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Donald Fowler

Donald L. Fowler (September 12, 1935 –December 15, 2020) was an American political scientist, professor, and political operative who served as National Chair of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) from 1995 to 1997, alongside Chris Dodd as General Chairman during this same period.

Fowler was a political science professor and businessman from South Carolina who spent most of his adult life in various Democratic Party roles, including state party executive director, state party chair, and CEO of the 1988 Democratic National Convention in Atlanta.

Early life
Fowler was born on September 12, 1935, in Spartanburg, South Carolina. Fowler earned a degree in psychology from Wofford College in Spartanburg in 1957 where he had his basketball jersey retired, was president of the student body, and became a member of the Kappa Alpha Order. For his master's and doctoral degrees, he attended the University of Kentucky. He taught public administration and American politics at the University of South Carolina starting in 1964, and also taught at Wofford College and The Citadel. He was a colonel in the U.S. Army Reserve and a graduate of the U.S. Army War College as well. He retired from the army in 1987.

Early political involvement
Fowler served as chairman of the South Carolina Democratic Party from 1971 to 1980, during the tenure of Democratic governor John C. West, the contentious gubernatorial election of 1974 and the early tenure of Democratic governor Richard Riley.

Prior to the 1984 Democratic National Convention, he was appointed by party chairman Paul G. Kirk to chair the "Fairness Commission", one of many Democratic commissions created to reform the presidential nomination process. Fowler's Fairness Commission allowed open primaries to be held in Wisconsin and Montana, reduced the threshold of votes that a candidate needed to receive in primaries or caucuses in order to qualify for delegates from 20% to 15%, and increased the number of convention superdelegates from 568 in 1984 to 650 in 1988. Fowler also served as CEO of the 1988 Democratic National Convention in Atlanta.

Chairman of the DNC
Fowler's term as National Chairman included the 1996 presidential election between Bill Clinton and Bob Dole. As national chairman, Fowler ran the party's day-to-day operations while Christopher Dodd, the general chairman, served with Fowler as the party's public faces. The two co-chair positions were established several times from 1995 to 2001, although the roles are usually combined.

In 1996, Fowler made a determination that Lyndon LaRouche, who was seeking the Democratic presidential nomination for the fifth time, was not a "bona fide Democrat" because of his "expressed political beliefs... which are explicitly racist and anti-Semitic" and due to his "past activities including exploitation of and defrauding contributors and voters", and instructed state parties to disregard votes for him. LaRouche lost his suit and his appeal, in a case known as LaRouche v. Fowler.

After Clinton's re-election, Fowler was accused of contacting the CIA about a businessman, Roger Tamraz, who had donated money to the Democratic party. His answer to questions from the U.S. Senate about this was, "I have in the middle of the night, high noon, late in the afternoon, early in the morning, every hour of the day, for months now searched my memory about conversations with the CIA. And I have no memory, no memory of any conversation with the CIA."

Later career

Fowler remained active in Democratic politics as a member of the DNC. Following the 2006 midterm elections, in response to James Carville's call to remove Howard Dean as chair, Fowler e-mailed his fellow DNC members, saying, "Some ill-advised voices have suggested that, because of his 50-state strategy, Governor Dean should be replaced as Chair of the DNC. This is nonsense. The 50-state strategy is exactly what the Democratic Party needed and continues to need.... Democrats won a great victory on November 7—control of the United States House of Representatives, control of the United States Senate, majority of Governors, and majority of state legislative bodies. Why should anyone want to mess with the team that won these remarkable results? Governor Dean deserves to continue as DNC Chair."

Fowler was the Chairman of the Board of Fowler Communications, Inc., a public relations and governmental affairs firm.

In 2014, Fowler was recognized by the South Carolina state legislature for his 50th year teaching at the University of South Carolina and remained a professor there throughout the 2010s.

Fowler's son, Donnie Fowler, ran unsuccessfully for DNC chair in 2005.

Personal life and death
Fowler had two children from his first wife, Septima Briggs, who died in 1997. Fowler married Carol Khare in 2005, who worked with him at the DNC and his communications firm. Two years later, Carol Fowler became the South Carolina Democratic Party chair.

Fowler died on December 15, 2020, at his home in Columbia, South Carolina, from leukemia complicated by COVID-19. He was 85.

title: Donald Fowler


text:
Todd Huth

Todd Richard Huth (born March 13, 1963) is an American guitarist, best known as an original member of the band Primus, along with bassist/lyricist Les Claypool.

Huth and Claypool began playing together, along with a drum machine, in or around 1984, originally calling themselves Primate until about 1986 when they changed their band name to Primus. With the lineup of Huth, Claypool, and Jay Lane, Primus became an underground sensation in and around San Francisco, prompting them to record a demo tape, Sausage, to distribute at their shows. Around 1989, however, with his wife expecting a child, Huth decided to leave Primus to dedicate time to his family. Huth was replaced by Larry LaLonde, an old friend of Claypool's who remains in the band to this day. Huth still appears on Primus’ debut studio album, Frizzle Fry, playing acoustic guitar on a few tracks.

After Primus went on to mainstream success without him, Huth reunited with Claypool and Lane in 1994 to produce an album on Claypool's label, Prawn Song Records. Unable to use their original band name, Primus, the trio instead adopted the title of one of their original demos, Sausage. The album was entitled Riddles Are Abound Tonight. Following that project, Huth formed a band, Porch, with former Today Is The Day bassist Christopher Frey and former Samiam drummer Dave Ayer. They released a single, eponymously titled album on Mammoth Records (via Claypool's Prawn Song label) in 1994.

In 2000, Huth again reunited with Les Claypool and toured with Claypool's side-project, Les Claypool's Fearless Flying Frog Brigade.

Huth's guitar style is quite distinctive, combining creative use of dissonance with heavy use of distortion. His style is clearly blues-influenced, incorporating extensive use of bends, and the blues scale.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Todd Huth


text:
Talk:Twila Paris

Untitled
Cleaned up some italics tags, quotation marks and punctuation. Equus911 (talk) 10:31, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

7 February 2004: I added some information regarding Twila as a hymnist. Mike Walker

I removed most of it as it did not express a neutral POV. Holford 00:25, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Ick...
The biographical section of this article is a mess now. WAVY 10 22:49, 23 May 2007 (UTC) How is her name pronounced? Tw-eye-la? Tw-ee-la? Tw-ill-a? I don't know, and many people i have spoke to don't know. Anyone who would like to put a few simple phonetical indications of the pronumciation would be helpful. ..or even the fancy international characters, too. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.71.8.217 (talk) 04:03, 25 September 2010 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Twilaparis.jpg
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Assessment comment
Substituted at 09:23, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Twila Paris


text:
Shane West

Shannon Bruce Snaith (born June 10, 1978), better known as Shane West, is an American actor, singer and songwriter. He is known for his portrayal of Eli Sammler in the ABC family drama Once and Again, Landon Carter in A Walk to Remember, Dr. Ray Barnett in the NBC medical drama ER, Michael Bishop in The CW spy drama Nikita and in the WGN fantasy adventure historical drama Salem as John Alden. West received critical acclaim for his performance portraying Darby Crash in the biopic What We Do Is Secret.

As well as acting, West has performed with punk rock band the Germs, Jonny Was, and the Twilight Creeps.

Early life
West was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the son of Leah Catherine ( Launey), a lawyer, and Don Snaith, a drugstore owner. Both his parents were musicians and had their own punk bands. His mother is of Cajun French descent and his father was born in Jamaica, of British and Portuguese-Jewish origin. He is the eldest of three children with a sister Simone and a half-sister Marli Ann. His parents divorced in 1982 when he was four years old. Influenced by his parents, he grew up listening to the Clash, the Jam, Blondie, Elvis Costello, and the Kinks. He said: "I always thought I would be doing music rather than acting."

At the age of ten, West and his sister Simone moved to Compton, California, with their mother because she was looking for a better job. They later moved to Norwalk, California. Embarrassed by his feminine first name, West went by his middle name Bruce but changed his name to Shane West in high school when he took up acting. He struggled for two years and lived at his manager's house, before making his acting debut in 1995, appearing in the CBS drama Picket Fences in the season 4, episode 6 "Heart of Saturday Night", where he played Dave Lattimore.

