text:
Kendal and Windermere Railway

The Kendal and Windermere Railway built a branch line from the main line to Kendal and on to Windermere, in Cumbria in north-west England. It was promoted by local interests in Kendal when it became clear that the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway would not be routed through Kendal. It was built from a junction at Oxenholme to Kendal to a terminus near Windermere; at the time there was no settlement of that name. The line opened in April 1847. The engineer was Joseph Locke and the partnership of contractors consisted of Thomas Brassey, William Mackenzie, Robert Stephenson and George Heald.

Excursion traffic and residential development was greatly encouraged by the branch line, and the town of Windermere flourished but the company was not commercially successful and sold its line to the London and North Western Railway. The leisure business on which the branch line depended declined considerably around 1960 and the infrastructure was simplified. It remains open as the Windermere branch line.

Origin
In the 1830s the railway network was emerging in England and central Scotland but they were not connected. From 1832 it became increasingly certain that a connection between England and Scotland would be built northward from Preston to Carlisle and beyond. The difficult terrain presented a significant challenge, particularly because steam engines did not have a great hauling power in the early years. A line following the Cumberland coast reached by a massive barrage across Morecambe Bay was proposed, but although it gave access to population centres, it was a very roundabout route and the cost of the Morecambe Bay barrage would be considerable.

More direct routes were proposed involving steep gradients and long tunnels and several were viable. Kendal was the only town of any size between Lancaster and Carlisle and there was great dismay in Kendal when the favoured routes by-passed the town. A possible route running north from Kendal along Long Sleddale required a long and deep tunnel to proceed to the west shore of Hawes Water.

Finance was hard to come by and proponents of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway, delayed presenting a Bill in Parliament, but in 1843 their engineer, Joseph Locke, made some modifications to the intended route to save expense, and published a route passing several miles east of Kendal. Interested parties in Kendal decided to build a branch railway to their town from the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway and continue it to the shore of Windermere, which was by then a tourist attraction.

In the 1845 session of Parliament, a bill was presented for the Kendal and Windermere Railway which was to run from Oxenholme to Birthwaite, a small community in what is now Windermere town. It would make a junction with the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway at Oxenholme. The bill passed without opposition, and royal assent was given on 30 June 1845. The line would be single track between Kendal and Windermere, although it was changed to double track, without increasing the authorised £125,000 share capital. Construction was carried out in collaboration with the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway.

Opening
The line was opened ceremonially on 21 September 1846 at the same time as the L&CR line opened between Lancaster and Kendal Junction. The opening to passenger traffic was on the following day. Until the L&CR line was opened northwards, the line was operated between Lancaster and Kendal. After the opening of the L&CR to Carlisle, some Kendal trains were worked as a shuttle service between Kendal and Oxenholme, a practice perpetuated when the K&WR opened throughout to Windermere, on 20 April 1847. Goods traffic on the Kendal line began on 4 January 1847. The junction station was named Kendal Junction and was an exchange platform not accessible other than to change trains.

Early operation
At first there were five trains a day in each direction between Kendal and Windermere, with extra trips to Oxenholme; but by the summer of 1853 there were six trains each way between Kendal and Windermere and nine return journeys between Kendal and Oxenholme. A passenger carriage was attached to the 16.00 goods train out of Windermere. On special holidays a cheap day return ticket from Kendal to Windermere cost 6d.

The K&WR company was constantly in financial and operational difficulty and petty disagreements with the L&CR, on which it relied for onward journeys were commonplace. By 1848 the K&WR saw that independence was difficult and made overtures to the L&CR to lease or buy the line, but was not received favourably. For ten years there was constant friction. K&WR trains were often late arriving at Oxenholme and main line trains were held until the L&CR grew impatient and told the K&WR to get its trains to the junction ten minutes earlier.

The branch was worked by the London and North Western Railway as part of the pool of rolling stock it made available to the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway. From summer 1850 the working was transferred to E B Wilson, of Leeds, until the company took on its own working in November 1851.

The K&WR system was leased in perpetuity to the L&CR from 1 May 1858 and Parliamentary ratification took place in the L&CR general powers Act of 13 August 1859 when the L&CR was leased to the LNWR which guaranteed the K&WR shareholders 3 per cent on ordinary shares and 6 per cent on the preference shares. The K&WR company continued as a financial entity until 21 July 1879.

Development
At first Windermere station stood alone with only the Windermere hotel nearby, but the lake was an attractive destination for visitors and also for residences for the wealthy merchants of Lancashire's industrial towns. The growth of excursion travel and local businesses to support it was phenomenal. On Whit Monday 1883, excursion visitors numbered 8,000 persons. Wealthy merchants were provided with an exclusive club car working in to Windermere on Friday afternoons, but later running each way daily. The vehicle continued in use until 1939.

Kendal station was inadequate and the LNWR reconstructed it in 1861 as "a handsome and substantial structure".

Decline
Although Kendal was an industrial centre, the line could not sustain its importance without the leisure traffic, and that declined in the 1960s. The route was reduced to a single line without a run-round facility at Windermere in 1973, and Joy remarks that:

"This created the bizarre situation of excursions having to terminate at Oxenholme and disgorge their passengers on to droves of road coaches while the trains were worked empty over the 50 miles to Carlisle for turning and servicing."

In 1986 the station site at Windermere was simplified, a supermarket was built on the former goods yard and the station was relocated a short distance from its original position.

Opposition
Opposition to the line came from people against what they saw as destruction of the Lake District landscape. They included the poet William Wordsworth. His letters to the editor of the Morning Post are reproduced in The Illustrated Wordsworth's Guide to the Lakes, P. Bicknell, Ed. (Congdon and Weed, New York, 1984), pp. 186–198. His reactions to the technological and "picturesque" incursions of man on his beloved, wild landscape most famously include the following sonnet: • :Is then no nook of English ground secure

• :From rash assault? Schemes of retirement sown

• :In youth, and 'mid the busy world kept pure

• :As when their earliest flowers of hope were blown,

• :Must perish;—how can they this blight endure?

• :And must he too the ruthless change bemoan

• :Who scorns a false utilitarian lure

• : 'Mid his paternal fields at random thrown?

• :Baffle the threat, bright Scene, from Orresthead

• :Given to the pausing traveller's rapturous glance:

• :Plead for thy peace, thou beautiful romance

• :Of nature; and, if human hearts be dead,

• :Speak, passing winds; ye torrents, with your strong

• :And constant voice, protest against the wrong. On the opening of the railway in 1847 one of the contracting engineers, George Heald, wrote an impassioned riposte to Wordsworth accusing him of wanting to obstruct the opportunities the railway would bring. It is dated 15 April 1847, the Locomotive at Orrest Head. He argues for the democratising influence of the railway and the cultural and social benefits it will bring rather than the economic reasons that might be expected from a railway engineer: • :Baffle the Rail, bright scene from Orrest Head,

• :Somewhere in Wordsworth I this line have read;

• :Who calls on Winds and Torrents fierce and strong

• :In sound and fury to forbid the wrong.

• :They heard the call in vain; - on "English ground"

• :"No sacred nook" has ever yet been found

• :To scare the dead, when enterprise could throw

• :A fair surmise, that "flowers of hope" might grow.

• :Our "earliest flowers" we offer to the Bard,

• :Although his compliments were rather hard;

• :"Round his paternal fields at random throw"

• :No "false" enchantments; but a kindly glow;-

• :"Utilitarian lures?" – 'tis even so.

• :To feast upon the "beautiful romance"

• :"Given to the pausing traveller's rapturous glance,"

• :Shall be the lot of thousands who shall feel

• :The vast advantage of a road of steel;

• :Who 'mongst its pleasing features shall recount,

• :An easy pilgrimage to Rydal Mount,

• :"Retirement" "from the busy world, kept pure"

• :They may admire, but could not well endure;

• :The Bard need not "the ruthless change bemoan"

• :When Art flings double charms round Nature's throne.

• :The Train has stopped it buzzing, roaring wheels,

• :But the Lake's ripples follow at its heels:

• :For gliding down its bosom, smooth and clear,

• :Steamers on Windermere itself appear:-

• :How shall the Poet's soul "this blight endure!"

• :His powers will sink! - I fear to rise no more:-

• :"The rash assault!" "Are humans so dead"

• :To all that fills a poet with such dread;

• :As to commit such outrage, and such wrong

• :In spite of protests which though vain were long?

• :Come to the bar ye wriggling Rail and Barge

• :Say if ye can, - Not Guilty! to the charge.

• :Or why invade the land, (the Plaintiff pleads)

• :Sacred to solitude, to rocks and weeds;

• :O'er my "paternal fields" a line to throw

• :Comes near the darker verge of human woe:

• :Why give each town-cramp'd soul the sight so grand

• :To view the peaks that decorate our land?

• :Speak! - answer why! - or crumble into sand

• :The Rail and Barge both glory in the deed,

• :To the impeachment gladly Guilty plead,

• :But conscious of the bounties they dispense

• :They offer this, a short and firm defence.

• :Not to disturb the pure and classic fount

• :That graceful, flows in ink from Rydal Mount,

• :But to unite the ground with tamer scenes,

• :And show to each, that each with beauty teems:

• :To give the hamlets of the mountain dells

• :The Arts in which the busy South excells;

• :To give the South to view the peaks sublime,

• :That bid defiance to the scythe of time;

• :To give to town-cramp'd souls the power to soar,

• :And taste of pleasures never known before:-

• :WE won our way – through rocks – o'er waters grand,

• :Opening, (we trust) the beauties of the land.

• :If from "paternal fields" we take a part,

• :We pay most handsomely by way of smart;

• :We give a double value for the slice,

• :And make the remnant worth a double price.

• :And for the Bard, - (as Off'ring for our crimes)

• :We'll give the world to appreciate his rhymes,

• :The mind will surely place his beauties higher

• :When read 'mid scenes that did the thoughts inspire,

• :We'll spread his fame: - what more can he require?

• :Are not these motives good, and clear, and strong,

• :Full satisfaction for the sons of song?

• :Carrying conviction wheresoever read,

• :Appealing to the heart, as well as head.

