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Kings of Judah

The Kings of Judah were the monarchs who ruled over the ancient Kingdom of Judah, which was formed in about 930 BC, according to the Hebrew Bible, when the United Kingdom of Israel split, with the people of the northern Kingdom of Israel rejecting Rehoboam as their monarch, leaving him as solely the King of Judah.

The capital of the Kingdom of Judah was Jerusalem. All of the kings of Judah lived and died in Judah except for Ahaziah (who died at Megiddo in Israel), Jehoahaz (who died a prisoner in Egypt) and Jeconiah and Zedekiah who were deported as part of the Babylonian captivity.

Judah was conquered in 587 or 586 BC, by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuzaradan, captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard. With the deportation of the elite and the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple, the Kingdom of Judah came to its demise.

List
Most modern historians follow either the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele, or the newer chronologies of Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen, all of which are shown below. All dates are BCE.

{| class="wikitable" style="align: center;" !Common/Biblical name ! style="width:7%;"|Albright ! style="width:7%;"|Thiele ! style="width:7%;"|Galil ! style="width:7%;"|Kitchen !Regnal Name and style ! style="width:25%;"|Notes
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"|
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"|

House of David
Yehoshafat ben ’Asa, Melekh Yehuda Queen Mother, widow of Jehoram and mother of Ahaziah George Syncellus wrote that the First Olympiad took place in Uzziah's 48th regnal year. The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III records he received tribute from Ahaz; compare 2 Kings 16:7-9 Contemporary with Sennacherib of Assyria and Merodach-Baladan of Babylon. Mentioned in Assyrian records as a contemporary of Esarhaddon The Battle of Carchemish occurred in the fourth year of his reign (Jeremiah 46:2) Jerusalem was captured by the Babylonians and Jehoiachin deposed on 16 March, 597 BCE. Called Jeconiah in Jeremiah and Esther His reign saw the second rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar (588–586 BC). Jerusalem was captured after a lengthy siege, the temple burnt, Zedekiah blinded and taken into exile, and Judah reduced to a province.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Rehoboam Reigned for 17 years.
 * 922–915
 * 931–913
 * 931–914
 * 931–915
 * רחבעם בן-שלמה מלך יהודה Rehav’am ben Shelomo, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Abijah Reigned for 3 years.
 * 915–913
 * 913–911
 * 914–911
 * 915–912
 * אבים בן-רחבעם מלך יהודה ’Aviyam ben Rehav’am, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Asa Reigned for 41 years.
 * 913–873
 * 911–870
 * 911–870
 * 912–871
 * אסא בן-אבים מלך יהודה ’Asa ben ’Aviyam, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: severe foot disease
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoshaphat Reigned for 25 years.
 * 873–849
 * 870–848
 * 870–845
 * 871–849
 * יהושפט בן-אסא מלך יהודה
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoram Reigned for 8 years.
 * 849–842
 * 848–841
 * 851–843
 * 849–842
 * יהורם בן-יהושפט מלך יהודה Yehoram ben Yehoshafat, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: severe stomach disease
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Ahaziah Reigned for 1 year.
 * 842–842
 * 841–841
 * 843–842
 * 842–841
 * אחזיהו בן-יהורם מלך יהודה ’Ahazyahu ben Yehoram, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: killed by Jehu, who usurped the throne of Israel
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Athaliah (Queen) Reigned for 6 years.
 * 842–837
 * 841–835
 * 842–835
 * 841–835
 * עתליה בת-עמרי מלכת יהודה ‘Atalya bat ‘Omri, Malkat Yehuda
 * Death: killed by the troops assigned by Jehoiada the Priest to protect Joash.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoash (Joash) Reigned for 40 years.
 * 837–800
 * 835–796
 * 835–802
 * 835–796
 * יהואש בן-אחזיהו מלך יהודה Yehoash ben ’Ahazyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: killed by his officials namely: Zabad, son of Shimeath, an Ammonite woman, and Jehozabad, son of Shimrith, a Moabite woman.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Amaziah Reigned for 29 years.
 * 800–783
 * 796–767
 * 805–776
 * 796–776
 * אמציהו בן-יהואש מלך יהודה ’Amatzyahu ben Yehoash, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: killed in Lachish by the men sent by his officials who conspired against him.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Uzziah (Azariah) Reigned for 52 years.
 * 783–742
 * 767–740
 * 788–736
 * 776–736
 * עזיהו בן-אמציה מלך יהודה ‘Uziyahu ben ’Amatzyahu, Melekh Yehuda עזריה בן-אמציהו מלך יהודה ‘Azarya ben ’Amatzyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: Tzaraath
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jotham Reigned for 16 years.
 * 742–735
 * 740–732
 * 758–742
 * 750–735/30
 * יותם בן-עזיהו מלך יהודה Yotam ben ‘Uziyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Ahaz Reigned for 16 years.
 * 735–715
 * 732–716
 * 742–726
 * 735/31–715
 * אחז בן-יותם מלך יהודה ’Ahaz ben Yotam, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Hezekiah Reigned for 29 years.
 * 715–687
 * 716–687
 * 726–697
 * 715–687
 * חזקיהו בן-אחז מלך יהודה Hizqiyahu ben ’Ahaz, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: Natural Causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Manasseh Reigned for 55 years.
 * 687–642
 * 687–643
 * 697–642
 * 687–642
 * מנשה בן-חזקיהו מלך יהודה Menashe ben Hizqiyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: natural causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Amon Reigned for 2 years.
 * 642–640
 * 643–641
 * 642–640
 * 642–640
 * אמון בן-מנשה מלך יהודה ’Amon ben Menashe, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: killed by his officials, who were killed later on by the people of Judah.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Josiah Reigned for 31 years.
 * 640–609
 * 641–609
 * 640–609
 * 640–609
 * יאשיהו בן-אמון מלך יהודה Yo’shiyahu ben ’Amon, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: shot by archers during the battle against Neco of Egypt. He died upon his arrival on Jerusalem.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoahaz Reigned for 3 months.
 * 609
 * 609
 * 609
 * 609
 * יהואחז בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה Yeho’ahaz ben Yo’shiyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: Necho II, king of Egypt, dethroned him, and Jehoahaz was replaced by his brother, Eliakim. Carried off to Egypt, where he died.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoiakim Reigned for 11 years.
 * 609–598
 * 609–598
 * 609–598
 * 609–598
 * יהויקים בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה Yehoyaqim ben Yo’shiyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: Natural Causes
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) Reigned for 3 months & 10 days.
 * 598
 * 598
 * 598–597
 * 598–597
 * יהויכין בן-יהויקים מלך יהודה Yehoyakhin ben Yehoyaqim, Melekh Yehuda יכניה בן-יהויקים מלך יהודה Yekhonya ben Yehoyaqim, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon sent for him and brought him to Babylon, where he lived and died.
 * - style="background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"
 * Zedekiah Reigned for 11 years.
 * 597–587
 * 597–586
 * 597–586
 * 597–586
 * צדקיהו בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה Tzidqiyahu ben Yo’shiyahu, Melekh Yehuda
 * Death: In prison.
 * }

A footnote in the Amplified Bible regarding Jeremiah 36:3 disputes that King Jehoiakim died of natural causes, asserting that the king rebelled against Babylon several years after these events (II Kings 24:1) and was attacked by numerous bands from various nations subject to Babylon (II Kings 24:2), concluding that he came to a violent death and a disgraceful burial as foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. 22:13–19).

Chronology
There has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of reigns of the Judahite kings. Scholars have endeavored to synchronize the chronology of events referred to in the Bible with those derived from other external sources. These scholarly disagreements are reflected in the table above, which contains scholarly attempts to date the reigns of Judahite monarchs in terms of the Gregorian calendar.

Biblical scholars have noted the apparent inconsistencies in the chronology of the kings of Judah and Israel based on the biblical sources. Some have also pointed out the difficulties of cross-synchronising that dating with those of the other cultures of the area. Some have attempted to give as much historical weight as possible to the biblical sources, while others discount their reliability as historic sources, some even denying any historical value to the biblical sources at all.

Using the information in Kings and Chronicles, Edwin Thiele calculated the dates of the reigns of the kings of Judah from the division of the kingdom, which he calculates to have been in 931–930 BCE. Thiele noticed that for the first seven kings of Israel (ignoring Zimri's seven-day reign), the synchronisms to Judean kings fell progressively behind by one year for each king. Thiele saw this as evidence that the northern kingdom was measuring the years by a non-accession system (first partial year of reign was counted as year one), whereas the southern kingdom was using the accession method (it was counted as year zero). He also concluded that the calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri (in the fall) and that of Israel in Nisan (in the spring). This is the conclusion from cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms which often allows the narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king within a six-month period, identifying the difference as due to the calendar starting date. Once these were understood, the various reign lengths and cross-synchronisms for these kings was determined, and the sum of reigns for both kingdoms produced 931/930 BCE for the division of the kingdom when working backwards from the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC.

Thiele showed that for the reign of Jehoram, Judah adopted Israel's non-accession method of counting the years of reign, meaning that the first partial year of the king's reign was counted as his first full year, in contrast to the "accession" method previously in use, whereby the first partial year was counted as year "zero", and "year one" was assigned to the first full year of reign. Thiele attributed this change to the rapprochement between Judah and Israel, whereby Jehoshaphat, Jehoram's father, united with Ahab at the battle of Ramoth-Gilead, and chose a daughter for his son from the house of Ahab. This convention was followed in Judah for the next three monarchs: Ahaziah, Athaliah, and Jehoash, returning to Judah's original accession reckoning in the time of Amaziah. These changes can be inferred by comparison of the textual data in the Bible; however, the biblical texts do not explicitly state whether the reckoning was by accession or non-accession counting, nor do they indicate explicitly when a change was made in the method. Thiele's reckoning has been criticized as arbitrary in its assignment of accession and non-accession dating systems. The official records of Tiglath-Pileser III show that he switched (arbitrarily) to non-accession reckoning for his reign, in contrast with the accession method used for previous kings of Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser left no record for modern historians to indicate which dating method he used, nor whether he was switching from the method used by his predecessors; this is instead determined by comparison of the relevant texts by Assyriologists, the same as Thiele did for the regnal data of Judah and Israel.