Acting
In 1998, West guest-starred in several television series including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and played Mark Tapper in the stage production of The Cider House Rules. He landed his first major role in 1999 in the ABC family drama Once and Again, playing Eli Sammler for three seasons. West's feature film debut was in Liberty Heights, a film about a Jewish family in Baltimore, directed by Barry Levinson. He also co-starred in teen comedies Whatever It Takes (2000) and Get Over It (2001).

West was cast as Landon Carter opposite singer and actress Mandy Moore in 2002's adaptation of Nicholas Sparks' novel A Walk to Remember. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times found him "quietly convincing". His performance in the film earned him a Teen Choice Award for Choice Chemistry with Moore. He also appeared in the Mandy Moore music video "Cry". That year, West won the Young Hollywood Award Male Superstar of Tomorrow.

In 2003, West starred as an adult version of Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen alongside Sean Connery. A year later, he joined the cast of the NBC medical drama, ER in the eleventh-season premiere, playing resident Ray Barnett. In May 2007, West left ER at the end of the thirteenth season after winning a role in Supreme Courtships, but the series was not picked up by the Fox Network. In October 2008, West returned to ER for three episodes during its fifteenth and final season.

During hiatus between seasons of ER, West worked on shooting What We Do Is Secret, an independent film, which premiered at the 2007 Los Angeles Film Festival after much delay. West helped to finance it. In the film, he portrays Darby Crash, a member of the 1970s punk band the Germs. Members of the band were so impressed by West's performance that they re-formed the band with West taking the deceased Crash's place. West received positive reviews for his portrayal in the movie; the San Francisco Chronicle stated that he is the one who "lifts the entire film to a whole other level". Similarly, The Seattle Times wrote that his impersonation was "worth saluting" while TV Guide called it "pretty impressive". In 2008, he received the Rising Star Award in Philadelphia Film Festival for his work in What We Do is Secret.

West starred as Michael Bishop in The CW spy drama Nikita from 2010 to 2013. In 2014, he began starring in the WGN America adventure/historical/fantasy drama Salem as John Alden for three seasons before the show ended in 2017.

West starred in post-apocalyptic film, Here Alone which premiered at the 2016 Tribeca Film Festival and was released theatrically on March 30, 2017. The film received the Audience Award at the 2016 Tribeca Film Festival

In 2018, West was cast as Eduardo Dorrance in the fifth and final season of Gotham. In November 2018, it was revealed that West will portray the role of Billy Millikin in upcoming feature film Gossamer Folds. In November 2019 it was announced that West will star in the upcoming sci-fi thriller No Running.

Music
West was the lead singer of punk rock band Jonny Was for "seven or eight years". The band was originally known as Average Joe but had to change its name for legal reasons. The band contributed to the A Walk to Remember soundtrack, appearing under the names "West, Gould, and Fitzgerald" because they had not yet decided on a new name. West described their style as "a pop-punk-type band, more Green Day-ish".

In November 2005, while What We Do Is Secret was still in production, it was announced that West would be fronting the Germs on tour. He performed with the band for nearly five years, doing an American tour (including the 2006 Warped Tour) and a European Tour. He described the experience as "more exciting" than acting. However, after booking a leading role in Nikita, West had less time to play with the band. His last performance was in December 2009.

In 2015, West reunited with some of his old bandmates from Jonny Was to form a new band called the Twilight Creeps. In October 2016, they released their debut album. In January 2019, they announced they are releasing their second album on February 1. In December of 2020, the Twilight Creeps released their first Christmas song entitled "Poison in the Mistletoe".

Personal life
West is a sports enthusiast and avid supporter of the New Orleans Saints and LSU Tigers football teams. In 2019 he lent his voice to some of the team's pre-season videos. He lived in Toronto, Canada for six years during the filming of the series Nikita.

with Jonny Was

 * Just Shy Of The Ride (2011)

with Twilight Creeps

 * Twilight Creeps (2016)
 * Along Came a Spider (2019)
 * Ghouls, Ghouls, Ghouls (2021)

title: Shane West


text:
User:Faethon27

I am Faethon
Hi! I am [Faethon]. My login is Faethon27 and my password Faethon27.

My history
[History until Faethon22] Then someone abused Faethon22, and registered [Faethon23], [Faethon24], [Faethon25], [Faethon26].

What I did to escape from vandalism
So I registered [Faethon27] hoping this account is not going to be abused. Fortunately, even in case they are going to abuse my brand new account again, there are always unregistered accounts to choose like [Faethon28], [Faethon29] e.t.c. (You can easily check wheither a FaethonX's account is registered or not. Just have a look in contributions link. If FaethonX name is [grey] it is not registered. If it is [blue] or [red], it is registered.)

Where are the admins?
[Where are they?]

My Rules
[Rules 1 - 7].

Rule 8: All votes of all FaethonX accounts are valid with the condition to have their password unlocked and set to the default FaethonX password. In case more than one valid FaethonX votes are casted in the SAME poll, then those votes are counted as ONE vote. The administrator who counts the votes is not allowed to change them, he/she has first to check if FaethonX has a valid FaethonX password, then make a sum of all FaethonX's votes, decide what the consensus of FaethonsX accounts is, and finnaly count their vote as one vote.

My Public Key
[Same as original Faethon account]

title: User:Faethon27


text:
Maria Bello

Maria Bello (born April 18, 1967) is an American actress, writer, and producer. Her first major film role was in 1998's Permanent Midnight. She followed this with a range of supporting and leading parts in films such as Payback (1999), Coyote Ugly (2000), The Cooler (2003), Secret Window (2004), Assault on Precinct 13, A History of Violence, Thank You for Smoking (all 2005), World Trade Center (2006), The Jane Austen Book Club (2007), The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008), Grown Ups (2010), Prisoners (2013), and Lights Out (2016).

Outside of film, Bello is best known for playing Anna Del Amico in the medical drama ER (1997–1998) and Jacqueline "Jack" Sloane in the police procedural drama NCIS (2017–2021). She received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination and won a Critics' Choice Award for her performance in the limited series Beef (2023). In 2009, The Guardian named her one of the best actors never to have received an Academy Award nomination.

Early life
Bello was born April 18, 1967, in Norristown, Pennsylvania, to Kathy, a school nurse and teacher, and Joe Bello, a contractor. Her father is Italian American, with roots in Montella, Italy, and her mother is Polish American. She grew up in a working-class, Catholic family and graduated from Archbishop John Carroll High School in Radnor, Pennsylvania. She majored in political science at Villanova University. Following graduation, Bello honed her acting skills in a number of New York theater productions.

Career
Bello's early TV appearances include episodes of The Commish (1991), Due South (1994), Nowhere Man (1995), Misery Loves Company (1995), and ER (1997–98). Her breakthrough came when she was cast as Mrs. Smith in the TV series spy show Mr. & Mrs. Smith, though the show was cancelled after eight weeks. She then appeared in the final three episodes of the third season of ER as pediatrician Dr. Anna Del Amico and was a regular cast member during the medical drama's fourth season.

Bello moved on to films, landing a role in Coyote Ugly (2000). She was nominated for the Golden Globe award twice: for Best Supporting Actress in The Cooler (2003) and for Best Actress in A History of Violence (2005). She starred in The Jane Austen Book Club (2007) as Jocelyn and as Dr. Alex Sabian in the 2005 film, Assault on Precinct 13, a remake of the original 1976 movie made by John Carpenter. In 2008, she starred in The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor as Evelyn O'Connell, replacing Rachel Weisz. In December 2008, Bello began developing a drama for HBO. Besides starring in the new series, Bello planned to also serve as an executive producer. She starred in the 2009 drama film The Yellow Handkerchief, which was released in theatres on February 26, 2010, by Samuel Goldwyn Films.

In 2010, Bello guest starred in two episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. The following year, she starred in the TV series Prime Suspect, which was cancelled after 13 episodes. In 2011, she became a founding board member of the CQ Matrix Company, a company created by her then-partner, Clare Munn, to help clients achieve "transformative living and the power of intelligent exchange" by enhancing their communication quotient. In 2014, she starred alongside Frank Grillo in the James Wan-produced thriller Demonic.

