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Kamen Rider Kuuga

Kamen Rider Kuuga (仮面ライダークウガ) is a Japanese tokusatsu television series. It is the tenth installment of the popular Kamen Rider Series of tokusatsu shows and the first of the series to air entirely in the Heisei period, as well as the first standalone Kamen Rider TV series since Kamen Rider Black RX and the first series of the revived run of Kamen Rider, bringing Kamen Rider into the 21st century.

It was a joint collaboration between Asatsu-DK and Toei, and was shown on TV Asahi from January 30, 2000, to January 21, 2001, replacing Moero!! Robocon in its timeslot. Kamen Rider Kuuga is the first Kamen Rider Series to be broadcast in a widescreen (letterboxed) format, albeit cropped during airing. It aired alongside Mirai Sentai Timeranger.

Synopsis
Long ago, the Gurongi Tribe terrorized the Linto Tribe until a warrior acquired the power of Kuuga and defeated the Gurongi, sealing their leader within a cave along with him. In the present day, Kuuga's mysterious stone belt is excavated, freeing the Gurongi as they resume their murderous game on the Linto Tribe's descendants: humanity itself. But a multi-talented man named Yusuke Godai finds himself drawn to the belt and becomes the new Kuuga. He helped assemble the Science Police to fight the Gurongi to ensure the happiness and safety of others. But as the endgame draws near, Yusuke learns of a horrible revelation between Kuuga and the Gurongi Tribe's leader.

Main and supporting characters

 * A 24-year-old (later 25-year-old in episode 9) young, multi-talented adventurer. He is a happy-go-lucky and honest person that fights to "protect everyone's smiles". Yusuke helps out at the Pole Pole while staying at the shop, and continuously attempts to master 2000 different skills and talents which he uses to help others. He lost his father, a war photographer, when he was a sixth-grade elementary school student, before losing his mother at the age of 18. He was born in Hokkaido on March 18, 1975.
 * Yusuke dons the belt, which contains a, the power source of the belt, and turns him into Kamen Rider Kuuga. Kuuga has the imperfect , the main , the agile  wielding the , the sniper  wielding the , the strong  wielding the , and the supreme . Before his transformation into Ultimate Form, as a result of getting electric shocks, Yusuke obtains upgraded versions of Kuuga's four standard forms called  wearing the ,  wielding the ,  wielding the ,  wielding the , and  wearing a pair of Mighty Anklets.
 * During his fight against the Gurongi Tribe, Yusuke rides the and later  police motorcycles provided by the Metro PD. The, a stag beetle-like entity assisting Kuuga, can attach itself to Yusuke's motorcycles as armor to form the  and later the , which can also combine with the energy of his Rising forms to become the.
 * During his fight against the Gurongi Tribe, Yusuke rides the and later  police motorcycles provided by the Metro PD. The, a stag beetle-like entity assisting Kuuga, can attach itself to Yusuke's motorcycles as armor to form the  and later the , which can also combine with the energy of his Rising forms to become the.

 * A 25-year-old (later 26-year-old in episode 15) assistant police inspector of the Security Division of the Nagano Prefectural PD. He is sent to the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office, which is set up in the Metro PD to investigate and counter the Gurongi. Like his father, who died on his tenth birthday, Ichijo is a model policeman who firmly believes in doing the right thing. Though he is very strict with himself, he will do everything he can, even bend police rules, to help Yusuke fight the Gurongi. After the Gurongi were defeated, Ichijo returns to Nagano. He was born in Nagoya on April 18, 1974.
 * A 25-year-old (later 26-year-old in episode 15) assistant police inspector of the Security Division of the Nagano Prefectural PD. He is sent to the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office, which is set up in the Metro PD to investigate and counter the Gurongi. Like his father, who died on his tenth birthday, Ichijo is a model policeman who firmly believes in doing the right thing. Though he is very strict with himself, he will do everything he can, even bend police rules, to help Yusuke fight the Gurongi. After the Gurongi were defeated, Ichijo returns to Nagano. He was born in Nagoya on April 18, 1974.

 * A 23-year-old friend of Yusuke from a university and a graduate student at Jonan University who translates the ancient "Lintonese" transcripts that tell of Kuuga and the Gurongi. At first, she was against helping because she was worried about Yusuke, but now she believes in him fully and works hard to help Yusuke understand his powers by deciphering the writings. She was born in Gunma Prefecture on October 30, 1976.
 * A 23-year-old friend of Yusuke from a university and a graduate student at Jonan University who translates the ancient "Lintonese" transcripts that tell of Kuuga and the Gurongi. At first, she was against helping because she was worried about Yusuke, but now she believes in him fully and works hard to help Yusuke understand his powers by deciphering the writings. She was born in Gunma Prefecture on October 30, 1976.

 * Yusuke's 22-year-old younger sister who works as a teacher at Wakaba Nursery School. Yusuke occasionally visited her there to entertain the kids. Like Sakurako, she was at first apprehensive about her brother transforming into Kuuga, but she believes in Yusuke and helps out however she can. She was born in Hokkaido on September 4, 1977.
 * Yusuke's 22-year-old younger sister who works as a teacher at Wakaba Nursery School. Yusuke occasionally visited her there to entertain the kids. Like Sakurako, she was at first apprehensive about her brother transforming into Kuuga, but she believes in Yusuke and helps out however she can. She was born in Hokkaido on September 4, 1977.

 * A 26-year-old trusted friend of Ichijo from high school, he is the doctor who looks after Yusuke and treats him when he becomes injured, while also researching the effects of Yusuke's fusion with the Arcle. Though he's a light-hearted person, he was very serious and worried when talking about Yusuke's future transformations because of the constant dangers that surrounded the Kuuga legend. He also performs the autopsies of the Gurongi victims to determine the causes of death.
 * A 26-year-old trusted friend of Ichijo from high school, he is the doctor who looks after Yusuke and treats him when he becomes injured, while also researching the effects of Yusuke's fusion with the Arcle. Though he's a light-hearted person, he was very serious and worried when talking about Yusuke's future transformations because of the constant dangers that surrounded the Kuuga legend. He also performs the autopsies of the Gurongi victims to determine the causes of death.

 * A 34-year-old researcher of the National Research Institute of Police Science, she studies the biology of the Gurongi to develop effective weapons against them. She also assists in the study of Kuuga and the Gouram. Because of the massive amount of work required of her to fight the Gurongi, she was away from home quite often and her child felt lonely and neglected.
 * A 34-year-old researcher of the National Research Institute of Police Science, she studies the biology of the Gurongi to develop effective weapons against them. She also assists in the study of Kuuga and the Gouram. Because of the massive amount of work required of her to fight the Gurongi, she was away from home quite often and her child felt lonely and neglected.

 * A 44-year-old former adventurer, he was friends with the father of Yusuke and Minori, who affectionately refer to him as like everyone else. He owns and runs the Pole Pole. He is a goofy, light-hearted character that keeps a scrapbook of all of Kuuga's exploits from the newspaper, though unaware of Yusuke being "ULF 04" and thinks that the name "Kuuga" is some nonsensical word made up by Yusuke. After learning the truth, however, he dons the Kuuga mark on his apron in the series epilogue. He was born on June 9, 1955.
 * A 44-year-old former adventurer, he was friends with the father of Yusuke and Minori, who affectionately refer to him as like everyone else. He owns and runs the Pole Pole. He is a goofy, light-hearted character that keeps a scrapbook of all of Kuuga's exploits from the newspaper, though unaware of Yusuke being "ULF 04" and thinks that the name "Kuuga" is some nonsensical word made up by Yusuke. After learning the truth, however, he dons the Kuuga mark on his apron in the series epilogue. He was born on June 9, 1955.

 * Tamasaburo's 17-year-old niece from Kyoto Prefecture, who helps out at the Pole Pole while aspiring to be an actress. However, since the death of her acting teacher at the hands of Gurongi, Nana has been troubled until Yusuke finally helps her overcome her sadness.
 * Tamasaburo's 17-year-old niece from Kyoto Prefecture, who helps out at the Pole Pole while aspiring to be an actress. However, since the death of her acting teacher at the hands of Gurongi, Nana has been troubled until Yusuke finally helps her overcome her sadness.

 * A 27-year-old graduate student at Jonan University from France that shares the work office with Sakurako. He researched the broken fragments that later formed into Gouram. He has a crush on Enokida and hoped to help her reconnect with her child.
 * A 27-year-old graduate student at Jonan University from France that shares the work office with Sakurako. He researched the broken fragments that later formed into Gouram. He has a crush on Enokida and hoped to help her reconnect with her child.

 * The 57-year-old head of the Security Bureau of the Metro PD and the head of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.
 * The 57-year-old head of the Security Bureau of the Metro PD and the head of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.

 * A 37-year-old detective of the First Investigation Division of the Metro PD who is also a member of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.
 * A 37-year-old detective of the First Investigation Division of the Metro PD who is also a member of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.

 * A 26-year-old detective of the First Investigation Division of the Metro PD who is also a member of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.
 * A 26-year-old detective of the First Investigation Division of the Metro PD who is also a member of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office.

 * A 21-year-old policewoman of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office who sends communication from headquarters.
 * A 21-year-old policewoman of the Unidentified Life Form Joint Task Force Office who sends communication from headquarters.

 * The 14-year-old daughter of Professor, and one of Daguva's victims, she was greatly depressed when her father's murder was being overlooked for the Gurongi attacks, taking the findings her father had at their house. But after Yusuke reasons with her, Mika decides to aid in the Gurongi matter as Jean's assistant. However, she is unable to follow and decides to take up playing the flute her father gave her. But while attending the 12th Arikawa Group Flute Competition, a hostage situation by a disgruntled government worker traumatizes Mika as Yusuke tells her not to run from her fear and continue. Three months later, Mika attended a special college.
 * The 14-year-old daughter of Professor, and one of Daguva's victims, she was greatly depressed when her father's murder was being overlooked for the Gurongi attacks, taking the findings her father had at their house. But after Yusuke reasons with her, Mika decides to aid in the Gurongi matter as Jean's assistant. However, she is unable to follow and decides to take up playing the flute her father gave her. But while attending the 12th Arikawa Group Flute Competition, a hostage situation by a disgruntled government worker traumatizes Mika as Yusuke tells her not to run from her fear and continue. Three months later, Mika attended a special college.

