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British diaspora in Africa

The British diaspora in Africa is a population group broadly defined as English-speaking people of mainly (but not only) British descent who live in or were born in Sub-Saharan Africa. The majority live in South Africa and other Southern African countries in which English is a primary language, including Zimbabwe, Namibia, Kenya, Botswana and Zambia. Their first language is usually English.

Colonialism

Although there were earlier British settlements at ports along the West African coast to facilitate the British Atlantic slave trade, more permanent British settlement in Africa did not begin in earnest until the end of the eighteenth century, at the Cape of Good Hope. British settlement in the Cape gained momentum following the second British occupation of the Dutch Cape Colony in 1806. The government encouraged British settlers in Albany ("Settler Country") in 1820 in order to consolidate the British Cape Colony's eastern frontier during the Cape Frontier Wars against the Xhosa. The Crown proclaimed Natal in southeastern Africa as a British colony in 1843. Following the defeat of the Boers in the Second Boer War in 1902, Britain annexed the Boer Republics of the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State.

Scottish medical missionary David Livingstone became known for his exploration of the African continent. He is believed to have been the first European to set eyes on Victoria Falls in 1855. He is a key character in African history, being one of the first well-known Britons to believe his heart was in Africa.

In the late nineteenth century, the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand and diamonds in Kimberley encouraged further settlement by the British, Australians, Americans and Canadians. The search for mineral resources also drove expansion north. Mining magnate Cecil Rhodes dreamed of a British Africa linked from Cape Town to Cairo. The British South Africa Company, which he founded in 1889, controlled the territory named Rhodesia after him; this later became known as (Southern) Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia, respectively). Simultaneously, British settlers began expansion into the fertile uplands (the "White Highlands") of British East Africa (now Kenya).

As a result of the rise of nationalist and anti-colonial movements throughout the British Empire, in the aftermath of World War II decolonisation of Africa took place. Ethnic Africans were overwhelmingly the majority of population in the British colonies and protectorates and had long been denied equivalent political and economic power. These former colonies eventually became self-governing. The Cold War powers entered into the conflicts in this period. Often aided by Soviet expertise and weapons, black nationalist guerrilla forces such as the Mau Mau in Kenya, ZANU in Rhodesia and MK in South Africa fought for majority rule, which normally meant "one man, one vote".

Zimbabwe

The ruling white minority in Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia in 1965 but no provisions were made to incorporate the black African majority as political equals. Civil war lasted until 1979, as black nationalists fought against the white-dominated government.

In 1980, the first democratic general election was held in what was now independent Zimbabwe and the country joined the Commonwealth. Subsequently, the country's white population declined sharply – thousands were intimidated, attacked, and driven off their property. Because of patterns of discrimination, whites had held the majority of property previously occupied by indigenous groups. Charged with abusing human rights and undermining democracy, President Robert Mugabe and other Zimbabwean individuals and entities were subjected to a wide range of economic and political sanctions by the United States and other western nations.

In 2002 Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth due to human rights abuses and electoral fraud. In 2003, Zimbabwe voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.

Northern Rhodesia became a separate nation, Zambia.

White minority rule
In 1910, the two separate British colonies and two Boer republics in Southern Africa united to form the Union of South Africa, which was governed as a constitutional monarchy within the British Empire under white minority rule. In 1926, the Balfour Declaration ended the oversight from Britain, leading South Africa to become a founding member of the Commonwealth of Nations, as a realm. Five years later, the Act of the Statute of Westminster formalized this full sovereignty. The majority of the British diaspora supported the United Party, led by J. B. M. Hertzog and Jan Smuts, while it was the ruling party between 1934 and 1948, and its various successors up to the Democratic Party, the predecessor of the Democratic Alliance. The United Party favoured close relations with the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, unlike the Nationalists. Many of the latter, such as John Vorster, supported Nazi Germany during the Second World War.

The ethnic Afrikaners, who ruled the country from 1948 until 1994, entrenched a system of racial segregation known as apartheid, established a republic, and withdrew from the Commonwealth. In 1955, 33,000 Dutch (34.8%), Germans (33.7%), French (13.2%), people of colour (7%), British (5.2%), unknown origin (3.5%), other Europeans (2.6%) in Natal, which had an English-speaking majority of white voters, signed the Natal Covenant against the establishment of a republic. Many of the British diaspora voted "No" in the 1960 referendum of white voters, but it was approved by a narrow margin and resulted in the establishment of a republic. The Natal majority voted against the republic and some residents called for secession from the Union after the referendum.

Democracy
In 1994, South Africa held its first universal democratic general election, marking the end of apartheid and white minority rule, and rejoined the Commonwealth. The majority of the British diaspora support the Democratic Alliance, which is the official opposition to the ruling African National Congress and an increasingly multiracial party.

The British diaspora population declined starting in the early 1990s as a result of a low birth rate relative to that of other population groups and emigration. Reasons for emigration included crime, corruption, poor service delivery and affirmative action. A crude estimate of the British diaspora population is the number of white South Africans who speak English as a first language, representing 1.6 million people, 36% of the white population group and 3% of the total population in the South African National Census of 2011. This number is an overstatement as it includes people of other ancestral origins who have assimilated into the white English-speaking population. The English-speaking population is largest in the KwaZulu-Natal province and in cities such as Johannesburg and Cape Town.

Despite the high emigration rate, many people of British descent continue to settle in South Africa, including many South African-born people who have returned home since the late-1990s, especially after the 2008 global economic crisis. South Africa has been a top destination for British retirees, and many White Zimbabweans of British descent settled in South Africa after Zimbabwean independence; some as a result of forced removal from their property. Over 200,000 British citizens live in South Africa, including more than 38,000 people who are being paid a UK State Pension.

Global presence
A significant number of the British diaspora in Africa have emigrated to other Commonwealth states such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Others have settled in countries such as the United States, the Republic of Ireland, and France. A large number of young people are also taking advantage of working holiday visas made available by the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth states.

Culture
White Africans generally enjoy the outdoors lifestyle and sports. The braai is a popular way to get together with friends and family. Other popular pastimes include: visiting game reserves, hiking, camping and recreational fishing. There is a particular appreciation of country life and farming. Farmers themselves generally prefer holiday houses at the coast. In other ways, the culture of the British diaspora derives from their British ancestry. Afternoon tea – in fact, tea at any time of day – is still widespread as are hobbies such as gardening and reading. Families who live in rural areas are usually familiar with horseriding and shooting. White South African culture was encapsulated in the 1970s Chevrolet radio jingle "Braaivleis, rugby, sunny skies and Chevrolet" based on the United States slogan "Baseball, hot dogs, apple pie and Chevrolet". Although nationwide television in South Africa was only introduced as lately as 1976, many older South Africans of British descent had little exposure to British television and humour as a result of an Equity union ban on British television programme sales to South Africa during apartheid.

Language
Many White Africans speak a unique dialect of English, developed by interaction with other local languages. South African English is influenced by Afrikaans and the Bantu languages. The considerable Afrikaans influence can be seen from words such as braai, trek, lekker and ja in common usage. Some Zulu and Xhosa words, such as shongololo, muti, ubuntu and fundi (meaning an "expert"), are also commonly used. Although South African slang is used by many younger South Africans, it would be unusual to hear it used amongst older people. The common greeting "howzit!" comes from the Afrikaans hoezit! (or "how is it?"); it can be likened to the US "howdy", the Australian "g'day", the Irish "howya?" or the Scottish "awrite?".