Bello began producing short films in 2010. In 2022, she was a producer on the film The Woman King.

Personal life
Bello has a son, Jackson, with her former boyfriend Dan McDermott. In November 2013, she wrote about having a same-sex relationship with her then-partner, Clare Munn. She published a book, Whatever...Love Is Love: Questioning the Labels We Give Ourselves (Dey Street Books, April 28, 2015). In February 2020, while attending the 92nd Academy Awards in their first public appearance as a couple, Bello announced she and chef Dominique Crenn had become engaged on December 29, 2019, while holidaying in Paris, France. They got married in a ceremony in Mexico on May 12, 2024.

Philanthropy
Bello has been involved in several advocacy and philanthropic causes. In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Bello founded WE ADVANCE with Aleda Frishman, Barbara Guillaume, and Alison Thompson. It is an organization that encourages Haitian women to collaborate in making healthcare a priority, and putting an end to domestic violence within their communities. , the organization is based in a health clinic and a community outreach center in Cité Soleil. Bello led fundraising efforts in Philadelphia and donated to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan. She is also a board member of Darfur Women Action Group, an NGO that undertakes activism on behalf of genocide victims of the Darfur conflict.

title: Maria Bello


text:
User talk:Heritagelost

Welcome
Hello , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! Thanks, Alphax (t) (c) (e) 06:30, Feb 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:Heritagelost


text:
CCH Pounder

Carol Christine Hilaria Pounder (born December 25, 1952) is an American actress. She portrayed Mo'at in the Avatar franchise, Amanda Waller in various DC media, and Claudette Wyms in the FX police drama series The Shield (2002–2008). She has received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her roles in The X-Files, ER, The Shield, and The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency.

Pounder portrayed Dr. Angela Hicks in the medical drama series ER (1994–1997), Irene Frederic in Warehouse 13 (2009–2014), and District Attorney Tyne Patterson in Sons of Anarchy (2013–2014). From 2014 until the show's conclusion in 2021, she portrayed medical examiner Dr. Loretta Wade on the police drama series NCIS: New Orleans. Pounder was also the voice of Amanda Waller in the animated show Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006), a role that she has reprised in later DC Comics media. As well as the voice of the recurring role of Kadma on W.I.T.C.H..

In film, she appeared in All That Jazz (1979), Go Tell It on the Mountain  (1984), Prizzi's Honor (1985), Bagdad Cafe (1987), Postcards from the Edge (1990), Psycho IV: The Beginning (1990), Benny & Joon (1993), Demon Knight (1995), Face/Off (1997), End of Days (1999), Orphan (2009), Avatar (2009), The Mortal Instruments: City of Bones (2013), and Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019).

Early life
Pounder was born in British Guiana (now Guyana) on December 25, 1952. Her full name, Carol Christine Hilaria Pounder, is in honor of her grandmothers and godmothers. She was raised on a sugar plantation that her father Ronald Arlington Pounder managed. Her mother Betsy Enid Arnella (nee James) worked at the United States Embassy while the family lived in London, England. Pounder attended a Catholic boarding school in Sussex, England.

She matriculated at Hastings College of Arts and Technology where Pounder studied painting, but dropped out as a freshman after moving to the United States. Her family had already settled in New York while she was attending school. Pounder graduated from Ithaca College in 1975. Pounder stated her parents did not support her choice to be an actress, with her mother instead wanting Pounder to be a newscaster.

Career
Pounder made her acting debut in the film All That Jazz (1979). She continued her career in New York City theater, where she appeared in The Mighty Gents by playwright Richard Wesley, and Open Admissions on Broadway. She moved to Los Angeles in 1982. She starred in the film Bagdad Café, and has made smaller appearances in many other films.

She focused primarily on her television career. In the early 1980s, Pounder first appeared in guest roles on Hill Street Blues, and then on several shows (The Cosby Show, L.A. Law, The X-Files, Living Single, and Quantum Leap) before landing a long-running recurring role as Dr. Angela Hicks on ER from 1994 to 1997. She also co-starred in the Tales From the Crypt feature film Demon Knight (1995). She then returned to guest appearances on other shows, including The Practice, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Millennium, The West Wing (where she was considered for the role of C. J. Cregg), and the short-lived sitcom Women in Prison.

From 2002 to 2008, she starred as Detective Claudette Wyms in the FX police drama The Shield. For this role she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2005 and an NAACP Image Award. She had previously been nominated for an Emmy in 1995 for guest starring in The X-Files and in 1997 for her supporting role on ER. She has also lent her voice to several video games and animated projects, including Aladdin and the King of Thieves, True Crime: Streets of LA, Gargoyles as Desdemona and Coldfire, and Justice League Unlimited as government agent Amanda Waller, which role she reprised for the animated film adaptation of the comic book Superman/Batman: Public Enemies as well as the video game Batman: Arkham Origins, its sequel Batman: Arkham Origins Blackgate, and another animated film that takes place in continuity with the games, Batman: Assault on Arkham.

Pounder was also one of the readers for the HBO film Unchained Memories: Readings from the Slave Narrative (2003). She appeared on the Syfy series Warehouse 13 from 2009 until its finale on May 19, 2014. Pounder also was one of the stars of Fox's cancelled 2009 sitcom Brothers. Pounder was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her appearance in the BBC/HBO series The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency. She had a recurring role as DA Thyne Patterson on the FX crime drama series Sons of Anarchy (2013–14). She co-starred in The Mortal Instruments: City of Bones (2013). In Disney's The Lion Guard she voices Kongwe, the wise old turtle.

In 1996, Pounder served as a guest judge for the 1996 Miss USA Pageant, in South Padre Island, Texas.

Advocacy
As one of the founders of Artists for a New South Africa, Pounder has energized awareness of post-apartheid and HIV/AIDS issues. In an interview, she said about the pandemic: "When it's this massive disease, and it's affecting things in 5,000 different ways, it requires great strength and power—and there is power in numbers. So we need to involve as many people as we can, like we do with ANSA. I call it my little engine that could. It is a remarkable, tiny organization with a huge outreach. We use actors and artists with the biggest voices so they can use every opportunity to talk about AIDS."

title: CCH Pounder


text:
Donnie R. Marshall

Donnie R. Marshall is an American federal agent who served as the 7th Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) from 1999 to 2001.

Early life and education
Marshall was born in Dallas, Texas and grew up in San Augustine, Texas. He received a B.S. degree from Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. He worked as a firefighter for the city of Nacogdoches while attending college. Marshall is married to Catherine, a native of Galveston, Texas, and has three children, Emory, Ross and Elissa.

Career
From 1984–1986, Marshall served as Assistant Special Agent in Charge of DEA's Dallas Division. He also served as a Senior Inspector in the Office of Professional Responsibility, as the Deputy Regional Director for the Latin America Region, as Country Attache in Brazil, as the Resident Agent in Charge in Austin, and as a Special Agent in Dallas, Texas and Houston, Texas.

He headed DEA's worldwide air operations from 1986–1995 as Special Agent in Charge of the Aviation Division. From 1995–1996, he was the Chief of Domestic Operations and chaired the Sensitive Activities Review Committee responsible for approving and managing potentially controversial or high-risk operations. From 1996–1998 he served as Chief of Operations, with the responsibility of overseeing all daily operations of DEA.

In this capacity, he directed international investigations which resulted in the arrest of important figures in major Mexican and Colombian drug organizations. Marshall began serving as Deputy Administrator in December 1998 and became Acting Administrator in July 1999. Marshall was subsequently nominated by President William J. Clinton to serve as Administrator of Drug Enforcement, was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate, serving as Administrator until his retirement from government service in July 2001.

Leadership tenure
Under Marshall's leadership, the DEA developed enforcement programs against Mexican drug trafficking organizations at a time when they were becoming the predominant force in illegal drug trafficking in the United States. Marshall also established controls over the drugs ketamine and GHB (gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid.)