• :Conscious from wrong our cause we have been clearing,

• :We'll give the Plaintiff good Words,-worth the hearing

• :The judgement of a jury never fearing.

title: Kendal and Windermere Railway


text:
Persistent uniform resource locator

A persistent uniform resource locator (PURL) is a uniform resource locator (URL) (i.e., location-based uniform resource identifier or URI) that is used to redirect to the location of the requested web resource. PURLs redirect HTTP clients using HTTP status codes.

Originally, PURLs were recognizable for being hosted at purl.org or other hostnames containing. Early on many of those other hosts used descendants of the original OCLC PURL system software. Eventually, however, the PURL concept came to be generic and was used to designate any redirection service (named PURL resolver) that: PURLs are used to curate the URL resolution process, thus solving the problem of transitory URIs in location-based URI schemes like HTTP. Technically the string resolution on PURL is like SEF URL resolution. The remainder of this article is about the OCLC's PURL system, proposed and implemented by OCLC (the Online Computer Library Center).
 * has a "root URL" as the resolver reference (e.g. );
 * provides means, to its user-community, to include new names in the root URL (e.g. );
 * provides means to associate each name with its URL (to be redirected), and to update this redirection-URL;
 * ensure the persistence (e.g. by contract) of the root URL and the PURL resolver services.

History
The PURL concept was developed by Stuart Weibel and Erik Jul at OCLC in 1995. The PURL system was implemented using a forked pre-1.0 release of Apache HTTP Server. The software was modernized and extended in 2007 by Zepheira under contract to OCLC and the official website moved to http://purlz.org (the 'Z' came from the Zepheira name and was used to differentiate the PURL open-source software site from the PURL resolver operated by OCLC).

PURL version numbers may be considered confusing. OCLC released versions 1 and 2 of the Apache-based source tree, initially in 1999 under the OCLC Research Public License 1.0 License and later under the OCLC Research Public License 2.0 License (http://opensource.org/licenses/oclc2). Zepheira released PURLz 1.0 in 2007 under the Apache License, Version 2.0. PURLz 2.0 was released in Beta testing in 2010 but the release was never finalized. The Callimachus Project implemented PURLs as of its 1.0 release in 2012.

The oldest PURL HTTP resolver was operated by OCLC from 1995 to September 2016 and was reached as  as well as ,  , and.

Other notable PURL resolvers include the US Government Printing Office (http://purl.fdlp.gov), which is operated for the Federal Depository Library Program and has been in operation since 1997.

The PURL concept is used in the w3id.org, that may replace the old PURL-services and PURL-technologies.

On 27 September 2016 OCLC announced a cooperation with Internet Archive resulting in the transfer of the resolver service and its administration interface to Internet Archive. The service is supported on newly created software, separate from all previous implementations. The transfer re-enabled the ability to manage PURL definitions that had been disabled in the OCLC-hosted service for several months. The service hosted on Internet Archive servers supports access via,  ,  , and. OCLC now redirects DNS requests for  to.

Principles of operation
The PURL concept allows for generalized URL curation of HTTP URIs on the World Wide Web. PURLs allow third party control over both URL resolution and resource metadata provision.

A URL is simply an address of a resource on the World Wide Web. A Persistent URL is an address on the World Wide Web that causes a redirection to another Web resource. If a Web resource changes location (and hence URL), a PURL pointing to it can be updated. A user of a PURL always uses the same Web address, even though the resource in question may have moved. PURLs may be used by publishers to manage their own information space or by Web users to manage theirs; a PURL service is independent of the publisher of information. PURL services thus allow the management of hyperlink integrity. Hyperlink integrity is a design trade-off of the World Wide Web, but may be partially restored by allowing resource users or third parties to influence where and how a URL resolves.

A simple PURL works by responding to an HTTP GET request by returning a response of type 302 (equivalent to the HTTP status code 302, meaning "Found"). The response contains an HTTP "Location" header, the value of which is a URL that the client should subsequently retrieve via a new HTTP GET request.

PURLs implement one form of persistent identifier for virtual resources. Other persistent identifier schemes include Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs), Life Sciences Identifiers (LSIDs) and INFO URIs. All persistent identification schemes provide unique identifiers for (possibly changing) virtual resources, but not all schemes provide curation opportunities. Curation of virtual resources has been defined as, "the active involvement of information professionals in the management, including the preservation, of digital data for future use."

PURLs have been criticized for their need to resolve a URL, thus tying a PURL to a network location. Network locations have several vulnerabilities, such as Domain Name System registrations and host dependencies. A failure to resolve a PURL could lead to an ambiguous state: It would not be clear whether the PURL failed to resolve because a network failure prevented it or because it did not exist.

PURLs are themselves valid URLs, so their components must map to the URL specification. The scheme part tells a computer program, such as a Web browser, which protocol to use when resolving the address. The scheme used for PURLs is generally HTTP. The host part tells which PURL server to connect to. The next part, the PURL domain, is analogous to a resource path in a URL. The domain is a hierarchical information space that separates PURLs and allows for PURLs to have different maintainers. One or more designated maintainers may administer each PURL domain. Finally, the PURL name is the name of the PURL itself. The domain and name together constitute the PURL's "id".

Comparing with permalink
Both permalink and PURL are used as permanent/persistent URL and redirect to the location of the requested web resource. Roughly speaking, they are the same. Their differences are about domain name and time scale:
 * A permalink usually does not change the URL's domain, and is designed to persist over years.
 * A PURL domain name is independently changeable, and is designed to persist over decades.

Types
The most common types of PURLs are named to coincide with the HTTP response code that they return. Not all HTTP response codes have equivalent PURL types and not all PURL servers implement all PURL types. Some HTTP response codes (e.g. 401, Unauthorized) have clear meanings in the context of an HTTP conversation but do not apply to the process of HTTP redirection. Three additional types of PURLs ("chain", "partial' and "clone") are given mnemonic names related to their functions.

Most PURLs are so-called "simple PURLs", which provide a redirection to the desired resource. The HTTP status code, and hence of the PURL type, of a simple PURL is 302. The intent of a 302 PURL is to inform the Web client and end user that the PURL should always be used to address the requested resource, not the final URI resolved. This is to allow continued resolution of the resource if the PURL changes. Some operators prefer to use PURLs of type 301 (indicating that the final URI should be addressed in future requests).

A PURL of type "chain" allows a PURL to redirect to another PURL in a manner identical to a 301 or 302 redirection, with the difference that a PURL server will handle the redirection internally for greater efficiency. This efficiency is useful when many redirections are possible; since some Web browsers will stop following redirections once a set limit is encountered (in an attempt to avoid loops).

A PURL of type "200" is an "Active PURL", in which the PURL actively participates in the creation or aggregation of the metadata returned. An Active PURL includes some arbitrary computation to produce its output. Active PURLs have been implemented in PURLz 2.0 and The Callimachus Project. They may be used to gather runtime status reports, perform distributed queries or any other type of data collection where a persistent identifier is desired. Active PURLs act similar to a stored procedure in relational databases.

A PURL of type "303" is used to direct a Web client to a resource that provides additional information regarding the resource they requested, without returning the resource itself. This subtlety is useful when the HTTP URI requested is used as an identifier for a physical or conceptual object that cannot be represented as an information resource. PURLs of type 303 are used most often to redirect to metadata in a serialization format of the Resource Description Framework (RDF) and have relevance for Semantic Web and linked data content. This use of the 303 HTTP status code is conformant with the http-range-14 finding of the Technical Architecture Group of the World Wide Web Consortium.

A PURL of type "307" informs a user that the resource temporarily resides at a different URL from the norm. PURLs of types 404 and 410 note that the requested resource could not be found and suggests some information for why that was so. Support for the HTTP 307 (Temporary Redirect), 404 (Not Found) and 410 (Gone) response codes are provided for completeness.

PURLs of types "404" and "410" are provided to assist administrators in marking PURLs that require repair. PURLs of these types allow for more efficient indications of resource identification failure when target resources have moved and a suitable replacement has not been identified.

PURLs of type "clone" are used solely during PURL administration as a convenient method of copying an existing PURL record into a new PURL.

Redirection of URL fragments
The PURL service includes a concept known as partial redirection. If a request does not match a PURL exactly, the requested URL is checked to determine if some contiguous front portion of the PURL string matches a registered PURL. If so, a redirection occurs with the remainder of the requested URL appended to the target URL. For example, consider a PURL with a URL of http//purl.org/some/path/ with a target URL of http://example.com/another/path/. An attempt to perform an HTTP GET operation on the URL http//purl.org/some/path/and/some/more/data would result in a partial redirection to http://example.com/another/path/and/some/more/data. The concept of partial redirection allows hierarchies of Web-based resources to be addressed via PURLs without each resource requiring its own PURL. One PURL is sufficient to serve as a top-level node for a hierarchy on a single target server. The new PURL service uses the type "partial" to denote a PURL that performs partial redirection.

Partial redirections at the level of a URL path do not violate common interpretations of the HTTP 1.1 specification. However, the handling of URL fragments across redirections has not been standardized and a consensus has not yet emerged. Fragment identifiers indicate a pointer to more specific information within a resource and are designated as following a # separator in URIs.

Partial redirection in the presence of a fragment identifier is problematic because two conflicting interpretations are possible. If a fragment is attached to a PURL of type "partial", it is unclear whether a PURL service should assume that the fragment has meaning on the target URL, or discard it in the presumption that a resource with a changed location may have also changed content, thus invalidating fragments defined earlier. Bos suggested that fragments should be retained and passed through to target URLs during HTTP redirections resulting in 300 (Multiple Choice), 301 (Moved Permanently), 302 (Found) or 303 (See Other) responses unless a designated target URL already includes a fragment identifier. If a fragment identifier is already present in a target URL, any fragment in the original URL should be abandoned. Bos' suggestion failed to navigate the IETF standards track and expired without further work. Dubost et al. resurrected Bos' suggestions in a W3C Note (not a standard, but guidance in the absence of a standard). Makers of Web clients such as browsers have "generally" failed to follow Bos' guidance.