 * Yusuke's 52-year-old elementary school teacher, he served as an inspiration to Yusuke, and the two of them visit on certain occasions.
 * Yusuke's 52-year-old elementary school teacher, he served as an inspiration to Yusuke, and the two of them visit on certain occasions.

 * A 22-year-old young troubled man, he saw the Gurongi as salvation until he was saved by Kuuga. He later researched trying to make a living until he was knocked out by while on his way to a contest.
 * A 22-year-old young troubled man, he saw the Gurongi as salvation until he was saved by Kuuga. He later researched trying to make a living until he was knocked out by while on his way to a contest.

Gurongi Tribe
The is a mysterious ancient civilization whose members can transform into monsters to kill people for their ruthless game, referred to in their language as the. The 200 members of the Gurongi made their rival civilization the, humanity's ancestors before they were defeated and sealed by the original Kuuga, Riku. However, the seal was undone in 2000 with the Gurongi resuming their Gegeru on the human race that are the Linto's descendants to bring about the, when humanity will become as violent as the Gurongi.

The Gurongi are classified as, while those that have a human form are labeled. Each of the Gurongi possesses a stylized belt with a. The naming pattern of the Gurongi is "Group·Species·Creature type": the first part denotes their rank, the second part is the personal name, and the third part indicates the type of animal they resemble. Only 25 out of the 200 Gurongi appeared in the course of the series.

In the series, the Gurongi speak in their own native language (originally created by the producers as a cipher of the Japanese language) which was left purposely unsubtitled during the original broadcast to prevent the audience from learning the series' mysteries and plot twists (as it was referred by them in the early episodes). The Xu Group is the first to play in the Gegeru, then the Me, and finally the Go in the. The Gegeru is overseen by the two La Gurongi, and the winner of the Gerizagibas Gegeru receives the right to challenge their leader, N·Daguva·Zeba, to a duel known as the for the leadership of the Gurongi.

The are the judges of the Gegeru and are Daguva's right-hand men. The crafts the artifacts used by the other groups. The contains lower-tier Gurongi under Xu·Zain·Da, most of their kin slaughtered by Daguva as they failed to acquire the right to participate. Those who did qualify are brought into the Gegeru by writing their names on the portable blackboard and using the beads of their  bracelets to mark the number of people they have killed. The are middle-tier Gurongi led by Me·Garima·Ba, its members brought into the Gegeru by using the  abacus to predict the number of people they are to kill and the period to accomplish that. The are high-tier Gurongi who can transmute their ornaments into weapons like Kuuga displays while in his Dragon, Pegasus, and Titan forms. Unlike the lesser tiers, the Go having La·Doldo·Gu tally their kills for them while creating their rules of conducting their kills. The Go who completes the Gegeru, or the one who can defeat all the Go class Gurongi, earns the right to fight Daguva for control of the entire Gurongi Tribe. Their leader is Go·Gadol·Ba, one of the three strongest Go Gurongi who had modified themselves to alter their forms like Kuuga and Daguva. The lowest were all murdered by Daguva without acquiring the right of the Gegeru.

 * The stag beetle-like lord of the Gurongi and the primary antagonist of the series, called by his kin as the . Sealed away by the previous Kuuga, Riku, Daguva was resurrected in modern times in his, labeled as by the police, slaughtering Riku's sleeping body and the archaeologists who broke the seal. Spending most of the series killing 152 of his kind he deemed unworthy to participate in the Gegeru, Daguva resurfaces in his fully restored . By the time he resurfaces after killing Goma, Daguva assumes the guise of a white-suited young man with an aura whom the police labeled as . After Gadol's death, Daguva begins his endgame with endless heavy rain and initiates a systematic genocide of all people in Japan. He is eventually killed by Yusuke after an epic fight that pushed the other to his limits, Daguva dies from his injuries while mocking Yusuke would become as violent as he is.
 * The stag beetle-like lord of the Gurongi and the primary antagonist of the series, called by his kin as the . Sealed away by the previous Kuuga, Riku, Daguva was resurrected in modern times in his, labeled as by the police, slaughtering Riku's sleeping body and the archaeologists who broke the seal. Spending most of the series killing 152 of his kind he deemed unworthy to participate in the Gegeru, Daguva resurfaces in his fully restored . By the time he resurfaces after killing Goma, Daguva assumes the guise of a white-suited young man with an aura whom the police labeled as . After Gadol's death, Daguva begins his endgame with endless heavy rain and initiates a systematic genocide of all people in Japan. He is eventually killed by Yusuke after an epic fight that pushed the other to his limits, Daguva dies from his injuries while mocking Yusuke would become as violent as he is.

 * A rose-like Gurongi who is only seen in her disguise as the wearing the, labeled . She serves as the judge for both Xu and Me Groups, authorizing any member of the Gurongi to enter the Gegeru. Following her many encounters with Ichijo, including one where he injured her, Balva realizes that humans can no longer be underestimated. Once Daguva begins his rampage, she is encountered by Ichijo who hints that humans will soon become like the Gurongi before running off, with Ichijo being forced to shoot her with eight nerve-breaking bullets. Her body falls into the sea and is never found.
 * A rose-like Gurongi who is only seen in her disguise as the wearing the, labeled . She serves as the judge for both Xu and Me Groups, authorizing any member of the Gurongi to enter the Gegeru. Following her many encounters with Ichijo, including one where he injured her, Balva realizes that humans can no longer be underestimated. Once Daguva begins his rampage, she is encountered by Ichijo who hints that humans will soon become like the Gurongi before running off, with Ichijo being forced to shoot her with eight nerve-breaking bullets. Her body falls into the sea and is never found.

 * A condor-like Gurongi armed with a pair of tonfa, assuming the form of a man in black with white robes on him while labeled and . He carries the Bagundada abacus which he uses to count the number of kills by the Go Group Gurongi until Ichijo destroyed it with a marking bullet. This forces the purposeless Doldo to fight for his life against Gadol as Ichijo arrives at the scene, Doldo ends up being killed by the Sugita and Sakurai using the completed nerve-breaking bullets.
 * A condor-like Gurongi armed with a pair of tonfa, assuming the form of a man in black with white robes on him while labeled and . He carries the Bagundada abacus which he uses to count the number of kills by the Go Group Gurongi until Ichijo destroyed it with a marking bullet. This forces the purposeless Doldo to fight for his life against Gadol as Ichijo arrives at the scene, Doldo ends up being killed by the Sugita and Sakurai using the completed nerve-breaking bullets.

 * A salamander-like Gurongi and the last of the Nu Group, labeled . Posing as a middle-aged man, Zajio manages to remain in hiding with his existence unknown to the police while creating the items used by the Gurongi. With Goma's aid, Zajio obtains discarded pieces of Daguva's buckle and refines them to create a means for a Gurongi to have the same abilities as Daguva and Kuuga, so those in the Gegeru can defend themselves against Daguva. In the end, Zajio is eventually killed by Daguva just as he finished his final work. Like Balva, Zajio's true form was never revealed.
 * A salamander-like Gurongi and the last of the Nu Group, labeled . Posing as a middle-aged man, Zajio manages to remain in hiding with his existence unknown to the police while creating the items used by the Gurongi. With Goma's aid, Zajio obtains discarded pieces of Daguva's buckle and refines them to create a means for a Gurongi to have the same abilities as Daguva and Kuuga, so those in the Gegeru can defend themselves against Daguva. In the end, Zajio is eventually killed by Daguva just as he finished his final work. Like Balva, Zajio's true form was never revealed.

 * A photophobic vampire bat-like Gurongi labeled and, Goma initially murdered a preacher named Father Jose and disguised himself to use a church as a base of operations before Ichijo uncovered the truth and the Gurongi is ultimately forced to retreat. Following Xu being removed from play, wearing a trenchcoat and fedora to protect himself, Goma becomes Balva's underling. But Goma retrieved a discarded piece of Daguva's buckle and had it refined before using it to evolve himself into his  to have freedom of movement in daylight. But it also increased Goma's bloodlust as he turns on Balva and intended to kill Daguva to gain his power, driven off by Gadol as the final stages of his evolution take effect. Fully evolved into his armored , Goma nearly kills Kuuga when Daguva finally arrives. Goma runs off to fight Daguva, only to be slaughtered by him with his corpse used to develop the nerve-breaking bullets. Goma's name in Japanese comes from the readings for.
 * A photophobic vampire bat-like Gurongi labeled and, Goma initially murdered a preacher named Father Jose and disguised himself to use a church as a base of operations before Ichijo uncovered the truth and the Gurongi is ultimately forced to retreat. Following Xu being removed from play, wearing a trenchcoat and fedora to protect himself, Goma becomes Balva's underling. But Goma retrieved a discarded piece of Daguva's buckle and had it refined before using it to evolve himself into his  to have freedom of movement in daylight. But it also increased Goma's bloodlust as he turns on Balva and intended to kill Daguva to gain his power, driven off by Gadol as the final stages of his evolution take effect. Fully evolved into his armored , Goma nearly kills Kuuga when Daguva finally arrives. Goma runs off to fight Daguva, only to be slaughtered by him with his corpse used to develop the nerve-breaking bullets. Goma's name in Japanese comes from the readings for.

 * The hotheaded rhinoceros-like the leader of the Xu Group, labeled and, assuming the form of a hulking strongman with a temper. Soon after his group was removed from the Gegeru in favor of the Me Group, Zain starts acting on his own after the Gurongi Tribe's first lair was raided, attacking trucks and impaling drivers with his horn. He overpowered Kuuga in both human and Gurongi forms when  intervened as Zain stole his turn. While Zain resumes his attack on large motor vehicles, Yusuke manages to perfect his Mighty Kick to finally kill the Gurongi.
 * The hotheaded rhinoceros-like the leader of the Xu Group, labeled and, assuming the form of a hulking strongman with a temper. Soon after his group was removed from the Gegeru in favor of the Me Group, Zain starts acting on his own after the Gurongi Tribe's first lair was raided, attacking trucks and impaling drivers with his horn. He overpowered Kuuga in both human and Gurongi forms when  intervened as Zain stole his turn. While Zain resumes his attack on large motor vehicles, Yusuke manages to perfect his Mighty Kick to finally kill the Gurongi.