Co-regency
Additional potential confusion arises from periods of co-regency when a son's reign may begin prior to the end of his father's reign. In those situations, years of reign are specified in terms of both the father and of the son. At times, the period of co-regency is clearly indicated, while in others it must be inferred from the source material.

As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when coregencies are a priori ruled out, dates the fall of Samaria (the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign. William F. Albright dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BC, whereas E. R. Thiele calculated the date as 723 BC. If Albright's or Thiele's dating are correct, then Hezekiah's reign would begin in either 729 or 727 BCE. On the other hand, states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign. Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BC, and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BC. This dating would be confirmed by the account of Hezekiah's illness in chapter 20, which immediately follows Sennacherib's departure. This would date his illness to Hezekiah's 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement that he would live fifteen more years (29−15=14). These problems are all addressed by scholars who make reference to the ancient Near Eastern practice of coregency.

Following the approach of Wellhausen, another set of calculations shows it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before 722 BCE. By Albright's calculations, Jehu's initial year was 842 BC; and between it and Samaria's destruction the Books of Kings give the total number of the years the kings of Israel ruled as 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165−120), has been accounted for in various ways; each of those positions must allow for Hezekiah's first six years to have fallen before 722 BCE. (However, Hezekiah beginning to reign before 722 BCE is consistent with a co-regency of Ahaz and Hezekiah from 729 BC.) Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne; although states that he was twenty-five years of age, his father died at the age of thirty-six  and it is not likely that Ahaz had a son at the age of eleven. Hezekiah's son Manasseh ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, suggesting Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.

Since Albright and Friedman, several scholars have explained these dating problems on the basis of a co-regency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715 BCE. Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that co-regency was practiced in both Assyria and Egypt. After noting that co-regencies were used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), Nadav Na'aman writes, "In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne.... When taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of biblical chronology in the eighth century B.C.'"

Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the co-regency between Ahaz and Hezekiah are Kenneth Kitchen, Leslie McFall and Jack Finegan. McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BCE (that is, the Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729) is taken as the start of the Ahaz/Hezekiah co-regency, and 716/715 BCE as the date of the death of Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his contemporaries in the late eighth century BCE are in harmony. Further, McFall found that no textual emendations are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Bible for this period. In contrast, those who do not accept the Ancient Near Eastern principle of co-regencies require multiple emendations of the biblical text, and there is no general agreement on which texts should be emended, nor is there any consensus among these scholars on the resultant chronology for the eighth century BCE. This is in contrast with the general consensus among those who accept the biblical and near Eastern practice of co-regencies that Hezekiah was installed as co-regent with his father Ahaz in 729 BC, and the synchronisms of 2 Kings 18 must be measured from that date, whereas the synchronisms with Sennacherib are measured from the sole reign starting in 716/715 BCE. The two synchronisms to Hoshea of Israel in 2 Kings 18 are then in agreement with the dates of Hoshea's reign that can be determined from Assyrian sources, as is the date of Samaria's fall as stated in 2 Kings 18:10. An analogous situation of two ways of measurement, both equally valid, is encountered in the dates given for Jehoram of Israel, whose first year is synchronized to the 18th year of the sole reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah in (853/852 BC), but his reign is also reckoned according to another method as starting in the second year of the coregency of Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram of Judah ; both methods refer to the same calendar year.

Scholars who accept the principle of co-regencies note that abundant evidence for their use is found in the biblical material itself. The agreement of scholarship built on these principles with both biblical and secular texts was such that the Thiele/McFall chronology was accepted as the best chronology for the kingdom period in Jack Finegan's encyclopedic Handbook of Biblical Chronology.

Synchronism to fall of Judah
The Babylonian Chronicles give 2 Adar (16 March), 597 BC, as the date that Nebuchadnezzar first captured Jerusalem, thus putting an end to the reign of Jehoaichin. Zedekiah's installation as king by Nebuchadnezzar can thus be dated to the early spring of 597 BC.

Historically, there has been considerable controversy over the date when Jerusalem was captured the second time and Zedekiah's reign came to an end. There is no dispute about the month, the summer month of Tammuz. However, regarding the year, Albright preferred 587 BCE and Thiele advocated 586 BC, and this division among scholars has persisted until the present time. If Zedekiah's years are by accession counting, whereby the year he came to the throne was considered his "zero" year and his first full regnal year, 597/596, was counted as year one, Zedekiah's eleventh year, the year the city fell, would be 587/586. Since Judean regnal years were measured from Tishri in the fall, this would place the end of his reign and the capture of the city in the summer of 586 BCE. Accession counting was the rule for most, but not all, of the kings of Judah, whereas "non-accession" counting was the rule for most, but not all, of the kings of Israel.

The publication of the Babylonian Chronicles in 1956, however, gave evidence that the years of Zedekiah were measured in a non-accession sense. This reckoning makes 598/597 BC, the year Zedekiah was installed by Nebuchadnezzar according to Judah's Tishri-based calendar, to be year "one", so that the fall of Jerusalem in his eleventh year would have been 588/587 BC, i.e. in the summer of 587 BCE. The Bablyonian Chronicles fairly precisely date the capture of Jehoiachin and the start of Zedekiah's reign, and they also give the accession year of Nebuchadnezzar's successor Amel-Marduk (Evil Merodach) as 562/561 BC, which was the 37th year of Jehoiachin's captivity according to 2 Kings 25:27. These Babylonian records related to Jehoiachin's reign are consistent with the fall of the city in 587 but not in 586, vindicating Albright's reckoning.

Synchronism to Gregorian dating
Further potential confusion arises from the convention of dating reigns of the Israelite kings in reference to the Gregorian calendar. Years in the Gregorian calendar commence on 1 January, whereas year numbers for dating biblical events start on 1 Tishri of the Hebrew calendar, with an unfixed starting point during September–October on the Gregorian calendar. Accordingly, an event which takes place after 1 Tishri, for example, in November and December on the Gregorian calendar, would fall in the following year in the Hebrew calendar used for biblical dating.

Coronation ritual
A detailed account of a coronation in ancient Judah is found in 2 Kings 11:12 and 2 Chronicles 23:11, in which the seven-year-old Jehoash is crowned in a coup against the usurper Athaliah. This ceremony took place in the doorway of the Temple in Jerusalem. The king was led to "his pillar", where a crown was placed upon his head, and "the testimony" given to him, after which he was anointed at the hands of the high priest and his sons. Afterwards, the people "clapped their hands" and shouted "God save the King" as trumpets blew, music played, and singers offered hymns of praise.

title: Kings of Judah


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Multiple Sclerosis Society of Great Britain

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 * funding MS research into cure, cause and quality of life, including animal experimentation since 1956 the MS Society has invested approximately £227 million of today’s money in research.
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 * education and training on MS to those affected directly and to health professionals
 * producing information on MS: Publications downloads
 * running a freephone specialist MS Helpline (0808 800 8000)
 * providing local support groups through local groups and regional networks
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Opah

Opahs, also commonly known as moonfish, sunfish (not to be confused with Molidae), kingfish, and redfin ocean pan are large, colorful, deep-bodied pelagic lampriform fishes comprising the small family Lampridae (also spelled Lamprididae).

The family comprises two genera: Lampris and the monotypic Megalampris (known only from fossil remains). The extinct family, Turkmenidae, from the Paleogene of Central Asia, is closely related, though much smaller.

In 2015, Lampris guttatus was discovered to have near-whole-body endothermy in which the entire core of the body is maintained at around 5 °C above the surrounding water. This is unique among fish as most fish are entirely cold blooded or are capable of warming only some parts of their bodies.

Species
Two living species were traditionally recognized, but a taxonomic review in 2018 found that more should be recognized (the result of splitting L. guttatus into several species, each with a more restricted geographic range), bringing the total to six. The six species of Lampris have mostly non-overlapping geographical ranges, and can be recognized based on body shape and coloration pattern.

 * Lampris australensis Underkoffler, Luers, Hyde & Craig, 2018 Southern spotted opah – Southern hemisphere, in the Pacific and Indian oceans.
 * Lampris guttatus (Brünnich, 1788) North Atlantic opah – formerly thought to be cosmopolitan, but now thought to be restricted to the northeastern Atlantic including the Mediterranean Sea.
 * Lampris immaculatus Gilchrist, 1904 southern opah – confined to the Southern Ocean from 34° S to the Antarctic Polar Front.
 * Lampris incognitus Underkoffler, Luers, Hyde & Craig, 2018 smalleye Pacific opah – central and eastern North Pacific Ocean.
 * Lampris lauta Lowe, 1860 East Atlantic opah – eastern Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean, Azores and Canary Islands.
 * Lampris megalopsis Underkoffler, Luers, Hyde & Craig, 2018 bigeye Pacific opah – cosmopolitan, including the Gulf of Mexico, Indian Ocean, the western Pacific Ocean and Chile.

Extinct species

 * † Lampris zatima, also known as "Diatomœca zatima", is a very small, extinct species from the late Miocene of what is now Southern California known primarily from fragments, and the occasional headless specimens.
 * † Megalampris keyesi is an extinct species estimated to be about 4 m in length. Fossil remains date back to the late Oligocene of what is now New Zealand, and it is the first fossil lampridiform found in the Southern Hemisphere.