Starting with PURLz 1.0 series, the PURL service implements partial redirections inclusive of fragment identifiers by writing fragments onto target URLs in an attempt to comply with and avoid problematic and inconsistent behavior by browser vendors.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Persistent uniform resource locator


text:
Talk:London and North Western Railway

Comment
I notice what I perceive to be a combination of inconsistency and omission: the London and North Western Railway article describes the LNWR's formation in 1846, but makes no mention of its subsequent expansion, for example by leasing the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway in 1859 and taking it over in 1879.

The History of rail transport in Great Britain article implies that LNWR served Scotland from 1846 through "an amalgamation of companies working from Euston to Scotland". The LNW Railway Society website, however, talks about serving Scotland through cooperation with the Calledonian Railway.

I am no expert, and don't currently have time to research this, but it would appear that at least one, and possibly both, of the LNWR and History of rail transport in Great Britain articles may be misleading. StephenDawson 16:34, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Don't think they're inconsistent. The LNWR (after further mergers) ran to Carlisle, which is just short of the Scottish border. Trains were run between London and Scotland as a joint operation with the Caledonian Railway. Exile 11:39, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

LNWR (1993)
There seems to be another London & North Western Railway Company which was founded by Pete Waterman. Can we have an article on this please? Biscuittin (talk) 14:17, 1 August 2011 (UTC)

Bolton & Leigh
The Bolton & Leigh Railway was already a part of the Grand Junction Railway when the LNWR was formed. If the B&L is included anong the "Predecessors" of the LNWR, then the Liverpool & Manchester Rly, the Leigh & Kenyon Junction Rly, the Crewe & Chester Rly etc etc would have to be included. Which seems pointless to me.Hyjack7 (talk) 4 June 2015 — Preceding undated comment added 15:51, 4 June 2015 (UTC)

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Absolute advantage

In economics, the principle of absolute advantage is the ability of a party (an individual, or firm, or country) to produce a good or service more efficiently than its competitors. The Scottish economist Adam Smith first described the principle of absolute advantage in the context of international trade in 1776. Since absolute advantage is determined by a simple comparison of labor productiveness, it is possible for a party to have no absolute advantage in anything [this nonsensical text in the Wikipedia clearly results from some incompetent editing].

Origin of the theory
The concept of absolute advantage is generally attributed to the Scottish economist Adam Smith in his 1776 publication The Wealth of Nations, in which he countered mercantilist ideas. Smith argued that it was impossible for all nations to become rich simultaneously by following mercantilism because the export of one nation is another nation's import and instead stated that all nations would gain simultaneously if they practiced free trade and specialized in accordance with their absolute advantage. Smith also stated that the wealth of nations depends upon the goods and services available to their citizens, rather than their gold reserves.

Because Smith only focused on comparing labor productivities to determine absolute advantage, he did not develop the concept of comparative advantage. While there are possible gains from trade with absolute advantage, the gains may not be mutually beneficial. Comparative advantage focuses on the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges.

Example 1
According to Figure 1, the UK commits 80 hours of labor to produce one unit of cloth, which is fewer than Portugal's hours of work necessary to produce one unit of cloth. The UK is able to produce one unit of cloth with fewer hours of labor, therefore the UK has an absolute advantage in the production of cloth. On the other hand, Portugal commits 90 hours to produce one unit of wine, which is fewer than the UK's hours of work necessary to produce one unit of wine. Therefore, Portugal has an absolute advantage in the production of wine.

If the two countries specialize in producing the good for which they have the absolute advantage, and if they exchange part of the good with each other, both of the two countries can end up with more of each good than they would have in the absence of trade. In the absence of trade, each country produces one unit of cloth and one unit of wine, i.e. a combined total production of 2 units of cloth and 2 units of wine. Here, if The UK commits all of its labor (80+100) for the production of cloth for which The UK has the absolute advantage, The UK produces (80+100)÷80=2.25 units of cloth. On the other hand, if Portugal commits all of its labor (90+120) for the production of wine, Portugal produces (90+120)÷90=2.33... units of wine. The combined total production in this case is 2.25 units of cloth and 2.33 units of wine which is greater than the total production of each good had there been no specialization. Assuming free trade this will lead to cheaper prices for both goods for both countries.

Example 2
You and your friends decided to help with fundraising for a local charity group by printing T-shirts and making birdhouses.

 * Scenario 1: One of your friends, Gina, can print 5 T-shirts or build 3 birdhouses an hour. Your other friend, Mike, can print 3 T-shirts an hour or build 2 birdhouses an hour. Because your friend Gina is more productive at printing T-shirts and building birdhouses compared to Mike, she has an absolute advantage in both printing T-shirts and building birdhouses.
 * Scenario 2: Suppose Gina wasn't as agile with the hammer and could only make 1 birdhouse an hour, but she took a screen printing class and could print 10 T-shirts an hour. Mike on the other hand takes woodworking and so he can build 5 birdhouses an hour, but he doesn't know the first thing about making T-shirts so he can only print 2 T-shirts an hour. While Gina would have the absolute advantage in printing shirts, Mike would have an absolute advantage in building birdhouses.

title: Absolute advantage


text:
Luciano Leggio

Luciano Leggio (6 January 1925 – 15 November 1993) was an Italian criminal and leading figure of the Sicilian Mafia. He was the head of the Corleonesi, the Mafia faction that originated in the town of Corleone. He is universally known by the surname Liggio, a result of a misspelling in court documents in the 1960s.

As well as setting the Corleonesi on track to become the dominant Mafia clan in Sicily, he became infamous for avoiding convictions for a multitude of crimes, including homicide, before he was finally imprisoned for life in 1974.

Early life
Leggio was one of ten children raised in extreme poverty on a small farm. He turned to crime in his teens, and received his first conviction at the age of 18 for stealing corn. Upon completing his six-month sentence for the crime, Leggio murdered the man who had reported him to the police. In 1945, he was recruited by the Mafia boss of Corleone, Michele Navarra, to work as an enforcer and hitman. That same year, Leggio murdered a farm hand in order to take his job, then immediately took over the farm by demanding at gunpoint that the owner sign it over to him.

While behind bars in the late 1940s, he met Salvatore Riina, who was then aged 19 and starting a six-year sentence for manslaughter. The two eventually became accomplices in crime after Riina's release, as did two other young local criminals, Calogero Bagarella and Bernardo Provenzano.

On 10 March 1948, Placido Rizzotto, trade unionist, was kidnapped and murdered. The following year, two men confessed to helping Leggio kidnap Rizzotto, who shot the victim and dumped him in a 15 m cavern. Leggio went into hiding, and was tried twice in absentia for Rizzotto's murder.

Murder of Navarra
Michele Navarra tried to have Leggio killed in June 1958. Leggio was invited by Navarra to meet him at an estate but instead, he found fifteen armed men there. The hitmen hired for the task did a poor job and Leggio escaped with just minor injuries. The event left Leggio and his followers with the knowledge that they were as good as dead if they did not strike back soon.

A few weeks later, on 2 August 1958, Navarra and a fellow doctor (Giovanni Russo, who had nothing to do with criminal activities) were both shot to death on an isolated country road as they drove home in Navarra's Fiat 1100. The car was blocked on the open road by two other vehicles and riddled with submachine gun bullets. A few weeks later, on September 6, three men known as friends of Navarra were killed in a raid at Corleone. Reciprocal killings went on until 1963 and Leggio had to disappear having been condemned for the killing of Navarra.

Leggio thus became the boss of the Corleone Mafia. Among Navarra's suspected killers were Bernardo Provenzano and Salvatore "Totò" Riina.

Capture

Leggio was captured in Corleone on 14 May 1964, at the house of Leoluchina Sorisi, the former girlfriend of Rizzotto. Leggio was imprisoned at Ucciardone prison in Palermo, but in December 1968 he was acquitted for lack of evidence in the trial held in Catanzaro against the protagonists of the First Mafia War, and also of that held in Bari in 1969, in which he was accused of the murders that took place in Corleone starting in 1958.

The trial was regarded as farcical, with reports of blatant witness intimidation and evidence tampering. For example, fragments of a broken car light found at the Navarra murder scene which had been identified as belonging to an Alfa Romeo car owned by Leggio had, by the time of the trial, been replaced by bits of a broken light from a completely different make of car. The judges and prosecutors were sent anonymous letters threatening them with death.

Fugitive again
Immediately after the trial, which ended in 1969, a determined Italian magistrate named Cesare Terranova appealed against Leggio's acquittal for the Navarra slaying. After hearing of his indictment to stand trial once more, Leggio checked into a private health clinic in Rome to have treatment for Pott disease, which he had suffered from most of his life and for which he had to wear a brace. Leggio then relocated to Milan.

In February 1971, Leggio ordered the kidnapping for extortion of Antonino Caruso, son of the industrialist Giacomo Caruso, and also that of the son of the builder Francesco Vassallo in Palermo. Leggio was linked to the murder of the General Attorney of Sicily, Pietro Scaglione, who was shot dead on 5 May 1971 with his police bodyguard Antonino Lo Russo.

Life imprisonment and death
Leggio was finally captured in Milan on 16 May 1974. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1975, and imprisoned at the Badu 'e Carros prison in Nuoro, Sardinia.

He is believed to have retained significant influence from behind bars, including commissioning the 1977 murder of Lieutenant Colonel Giuseppe Russo. Leggio had ordered the 1979 killing of Judge Terranova as a revenge for the insult at the interrogation in the 1960s; the murder was approved by the Sicilian Mafia Commission. Leggio was charged with ordering Terranova's murder, but was acquitted for lack of evidence, both in the first trial, which was held in Reggio Calabria in 1983, and three years later, in 1986, in the appeal process. By the end of the 1970s, his lieutenant Salvatore Riina was in control of the Corleonesi clan.

In the Maxi Trial of 1986/87, the jury rejected the prosecution's call for 15 years imprisonment for Leggio, and the jury acquitted him of four murders that prosecutors charged he had masterminded from his jail cell in Sardinia.

On 15 November 1993, he died in prison from a heart attack, aged 68. He is buried in Corleone.

