite active politicking on his part, attempting to capitalize on the faded political connections of his father (who had died in 1855), Pleasonton did not earn the rapid promotions of some of his colleagues. He was transferred to the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment on August 3, 1861. He was promoted to major on February 15, 1862. He fought without incident or prominence in the Peninsula campaign, providing Army of the Potomac commander Major General George McClellan with little accurate or valuable information. On May 1, 1862, Pleasonton was nominated by President Abraham Lincoln for promotion to the grade of brigadier general of volunteers to rank from July 16, 1862, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on July 16, 1862. President Lincoln formally appointed Pleasonton to the grade on July 18, 1862. He then commanded a brigade of cavalry in the Army of the Potomac.

On September 2, 1862, Pleasonton assumed division command in the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac. As McClellan's chief cavalryman, it was part of Pleasonton's duties to provide his commanding general with intelligence, especially the size of enemy formation. In general, McClellan relied on the erroneous information provided to him by private detective Allan Pinkerton, which resulted in McClellan's idee fixe that he was constantly unnumbered by the Confederate forces he faced. During the Maryland campaign of 1862, Pinkerton had no agents in place, so the task of estimating enemy strength fell to Pleasonton, who turned out to be as inept at it as Pinkerton. As a result, McClellan remained convinced that Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces outnumbered his two-to-one, when the truth was almost exactly the opposite.

He was wounded in the right ear by the concussion of an artillery shell at the Battle of Antietam on September 17. Ever ambitious, Pleasonton was displeased that he was not promoted to major general of volunteers for his actions, claiming erroneously that his division, and particularly the horse artillery assigned to him, had had a decisive effect on the battle. He did receive a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army, probably based solely on the inflated claims of his battle report, which were not substantiated by the reports of other generals.

At the Battle of Chancellorsville, Pleasonton continued his practice of self-promotion. He claimed that he temporarily halted an attack by Stonewall Jackson's Corps and that he was able to prevent the total destruction of the Union XI Corps on May 2, 1863. He was persuasive enough that the commander of the Army of the Potomac, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, told President Abraham Lincoln that Pleasonton "saved the Union Army" at Chancellorsville. Battle reports, however, indicate that Pleasonton's role was considerably less important than he claimed, involving only a small detachment of Confederate infantry on Hazel Grove. Nevertheless, his claims earned him an appointment to the grade of major general of volunteers on and to rank from June 22, 1863, and when the inept Cavalry Corps commander, Maj. Gen. George Stoneman, was relieved after Chancellorsville, Hooker named Pleasonton as his temporary replacement. Pleasonton could not accept even this elevated role gracefully. He wrote to Gen. Hooker "I cannot ... remain silent as to the unsatisfactory condition in which I find this corps ... the responsibility of its present state ... does not belong to me."

Gettysburg
Pleasonton's first combat in his new role was a month later in the Gettysburg campaign. He led Union cavalry forces in the Battle of Brandy Station, the largest predominantly cavalry battle of the war. The Union cavalry essentially stumbled into J. E. B. Stuart's Confederate cavalry and the 14-hour battle was bloody but inconclusive, although Stuart was embarrassed that he had been surprised and the Union horsemen had a newfound confidence in their abilities. Subordinate officers criticized Pleasonton for not aggressively defeating Stuart at Brandy Station. Gen. Hooker had ordered Pleasonton to "disperse and destroy" the Confederate cavalry near Culpeper, Virginia, but Pleasonton claimed that he had only been ordered to make a "reconnaissance in force toward Culpeper", thus rationalizing his actions. In the remainder of the Gettysburg Campaign up to the climactic battle, Pleasonton did not perform as a competent cavalry commander and was generally unable to inform his commander where the enemy troops were located and what their intentions were. The Army of Northern Virginia, under Gen. Robert E. Lee, was able to slip past Union forces through the Shenandoah Valley and north into Pennsylvania. During this period, he attempted to exercise political influence by promoting the nephew of a U.S. Congressman, Captain Elon J. Farnsworth, a member of his staff, directly to brigadier general. Pleasonton also promoted Captain Wesley Merritt and First Lieutenant George Armstrong Custer to brigadier general.