Under Marshall's leadership, the DEA disrupted financial and transportation bases of organized crime groups in targeted enforcement operations such as Operation Millennium, Operation Tarpit, Operation Impunity and Impunity II, Operation White Horse and Operation Journey. During Marshall's tenure, DEA also established demand-reduction programs and enforcement programs against ecstasy (MDMA) which was being used at record levels by young people in the U.S. Operation Red Tide dismantled the largest international ecstasy trafficking organization in the world.

title: Donnie R. Marshall


text:
Log bridge

A log bridge is a timber bridge that uses logs that fall naturally or are intentionally felled or placed across streams. The first man-made bridges with significant span were probably intentionally felled trees.

The use of emplaced logs is now sometimes used in temporary bridges used for logging roads, where a forest tract is to be harvested and the road then abandoned. Such log bridges have a severely limited lifetime due to soil contact and subsequent rot and wood-eating insect infestation.

Longer lasting log bridges may be constructed by using treated logs and/or by providing well drained footings of stone or concrete combined with regular maintenance to prevent soil infiltration. This care in construction can be seen in the French bridge illustrated below, which has well locked dry set stone abutments and a footpath leveled with boards.

title: Log bridge


text:
Ruby Payne-Scott

Ruby Violet Payne-Scott (28 May 1912 – 25 May 1981) was an Australian pioneer in radiophysics and radio astronomy, and was one of two Antipodean women pioneers in radio astronomy and radio physics at the end of the second world war, Ruby Payne-Scott the Australian and Elizabeth Alexander the New Zealander.

Early life and education
Ruby Payne-Scott was born on 28 May 1912 in Grafton, New South Wales, the daughter of Cyril Payne-Scott and his wife Amy (née Neale). She later moved to Sydney to live with her aunt. There she attended the Penrith Public Primary School (1921–24), and the Cleveland-Street Girls' High School (1925–26),  before completing her secondary schooling at Sydney Girls High School. Her school leaving certificate included honours in mathematics and botany.

She won two scholarships to undertake tertiary education at the University of Sydney, where she studied physics, chemistry, mathematics and botany. She earned a BSc in 1933—the third woman to graduate in physics there—followed by an MSc in physics in 1936 and a Diploma of Education in 1938.

Early career
In 1936, Payne-Scott conducted research with William H. Love at the Cancer Research Laboratory at the University of Sydney. They determined that the magnetism of the Earth had little or no effect on the vital processes of beings living on the Earth by cultivating chicken embryos with no observable differences, despite being in magnetic fields up to 5,000 times as powerful as that of the Earth. Some decades earlier it was a widely held belief that the Earth's magnetic field produced extensive effects on human beings, and many people would sleep only with the head to the north and the body parallel to the magnetic meridian.

After her cancer research, she worked for a year and a term as a secondary school teacher at St Peter's Woodlands Grammar School from 1938 through 1939. Shortly after this, Payne-Scott joined AWA, a prominent electronics manufacturer and operator of two-way radio communications systems in Australia. Although originally hired as a librarian, her work quickly expanded to leading the measurements laboratory and performing electrical engineering research. She left AWA in August 1941, having grown displeased with its research environment.

Contributions to radar and radio astronomy

On 18 August 1941, Payne-Scott joined the Radiophysics Laboratory of the Australian government's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). During World War II, she was engaged in top secret work investigating radar technology, becoming Australia's expert on the detection of aircraft using Plan Position Indicator (PPI) displays. After the war, in 1948, she published a comprehensive report on factors affecting visibility on PPI displays. She also made important contributions to prototype radar systems operating in the 25cm microwave band, achieving significant improvements.

As the focus of the Radiophysics Lab switched from developing radar systems to repurposing them for scientific pursuits, she was a major contributor to setting new goals. Payne-Scott's expertise as both a physicist and an electrical engineer distinguished her among her colleagues, most of whom lacked a formal physics education. In October 1945, together with Joe Pawsey, who acknowledged her potenial in the field of radio astronomy and motivated her to apply her skills using radios techniques, and Lindsay McCready, she wrote to Nature documenting a connection between sunspots and increased radio emissions from the Sun (published February 1946).

In December 1945, she authored a summary of "all knowledge available and measurements taken" at the Radiophysics Lab, and suggested future research directions that "set the thinking" for the group.

In February 1946, Payne-Scott, McCready, and Pawsey made use of the sea-cliff location of their observation sites to perform the first radio interferometry for astronomical observations, their observations confirming that intense radio 'bursts' originated from the sunspots themselves. Their paper was also the first suggestion of Fourier synthesis in radio astronomy, an idea that hinted at the field's future of aperture synthesis.

From 1946 to 1951, Payne-Scott focused on these 'burst' radio emissions from the Sun, and is credited with discovering Type I and III bursts, and with gathering data that helped characterise Types II and IV. As part of this work, together with Alec Little, she designed and built a new 'swept-lobe' interferometer that could draw a map of solar radio emission strength and polarization once every second, and would automatically record to a movie camera whenever emissions reached a certain intensity.

Resignation and second career
In 1951, Payne-Scott's scientific career ended abruptly, with her decision to resign in order to start a family; at the time, there was no maternity leave.

In August 1952, she returned briefly to radio astronomy, participating in the 10th International Union of Radio Science General Assembly at the University of Sydney.

From 1963 to 1974, Payne-Scott returned to teaching at Danebank School, in a southern suburb of Sydney.

Personal life
Payne-Scott was an atheist, a feminist, and an advocate for women's rights, and it was alleged a sometime member of the Communist Party of Australia. As a result, the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) created a substantial file on her activities, with some distortions.

She was a passionate bushwalker, a lover of cats, and also enjoyed knitting.

Family
Ruby Payne-Scott and William ("Bill") Holman Hall secretly married in 1944; at this time, the Commonwealth government had legislated for a marriage bar specifying that married women could not hold a permanent position within public service. She continued to work for CSIRO while secretly married, until the regulations of the new CSIRO in 1949 raised the issue of her marriage. The following year, her treatment by CSIRO resulted in hostile written exchanges with Sir Ian Clunies Ross (Chairman of CSIRO) about the status of married women in the work place. As a result, Payne-Scott lost her permanent position in CSIRO; however, her salary was maintained at a level comparable to that of her male colleagues. In 1951 – just a few months before her son, Peter Gavin Hall, was born – Payne-Scott resigned her post due to there being no maternity leave available at the time.

On leaving her role at CSIRO – with her marriage to Bill having been exposed – Payne-Scott took her husband's name, and was then known as Ruby Hall. They had two children: Peter Gavin Hall – a mathematician who worked in theoretical statistics and probability theory; and Fiona Margaret Hall, an Australian artist whose career is described by Julie Ewington in her 2005 book, Fiona Hall.

Death and legacy
Ruby Payne-Scott died in Mortdale, New South Wales, on 25 May 1981, three days short of her 69th birthday. Towards the end of her life, Payne-Scott suffered from Alzheimer's disease. In 2018, The New York Times wrote a belated obituary for her, detailing how her work helped lay the foundation for a new field of science called radio astronomy.

In 2008, CSIRO acknowledged Payne-Scott's contribution to science, and established the Payne-Scott Award, intended "for researchers returning from family-related career breaks".

Danebank School, where she taught after her radio astronomy career, hosts an annual Ruby Payne-Scott Lecture "presented by outstanding women scientists in a variety of fields".

In 2017, the University of Sydney inaugurated the Payne-Scott Professorial Distinctions to honour distinguished professors for their contributions to the University across all areas of leadership, teaching and research.

In 2021, the Australian Academy of Science established the Ruby Payne-Scott Medal and Lecture for Women, to honour Australian pioneer women scientists.

Professional roles

 * Research fellow, Cancer Research Committee, University of Sydney, 1932–35
 * Woodlands Church of England Grammar School Glenelg (Adelaide) 1938–1939.
 * Engineer, AWA Ltd, 1939–41.
 * Division of Radiophysics, CSIR (now CSIRO), 1941–51.
 * Home duties 1951–63.
 * Mathematics/science teacher, Danebank Church of England School, Sydney, 1963–74.