In popular culture

 * Placido Rizzotto, a 2000 biopic by Pasquale Scimeca. Leggio is played by Vincenzo Albanese.
 * L'ultimo dei corleonesi, a 2007 TV film. Leggio is played by Stefano Dionisi.
 * Il Capo dei Capi, a 2007 Italian TV series. Leggio is played by Claudio Castrogiovanni.
 * The Traitor, a 2019 Italian film by Marco Bellocchio. Leggio is played by Vincenzo Pirrotta.
 * Dickie, John (2004). Cosa Nostra. A history of the Sicilian Mafia, London: Coronet, ISBN 0-340-82435-2 (Review in the Observer, February 15, 2004)
 * Sterling, Claire (1990). Octopus. How the long reach of the Sicilian Mafia controls the global narcotics trade, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-671-73402-4
 * Stille, Alexander (1995). Excellent Cadavers. The Mafia and the Death of the First Italian Republic, New York: Vintage ISBN 0-09-959491-9

title: Luciano Leggio


text:
Talk:Noman Çelebicihan

Untitled
This page has been written by the copyright holder of the article at www.iccrimea.org/literature/celebicihan.html and posted to Wikipedia with his permission. Commercial use is allowed.

Bias
Perhaps its just me but this article does not seem to have been written with a neutral point of view. --KobaVanDerLubbe (talk) 01:49, 5 December 2007 (UTC)

He is my grand grand father, my name is Timur Chelebici, from black sea now living in uzbekistan after my grandfather was repressed by bol'sheviks. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.118.46.226 (talk) 10:03, 11 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Noman Çelebicihan


text:
Lindsay (crater)

Lindsay is a small lunar impact crater in the central highlands of the Moon. It was named after the Irish astronomer Eric Mervyn Lindsay. It lies in the irregular terrain to the northwest of the landing site of the Apollo 16 mission. To the south is the crater Anděl, and Taylor is to the east-northeast.

Dr E. J. Öpik stated that this crater was likely formed by the impact of an asteroid about 1 mile (1.6 km) in diameter. The outer rim of this crater is worn and irregular, with incisions along the northern and southern inner walls. There is a cleft in the southeastern rim that links with the slightly larger Dollond B. The interior floor is level and is crossed by a crater chain and a slender cleft at the west end.

This crater was designated Dollond C before being given its current name by the IAU. Dollond itself is located to the south-southeast, due east of Anděl.

title: Lindsay (crater)


text:
Talk:Lekë Dukagjini

Untitled
Picture of Lek Dukagjin

http://www.seguraweb.nl/diskursive/kanun_ld.jpg

His Kanun in Albanian language:

http://www.ganixhafolli.com/Kanuni/hyrje.htm

Pronunciation?
IPA pronunciation of the name please. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.199.199.208 (talk) 05:37, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

War during peace
"During times of peace they also fought against one another,"--Antidiskriminator (talk) 22:57, 9 November 2010 (UTC)

Leke Dukagjini ambushed and killed Leke Zaharia Altisferi
Lekë Dukagjini "ambushed and killed Lekë Zaharia Altisferi, prince of Dagnum" in 1447. That action allowed Venetians to take Dagnum and triggered Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448). During this war Svetigrad was lost because war with two empires at the same time (Venetian and Ottoman). This is important event that should have its place in the article.--Antidiskriminator (talk) 09:50, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

mamica
can somebody write down what "mamica" means on shqip language? tnx

Illustration by Simon Rrota
The illustration by Simon Rrota (d. 1961) is Public Domain in 2031. Do not upload the illustration to Commons. It is uploaded on Albanian Wikipedia as Fair Use.--Z oupan 12:31, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

The place of birth of dukagjini
Okay this is a quote from the biography of lekë dukagjini “His name Lekë is an abbreviated version of Alexander.[2] Lekë Dukagjini's place of birth is a village called Orosh, Mirditë, Albania. Until 1444 he was pronoier of Koja Zaharia.[3] He took over the ruling of the county from his father Prince Pal Dukagjini in 1446, who appears to have died of apoplexy.[4]“ why does it say he was born in Orosh, Mirditë yet it says on the quick biography he was born in Gjilan should we fix this? Gjondeda 04:13, 13 October 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Gjondeda (talk • contribs)

Birthplace
I had to remove an edit about Leka's birthplace. The connection to Lipjan is not found in historiography, but in a very recent - false - conjecture that a Vulpiana mentioned by medieval sources is in fact Ulpiana, which in turn is Lipjan. But Vulpiana is not Ulpiana and Ulpiana is not Lipjan, hence it's a superfluous and wrong claim by authors who reproduce this theory.--Maleschreiber (talk) 00:06, 27 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lekë Dukagjini


text:
User:Zooks527

Need to start the page someplace. How about here?

BS ChE WPI / SM ChE MIT / MS CS WPI

title: User:Zooks527


text:
Talk:Befana

[Untitled]
I have started cleaning up this article, but I could not obtain a good article. It is a mess up of information. There is also some citation of leggend and of a song that in my opinion should be removed AnyFile 16:45, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Is the Italian song sung by Gianni Morandi a traditional song or an original? If it is under copyright protection the full text of the lyrics should not be posted here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by BigMoose22 (talk • contribs) 16:27, 6 January 2012 (UTC)

I've done a little more clean up and added a few references, in honor of the upcoming Festa della Befana. I also added a reference for the traditional rhyme associated with Befana.Folklore1 (talk) 01:39, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

There is a substantially different story at http://www.twilightbridge.com/hobbies/festivals/christmas/epiphany/la_befana.htm

Befana to me is like my santa clause

All Italians?
Just wondering if La Befana is universal with all Christians in Italy or more popular in some regions than others. My grandparents and mother's older siblings are from Felitto, Italy and they had never mentioned this legend to me, ever. In-fact, my family has not had anything to do with La Befana until my mother and cousin saw a "Christmas around the world" display at a local department store and bought a few La Befana figurines to place on the trees. Now, the younger kids in the family are being told the legend of La Befana and the Santa Claus legend like it has been in our family all along (but it hasn't). I am wondering if La Befana isn't that popular in the Campania/Salerno (Felitto) area or if my grandparents just dropped La Befana and replaced her with Santa in an attempt to Americanize their children (my mom, aunts, and uncles). Any thoughts on this would be helpful as I am trying to decide if I should now introduce La Befana to my daughter who is on her second Christmas. Also, for the article, it would be interesting to know if La Befana is a regional legend (possibly corresponding with the regional dialects?) or if she is an all Italian legend. Thanks. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.224.0.83 (talk) 17:09, 23 December 2008 (UTC)

I've gotten the impression that the tradition of Befana has spread more through Italy. I think the custom may have originated around Rome. One source (cited by the article) says the legend of Befana dates back to the 13th century, but doesn't say what area.Folklore1 (talk) 01:43, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

etymology
The entry says that "Befana" means "giver of gifts." That is in error, I believe. Most sources derive the word from "epiphania," from the Greek, meaning "to manifest" or "to show". The day of the Epiphany is celebrated in Italy on January 6th, the so-called 12th day of Christmas, the day on which Jesus was revealed as the Christ to the Gentiles in the persons of the Magi, the three Wise Men.

Besides the link mentioned above, there is another at [this URL].

 * I removed the "giver of gifts" thing, and changed shoes to socks (the article said socks are filled with candies, socks are). The article currently also says that sausages, broccoli and wine are left for her. I wonder if it is a regional tradition, I doubt that it is used in all of Italy. 213.140.21.231 22:59, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * The bit about broccoli and sausage are surely regional, even local. Wine is more commonly referenced, though.   Mind  matrix  00:28, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Rather than leaving broccoli and sausage, people usually leave something to eat for the donkey she has. --Stefano 17:38, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

Melbourne Australia
In Carlton, an inner suburb of Melbourne with a strong Italian presence, there has been a La Befana festival on Jan 6 for at least the last three or four years maybe longer. A La Befana play is performed and the the lady herself wanders around the crowd distributing sweets. I got the impression that the people running it were old socialists, the play had a soft left flavour, but the event is supported by the local business association. The birth of Christ is treated as a major incident in La Befana's life rather than as the beginnning. I'll ask more questions this year. 203.214.68.40 (talk) 08:32, 27 December 2007 (UTC) Signed...Jeremy (talk) 08:34, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

Correct Spelling
It's not La Befana, but just Befana. La is just an article. So La_Befana, has a wikipedia item, is wrong. Just 'Befana' would be better —Preceding unsigned comment added by 151.20.254.159 (talk) 20:38, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

Move?

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Unopposed move - page moved.  Ron h jones (Talk) 00:14, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

La Befana → Befana — User:151.20.235.128 23:14, 25 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm not opposing the move but almost all of the English references for the article use "La Befana". —   AjaxSmack   01:00, 27 February 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

An old hag ....? Not very Christmas...a distortion ?
An old hag ....? Not very Christmas...a distortion ? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.79.147.13 (talk) 05:25, 25 December 2018 (UTC)

Widespread tradition
Who said it was not widespread until 20th century? It was — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.40.211.83 (talk) 20:55, 5 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Befana


text:
Matthew 1:11

Matthew 1:11 is the eleventh verse of the first chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament. The verse is part of the section where the genealogy of Joseph, the father of Jesus, is listed. It is the last verse of the middle third of the listing.

Content
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
 * And Josias begat Jechonias and
 * his brethren, about the time
 * they were carried away to Babylon:

The World English Bible translates the passage as:
 * Josiah became the father of
 * Jechoniah and his brothers, at
 * the time of the exile to Babylon.

Textual variants
Some manuscripts have additional reading in this verse — τον Ιωακιμ, Ιωακιμ δε εγεννησεν (Joakim, Joakim begot) — M U Θ Σ f1 33 258 478 661 954 1216 1230 1354 1604 ℓ54 syr$h$ geo.

Analysis
This portion is part of the listing of the Kings of Judah and covers the period from the mid-7th century BC to the beginning of the Babylonian captivity. Josiah was a prominent monarch who reigned from 641 BC or 640 BC until 609 BC. Jeconiah came two monarchs later and is best known for being defeated and brought with his people in captivity in Babylon around 598 BC.