Zimbabwean English (ZimEng) shares many similarities with southern hemisphere English dialects (Australian, New Zealand, South African) yet is distinct from its closest relative, South African English. Traditionally Zimbabwean English was predominately influenced by British English, with the minor influence of Afrikaans (compared to South Africa) and African languages, generally used to describe flora and fauna, with terms such as kopje, dassie and bundu (Shona for bush). This dialect came to be known as Rhodesian English, typified by speakers such as Prime Minister Ian Smith and P.K. van der Byl. After Zimbabwean independence from the UK in 1980, this dialect sharply fell out of favour and came to be regarded as an archaic, non-productive dialect, only spoken by the oldest generation of White Zimbabweans and nostalgic Rhodies and whenwes. Zimbabwean English evolved with the changing social, economic and political conditions in which Blacks and Whites interacted in Zimbabwe; with the old, conservative Rhodesian accent being effectively replaced by the more neutral and prestigious sounding cultivated private school accent, which ironically retains some of its features. Today, the main languages spoken in are English, Shona and Ndebele. Only 3.5%, mainly the White, Indian, coloured (mixed race) and foreign-born minorities, consider English their native language. The vast majority of English speakers are Black Zimbabweans, who are bilingual or even trilingual with Bantu languages such as Shona (75%), Ndebele (18%) and the other minority languages, and thus these speakers have an outsize role in influencing the direction of Zimbabwean English, despite traditional native speakers maintaining an important influence.

Much like Australian and South African English, spoken English exists on a continuum from broad, general to cultivated (broad and general accents), based on an individual's background particularly, class and income and historically, ethnicity. Affluent, middle class and highly educated Zimbabweans speak in a cultivated accent, influenced by older forms of southern British English, the now archaic Rhodesian English and South African English. The cultivated accent is sometimes humorously mocked by other speakers for its nasality and alleged pretentiousness, with speakers derided as the so-called nose brigades. Robert Mugabe, Brendan Taylor, Pommie Mbangwa, Dave Houghton and journalists Peter Ndoro and Sophie Chamboko are notable speakers of a cultivated accent. Rural and urban working class speakers, on the other hand are heavily influenced by their native languages (these groups are also mocked as SRBs whose accents betray their strong rural background. Lower middle class black Zimbabweans are generally the most prominent in the mainstream media, fall in a spectrum between the two accents. Speakers of this general Zimbabwean accent include Morgan Tsvangirai, Evan Mawarire, Simba Makoni and Tatenda Taibu. English is spoken by virtually all in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Today English, the official language, enjoys status dominance and is the language of instruction in education, commerce, the government and the majority of the media.

Rhodes University in Grahamstown houses the Dictionary Unit for South African English. The fourth edition of A Dictionary of South African English was published in 1991, and the second edition of the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary was published in 2010. The English Academy of Southern Africa, founded in 1961, is dedicated to promoting the effective use of English as a dynamic language in Southern Africa.

A few South African English coinages are listed below:

Literature
The British diaspora in Africa has a long literary tradition, and has produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including Doris Lessing, Olive Schreiner, Guy Butler and Roy Campbell. A traditional South African storybook is Percy FitzPatrick's Jock of the Bushveld, which describes his journey as a wagon driver with his dog Jock. Other significant African writers of British descent are: Nadine Gordimer, Alan Paton, Peter Godwin, Alexandra Fuller and Bryce Courtenay.

Arts
The British diaspora has influenced modern African arts, and has often incorporated other African cultures. Athol Fugard is a significant playwright. Born of an Irish Catholic father and an Afrikaner mother, he has always described himself as an Afrikaner but he wrote in English to reach a larger audience. Sharlto Copley is a significant film actor, producer and director. He starred in the Oscar-nominated science fiction film District 9, which was an international box office hit and received widespread critical acclaim. District 9 drew heavily on metaphoric references to South Africa's apartheid history as well as including many other more direct references to South African and African culture. Although English-speaking, Copley plays an Afrikaner bureaucrat who experiences a similar oppression to that he once imposed on alien refugees. He also starred in the film remake of the 1980s television show The A-Team.

Music
Notable African musicians of British descent include: Dave Matthews, who emigrated to the United States, and Johnny Clegg. Wrex Tarr performed the distinctly Rhodesian comedy song "Cocky Robin" based on Chilapalapa. John Edmond was a popular singer, songwriter, entertainer and storyteller during the Rhodesian Bush War. Seether is a post-grunge band founded by South Africans, which now includes Americans.

Education
The British diaspora and their forebears have been extensively involved in the founding and development of numerous educational institutions across Africa.

Universities
There are four universities in South Africa that were established by the British diaspora, which admitted limited numbers of Black students during apartheid. The South African College was founded in 1829 and later split into the University of Cape Town and the South African College Schools. The University of Natal merged with the University of Durban-Westville to form the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The University of the Witwatersrand was founded in Kimberley in 1896 as the South African School of Mines and is now based in Johannesburg. Finally, Rhodes University was established in 1904 with an initial grant from the Rhodes Trust.

Schools
There are two categories of schools founded by the British diaspora or British missionaries, those originally intended for the education of the children of the British diaspora and those founded for the education of the indigenous population.

The first category includes both notable private schools such as St. George's College in Harare, Peterhouse Boys' School in Marondera, the Diocesan College in Cape Town, the Wykeham Collegiate in Pietermaritzburg and St John's College in Johannesburg and prestigious government schools such as Maritzburg College in Pietermaritzburg, King Edward VII School in Johannesburg and Prince Edward School in Harare.

The second category of schools includes South African institutions such as the Lovedale educational institution in the Eastern Cape, which was responsible for the education of many notable Africans including Thabo Mbeki, Chris Hani and Seretse Khama, Tiger Kloof Educational Institute in the North West province, and St Matthew's High School outside Keiskammahoek in the Eastern Cape. Many of these institutions were adversely impacted by the Bantu Education Act of 1953, and the Historic Schools Restoration Project championed by former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town Njongonkulu Ndungane aims to transform under-resourced historically significant schools into sustainable centres of cultural and educational excellence.

Sport
Cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, and cycling are generally considered to be the most popular sports among the British diaspora.

Cricket in Africa and particularly Zimbabwe has been dominated by the people of British heritage. Up until recently, the majority of Zimbabwean players were from the British diaspora, including: Andy Flower, Heath Streak, Brendan Taylor and Ray Price. Cricket in South Africa also traditionally features the British diaspora, including former national Test captain Graeme Smith and bowler Shaun Pollock. The England cricket team has often included many players of Southern African heritage in their ranks such as brothers Sam Curran and Tom Curran, Gary Ballance and Andrew Strauss. The England cricket team of 2010 that retained the 2010–11 Ashes series in Australia, for example, received significant contributions from South African captain Andrew Strauss, wicketkeeper Matt Prior, batsman Kevin Pietersen, batsman Jonathan Trott and coach Andy Flower.

A few examples of the notable contributions of the British diaspora to South African rugby are those made by Kitch Christie, the coach who led the Springboks to victory in the 1995 Rugby World Cup, Bobby Skinstad and Percy Montgomery, the Springboks' all-time leader in appearances and points.

Members of the British diaspora have also had notable success in African rallying, while former Rhodesia in particular produced several world champion motorcycle road racers including Jim Redman and Kork Ballington.

Two-time Tour de France winner Chris Froome was born in Kenya, and grew up in South Africa.