Description
Opahs are deeply keeled, compressed, discoid fish with conspicuous coloration: the body is a deep red-orange grading to rosy on the belly, with white spots covering the flanks. Both the median and paired fins are a bright vermilion. The large eyes stand out, as well, ringed with golden yellow. The body is covered in minute cycloid scales and its silvery, iridescent guanine coating is easily abraded.

Opahs closely resemble in shape the unrelated butterfish (family Stromateidae). Both have falcated (curved) pectoral fins and forked, emarginated (notched) caudal fins. Aside from being significantly larger than butterfish, opahs have enlarged, falcated pelvic fins with about 14 to 17 rays, which distinguish them from superficially similar carangids—positioned thoracically; adult butterfish lack pelvic fins. The pectorals of opahs are also inserted (more or less) horizontally rather than vertically. The anterior portion of an opah's single dorsal fin (with about 50–55 rays) is greatly elongated, also in a falcated profile similar to the pelvic fins. The anal fin (around 34 to 41 rays) is about as high and as long as the shorter portion of the dorsal fin, and both fins have corresponding grooves into which they can be depressed.

The snout is pointed and the mouth small, toothless, and terminal. The lateral line forms a high arch over the pectoral fins before sweeping down to the caudal peduncle. The larger species, Lampris guttatus, may reach a total length of 2 m and a weight of 270 kg. The lesser-known Lampris immaculatus reaches a recorded total length of just 1.1 m.

Endothermy
The opah is the only fish known to exhibit whole body endothermy where all the internal organs are kept at a higher temperature than the surrounding water. This feature allows opahs to maintain an active lifestyle in the cold waters they inhabit. Unlike birds and mammals, the opah is not a homeotherm despite being an endotherm: while its body temperature is raised above the surrounding water temperature, it still varies with the external temperature and is not held constant. In addition to whole body endothermy, the opah also exhibits regional endothermy by raising the temperature of its brain and eyes above that of the rest of the body. Regional endothermy also arose by convergent evolution in tuna, lamnid sharks and billfishes where the swimming muscles and cranial organs are maintained at an elevated temperature compared to the surrounding water.

The large muscles powering the pectoral fins generate most of the heat in the opah. In addition to the heat they generate while moving, these muscles have special regions that can generate additional heat without contracting. The opah has a thick layer of fat that insulates its internal organs and cranium from the surrounding water. However, fat alone is insufficient to retain heat within a fish's body. The gills are the main point of heat loss in fishes as this is where blood from the entire body must continuously be brought in close contact with the surrounding water. Opahs prevent heat loss through their gills using a special structure in the gill blood vessels called the rete mirabile. The rete mirabile is a dense network of blood vessels where the warm blood flowing from the heart to the gills transfers its heat to the cold blood returning from the gills. Hence, the rete mirabile prevents warm blood from coming in contact with the cold water (and losing its heat) and also ensures that the blood returning to the internal organs is warmed up to body temperature. Within the rete, the warm and cold blood flow past each other in opposite directions through thin vessels to maximise the heat transferred. This mechanism is called a counter-current heat exchanger.

In addition to the rete mirabile in its gills, the opah also has a rete in the blood supply to its brain and eyes. This helps to trap heat in the cranium and further raise its temperature above the rest of the body. While the rete mirabile in the gills is unique to the opah, the cranial rete mirabile has also evolved independently in other fishes. Unlike in billfish which have a specialised noncontractile tissue that functions as a brain heater, the opah cranium is heated by the contractions of the large eye muscles.

Behavior
On July 18, 2021, a 3-1/2 foot-long opah, weighing 100 pounds, was found washed up on the Northern Oregon coast. Heidi Dewar, a research biologist with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries, was quoted as saying that the stranding was "unusual", and that climate change may have played a role in it.

Almost nothing is known of opah biology and ecology. They are presumed to live out their entire lives in the open ocean, at mesopelagic depths of 50 to 500 m, with possible forays into the bathypelagic zone. They are apparently solitary, but are known to school with tuna and other scombrids. The fish propel themselves by a lift-based labriform mode of swimming, that is, by flapping their pectoral fins. This, together with their forked caudal fins and depressible median fins, indicates they swim at constantly high speeds like tuna.

Lampris guttatus are able to maintain their eyes and brain at 2 °C warmer than their bodies, a phenomenon called cranial endothermy and one they share with sharks in the family Lamnidae, billfishes, and some tunas. This may allow their eyes and brains to continue functioning during deep dives into water below 4 °C.

Squid and euphausiids (krill) make up the bulk of the opah diet; small fish are also taken. Pop-up archival transmitting tagging operations have indicated that, aside from humans, large pelagic sharks, such as great white sharks and mako sharks, are primary predators of opah. The tetraphyllidean tapeworm, Pelichnibothrium speciosum, has been found in L. guttatus, which may be an intermediate or paratenic host.

The planktonic opah larvae initially resemble those of certain ribbonfishes (Trachipteridae), but are distinguished by the former's lack of dorsal and pelvic fin ornamentation. The slender hatchlings later undergo a marked and rapid transformation from a slender to deep-bodied form; this transformation is complete by 10.6 mm standard length in L. guttatus. Opahs are believed to have a low population resilience.

title: Opah


text:
Muscular Dystrophy UK

About
Muscular Dystrophy UK (MDUK) is a UK charity focusing on muscular dystrophy and related conditions. It works on behalf of those with over 60 muscle wasting and weakening conditions. For over 60 years, Muscular Dystrophy UK has been building a community of individuals living with muscle wasting or weakening conditions, families and carers, scientists, health care professionals, supporters, volunteers, and donors. Making advances that would have been unthinkable just ten years ago.

History
The charity was founded in 1959 (then known as the Muscular Dystrophy Group and later as the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign) by Lord Walton of Detchant, to help families and children living with muscular dystrophy, and to raise money to fund research to find the causes of and cures for muscular dystrophy.

Since then, diagnosis of the different forms of muscular dystrophy and related muscle conditions has improved hugely and the charity now provides support for more than 60 different muscle-wasting conditions, as well as funding many key research developments.

High Profile Supporters
Gabby Logan became President of the charity in 2018, taking over from Sue Barker who had held the role since 2004. Gabby is an active supporter, attending many charity events including the charity's annual national conferences and the celebrity sports quiz at Lord's Cricket Ground. In 2024 she took on the London Landmarks Half Marathon for the charity raising over £5,000

Lord Attenborough served as the charity's President for 30 years, until 2002, when he became an Honorary Life President. Lord Attenborough remained an inspirational supporter of the charity and the Richard Attenborough Fellowship Fund has been established to honour his commitment to world-class research.

Sir Alex Ferguson is a long-standing Vice President of the charity having been introduced to MDUK by a friend whose son was affected by the condition. He has been involved in fundraising and events for over ten years.

Prince Philip became Patron of the charity in 1966. Introduced to the charity by Lord Attenborough, he remained as Royal Patron until his sad passing in April 2021.

Fundraising
The majority of the charity's work is funded by voluntary activity often carried about by those that are affected by muscular dystrophy.

Key events for the charity are the Microscope Ball which will be in its 40th year in 2024, an event attend by more than 700 members of the commercial property industry; Peddle, Paddle Peak – the charity's own off-road challenge event and the Town and Gown 10K series which takes place in Oxford and Cambridge each year.

In 2024 Muscular Dystrophy UK won funding from Project Giving Back to have a garden at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show. The garden at RHS Chelsea Flower show was designed by award winning designer, Ula Maria and based on the theme of Shirin-yoku the Japanese practice of Forest Bathing. This prestigious event marks a huge moment in the charity's history.

title: Muscular Dystrophy UK


text:
Talk:Irish Rebellion of 1641

Recent Edits
I've made a number of edits intended to make the article easier to follow eg simplify language (remove repetition, superfluous detail), more logical time flow, add Map, check and add references. I don't think they change the sense so I hope they're not controversial.

However, there are two specific statements where the current wording potentially impacts the balance of the article. In part, this is because the standalone quotes provided are selected from a much wider and more balanced discussion, but there are a also couple of unsourced additions.

(1) Historian Nicholas Canny writes, "most insurgents seemed anxious for a resolution of their immediate economic difficulties by seizing the property of any of the settlers. These popular attacks did not usually result in loss of life, nor was it the purpose of the insurgents to kill their victims. They nevertheless were gruesome affairs because they involved face to face confrontations between people who had long known each other. A typical attack involved a group of Irish descending upon a Protestant family and demanding, at knifepoint, that they surrender their moveable goods. Killings usually only occurred where Protestants resisted".

 * I'm not particularly woke but this reads like victim blaming ie you only got killed if you resisted having your stuff stolen. Today, losing your wallet, being evicted from your home or having your goods seized can be traumatic; in the depths of a 17th century winter, it could be a death sentence and inserting this sentence understates that reality. Modern estimates suggest that of the total 10,000 deaths that resulted from these actions, at least 50% were due to exposure or hunger after being driven from their homes.

 * I can live with Canny's claim that the initial motive behind these attacks was economic, rather than killing per se (although I think it misses the point above), so I have included words to that effect.

(2) ''Historian Nicholas Canny suggests that attacks on settlers escalated after a failed rebel assault on Lisnagarvey in November 1641, after which the settlers killed several hundred captured rebels. Canny writes, "the bloody-mindedness of the settlers in taking revenge when they gained the upper hand in battle seems to have made such a deep impression on the insurgents that, as one deponent put it, 'the slaughter of the English' could be dated from this encounter".''

 * After which the settlers killed several hundred captured rebels does not appear in Canny's account of this episode.