The main question about this passage is what it means by the word brothers. According to the Books of Chronicles, Jeconiah only had one brother, so the plural does not make sense. A common view is to see Jeconiah's name in this section as an error. Jeconiah, who is already listed in Matthew 1:12, sometimes has his name written as Jehoiachin making it possible that the author of Matthew or a later scribe confused him with his father Jehoiakim. In Irenaeus' Latin version of this text Jehoiakim's name appears, but this is the only piece of textual evidence for this theory. All other ancient versions leave him out. Also in Iraneus, the brothers are still associated with Jeconiah. This theory would also address a number of other problems. Josiah is believed to be Jeconiah's grandfather rather than father, and having the listing of Jeconiah as two separate people would correct the seeming error in Matthew 1:17. Jehoiakim had a number of brothers and these are mentioned in. William F. Albright and C.S. Mann believe the author of Matthew mentioned the brothers, despite their having nothing to do with Jesus' genealogy, because they are prominently mentioned in Chronicles.

Robert H. Gundry disagrees with this view. The Septuagint, from which Matthew seems to have got his spelling, uses the spellings Jeconiah, making it less likely that the name would be confused with Jehoiakim. Moreover the repeating of Jeconiah's name in the next verse matches the repeating of names that occurs throughout the genealogy. Gundry believes that brothers refers to the Jewish people in general who were brought to Babylon with their king, not the biological brothers of Jeconiah. Harold Fowler suggests that brothers might have simply meant family, and the word was included since Jeconiah's family did have an important role in the Old Testament reports.

Fowler believes that the omission was explicitly intended. He argues that the "at the time of the exile to Babylon" makes it clear that this is not simply a genealogy, but also a quick summary of Jewish history. As such leaving out names would simply be part of the attempt to compress thousands of years of history into seventeen verses. The story of the Babylonian captivity is a long and complicated one, with many figures involved. Fowler argues that the word brothers was included to allow Matthew to simply skip over this tangled period without being diverted from his task by mentioning the actual names.

title: Matthew 1:11


text: User talk:202.61.117.44

title: User talk:202.61.117.44


text:
Magelhaens (lunar crater)

Magelhaens is a lunar impact crater that lies along the southwestern edge of the Mare Fecunditatis, in the eastern part of the Moon's near side. It was named after 16th-century Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. It lies to the south-southwest of the crater Goclenius, about midway between Gutenberg to the northwest and Colombo to the southeast.

This crater has a somewhat slender and uneven outer rim that is only roughly circular. The slightly smaller satellite crater Magelhaens A is attached to the southeastern rim. Within the inner walls of Magelhaens, the interior floor has been resurfaced by basaltic lava, matching the same dark appearance as the lunar mare to the northeast. This floor is level and almost featureless.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Magelhaens.

title: Magelhaens (lunar crater)


text:
L'Interdit

L'Interdit was a perfume created in 1957 by Hubert de Givenchy. The word interdit is French for "forbidden." The parfumeur behind this feminine aldehydic-floral fragrance was Francis Fabron (1913–2005). It has a delicate, floral, powdery aroma. It contains notes of rose, jasmine, violet and, at the heart, a blend of woods and grasses.

Givenchy created the perfume for Audrey Hepburn, who wore it for a year before its release to the public. Hepburn also became the first actress to become the face of a perfume, for L'Interdit.

Creation
L'Interdit was secretly created in 1954 and was worn only by actress Audrey Hepburn, to whom it was given as a gift by Hubert de Givenchy, who had dressed her. For this, he called on a laboratory in Grasse, Roure Bertrand Dupont (nowadays Givaudan), who started with a base of aldehydes, reminiscent of the smell of chic dry cleaners, being a typical perfume of the 1950s, where one begins to use for the juices of the odors of the functional universe. In those years, perfumers also often used bouquets of scents, whereas nowadays the notes are more linear. L'Interdit thus includes tonka bean in the base note. Olfactologist at Givenchy, Françoise Donche notes that “without being sulphurous, L'Interdit evokes a passionate seduction. The mischievous side of the top notes turns out to be quite sensual in the end, the carnation is not so demure and the clove, a burning spice, brings a clearly intoxicating touch.” It is part of the “floral aldehyde” family.

In 1957, Hubert de Givenchy decided to market the perfume, to which Audrey Hepburn replied: “But I forbid you”. The star finally lifted his ban and participated in this to give the name to the perfume.

Success
L'Interdit quickly became successful with 4000 sales in its first days; a promising figure considering, at the time, it was only sold in France.

title: L'Interdit


text: Template:Raleigh class landing platform dock


text:
Penelope Aitken

Penelope Loader, Lady Aitken, MBE (2 December 1910 – 7 February 2005), styled The Honourable Lady Aitken and nicknamed 'Pempe', was an English socialite.

Biography
Born Penelope Loader Maffey, she was the daughter of Sir John Maffey, later 1st Baron Rugby, who was to become Governor-General of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies and wartime United Kingdom Representative to Dublin. Earlier, he had been the private secretary to the Viceroy of India and Governor of the North-West Frontier Province, thus Penelope was born in Peshawar and spent her early years in India, where three of her siblings died in childhood.

When she was seven years old, she returned to England for prep school, then went on to Sherborne School for Girls. Her parents had a house, Anmer Hall, on the King's Sandringham estate, which led to her socialising with the royal family. Indeed, she became the King's favourite. Maffey was presented at Court and named Debutante of the Year. She was romantically linked with several men, including Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, Esmond Harmsworth and society artist Simon Elwes (1902–1975), which caused a minor scandal as he was married and a Roman Catholic. Maintaining a friendship, she accompanied Prince Bernhard on his honeymoon in 1937 and became good friends with his new wife, Princess Juliana of the Netherlands.

In 1938 she met Canadian William Aitken, a nephew of media magnate Lord Beaverbrook, and a journalist at the Evening Standard. They were married later that year at St Peter's, Eaton Square. Their son Jonathan was born in Dublin in 1942.

In December 2008, Dutch historian Cees Fasseur claimed that Jonathan Aitken was actually the result of a wartime affair between Penelope and Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands. The prince's wife Queen Juliana of the Netherlands stood sponsor for Jonathan Aitken's christening.

William Aitken had joined the RAF and Penelope joined the WRVS, helping to evacuate German children to Ireland. In 1944, her husband was badly hurt in a Spitfire crash. She spent two years nursing him back to health, at a time when her baby son was ill with tuberculosis and the family home in London was bombed. She and William had a daughter Maria in 1945.

William was elected as Conservative Member of Parliament for Bury St Edmunds in 1950, and he was knighted in 1963, giving her the style of Lady Aitken. She devoted herself to community work in support of her husband's political career, becoming a magistrate and running the Clothing Exchange, which played a major role in helping the victims of the East Coast floods in 1953. Eventually she was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).

She lived with the children in Halesworth to be near her father, who died in 1969 aged 91. The family fortune was wiped out by death duties and a stock market crash. She restarted her affair with Simon Elwes, and then had a long relationship with Sir John Davis, chairman of Rank Xerox. Gardening was another passion. She created a garden at Playford, her moated Tudor house near Ipswich. Later she created an English garden at her house near Santa Eulalia on the Spanish island of Ibiza, smuggling sacks of soil and rare plants through customs.

Lady Aitken continued to be seen at many parties and with many men. Satirist and broadcaster Noel Picarda instantly fell in love with her, and eventually became her live-in companion until his death in 2003. Her house and her parties were often the scene of political machinations in Conservative circles and she was often seen holding court among politicians or her family, whether in London, her local pub or the Gironde.

Aitken died of cancer. She had two children – Jonathan Aitken and Maria Aitken. She was the grandmother of the actor Jack Davenport, Petrina Khashoggi (biological daughter of Jonathan Aitken and Soraya Khashoggi (née Sandra Daly), conceived while she was married to Adnan Khashoggi), Victoria Aitken, Alexandra Aitken and William Aitken. She is buried in the churchyard of St. Mary's, Playford, Suffolk.

title: Penelope Aitken


text:
Miles Laboratories

Miles Laboratories was founded as the Dr. Miles Medical Company in Elkhart, Indiana, in 1884 by Dr. Franklin L. Miles, a specialist in the treatment of eye and ear disorders, with an interest in the connection of the nervous system to overall health. The company is known for inventing products such as Alka-Selzer and One-A-Day vitamins.

Miles operated as an independent firm from 1884 until 1979 and as a wholly owned subsidiary of Bayer AG from 1979 until 1995. At the company's peak in the 1960s and 1970s, it employed 3,300 people and produced more than two dozen products.

In 1995, it was consolidated into the parent corporation.

History
By 1890, the sales success of his patent medicine tonic, "Dr. Miles Restorative Nervine," in treating "nervous" ailments (including "nervousness or nervous exhaustion, sleeplessness, hysteria, headache, neuralgia, backache, pain, epilepsy, spasms, fits, and St. Vitus' dance") led him to develop a mail order medicine business. Miles also published Medical News, from 1884—a thinly disguised marketing vehicle for Nervine, now referenced as advertorials. Nervine remained on the market as a "calmative" until the late 1960s; Miles' bromide sedative syrup is considered "a precursor to modern tranquilizers."

The company was at the heart of the 1911 antitrust Supreme Court case Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park & Sons Co. After John D. Park & Sons Co. profited off of Dr. Miles' advertising while selling his products at rock bottom prices, the Supreme Court ruled that resale price maintenance, a form of vertical restraint, is illegal per se.

In 1932, the company became Dr. Miles Laboratories; then, in 1935, the name was again changed, to Miles Laboratories. In 1947, Miles Laboratories purchased Chemical Specialties Inc.

During World War II the company produced various goods for the US war effort, including packaged coffee products for military rations.

The company already made One-A-Day Vitamins and later introduced Chocks, the first chewable multivitamins for children. Flintstones Vitamins came later.

In 1970, to complement its existing vitamin manufacturing division, Miles laboratories merged with Adventist-owned Worthington Foods of Ohio, opening a new Worthington Foods factory in 1972 to quadruple production capacity for a line of vegetarian foods based on the meat analogue developed over the previous two decades by Worthington, to be marketed under the brand name Morning Star Farm Foods, Morning Star was sold with Worthington Foods to Kellogg's in 1999.