Publications

 * "Relative intensity of spectral lines in indium and gallium". Nature, 131 (1933), 365–366.
 * (With W.H. Love) "Tissue cultures exposed to the influence of a magnetic field". Nature, 137 (1936), 277.
 * "Notes on the use of photographic films as a means of measuring gamma ray dosage". Sydney University. Cancer Research Committee Journal, 7 (1936), 170–175.
 * The wavelength distribution of the scattered radiation in a medium traversed by a beam of X or gamma rays. British Journal of Radiology, N.S., 10 (1937), 850–870.
 * (With A. L. Green) "Superheterodyne tracking charts". II. A.W.A. Technical Review, 5 (1941), 251–274; Wireless Engineer, 19 (1942), 290–302.
 * "A note on the design of iron-cored coils at audio frequencies". A.W.A. Technical Review, 6 (1943), 91–96.
 * Eight unpublished classified technical reports at the Division of Radiophyiscs during World War II including Pawsey and Payne-Scott from 1944 : Measurements of the noise level picked up by an S-band aerial. CSIR Radiophysics Laboratory Report, RP 209 (1944).
 * "Solar and cosmic radio frequency radiation; survey of knowledge available and measurements taken at Radiophysics Laboratory to Dec. 1, 1945". CSIR Radiophysics Laboratory Report SRP 501/27 (1945).
 * (With J. L. Pawsey and L. L. McCready) "Radio-frequency energy from the sun". Nature, 157 (1946), 158.
 * 'A study of solar radio frequency radiation on several frequencies during the sunspot of July–August 1946. CSIR Radiophyscis Laboratory Report, RPL 9 (1947).
 * McCready, L.L., J.L. Pawsey, and Ruby Payne-Scott. "Solar radiation at radio frequencies and its relation to sunspots." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 190.1022 (1947): 357–375.
 * (With D. E. Yabsley and J. G. Bolton) "Relative times of arrival of bursts of solar noise on different radio frequencies". Nature, 160 (1947), 256.
 * "The visibility of small echoes on radar PPI displays". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 36 (1948), 180.
 * "Solar Noise Records taken during 1947 and 1948". CSIR Radiophysics Laboratory Report. RPL 30 (1948).
 * (With L.L. McCready) "Ionospheric effects noted during dawn observations on solar noise". Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 53 (1948), 429.
 * "Bursts of solar radiation at metre wavelengths". Australian Journal of Scientific Research (A), 2 (1949), 214.
 * "The noise-like character of solar radiation at metre wavelengths". Australian Journal of Scientific Research (A), 2 (1949), 228.
 * "Some characteristics of non-thermal solar radiation at metre wave-lengths". Journal of Geophysical Research, 55 (1950), 233. (In collection of papers Summary of Proceedings of Australian National Committee of Radio Science, URSI, Sydney, 16–20 January 1950)
 * (With A. G. Little) "The position and movement on the solar disk of sources of radiation at a frequency of 97 Mc/s. I. Equipment". Australian Journal of Scientific Research (A), 4 (1951), 489.
 * (With A. G. Little) "The positions and movement on the solar disk of sources of radiation at a frequency of 97 Mc/s II. Noise Storms".  Australian Journal of Scientific Research (A), 4 (1951), 508.
 * (With A. G. Little) "The position and movement on the solar disk of sources of radiation at a frequency of 97 Mc/s. III. Outbursts". Aust. J. of Scientific Research A, 5 (1952), 32.
 * (With A. G. Little) "The positions and movement on the solar disk of sources of radiation at a frequency of 97 Mc/s II. Noise Storms".  Australian Journal of Scientific Research (A), 4 (1951), 508.
 * (With A. G. Little) "The position and movement on the solar disk of sources of radiation at a frequency of 97 Mc/s. III. Outbursts". Aust. J. of Scientific Research A, 5 (1952), 32.

title: Ruby Payne-Scott


text:
Beam bridge

Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are transferred throughout the support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported.

The simplest beam bridge could be a log (see log bridge), a wood plank, or a stone slab (see clapper bridge) laid across a stream. Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete, or a combination of both. The concrete elements may be reinforced or prestressed. Such modern bridges include girder, plate girder, and box girder bridges, all types of beam bridges.

Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them, to a main beam either side supporting a deck between them. The main beams could be I-beams, trusses, or box girders. They could be half-through, or braced across the top to create a through bridge.

Because no moments are transferred, thrust (as from an arch bridge) cannot be accommodated, leading to innovative designs, such as lenticular trusses and bow string arches, which contain the horizontal forces within the superstructure.

Beam bridges are not limited to a single span. Some viaducts such as the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans supported by piers. This is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over the piers.

Beam bridges are often only used for relatively short distances because, unlike truss bridges, they have no built in supports. The only supports are provided by piers. The farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 ft. This does not mean that beam bridges are not used to cross great distances; it only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together, creating what is known as a continuous span.

title: Beam bridge


text:
Plate girder bridge

A plate girder bridge is a bridge supported by two or more plate girders.

Overview
In a plate girder bridge, the plate girders are typically I-beams made up from separate structural steel plates (rather than rolled as a single cross-section), which are welded or, in older bridges, bolted or riveted together to form the vertical web and horizontal flanges of the beam. In some cases, the plate girders may be formed in a Z-shape rather than I-shape. The first tubular wrought iron plate girder bridge was built in 1846-47 by James Millholland for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.

Plate girder bridges are suitable for short to medium spans and may support railroads, highways, or other traffic. Plate girders are usually prefabricated and the length limit is frequently set by the mode of transportation used to move the girder from the bridge shop to the bridge site.

Generally, the depth of the girder is no less than $1/15$ the span, and for a given load bearing capacity, a depth of around $1/12$ the span minimizes the weight of the girder. Stresses on the flanges near the centre of the span are greater than near the end of the span, so the top and bottom flange plates are frequently reinforced in the middle portion of the span. Vertical stiffeners prevent the web plate from buckling under shear stresses. These are typically uniformly spaced along the girder with additional stiffeners over the supports and wherever the bridge supports concentrated loads.

Deck-type plate girder bridge
In the deck-type bridge, a wood, steel or reinforced concrete bridge deck is supported on top of two or more plate girders, and may act compositely with them. In the case of railroad bridges, the railroad ties themselves may form the bridge deck, or the deck may support ballast on which the track is laid. Additional beams may connect the main girders, for example in the form of bridge known as ladder-deck construction. Also, further elements may be attached to provide cross-bracing and prevent the girders from buckling.

Semi-through plate girder bridge
In the half-through bridge (also called a pony truss), the bridge deck is supported between two plate girders, often on top of the bottom flange. The overall bridge then has a 'U'-shape in cross-section. As cross-bracing cannot normally be added, vertical stiffeners on the girders are normally used to prevent buckling (technically described as 'U-frame behaviour' ). This form of bridge is most often used on railroads as the construction depth (distance between the underside of the vehicle, and the underside of the bridge) is much less. This allows obstacles to be cleared with less change in height.

Multi-span plate girder bridge
Multispan plate-girder bridges may be an economical way to span gaps longer than can be spanned by a single girder. Spacing of piers between the abutments is dependent on the capacity of the selected plate girders. Separate plate girder bridges span between each pair of abutments in order to allow for expansion joints between the spans. Concrete is commonly used for low piers, while steel trestle work may be used for high bridges.

title: Plate girder bridge


text: Template:Mariner program

title: Template:Mariner program


text:
Trestle bridge

A trestle bridge is a bridge composed of a number of short spans supported by closely spaced frames. A trestle (sometimes tressel) is a rigid frame used as a support, historically a tripod used to support a stool or a pair of isosceles triangles joined at their apices by a plank or beam such as the support structure for a trestle table. Each supporting frame is a bent. A trestle differs from a viaduct in that viaducts have towers that support much longer spans and typically have a higher elevation.

Timber and iron trestles (i.e. bridges) were extensively used in the 19th century, the former making up from 1 to 3 percent of the total length of the average railroad. In the 21st century, steel and sometimes concrete trestles are commonly used to bridge particularly deep valleys, while timber trestles remain common in certain areas.

Many timber trestles were built in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the expectation that they would be temporary. Timber trestles were used to get the railroad to its destination. Once the railroad was running, it was used to transport the material to replace trestles with more permanent works, transporting and dumping fill around some trestles and transporting stone or steel to replace others with more permanent bridges.

In the later 20th century, tools such as the earthmover made it cheaper to construct a high fill directly instead of first constructing a trestle from which to dump the fill. Timber trestles remain common in some applications, most notably for bridge approaches crossing floodways, where earth fill would dangerously obstruct floodwater.