Alternative names
The majority of white South Africans and Zimbabweans identify themselves as primarily South African and Zimbabwean respectively, regardless of their first language or ancestry. The term English-speaking South African (ESSA) is sometimes used to distinguish anglophone South Africans from the rest of the population, particularly Afrikaners. Additionally, the inclusive term Zimbo or Anglo-Zimbabweans are terms sometimes used by academics to distance themselves, from the Rhodesian era, though the latter term overlaps with and can cause confusion with the large community of Britons of Zimbabwean descent. Along with Anglo African these terms are somewhat analogous to those used in other English-speaking countries such as White Anglo Saxon Protestant, English Canadian and Anglo-Celtic Australian.

Colloquial terms for the British in Africa which might be considered derogatory include the Afrikaans term rooinek (literally "red neck", probably from the stereotype that they sunburn relatively easily although unrelated to the American term redneck), the Australian term pommy, 'Beberu' in Kenya which means he-goat.

The term Anglo-African has been used historically to describe people living in the British Empire in Africa, although it has also been used to self-identify by people of mixed British and indigenous African ancestry. The Anglo-African Who's Who and Biographical Sketch-Book published in London in 1905 contains details of prominent British and Afrikaner people in Africa at that time.

'Cape Brit' is another term sometimes used to refer to South Africans of British descent. It refers to the Cape Colony where the immigrants to whom many South Africans can trace their origins from settled during its time as British colony. The term is considered an equivalent of 'Cape Dutch'.

Explorers, politicians, civil servants, businesspeople and clergy

 * Roy Bennett (1957-2018), Zimbabwean politician
 * Verney Lovett Cameron (1844–1894), explorer
 * Rob Davies (born 1948), South African Member of Parliament
 * Rufane Shaw Donkin (1773–1841), founder of Port Elizabeth
 * Tim Harris (born c. 1979), Shadow Minister of Finance in South Africa
 * Emily Hobhouse (1860–1926), welfare campaigner
 * Trevor Huddleston (1913–1998), Anglican archbishop, anti-apartheid activist and Isitwalandwe Medallist
 * Sir Leander Starr Jameson (also known as "Doctor Jim", 1853–1917), medical doctor and colleague of Cecil Rhodes
 * Lucy Lloyd (1834–1914), philologist and explorer
 * William Lloyd (1802–1881), Anglican clergyman
 * Harry Johnston (1858–1927), explorer and civil servant
 * Dick King (1813–1871), transport rider
 * John Kirk (1832–1922), leader of Kenya settlers
 * David Livingstone (1813–1873), medical missionary and explorer
 * John X. Merriman (1841–1926), last Prime Minister of the Cape Colony
 * E. D. Morel (1873–1924), British journalist, author and socialist politician
 * Nicholas Mostyn (born 1957), British judge
 * Elon Musk (born 1971), Internet and technology entrepreneur and founder of SpaceX and Tesla Motors
 * Nicky Oppenheimer (born 1945), chairman of De Beers
 * Mungo Park (1771–1806), explorer
 * Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902), businessman and politician
 * Guy Scott (born 1944), Vice President of Zambia
 * Frederick Selous (1851–1917), explorer after whom the Selous Scouts were named
 * Theophilus Shepstone (1817–1893), Zulu language interpreter and civil servant
 * Mark Shuttleworth (born 1973), Internet entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Canonical Ltd., space tourist
 * Harry Smith (1787–1860), Governor of the Cape Colony and founder of Ladysmith, which he named after his wife
 * Ian Smith (1919–2007), Prime Minister of Rhodesia, or Southern Rhodesia, from 1964 to 1979
 * Richard Southey (1808–1901), Colonial Secretary and Treasurer, Lieutenant-Governor of Griqualand-West
 * Henry Morton Stanley (1841–1904), colleague of David Livingstone
 * George Steer (1909–1944), British journalist notable for his coverage of various conflicts during the 1930s and early 1940s
 * Edwin Swales, V.C. (1915–1945), pilot killed in World War II
 * Allan Wilson (1856–1893), leader of the Shangani Patrol, the African equivalent of Custer's Last Stand

Authors, poets, academics and journalists

 * Allan MacLeod Cormack (1924-1998), physicist
 * Jani Allan (born 1952), journalist
 * William Boyd (born 1952), writer
 * Robert Broom (1866–1951), doctor and paleontologist
 * Guy Butler ( 1918–2001), author, poet and playwright
 * Roy Campbell (1901–1957), poet
 * Jack Cope (1913–1991), author
 * Bryce Courtenay (1933–2012), author
 * Robyn Curnow (born 1972), journalist
 * Alex Crawford (born 1963), journalist
 * Richard Dawkins (born 1941), evolutionary biologist, author of The God Delusion
 * John Edmond (born 1936), folk singer
 * Percy FitzPatrick (1862–1931), transport rider and author
 * Bruce Fordyce (born 1955), ultra-marathon runner
 * Athol Fugard (born 1932), author, actor and playwright
 * Alexandra Fuller (born 1969), author
 * Peter Godwin (born 1957), author and journalist
 * Nadine Gordimer (1923-2014), author, anti-apartheid activist and winner of 1991 Nobel Prize in Literature
 * A. C. Grayling (born 1949), philosopher and academic
 * William Hamilton (1891–1917), poet killed in World War I
 * Glynn Isaac (1937–1985), palaeoanthropologist
 * Louis Leakey (1903–1972), palaeoanthropologist
 * Mary Leakey (1913–1996), palaeoanthropologist
 * Richard Leakey (born 1944), palaeoanthropologist and conservationist
 * Doris Lessing (1919-2013), author
 * David Lewis-Williams (born 1934), archaeologist
 * Alan Paton (1903–1988), author
 * David Grey Rattray (1958–2007), historian
 * Olive Schreiner (1855–1920), author
 * Wilbur Smith (born 1933), author
 * Allister Sparks (born 1933), investigative journalist, former editor of The Rand Daily Mail, Nieman Fellow and political commentator
 * Edward Stourton (born 1957), journalist
 * Winston Sterzel travel vlogger, documentary maker and businessman
 * J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973), author

Sportspeople, musicians and actors

 * Charlene, Princess of Monaco (born 1978), Olympic swimmer
 * Saffron (born Samatha Sprackling), lead singer of Republica
 * Kork Ballington (born 1951), motorcycle road racer
 * Rory Byrne (born 1944), engineer and Formula One car designer
 * Mike Catt (born 1971), rugby player
 * Kitch Christie (1940–1998), rugby coach who took the Springboks to victory in the 1995 Rugby World Cup
 * Johnny Clegg (also known as "The White Zulu", 1953-2019), musician
 * Sharlto Copley (born 1973), film actor, producer and director
 * Kirsty Coventry (born 1983), Olympic swimmer
 * Kevin Curren (born 1958), tennis player
 * Andy Flower (born 1968), cricketer, coach of England's national cricket team
 * Chris Froome (born 1985), cyclist
 * Richard E. Grant (born 1957), actor, director and screenwriter
 * Butch James (born 1979), rugby player
 * Watkin Tudor Jones (born 1974), rapper, music producer, satirist, Die Antwoord lead vocalist
 * Dave Matthews (born 1967), musician
 * Alexander McCall Smith (born 1948), author
 * Mark McNulty (born 1953), golfer
 * Percy Montgomery (born 1974), rugby player
 * Gordon Murray (born 1946), Formula One car designer
 * Steve Nash (born 1974), basketball player
 * Kevin Pietersen (born 1980), cricketer
 * Gary Player (born 1935), golfer
 * Graeme Pollock (born 1944), cricketer
 * Shaun Pollock (born 1973), cricketer
 * Nick Price (born 1957), golfer
 * Ray Price (born 1976), cricketer
 * Matt Prior (born 1982), cricketer
 * Jim Redman (born 1931), motorcycle road racer
 * Barry Richards (born 1945), cricketer
 * Jonty Rhodes (born 1969), cricketer
 * Rory Sabbatini (born 1976), golfer
 * Bobby Skinstad (born 1976), rugby player
 * Heath Streak (born 1974), cricketer
 * Graeme Smith (born 1981), cricketer
 * Jordy Smith (born 1988), professional surfer
 * Winston Sterzel travel vlogger, documentary maker and businessman
 * Andrew Strauss (born 1977), cricketer
 * Wrex Tarr (1934–2006), comedian
 * Brendan Taylor (born 1986), cricketer
 * Clem Tholet (1948–2004), folk singer
 * Jonathan Trott (born 1981), cricketer
 * Hugo Weaving (born 1960), actor
 * Roger Whittaker (1936-2023), musician