In 1979, Bayer AG—after its U.S. and Canadian aspirin business was seized as enemy property during World War I and subsequently sold as enemy assets—purchased Miles Laboratories and its subsidiary Miles Canada to reestablish a presence in North America. In the process, Bayer also acquired products such as Alka-Seltzer, Flintstones Vitamins, One-a-Day, Bactine, S.O.S Soap Pads, and Worthington Foods.

Bayer continued to operate Miles Laboratories and developed many drugs based upon biological extracts, such as Kogenate, Gamimune-N and other immunoglobulins, and Trasylol, as well as diagnostic products such as blood glucose test strips and glucose meters. Miles also owned Cutter Laboratories, manufacturer of such diverse products as insect repellent and synthetic human Factor VIII clotting factor for hemophiliacs.

In 1992, Bayer AG moved the United States headquarters of Miles to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from Elkhart, Indiana. In 1994, the Bayer moved the Miles headquarters to New Jersey. That year, Bayer announced plans to change the name of the company. On April 1, 1995, Bayer retired the Miles brand name from all products and facilities after Bayer had acquired Sterling Winthrop the previous year.

Miles Laboratories also operated sites in other parts of the United States, including West Haven, Connecticut, which are now part of Bayer AG. In 2007, the Miles Laboratories campus of Bayer AG in Connecticut was sold to Yale University and now comprises Yale West campus, including art and anthropological restoration and preservation, energy research, nanobiology, systems biology, and Yale Nursing School.

Between 2011 and 2012, the former Miles campus, a 26-acre site located in Elkhart, was vacated and the remaining buildings were demolished.

title: Miles Laboratories


text:
Julienne, Charente

Julienne is a commune in the Charente department in southwestern France.

title: Julienne, Charente


text:
Paul Collingwood

Paul David Collingwood (born 26 May 1976) is an English cricket coach and former player, who played in all three formats of the game internationally for England. He played for Durham County Cricket Club. Collingwood was a regular member of the England Test side and captain of the One Day International (ODI) team (2007–2008). He was the first T20I captain for England. As captain, he led the England team to win their first ICC trophy, the 2010 World Twenty20, and scored the winning run in the final.

He captained his county club, Durham County Cricket Club, for the final six seasons of his career. A batting all-rounder, whose batting combined natural strokeplay with great tenacity, Collingwood also bowled reliable medium pace. Described as a "natural athlete", he was regarded as one of the finest fielders of his time, usually fielding at backward point or at third or fourth slip in Tests; he also deputised as wicket-keeper for England.

His first-class debut was in 1996 and he made his first appearance for England in One Day International cricket in 2001 and made his Test match debut in 2003. For two years he remained an occasional Test player but after selection for the final Test of the 2005 Ashes, he secured a regular place. His 206 during the 2006–07 Ashes was the first double century by an England batsman in Australia for 78 years and in a match that England lost. A series of three consecutive match-winning performances by Collingwood at the end of the 2006–07 Commonwealth Bank Series in Australia brought him enthusiastic approval in the British media. His "allround display of incredible nerve and tenacity" helped to secure the trophy for England. Until May 2019, he was England's most capped ODI cricketer and was, until surpassed by Ian Bell in 2015, the leading ODI run scorer.

He announced his retirement from Test cricket in January 2011, during the fifth Test of the 2010–11 Ashes series. He finished on a high, becoming a three-times Ashes winner as England won a series in Australia for the first time in 24 years, with three innings victories contributing to a 3–1 win. He retired from first-class and List A cricket in September 2018.

Having retired from playing, Collingwood moved into coaching. He was part of the coaching team for Scotland and for Durham CCC, before joining the staff of the England Cricket Team in 2014 as a limited-overs specialist and fielding coach. In February 2022, he was named interim head coach of the men's England cricket team.

Early and personal life
Collingwood was born and brought up in Shotley Bridge, near Consett, County Durham, by parents David and Janet, along with his elder brother Peter, and was educated at Blackfyne Comprehensive School, now known as Consett Academy. Introduced to cricket "on the playing fields of Blackfyne Comprehensive School", Paul was able to "force his way into Shotley Bridge's Under–13s team at the age of just nine".

As a teenager, his father, who still remains a member of the Shotley Bridge Cricket Club, persuaded him to give up football and concentrate on cricket. Collingwood still makes regular visits to his old cricket club: "...he is a brilliant role model for the kids and his success is an inspiration to follow...".

He currently lives in Northumberland, divorced from former wife Vicky, whom he married in February 2005 in Cape Town, South Africa, and their three daughters Shannon (born September 2006), Keira (born 24 February 2008), and Hannah Mae (born 9 February 2011). He is a big fan of Sunderland AFC. His nicknames are 'Colly', 'Weed' ‘Brigadier Block’ and 'Shep'; Brigadier Block being a nickname given to him by Nasser Hussain for his ability to play defensive shots, and the latter is an apparent homage to the famous Blue Peter Collie dog, Shep.

County cricket
Paul Collingwood signed for Durham, his local county cricket side, in 1995, playing first in List A one-day cricket. When he first came to Durham's attention, Collingwood was regarded "as a bowler who batted a bit". According to coach Geoff Cook's 2006 assessment it was Collingwood's determination, rather than his talent, that shone through.

Paul had talent... but I don't think he had any more [talent] than a number of lads who came through with him at the time...He had terrible luck with his back, he missed an awful lot of cricket, and a lesser character could well have decided to call it a day. To his credit, Paul came back and worked harder than he'd ever done before. He couldn't bowl as much at the start, so he did an awful lot more batting and, straight away, there were obvious signs of talent there. By the time he forced his way into the Under-19 team he was batting at the top of the order and the following year he was offered a professional contract.

Collingwood made his first–class debut against Northamptonshire in 1996, at Durham's Riverside Ground. He made an immediate impression by taking the wicket of former England all-rounder David Capel with his first ball, and scoring 91 in his first innings. However, his early years as a first-class player were characterised by steady and relatively modest performances with bat and ball: in each season from 1996 to 2000, his batting average was between 20 and 30 and his bowling average was between 30 and 60.

His breakthrough began in 2000, when he was voted Player of the Year by the Durham members, particularly for his one-day efforts. His form varied following a back injury, but he hit his stride in 2001, when he excelled both in the County Championship and in the one-day game. In the six English seasons from 2001, Collingwood has exceeded a batting average of 40 four times and achieved a bowling average of less than 40 on three occasions.

Recognising his need to improve his all-round game Collingwood took himself off to Australia for their 2000–01 season where he played for the long-established Richmond Cricket Club in the tough Melbourne Premier League. At the end of the season Collingwood was awarded the prestigious Jack Ryder Medal for the best player in the league (an award he shared), and was the first – and so far only – Richmond player to ever receive it.

Durham only achieved first-class status in 1992. In the 15 years since then, their best performances in the two league championships (the first-class County Championship and the List-A (One-Day) National League) both came in 2006 (finishing sixth and eighth respectively). Following in 2007 with the Friends Provident Trophy, beating Hampshire by 125 runs, Collingwood picking up 22 runs and bowling figures of 3/33. However, Collingwood's involvement was severely limited by his England commitments and he made no appearances at all in either competition.

This stood in marked contrast to the previous season, when Collingwood was available to Durham for four of the five Tests, before his England recall for the final Ashes Test; he "pushed his claims for a Test recall with three centuries in four innings in the Frizzell County Championship." In just 13 appearances in the County Championship in that 2005 season, Collingwood scored 1103 runs and took 21 wickets, averaging 55.15 and 31.90 respectively.

In the traditional reward for services to a county, Durham awarded Collingwood a benefit year for 2007. He chose to support two charities through his benefit, Marie Curie Cancer Care and the Cricket Foundation's "Chance to Shine" project, which encourages cricket coaching in state schools. In that same year, two days after achieving his fifth Test century at Riverside in an England victory, he joined Liam Plunkett in helping the county enter its first Friends Provident Trophy final, which they would also go on to win.

Indian Premier League
With England players free to participate in the second season of the Indian Premier League, Collingwood was signed by the Delhi Daredevils for $275,000 during their second player auction. In the 2011 auction, he was signed up by Rajasthan Royals for US$250,000, but could not take part in IPL4 due to a knee injury that he picked up during the World Cup.

England debut
Collingwood's form for Durham in 2001 earned him a call-up to the England One Day International (ODI) squad, selected for the NatWest Series against Pakistan and Australia that summer, becoming the 162nd to play for England in ODI cricket. He was not particularly successful on his ODI debut in June 2001, scoring only two runs and taking no wickets against Pakistan at Edgbaston, and doing poorly (20 runs in four innings and no wickets) in the rest of the series. Despite this, the selectors showed confidence in him by choosing him for the 2001–02 one-day tour of Zimbabwe, where he took his first ODI wicket, that of Dion Ebrahim in the Third ODI at Harare Sports Club. He starred with the bat in the Fourth ODI at Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo, with a match-winning 77, and made an unbeaten 56 in the final ODI, also in Bulawayo, helping England secure a 5–0 whitewash.

Collingwood played in all seven matches of the 2002 NatWest Series against India and Sri Lanka, ending on the losing side in the final to India. Neither his batting nor bowling during this series were particularly impressive, averaging less than 24 with the bat and taking only five wickets in the series, but he went on to make his first ODI century in the 2002/2003 VB Series victory against Sri Lanka at the WACA. While this performance cemented his position in the England one–day setup, he dislocated his right shoulder while fielding in a pre–season county friendly against Lancashire and was forced to miss most of the 2003 season. Nevertheless, he was awarded a 12-month ECB contract when the winter touring squads were announced for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. With Nasser Hussain suffering from a bout of 'flu, Collingwood made his Test debut against the Sri Lankans in the First Test at Galle in December 2003, becoming the 622nd Englishman to play Test cricket. It was during this game that he established his position as one of the best English fielders, with five catches and a run-out in the drawn match. Since then his performances in the field have drawn comparisons with South African specialist fielder, Jonty Rhodes.