 * A smart chameleon-like Gurongi, labeled and . Originally, he is promoted between the Gegeru of Unidentified Life Forms 10 and 11, desiring to become a Go and playing a part in murdering Nana's acting teacher. Posing as a man with wild blonde hair, Galme's turn came as he uses his cloaking abilities to hide in high areas, dragging his victims with his tongue to hang them while smashing their faces against a surface, announcing his next location to kill, going for the Komazawa Square and then at the Central Tower, where the police stand by. Learning of a five-minute window, the police attempt to use flash grenades to disrupt Galme's chromatic cellular makeup while learning the reason for the Gurongi attacks. Though the visible Galme outruns the police, he runs into Kuuga as they battle. But once Galme turns invisible to escape, he is killed by Kuuga's Gouram-aided Blast Pegasus. The encounter with Galme, who tends to speak Japanese, together with Ichijo's experience with Balva, leads the police to realize that the Gurongi are capable of speaking their language as well.
 * A smart chameleon-like Gurongi, labeled and . Originally, he is promoted between the Gegeru of Unidentified Life Forms 10 and 11, desiring to become a Go and playing a part in murdering Nana's acting teacher. Posing as a man with wild blonde hair, Galme's turn came as he uses his cloaking abilities to hide in high areas, dragging his victims with his tongue to hang them while smashing their faces against a surface, announcing his next location to kill, going for the Komazawa Square and then at the Central Tower, where the police stand by. Learning of a five-minute window, the police attempt to use flash grenades to disrupt Galme's chromatic cellular makeup while learning the reason for the Gurongi attacks. Though the visible Galme outruns the police, he runs into Kuuga as they battle. But once Galme turns invisible to escape, he is killed by Kuuga's Gouram-aided Blast Pegasus. The encounter with Galme, who tends to speak Japanese, together with Ichijo's experience with Balva, leads the police to realize that the Gurongi are capable of speaking their language as well.

 * The mantis-like leader of the Me Group, labeled and . Garima has a tattoo on her right pointer and thumbnails and a green streak in her hair while in her human form. While Galme begins his Gegeru, Garima receives a double-bladed scythe/lance as the Go arrives and she was on a train at the Ochanomizu Station, killing those in the 4th cabin as the others left. Deciding to continue playing as one of the Go, she tracks down the remaining 288 who left the train prior and strikes them down with her weapon, her victims unaware of their death until they look back to face her. When Kuuga attempts to fight her in Titan Form on the Gouram, Garima manages to endure the Try Gouram Attack and escape in the confusion, wounded but able to continue the Gegeru with her scythe-katana. She was about to kill Sakurako when Yusuke arrives at her aid, assuming Rising Titan and running through Garima.
 * The mantis-like leader of the Me Group, labeled and . Garima has a tattoo on her right pointer and thumbnails and a green streak in her hair while in her human form. While Galme begins his Gegeru, Garima receives a double-bladed scythe/lance as the Go arrives and she was on a train at the Ochanomizu Station, killing those in the 4th cabin as the others left. Deciding to continue playing as one of the Go, she tracks down the remaining 288 who left the train prior and strikes them down with her weapon, her victims unaware of their death until they look back to face her. When Kuuga attempts to fight her in Titan Form on the Gouram, Garima manages to endure the Try Gouram Attack and escape in the confusion, wounded but able to continue the Gegeru with her scythe-katana. She was about to kill Sakurako when Yusuke arrives at her aid, assuming Rising Titan and running through Garima.

 * A grasshopper-like Gurongi, labeled and . The first of the Go to appear when he intervenes in Kuuga's fight with Goma before leaving the scene and then formally introducing himself when  starts to play. Assuming the form of a young man wearing a red scarf (which pays homage to Kamen Rider 1) and carrying a coin, Badaa rides a motorcycle named the  as his weapon that can reach speeds of 400 km per hour. When his turn came, he begins to kill 99 motorcyclists. When the Try Chaser 2000 is damaged, Kuuga is left at a disadvantage as Badaa leaves with a promise to save him in his Gerizagibas Gegeru. By the time Badaa reached 98, he decides to finish off Kuuga. However, after being barraged with bullets, Badaa is driven into a secluded location where Kuuga meets him on the Beat Chaser 2000, outrunning him and assuming Rising Mighty before he fatally knocked Badaa off his motorcycle.
 * A grasshopper-like Gurongi, labeled and . The first of the Go to appear when he intervenes in Kuuga's fight with Goma before leaving the scene and then formally introducing himself when  starts to play. Assuming the form of a young man wearing a red scarf (which pays homage to Kamen Rider 1) and carrying a coin, Badaa rides a motorcycle named the  as his weapon that can reach speeds of 400 km per hour. When his turn came, he begins to kill 99 motorcyclists. When the Try Chaser 2000 is damaged, Kuuga is left at a disadvantage as Badaa leaves with a promise to save him in his Gerizagibas Gegeru. By the time Badaa reached 98, he decides to finish off Kuuga. However, after being barraged with bullets, Badaa is driven into a secluded location where Kuuga meets him on the Beat Chaser 2000, outrunning him and assuming Rising Mighty before he fatally knocked Badaa off his motorcycle.

 * The fierce rhinoceros beetle-like the leader of the Go Group and one of the three strongest Go Gurongi, labeled and . Armed with various weapons similar to Kuuga, he assumes the form of a man in militant garb. As the Go's leader, he intervenes in the fight between  and Goma and later comes to Balva's aid against a power-mad Goma when Kuuga arrives to witness him putting the bat-like Gurongi back in his place. With Daguva going to Tokyo soon, he and the other two remaining Go Gurongi undergo the same process as Goma to ready themselves. After his two allies were killed, Gadol is the last of the Gurongi to play. After undergoing training to ready himself, Gadol heads to the police department to find worthy opponents to fight as part of his Gerizagibas Gegeru. When confronted by Kuuga in his default, Gadol reveals his new ability to use the different powers of Kuuga, , , and , before defeating Kuuga at full power in . But due to Ichijo, Gadol's Gerizagibas Gegeru had to be reset as the Gurongi attempts to kill Doldo for failing his part. After Doldo retreats, angry Gadol attempts to kill Ichijo upon being wounded by the officer's nerve-breaking bullets as Yusuke arrives to battle the Gurongi as Kuuga. Once taking their fight to the woods, Kuuga assumes Amazing Mighty and destroys Shocker Form Gadol.
 * The fierce rhinoceros beetle-like the leader of the Go Group and one of the three strongest Go Gurongi, labeled and . Armed with various weapons similar to Kuuga, he assumes the form of a man in militant garb. As the Go's leader, he intervenes in the fight between  and Goma and later comes to Balva's aid against a power-mad Goma when Kuuga arrives to witness him putting the bat-like Gurongi back in his place. With Daguva going to Tokyo soon, he and the other two remaining Go Gurongi undergo the same process as Goma to ready themselves. After his two allies were killed, Gadol is the last of the Gurongi to play. After undergoing training to ready himself, Gadol heads to the police department to find worthy opponents to fight as part of his Gerizagibas Gegeru. When confronted by Kuuga in his default, Gadol reveals his new ability to use the different powers of Kuuga, , , and , before defeating Kuuga at full power in . But due to Ichijo, Gadol's Gerizagibas Gegeru had to be reset as the Gurongi attempts to kill Doldo for failing his part. After Doldo retreats, angry Gadol attempts to kill Ichijo upon being wounded by the officer's nerve-breaking bullets as Yusuke arrives to battle the Gurongi as Kuuga. Once taking their fight to the woods, Kuuga assumes Amazing Mighty and destroys Shocker Form Gadol.

Episodes
The title of each episode is written with only two kanji.

Specials

 * Televi-Kun's special video. In the episode, Yusuke reads through newspaper clippings of his actions as Kuuga before he is called upon to fight a new Gurongi called Go·Jiino·Da. The video also previews Kuuga's Rising Mighty Form.
 * A rerun of Episodes 17 and 31, and an extra episode, labelled as Episode 46.5.
 * A short extra episode, jokingly labelled as "Episode 50".
 * It is compiled from the first two episodes with extra footage.

Production
Takeyuki Suzuki of Toei had long suspended the resumption of the Kamen Rider TV series, although there were voices of revival, saying that he should not make a halfway rider that would end up in 2–3 cool, and should be resumed when the time was ripe. Kamen Rider's TV series has been planned since around 1996, and there was a time when it was originally aimed at broadcasting on The Mainichi Broadcasting Production and TBS series at 6:00 a.m. on Saturdays, which was broadcasting the Ultra series. The initial title is "Kamen Rider XV (CrossBuoy)" and "Kamen Rider Kawakami" and the idea of appearing multiple Kamen Riders presented here has led to the idea of form change by consolidating the number of people to one person. Another project title is "Kamen Rider Gaia", which is said to have competed with "Ultraman Gaia".

The mainichi broadcasting was about to be broadcast, but then the mainichi broadcasting was Zoids and Ultraman Because I refused to choose, broadcasting in TBS system did not come to realize, toei's special effects program ''Moero!! Robocon'' It was decided to change the production station to TV Asahi due to the fact that it is airingHowever, "Kamen Rider", which has been suspended for a long time, is already a past brand from the sense at that time, and TV Asahi was also a wind that reluctantly underwent "because there is no story".

It is 'Segata Sanshiro' to have become a tailwind. Hiroshi Fujioka, who played Takeshi Hongo (Kamen Rider No. 1) in Kamen Rider, the same character played by the same character enlivened the popularity rekindle of Kamen Rider. According to Takeyuki Suzuki, this excitement led to the birth of this work. Producer Nariki Takatera also testified that the Kamen Rider Series of prizes in the prize game was also boosting sales. At the time, it was vaguely perceived as a "positive reaction", but this was a sign that the age group coming to the game center became interested in riders, and it was the beginning of viewers of the old work becoming fathers and forming "two generations of parents and children" fans.

Nariki Takatera's plan "Kamen Rider Guardian" has a clear style with a strong hero color, and there is a remnant of Yusuke's character setting. At this point, Takatera had envisioned a line of traditional hero programs so as not to disappoint the expectations of related companies. After that, the plan proposal submitted by Ishimori Pro Kamen Rider OtisAsked to reconsider the direction because of the strong horror color and tragedy, Takatera decided to drastically review it. In other tentative titles, there was also a plan called "Ouja" after the notation in Kanji was proposed.