For the purposes of discharging material below, a coal trestle carried a dead-end track, rather than a bridge.

Timber trestles
One of the longest trestle spans created was for railroad traffic crossing the Great Salt Lake on the Lucin Cutoff in Utah. It was replaced by a fill causeway in the 1960s, and is now being salvaged for its timber.

Many wooden roller coasters are built using designs similar to trestle bridges because such a structure can be strong and support a high track path while using a relatively small amount of material. Since loads are well distributed through large portions of the structure it is also resilient to the stresses imposed. The structure also naturally leads to a certain redundancy (provided that economic considerations are not overly dominant). Such wooden coasters, while limited in their path (not supporting loops), possess a certain ride character (owing to structural response) that is appreciated by fans of the type.

The Camas Prairie Railroad in northern Idaho utilized many timber trestles across the rolling Camas Prairie and in the major grade, Lapwai Canyon. The 1490 ft viaduct across Lawyers Canyon was the exception, constructed of steel and 287 ft in height.

The floodway of the Bonnet Carré Spillway in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana, is crossed by three wooden trestles each over 1.5 mi in length. The trestles are owned by the Canadian National Railway (two trestles) and the Kansas City Southern Railroad. The trestles were completed in 1936, after construction of the Spillway. The trestles may be the longest wooden railroad trestles remaining in regular use in North America.

A coal trestle is a rigid-frame trestle supporting train tracks above chutes, used to deliver fuel to boats or trains beneath it. At the top of the trestle, rolling stock (typically hopper cars) open doors on their undersides or on their sides to discharge cargo. Coal trestles were also used to transfer coal from mining railroads to rail cars. They were prominent when coal was an important fuel for rail locomotion and steamships, before they were replaced with mechanical coal loaders during the 20th century. Coal trestles were used in the Great Lakes ports of Buffalo (on Lake Erie), Sodus Point and Oswego, New York (both on Lake Ontario).

In the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, timber trestles were relatively short-lived as a structural type, one of their major uses being to cross the many deep valleys in Cornwall on the spinal rail route through the county. These were all replaced by masonry viaducts. Few timber trestles survived into the 20th century. Two that did, and which are still in daily use, cross the Afon Mawddach on the coast of Wales only a few miles apart, at Barmouth and Penmaenpool. The former, built in 1867, carries trains on the heavy rail Cambrian Coast Line travelling from England via Shrewsbury to the various small towns on Cardigan Bay. It also carries a toll-path for pedestrians. Road traffic at this location has to travel many miles around the estuary to cross at either (for light traffic) the second trestle bridge, at Penmaenpool, which is a toll bridge; or (for heavy traffic) at Dolgellau even further up the estuary.

Iron trestles
Trestles in cast- or wrought-iron were used during the 19th century on the developing railway network in the United Kingdom. These generally carried decking consisting of some form of trussed girder, as at Crumlin Viaduct, Belah and Meldon; though two rare examples, at Dowery Dell (demolished in 1962), and Bennerley had lattice girder decks.

Steel trestles
The steel trestle at Martinez, California, shown below, is a modern structure with a long expected lifetime compared to a wooden trestle. Being less susceptible to fire damage in this brushy location is also an advantage. The approaches to the Kate Shelley High Bridge near Boone, Iowa, are steel trestles.

New Orleans utilizes steel trestles to support parts of I-10, the Pontchartrain Expressway, and Tulane Avenue. Also, trestles support the elevated railroad leading to and from the Huey P. Long Bridge.

Concrete trestles
The first major prestressed concrete trestle railroad bridge built was the Atlantic Coast Line's Salkehatchie River trestle.

title: Trestle bridge


text:
Pai Mārire

The Pai Mārire movement (commonly known as Hauhau) was a syncretic Māori religion founded in Taranaki by the prophet Te Ua Haumēne. It flourished in the North Island from about 1863 to 1874. Pai Mārire incorporated biblical and Māori spiritual elements and promised its followers deliverance from 'pākehā' (British) domination. Although founded with peaceful motives—its name means "Good and Peaceful"—Pai Mārire became known for an extremist form of the religion known to the Europeans as "Hauhau". The rise and spread of the violent expression of Pai Mārire was largely a response to the New Zealand Government's military operations against North Island Māori, which were aimed at exerting European sovereignty and gaining more land for white settlement; historian B.J. Dalton claims that after 1865 Māori in arms were almost invariably termed Hauhau.

Governor George Grey launched a campaign of suppression against the religion in April 1865, culminating in the raiding of dozens of villages in Taranaki and on the East Coast and the arrest of more than 400 adherents, most of whom where incarcerated on the Chatham Islands. Elements of the religion were incorporated in the Ringatū or "Raised hand" religion formed in 1868 by Te Kooti, who escaped from incarceration on the Chatham Islands.

In the 2006 New Zealand census, 609 people identified "Hauhau" as their religion.

Rise of the prophet
Te Ua Haumēne was born in Taranaki, New Zealand, in the early 1820s. He and his mother were captured and enslaved by a rival tribe in 1826. He learned to read and write in Māori while in captivity and began studying the New Testament. He was baptised by the Rev John Whiteley in the Wesleyan mission at Kawhia in 1834 and given the name of Horopapera Tuwhakararo, a transliteration of the name John Zerubbabel. He later returned to Taranaki.

During the 1850s he became a supporter of the King Movement, which opposed further expansion of European sovereignty and the sale of land to European settlers, and in the 1860s fought against colonial forces in the First Taranaki War and Waikato War, in which he also acted as a chaplain to the Māori soldiers. By the early 1860s Te Ua was part of a runanga (local board of management), which administered local government and also ensured that the boundary of the land that was covered by the mana of the Māori King was undisturbed.

By then the cornerstones of Te Ua's religious teaching were set. He believed Māori had a right to defend the boundaries of their territory; believed in national salvation of the Māori from the white settlers; and suspected that missionaries were aiding and abetting the loss of Māori land.

The elevation of Te Ua to the role of prophet followed an incident in September 1862 in which the British steamer Lord Worsley was wrecked off the Taranaki coast and local Māori debated what action should be taken with the cargo and crew. Te Ua – then living at Wereroa Pā, near Waitotara – argued that goods salvaged from the vessel should be sent to New Plymouth untouched, but was ignored and the cargo was instead plundered. On 5 September, aggrieved over what had taken place, he claimed to have experienced a vision in which the Archangel Gabriel announced to him that the last days of the Bible were at hand and that God had chosen him as a prophet who would cast out the Pākehā and restore Israel (the Māori) to their birthright in the land of Canaan (Aotearoa/New Zealand) - adding a religious aspect to the issue of Māori independence, which had until then been a purely political movement.

There are conflicting reports over Te Ua's response to the vision: he is claimed to have killed his child, explaining in a letter circulated to tribes that it was as a redemption for his people, "forgetful, desolate and in doubt"., while there are also claims he broke the child's leg and healed it miraculously. As reports about Te Ua began to circulate, he quickly gained a reputation for having other miraculous powers. The view among settlers was less sympathetic: Bishop William Williams claimed Te Ua showed strong signs of insanity and colonial soldier and historian T. W. Gudgeon claimed he had been thus far regarded as a "harmless lunatic" of "weak intellect, but yet of peaceful disposition".

Formation and spread of the religion
Te Ua began to formulate his new religion, complete with a holy book, Ua Rongo Pai (the Gospel according to Ua) which combined elements of Old Testament morality, Christian doctrine and traditional Māori religion. The goal was to create a peaceful society in which righteousness and justice prevailed. They believed they were a second "chosen people" and that, with divine aid, they would regain control of their hereditary land when the creator, Jehovah, fought for them and drove the English into the sea. To help him propagate the religion, Te Ua chose three men – Tahutaki, Hepenaia and Wi Parara.

The embracing of the religion by some Māori also signalled a rejection of Christianity and a distrust of missionaries over their involvement in land purchases.

The religion gained widespread support among North Island Māori and became closely associated with the Māori King Movement, but also became the cause of deep concern among European settlers as it united tribes in opposition to the Pākehā and helped to inspire fierce military resistance to colonial forces, particularly during the Second Taranaki War, underway at the time.