title: British diaspora in Africa


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Ovalbumin

Ovalbumin (abbreviated OVA ) is the main protein found in egg white, making up approximately 55% of the total protein. Ovalbumin displays sequence and three-dimensional homology to the serpin superfamily, but unlike most serpins it is not a serine protease inhibitor. The function of ovalbumin is unknown, although it is presumed to be a storage protein.

Research
Ovalbumin is an important protein in several different areas of research, including:

 * general studies of protein structure and properties (because it is available in large quantities).
 * studies of serpin structure and function (the fact that ovalbumin does not inhibit proteases means that by comparing its structure with that of inhibitory serpins, the structural characteristics required for inhibition can be determined).
 * proteomics (chicken egg ovalbumin is commonly used as a molecular weight marker for calibrating electrophoresis gels).
 * immunology (commonly used to stimulate an allergic reaction in test subjects; e.g., established model allergen for airway hyper-responsiveness, AHR).

(For in vivo and in vitro studies based on ovalbumin it is important that the endotoxin content is less than 1 EU/mg.)

Structure
The ovalbumin protein of chickens consists of 385 amino acids, its relative molecular mass is 42.7kDa, and it adopts a serpin-like structure. Ovalbumin also has several modifications, including N-terminal acetylation (G1), phosphorylation (S68, S344), and glycosylation (N292). It has three isoforms, A1, A2, and A3, which vary based on the number of bound phosphate residues. It is secreted from the cell, targeted by an internal signal sequence (residues 21–47), rather than the N-terminal signal sequence commonly found in other secreted proteins. Ovalbumin's signal sequence is not cleaved off, but remains as part of the mature protein.

Change upon heating
When heated, ovalbumin undergoes a conformational change from its soluble, serpin structure into an insoluble all-β-sheet structure with exposed hydrophobic regions. This causes the protein to aggregate and cause the solidification associated with cooked egg white.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ovalbumin


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dark Mirror

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. jni 13:08, 12 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Dark Mirror
Formed in January 2005. Due to record a demo soon. RickK 09:49, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete No proof of notability --Lawlore 13:18, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * Another failure to meet WikiProject Music/Notability and Music Guidelines. Delete. Uncle G 16:27, 2005 Feb 6 (UTC)
 * delete--User:Boothy443 | comhrÚ 20:04, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. JoaoRicardo 20:06, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete bandity. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 22:01, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, band vanity. Megan1967 01:25, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. -- AllyUnion (talk) 05:42, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)


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Talk:Village green

Not quite the same as common land
Everyone has the right to graze animals on this land although few people now do so. That's common land - not quite the same thing. Naturenet 09:50, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)

A village green is NOT especially at the center of a village
A village green (or rather maybe called village square) is NOT especially at the centre of a village, but rather at the edge(brink) of a (early)small rural settlement ... that is why brinks in the Netherlands have the name brink -> https://www.naarzuidlaren.nl/zien/de-7-brinken/ see also -> https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q57743 ... https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brink_(dorpsplein) --Just2correct (talk) 13:28, 9 September 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Village green


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File:Castlevania (Nintendo 64).jpg

Summary
North American box art for the Nintendo 64 game Castlevania.

Source
Edited version of found at Mr. P's Castlevania Realm.

Fair use rationale
Rationale for the fair use of this image in the article Castlevania (Nintendo 64)
 * The public display of the image is in no way detrimental to copyright holder's commercial interests.
 * The image is being used for informational purposes only, and its use is not believed to detract from the original game in any way.
 * This image has been widely released, and so use on Wikipedia does not make it significantly more accessible or visible.
 * The image is of lower resolution than the original (copies made from it will be of inferior quality).
 * No free or public domain images equivalent can be found, because this is the original artwork.

title: File:Castlevania (Nintendo 64).jpg


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Talk:Philosophy of biology

Biologists with an interest in the philosophical aspects of biology
With the the exception of Mayr, none of this list has any track record in philosophical discussion, whether of biology or more broadly. (Check their wiki entries and/or bibliography) Most - I except E O Wilson - can best be described as popularisers of science, however eminent, reflective and successful but none has added (or even tried to add) to the philosophical understanding of biology. Nor has any illuminated, in any systematic way, broader philosophical concerns using biological thought or findings. I am not impuning them in their own fields, (they include some of my heroes) but philosophy is a bit more serious than this list suggests. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tony164 (talk • contribs) 15:03, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

The above comment is not entirely accurate. In particular, Richard Dawkins, Richard Lewontin, and Stephen Jay Gould have published articles that easily count as philosophy of biology, and all three have had a huge influence on the field. Both Gould and Lewontin have even co-authored articles with philosophers of biology (the former, with Lisa Lloyd, and the latter, with Andre Ariew). --Inrm88 (talk) 20:01, 14 May 2008 (UTC)

Teleological language in biology
I removed the following sentences: Mainstream biology doesn't regard evolution as teleological. If biologists speak of evolution in such terms, they're speaking in short-hand, anthropomorphizing events for ease of conceptualization and communication. For example, a scientist might say a ball at the edge of a sink "wants" to go the center of the sink (gravity), but he would not mean that the ball has will.--Nectarflowed (talk) 14:05, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * "And yet biologists continue to use apparently teleological language in their explanations of adaptations. According to Darwinism, organisms act "as if" they have purposes, specifically survival and reproduction, because organisms that don't act that way have been weeded out (see the selfish gene). So Darwinism hasn't expunged teological language altogether."

 * Mainstreams are always strong but not always right. It is now 2014, and things have changed. And it was high time for a change. See Karl Popper's Medawar Lecture of 1986 (!) and the dispute with Max Perutz. For this debate and a lot of new arguments see - if I may cite myself: H.J. Niemann "Karl Popper and the Two New Secrets of Life" (2014). --hjn (talk) 17:52, 13 November 2014 (UTC)

 * There have been good arguments presented by Denis Walsh for teleological evolutionary explanation.--Ollyoxenfree (talk) 03:45, 12 July 2016 (UTC)

"Epistemological and methodological"
I'm not clear on what it means to call reductionism and/or holism "epistemological and methodological". I could go into my problems with the phrase here but, instead, I'll just invite you to explain why its there. --Christofurio 02:51, Apr 10, 2005 (UTC)

 * Regarding epistemology, reductionism and holism seem to me to be about whether phenomena are known better as parts or as wholes. Can phenomena mentally be reduced to their parts without losing information?  These seem to be fundamental views on the nature of knowledge and phenomena and the best approach to knowledge and phenomena.

 * As for methodology, reductionist and holistic views create different practices, procedures, and rules: either emphasizing breaking phenomena down to their parts or emphasizing analysis on macro levels/through multiple approaches or levels. For example, Ken Wilber's methodology for explaining the nature of consciousness is to draw from both neuroscience and many different philosophical or spiritual traditions.  I think this qualifies as a more holistic methodology than, say, approaching the problem with only neuroscience.