Pleasonton corresponded with the congressman and complained about his lack of men and horses in comparison to Jeb Stuart's; he also politicked to acquire the cavalry forces of Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel, who commanded the cavalry in the defenses of Washington. The machinations worked. Stahel was relieved of his command and his troopers were reassigned to Pleasonton. Hooker was enraged by these activities and it was probably only his own relief from command on June 28, 1863, that saved Pleasonton's career from premature termination.

In the Battle of Gettysburg, Pleasonton's new commander, Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, understood Pleasonton's reputation (and his father's) and kept him on a short leash. For the three days of the battle, Pleasonton was forced to remain with Meade at army headquarters, rather than with the Cavalry Corps headquarters nearby, and Meade exercised more direct control of the cavalry than an army commander normally would. In postwar writings, Pleasonton attempted to portray his role in the battle as being a major one, including predicting to Meade that the town of Gettysburg would be the decisive point and, after the Confederate defeat in Pickett's Charge, that he urged Meade to attack Gen. Lee and finish him off. He conveniently made these claims after Meade's death, when dispute was impossible. On the other hand, however, Pleasonton cannot be blamed for the unfortunate cavalry action on July 3, when Meade ordered the division of Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick to attack the right flank of the Confederate army, which resulted in a suicidal assault against entrenched infantry and the futile death of Brig. Gen. Elon Farnsworth. After Pleasonton was removed the field, Meade was impressed with his performance from headquarters as an acting chief of staff during the battle.

Trans-Mississippi
Pleasonton was transferred to the Trans-Mississippi Theater and commanded the District of Central Missouri and the District of St. Louis on July 4, 1864. He performed well and over a period of four days, defeated Gen. Sterling Price at the Westport, the Battle of Byram's Ford, the Battle of Mine Creek, and the Marais des Cygnes, ending the last Confederate threat in the West. He was injured by a fall in October 1864.

In 1864 and 1865, he instituted a policy of amnesty, granting parole to Confederate prisoners on condition they go up the Missouri River to the Dakota and Montana Territories. This resulted in preventing many of the remnants of Price's army from becoming bushrangers, like Quantrill, and also resulted in Missouri Confederates migrating to the goldfields of the Montana Territory.

On April 10, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Pleasonton for appointment as a brevet brigadier general in the regular army for the campaign in Missouri, to rank from March 13, 1865, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on May 4, 1866 (and July 14, 1866, after changes in the date of rank for brevet appointments for non-field service). On July 17, 1866, President Johnson nominated Pleasonton for appointment as a brevet major general in the regular army for his overall conduct in the war, to rank from March 13, 1865, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on July 23, 1866.

Postbellum career
After the war, although Pleasonton had achieved the honorary rank of brevet major general in the regular army, he was mustered out of the volunteer service with the permanent rank of major of cavalry. Because he did not want to leave the cavalry, Pleasonton turned down a lieutenant colonel in the infantry, and soon became dissatisfied with his command relationship to officers he once outranked. Pleasonton resigned his commission in 1868, and was placed on the Army's retired list as a major in 1888. As a civilian, he worked as United States Collector of Internal Revenue and as Commissioner of Internal Revenue under President Ulysses S. Grant, but he was asked to resign from the Bureau of Internal Revenue (now the Internal Revenue Service) after he lobbied Congress for the repeal of the income tax and quarreled with his superiors at the Treasury Department. Refusing to resign, he was dismissed. He served briefly as the president of the Terre Haute and Cincinnati Railroad.

In an 1895 interview with sculptor James Edward Kelly, Pleasonton claimed he had been offered command of the Army of the Potomac. (A subsequent interview with Gen. James F. Wade indicated that this offer came in a meeting in Washington some time after Gettysburg.) Pleasonton told Kelly that he "wasn't like Grant. I refused to pay the price." He claimed that the terms offered were: "The war must not be ended until the South was crushed; slavery abolished; and the President reelected." Pleasonton, always more of a bureaucrat than an ideologue or strong leader, only wanted to defeat the South's military capabilities so that they could not threaten the rest of the states, but was not convinced that "crushing" the rebels, ending slavery, or reelecting Lincoln was worth the cost.