Ahuahu attack, April 1864
Among settlers, the existence of the new religion was brought into dramatic focus with a series of attacks in April and May 1864. On 6 April, a force led by Tahutaki and Hepenaia mounted an expedition to Ahuahu village, set amid dense bush south of Ōakura, near New Plymouth, believing some Pākehā would be delivered into their hands. The group surprised a combined force of the 57th Regiment and the newly formed Taranaki military settlers, a total of 101 men, as they rested without their weapons during a mission to destroy native crops. The Māori force killed seven and wounded 12 of the settler soldiers. The bodies of the seven dead, including their commander, Captain T.W.J. Lloyd, were stripped naked and decapitated. A leg of one of the soldiers was also removed.

The easy victory of the Māori over the numerically stronger British-led force gave a powerful impetus to the Pai Mārire movement and confirmed in the minds of many Māori the protection of the Archangel Gabriel, of whom Te Ua was now regarded as a prophet. The number of adherents swelled and Pai Mārire rites continued to develop, some incorporating the severed heads of the slain soldiers, through which Te Ua claimed to communicate with Jehovah.

Assault on Sentry Hill, April 1864
Three weeks later, on 30 April 1864, 200 warriors demonstrated their faith in divine protection when they marched on the Sentry Hill redoubt, 9 km north-west of New Plymouth. The redoubt, on the crown of a hill, was defended by 75 imperial soldiers and two Coehorn mortars. Atiawa Māori viewed the construction of the outpost on their land as a challenge and formed a war party of the best fighting men from west coast iwi. When they came under fire at close range, they shielded themselves from the fusillade only by holding their right hands up and chanting. As many as a fifth of the Māori force were killed in the assault.

In a 1920 interview with historian James Cowan, Te Kahu-Pukoro, a fighter who took part in the attack, explained: "The Pai-marire religion was then new, and we were all completely under its influence and firmly believed in the teaching of Te Ua and his apostles. Hepanaia Kapewhiti was at the head of the war-party. He was our prophet. He taught us the Pai-marire karakia (chant), and told us that if we repeated it as we went into battle the Pākehā bullets would not strike us. This we all believed."

Led by Hepanaia, the warriors participated in sacred ceremonies around a pole at the Manutahi pā, with all the principal Taranaki chiefs present: Wiremu Kīngi and Kingi Parengarenga, as well as Te Whiti and Tohu Kākahi, both of whom would later become prophets at Parihaka. The force, armed with muskets, shotguns, tomahawks and spears, marched to Sentry Hill and, at 8:00 am, launched their attack, ascending the slope that led to the redoubt. Te Kahu-Pukoro recalled:

We did not stoop or crawl as we advanced upon the redoubt; we marched on upright (haere tu tonu), and as we neared the fort we chanted steadily our Pai-marire hymn.

The soldiers who were all hidden behind their high parapet, did not open fire on us until we were within close range. Then the bullets came thickly among us, and close as the fingers on my hand. The soldiers had their rifles pointed through the loopholes in the parapet and between the spaces on top (between bags filled with sand and earth), and thus could deliver a terrible fire upon us with perfect safety to themselves. There were two tiers of rifles blazing at us. We continued our advance, shooting and shouting our war-cries. Now we cried out the 'Hapa' ('Pass over') incantation which Hepanaia had taught us, to cause the bullets to fly harmlessly over us: 'Hapa, hapa, hapa! Hau, hau, hau! Pai-marire, rire, rire – hau!' As we did so we held our right hands uplifted, palms frontward, on a level with our heads – the sign of the ringa-tu. This, we believed, would ward off the enemy's bullets; it was the faith with which we all had been inspired by Te Ua and his apostles.

The bullets came ripping through our ranks. 'Hapa, hapa!' our men shouted after delivering a shot, but down they fell. 'Hapa!' a warrior would cry, with his right hand raised to avert the enemy's bullets, and with a gasp – like that – he would fall dead. The tuakana (elder brother) in a family would fall with 'Hapa!' on his lips, then the teina (younger brother) would fall; then the old father would fall dead beside them.

About 34 Māori and one imperial soldier were killed. Among those shot dead, at almost point-blank range, were chiefs Hepanaia, Kingi Parengarenga (Taranaki), Tupara Keina (Ngatiawa), Tamati Hone (Ngati Ruanui) and Hare Te Kokai, who had advocated the frontal attack on the redoubt. According to Cowan, the slaughter temporarily weakened the new confidence in Pai-marire, but Te Ua had a satisfying explanation: that those who fell were to blame because they did not repose absolute faith in the karakia, or incantation.

Battle of Moutoa, May 1864
Two weeks later, on 14 May, a Pai Mārire war party from the upper Whanganui River advanced on the settlement of Wanganui, intent on raiding it. In what became known as the Battle of Moutoa, Lower Whanganui kupapa (Māori loyal to the Queen) routed the war party, killing 50 of them including the prophet Matene Rangitauira.

Relieved settlers erected New Zealand's first war memorial at the site—today known as Moutoa Gardens—with an inscription that read: "To the memory of those brave men who fell at Moutoa 14 May 1864 in defence of law and order against fanaticism and barbarism".

East Coast killings, March, April 1865

The reverses at Sentry Hill and Moutoa Island reinforced Māori belief in Te Ua's movement, with the conviction that the defeats had been caused by disobedience to the leader by the prophets Hepanaia and Matene. More iwi attached themselves to Te Ua. In early 1865 emissaries carrying the smoke-dried severed heads were sent from Taranaki to Chief Hirini Te Kani at Poverty Bay via Wanganui and Taupō in two parties – one via Rotorua, Whakatane, Opotiki, and East Cape, and the other through the centre of the island via Ruatahuna and Wairoa.

The emissaries were instructed to proceed peaceably and obtain the support of tribes they passed, delegating their spiritual powers to leading converts in each tribe, who each took up the duties of Pai Mārire priest. But on 23 February the group clashed at Pipiriki near Wanganui with Māori loyal to the New Zealand government and determined from then to murder missionaries they encountered.

Among European settlers unease grew at the spreading influence of Pai Mārire. In a letter to the Native Minister, the Resident Magistrate for Central Wanganui warned: "The Hauhau fanaticism is spreading very rapidly in the Province, and I fear will be the cause of great mischief. It is now the mainstay of the King movement."

The warning came too late to save the life of one North Island missionary. At Taupō the Pai Mārire recruiting party ransacked the house of the Rev. Thomas Samuel Grace and at Opotiki on 2 March shot, hanged and decapitated the German-born Rev. Carl Sylvius Völkner. His head was taken to the local church, where his eyes were removed and eaten by the prophet Kereopa Te Rau. The killing was claimed to be in part revenge for Völkner's activities in spying on local Māori for the government, but may also have been motivated by Kereopa's wish to bring government retaliation on local Te Whakatōhea Māori as a payback for an earlier intertribal battle with his Te Arawa iwi.

Grace, who had fled from Taupō to Opotiki, was arrested and put on trial by the Pai Mārire party. He was rescued from captivity two weeks later by a British man-of-war, HMS Eclipse, after an attempt by local Pai Mārire leaders to exchange him for Tauranga chief Hori Tupaea, who was in prison.

On 22 July, Taranaki prophet Horomona led the murder of the master and two of the three crew members of the schooner Kate at Whakatane.

Government suppression
On 29 April 1865 Governor George Grey issued a proclamation condemning the "revolting acts ... repugnant to all humanity" carried out by Pai Mārire followers and warned the government would "resist and suppress by force of arms if necessary, and by every means in my power, fanatical doctrines, rites, and practices of the aforesaid character".

Horomona and Kirimangu were hanged for their 22 July killings on the schooner Kate and a coalition of government and loyal Māori forces led by Hawke's Bay Province Superintendent Donald McLean embarked on a mission to crush the religion on the East Coast. From June to October 1865 there was a virtual civil war on the East Coast culminating in the battle of Waerenga-a-Hika in Poverty Bay in November. Hundreds of followers were arrested in the campaign, while in Taranaki a separate campaign led by the increasingly reluctant British commander, General Duncan Cameron, raided dozens of villages to arrest hundreds more adherents.