With the selection of pace bowler James Anderson for the Third Test, Collingwood was dropped. Although unable to establish a regular place in the 11-man team, his all–round ability and fielding strengths made him a regular on England's overseas Test tours as 12th Man.

He retained his place in England's one-day side throughout the summer of 2004 despite a knee injury, and scored an unbeaten 79 in the second match of the NatWest Challenge against India at The Oval, with England winning the series 2–1. Collingwood was also England's second highest run-scorer in the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy, scoring 141 runs at an average of 70.5, which included an unbeaten 80 in the opening game against Zimbabwe. He played in all 11 ODIs against Zimbabwe and South Africa, and was then named in the England Development Squad in May 2005, and the 14-man squad for the NatWest Series against Bangladesh and Australia and the NatWest International Twenty20 against Australia that summer.

Ashes 2005
On 21 June 2005, playing for England against Bangladesh at Trent Bridge, Collingwood scored 112 not out from 86 balls and then took six wickets for 31 runs. These were the best–ever bowling figures by an Englishman in an ODI, and made Collingwood the first player to score a century and take six wickets in an ODI. This performance surpassed the previous best all–round ODI performance, that of Viv Richards, who scored a hundred and took five wickets against New Zealand in Dunedin in the 1986/1987 season. Another highlight that was produced that same series was a stunning mid-air catch off the bowling of Steve Harmison to dismiss Matthew Hayden during the Natwest Series ODI at Bristol. This catch was included in BBC Sport's list of "Classic catches" in cricket.

Collingwood also played in England's inaugural Twenty20 International match, held at the Rose Bowl, where a useful contribution of 49 and the wickets of Brett Lee and Jason Gillespie helped jump-start England on its pursuit of the Ashes, with 100-run defeat of Australia.

Collingwood was selected for the Test squad at the outset of the series but was not called into action until bowler Simon Jones was ruled out due to injury during the Fourth Test at Trent Bridge. Collingwood therefore played only the Fifth Test. Although he only scored 7 and 10 with the bat that match, his "blocking" alongside Kevin Pietersen in a 60-run sixth wicket stand on the final day helped England draw the match, and clinch the series to take the Ashes for the first time since 1987. In the 2006 New Year's Honours List, Collingwood was awarded the MBE, together with other members of the England team, for his role in the successful Ashes victory. There was some critical comment that his limited role did not warrant the honour as he had played only in the Fifth Test and scored just 17 runs in 2 innings.

Success in Pakistan and India
Following the successful Ashes campaign in 2005, Collingwood was selected to tour with England to Pakistan and India in 2005–06. He played in the First Test in against Pakistan in Multan in 2005, but scored only 13 runs in his two innings and took no wickets. He was dropped for the Second Test as Michael Vaughan returned, but came back into the team for the Third Test against Pakistan when the top–order was reshuffled after Andrew Strauss returned to England for the birth of his first child. Despite Collingwood making his maiden Test 50 and following it with another in the second innings, England lost the match and consequently the three-match series 2–0. In the ODI series, he and Durham teammates Liam Plunkett and Steve Harmison accounted for the majority of the wickets taken by England, through a combination of their bowling and fielding.

Following his performance in Pakistan, Collingwood was called into the England team for the First Test against India in March 2006 after injury and illness respectively to Vaughan and Marcus Trescothick. Collingwood justified his position in the team with a magnificent 134 not out in the first innings on 2 March 2006, his first Test century. Collingwood thus became the first Durham player to make a Test century for England. Following this innings, The Times, which had been among the critics of Collingwood's MBE, ran the headline, "MBE? Give this man a knighthood!"

Sri Lanka and Pakistan in 2006
Collingwood kept his place for the first three Tests against Sri Lanka in the summer of 2006. Uncharacteristically, he dropped two catches during the First Test at Lord's, but he scored an unbeaten half-century. He went on to make up for the dropped catches in the Second Test at Edgbaston, where he took five catches in two innings while playing his usual batting style as foil (with Andrew Flintoff) to Kevin Pietersen's 142 in the first innings. In the subsequent Twenty20 International match against Sri Lanka, he took 4–22, the best bowling record in Twenty20 Internationals, but still ended on the losing side.

He then followed this up with an important innings in the First Test against Pakistan later that summer, scoring his second Test century. On this occasion he was the dominant partner, batting for most of his innings with rookie Alastair Cook. When Cook departed, he continued with Ian Bell to complete his 150 before at last being removed by Danish Kaneria for 186. This score proved to be England's highest of the series.

Collingwood took his first Test wicket on 6 August 2006, trapping Faisal Iqbal leg before wicket for a golden duck in the Third Test at Headingley. During this series he also bowled a couple of overs of off-spin, to the surprise of many, including the commentary team on Test Match Special. Later that summer, he reached his 100th ODI cap and 50 ODI wickets in the same match by claiming the wickets of Inzamam-ul-Haq and Abdul Razzaq during the Fifth ODI against Pakistan in Birmingham on 10 September.

Ashes 2006/07
Following a successful summer, Collingwood was selected later in 2006 for both the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy squad and Ashes touring party. However, after two lacklustre defeats to India and Australia, critics such as Geoffrey Boycott and some fans began to question the coaching staff's placement of him in the batting order.

The return of Andrew Flintoff following an injury would reignite the ongoing debate about which two of Cook, Bell and Collingwood should be included in the team, with many speculating that Collingwood would be the man to miss out. With the sudden departure of Marcus Trescothick from the tour just over a week before the First Test, the debate was settled for the time being.

The first ball of the First Test, at the Gabba in Brisbane, bowled wildly wide by Steve Harmison set the tone for the series. However, on the fourth day, England seemed to be batting towards a draw, when Collingwood, who had worked his way to a hard–earned 96 was stumped "...skipping miles down the pitch and trying to smack Warne over his head to reach a hundred". This was a pivotal moment: England went on to lose the next six wickets for 126 runs, and so lost the Test match. In the Second Test at Adelaide, Collingwood made a career-best 206 in England's first innings, sharing in a 310–run fourth–wicket stand with Pietersen; he became only the eighth English double centurion against Australia in Ashes history, and the first in Australia since Wally Hammond scored 251 and 200 in consecutive innings during the 1928–29 Ashes. In the second innings he added an unbeaten 22 from 119 balls over nearly 3 hours, while England collapsed to 129 all out and so went 2–0 down. Collingwood received some praise but mostly criticism from commentators on the manner in which he batted with the tail-enders.

England fared no better in the Third and Fourth Tests, losing them both, with Collingwood picking up only 60 with the bat in his four innings. During the Fifth Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground in January 2007, Australia's Shane Warne revived the controversy of Collingwood's MBE with clearly audible "sledging" at Collingwood's expense. Collingwood's performance during this Test was mediocre, scoring 27 and 17 with the bat and not being called upon to bowl a single ball, as Australia won comfortably by ten wickets.

Despite the series ending with a 5–0 whitewash by Australia, Collingwood finished the series ranked 14th in the LG ICC World Rankings for Test batsmen.

The Commonwealth Bank One-Day International Series began on a low note for Collingwood, with a loss in the opening game against Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Despite the defeat being followed by a narrow win over New Zealand in Hobart, the team and Collingwood went into a rapid decline, losing a string of four matches. He missed England's 92–run victory over Australia due to food poisoning, but returned to make 106 and capture two wickets in the decisive 14–run victory over New Zealand in the final group stage match. He then hit a century and scored the winning runs as England won the first of three finals in Melbourne, against Australia, becoming the eighth Englishman to hit centuries in consecutive ODIs. His innings of 120 not out was the highest ever by an English ODI player against Australia in Australia. His knock was named as the fourth-best ODI Batting Performance of the year by ESPNcricinfo. In the second of the finals, he was Man of the Match for the third consecutive game, top–scoring for England with 70 and taking two wickets, as well another difficult catch off the bowling of Sajid Mahmood to once again dismiss Matthew Hayden.

World Cup 2007
Flush with confidence and in form from the tri-series victory, Collingwood and the English arrived in the Caribbean with high hopes. However, two unimpressive performances by the team during the warm-up matches against Bermuda and Australia,  followed by defeat to New Zealand in the first Group match  dampened expectations. This was coupled with the removal of Andrew Flintoff from the vice-captaincy due to an incident of unruly behaviour, which led to speculation that Collingwood would be in line for the captaincy should either Michael Vaughan or Andrew Strauss be unavailable. However, all such discussion came to nought as Vaughan remained in charge, despite the reprimanding of Flintoff.

The tournament was uneventful for Collingwood and the English, as he and the team were soon left by the wayside after qualification into the Super Eight round. Unimpressive victories over Ireland followed by a nervy 37-run seventh wicket stand with Paul Nixon to victory over Bangladesh along with a close 2-run loss to Sri Lanka  and heavy losses to Australia and South Africa meant elimination from the knockout stages, as Collingwood was only able to manage lower scores with limited successes with the white ball. He did, however, end up as the tournament's joint top fielder, grabbing eight catches along with Graeme Smith, and took what is arguably his most stunning catch, to dismiss Devon Smith off the bowling of Andrew Flintoff during the final Super Eight match versus the West Indies.

2007 season
Collingwood and the team opened their first home Test at Lord's with a dominant first innings against the West Indies, as Collingwood's score of 111 joined Alastair Cook, Ian Bell, Matt Prior and Kevin Pietersen in becoming the first ever group of five Englishmen to score centuries at Lord's in the same match. This was followed up during the opposition innings with his second Test wicket, that of Dwayne Bravo. He then added his second century of the series at Durham's home ground at Chester-le-Street during the fourth Test, hitting 128 from 188 balls as part of a 169-run seventh-wicket stand with Prior before being bowled by Corey Collymore. Following his good form in the Test series, Collingwood was named as captain of the England team for the two Twenty20 Internationals and three One-Day International games against the West Indies, following previous captain Michael Vaughan's resignation of the position of captain in the format four days before. Of the Twenty20s, England lost the first but won the second to draw Collingwood's first Twenty20 International series as a captain. While only contributing 27 from 24 balls in the second match, Collingwood outshone the other English batsmen with his individual effort during the first, hitting 79 runs from just 41 deliveries. The England team continued into the 50-over ODI matches, winning the first by a comfortable 79 under Collingwood's captaincy, though the man himself hit only 5 runs. He went on to captain the one-day side against India, where they won the 1st ODI but lost an entertaining 2nd ODI at Bristol by 9 runs. After the 2nd ODI Collingwood was fined half of his match fee for a slow over rate. England eventually won the closely fought series 4–3.