Alfred Pleasonton died in his sleep in Washington, D.C., on January 17, 1897, and is buried in the Congressional Cemetery there, alongside his father. Before his death, Pleasonton requested that his funeral be devoid of all military honors and even refused to be buried in his old uniform because he felt the Army passed him over after the Civil War.

The town of Pleasanton, California, was named for Alfred in the late 1860s; a typographical error by a U.S. Postal Service employee apparently led to the spelling difference. The city of Pleasanton, Kansas, also named for Pleasonton, held its first "General Pleasonton Days" celebration in 2007. On the huge Pennsylvania Memorial at the Gettysburg Battlefield stands a statue of General Pleasonton. However, it is possible that this represents Alfred's brother, Augustus, a native of Pennsylvania, who was a general in the Pennsylvania militia at the time of the battle.

title: Alfred Pleasonton


text:
Calico (goldfish)

Calico goldfish are goldfish of any breed that have a type of scale that is intermediate between the metallic type of scales and the transparent type. These scales have a slight sheen that produces a pearly appearance. The name "calico goldfish" came about because the first fish that were introduced with this type of scales had a mottled calico pattern with several colours.

Calico goldfish often have patches of red, yellow, grey and black along with dark speckles on a blue background. This coloration usually extends over the fins.

Although calico coloration occurs in many fancy goldfish varieties such as telescope eyes, fantails, ryukins, orandas, and ranchu's, the nacreous scale characteristic is usually exclusive to the shubunkins, which are single-tailed fish that are similar to the common goldfish and could grow up to 12 inches in length.

title: Calico (goldfish)


text: User talk:208.23.140.11

title: User talk:208.23.140.11


text:
José Carlos Mariátegui

José Carlos Mariátegui La Chira (June 14, 1894 – April 16, 1930) was a Peruvian writer, sociologist, historian, journalist, politician and Marxist philosopher.

A prolific author despite his early death, El Amauta (from Quechua: hamawt'a, "teacher," a name by which he is also known in his country) is considered one of the greatest scholars of Latin America. His Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (1928), a synthesis of his thought, became a reference work for the intelligentsia of the continent.

He was the founder of the Peruvian Socialist Party (1927) (PSP) and the General Confederation of Workers of Peru (CGTP) in 1927 and 1929 respectively. The PSP initially adhered to Mariateguism for a syndicalist-influenced socialism "without tracing or copying," but after Mariategui's death in 1928 it would be reformed as the Peruvian Communist Party to be in-line with the Comintern's rigid party policy and Marxism-Leninism. In 1930 the party wing loyal to Mariategui would split and form the Socialist Party of Peru (Partido Socialista del Perú).

For the sociologist and philosopher Michael Löwy, Mariátegui is "undoubtedly the most vigorous and original Marxist thinker that Latin America has ever known." Along the same lines, José Pablo Feinmann, Argentine philosopher and cultural critic, declared him the "greatest Latin American Marxist philosopher."

Childhood and youth
Mariátegui was born in Moquegua in 1894. His parents were María Amalia La Chira Ballejos and Francisco Javier Mariátegui Requejo. Among his ancestors was the illustrious liberal thinker Francisco Javier Mariátegui y Tellería. He had two brothers: Guillermina and Julio César Mariátegui.

In 1899 he moved with his mother and his brothers to Huacho and in 1902, after an accident at school, he was admitted to the Maison de Santé clinic in Lima. After a long recovery he was left with ankylosis in his left leg for the rest of his life. Having become unable to partake in the recreations typical of his age, he began reading and reflecting.

In 1907, his father Francisco Javier Mariátegui died in the port of Callao.

In 1909, Mariátegui joined the newspaper La Prensa to perform auxiliary tasks, first as a rejones (folder) and then as a linotypist's assistant. Despite not having completed his school studies, he was trained in journalism and began to work as a columnist, first in La Prensa (1914-1916) and then in the newspaper El Tiempo (1916-1919), at the same time that he collaborated in the magazines Mundo Limeño, Lulú, El Turf and Colónida. Using the pseudonym Juan Croniqueur, he ridiculed Lima's frivolity and exhibited a vast self-taught culture, which brought him closer to the avant-garde intellectual and artistic nuclei. He became friends with the writer Abraham Valdelomar, with whom he formed a dilettante duo whose duels of wit they reproduced in their chronicles. Around that time (which he later contemptuously called his "stone age"), he enthusiastically cultivated poetry but never published his announced collection of poems, Sadness.