Takatera's enthusiasm for creating a completely new Kamen Rider was strong, but he said that it would take a budget equivalent to Indiana Jones to realize the fantastic and unconventional hero image of the initial plan, In response to the point that the "half-earthling and alien" setting is too far from the rider's image, we decided to explore ways to add new flavors to traditional riders.

Takatera's idea of "Kamen Rider-likeness" was the composition of "Man and Man" with live figures such as Kazuya Taki and Tobei Tachibana next to a strange hero called Rider. This is used in an actual work in the form of a buddy of Yusuke and Kaoru Ichijo. On the other hand, the element "remodeled human", which was the basic setting of the old work, was considered not to be mandatory and was excluded.

Toei announced a new project, in May 1999. Kuuga was part of a Kamen Rider revival project that Ishinomori had worked on in 1997, planning for a leadup into the 30th anniversary. However, Ishinomori died before he could see these shows materialize. During the summer of 1999, Kuuga became publicized through magazine ads and commercials.

The Kamen Rider Kuuga trademark was registered by Toei on November 8, 1999.

Kuuga also marks Toei's very first Kamen Rider series to be shot in 1080i, though the broadcast, including the recent home video releases, has been scaled down to Standard definition instead.

Manga
is a manga adaptation, published in the 2001 summer vacation special issue of the TeleCoro Comic magazine. It took place between Episodes 22 and 23.

On November 1, 2014, a manga reboot of Kuuga began serialization in Hero's Inc.'s Monthly Hero's magazine. It is written by Toshiki Inoue and illustrated by Hitotsu Yokoshima with the characters of Kamen Rider Agito added. On October 30, 2020, after Monthly Hero's ceased publication, the series was transferred to the Comiplex website. On April 28, 2022, the series was licensed by Titan Publishing Group for English publication under their new manga imprint.

S.I.C. Hero Saga
Kuuga had two S.I.C. Hero Saga stories published in Monthly Hobby Japan magazine. The first story supervised by series producer Shigenori Takatera expands upon the mythology of Kuuga featuring original characters, the previous Kuuga chosen by the Linto, and the original. The second story Masked Rider Kuuga Edition: Dark Side continues the expansion of the series mythology. These stories take place in an alternate universe, as there are different settings between the stories and Kuuga, like the Linto Tribe with warriors and Daguva's personality. Odyssey ran from February to May 2002. Dark Side ran in a separate special issue titled Hobby Japan Mook S.I.C. Official Diorama Story S.I.C. Hero Saga vol.2.

 * Odyssey chapter titles

Novel
, written by Naruhisa Arakawa, is part of a series of spin-off novel adaptions of the Heisei Era Kamen Riders. The story takes place 12 years after the series, where Yusuke Godai defeated the Gurongi as Kamen Rider Kuuga. Ichijo is still trying to research the remains of the Gurongi Tribe until rumors of a mysterious surfaces on the internet, which reminds Ichijo of Godai. The novel was originally planned to be released on November 30, 2012, however, it was delayed until June 2013.

Video game
A video game based on the series, developed by KAZe and published by Bandai, was released in Japan on December 21, 2000 for the PlayStation. It is a fighting game similar to Tekken.

Cast

 * Yusuke Godai:
 * Kaoru Ichijo:
 * Sakurako Sawatari:
 * Pops (Tamasaburo Kazari):
 * Minori Godai: (Played as )
 * Shuichi Tsubaki:
 * Hikari Enokida:
 * Nana Asahina:
 * Jean Michel Sorrel:
 * Mika Natsume:
 * Sadao Matsukura:
 * Morimichi Sugita:
 * Tsuyoshi Sakurai:
 * Nozomi Sasayama:
 * Akiji Kanzaki:
 * Junichi Chono:
 * Woman With the Rose Tattoo (La·Balva·De):
 * Xu·Goma·Gu:
 * Xu·Zain·Da:
 * Me·Galme·Re:
 * Me·Garima·Ba: (Played as )
 * Nu·Zajio·Re:
 * , Go·Badaa·Ba:
 * La·Doldo·Gu:
 * Go·Gadol·Ba:
 * N·Daguva·Zeba:
 * Narration:
 * Xu·Goma·Gu:
 * Xu·Zain·Da:
 * Me·Galme·Re:
 * Me·Garima·Ba: (Played as )
 * Nu·Zajio·Re:
 * , Go·Badaa·Ba:
 * La·Doldo·Gu:
 * Go·Gadol·Ba:
 * N·Daguva·Zeba:
 * Narration:

Theme songs

 * Opening theme
 * Lyrics: Shoko Fujibayashi
 * Composition & Arrangement: Toshihiko Sahashi
 * Artist: Masayuki Tanaka
 * Artist: Masayuki Tanaka

 * Ending theme
 * Lyrics: Shoko Fujibayashi
 * Composition & Arrangement: Toshihiko Sahashi
 * Artist: Jin Hashimoto
 * Artist: Jin Hashimoto

Reception and impact
The show won Seiun Award for Best Dramatic Presentation in 2002.

The series originated the term Odagiri effect, named after the lead actor Joe Odagiri, which means a television program attracts a larger than expected number of female viewers because the program stars attractive male actors or characters. The producers discovered that, besides the target demographics, Kuuga was also attracting a large audience of women around the age of 30. The show was attracting the mothers of children who found Odagiri attractive. Following this, Odagiri went on to a more high-profile career, while the follow-up series, Kamen Rider Agito attempted to re-create the effect by casting three attractive male actors in the lead. Again, the show attracted large numbers of female viewers, although long-term viewers, mostly men, disapproved.

International Broadcasts, Home Video & Video Streaming
Scheduled to be released in US on Blu-ray by Shout! Factory September 20, 2022, including an option to have Gurongi given English subtitles or not.

 * In the Philippines, the series received a Tagalog dub and aired on ABS-CBN as Masked Rider Kuuga from 2002 to 2003.
 * In Malaysia, the series received a Malay dub and aired on TV3.
 * In Indonesia, the series received an Indonesian dub and it aired on RCTI.
 * In Saudi Arabia, the series aired on Spacetoon with an Arabic dub.
 * In Southeast Asia, an English dub has been made and aired and released on home video. The English dub was produced in Hong Kong by Omni Productions. The English episodes were written by Colin Shevloff, who was also the English voice of Yusuke Godai. It was distributed in Malaysia by Speedy Video.
 * In the Latin Spanish-speaking world, two Latin-Spanish dubs have been produced. The first Latin Spanish dub was produced by Cloverway (Which was Toei's international branch and it was their final project) with dubbing work by Venezuela studio, Etcétera Group. In Chile, it aired from November 3, 2007 to June 15, 2008 on ETC. In Mexico, it aired on Azteca 7 on January 8, 2008. Only 25 out of 49 episodes of this dub were covered and went unfinished because Cloverway was closed permanently by Toei Animation Inc. Then in 2021, Toei commissioned a new Latin-Spanish dub that was produced by Olympusat with dubbing work by Mexican studio, Meliorem. This was dubbed remotely online during the COVID-19 pandemic. It aired on Ultra Familia in the United States. On September 7, 2021, the series was distributed across all of Latin America on the FreeTV digital streaming service. Unlike the first dub, this new dub covers all 49 episodes.
 * In North America, Shout! Factory acquired the license to release the entire series on Blu-ray. It became available on September 20, 2022, in its original Japanese audio with English subtitles spreading across seven discs.

title: Kamen Rider Kuuga


text:
William Baker (fashion designer)

William Baker (born 1973) is a fashion designer, fashion journalist, stylist, author and theatre director, best known for his past work with musician Kylie Minogue.

Baker attended the Manchester Grammar School, from where he went on to study theology at King's College London. He was the inspiration for Manchester indie band The Man From Delmonte's song "Pink". While studying he worked as a sales assistant for Vivienne Westwood where he met the singer Kylie Minogue and her photographer Katerina Jebb.

Other work
In 2007, he made his debut as a theatre director with a West End revival of Rent dubbed Rent Remixed which received poor reviews. When asked beforehand how he was going to handle the change in direction, he claimed he said; "I'm approaching it in the same way I would approach a Kylie show or tour".

He has also worked with the musical acts Garbage, Tricky, Björk, Tori Amos, Reef and Jamiroquai on album and single covers, and music videos.

He collaborated with Jay Kay of Jamiroquai on the costume and set design for both the A Funk Odyssey album cover and tour.

Baker worked as stylist for Britney Spears on her 2009 The Circus Starring Britney Spears tour.

He has also been credited as director of British pop singer Leona Lewis' critically acclaimed debut tour The Labyrinth, which was filmed in the London O2 Arena for a DVD/CD release.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William Baker (fashion designer)


text:
Rapa Iti

Rapa, also called Rapa Iti, or "Little Rapa", to distinguish it from Easter Island, whose Polynesian name is Rapa Nui, is the largest and only inhabited island of the Bass Islands in French Polynesia. An older name for the island is Oparo. The total land area including offshore islets is 40.5 km2. As of the 2022 census, Rapa had a population of 451. The island's highest point is at 650 m elevation at Mont Perahu. Its main town is Ahuréi. The inhabitants of Rapa Iti speak their own Polynesian language called the Rapa language.

Geography
Rapa Iti is located at -27.58333°N, -144.33333°W. It is shaped roughly like a Greek final sigma (ς), with a well-protected central bay, surrounded by a ring of relatively high mountains. The whole island appears to be the peak of a sinking volcano, with the bay as well as the caldera. The area of the main island is 38.5 km2. Little Rapa Tauturau is an offshore island.

This island is the nearest land to the antipodes of Jerusalem.

Its main town, Ahuréi (or Ha'uréi), lies on the southern shore of that bay, which is called the Baie d'Ahuréi. A smaller village, 'Area, is located on the northern shore of the bay. The people are Polynesian. Former times' warfare is indicated by 28 extant ridgetop forts. Today Rapa is home to the Tahitian Choir, in which a third of the island's population sing traditional songs.

Although sometimes considered part of the Austral Islands, Rapa Iti and the Bass Islands have a different geological, linguistic and cultural history.

History
Rapa Iti was first settled by Polynesians, most likely in the 12th century. Their Polynesian dialect developed into what is today the Rapa language over the centuries. It is believed that the depletion of natural resources on the island resulted in warfare, and the inhabitants lived in up to 14 fortified settlements (pa or pare, a type of fort; compare the Māori pā) on peaks and clifftops. It is considered that the oldest of these is Morongo Uta, which was developed c. 1450–1550 AD.