 * The bloody-mindedness of the settlers in taking revenge.... seems an odd choice of words for which Canny provides no evidence. Lacking heavy artillery, the rebels made a frontal assault on a well defended fort, lost 300-400 men, burned the surrounding town, then retreated. How does this equate to "The bloody-mindedness of the settlers in taking revenge"?

 * ...when they gained the upper hand in battle...In most 17th century battles, the losers suffered disproportionate casualties for a variety of reasons, regardless of who they were; on the same day, a Protestant force of nearly 600 was destroyed at Julianstown. Its not clear how the repulse at Lisnagarvey was any different from this event, nor how it relates to subsequent events

 * The deposition Canny refers to says After the fight & losse of the Irish at Lisnegarvy in december their followeing then began to murder the English every where in the Country & in Armagh also. Escalation (as Canny himself points out elsewhere) was a reaction to the fact of defeat, not its circumstances, because it became clear the easy victories of the first month were at an end. I've included wording to this effect. Robinvp11 (talk) 18:48, 25 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Irish Rebellion of 1641


text:
Crohn's and Colitis UK

Crohn's & Colitis UK (formerly NACC) is a UK charity dedicated to Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and other forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It was founded in 1979 as the National Association for Colitis and Crohn's Disease.

Crohn's & Colitis UK brings together people of all ages who have Crohn's or colitis, their families, and the health professionals involved in their care. These two illnesses are both forms of Iinflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and they affect over 500,000 people in the UK.

Crohn's & Colitis UK provides information and support to enable people to manage their conditions. They work with the UK health sector to improve diagnosis, treatment and management of IBD. They fund research to increase knowledge of the causes and the best treatments for Crohn's and colitis, and they campaign for greater awareness, better services and more support for Crohn's and colitis patients.

title: Crohn's and Colitis UK


text:
Aughrim

Aughrim or Eachroim (literally "horse ridge" in Irish) is the name of a number of villages in Ireland:

 * Aughrim, County Galway, a village in County Galway, scene of the Battle of Aughrim
 * Aughrim, County Wicklow, a village in County Wicklow, Republic of Ireland
 * Aughrim, County Cavan, a townland in County Cavan, Republic of Ireland
 * Aughrim, County Down, a townland in County Down, Northern Ireland
 * Aughrim, County Fermanagh, a townland in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland
 * Aughrim, County Londonderry, a townland in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
 * Aughrim, County Roscommon, a civil parish in County Roscommon, Republic of Ireland

Other uses

 * Aughrim Park, Gaelic Athletic Association stadium in Aughrim, County Wicklow
 * Aughrim Rugby, rugby football club based in Aughrim, County Wicklow
 * Baron Aghrim, a title created twice in the Peerage of Ireland
 * Battle of Aughrim, decisive battle of the Williamite War in 1691
 * River Aughrim in County Wicklow
 * Aughrim Ringforts, archaeological sites

title: Aughrim


text:
Matthew 1:10

Matthew 1:10 is the tenth verse of the first chapter in the Gospel of Matthew in the Bible. The verse is part of the section where the genealogy of Joseph, the father of Jesus, is listed.

Content
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
 * And Ezekias begat Manasses;
 * and Manasses begat Amon;
 * and Amon begat Josias;

The World English Bible translates the passage as:
 * Hezekiah became the father of Manasseh.
 * Manasseh became the father of Amon.
 * Amon became the father of Josiah.

Analysis
This part of the list coincides with the list of the Kings of Judah in a number of other parts of the Bible. Unlike other parts of Matthew's genealogy this list is fully in keeping with the other sources. According to William F. Albright, Hezekiah ruled from 715 BC to 687 BC. His son Manasseh ruled from his father's death until 642 BC, while Manasseh's son Amon ruled from 642 BC to 640 BC. Josiah ruled from 640 BC to 609 BC. Manasseh was widely regarded as the most wicked king of Judah, so why he appears in this genealogy when other discreditable ancestors have been left out is an important question. W. D. Davies and Dale Allison note that the portrayal of Manasseh in the literature of the period was divided. While some sources represented him as a purely wicked figure, others represented him as man who eventually found repentance for his deeds. The author of Matthew may have been more acquainted with the later school and thus left him in.

The biblical scholar Robert H. Gundry points out that the author of Matthew actually wrote Amos, rather than Amon. He argues the name might have been changed to link the minor prophet Amos who made predictions concerning the messiah.

Archaeology
There are extra-biblical sources that specify Hezekiah by name, along with his reign and influence, that "[h]istoriographically, his reign is noteworthy for the convergence of a variety of biblical sources and diverse extrabiblical evidence often bearing on the same events. Significant data concerning Hezekiah appear in the Deuteronomistic History, the Chronicler, Isaiah, Assyrian annals and reliefs, Israelite epigraphy, and, increasingly, stratigraphy". Hezekiah's story is one of the best to cross-reference with the rest of the Mid Eastern world's historical documents.

In 2015 in a dig at the Ophel in Jerusalem, Eilat Mazar discovered a royal bulla of Hezekiah, that reads "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah", and dates to between 727 - 698 BC. This is the first seal impression of an Israelite or Judean king to come to light in a scientific archaeological excavation. The impression on this inscription was set in ancient Hebrew script.

A lintel inscription, found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to his secretary, Shebnah. LMLK stored jars along the border with Assyria "demonstrate careful preparations to counter Sennacherib's likely route of invasion" and show "a notable degree of royal control of towns and cities which would facilitate Hezekiah's destruction of rural sacrificial sites and his centralization of worship in Jerusalem". Evidence suggests they were used throughout his 29-year reign (Grena, 2004, p. 338). There are some Bullae from sealed documents that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself (Grena, 2004, p. 26, Figs. 9 and 10). There are also some that name his servants (ah-vah-deem in Hebrew, ayin-bet-dalet-yod-mem).

Archaeological findings like the Hezekiah seal led scholars to surmise that the ancient Judahite kingdom  had a highly developed administrative system. The reign of Hezekiah saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state. At this time Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian-Egyptian frontier. There were increases in literacy and in the production of literary works. The massive construction of the Broad Wall was made during his reign, the city was enlarged to accommodate a large influx, and population increased in Jerusalem up to 25,000, "five times the population under Solomon," Archaeologist Amihai Mazar explains, "Jerusalem was a virtual city-state where the majority of the state's population was concentrated," in comparison to the rest of Judah's cities (167).

The Siloam Tunnel was chiseled through 533 meters (1,750 feet) of solid rock in order to provide Jerusalem underground access to the waters of the Gihon Spring or Siloam Pool, which lay outside the city. The Siloam Inscription from the Siloam Tunnel is now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. It "commemorates the dramatic moment when the two original teams of tunnelers, digging with picks from opposite ends of the tunnel, met each other" (564). It is "[o]ne of the most important ancient Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered." Finkelstein and Mazar cite this tunnel as an example of Jerusalem's impressive state-level power at the time.

Archaeologists like William G. Dever have pointed at archaeological evidence for the iconoclasm during the period of Hezekiah's reign. The central cult room of the temple at Arad (a royal Judean fortress) was deliberately and carefully dismantled, "with the altars and massebot" concealed "beneath a Str. 8 plaster floor". This stratum correlates with the late 8th century; Dever concludes that "the deliberate dismantling of the temple and its replacement by another structure in the days of Hezekiah is an archeological fact. I see no reason for skepticism here."

During the revolt of king Hezekiah against Assyria, city of Lachish was captured by Sennacherib despite determined resistance (see Siege of Lachish). As the Lachish relief attests, Sennacherib began his siege of the city of Lachish in 701 BC. The Lachish Relief graphically depicts the battle, and the defeat of the city, including Assyrian archers marching up a ramp and Judahites pierced through on mounted stakes. "The reliefs on these slabs" discovered in the Assyrian palace at Nineveh "originally formed a single, continuous work, measuring 8 feet ... tall by 80 feet ... long, which wrapped around the room" (559). Visitors "would have been impressed not only by the magnitude of the artwork itself but also by the magnificent strength of the Assyrian war machine."

Sennacherib's Prism was found buried in the foundations of the Nineveh palace. It was written in cuneiform, the Mesopotamian form of writing of the day. The prism records the conquest of 46 strong towns and "uncountable smaller places," along with the siege of Jerusalem during Hezekiah's reign where Sennacherib says he just "shut him up...like a bird in a cage," subsequently enforcing a larger tribute upon him.

The Hebrew Bible states that during the night, the angel of Jehovah (YHWH Hebrew) brought death to 185,000 Assyrians troops, forcing the army to abandon the siege, yet it also records a tribute paid to Sennacherib of 300 silver talents following the siege. There is no account of the supernatural event in the prism. Sennacherib's account records his levying of a tribute from Hezekiah, the king of Judea, who was within Jerusalem, leaving the city as the only one intact following the exile of the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel due to idolatry. Sennacherib recorded a payment of 800 silver talents, which suggests a capitulation to end the siege. However, Inscriptions have been discovered describing Sennacherib's defeat of the Ethiopian forces. These say: “As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities. . . and conquered (them). . . Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage.” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 288) He does not claim to have captured the city. This is consistent with the Bible account of Hezekiah's revolt against Assyria in the sense that neither account seems to indicate that Sennacherib ever entered or formally captured the city. Sennacherib in this inscription claims that Hezekiah paid for tribute 800 talents of silver, in contrast with the Bible's 300, however this could be due to boastful exaggeration which was not uncommon amongst kings of the period. Furthermore, the annals record a list of booty sent from Jerusalem to Nineveh. In the inscription, Sennacherib claims that Hezekiah accepted servitude, and some theorize that Hezekiah remained on his throne as a vassal ruler. The campaign is recorded with differences in the Assyrian records and in the biblical Books of Kings; there is agreement that the Assyrian have a propensity for exaggeration.