In 1918 his interests turned to social problems. Together with the journalist César Falcón and Félix del Valle, he founded the magazine Nuestra Época, in which he criticized militarism and traditional politics but of which only two issues came out. In 1919, also in collaboration with Falcón, he founded the newspaper La Razón, in which he supported university reform and workers' struggles. This newspaper did not have a long life either and was closed by the government of President Augusto B. Leguía, officially for having expressed contempt for members of parliament, although it was most likely due to the growing popular demands that it encouraged.

Trip to Europe and socialist training
Mariátegui and Falcón traveled to Europe on a scholarship they received the Leguía government as a covert form of deportation. They passed through New York, coinciding with a strike of workers on the docks of the port, and in Germany with the Spartacist revolution, reaching the port of Le Havre in November and then Paris. The researcher Sylvers Malcolm claims that both traveled as "overseas propagandists" of the Leguía government; that both belonged to the Foreign Relations sector; and that they were paid and on scholarships, as was believed for a time. Mariátegui was assigned to the Peruvian Consulate in Rome and Falcón to the Peruvian Consulate in Madrid. All of this appears corroborated in a letter from Mariategui to Victoria Ferrer, dated January 24, 1920.

During this trip, his eldest daughter, Gloria María Mariátegui Ferrer, was born from his relationship with Victoria Ferrer González.

Mariátegui said that it was in Europe that he did the most of his learning. He linked up with leading writers, studied languages, inquired about new intellectual and artistic concerns, and attended international conferences and meetings.

In Italy he married Anna Chiappe and was present during the occupation of the factories in Turin, as well as at the XVII National Congress of the Italian Socialist Party in Livorno, where the historic split took place and the Italian Communist Party (PCI) was formed. He was part of PSI study circles and took on Marxism as a method of study when Benito Mussolini was about to take power. According to his analysis, the victory of fascism is the price a country must pay for the contradictions of the left.

Mariátegui left Italy and traveled throughout Europe, hoping to be able to return to Peru. He visited Paris, Munich, Vienna, Budapest, Prague and Berlin. During this tour, he studied the revolutionary movements that convulsed Europe after the war.

Return to Peru
On March 17, 1923, Mariátegui returned to Lima, accompanied by his wife and his firstborn. At the invitation of Haya de la Torre, the founder and rector, he gave lectures at the Universidad Popular González Prada on the world crisis resulting from the First World War. He was put in charge of the direction of Claridad magazine when its founder, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, the future leader of APRA, was expelled to Mexico as an exile. He called for the realization of the United Front of Workers. At the end of that same year he announced the publication of Vanguardia: Revista Semanal de Renovación Ideológica, co-directed with Félix del Valle, a project that was not carried out but later became the magazine Amauta.

In 1924, due to his old injury, Mariátegui had to have his leg amputated. He continued his creative activity confined to a wheelchair. He spent a period of rest in Miraflores, moving on June 1, 1925, to his most symbolic residence on Washington Street, left, No. 544, today known as the José Carlos Mariátegui House Museum. In October 1925, he founded the Editorial Minerva publishing house together with his brother Julius Caesar, which published his works and those of other Peruvian authors, beginning with his first compilation book of essays: The contemporary scene, on world politics. In 1926 he founded the magazine Amauta (wise or teacher in Quechua), which united a broad generation of intellectuals around a new appreciation of national life and gave impetus to the indigenous movement in art and literature. Likewise, he collaborated assiduously in the Lima weekly magazines Variedades and Mundial.

Mariátegui was imprisoned in 1927 during a trial against communists accused of conspiring against the Leguía government, but was later given house arrest. In 1928 he broke politically with Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, with whom he had collaborated between 1926 and 1928, when APRA was still only an alliance. "The discrepancies arise for reasons above all of political tactics rather than ideology." On October 7, 1928, he founded the Peruvian Socialist Party, becoming its general secretary a year later. During the same year, he founded the Marxist magazine Labor and published his Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality. In 1929 he founded the General Confederation of Workers of Peru.