 * On the other hand, I think in some uses, holism may also connote a larger belief system, one feature of which, for example, might be belief in something along the lines of intelligent design.--Nectarflowed (talk) 08:32, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, that's part of my concern about the phrase. More generally, I think that the terms can represent metaphysical, even ethical positions. Holists often speak as if reductionism eliminates what they value about the systems they study, which suggests their concerns are ethical at heart. At any rate, I'll see what I can do about re-working the sentence in question in a way you will find satisfactory. --Christofurio 21:43, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)

Popper quote
Bad citation, it distorts the meaning. Creationstst buther Popper in this way. See here for what he really said, and how he eventually recanted. Dysmorodrepanis (talk) 14:16, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Cunt?
Third line 'Overview.' Not sure what it's meant to say. The person who originally wrote it, or someone who read the original, should maybe correct it. Doesn't quite flow as is.

Porcupines, vultures, mongooses, etc.
I notice that there is a reference to the question "what is a species?" Where is that cited? I am very intereted in learning more about how philosophers of science have spoken to this issue, and came here for more information, but the article says only this about it. Also, do they really stop with "species"? What about genea, families, etc.? Why is the article porcupine allowed to include all animals with that basic form, regardless of the fact that they are two distinct taxonomic groups, while vulture is not, and mongoose in flux? None of these have a Greek synomym. If the Masai giraffe, for example, were to turn out to have evolved separately, is it still a giraffe? As far as Wikipedia is concerned? People don't agree as to whether cetacea should merge with whale, as it includes dolphins and porpoises. You can't easily cite the true definition of the English word "whale", which seems to have more to do with shape and size than common ancestor. Where can I find the Biological Philosophy on this, and why doesn't this article help me find out? Chrisrus (talk) 04:12, 11 October 2009 (UTC)

Why is there a list of philosophers of biology?
I looked briefly at the entries for Philosophy of Physics and Philosophy of Chemistry. No one else has a section listing people's names. It strikes me as a little pathetic; I'd recommend eliminating this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lrf217 (talk • contribs) 22:30, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

Why I added Popper to the 26 philosophers of biology
Among some 26 philosophers of biology there has been no Popper included up to today: this is sad and terribly wrong. Does nobody know of his life long contributions to evolutionary biology? See Niemann, Karl Popper and the Two New Secrets of Life, Tuebingen (Mohr Siebeck) 2014, and there about the many contributions of Popper to biology. --hjn (talk) 17:39, 13 November 2014 (UTC)

Major changes
I'm making some major changes to the article and wanted to let people know. The first major change I'm making is combining the "reductionism, holism, and vitalism" section and "an autonomous philosophy of biology section" into a new section titled "biological laws and autonomy of biology." I think this makes the article clearer and is more in line with contemporary research in the field. For instance, "vitalism" is no longer a mainstream position, while the autonomy of biology and whether there are biological laws are relatively prominent debates (I can post some SEP or philpapers links if this point is controversial, but I don't think it is). I'm also making some changes to the wording from these two sections in order to make it more clear for readers without background knowledge in the subject.

In addition, I'm adding a section on Sharon Street's evolutionary debunking argument and Copp's response. I think this is an important omission from the page right now--especially given that the opening section talks about ethical and epistemic implications of biology but doesn't have any examples of these implications.

J.S.Hirsh (talk) 03:08, 8 April 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Philosophy of biology


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Castlevania (1999 video game)

Castlevania, also referred to as Castlevania 64, is a 1999 action-adventure game developed by Konami's Kobe branch for the Nintendo 64. An expanded version of the game, Castlevania: Legacy of Darkness, was released later in the same year.

Castlevania is the first 3D game in the Castlevania series. The player selects one of the game's protagonists to control: Carrie Fernandez, a young orphan gifted with magic powers, or Reinhardt Schneider, the whip-wielding heir to the Belmont clan (the series' recurring protagonists). Carrie and Reinhardt set out on a quest to stop Count Dracula's impending return to power after a century of dormancy. The characters travel to and explore Dracula's grand estate in their mission to defeat the count and his horde of undead minions.

Gameplay
Castlevania, like most of its predecessors, is primarily an action-adventure and platforming game. The Japanese logo for the game include the words "real action adventure" in English.

Combat is slightly more complex than in older entries. A basic targeting and lock-on system has been implemented. Players have the use of both a long-range attack (the whip for Reinhardt, homing energy balls for Carrie) and a close-quarters attack (dagger and rings respectively). Each weapon has strengths and weaknesses. For example, the Cerberus hounds can outrun Carrie's orbs, and Reinhardt must jump to land blows when fighting the vampire in the Castle Keep. Both characters can acquire sub-weapons, of which only one can be used at a time. In past Castlevania titles they were powered by red hearts, but in this game are instead powered by red jewels. The sub-weapons are series mainstays: the axe, knife, cross, and holy water.

A large part of the game's challenge is also based on jumping from platform to platform while avoiding environmental hazards such as enemies and traps. Platforms are usually stationary, but some may rotate out from under the player, move through the environment like a rail shooter (the gondola in the Tunnel level), and crumble or fall away underfoot. There are also some invisible platforms that either afford players a strategic advantage or lead to hidden items.

Castlevania includes elements from the survival horror game genre. In addition to the trappings and narrative devices of Gothic horror, players are often placed in situations that may evoke feelings of stress, anxiety, and vulnerability. Players may be trapped in caged fights with monsters, such as the battle with the Cerebrus hounds in the Villa when the screen darkens to near-black. Some caged battles are timed, such as the boss battles in the Duel Tower level, where the gamer will be crushed by a falling ceiling should they not best their enemy in time. Vampires are also often fought in caged environments, with the added complication that they can latch onto Carrie and Reinhardt to suck their blood. If the player doesn't break free by rapidly rotating the control stick, the character's status changes to "vamp" and they will not be able to use their primary weapon or healing items. Unless a specific item is used to recover, the game becomes exponentially more challenging. Castlevania also features two other survival horror sequences: In the Villa's maze garden, players must follow Malus through the labyrinthine hedges while strong, unbeatable enemies give chase. In the Castle Center, players must carefully carry the "magic nitro" item through an obstacle course to its destination. One jump, fall, or hit will cause the volatile chemical to explode, resulting in immediate death.

Although progression through the game is relatively linear, with characters unable to revisit completed levels, there is also an emphasis on exploration. Most levels require only occasional backtracking, and are relatively straightforward in how players progress. The Villa and Castle Center levels, however, are sprawling environments that require in-depth exploration. This element of exploration and discovery is strengthened by the fact that there is no in-game map, requiring players to rely on memory alone to navigate. Occasionally boss battles will not occur at end of a level, but rather in the middle or even at the beginning (such as in first level, where players must fight a boss moments after starting the game). The Duel Tower level consists only of boss battles. Both styles of levels include light puzzle-solving, such as the astronomical puzzle in the Castle Center's planetarium. Puzzle solving often involves non-player characters such as Charlie Vincent, Rosa, and the lizard man. Conversations with these characters may yield insights or items necessary to progress in the game.