One theory that takes the biblical view posits that a defeat was caused by "possibly an outbreak of the bubonic plague". Another that this is a composite text which makes use of a 'legendary motif' analogous to that of the Exodus story.

A signet ring has been found in the City of David in Jerusalem featuring the name of one of King Josiah's officials, Nathan-Melech, mentioned in the book of. The inscription of the ring says, "(belonging) to Nathan-Melech, Servant of the King." Though it may not directly mention King Josiah by name, it does appear to be from the same time period in which he would have lived. Seals and seal impressions from the period show a transition from those of an earlier period which bear images of stars and the moon, to seals that carry only names, a possible indication of Josiah's enforcement of monotheism.

The date of Josiah's death can be established fairly accurately. The Babylonian Chronicle dates the battle at Harran between the Assyrians and their Egyptian allies against the Babylonians from Tammuz (July–August) to Elul (August–September) 609 BCE. On that basis, Josiah was killed by the army of Pharaoh Necho II in the month of Tammuz (July–August) 609 BCE, when the Egyptians were on their way to Harran.

In other literature
In rabbinic literature and Christian pseudepigrapha Manasseh is accused of executing the prophet Isaiah; according to Rabbinic Literature Isaiah was the maternal grandfather of Manasseh.

The Prayer of Manasseh, a penitential prayer attributed to Manasseh, appears in some Christian Bibles, but is considered apocryphal by Jews, Roman Catholics and Protestants.

title: Matthew 1:10


text:
Elektro

Elektro is a robot built by J.M. Barnett, Jack Weeks Sr., Harold Gorsuch, and other engineers at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation's Mansfield, Ohio, facility between 1937 and 1938.

Physical specifications
Seven feet tall (2.1 m), weighing 265 lb, humanoid in appearance, he could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm record player), smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move his head and arms. Elektro's body consisted of a steel gear, cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum skin. His photoelectric "eyes" could distinguish red and green light.

Exhibit history
Elektro was on exhibit at the 1939 New York World's Fair and was joined at that fair in 1940, with "Sparko", a robot dog that could bark, sit, and beg to humans.

Several minutes of color sound footage of Elektro in action can be seen at 33:55 in the movie, The Middleton Family at the New York World's Fair, a fully-produced hour-long movie made by Westinghouse, which showcased the Westinghouse pavilion.

Elektro toured North America in 1950 in promotional appearances for Westinghouse, and was displayed at Pacific Ocean Park in Ocean Park, Santa Monica, California, "which was in operation from 1958 to 1967, as part of the House of Tomorrow exhibit.

Elektro appeared as "Thinko", in Sex Kittens Go to College (1960).

Property dispute
Sparko's fate is unknown.

In the 1960s, his head was given to Harold Gorsuch, a retiring Westinghouse engineer.

In 2013, a replica was exhibited at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.

Elektro is currently the subject of a property dispute by Weeks' family, Schaut's heirs and the Mansfield Memorial Museum.

title: Elektro


text:
Fondo Ambiente Italiano

The Fondo Ambiente Italiano (FAI) is the National Trust of Italy.

The organisation was established in 1975 as the Fondo Ambiente Italiano, based on the model of the National Trust of England, Wales, & Northern Ireland. It is a private non-profit organisation and has over 190,000 members as of 2018. Its purpose is to protect elements of Italy's physical heritage which might otherwise be lost.

History
The foundation goes back to the initiative of Elena Croce, the daughter of the Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce. Elena Croce wanted to apply the UK National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty model to Italy. Giulia Maria Mozzoni Crespi, Renato Bazzoni, Alberto Predieri and Franco Russoli sign the founding act of the FAI in 1975. Shortly after its founding, the FAI received its first important foundations and donations.

The first donation was made in 1976 by the lawyer Piero de Blasi. He gave the FAI 1,000 m2 of land on Panarea, one of the Aeolian Islands off Sicily, thereby preventing much of the island from being built on and destroyed. In 1977 Emanuela Castelbarco, granddaughter of Arturo Toscanini, donated the medieval Castle of Avio in Trentino to the FAI. The FAI began an extensive restoration of the castle while allowing the Castelbarco family to continue to occupy parts of the castle. However, the FAI alone was responsible for the costs of the restoration, administration and later opening of the castle to the general public. The FAI thus established a new model of monument protection in Italy. Also in 1977, the FAI began restoration work at the Monastery of Torba, Castelseprio, in the northern Italian province of Varese. The monastery was initially purchased at her own expense by the founder of the foundation, Giulia Maria Mozzoni Crespi, and then donated to the FAI to save it from total decay. Today the monastery complex is one of the most important testimonies of the Lombards in Italy and thus a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Properties
As of early 2007 the organisation had twenty-two properties including castles, gardens, monastic buildings and other cultural assets. These are spread throughout Italy, but the majority are in the north of the country.

 * Province of Agrigento
 * Giardino della Kolymbetra (Valle dei Templi, Agrigento)
 * Province of Bergamo
 * Mulino di Baresi (Roncobello)
 * Province of Como
 * Villa del Balbianello (Lenno, Lake Como)
 * Province of Cuneo
 * Castello della Manta (Manta)
 * Province of Genoa
 * Casa Carbone (Lavagna)
 * Historic barber's shop (Genoa)
 * San Fruttuoso Abbey (Camogli)
 * Torre di Punta Pagana (Rapallo)
 * Province of La Spezia
 * Villa Rezzola (Lerici)
 * Province of Lucca
 * Teatrino di Vetriano (also known as the Teatro Catalani) (Vetriano di Pescaglia)
 * Province of Mantua
 * A kiosk in the Liberty style (Mantua)
 * Province of Messina
 * Cala Junco (an area of Panarea, one of the Aeolian Islands)
 * Province of Milan
 * Casa Necchi Campiglio Milan
 * Collezione Alighiero de' Micheli (Milan)
 * Province of Naples
 * Bay of Ieranto (Massa Lubrense)
 * Province of Padua
 * Villa dei Vescovi, Luvigliano, a frazione of Torreglia, in the Euganean Hills)
 * Province of Rome
 * Park of the Villa Gregoriana (Tivoli)
 * Province of Sassari
 * The Talmone Battery (Italian: Batterie Talmone) a system of military defenses (Palau)
 * Province of Sondrio
 * Castel Grumello (Montagna in Valtellina)
 * Trentino
 * Castello di Avio (Sabbionara di Avio)
 * The wildlife sanctuary of Maso Fratton-Valaia (Spormaggiore)
 * Province of Turin
 * Castello di Masino (Caravino)
 * Province of Varese
 * Torba Monastery (Gornate-Olona)
 * Torre di Velate (Varese)
 * Villa Della Porta Bozzolo (Casalzuigno)
 * Villa Panza (Varese)
 * Province of Veneto
 * Brion tomb

title: Fondo Ambiente Italiano


text:
Heart Research UK

Heart Research UK is a national charity organisation in the United Kingdom. They fund medical research in to the prevention, treatment and cure of heart disease, as well as community projects aimed at improving the public's heart health. Since its foundation, Heart Research UK has funded over £25 million of research into heart disease and related conditions.

Foundation and milestones
Heart Research UK was founded as the 'National Heart Research Fund' in Leeds in 1967 by eminent cardiovascular surgeon Mr David Watson, with the aim of making heart surgery safer. Following the death of a young patient after a long heart operation, Mr Watson launched an appeal with the Yorkshire Evening Post to raise funds to research ways to improve the safety of heart surgery.

Heart Research UK funded the first hospital-based cardiac research unit in the UK, at Killingbeck Hospital in Leeds. Whilst working here, Mr Watson developed a tissue valve in 1976 which became the prototype for many of the valves used in surgery today.

In 1979, Heart Research UK funded six of the first eight successful heart transplants in the UK, which were carried out by Sir Terence English at Papworth Hospital in Cambridgeshire.

In 2000, Heart Research UK funded the implantation of the world's first permanent artificial heart in to Peter Houghton, at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford. Mr Houghton was fitted with a Jarvik 2000 pump, and is to this day a Guinness World Record holder for the 'Longest surviving artificial heart transplant patient.'

In 2005, The National Heart Research Fund changed its name to Heart Research UK and later opened up a regional office in Birmingham.

Grants
Heart Research UK funds medical research through a programme of grants. Novel and Emerging Technologies (NET) Grants, of up to £250,000, are awarded to research projects which focus on the development of new technologies to diagnose, treat and prevent heart disease and related conditions and Translational Research Project (TRP) Grants, are awarded for projects that transfer breakthroughs into practical tools that can be used for patient care.

Heart Research UK also awards dedicated grants for Northern Ireland, aimed at encouraging applications and supporting research at hospitals and universities across the whole of the UK. In 2018, building on the success of the Northern Ireland Grants, Heart Research UK launched a similarly dedicated grant for Scotland.

Research
Current medical research being funded by Heart Research UK includes a project with the University College London and Great Ormond Street Hospital to develop a much faster technique for imaging the hearts of babies born with congenital heart disease (CHD), a project at the University of Leicester using electrocardiograms (ECG's) to measure the risk of sudden cardiac death (SDC), and a project at the Bristol Heart Institute to repair the hearts of babies born with congenital heart disease (CHD) using stem cells from the umbilical cord.

Masterclasses
Since 2012, Heart Research UK have funded 'Masterclasses', in which leading international and UK experts give surgeons, doctors, nurses, physiotherapists and other health professionals the opportunity to gain new skills and knowledge. By the end of 2018, 15 masterclasses will have taken place, covering topics such as heart transplantation, imaging, mitral valve surgery, aortic surgery and exercise prescription for congenital heart disease.