In February 1866 Te Ua was captured near Ōpunake in Taranaki by Cameron's replacement, Major-General Trevor Chute. Chute claimed Te Ua was immediately abandoned by all those in his village, who swore an oath of allegiance to the Crown and were set free. He reported that kupapa (loyal) Māori urged his immediate execution. Te Ua was taken to Wanganui, writing en route to his North Island supporters, urging: "Let evil be brought to an end ... in order that the General may cease operations against you."

Te Ua and Patara were freed in Auckland and most other leaders were pardoned, but Grey transported 400 East Coast followers, including Te Kooti, to the Chatham Islands for incarceration. Elements of Pai Mārire were later incorporated into the Ringatu religion founded by Te Kooti.

Te Ua died at Oeo in Taranaki in October 1866.

Rites and beliefs
Te Ua's followers identified themselves with the Jews, calling their ministers Teu (Jews) and accepted the Jewish seventh-day Sabbath. They believed they were a second Chosen People and that, with divine aid, they would return from the wilderness to freedom in their hereditary land. Te Ua taught that the Creator, Jehovah, would fight for them and drive the English into the sea.

When the last of the enemy had perished, every Māori who had died since the beginning of the world would be resurrected and stand in the presence of Zerubbabel, healed of all of diseases and infirmities. Men would be sent from heaven to teach Māori all the arts and sciences known by Europeans. Their first great day of deliverance would be in December 1864. He urged men and women to abandon monogamy and live together communally to produce as many children as possible.

Services were held at a niu, a tall pole, often about 18 m high, with yard-arms from which hung ropes. The first of these niu was the mast of the Lord Worsley. Members of the congregation circled the niu several times a day, chanting and touching a severed head mounted on a pole while priests conducted prayer services. Historian Babbage wrote: "The worshippers worked themselves into a state bordering on frenzy during the procedure of the ritual, until catalepsy frequently prostrated them."

The chants as devotees circled the niu were described by one European commentator as "a jumble of Christian and ancient concepts, of soldier and sailor terms, of English and Māori language with the barking watchword of the cult interspersed". The "angels of the wind" were said to be present during the service, ascending and descending the ropes dangling from the mast's yard-arm. By the end of 1865 a niu stood in almost every large village from Taranaki to the Bay of Plenty and from the north of the Wellington district to the Waikato frontier.

The chants
Historian James Cowan described many of the chants as "simply meaningless strings of English words rounded into the softer Māori; others were either transliterations or mispronunciations of parts of the Church of England services, with a sprinkling of Latin from the Roman Catholic ritual. Some phrases were military orders, picked up at the soldiers' camps. Some others showed a nautical origin; Te Ua boxed the compass like any Pākehā sailor."

The chant began:

 * Kira, wana, tu, tiri, wha—Teihana!
 * Rewa, piki rewa, rongo rewa, tone, piki tone—Teihana!
 * Rori, piki rori, rongo rori, puihi, piki puihi—Teihana!
 * Rongo puihi, rongo tone, hira, piki hira, rongo hira—Teihana!
 * Mauteni, piki mauteni, rongo mauteni, piki niu, rongo niu—Teihana!
 * Nota, no te pihi, no te hihi, noriti mino, noriti, koroni—Teihana!
 * Hai, kamu, te ti, oro te mene, rauna te niu—Teihana!
 * Hema, rura wini, tu mate wini, kamu te ti—Teihana!

(Translation)

 * Kill, one, two, three, four—Attention!
 * River, big river, long river, stone, big stone—Attention!
 * Road, big road, long road, bush, big bush—Attention!
 * Long bush, long stone, hill, big hill, long hill—Attention!
 * Mountain, big mountain, long mountain, big staff, long staff—Attention!
 * North, north-by-east, nor'-nor'-east, nor'-east-by-north, north-east, colony—Attention!
 * Come to tea, all the men, round the niu—Attention!
 * Shem, rule the wind, too much wind, come to tea—Attention!

Divine protection in battle
Te Ua taught that the divine service and strict adherence to his instruction would make them impervious to bullets if, when under fire, they would raise their right hand and cry, "Hapa! Hapa! Pai Mārire, hau! Hau! Hau!" "Hapa" meant to pass over, or ward off, while the exclamation "Hau!" at the end of the choruses – said by one soldier to uttered in a way that sounded like the bark of a dog – had a literal meaning of "wind" but referred to the life principle or vital spark of man, while the wind angels were named "Anahera hau".

A similar belief in the mystical power to avert bullets had earlier been reported among groups in Africa and Asia and America, such as the Ghost Shirt Movement.

title: Pai Mārire


text:
User talk:Social Misfit

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Box girder bridge

A box girder bridge, or box section bridge, is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of a hollow box. The box girder normally comprises prestressed concrete, structural steel, or a composite of steel and reinforced concrete. The box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. Box girder bridges are commonly used for highway flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. Although the box girder bridge is normally a form of beam bridge, box girders may also be used on cable-stayed and other bridges.

Development of steel box girders
In 1919, Major Gifford Martel was appointed head of the Experimental Bridging Establishment at Christchurch, Hampshire, which researched the possibilities of using tanks for battlefield engineering purposes such as bridge-laying and mine-clearing. Here he continued trials on modified Mark V tanks. The bridging component involved an assault bridge, designed by Major Charles Inglis RE, the Canal Lock Bridge, which had sufficient length to span a canal lock. Major Martel mated the bridge with the tank and used hydraulic power generated by the tank's engine to manoeuvre the bridge into place. For mine clearance the tanks were equipped with 2-ton rollers.

Martel also developed his new bridging concept at the EBE, the Martel bridge, a modular box girder bridge suitable for military applications. The Martel bridge was adopted by the British Army in 1925 as the Large Box Girder Bridge. A scaled down version of this design, the Small Box Girder Bridge, was also formally adopted by the Army in 1932. This latter design was copied by many countries, including Germany, who called their version the Kastenträger-Gerät (K-Gerät for short). The United States was another country whose army created their own copy, designating it the H-20. In addition, the modular construction of the basic Martel bridge would later during WWII become part of the basis of the Bailey bridge. In 1954, the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors awarded Martel £500 for infringement on the design of his bridge by the designer of the Bailey bridge, Donald Bailey.

Both the Large Box and Small Box designs would go on to see much service in World War II, especially in the case of the latter.

The (non-modular) box girder bridge was a popular choice during the roadbuilding expansion of the 1960s, especially in the West, and many new bridge projects were in progress simultaneously. A serious blow to this use was a sequence of three serious disasters, when new bridges collapsed in 1970 (West Gate Bridge and Cleddau Bridge) and 1971 (South Bridge (Koblenz)). Fifty-one people were killed in these failures, leading in the UK to the formation of the Merrison Committee and considerable investment in new research into steel box girder behaviour.

Most of the bridges still under construction at this time were delayed for investigation of the basic design principle. Some were abandoned and rebuilt as a different form of bridge altogether. Most of those that remained as box girder bridges, such as Erskine Bridge (illus.), were either redesigned, or had additional stiffening added later. Some bridges were strengthened a few years after opening and then further strengthened years later, although this was often due to increased traffic load as much as better design standards. The Irwell Valley bridge of 1970 was strengthened in 1970 and again in 2000.

Construction
If made of concrete, box girder bridges may be cast in place using falsework supports, removed after completion, or in sections if a segmental bridge. Box girders may also be prefabricated in a fabrication yard, then transported and emplaced using cranes.

For steel box girders, the girders are normally fabricated off site and lifted into place by crane, with sections connected by bolting or welding. If a composite concrete bridge deck is used, it is often cast in-place using temporary falsework supported by the steel girder.

Either form of bridge may also be installed using the technique of incremental launching. Under this method, gantry cranes are often used to place new segments onto the completed portions of the bridge until the bridge superstructure is completed.

Advantages

 * Reduces the slab thickness and self-weight of bridge
 * Cost effective
 * Greater strength per unit area of concrete
 * Quality assurance, as precast girders are made off-site

Disadvantages
(Mainly non-modular designs)
 * Structural steel girders are costly
 * Logistical inefficiencies and transportation cost

title: Box girder bridge