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Ó Flaithbheartaigh

O'Flaherty (, ; Ua Flaithbertaig; Ó Flaithbheartaigh ) is an Irish Gaelic clan based most prominently in what is today County Galway. The clan name originated in the 10th century as a derivative of its founder Flaithbheartach mac Eimhin. They descend in the paternal line from the Connachta's Uí Briúin Seóla. They were originally kings of Maigh Seóla and Muintir Murchada and as members of the Uí Briúin were kinsmen of the Ó Conchubhair and Mac Diarmada amongst others. After their king Cathal mac Tigernán lost out to Áed in Gai Bernaig in the 11th century, the family were pushed further west to Iar Connacht, a territory associated with Connemara today. They continued to rule this land until the 16th century. The name has been alternatively rendered into English in various forms, such as Flaherty, Fluharty, Faherty, Laverty, Flaverty, Lahiff, and Flahive.

Overview
This Gaelic-Irish surname is written as "Ua Flaithbertach" (nominative) or "Ua Flaithbertaig" (genitive) in Old Irish and Middle Irish texts. In Modern Irish the surname is now generally spelt as Ó Flatharta.

The surname is commonly translated as "bright ruler" or more correctly "bright prince", flaith originally meaning prince in Irish. "O" or Ó comes from Ua, designating "grandson" or "descendant" of a (major) clan member. The prefix is often anglicised to O', using an apostrophe instead of the Irish síneadh fada.

Maigh Seóla was the earliest O'Flaherty domain, to the east of Lough Corrib in the kingdom of Connacht, the westernmost province of the Island of Ireland (Irish: Éire).

The Ó Flaithbertaighs are a branch of the Muintir Murchada dynasty, named after Murchadh mac Maenach (died 891), King of the Uí Briúin Seóla. Murchadh is one of the earliest attested kings of his region. The leading family of this dynasty would take the surname Ó Flaithbheartaigh (O'Flaherty) from the 11th century onwards.

Kings of Magh Seóla
The Uí Briúin Seóla was one of the major branches of the powerful Uí Briúin dynasty, which had become the dominant force in Connacht by the 8th century. The genealogies list two sons of Murchadh mac Maenach: Urchadh and Urumhain. Urchadh mac Murchadh, King of Maigh Seóla (also listed as king of Iarthair Connacht, died 945, in the 14th century Book of Ballymote) was father of Bé Binn inion Urchadh, Princess of the Uí Briúin Seóla and Queen of Thomond (fl. early 10th century). Bé Binn married Cennétig mac Lorcáin of Thomond to produce a son who would become the High King of Ireland (Irish: Ard-Rí na hÉireann): Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, known in English as Brian Boru (c. 941–23 April 1014). Brian broke the near monopoly of the Uí Néill over the High Kingship of Ireland and fought to unite Ireland as a people under one, native king. His father, Cennétig mac Lorcáin of Thomond, was one of the principal leaders of the resistance to the Danish Viking incursions. Cennétig had several wives and children but positively assigned Bé Binn as the mother of Brian Bóruma.

Bé Binn's sister Creassa inion Urchadh was a wife of King Tadg mac Cathail of Connacht, while her sister, Caineach inion Urchadh, married the ancestor of the Clann Coscraig sept of the Uí Briúin Seóla. Her brother, Donnchadh mac Urchadh succeeded their father as King of Maigh Seóla (943–959).

Like the Uí Briúin Seóla, the Uí Briúin Ai were a major branch of the Uí Briúin dynasty, from whom the high medieval Ua Conchobair (O'Connor) kings of Connacht, including the last high king of Ireland, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, were descended.

The Ó Flaithbertaigh family line and kingship can be traced back to Brión mac Echach Muigmedóin, King of Connacht, who was the half-brother of Niall of the Nine Hostages. Their father, Eochaid Muigh Meadhoin mac Muiredach, was, according to legend, also 122nd High King of Ireland and was a direct descendant of Galamh Milesius (c. 1763 BCE – c. 1699 BCE). Galamh Milesius's bloodline produced kings in succession for over 3,000 years. Kingship was passed on to direct descendants only starting with Érimón mac Míl Espáine, 2nd High King of Ireland son of Galamh Milisius.

The first Ó Flaithbertaighs
In Connacht the first to bear the name was Muireadhach ua Flaithbheartach, king of Maigh Seóla, who died in 1034. He is listed as having three sons – Ruaidhrí of Lough Cimbe, Donagh Aluinn and Aedh. From Ruaidhrí and Donagh would descend the O'Flahertys of East and West Connemara.