The first European to visit Rapa Iti was George Vancouver on 22 December 1791; he named the island Oparo. Contact with Europeans brought liquor and disease, and between 1824 and 1830 over three quarters of the natives died. Peruvian slavers raided the island as well. When a handful of their victims were returned to the island, they brought with them smallpox, which caused an epidemic. In 1826, there were almost 2000 inhabitants; forty years later, there were fewer than 120.

The independent island kingdom was declared a French protectorate in 1867. The British established a coaling station on the island, which prompted France to formally annex it on 6 March 1881. Subsequently, the native monarchy was abolished and the last queen, the daughter or Parima, was deposed on 18 June 1887.

Thor Heyerdahl, notably, made excavations in Morongo Uta, seeking links between Rapa Iti and Rapa Nui (Easter Island).

Climate
Rapa Iti has tropical rainforest climate (Af in the Köppen climate classification, Arab in the Trewartha climate classification), bordering on a very-mild winter humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification, Cfal in the Trewartha climate classification). Despite being situated south of the Tropic of Capricorn, the remote location in the middle of a tropical ocean enables the climate to be moderated in all seasons. Summers are hot and muggy, and cyclones are rarer, as the islands are located near the Horse Latitudes at thirty degrees south, despite the exposed location makes the island very windy, tempering the summer weather. Very hot weather is very rare, with the highest temperature recorded was 31.6 °C (88.9 °F) in March. Winters are mild and very stormy, due to the isolated and exposed location of Rapa Iti. Precipitation is abundant in all seasons, and sunshine is uncommon every month of the year. The cool winters and strong winds prohibit ultra tropical fruits such as coconuts to thrive, as it has dropped to 8.5 °C (47.3 °F) in September. In addition, the lack of continental influence promotes the vast seasonal lag, as March is the second-warmest month of the year, while September is the second-coldest.

Environment
The Manatau French Polynesian Reserve is a special French Polynesian Reserve to protect the animals and ridgetop forts of an area of southern Rapa. It is located near South Ahuréi.

The island is home to the endemic and critically endangered Rapa fruit dove which is threatened by habitat loss, predation by feral cats and hunting. Its population was estimated in 2017 at 160 individual birds. The critically endangered Rapa shearwater is endemic to surrounding islets. Other birds include the least concern Murphy's petrel, which nest there in small numbers, and the near threatened bristle-thighed curlew which is a non-breeding visitor while migrating. Because of its significance for these species the island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.

Administration
The commune of Rapa consists of the island of Rapa Iti and the four uninhabited Marotiri rocks.

title: Rapa Iti


text:
59th Street station

59th Street station may refer to:

 * 59th Street (BMT Fourth Avenue Line) in Brooklyn, New York; serving the trains
 * 59th Street (IRT Third Avenue Line) a demolished elevated station in Manhattan
 * 59th Street (IRT Ninth Avenue Line) a demolished elevated station in Manhattan
 * 59th Street station (New York Central Railroad), a disused railway station in the Park Avenue Tunnel, New York City
 * 59th Street station (Sacramento), a light rail station in Sacramento, California
 * 59th Street/University of Chicago station, a commuter rail station in Chicago, Illinois
 * 59th Street–Columbus Circle (New York City Subway), a subway station complex in Manhattan, New York consisting of:
 * 59th Street–Columbus Circle (IND Eighth Avenue Line); serving the trains
 * 59th Street–Columbus Circle (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line); serving the trains
 * Fifth Avenue–59th Street (BMT Broadway Line) in Manhattan, New York; serving the trains
 * Lexington Avenue/59th Street (New York City Subway), a subway station complex in Manhattan, New York consisting of:
 * Lexington Avenue/59th Street (BMT Broadway Line); serving the trains
 * 59th Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line); serving the trains

title: 59th Street station


text:
Talk:Bert Boeren

Untitled
The article is in desperate need of a rewrite. As it stands, it's just a set of lists, sometimes not very clearly presented. The reader is left unsure as to what exactly Boeren does. I've got started on it in a minor way, but it needs more than one helping hand, I think (especially as I'd never heard of him before). It needs turning into a real article, a lot of the detail cutting out (for example, in the absence of any recordings as leader, only significant sideman or band-member recordings should be mentioned). Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 11:45, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Ah, I've just discovered that the page was cut and pasted from here. Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 11:55, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

It didn't take as long as I'd feared to whip it into shape. It still needs polishing, and I'm sure that more knowledgeable people could make it more intersting... Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 12:39, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Bert Boeren


text:
User:Knuckles

 * Encyclopedia. Say it with me: en-cy-clo-pe-di-a. Now, go work on it. - User:Android79

I am Knuckles, usually writing on Swedish wikipedia. Please leave messages on my talk page over there, cheers!

sv:Användare:Knuckles

title: User:Knuckles


text:
96th Street

96th Street may refer to the following places in New York City, United States:

 * 96th Street (Manhattan)
 * 96th Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)
 * 96th Street station (IND Eighth Avenue Line)
 * 96th Street station (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)
 * 96th Street station (Second Avenue Subway)

title: 96th Street


text:
Ahurei

Ahuréi (sometimes called Ahurei, Ha'urei or Ha'uréi, latter two also show how it is pronounced), is the capital of Rapa and the rest of the Bass Islands of French Polynesia. It is located on both sides of the Baie d'Ahuréi.

Ahuréi consists of two suburbs: South Ahuréi, on the south side of the Baie d'Ahuréi, and North Ahuréi, on the north side of the Baie d'Ahuréi.

The town is the southernmost permanently inhabited settlement where French is an official language (not counting settlements with no civilian population).

Climate
The town features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) that closely borders on a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af).

title: Ahurei


text: Category:Communes of Indre

title: Category:Communes of Indre


text:
Schlumbergera

Schlumbergera is a small genus of cacti with six to nine species found in the coastal mountains of south-eastern Brazil. These plants grow on trees or rocks in habitats that are generally shady with high humidity, and can be quite different in appearance from their desert-dwelling cousins. Most species of Schlumbergera have stems which resemble leaf-like pads joined one to the other and flowers which appear from areoles at the joints and tips of the stems. Two species have cylindrical stems more similar to other cacti.

Common names for these cacti generally refer to their flowering season. In the Northern Hemisphere, they are called Christmas cactus, Thanksgiving cactus, crab cactus and holiday cactus. In Brazil, the genus is referred to as Flor de Maio (May flower), reflecting the period in which they flower in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the popular houseplants are cultivars of Schlumbergera, rather than species, with flowers in white, pink, yellow, orange, red or purple. The Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus, placed in the genus Rhipsalidopsis, is also called a holiday cactus and has flowers in red, orange, pink and white.

The cultivars of the Christmas cactus fall into two main groups:

 * The Truncata Group contains all cultivars with features derived mainly from the species S. truncata: stem segments with pointed teeth; flowers held more or less horizontally, usually above the horizontal, whose upper side is differently shaped from the lower side (zygomorphic); and pollen which is yellow. They generally flower earlier than members of the Buckleyi Group and, although common names are not applied consistently, may be distinguished as Thanksgiving cactus, crab cactus or claw cactus.
 * The Buckleyi Group contains all cultivars with at least some features clearly showing inheritance from S. russelliana: stem segments with rounded, more symmetrical teeth; more or less symmetrical (regular) flowers which hang down, below the horizontal; and pollen which is pink. They generally flower later than members of the Truncata Group and are more likely to be called Christmas cactus.

Description

In the wild, the species of Schlumbergera grow either on trees (epiphytic) or on rocks (epilithic) and can form sizeable shrubs with woody bases; a height of up to 1.2 m has been reported for one species (S. opuntioides). They are leafless, the green stems acting as photosynthetic organs. The stems are composed of segments, which take one of two forms. In most species the segments are strongly flattened (cladodes), being made up of a central core with two (or more rarely three) "wings". Special structures characteristic of cacti, called "areoles", then occur at the ends of the segments of the stem. In two species the stems are less flattened, more cylinder-shaped, and the areoles are arranged in a more or less spiral pattern all over the segments. In both cases, the areoles, which may have wool and bristles, are where the flower buds appear.

The flowers either hang downwards and are almost regular (radially symmetrical or actinomorphic) or, as in most species, are held more or less horizontally with the higher side of the flower different from the lower side (radially asymmetrical or zygomorphic). In those species whose flowers are held up, their angle with the horizontal is relatively constant and is characteristic of the species. Each flower has 20–30 tepals. The outer tepals – those closer to the base of the flower – are short and unconnected, and spread out or curve backwards. The inner tepals – those towards the tip of the flower – are longer and in most species become progressively more fused together at the base to form a floral tube. In some species the difference between the outer and inner tepals creates the appearance of a "flower within a flower". The flowers produce nectar in a chamber at the base of the floral tube.

In most species, the many stamens are arranged in two series, with the inner stamens being fused at the base to form a short tubular structure and the outer stamens arising from along the floral tube. The style is usually dark red and has a stigma with 6–8 lobes; the style plus stigma is roughly the same length as the stamens. If the flower is fertilized, a fleshy fruit forms, either smooth or with ribs. The brown or black seeds are about 1 mm in diameter.

Taxonomy

The genus is one of a small number belonging to a group of cacti classified as the tribe Rhipsalideae. Species of cacti belonging to this group are quite distinct in appearance and habit from most other cacti since they grow on trees or rocks as epiphytes or lithophytes. Although the species are easy to identify as members of the Rhipsalideae, for many years there was confusion as to how they should be divided into genera. This confusion extended to Schlumbergera, whose complicated taxonomic history has been detailed by McMillan and Horobin. The modern genus Schlumbergera was created by Charles Lemaire in 1858. The name commemorates Frédéric Schlumberger, who had a collection of cacti at his chateau near Rouen. Lemaire placed only one species in his new genus – a plant discovered in Brazil in 1837 which had been named Epiphyllum russellianum by William J. Hooker. Lemaire renamed it Schlumbergera epiphylloides (under the current rules of botanical nomenclature it should have been called Schlumbergera russelliana, which is its current name).

Lemaire noted the similarity of his Schlumbergera epiphylloides to a species first described as Epiphyllum truncatum by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1819, but did not accept that the two species should be included in the same genus. In 1890, Karl Moritz Schumann created the new genus Zygocactus, transferring Epiphyllum truncatum to Zygocactus truncatus. Although he later placed it back in Epiphyllum, abandoning Zygocactus, the generic name Zygocactus continued to be widely used.