Mariátegui's political project was put to the test in the Latin American Trade Union Congress in Montevideo (May 1929) and the Latin American Communist Conference (June 1929). They were attended by the Peruvian Socialist Party with five delegates who carry Mariátegui's approach: Hugo Pesce, Julio Portocarrero, José Bracamonte (pilot of the National Merchant Marine, founder of the Federation of Crewmen of Peru), Juan Peves (peasant leader of Ica, founder of the Federation of Yanacones) and Carlos Saldías (textile leader). These approaches were questioned by the political bureau of the International in South America, generating a distance between Mariátegui and the Communist International. Ultimately, Mariátegui "did not agree to subordinate himself to the communist hierarchy."

In February 1930, Eudocio Ravines was appointed General Secretary of the Socialist Party of Peru, replacing Mariátegui, who was preparing a trip to Buenos Aires, where he could treat his illness and participate in the General Council of the Anti-Imperialist League. He also planned to give Amauta greater reach by moving its headquarters from Lima to Buenos Aires.

Last days and death
At the end of March 1930, Mariátegui was admitted to an emergency hospital accompanied by his friends, including Diego San Román Zeballos (creator of the magazine El Poeta Hereje). He died on April 16, almost on the eve of his long-awaited trip to Buenos Aires. On May 20, the leadership of the Peruvian Socialist Party, with Eudocio Ravines as general secretary and Jean Braham Fuentes Cruz as general president, changed the name of the Socialist Party of Peru to the Peruvian Communist Party.

Mariátegui was buried in the Presbítero Maestro Cemetery with a massive funeral procession. In 1955, commemorating the 25th anniversary of his death, he was transferred to a new mausoleum in the same cemetery (a granite mound by the Spanish sculptor Eduardo Gastelu Macho).

Vision of Peru
The Conquest not only split the history of Peru, but also its economy. Before the Spaniards arrived, there was a quite solid indigenous communal economy. Material well-being existed thanks to the collectivist organization of Inca society. This organization had enervated the individual impulse and at the same time developed the habit of obedience to social duty.

The Conquest established a feudal economy. The Spanish did not seek to develop a solid economy but only to exploit natural resources. In other words, the Spaniards were not formed as a colonizing force (like the English in the United States), but rather constituted themselves as a small court, a bureaucracy. This system determined the republican economy.

The economic policy of the Spanish Crown prevented the emergence of a bourgeoisie in the colonies. These saw independence necessary to ensure their development. Independence is then decided by the needs of capitalist development, in that sense, England played a fundamental role in supporting the nascent American nations.

For Mariátegui, the gamonal inevitably invalidates any law or ordinance protecting the indigenous or peasant. Against the authority of the landowner sustained by environment and habit, the written law is powerless. The mayor or the municipal president, council or city council, the judge, the corregidor, the inspector, the commissioner, the collector, the police and the army are enfeudados to the great property. «The law cannot prevail against the gamonales. The official who persists in imposing it would be abandoned and sacrificed by the central power, near which the influences of gamonalism are always omnipotent, acting directly or through parliament, both ways with the same efficiency.

It is important to clarify the solidarity and commitment to which the regional gamonalismo and the central regime have gradually reached: "for all the defects, for all the vices of the central regime, the gamonalismo is responsible and supportive." The gamonal is a piece in the structure of the centralized administration: he is the local head of one of the political parties with national influence and is the fundamental link in the chain of one of the many clients of the political system. The central power rewards the gamonal by allowing him to enjoy innumerable contracts and alcabalas and currently, by leaving in his hands the royalties produced by the exploitation of natural resources by multinationals and innumerable contracts to complement them. Under these conditions, any decentralization ends with the essential result of an increase in the power of gamonalism.