Partnership with Subway
Since 2009, Heart Research UK has been partnered with Subway to support customers' choice for a low fat option. Together, they run the Heart Research UK and Subway Healthy Heart grant scheme, an initiative that funds community projects to promote heart health across the UK. These grants are funded by in-store collections and a programme of 5K runs across the UK.

title: Heart Research UK


text: Category:Nature conservation in Italy

title: Category:Nature conservation in Italy


text:
Climate theory

Climate theory may refer to :

 * Any theory in Climatology (Climate Science)
 * The climate theory of Montesquieu
 * Global warming conspiracy theory, theory that global warming science is being falsified

title: Climate theory


text:
Grim trigger

In game theory, grim trigger (also called the grim strategy or just grim) is a trigger strategy for a repeated game.

Initially, a player using grim trigger will cooperate, but as soon as the opponent defects (thus satisfying the trigger condition), the player using grim trigger will defect for the remainder of the iterated game. Since a single defect by the opponent triggers defection forever, grim trigger is the most strictly unforgiving of strategies in an iterated game.

In Robert Axelrod's book The Evolution of Cooperation, grim trigger is called "Friedman", for a 1971 paper by James W. Friedman, which uses the concept.

The infinitely repeated prisoners' dilemma
The infinitely repeated prisoners’ dilemma is a well-known example for the grim trigger strategy. The normal game for two prisoners is as follows: In the prisoners' dilemma, each player has two choices in each stage: If a player defects, he will be punished for the remainder of the game. In fact, both players are better off to stay silent (cooperate) than to betray the other, so playing (C, C) is the cooperative profile while playing (D, D), also the unique Nash equilibrium in this game, is the punishment profile.
 * 1) Cooperate
 * 2) Defect for an immediate gain

In the grim trigger strategy, a player cooperates in the first round and in the subsequent rounds as long as his opponent does not defect from the agreement. Once the player finds that the opponent has betrayed in the previous game, he will then defect forever.

In order to evaluate the subgame perfect equilibrium (SPE) for the following grim trigger strategy of the game, strategy S* for players i and j is as follows: Then, the strategy is an SPE only if the discount factor is $\delta \geq {\frac{1}{2}}$. In other words, neither Player 1 or Player 2 is incentivized to defect from the cooperation profile if the discount factor is greater than one half.
 * Play C in every period unless someone has ever played D in the past
 * Play D forever if someone has played D in the past

To prove that the strategy is a SPE, cooperation should be the best response to the other player's cooperation, and the defection should be the best response to the other player's defection.

Step 1: Suppose that D is never played so far. Then, C is better than D if $$1 \geq 2(1-\delta)$$.
 * Player i's payoff from C : $$(1-\delta)[1+\delta+\delta^2+ ... ] = (1-\delta) \times \frac{1}{1-\delta} = 1$$
 * Player i's payoff from D : $$(1-\delta)[2+0+0+ ... ] = 2(1-\delta)$$

Step 2: Suppose that someone has played D previously, then Player j will play D no matter what. Since $$ 0 \leq \delta \leq 1$$, playing D is optimal.
 * Player i's payoff from C : $$(1-\delta)[-1+\delta \times 0+\delta^2 \times 0 + ... ] = (1-\delta) \times -1 = \delta - 1$$
 * Player i's payoff from D : $$(1-\delta)[0+\delta \times 0+\delta^2 \times 0 + ... ] = 0$$

The preceding argument emphasizes that there is no incentive to deviate (no profitable deviation) from the cooperation profile if $$\delta \geq \frac{1}{2}$$, and this is true for every subgame. Therefore, the strategy for the infinitely repeated prisoners’ dilemma game is a Subgame Perfect Nash equilibrium.

In iterated prisoner's dilemma strategy competitions, grim trigger performs poorly even without noise, and adding signal errors makes it even worse. Its ability to threaten permanent defection gives it a theoretically effective way to sustain trust, but because of its unforgiving nature and the inability to communicate this threat in advance, it performs poorly.

Grim trigger in international relations
Under the grim trigger in international relations perspective, a nation cooperates only if its partner has never exploited it in the past. Because a nation will refuse to cooperate in all future periods once its partner defects once, the indefinite removal of cooperation becomes the threat that makes such strategy a limiting case.

Grim trigger in user-network interactions
Game theory has recently been used in developing future communications systems, and the user in the user-network interaction game employing the grim trigger strategy is one of such examples. If the grim trigger is decided to be used in the user-network interaction game, the user stays in the network (cooperates) if the network maintains a certain quality, but punishes the network by stopping the interaction and leaving the network as soon as the user finds out the opponent defects. Antoniou et al. explains that “given such a strategy, the network has a stronger incentive to keep the promise given for a certain quality, since it faces the threat of losing its customer forever.”

Comparison with other strategies
Tit for tat and grim trigger strategies are similar in nature in that both are trigger strategy where a player refuses to defect first if he has the ability to punish the opponent for defecting. The difference, however, is that grim trigger seeks maximal punishment for a single defection while tit for tat is more forgiving, offering one punishment for each defection.

title: Grim trigger


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Oberkochen

Oberkochen is a municipality (officially a town, despite its size) in the Ostalbkreis, in Baden-Württemberg, in Germany.

Name
The name "Oberkochen" consists of the two German words "ober", meaning "above" or "upper", and "Kocher", the name of the local river. The name indicates, that this settlement lies above the river Kocher or on its upper part. The river Kocher has its spring just to the south of Oberkochen and runs to the north. Therefore, the village next to the north of Oberkochen is Unterkochen, with the German "unter" meaning "lower" or "under".

Geography
Oberkochen is located in and above the valleys of the rivers Kocher and Langertbach between the area of Albuch in the west and north and the area of Härtsfeld in the east. The highest point in the area of Oberkochen is the top of the Volkmarsberg mountain (743 m above sea level). Directly south of the city the river Kocher has its origin.

The city consists of two main parts: the downtown area with the city center, Spitztal, Lenzhalde and Brunnenhalde and the Heide area, which lies 100 m above the city on a hill to the northeast.

Schultheiß and mayors of Oberkochen
From 1553 until Feb 25th 1803 Oberkochen had two Schultheißen, one of the catholic Ellwangen and one of the Protestant würtembergian Königsbronn. Since 1933 Oberkochen has a mayor, who wears a livery collar since Oberkochen became a city in 1968. The collar was donated by trade, commerce, industry and liberal professions.

Population
During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) the population of Oberkochen was reduced from c. 500 to c. 100 inhabitants. It took nearly 200 years to reach a population of 500 again. In the 19th century the population saw a greater rise due to the industrialisation.

The next remarkable growth took place after World War II, when the population quadrupled from 2,000 to 8,000 people in just 20 years. One of the main reasons for this growth was the relocation and expansion of the company Carl Zeiss. In 1968 Oberkochen became officially a city, which is remarkable, because at this time a population of 10,000 people was a condition for towns in Germany to become a city. The reason for the premature change in the status of Oberkochen was the intense growth of the population prior to 1968, which made the mayor Gustav Bosch, as well as the responsible authorities believe, that a population of 10,000 would be reached soon. Therefore, the change of the status of Oberkochen from town to city was applied for and finally granted. Despite these expectations and actions the population stalled instead and even saw a slight decrease.

Today, there are more commuters working in Oberkochen than working people living there.

Coat of arms

The blazon of the coat of arms spells: "In blue three (2:1) golden roses." (German: "In Blau drei (2:1) goldene Rosen.")

The coat of arms was introduced in 1968 and is based on the one of the "Görig von Kochen" from 1404. He owned several pieces of land in Oberkochen. The colours were chosen without historic meaning.

Transport
Oberkochen can be reached by using the Bundesstraße 19 ("B 19"), which runs along the Kocher-Brenz-Valley from north to south. Oberkochen has two junctions to the Bundesstraße, Oberkochen-North ("Oberkochen-Nord") and Oberkochen-South ("Oberkochen-Süd"). The nearest Autobahn is the Bundesautobahn 7 with the Aalen-Oberkochen-junction, which is reached via the B19 and L1084 after an 11 km drive from Oberkochen.

Oberkochen has no traffic lights. The traffic is mainly reglemented by the priority to the right rule, roundabouts and crosswalks.

By train Oberkochen is connected through the Brenz Railway, which is used by the Regional-Express of the DB Regio company. The nearest connection to national and international train services is made via the Aalen railroad station, which is 10 km away from Oberkochen and has a direct link to it. The railroad station of Oberkochen has two platforms and is friendly for disabled persons, i.e. people using wheelchairs, through an elevator. It is possible to buy tickets for the train on a ticket machine located on the platforms.

Oberkochen does not have an own airport. The nearest airport with regular national transportation is the Stuttgart Airport (IATA: STR, ICAO: EDDS) which is a 90 km drive by car away from Oberkochen.

Education
Oberkochen has three municipal and one Roman Catholic kindergarten. There is a Gemeinschaftsschule, the Dreißentalschule, which contains a primary school and a secondary school, where a Mittlere Reife can be awarded. There is a Förderschule, the Sonnenbergschule also. The local Gymnasium is the Ernst-Abbe-Gymnasium, named after the scientist Ernst Abbe. There also is a Musikschule (music school). Oberkochen has no university and the next university can be found in Aalen.

The local folk high school is located in the building of the city hall. For a wider set of courses there is also a folk high school in Aalen. The municipal library was installed in the old Protestant church. It contains 19.000 media volumes and faces over 40.000 check outs per year.

Sacred buildings
The St.-Peter-und-Paul-Kirche (German for: St. Peter and Paul Church) is the local Roman Catholic church and was consecrated October 25, 1900. This church was the replacement for an older church from the Baroque period.