In 1913, Nathaniel Britton and Joseph Rose followed Lemaire in keeping Schlumbergera russelliana and Zygocactus truncatus in separate genera. They also transferred the Easter cactus to Schlumbergera as S. gaertneri, initiating a lasting confusion between these two genera.

In 1953, Reid Venable Moran placed both Schlumbergera russelliana and Zygocactus truncatus in the genus Schlumbergera. Other species were added later by David Hunt, including those formerly placed in Epiphyllanthus.

Schlumbergera and Hatiora have long been confused. Species in the former genus generally have flowers that are zygomorphic with a distinct floral tube, while those in the latter have actinomorphic flowers with inconspicuous tubes. DNA data showed that as previously circumscribed the two genera are not monophyletic and the three species in Hatiora subgenus Rhipsalidopsis were transferred into Schlumbergera, although this change has not been universally adopted, with other sources placing two in the genus Rhipsalidopsis.

Synonymy
The following genera are now synonyms of Schlumbergera (i.e. they have no species not moved into Schlumbergera):

 * Epiphyllanthus A.Berger
 * Opuntiopsis Knebel (nom. inval.)
 * Zygocactus K.Schum.
 * Zygocereus Frič & Kreuz. (orth. var.)
 * Epiphyllum Pfeiff. but not Epiphyllum Haw.

The case of Epiphyllum is complex. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus created the genus Cactus. As more species were discovered this proved too broad, and new genera were set up to subdivide the cacti. The genus Epiphyllum was created in 1812 by Haworth, based on Linnaeus's Cactus phyllanthus. In 1831, Johann Link created the genus Phyllocactus based on the same species. Following Ludwig Pfeiffer in 1837, the European tradition was to use Phyllocactus for epiphytic cacti with large regular flowers and Epiphyllum for the irregular-flowered species now called Schlumbergera truncata. Under modern rules, Phyllocactus is an illegitimate name, as is Epiphyllum in the sense of Pfeiffer; thus Epiphyllum Pfeiff. is a synonym of Schlumbergera. The true genus Epiphyllum Haw. now has around 19 species.

Species
Between six and nine species are currently recognized. In the narrowest circumscription, Schlumbergera sensu stricto, six species are accepted. Only synonyms which have been widely used (and their basionyms) are given in the list below.

 * Schlumbergera kautskyi (Horobin & McMillan) N.P.Taylor
 * syn. S. truncata subsp. kautskyi Horobin & McMillan
 * Schlumbergera microsphaerica (K.Schum.) Hoevel
 * syn. Cereus microsphaerica K.Schum., Epiphyllanthus microsphaericus  (K.Schum.) Britton & Rose , Cereus obtusangulus K.Schum. , Epiphyllanthus obtusangulus  (K.Schum.) A.Berger , Zygocactus obtusangulus  (K.Schum.) Loefgr. , S. obtusangula (K.Schum.) D.R.Hunt
 * Schlumbergera opuntioides (Loefgr. & Dusén) D.R.Hunt
 * syn. Epiphyllum opuntioides Loefgr. & Dusén, Zygocactus opuntioides (Loefgr. & Dusén) Loefgr. , Epiphyllanthus opuntioides (Loefgr. & Dusén) Moran
 * Schlumbergera orssichiana Barthlott & McMillan
 * Schlumbergera russelliana (Hook.) Britton & Rose
 * syn. Epiphyllum russellianum Hook., S. epiphylloides Lemaire , nom. illeg.
 * Schlumbergera truncata (Haw.) Moran
 * syn. Epiphyllum truncatum Haw., Zygocactus truncatus (Haw.) K.Schum. , nom. illeg.

In a wider circumscription, one species formerly placed in Hatiora is transferred into Schlumbergera.

 * Schlumbergera lutea Calvente & Zappi, syn. Hatiora epiphylloides (Porto & Werderm.) P.V.Heath

Two species that have been placed in Hatiora or Schlumbergera are placed in Rhipsalidopsis by Plants of the World Online :

 * Rhipsalidopsis gaertneri (Regel) Linding. (Easter cactus, Whitsun cactus)
 * syns. Hatiora gaertneri (Regel) Barthlott, Schlumbergera gaertneri (Regel) Britton & Rose
 * Rhipsalidopsis rosea (Lagerh.) Britton & Rose
 * syns. Hatiora rosea (Lagerh.) Barthlott, Schlumbergera rosea (Lagerh.) Calvente & Zappi

Four hybrids of Schlumbergera s.s. have been named, all made in cultivation (although the first may possibly occur in the wild). The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants recommends that cultivated plants should be named under its rules, not those appropriate for natural species and hybrids. The Group names given below were provided by McMillan and Horobin.

 * Schlumbergera × buckleyi (T.Moore) Tjaden = S. russelliana × S. truncata; S. Buckleyi Group
 * syn. Epiphyllum buckleyi T.Moore, E. rollissonii T.Moore , S. bridgesii (Lemaire) Loefgr.
 * Schlumbergera × eprica Süpplie = S. orssichiana × S. russelliana
 * Schlumbergera × exotica Barthlott & Rauh = S. truncata × S. opuntioides; S. Exotica Group
 * Schlumbergera × reginae McMillan = S. truncata × S. orssichiana; S. Reginae Group

Distribution, habitat and ecology

Schlumbergera occurs only in the coastal mountains of south-east Brazil, in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Sites where it has been found range from close to the Tropic of Capricorn northwards to 20°S, i.e. in the southernmost part of the tropics. Plants grow at altitudes from 700 m in the case of S. truncata to 2780 m in the case of S. microsphaerica, either in the coastal moist forests or in rocky areas. The natural distribution of Schlumbergera species has become confused because European cultivars were deliberately introduced into some areas, including the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, by the Brazilian Agricultural Department, to compensate for over-collecting of wild plants.

Because of their height and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, the coastal mountains produce high altitude moist forests – warm moist air is forced upwards into higher, colder locations where it condenses. Schlumbergera species grow in habitats which are generally relatively cool, shaded and of high humidity. David Hunt describes collecting specimens in conditions of cloud, drizzle and overnight temperatures down to -4 °C. Plants are epiphytic or lithophytic, growing on moss-covered tree branches or in rock crevices, often in small pockets of substrate formed from decayed leaves and other vegetation. S. microsphaerica is found at higher altitudes, above 2200 m, in barren rocky habitats, and tolerates higher light levels.

The flowers of Schlumbergera have adaptations for pollination by hummingbirds: tubular flowers with abundant nectar, and colours towards the red end of the spectrum. Most species require cross-pollination to set seed. The exceptions are S. kautskyi and S. microsphaerica; as noted above, the latter is found at higher altitudes where hummingbirds may be absent or less common.

The fruits of Schlumbergera do not open spontaneously when ripe, and appear to be adapted for distribution by birds, which eat the seeds and pulp contained in the fruit. Birds have been observed removing seeds which had stuck to their beaks by rubbing them on tree branches, where the seeds might be able to germinate. Segments may also break off from the stems and take root, thus enabling plants to propagate vegetatively.

History

Schlumbergera truncata was in cultivation in Europe by 1818, and S. russelliana was introduced in 1839. The two species were deliberately crossed in England by W. Buckley resulting in the hybrid now called S. × buckleyi, first recorded in 1852. By the 1860s, a substantial number of cultivars (cultivated varieties) were available in a range of colours and habits, and were used as ornamental plants in "stoves" (heated greenhouses) and in houses, where they were popular for their autumn and winter flowering. Many cultivars were selected seedlings of S. truncata, but at least three S. × buckleyi hybrids were available, of which one, now called S. 'Buckleyi', is thought to be the original Christmas cactus. By the early part of the 20th century, the genus had become less popular, and many of the early cultivars were lost.

From around the 1950s onwards, breeding resumed in Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. New plants were produced by crossing among the species and existing cultivars of S. truncata, S. russelliana and the hybrid S. × buckleyi. Treatments which induced mutations were also used. The result was a wide range of flower colours which had not been available before, including the first true yellow to be sold commercially, S. 'Gold Charm' (which was a sterile triploid). Breeders aimed for plants which grew strongly, were upright at the point of sale rather than pendulous, had many flowers or buds, and were adapted to living as house plants.

In the 1980s the species S. orssichiana was also used in crosses. The hybrid of S. truncata and S. orssichiana has been named S. × reginae or S. Reginae Group; one of the first cultivars was S. 'Bristol Queen'. S. opuntioides crosses have also been made, but have not resulted in commercially available cultivars.

Modern cultivars

McMillan and Horobin have listed hundreds of modern European, North American and Australian cultivars of the Christmas cactus, which they put into a number of cultivar groups:

 * The Truncata Group contains all cultivars with mainly S. truncata characteristics: stem segments with pointed teeth (dentate); zygomorphic flowers held more or less horizontally, usually above the horizontal; and pollen which is yellow.
 * The Buckleyi Group contains all cultivars with at least some features clearly showing inheritance from S. russelliana: stem segments with rounded, more symmetrical teeth (crenate); more regular flowers which hang down, below the horizontal; and pollen which is pink. There is considerable variation within this Group; McMillan and Horobin introduced subcategories: "TB" for those more like S. truncata and "BT" for those more like the classic S. × buckleyi, with "B" reserved for the first generation (F1) S. × buckleyi hybrids.
 * The Reginae Group contains cultivars known to be derived from hybrids with S. orssichiana.
 * The Exotica Group is used for the small number of hybrids involving S. opuntioides.

Attempts have also been made to classify cultivars by colour. A difficulty is that the flowers of many cultivars exhibit different colours depending on the temperature during bud formation and growth. In particular, temperatures below 14 °C produce pink tones in otherwise white and yellow cultivars, and deepen the colour in pink and red cultivars. The availability of iron to the plant has also been suggested to affect flower colour.

In the United States, cultivars are propagated in large numbers for sale before Thanksgiving Day (the fourth Thursday in November). In Europe, plants are mainly sold later in the year, in the period before Christmas. A single Dutch grower (de Vries of Aalsmeer, the Netherlands) was reported in 1989 as producing 2,000,000 plants per year.