Castlevania features an internal clock that results in a day/night cycle. In a few choice areas the time of day will affect events in the story: characters may not appear or be unwilling to talk at a certain time of day. For example, in the Villa level players must meet Rosa at sunrise in the rose garden and Charlie Vincent will be asleep at night. Also, if the player takes 16 or more in-game days to beat the game, the game will give them a bad ending in which Dracula and his dark forces prevail. The time of day also affects whether or not the player can access certain areas of the game. Doors sealed by magic and bearing a sun or moon crest can only be opened during the corresponding time of day. Additionally, timed events can occur which grant access to secrets, such as the pillar in the Villa's courtyard fountain. Players can use sun cards to advance the time to sunrise (6 AM) and moon cards to sunset (6 PM). Finally, the strength of certain enemies can fluctuate based on the time of day. For example, vampires are much harder to defeat at night than during the day.

Castlevania has different settings to adjust the challenge posed by the game. In "easy mode", the player will only be able to play until the end of the Castle Center level, at which time the game will prompt them to try "normal mode" to advance to the subsequent stages. Upon fulfilling certain conditions "hard mode" will be unlocked. In this mode enemies take more hits to defeat and subweapons require more red jewel points to use (e.g. 2 jewel points for the knife instead of 1).

Currency, in the form of moneybags, can be used to purchase items that are not dropped by enemies or found hidden in the environments. The heroes may also need to battle Renon, the demon salesman, should they spend over thirty thousand gold. An inventory on the pause screen displays items, such as health-restoring meat, restorative ampoules, keys, etc.

The North American and PAL versions of the cartridge do not have a built-in save feature; all saved games are stored on a memory card (the Controller Pak) attached to the Nintendo 64's controller. Players save their in-game progress by using white jewel items scattered throughout the levels, which must be touched to activate and can be used indefinitely.

Plot
Dracula reawakens in 1852, after nearly a hundred years of enforced slumber, as a result of humankind's descent into vice and wickedness. Two young heroes sense his return: Carrie Fernandez, a girl gifted with magic powers, and Reinhardt Schneider, heir to the ancient Belmont clan of vampire hunters. The two set out to storm the Count's castle in the Transylvanian province of Wallachia and vanquish him.

As they penetrate the castle walls, an aristocratic vampire appears to warn Carrie and Reinhardt that "all who oppose the Dark Lord will die". The two then come upon a decrepit villa, where they meet the elderly vampire hunter Charles Vincent, beautiful yet unwilling vampire Rosa, demonic salesman Renon and young boy Malus. Beneath the estate's maze garden lies a subterranean path to the castle's center, where Dracula's servants (Actrise and Death) attempt to waylay the heroes by pitting them in battle against their loved ones (the Fernandez warrior and Rosa).

Carrie kills her vampirized kin while Reinhardt beats Rosa in combat. The heroes then climb several of the castle's towers before confronting Actrise and Death atop the Room of Clocks. With their defeat, the heroes climb the Clock Tower to the Castle Keep.

If the hero took sixteen or more "in-game" days to reach the second chamber on the stairs to the Castle Keep, Vincent will have arrived before them, been defeated by the aristocratic vampire assumed to be Dracula and turned into a vampire (thus triggering the bad ending). The hero will then have to battle Vincent. Without Vincent's later intercession, the hero will not discover that Malus was indeed Dracula reincarnate – not simply possessed by him – and receive one of the bad endings in which the hero rescues the boy.

If the player took fifteen or fewer days to reach the second chamber on the stairs to the Castle Keep, they will arrive before Charles Vincent (thus triggering the good ending). After fighting the vampire disguised as Dracula, they will battle Malus, who transforms into an adult. After his defeat atop the Clock Tower, Malus will regain the form of a child. Attempting to dupe the hero, he will pretend to have no recollection of the battle, but Vincent will arrive and douse the boy with holy water. Vincent explains that Malus was not possessed, but was in fact Dracula reincarnate. Malus then transports the hero to an alternate realm to battle his true form, a centipedal dragon. After Dracula's defeat, the player will receive one of the good endings: in Carrie's ending, she places a nosegay on her stepmother's grave. In Reinhardt's ending, Rosa, who sacrificed herself for him atop the Room of Clocks, is revived and her humanity restored.

Development
Castlevania made its first public appearance in the form of a "sneak peek" at the April 1997 Tokyo Game Show, under the title Castlevania 64. Later in development at Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe (KCEK), it became known as Dracula 3D. United States news media referred to the game by this title as well as Dracula 64. When the English name was revealed to be Castlevania, fans and media alike nicknamed it Castlevania 64 to differentiate it from previous games bearing the same title.

In September 1997, the game was approximately 10% finished and was 20% complete in February 1998. In October 1998 the game was again featured at the Tokyo Game Show; several levels were playable and the game was a hit with the crowd. Later that month, it was revealed that KCEK decided to drop two of the planned four characters from the game "in favor of focusing the programming team's development efforts and moving completion of the game forward." One of the dropped characters was Cornell, a werewolf who uses close-range martial arts. Cornell would become a player character in Castlevania: Legacy of Darkness. Also dropped as the team became aware of how time-consuming development would be were plans for a fighting game-style multiplayer mode.

In January 1999 a Japanese release date was set for March 4, 1999 and Castlevania won the "Game of the Month" award at IGN. On the 18th, it was announced that the U.S. release date for the game would be January 26, 1999. On that date, the game shipped as planned. The Japanese version was released on March 11, 1999.

The character design and artwork was created by Yasuomi Umetsu in an anime style.

Architecture in the game is predominantly inspired by French castles: The Villa's exterior is based on the western façade of the Château d'Azay-le-Rideau in France's Loire Valley, while its interior entrance hall is based on the Grand Hall in the Lancaster House (a mansion in London). The Villa's plantings and hedge maze were inspired by the formal gardens at the Château de Villandry. Dracula's castle drew inspiration from the famous Mont Saint-Michel on the coast of Normandy.

Several elements of the game were designed to allude to past Castlevania titles: Carrie's alternate costume is an homage to Maria Renard's dress in Castlevania: Rondo of Blood, Reinhardt's alternate costume is an homage to Simon Belmont's outfit in the first Castlevania, and the Behemoth boss in the Castle Center can be crippled, a reference to the crawling Behemoth first featured in Rondo of Blood.

Audio
Tomoya Tomita was the game's sound producer and director, while the music for Castlevania was composed by Masahiko Kimura, Motoaki Furukawa, and Mariko Egawa. Their score is predominantly minimalist and ambient in composition. It features a wide variety of electronic instrumentation, ranging from the period harpsichord to contemporary beat synths. Tomokuni Katayama performed the violin solo, a rendition of "Bloodlines" from Castlevania: Rondo of Blood, that greets the player on the title screen.

Castlevania features sporadic voice acting, mainly for the prologue narration and several of the game's main characters. Bianca Allen provided the voice for Carrie, Andrew Hanikson for Reinhardt, Harald Gjerd for Malus, and Scott McCulloch for the Narrator. The PAL version of the game features voice acting for Dracula's servant in the Castle Wall and Castle Keep levels; the North American version did not include the voice work for the latter level.

Soundtrack
Castlevania: The Original Game Soundtrack (悪魔城ドラキュラ黙示録 Original Game Soundtrack) contains the music from the game. It was released in Japan on March 26, 1999 and in Europe in 1999. The soundtrack was republished on March 24, 2010, as disc seven of the Castlevania Best Music Collections BOX set.

The soundtrack includes three songs (tracks 1, 26, and 29) that are remixes from Castlevania: Rondo of Blood. Although most of the songs from Castlevania are featured on this album, some background music and most of the incidental music from the game did not make it onto the soundtrack. A few of the prominent missing songs include a variation of the boss theme "Shudder", as well as the background music that plays during scenes in which the hero converses with Renon or Charles Vincent.