The local Protestant church is the Versöhnungskirche (German for: Reconciliation Church), which was consecrated in 1968. The predecessor of this church became the local library.

Despite the growing Muslim community there is no mosque in Oberkochen. The nearest mosque can be found in Aalen.

Economy
After World War II, the Allied troops moved parts of the Carl Zeiss Company in Jena to Oberkochen. Today, the headquarters of the Carl Zeiss AG are located in Oberkochen. Another important business is the Leitz company, which is the world-leading manufacturer for wood-processing tools.

International relations
Oberkochen is twinned with:

 * Flag of France.svg Dives-sur-Mer, France, since 1984
 * Flag of Italy.svg Montebelluna, Italy, since 1992
 * Flag of Hungary.svg Mátészalka, Hungary, since 2008

title: Oberkochen


text:
Clement Dorsey

Clement F. Dorsey (1778 – August 6, 1848) was an American politician from Maryland.

He was born near Oaklands in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, in 1778; attended St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland; studied law; was admitted to the bar and commenced practice. He was a major in the Maryland Militia 1812–1818. He was elected from Maryland's 1st Congressional district to the Nineteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty-first Congresses (March 4, 1825 – March 3, 1831); resumed the practice of law; unsuccessful candidate for election in 1832 to the Twenty-third Congress; judge of the fifth circuit court of Maryland until his death in Leonardtown, St. Mary's County, Maryland, August 6, 1848; interment in a private burial ground at "Summerseat," near Laurel Grove, Maryland.

title: Clement Dorsey


text:
Parkinson's UK

Parkinson's UK is a Parkinson's research and support charity in the United Kingdom. In April 2010, the Parkinson's Disease Society changed its name to become Parkinson's UK. Its aims are to improve the quality of life for people affected by Parkinson's and find a cure for the condition.

Parkinson's UK is the largest charity funder of research into Parkinson's in the UK. It funds research aimed at finding better treatments and improving the understanding of Parkinson's and its causes. It raises money through donations, legacies, community fundraising, events and corporate partnerships. The charity offers support and information to people affected by Parkinson's, their families and carers through a network of 350 local groups across England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

History
The Parkinson's Disease Society (Parkinson's UK) was formed in February 1969 by Mali Jenkins (4 July 1907 – 11 March 1989). Initially the organisation had 3 simple aims:
 * to help patients and their relatives with the problems arising from Parkinson's
 * to collect and disseminate information on Parkinson's
 * to encourage and provide funds for research into Parkinson's

Parkinson's UK now focuses on research in addition to support. The charity has also expanded to improve services for people affected by Parkinson's through education and training for professionals and campaigning.

President
Jane Asher has been President of Parkinson's UK since 2007 and has a brother-in-law diagnosed with Parkinson's. Asher has been involved in launching campaigns to improve research into Parkinson's.

Research
Parkinson's UK is the largest charitable funder of Parkinson's research in the UK and have so far invested more than £50million in research. The charity aims to 'find a cure and improve life for everyone affected by Parkinson's'.

In 2009 the charity produced 'Four decades of discovery' – a booklet describing the key research achievements of the charity since 1969 which included the development of new drugs, an improved understanding of Parkinson's, and better diagnosis and care for people with the condition.

In 2010 the charity spent £4.6 million on new Parkinson's research projects and launched a new 5-year research strategy called 'Our plan to cure Parkinson's'. The new strategy focuses on four central challenges:

 * Understanding why nerve cells die in Parkinson's
 * Developing new animal models of Parkinson's
 * Faster, better drug screening
 * Finding 'biomarkers' for earlier diagnosis

These priorities reflect the charity's focus on basic laboratory research to understand what causes Parkinson's, how it develops, and translational research to develop new treatments that slow, stop or reverse the condition. The charity also funds research to help better understand Parkinson's to improve treatment and care for people currently living with the condition.

The charity produces a free research magazine, Progress, twice a year discussing current Parkinson's research.

Grant schemes
Parkinson's UK provides funding to UK-based researchers through a range of grants schemes, including:

 * Project grants – tackling major research challenges
 * Innovation grants – exploring original research ideas
 * Career development awards – nurturing outstanding talent
 * PhD studentships – attracting the best graduates

Parkinson's UK is a member of the Association of Medical Research Charities (AMRC). This means that every application for research funding is subject to the same strict and transparent review process and is rigorously assessed by an independent panel of experts and people affected by Parkinson's.

Parkinson's UK Brain Bank
Parkinson's UK funds the Parkinson's UK Brain Bank at Imperial College London which provides brain tissue to UK and international Parkinson's researchers.

In April 2009 Parkinson's UK held an appeal to increase the number of people signed up to the brain donor register. Jane Asher, Jeremy Paxman and John Stapleton were some of the people who pledged to donate their brain to Parkinson's research following the campaign.

Criticism
In June 2011 the charity was one of four organisations subject to a national boycott campaign by an animal rights group regarding their usage of animal testing. "Animal Aid plans to take out a series of newspaper adverts urging the public to stop giving money to Cancer Research UK, the British Heart Foundation, the Alzheimer's Society and Parkinson's UK unless they end their support for animal testing."

title: Parkinson's UK


text:
Luigi Di Biagio

Luigi Di Biagio (born 3 June 1971) is an Italian professional football manager and former player.

A former defensive midfielder, Di Biagio last played for Ascoli in 2007, and previously also played for several other Italian clubs throughout his career, including Roma and Internazionale, in particular. At international level, he also played 31 times for the Italy national side between 1998 and 2002, scoring two goals, representing his country at the 1998 and 2002 World Cups, as well as at Euro 2000, where Italy reached the final.

Early career: Lazio, Monza, and Foggia
Di Biagio was born in Rome. He initially played for Lazio (1988–89), making his Serie A debut with the side, and later played for Monza (1989–92) in Serie B and Serie C1, winning the Coppa Italia C1 in 1991. He later moved on to play for Foggia (1992–95) under Zeman, where he gained promotion to Serie A once again, establishing himself in the starting lineup of the club as a defensive minded central midfielder, who also served as a playmaker; he notably reached the semi-final of the Coppa Italia with Foggia during the 1994–95 season, attracting the attention of bigger Italian clubs.

Roma
Di Biagio began to achieve greater international exposure and fame in Italy due to his excellent and consistent performances whilst playing for Roma (1995–99), where he remained for five seasons, under managers Carlo Mazzone, Carlos Bianchi and Zeman once again; he would make his career debut in European Competitions with the club. During his time at Roma, he was able to help the squad to a fourth-place finish during the 1997–98 season, and managed to subsequently reach the quarter-finals of the 1998–99 UEFA Cup and the 1997–98 Coppa Italia. His consistent performances led him to become a permanent member of the Italy national side during this period. Di Biagio would make 140 appearances for Roma in all competitions, scoring 18 goals. 15 of his goals were scored in Serie A in 114 appearances.

Internazionale
At the beginning of the 1999–2000 Serie A season, Di Biagio transferred to Internazionale, and became a regular first team member due to his continued high standard of performance. During the 2001–02 season, he narrowly missed out on winning the Serie A title to Juventus on the final match-day; he received criticism, however, for his despondent performance in a 4–2 defeat to Lazio at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, on his final league appearance of the season, despite initially scoring a goal during the match. Di Biagio remained at Inter until 2003, and during his four years at the club, he amassed 163 appearances, scoring a total of 18 goals in all competitions.

Although he was unable to win a title during his time with the club, he did manage to reach the semi-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Cup with Inter, losing out to eventual Champions Feyenoord. He also reached the semi-finals of the 2002–03 Champions League with Inter, under manager Héctor Cúper, losing out to cross-city rivals and eventual Champions Milan on away goals. He also managed to win runners up medals in Serie A during the 2002–03 season under Cuper, as well as in the Coppa Italia during the 1999–2000 season, and the Italian Supercup in 2000, under Marcello Lippi.

Brescia
Di Biagio subsequently moved to Brescia (2003–2006) during his later career, where he played alongside Roberto Baggio during the 2003–04 season, frequently playing as a sweeper or as a centreback/secondary defensive playmaker in Brescia's three-man defence. Although Di Biagio managed a personal best of nine goals in Serie A the following year, Brescia were relegated to Serie B during the 2004–05 season, and Di Biagio finished his final season at Brescia playing in the Italian second division during the 2005–06 season.

Later career with Ascoli and retirement
Di Biagio signed for Ascoli in November 2006, but the bid was not considered to be valid by the federation, since the player was not released for free by Brescia before the 30 June deadline. The bid was therefore postponed until January 2007, and in the meantime Di Biagio went on training with Ascoli, and played from November to December with Promozione club Polisportiva La Storta from Rome, coached by his friend and former Dundee and Lazio footballer Alessandro Romano. Di Biagio played his first Ascoli match on 14 January 2007, against Cagliari. He collected only seven appearances that season, scoring two goals in 523 minutes. Ascoli finished second last in Serie A that season, and were relegated to Serie B. He retired at the end of the season, and returned to Polisportiva La Storta as a youth coach.

Despite his reputation and ability as a midfielder, Di Biagio had an unfortunate club and international career, failing to win a major trophy, and only winning the Coppa Italia Serie C1 with Monza.

Di Biagio has also briefly worked as a football pundit and commentator on Sky Sport.

International career
Di Biagio was a regular member of the national side during the late 1990s and early 2000s, and was capped 31 times for Italy between 1998 and 2002, scoring two goals. He represented Italy at Under-23 level at the 1993 Mediterranean games, where they reached the final under manager Cesare Maldini. He made his senior debut for Italy on 28 January 1998, in a 3–0 friendly home win against Slovakia, under Cesare Maldini.