Common names
Plants are offered for sale under a variety of common names. The earliest English common name was "Christmas cactus". In Europe, where plants are largely produced for sale in the period before Christmas, this remains the most widely used common name in many languages for cultivars of all groups (e.g. Weihnachtskaktus in German, cactus de Noël in French, and cacto de Navidad in Spanish ). This is also the name used in Canada. In the United States, where plants are produced for the Thanksgiving holiday in November, the name "Thanksgiving cactus" is used; "Christmas cactus" may then be restricted to cultivars of the Buckleyi Group, particularly the very old cultivars such as 'Buckleyi'. In Russia they are known as dekabrist ("decembrist") and rozhdestvennika ("nativity"). The name "crab cactus" (referring to the clawed ends of the stems) is also used for the Truncata Group. "Link cactus" is another common name, describing the way that the stems of the genus as a whole are made up of linked segments. The name "chain cactus" is common in New Zealand, and may also refer to Hatiora or Rhipsalidopsis species.

The Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus was placed in the genus Rhipsalidopsis, but was at one time included in Schlumbergera (or one of its synonyms). The name "holiday cactus" has been used to include both Schlumbergera and Rhipsalidopsis cultivars.

Care of cultivars
When grown as house plants, Schlumbergera cultivars are said to be relatively easy to care for. McMillan and Horobin describe in detail their cultivation in both commercial and domestic conditions. Their specific recommendations include:

 * Growing medium: Free-draining, humus-rich, somewhat acid growing media are used for commercial production, such as a mixture of peat or leafmould and an inert material such as grit, sharp sand or polystyrene beads. It is recommended that plants should be grown in relatively small pots; half-height pots are suitable.
 * Watering: They are more tolerant of drought than many house plants, though not as drought tolerant as the desert cactus. They can be damaged by both under- and over-watering. Keeping the growing medium just moist throughout the year avoids either extreme.
 * Light: They can be damaged by exposure to more than small amounts of sunlight. Members of the Buckleyi Group, such as the old-fashioned Christmas cactus with pendant flowers, are more tolerant of high light levels than members of the Truncata Group, such as most of the modern cultivars. Too much light causes stems to take on a reddish colouration; however, very low light levels will prevent flowering. Day length is important in controlling flowering; continuous darkness for at least 12 hours is necessary to induce bud formation. A period of about 8 days with 16 hours of darkness at 16 °C has been shown to cause flower buds to form. Lower temperatures slow this process. The advice sometimes given to withhold water to produce flower buds has been shown to be incorrect.
 * Temperature: Holiday cacti grow best when they are placed in a location with partial shade, with a temperature between 70 and 80 F. They can not tolerate temperature less than 10 °C (50 °F).
 * Propagation: Both commercially and in the home, propagation can be achieved by using short pieces of stem, one to three segments long, twisted off rather than cut. Cuttings are allowed to dry for 1–7 days, forming a callus at the broken end, and then rooted in an open growing medium. Temperatures above 21 °C and up to 27 °C in long day/short night conditions speed rooting.

Pests and diseases
In cultivation, these plants have been described as "remarkably free from pests and diseases". Two significant insect pests are aphids on young shoots, buds and flowers, and root mealybugs which attack below soil level. Stems and roots can be rotted by diseases caused by fungi and similar organisms; these include infections by species of Fusarium (a fungus), and Phytophthora and Pythium (both water moulds). Approved chemical treatments can be used in the case of insect attack or these diseases.

Aphids, mealybugs and other invertebrate pests can spread viruses. Symptoms vary with the species, but a loss of vigour is usual. Cactus virus X has been isolated from S. truncata. There is no treatment for virus diseases; it is recommended that infected plants be destroyed.

title: Schlumbergera


text:
King–Crane Commission

The King–Crane Commission, officially called the 1919 Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey, consisting primarily of an American delegation was a commission of inquiry concerning the disposition of areas within the former Ottoman Empire.

The Commission began as an outgrowth of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The Commission visited areas of Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, and Anatolia, surveyed local public opinion, and assessed its view on the best course of action for the region. Originally meant to be led by French, British, Italian and American representatives, it ended as an investigation conducted solely by the United States government after the other countries withdrew to avoid the risk of being "confronted by recommendations from their own appointed delegates which might conflict with their policies". With the withdrawal of other allied nations, the commission lost any real credibility.

The Commission submitted its report to the Paris Peace Conference in August 1919. Its working being undercut from the beginning by France and the United Kingdom's pact, the Sykes–Picot Agreement, and colonialist designs, the Peace Conference had largely concluded the area's future by the time the report was finished.

Context
At the Paris Peace Conference, groups of imperial nations such as France and Britain sought to divide the Ottoman Empire among themselves using the mandate system while anti-imperialist leaders such as President Wilson and Amir Faysal sought to oppose such plans. The conference began in 1919. In the wake of World War I, the participants were exhausted and particularly interested in the fate of their imperial rival, the Ottoman Empire.

The French, in particular, had extensive claims in the Middle East. Since as early 1900, the French began to build relationships and claims on political, moral and economic grounds. They created a role for themselves as the traditional protector of Lebanese Christians. The French supported the Maronites in Lebanon with missionaries and schools, deepening their relationship with the Christian religious community. Many Lebanese Christians feared domination as a religious minority and vocally supported the French Mandate. This gave the French political credibility in the region.

Finally, French capitalists controlled 63% of the Ottoman Public Debt. This economic tie made France very concerned about the fate of the Ottoman Empire. The French were adamant that because of their unique relationship with Syria, they should be one of the nations to receive a mandate in Syria.

Meanwhile, after World War I, Arabs in Greater Syria, including Palestine, sought independence due to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and global revolutionary activities, namely, the “year of travelling revolutions” across the North Africa and the Middle East. They aimed to establish independent nation-states, inspired by President Wilson's emphasis on self-determination. The King-Crane Commission played a crucial role in evaluating their aspirations. Arabs relied on Wilson's assurances of security and autonomy, expecting democratic principles to guide the postwar period. They hoped for Western support to achieve self-rule, marking the end of imperialism in the Middle East. However, their disillusionment was palpable as reflected in the reactions during the King-Crane Commission, where "William Yale’s disappointed expectations of Arab nationalist enthusiasm... found insufficiently proven by the Arabs' lackluster emotional reactions.

Secret negotiations
The French allied themselves with the British in order to press their claims. While the British did not have the same connection with the Middle East, they were still interested in expanding and defending their existing colonial empire. In what came to be known as the Sykes-Picot agreement, the French and the British agreed to divide the Middle East between the two of them after the war. When they reached the Paris Peace Conference, this agreement made negotiation on the Middle East nearly impossible. When American diplomats proposed the King–Crane Commission to investigate popular sentiment in the region of Syria, both French and British diplomats greeted it with public approval, but behind the scenes the outcome had already been decided. Lord Snell criticized the British government's handling of Arab nationalism, noting that the King-Crane Commission report commented: "Arab nationalism in Palestine has been artificially puffed up by methods which the Government should never have allowed. Only a little firmness is needed to deflate it.

The British also engaged in secret negotiations with the emir of Mecca in the Hussein-McMahon correspondence before the conference occurred. Ultimately, this would cause the British to fall into poor standing with the Arabs because they would betray Arab trust by conducting simultaneous negotiations in the Sykes-Picot agreement and the Balfour Declaration.

Zionism and early Jewish settlement
Zionism has been a popular and contentious subject among historians for many years. According to the Israeli-Arab author Nadim Rouhana, “the essence of the encounter therefore took place between a group of people living in their homeland and a group of people who arrived from other parts of the world guided by an ideology that claimed the same homeland as exclusively theirs.” Zionism in Rouhana's eye revolved around a system of exclusion in which Zionist arrived and stole the lands they resided on. This interpretation is understandable given the nature of the future state of Israel, but it does not give a full picture of Jewish people in Palestine. Author Dina Porat rounds off Rouhana's argument by stating, “Almost none of the Zionist leaders educated in Europe studied Arabic…Arabs did not master European languages or the Hebrew spoken by the settlers. The absence of a common language created an abyss that exists today.” The reason for the distance between the two groups rested in the lack of cultural assimilation. These two viewpoints demonstrate that the encounter between Zionists and Arab was one where cultural differences were ignored or exploited. The British in particular exploited the rivalry between these groups with the Balfour declaration. The Balfour Declaration aligned the goals of Zionism with their imperial goals. Palestinians returned to the principle of natural national rights to assert their political claims to Palestine, based on their centuries-long presence as a distinctive people and on universally valid international legal principles.

The Commission
The Commission was originally proposed by the United States as an international effort to assess '' the state of opinion there with regard to [the post-Ottoman Middle East], and the social, racial, and economic conditions. '' The plan received little support from the other nations, with many claimed delays. The Americans gradually realized that the British and French had already come to their own backroom deals about the future of the region, and new information could only muddy the waters. So, the United States alone sponsored the commission.

The Commission's representatives appointed by President Woodrow Wilson were Henry Churchill King, a theologian and fellow college president (of Oberlin College), and Charles R. Crane, a prominent Democratic Party contributor.

The dispatch of the Commission, combined with Wilson's claim that the “nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of an autonomous development,” sparked optimism in the Arab world that the era of imperialism was coming to an end. The Arabs united to form their political proposals, based on ideas of self-determination and minority rights.

The Commission's effectiveness was hampered by the fact that it was the British army that actually protected them and controlled the translators, giving a skewed view of opinion where it was considerably easier to decry the French than the British. In spite of this, based on interviews with local elites, the Commission concluded that, while independence was preferred, the Americans were considered the second-best choice for a colonial power, the British the third-best, and the French easily the worst choice.

Based on these interviews, King concluded that while the Middle East was "not ready" for independence, a colonial government would not serve the people well either. He recommended instead that the Americans move in to occupy the region, because only the United States could be trusted to guide the people to self-sufficiency and independence rather than become an imperialist occupier. From King's personal writings, it seems that his overriding concern was the morally correct course of action, not necessarily tempered by politics or pragmatism. The Republicans had regained control of the United States Senate in the 1918 midterm elections. In light of Republican isolationism, the probability of a huge military involvement and occupation overseas, even given British and French approval, was practically nil.