Guano and saltpeter played a fundamental role in the development of the Peruvian economy. These products quickly increased the wealth of the State, since industrial Europe needed these resources to maintain its agricultural productivity, products that Peru had a monopoly on. This wealth was squandered by the Peruvian State. But it allowed the appearance of commercial and banking capital. A capitalist class began to be constituted, whose origin was found in the old Peruvian aristocracy. These products also allowed the consolidation of the power of the coast, since until then, mining had shaped the Peruvian economy an Andean character. In short, guano and saltpeter allowed the transformation of the Peruvian economy from a feudal system to a capitalist system.

The new nations sought to develop trade. Latin America sold its natural resources and bought manufactured products from Europe, generating a system that mainly benefited the European nations. This system allowed development only to the Atlantic countries, since the distances were enormous for the countries that were on the Pacific coast, as in the case of Peru. Peru, on the other hand, began to trade with Asia, but did not achieve the same development as the Atlantic countries.

In addition, with the War of the Pacific, Peru lost guano and saltpeter. But this war also meant the paralysis of all national production and trade, as well as the loss of foreign credit. Power temporarily fell into the hands of the military, but the Lima bourgeoisie soon regained its function. The Grace Contract was proposed as a measure to get out of the crisis. This contract consolidated the British predominance in Peru, by granting the railways in concession for a period of 66 years.

Marxism
Since his return from Europe, Mariátegui subscribed to Marxism, in the Leninist version of the Third International, finding remarkable similarities with the thought of Antonio Gramsci, especially with regard to the importance of the cultural superstructure not as a mere "reflection," but from the assessment of its revolutionary potentialities to generate counter-hegemony. Fruit of this notion was his theoretical magazine Amauta and the revolutionary organ Labor, which was closed by the Leguía regime. A tireless critic of the reformism of the Second International and of social democracy, Mariátegui is considered the first Marxist in Latin America, by emphasizing the role of the indigenous masses as the continent's authentic "proletariat" and proclaiming the need for socialist revolution, influenced by the radical syndicalism of Georges Sorel.

Fascism
Mariátegui argued that fascism was not an "exception" in Italy or a "cataclysm", but an international phenomenon "possible within the logic of History" of the development of monopolies in imperialism and its need to defeat the struggle of the proletariat. He saw fascism as big capital's response to a profound social crisis, an expression that the ruling class no longer felt sufficiently defended by its democratic institutions, for which it blames all the ills of the country before the masses, to the parliamentary system. And he bet on the revolutionary struggle, unleashing the cult of violence against the new order of the fascist state, conceived as a vertical authoritarian structure of corporations. Mariátegui glimpsed how the triumph of fascism was inevitably destined to exacerbate the European and world crisis.

Influence
In different ways, organizations like Shining Path, and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, and the Peruvian Communist Party all look to Mariátegui and his writings.

Mariátegui's ideas have recently seen a major revival due to the rise of leftist governments all over South America, in particular in Bolivia, where in 2005 Evo Morales became the first indigenous president since the Conquest 500 years earlier (second in Latin America following Mexico's Benito Juárez). The rise of popular indigenous movements in Ecuador and Peru have also sparked a renewed interest in Mariátegui's writings on the role of indigenous peoples in Latin American revolution. The ruling party in Peru from 2011 to 2016, the Peruvian Nationalist Party, claims Mariátegui as one of its ideological founders.

Works
During his lifetime, Mariátegui published only two books (The Contemporary Scene and the Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality), leaving two more unfinished and unpublished (The Morning Soul and Defense of Marxism published in 1950 and 1955, respectively, although much of them had already been published in the press). These works and his abundant journalism (articles, conferences, essays, and a short novel) have been edited by his heirs (his wife and his children) into 20 volumes. Among these volumes are two biographies of Mariátegui (by María Wiesse and by Armando Bazán), a summary of the content of Amauta magazine by Alberto Tauro del Pino, and a poetic anthology of various authors inspired by Mariátegui's life and work. Mariátegui's own work fills 16 of the volumes. Substantial work was produced from 1923 to 1930.

 * The Heroic and Creative Meaning of Socialism José Carlos Mariátegui. Selected Essays. – Edited and Translated by Michael Pearlman. 1996 Humanities Press, New Jersey
 * Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality by José Carlos Mariátegui. University of Texas Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0292701151

title: José Carlos Mariátegui


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