Collingwood was fined £1000 during the 2007 Twenty20 World Championship when he visited a lap-dancing club prior to England's match with New Zealand. Collingwood led the team to victory over Zimbabwe in the group stages of the tournament, but England, under his leadership, were later defeated by Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India to go out of the competition before the final stages. During England's subsequent tour of Sri Lanka Collingwood led the team to victory in the ODI Series. In the later Test series, he became the 709th Test wicket of Muttiah Muralitharan, who thus overtook Shane Warne as the highest Test wicket taker.

2008
Collingwood enjoyed a successful Test series away in New Zealand in early 2008, scoring 244 runs from three matches at 40.66, passing 50 three times. His ODI game also enjoyed success – 151 runs at 50.33 with two half-centuries from his four ODI matches. Collingwood had a less successful home series, however, scoring only 32 runs in three matches, 24 of these in one innings, and ended the series with an average of just 10.66. His home ODI series was one of great controversy. While playing in the fourth match, he appealed controversially for the run-out of Grant Elliott after Elliott had collided with Ryan Sidebottom and injured himself. While this action drew criticism from the New Zealand dressing room, there was separate incident in this match (relating to an inadequate England over-rate), for which the ICC banned Collingwood for four limited-overs internationals. This was for a second offence in twelve months relating to England, with Collingwood as captain, completing its overs outside of the time limit. Pietersen was called upon to take over as captain.

Collingwood's poor form continued into the first Test of South Africa's tour of England in July 2008, as he scored only seven runs in his first innings at Lord's, although replays suggested an umpiring error, the ball hitting not his bat but only his pad. He was left out of the side for the following Test at Headingley, making way for Andrew Flintoff, but was recalled for the third Test at Edgbaston, scoring a century and giving England a chance of beating South Africa and levelling the series.

Half an hour after Michael Vaughan resigned from the Test captaincy, Collingwood relinquished charge of the ODI squad because it was affecting his ability to enjoy the game. Collingwood told his wife on the night before his century against South Africa that it was time to go. He later explained, "I've found the extra workload to be very difficult [...]. It's mentally tiring, and that's the top and bottom of it.  I want to have a smile on my face when I'm playing cricket, and, if I'd have kept going, I'm not sure that would have been the case."

2009

Collingwood deputised as England wicket-keeper for an injured Matt Prior in the second home Test against the West Indies in May 2009; he enjoyed the experience and was generally successful, including effecting a catch from an edge by Shivnarine Chanderpaul.

Collingwood's form in the 2009 World Twenty20 tournament wasn't good: in five innings, managing just 63 runs. More important, however, was his form in the longest version of the game, in which he had attained something like a peak. Going into the 2009 Ashes, indeed, he was relishing his best-ever run in the Test side, having hoarded three centuries in his last twelve innings.

In the first Test of the 2009 Ashes at the SWALEC Stadium in Cardiff, Collingwood scored 64 in the first innings as England totalled 435. On a flat wicket, however, this was put into context by the Australians, who amassed 674 for 6 declared, with four centurions; Collingwood bowled nine overs, and claimed the wicket of Brad Haddin caught at deep midwicket. In reply, England slid to 70 for 5 and seemed certain to succumb to an innings defeat. In response, Collingwood stayed at the crease for 5¾ hours (nearly the whole of the final day) and top-scored for England with 74 runs from 245 balls. He was ninth man out, edging Peter Siddle to gully, but final pair James Anderson and Monty Panesar blocked out the final 11½ overs of the match to secure an improbable draw.

In the second Test at Lord's Collingwood succumbed to a loose first-innings dismissal, chipping part-time spinner Michael Clarke to mid-on for 16 (and earning the ire of his captain Andrew Strauss, who went on to score 161); England, poised at 302 for 3 before Collingwood's dismissal, subsided to 425 all out. Nonetheless, England's seamers bowled Australia out for 215, and in the second innings Collingwood scored a measured 54, acting as foil to the aggressive strokeplay of Matt Prior (their partnership adding 86 in twelve overs) and Andrew Flintoff (51 in eight overs). As Flintoff and Graeme Swann combined to bowl England to victory, Collingwood contributed two fine slip catches.

After Lord's, however, his form tailed away considerably: tormented by Australia's seam-bowling attack, his scores for the rest of the series were 13, 0 and 4, and 24 and 1, bringing his batting average for the five-match series down to 27.78. Collingwood's difficulties with the bat seemed to affect his usually high-class catching, and he dropped three chances of varying degrees of difficulty on the final day of the series at the Oval, though he did take a sharp catch to dismiss Mitchell Johnson for a duck off Steve Harmison as part of England's surge to a 197-run victory in the match, and a 2–1 victory in the series.

Against South Africa in November 2009, Collingwood surpassed Alec Stewart's record of 170 ODIs to become England's most capped player. He held the record until May 2019, when Eoin Morgan surpassed Collingwood during England's series against Pakistan.

Late career and retirement
In early 2010, Collingwood led the England Twenty20 team to the 2010 World Twenty20 championship. Collingwood appeared in all seven games, struggling with the bat as he scored only 61 runs at 10.16; with the ball, he only bowled one over for ten runs, although his prowess in the field continued – his four catches being the joint-highest with the wicket-keeper, Craig Kieswetter, for the England team. It was Collingwood's captaincy that was most praised, as he led England to their first-ever ICC trophy, hitting the winning runs in their seven-wicket victory over Australia in the final.

Collingwood was then rested for the home Test series against Bangladesh, but returned for the five-match ODI series against Australia in June. During the second match, he overtook Alec Stewart's record to become England's all-time leading runscorer in the format. Following poor batting performances in the 2010–11 Ashes series, he announced his retirement from Test cricket.

For his performances in 2010, he was named in the World ODI XI by the ICC.

In July 2014, he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord's. In August 2017, he was named in a World XI side to play three Twenty20 International matches against Pakistan in the 2017 Independence Cup in Lahore. In the 3-match series, Collingwood only played a single match.

Coaching career
After retiring from international cricket, Collingwood associated with England and Scotland cricket teams as coach and supporting staff. In November 2014, Collingwood agreed to return in Scotland's coaching staff for the 2015 Cricket World Cup. He then became the captain/assistant coach of Durham, which led them to win the 2013 LV County Championship, the inaugural 2014 Royal London One-Day Cup.

Collingwood was named as Limited Overs Consultant for England in September 2015. He was appointed fielding coach for the England cricket team. On 7 February 2022, it was announced that Collingwood would serve as interim head coach of the men's England cricket team for the forthcoming West Indies Test series.

Honours
He was chosen as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 2007, alongside England teammate Monty Panesar. In its rationale, Wisden describes him as having become the embodiment of "the sort of cricketer who not only made the most of his ability but was also determined to keep getting better".

Test matches

 * 1,000+ Test runs in a calendar year in 2006.
 * England fourth-wicket partnership record against Australia – 206 in a partnership of 310 with Kevin Pietersen in 2006.
 * Double century against Australia in 2007 – only the third English batsman to score a double century in Australia, and the first since Wally Hammond in 1936.
 * First Durham player to score a Test century for England, and first to hit one at Riverside Ground.

One-Day Internationals

 * Best bowling figures in an ODI by an England player – 6/31 against Bangladesh in 2005.
 * Best ODI all-round performance – 6/31 and 112* against Bangladesh in 2005.

Twenty20 Internationals

 * First English cricket captain to lead a major ICC tournament-winning side.

title: Paul Collingwood


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title: Category:Romanian traditions


text: User talk:198.234.248.243

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text:
Ben Mikaelsen

Ben Mikaelsen (born November 24, 1952) is a Bolivian American writer of children's literature.

Early life and education
Ben Mikaelsen was born on November 24, 1952, in La Paz, Bolivia, the son of missionary parents of Danish descent. He wasn't sent to school until fourth grade where he was bullied for his race. Mikaelsen moved to the United States with his family shortly before entering seventh grade, where he encountered further bullying because of his poor English capabilities. As a teen in Minnesota, he taught himself to swim and dive, and this led him to take flight and skydiving lessons. Mikaelsen attended USC and Bemidji State University.

Personal life
When building his home in Montana, Ben adopted an American black bear named Buffy for 26 years until the bear's death in September 2012. Ben Mikaelsen considered Buffy a "750-pound member of my family." He has been writing full-time since 1984 and lives in Anacortes, Washington with his wife, Connie. He has written a few books inspired by his bear, such as Touching Spirit Bear and the sequel Ghost of Spirit Bear. He also took a year out of high school to join a parachute team and compete around Minnesota. He goes around the country visiting schools to teach kids about his life and his experience as a victim of bullying.

Published works

 * Rescue Josh McGuire (1991)
 * Sparrow Hawk Red (1993)
 * Stranded (1995)
 * Countdown (1996)
 * Petey (1998)
 * Touching Spirit Bear (2001)
 * Red Midnight (2002)
 * Tree Girl (2004)
 * Ghost of Spirit Bear (2008)
 * Jungle of Bones (2014)

Awards and honors
Mikaelson's work has won many state youth literature awards, including the California Young Reader Medal and Wyoming's Indian Paintbrush Book Award.
 * 1991: Golden Spur, Juvenile Fiction, Rescue Josh McGuire
 * 1992: International Reading Association Children's Book Award, Older Reader Category, Rescue Josh McGuire
 * 1999: ALA Best Fiction for Young Adults, Petey
 * 1999: Golden Spur, Juvenile Fiction, Petey
 * 2002: ALA Best Fiction for Young Adults, Touching Spirit Bear

title: Ben Mikaelsen


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Talk:Hinduism's Global influence

article consists of idle etymological speculation. what little is founded in reality should probably be merged with the Hinduism and other religions article. dab (ᛏ) 17:02, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hinduism's Global influence