The British Foreign Office was willing to allow either the United States or Great Britain to administer the proposed Palestine mandate, but not the French or the Italian governments. The point ended up being moot in any case, as Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau, heads of governments of Great Britain and France, prevailed in drafting the provisions of the San Remo conference and the Treaty of Sèvres. Lloyd George commented that "the friendship of France is worth ten Syrias." France received Syria while Britain would get Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Palestine, contrary to the expressed wishes of both the interviewees and the Commission itself. In the United States, the report floundered with Wilson's sickness and later death.

Delay in publication
The Report was not intended to be published until the US Senate actually passed the Treaty of Versailles, which it never did. As a result, the report was only released to the public in 1922, after the Senate and House had passed a joint resolution favoring the establishment of a Jewish National Home in Palestine along the lines of the Balfour Declaration. Public opinion was divided when it was learned that the Arab majority had requested an American mandate with a democratically elected constituent assembly.

Conclusions regarding Syria, Palestine and Lebanon
The Commission's "Report upon Syria" covered the Arab territories of the defunct Ottoman Syria, then under the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. This area covered would today encompass Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, as well as Hatay and Cilicia.

The commission's visit to the region was 42 days long, from June 10 to July 21, 1919; 15 days were spent in OETA South, 10 in OETA West, 15 in OETA East, and 2 in OETA North. With respect to OETA North ("Cilicia"), the Commission "did not endeavor to give thorough hearings... feeling that it is not seriously to be considered a part of Syria, and desiring not to open up as yet the question of the Turkish-speaking portion of the former Turkish Empire." The population estimates included in the report are as follows:

The Commission Report, which was published in 1922, concluded that the Middle East was not ready for independence and urged mandates be established on the territories whose purpose was to accompany a process of transition to self-determination.

The Commission hoped for a "Syria" built along liberal and nationalistic grounds that would become a modern democracy that protected the rights of its minorities. The Commission succeeded in convincing many of the educated, secular elite of this goal, but this didn't affect the negotiations at Versailles. Historian James Gelvin believes that the Commission actually weakened the stature of the pro-Western elites in Syria, as their vocal support of complete independence made no impact upon the result. The French Mandate of Syria was the result regardless, and the native elites were left either powerless or granted power only at the whim of the French. This helped set back the cause of an actual Syrian liberal democracy in Gelvin's view.

Although the commission was sympathetic toward Zionism, the Balfour Declaration's requirement that "nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights existing in non-Jewish communities in Palestine" led the commission to recommend "that only a greatly reduced Zionist program be attempted by the Peace Conference, and even that, only very gradually initiated." The commission found that "Zionists looked forward to a practically complete dispossession of the present non-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine, by various forms of purchase". Nearly 90% of the Palestinian population was emphatically against the entire Zionist program.

The report noted that there is a principle that the wishes of the local population must be taken into account and that there is widespread anti-Zionist feeling in Palestine and Syria, and the holy nature of the land to Christians and Moslems as well as Jews must preclude solely Jewish dominion. It also noted that Jews at that time constituted only 10% of the population of Palestine.

The Commission Report was skeptical of the viability of a Jewish state in "Syria". The logic of the Commission went along the lines that the first principle to be respected must be self-determination. It pointed out that "feeling against the Zionist program is not confined to Palestine", but "people throughout Syria" were also against the formation of a Jewish state. It concluded that the only way to establish a viable Jewish state would be with armed force to enforce it. This was precisely what the Commission wanted to avoid, so they dismissed the idea, saying that Zionists anticipated "a practically complete dispossession of the present non-Jewish inhabitants to Palestine, by various forms of purchase". That said, there would be nothing wrong with Jews coming to "Israel" and simply living as Jewish Syrian citizens, but noted "nor can the erection of such a Jewish State be accomplished without the gravest trespass upon the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". The latter statement was based on the assumption that an army of at least 50,000 would be required to establish Jewish ownership by force. In respect to the creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East, the report cautioned "Not only you as president but the American people as a whole should realise that if the American government decided to support the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, they are committing the American people to the use of force in that area, since only by force can a Jewish state in Palestine be established or maintained."

About the international importance of Palestine, the report noted:

 * "The fact that the Arabic-speaking portion of the Turkish Empire has been the birthplace of the three great religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and that Palestine contains places sacred to all three, makes inevitably a center of interest and concern for the whole civilised world. No solution which is merely local or has only a single people in mind can avail."

Narrating the fear felt by Christians and Muslims over their holy places, it mentions: "With the best possible intentions, it may be doubted whether the Jews could possibly seem to either Christians or Moslems proper guardians of the holy places, or custodians of the Holy Land as a whole. ..... The places which are most sacred to Christians-those having to do with Jesus-and which are also sacred to Moslems, are not only not sacred to Jews, but abhorrent to them. It is simply impossible, under those circumstances, for Moslems and Christians to feel satisfied to have these places in Jewish hands, or under the custody of Jews." The Commission recommended to include Palestine in a united Syrian State, the holy places being cared for by an International and Inter-religious Commission, in which also the Jews would have representation. All Syria should become under a single Mandate, led by a Power desired by the people, with America as first choice.

Results of the petitions received
The King-Crane commission created "the first-ever survey of Arab public opinion," but its results went largely unheeded. The table below shows results of the petitions received from OETA South (became Palestine), OETA West (became Lebanon and Western Syria) and OETA East (became Syria and Transjordan).

Conclusions regarding Armenia
The Commission expressed support for the creation of an Armenian state and rejected that Turkey would respect the rights of the Armenian population, in the light of the genocide suffered by the Armenians during the war.

Significance for the Palestinian Cause
Even though the Commission's report did not lead to Palestinian independence, it acts as an important historical reference point for Palestinians to prove the existence of their movement, nationhood, and political goals as early as 1919.

The Report
Its publication was initially suppressed for various reasons, and later reported by the State Department that publication "would not be compatible with the public interest". The Commission's report was ultimately published in the December 2, 1922 edition of the Editor & Publisher magazine.

 * Report of the American Section of the International Commission on Mandates in Turkey, Paris, August 28, 1919, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, The Paris Peace Conference, 1919, Volume XII, Field Missions of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, Document 380, Paris Peace Conf. 181.9102/9 (Office of the Historian)
 * King Crane Commission, “King-Crane report on the Near East,” Editor and Publisher 55 no. 27 (winter 1922)

 * World War I Document Archive
 * IPCRI
 * HRI

 * King-Crane Commission Digital Collection, Oberlin College Archives

title: King–Crane Commission


text:
Gnetum gnemon

Gnetum gnemon is a gymnosperm species of Gnetum, its native area spans from Mizoram and Assam in India down south through Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago and the Philippines in southeast Asia to the western Pacific islands. Common names include gnetum, joint fir, two leaf, melinjo, belinjo, bago, and tulip.

Description

This species can be easily confused for an angiosperm due to the fruit-like female strobili, broad leaves and male strobili looking like flowers due to convergent evolution.

Tree
It is a small to medium-size tree (unlike most other Gnetum species, which are lianas), growing to 15–22 metres tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 40 cm (16 in). In addition to the tree form, there are also varieties that includes shrub forms (brunonianum, griffithii, and tenerum). The leaves are evergreen, opposite, 8–20 cm long and 3–10 cm broad, entire, emerging bronze-coloured, maturing glossy dark green.

The tree does not flower but still grow male and female sporing organs from single long stems 3–6 centimetres long. Male strobili are small and arranged in long stalks which are often mistaken for flowers, melinjo fruit instead are produced from fertilizing the female strobili.

Fruit

The oval fruit measures 1–3.5 cm long, it consists of a thin velvety skin and a large nut-like seed 2–4 cm long inside. Fleshy strobili weigh about 5.5 g, the seed alone 3.8 g. It changes colour from yellow to orange, purple or pink when ripe. Melinjo season in Indonesia comes three times in March to April, June to July, and September to October, but the fruiting season in northeast of Philippines mainly from June to September.

Culinary
Gnetum nuts are eaten boiled, roasted, or raw in most parts of Southeast Asia and Melanesia. The young leaves, flowers, and the outer flesh of the fruits are also edible when cooked and are eaten in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji. They have a slightly sour taste and are commonly eaten in soups and stews.

Gnetum is most widely used in Indonesian cuisine where it is known as melinjo or belinjo. The seeds are used for sayur asem (sour vegetable soup) and also, made into raw chips that later need to be deep-fried as crackers (emping, a type of krupuk). The crackers have a slightly bitter taste and are frequently served as a snack or accompaniment to Indonesian dishes.

This plant is commonly cultivated throughout the Aceh region and is regarded as a vegetable of high status. Its male strobili, young leaves and female strobilus are used as ingredients in traditional vegetable curry called. This dish is served on all important traditional occasions, such as and. In the Pidie district, the women pick the red-skinned ripe fruit and make from it.

Phytochemicals
Recently, it has been discovered that melinjo strobili are rich in a stilbenoid composed of resveratrol and identified as a dimer. This result was published in XXIII International Conference on Polyphenols, Canada, in 2006.

Melinjo resveratrol, having antibacterial and antioxidative activity, works as a food preservative, off flavour inhibitor and taste enhancer. This species may have applications in food industries which do not use any synthetic chemicals in their processes.

Four new stilbene oligomers, gnemonol G, H, I and J, were isolated from acetone extract of the root of Gnetum gnemon along with five known stilbenoids, ampelopsin E, cis-ampelopsin E, gnetin C, D and E.

The extraction of dried leaf of Gnetum gnemon with acetone water (1:1) gave C-glycosylflavones (isovitexin, vicenin II, isoswertisin, swertisin, swertiajaponin, isoswertiajaponin).

The separation of a 50% ethanol extract of the dried endosperms yielded gnetin C, gnetin L (new stilbenoid), gnemonosides A, C and D, and resveratrol which were tested for DPPH radical scavenging action, antimicrobial activity and inhibition of lipase and α-amylase from porcine pancreas. Gnetin C showed the best effect among these stilbenoids.

Oral administration of the 50% ethanol extract of melinjo fruit at 100 mg/kg/day significantly enhanced the production of the Th1 cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ irrespective of concanavalin-A stimulation, whereas the production of the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 was not affected. New stilbene glucosides gnemonoside L and gnemonoside M, and known stilbenoids resveratrol, isorhapontigenin, gnemonoside D, gnetins C and E were isolated from the extract. Gnemonoside M strongly enhanced Th1 cytokine production in cultured Peyer's patch cells from mice at 10 mg/kg/day.

title: Gnetum gnemon