After a strong season with Roma, Di Biagio represented his country in the 1998 World Cup, appearing in each of Italy's five matches, and notably scoring a headed goal from a Roberto Baggio cross in the second group stage match against Cameroon, which ended in a 3–0 win for Italy; his goal being the 100th goal for Italy in World Cup matches. In the round of 16 match against Norway, Di Biagio set up Vieri's match winning goal, and helped Italy to keep a clean sheet. Despite a strong tournament, in which he was considered to be one of the best performing midfielders, he missed the decisive penalty in the quarter-final shootout against hosts and eventual champions France, after a 0–0 deadlock following extra time, hitting the crossbar, as Italy were eliminated from the tournament.

Di Biagio continued to be a key player for Italy under Dino Zoff, and he went on to represent Italy at Euro 2000, starting alongside Albertini in midfield, and winning a runners-up medal as Italy lost 2–1 to France in the final on a golden goal. Di Biagio had another successful tournament for Italy, and he scored Italy's first goal against Sweden, heading in a Del Piero corner, in Italy's final group match, which ended in a 2–1 win, and which allowed Italy to top their group and progress to the quarter-finals. In the victorious semi-final penalty shootout against co-hosts the Netherlands, he took Italy's first penalty, and was able to convert it successfully on this occasion. It was the first penalty he had taken after the infamous miss which struck the crossbar during the 1998 World Cup, which immediately eliminated Italy from the competition.

Under Giovanni Trapattoni, Di Biagio was also a member of Italy's 2002 World Cup squad that was eliminated by co-hosts South Korea in the Round of 16 on a golden goal. Di Biagio made only one appearance in the tournament, however, playing in Italy's 2–0 opening win against Ecuador, where he assisted Vieri's second goal of the match with a long ball, in the 27th minute; he was substituted by Gattuso in the 69th minute. He made his final appearance for Italy in a friendly match against Turkey on 20 November 2002, in Pescara.

Style of play
Di Biagio was regarded one of Italy's best and most consistent midfielders during the later 1990s and early 2000s, and one of the best players in the world in his position during his prime, consistently providing excellent performances for Roma, Inter and the Italy national side; he often stood out throughout his career for his leadership. Di Biagio was a complete, tenacious and combative defensive midfielder, whose best strengths involved quickly breaking up the opposition's attacks, although he was also capable of getting forward when needed, due to his ability to make attacking runs into the area, which enabled him to contribute to his team's offensive play with goals. Furthermore, he was known for his ability to either set the tempo of his team's build-up plays with short exchanges, or start counter-attacks with long balls after winning back possession. Throughout his career, Di Biagio earned a reputation as a strong, aggressive and hard-tackling midfielder, who had a knack for picking up cards; after Paolo Montero, he is the player with the most red cards in Serie A history.

Although he was primarily deployed as a central or defensive midfielder, Di Biagio was capable of playing anywhere in midfield due to his tactical versatility, and played in every outfield position throughout his career, and was occasionally played in an attacking midfield role behind the forwards, or, even less frequently, as a centre-forward; he also played as a defender later in his career, once he lost his pace, functioning as a sweeper, as a full-back, or as a central defender. A hardworking player, Di Biagio was gifted with power, stamina, and tactical intelligence, as well as an acute defensive awareness and positional sense. He combined these attributes with a surprising technical ability, and was also capable of functioning creatively as a deep-lying playmaker in midfield, due to his ball control, vision, and passing range. Indeed, his central holding midfield role under Zdeněk Zeman in the manager's 4–3–3 system has also been likened to that of a metodista ("centre-half," in Italian football jargon), due to Di Biago's ability to dictate play in midfield, launch quick attacks, or assist his team defensively, as well as to maintain his position and thus allowing his teams to maintain a high defensive line with little space between the attack and the defence. Despite his more defensive playing role in midfield, Di Biagio also possessed a powerful shot from distance, and was a dangerous free kick and penalty kick taker, which also enabled him to contribute offensively Additionally, he excelled in the air, in spite of his relatively short stature, due to his elevation, physical strength, and heading accuracy, which made him a goal threat in the opposing box during set-pieces.

Managerial career
Following his retirement from Ascoli in 2007, Di Biagio returned to football, signing a contract with the amateur 1993 youth side La Polisportiva La Storta as a youth coach, in 2008. In August 2007, he signed a contract with Cisco Roma as a youth coach. In July 2008, he had managed to officially obtain his first degree coaching licence.

On 25 July 2011, he was named the coach of Italy's under-20 side. On 2 July 2013, Luigi Di Biagio stepped up an age group to replace Devis Mangia as Italy's under-21 coach. He made his debut as the Italy under-21 coach on 14 August 2013, in a friendly match against Slovakia, which was won 4–1 by Italy. He eventually helped the U-21 side to qualify for the upcoming 2015 Under-21 European Championship in the Czech Republic, as Italy defeated Slovakia once again in the play-offs.

In the final tournament, Italy were placed in a group containing England and eventual finalists Portugal and Sweden, the latter of whom would go on to win the tournament. Italy finished third in their group, and were eliminated in the first round with four points.

Di Biagio led the Italy under-21 side to the semi-finals of the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, where they were eliminated by Spain on 27 June, following a 3–1 defeat.

On 5 February 2018, Di Biagio was confirmed to be the caretaker manager of the senior Italy team for their two friendlies on 23 March and 27 March 2018 against Argentina and England respectively. On 17 March 2018, Di Biagio called up veteran goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon for the two friendlies, despite his initial decision to retire. Di Biagio's first match as Italy coach ended in a 2–0 defeat to Argentina. His second, and final match as caretaker manager, ended in a 1–1 draw to England. On 15 May, it was announced Di Biagio would return to the under-21 side, after the appointment of Roberto Mancini.

Following the Italy U-21 side's first-round elimination in the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, held on home soil, Di Biagio announced his resignation as the under-21 side's manager on 25 June 2019.

On 10 February 2020, he was officially nominated as the new coach of Serie A team S.P.A.L. following the sacking of Leonardo Semplici. With fifteen matches still to be played, the club were at the bottom of Serie A at the time of his nomination. On 2 August 2020, his contract was terminated by mutual consent.

Club

 * Internazionale
 * Serie A: runner-up 2002–03
 * Coppa Italia: runner-up 2000
 * Supercoppa Italiana: runner-up 2000

 * Monza
 * Coppa Italia Serie C1: 1990–91

International

 * Italy
 * UEFA European Championship: runner-up 2000

 * Italy U23
 * Mediterranean Games: 4th place 1993

Individual

 * AC Monza Hall of Fame

Orders

 * Cavaliere OMRI BAR.svg 5th Class / Knight: Cavaliere Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2000

title: Luigi Di Biagio


text:
Talk:Clement Dorsey

Untitled
Text of the article was obtained from public domain site. Darwinek 18:58, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Clement Dorsey


text: Category:Belgian singers

title: Category:Belgian singers


text:
Garlock Fault

The Garlock Fault is a left-lateral strike-slip fault running northeast–southwest along the north margins of the Mojave Desert of Southern California, for much of its length along the southern base of the Tehachapi Mountains.

Geography

Stretching for 250 km, it is the second-longest fault in California, and one of the most prominent geological features in the southern part of the state. It marks the northern boundary of the area known as the Mojave Block, as well as the southern ends of the Sierra Nevada and the valleys of the westernmost Basin and Range province.

The Garlock Fault runs from a junction with the San Andreas Fault in the Antelope Valley, eastward to a junction with the Death Valley Fault Zone in the eastern Mojave Desert. It is named after the historic mining town of Garlock, founded in 1894 by Eugene Garlock and now a ghost town. Relatively few communities lie directly along the Garlock, as it is primarily situated in the desert, with Frazier Park, Tehachapi, Mojave, and Johannesburg being the closest to it.

Geology
The Garlock Fault is believed to have developed to accommodate the strain between the extensional tectonics of the Great Basin crust and the right lateral strike-slip faulting of the Mojave Desert crust.

Unlike most of the other faults in California, slip on the Garlock Fault is left-lateral; that is, the land on the other side of the fault moves to the left from the perspective of someone facing the fault. Thus, the terrain north of the fault is moving westward and that on the south is moving eastward.

Activity
The Garlock Fault moves at a rate of between 2 and 11 mm a year, with an average slip of around 7 millimeters. While most of the fault is locked, certain segments have been shown to move by aseismic creep, which is motion without resulting earthquakes.

The Garlock is not considered to be a particularly active fault, seldom producing any shaking detectable by humans, although it has been known to generate sympathetic seismic events when triggered by other earthquakes and in one instance by the removal of ground water. These events, as well as continuing microearthquake activity and the state of the scarps from previous ruptures, do indicate that the Garlock will produce another major quake at some point in the future.

A study published in October 2019 in the journal Science indicated that a part of the Garlock fault slipped after being triggered by the series of earthquakes in the Ridgecrest area which occurred in July 2019. Reports in the Los Angeles Times indicated that a magnitude 8 earthquake along the Garlock fault would have the potential for grave disaster.

The last significant ruptures on the Garlock were thought to be in the years 1050 AD and 1500 AD. Research has pinned the interval between significant ruptures on the Garlock as being anywhere between 200 and 3,000 years, depending on the segment of the fault. The most recent notable event in the Garlock Fault Zone was a magnitude 5.7 near the town of Mojave on July 11, 1992. It is thought to have been triggered by the Landers earthquake, just two weeks earlier. However, no surface slippage of the fault itself had been recorded in modern times until 2019. Following a series of earthquakes on nearby minor faults in late July 2019, the Garlock Fault was observed moving about 2 cm (0.8 in) between July and October accompanied by numerous minor earthquakes, a state known as fault creep, and producing a bulge in land observed by satellite radar images.

title: Garlock Fault