Reception
Castlevania received generally positive reviews. It has an average of 78 out of 100 on Metacritic, and 73% at GameRankings. At the release, most critics considered the game to be a good transition to the series, despite many changes in gameplay. GameSpot praised the graphics, audio and gameplay, saying "The developers have done a fantastic job of capturing the atmosphere and spirit of the series, while providing a well-balanced, challenging gameplay experience that's filled with pretty visuals, awesome (though limited) music, plenty of secrets, and some incredible bosses (just wait until you see Death... whew!)", while IGN highlighted the sound better than the graphics, saying "Outstanding sound effects with lots of bass. Good music, even if it's a bit simple at times", and Game Pro said "Is Castlevania fun? It depends on what kind of game you're looking for and how much energy you want to spend playing it. Fans of the old Castlevania will marvel at this version's familiar sites and environments and will appreciate the dedicated tack of the gameplay. Novices will be chilled to the bone at the thought of replaying a huge level after an untimely fall (fortunately, there are numerous save points). Castlevanias a 3D platform spectacle that definitely warrants a good look from N64 owners everywhere—you won't find better hauntings than this one". This sentiment was not shared by GameRevolution, who instead said that "The gameplay, arguably the mainstay of the Castlevania series, just doesn't match up to its predecessors", and Nintendojo who said "It's not horrendous or even bad; just extremely disappointing in execution". Game Informers Tim Turi felt that it was frustrating and flawed; it had a "special place" for him however due to its "desperate lonely atmosphere."

Next Generation reviewed the Nintendo 64 version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "the promise within Castlevania is evident in some of the game's stronger features. But overall, the game fails to revitalize a series that has always been so flawlessly defined in two dimensions."

The camera and the controls, however, were heavily criticized. Game Revolution stated that the camera made the game barely tolerable, saying "Getting a good view of the action is almost impossible, so players find themselves just making due [sic] with a bad camera angle. This, of course, often leads to death." and regarding the controls, "The control itself is a little frisky (...) Most of the control problems are found in the speed of the character. Moving close to an edge in order to jump to a lower platform is tedious – you end up mastering the lemming dive before you are able to do it with some degree of success". IGN wrote "Control feels too float at first and the camera can be painful".

Time Extension commented in its list of ranked Castlevania games: "Ultimately though, Castlevania on the N64 is a disappointment; the visuals haven't aged well, the gameplay is awkward and frustrating (especially during the ham-fisted platforming sections) and the whole thing feels somewhat half-finished – which is because it is half-finished. [...] Despite its myriad failings, Castlevania 64 is still worth a look for fans of the franchise, as long as you enter into the game with low expectations."

title: Castlevania (1999 video game)


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title: User talk:81.77.217.39


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Thorns (band)

Thorns, also known as Stigma Diabolicum, is a Norwegian black metal band that formed in 1989 and was part of the early Norwegian black metal scene. They made two highly influential demos in the early 1990s, Grymyrk and Trøndertun, but have only released one full-length album.

History
In 1989, Snorre Westvold Ruch (born January 21, 1972), also known under the stage name Blackthorn, and Marius Vold formed the band Stigma Diabolicum and recorded one demo. In 1990, bass player Harald Eilertsen and drummer Bård "Faust" Eithun joined. As the use of Latin within black metal "had escalated" (according to the Stigma Diabolicum re-release booklet), the name was changed to Thorns in 1991. The same year, Eilertsen and Ruch recorded the Grymyrk demo, which had a great impact on the black metal scene and, together with Mayhem guitarist Euronymous, coined the Norwegian black metal riffing, as Darkthrone drummer Fenriz points out. As the band members were "spread far across Norway", they could rarely rehearse; some of the rehearsals were recorded on tape. In 1992, the Trøndertun demo was recorded. The same year, Ruch became Mayhem's second guitarist and disbanded Thorns for a few months.

In 1994, Ruch was sentenced to 8 years in prison for admitting to being an accomplice in the murder of Euronymous. However, according to Euronymous's murderer, Varg Vikernes, Ruch was merely "in the wrong place at the wrong time".

After a long period of silence due to Ruch's imprisonment for being an accomplice in the murder of Euronymous, Thorns reappeared in 1999 with the split album Thorns vs. Emperor, consisting mainly of old Thorns songs performed by Emperor and vice versa. Then, in 2001, the debut album Thorns was released, with Hellhammer on drums and vocals by Satyr and Dødheimsgard's Aldrahn.

In October 2007, Greek label Kyrck Productions released the Stigma Diabolicum compilation, which featured both the Grymyrk and Trøndertun demos, as well as material from the Stigma Diabolicum demos Lacus de Luna and Luna de Nocturnus and two tracks ("Thule" and "Fall") from a 1991 Thorns rehearsal.

A follow-up to the 2001 debut was announced in September 2008.

The lineup of Thorns has undergone significant changes since the 2001 album. Snorre is still involved as a guitarist, and Aldrahn has continued to serve as a vocalist. Bassist Jon Wesseltoft, guitarist Christian Broholt, and drummer Kenneth Kapstad have joined the band.

Members

 * Snorre Ruch – guitars/keyboards/programming
 * Jon Wesseltoft – bass/baritone guitar
 * Aldrahn – vocals
 * Christian Broholt – guitars
 * Kenneth Kapstad – drums

Former members

 * Bård G. Eithun - drums
 * Marius Vold - vocals, bass
 * Harald Eilertsen - bass on Grymyrk
 * Terje Kråbøl - drums on Trøndertun
 * Ronny K. Prize - bass on Trøndertun
 * Satyr - vocals on Thorns
 * Aldrahn - vocals on Thorns
 * Hellhammer - drums on Thorns

Discography
Studio albums
 * Thorns (2001)

Demos
 * Luna De Nocturnus (1989) (as Stigma Diabolicum)
 * Lacus De Luna (1990) (as Stigma Diabolicum)
 * Grymyrk (1991)
 * Trøndertun (1992)
 * Thule (1992)

Other releases
 * Thorns vs. Emperor (1999) (split with Emperor)
 * Stigma Diabolicum (2007) (compilation)

Related bands
Thorns Ltd. is an experimental/drone/art-circuit offshoot of Thorns. The project was started in 2003 by Finn Olav Holthe (of The 3rd and the Mortal), Jon Wesseltoft and Snorre Ruch to explore the aesthetics of sound and its influence on the listener, using multichannel playback systems and various audio preparations.

The band first produced sound for Norwegian visual artist Bjarne Melgaard's works displayed at the Playlist exhibition at the Palais de Tokyo in Paris in 2004. Ruch and Holthe had previously contributed sound to Melgaard's Interface to God exhibition at Kunsthalle zu Kiel in 2002. Thorns Ltd. has later contributed sound to works by New York artist Banks Violette and others.

Holthe left the band in 2006. Ruch and Wesseltoft have continued as Thorns Ltd. in addition to their work in Thorns.

title: Thorns (band)


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Talk:Reaction to the assassination of John F. Kennedy by world leaders

Should this article be merged with John F. Kennedy assassination?

No. This is reaction by world leaders

You might want to merge this article with Reaction to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, since that article deals with the reaction. Details about the funeral in that article are going to be moved to a new article, Funeral of John F. Kennedy.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jesus Of Suburbia

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was NO CONSENSUS.

This was never listed on WP:VFD. The article in question is just a redirect anyway. dbenbenn | talk 16:46, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Jesus of Suburbia

 * Not notable enough for inclusion. McGnasher 10:03, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Main character in a millions-selling album that's nominated for a Grammy.  RickK 10:09, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * Also, check out Votes for deletion/Jesus of Suburbia. RickK 10:11, Feb 6, 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Miho Museum

The Miho Museum (ミホ ミュージアム) is located southeast of Kyoto, Japan, in the Shigaraki neighborhood of the city of Kōka, in Shiga Prefecture. It is also the headquarters of the Shinji Shumeikai, a new religious group founded by Mihoko Koyama.

History
The museum was the dream of Mihoko Koyama (after whom it is named), founder of the religious organization Shinji Shumeikai which is now said to have some 300,000 members worldwide. Furthermore, in the 1990s Koyama commissioned the museum to be built close to the Shumei temple in the Shiga mountains. Meanwhile, the Church of World Messianity (世界救世教), the parent organization from which this Shumeikai came, had opened the "stunning" MOA Museum of Art in the mountains behind Atami in 1982.

Since its opening in 1997, the museum has been run by the Shumei Cultural Foundation. Takeshi Umehara, a scholar of philosophy and religion, served as the museum's first director.

Collection
The Miho Museum collection began with Japanese art, including Shinto and Buddhist art, paintings, ceramics, lacquerware and tea ceremony utensils, collected by Mihoko Koyama for over 40 years. The collection consists of 3,000 pieces of Japanese and Oriental art, of which 250 to 300 are on display at any one time. Special exhibitions of Japanese art from the collection are held several times a year in the North Wing, and permanent exhibitions of other areas are held in the South Wing.

As of March 2022, the museum owns six of the more than 10,000 Important Cultural Properties of arts and crafts designated by the Japanese government. These included two Buddhist statues, a Buddhist painting, a Buddhist scripture, a quiver, and a tea bowl. In November 2022, the Japanese government announced the designation of three hanging scrolls in the museum's collection as Important Cultural Properties. This brings the total number of Important Cultural Properties in the museum's collection to nine. Two of the hanging scrolls were made by cutting out sections of the picture scroll Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga and reworking them into hanging scrolls. The other is a hanging scroll from the Masuda family's emakimono Jigoku zoshi (ja), which was cut out and reworked into hanging scrolls.

The museum's collection also includes Elephant and Whale, a late masterpiece by Itō Jakuchū, one of Japan's most popular painters. This work made headlines in Japan in 2008 when it was discovered in an old house in the Hokuriku region.

Among the objects in the collection are more than 1,200 objects that appear to have been produced in Achaemenid Central Asia. Some scholars have claimed these objects are part of the Oxus Treasure, lost shortly after its discovery in 1877 and rediscovered in Afghanistan in 1993. The presence of a unique findspot for both the Miho acquisitions and the British Museum's material, however, has been challenged.

Many of the items in the collection were acquired in collaboration with the art dealer Noriyoshi Horiuchi over the course of just six years, and some have little or no known provenance. In 2001 the museum acknowledged that a sixth-century statue of a Bodhisattva in its collection was the same sculpture which had been stolen from a public garden in Shandong province, China, in 1994, agreeing with the Chinese government to return it in 2007. At the time of the agreement, the Chinese government publicly stated that the museum had purchased the Buddha statue in good faith on the open market and had not committed any fraud.

Highlights of the collections have been featured in traveling exhibitions at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1996, as well as the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien (Vienna, Austria) in 1999.

Architecture
Mihoko Koyama and her daughter, Hiroko Koyama, commissioned the American architect I. M. Pei to design the Miho Museum. Pei's design, which he came to call Shangri-La, is executed in a hilly and forested landscape. Approximately three-quarters of the 17,400 square meter building is situated underground, carved out of a rocky mountaintop. The roof is a large glass and steel construction, while the exterior and interior walls and floor are made of a warm beige-colored limestone from France – the same material used by Pei in the reception hall of the Louvre. The structural engineer for this project was Leslie E. Robertson Associates.

Pei continued to make changes to the design of the galleries during construction as new pieces were acquired for the collection.

Pei had earlier designed the bell tower at Misono, the international headquarters and spiritual center of the Shumei organization. The bell tower can be seen from the windows of the museum.

title: Miho Museum


text: Category:High schools in Alabama

title: Category:High schools in Alabama


text:
La Rioja Province

La Rioja Province may refer to:
 * La Rioja Province, Argentina
 * La Rioja Province, Spain

title: La Rioja Province


text:
Queensburgh

Queensburgh is a town in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa that is situated inland (southwest) from Durban and now forms part of eThekwini, the Greater Durban metropolitan area.

History
The hilly area was settled by people working in Durban who wanted to escape the humidity of the coastal city. In 1924, four residential townships in the area, Malvern, Escombe, Northdene and Moseley (now forms part of Pinetown) combined to form the town of Malvern. In 1952, to celebrate Queen Elizabeth II's accession to the throne, Malvern received municipality status and changed its name to Queensburgh.

Geography
Queensburgh is situated approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) south-west of the Durban CBD, with much of the town situated between the uMbilo River to the north and the uMhlatuzana River to the south. Its neighbouring towns/cities are Pinetown to the west, Westville to the north-east, Durban to the east and Chatsworth to the south.

Suburban areas
Queensburgh is the collective name of a few smaller suburbs situated on the undulating hills south-west of Durban, mainly encompassing the suburbs of Northdene, Malvern and Escombe.

The 2011 census divided the urban area of Queensburgh into eight “sub places” including:

 * Buffels Bosch
 * Burlington Greenfields
 * Escombe
 * Malvern
 * Northdene
 * Queensmead Industrial
 * Shallcross
 * Shallcross Ext 2

Rail network
Metrorail operates commuter trains on the two commuter lines that pass through Queensburgh, namely the Old Main Line in the centre and the New Main Line to the south.

Old Main Line, the older main railway line between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, has train stations in Queensburgh at Northdene, Escombe, Malvern and Poet’s Corner. New Main Line, the newer main railway line between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, has train stations in Queensburgh at Shallcross, Burlington and Cavendish.

Road network
The main freeway through Queensburgh is the M7, also known as Solomon Mahlangu Drive (previously Edwin Swales VC Drive) which runs from the Bluff in the east to Pinetown in the north-west with exits at Bellville Road and Main Road. In passing Queensburgh it also gives access to the N3 and N2 freeways.

Main Road, designated as the M5, is the main local arterial through Queensburgh leading north towards Pinetown and east towards Bellair in Durban. Stella Road, designated as the M10, is a local arterial leading east towards Bellair too.

Demographics
Queensburgh has a diverse population. The suburb has a significant Indian population who moved to the area from neighbouring townships after apartheid had ended.

English is the dominant language followed by Zulu, Afrikaans and Xhosa.

title: Queensburgh


text:
Regional Air (Kenya)

Regional Air was an airline based in Nairobi, Kenya. It was Airkenya's jet operation providing scheduled services. It was based at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Nairobi. It suspended operations in 2005.

History
Regional Air was established and started operations in May 2000. British Airways signed a franchise deal with Regional Air and from 1 July 2001, Regional Air services operated with British Airways flight code, colours and service. However, this franchise agreement was terminated in April 2005 after Regional Air suspended its operations.

Services
As of January 2005, Regional Air operated the following services:
 * Domestic scheduled destinations: Amboseli, Kiwayu, Lamu, Malindi, Mara Lodges, Mombasa, Nairobi, Nanyuli and Samburu.
 * International scheduled destinations: Asmara, Djibouti, Harare, Johannesburg, Khartoum, Kilimanjaro, Lilongwe and Lusaka.

Fleet
As of January 2005 the Regional Air fleet included:
 * 3 Boeing 737-200

title: Regional Air (Kenya)