Exiled by the Kings of Connacht
In the Annals of the Four Masters, Rúaidhri Ua Flaithbheartaigh, King of Iar Connacht, is described as dying at the battle of Glen Patrick in 1061 (Book of Ballymote: died 1062). The Annals state:

 * Maidhm Glinne Pattraicc ria n-Aodh Ua Conchobhair for Iarthair Connacht, in ro mudhaighith ile im Ruaidhri Ua Flaithbheartaigh, tigherna Iarthair Connacht, & ro dicendadh é, & ruccadh a ceann co Cruachain Chonnacht iar sraoineadh for mac Aodha mic Ruaidhri./The victory of Gleann-Phadraig was gained by Aedh Ua Conchobhair over the people of Iar Connacht (West Connacht), where many were slain, together with Ruaidhri. O'Flaithbheartaigh, lord of Iar Connacht, was beheaded, and his head was carried to Cruachain in Connacht, after the son of Aedh, son of Ruaidhri, had been defeated.

The following year records that Tadhg, son of Aedh Ua Conchobhair (O'Connor), was "slain by the son of Aedh, son of Ruaidhri (ie O'Flahertys), and the people of Iar Connacht." From this point on, the family were forced into Iar Connacht, as the Kings of Connacht took the original Ua Flaithbheartaigh homeland for themselves.

Aedh Ua Flaithbheartaigh, (King of Iar Connacht, died 1079) was the third bearer of the surname Ua Flaithbheartaigh to rule over the Muintir Murchada. Aedh was killed in 1079 by Ruaidrí na Saide Buide (Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, anglicised Roderic O'Connor, died 1118), who in turn was blinded by Flaithbertaigh Ua Flaithbertaigh (Flaherty O'Flaherty), King of Iar Connacht, in 1092.

Flaithbertaigh Ua Flaithbertaigh, King of Connacht
Crichaireacht cinedach nduchasa Muintiri Murchada is a tract listing the main families and their estates of the Muintir Murchada in the reign of its lord, Flaithbertaigh Ua Flaithbertaigh, who was king of Iar Connacht from 1091 until his death in 1098. He seized the kingship of Connacht in 1092 by blinding the Godfather of his children, King Ruaidrí na Saide Buide. He was killed by Ruaidrí's sons in 1098.

Kings of Iar Connacht
The subsequent king of Iar Connacht, Muireadhach Ua Flaithbheartaigh (died 1121), and his descendants, remained loyal to the Ó Conchobair's.

Before the close of the 13th century, the Chiefs of Clan Ó Flaithbertaigh became Lords of Iar Connacht, extending from the western banks of Lough Corrib to the shores of the Atlantic. In the 1230s, the Hiberno-Normans and took Galway. Gaels were forbidden even from entering the city walls. In the 16th-century, the Ó Flaithbertaigh built a tower house called Aughnanure Castle, which was featured on an Irish stamp and is now a National Monument and tourist destination, managed by the Office of Public Works.

Motto and Coat of Arms
The clan motto is Fortuna Favet Fortibus, or "Fortune Favours the Brave" which may have been inspired by the same line in Virgil's Aeneid. The Ó Flaithbertaigh coat of arms depicts "two red lizards or dragons rampant combatant, supporting a red dexter hand, couped at the wrists, in base a black boat with eight oars". The two red lizards or dragons are often confused with the lions of the English heraldic tradition. Often a grey or green salamander is depicted on a black or grey helmet above the coat of arms.

However, there is little known of Irish heraldic tradition as compared to that of the English although Irish use of distinctive flags and banners in battle is recorded in Irish annals such as the Annals of the Four Masters.

Notable Ó Flaithbertaighs

 * Muireadhach ua Flaithbheartach, King of Maigh Seóla, died 1034.
 * Murchadh an Chapail Ua Flaithbheartaigh, King of Maigh Seóla/Iar Connacht, died 1036.
 * Rúaidhri Ua Flaithbheartaigh, King of Iar Connacht, died 1061.
 * Flaithbertaigh Ua Flaithbertaigh, King of Connacht, died 1098.
 * Conchobhar Ua Flaithbheartaigh, King of Iar Connacht, died 1132.
 * Áedh Mór Ó Flaithbheartaigh, died 1236.
 * Murchad Ua Flaithbertaig, Bishop of Annaghdown, c. 1202–1241.
 * Morogh Ó Flaithbheartaigh, King of Iar Connacht and Chief of the Name, fl. 1244.
 * Ruaidhri Ó Flaithbheartaigh, King of Iar Connacht and Chief of the Name, fl. 1244–1273.
 * Áedh Ó Flaithbheartaigh, Taoiseach of Iar Connacht and Chief of the Name, fl. c. 1377?–1407.
 * Dónal "an Chogaidh" Ó Flaithbheartaigh (Donal of the Battle), also known as Donall an Cullagh (The Cock). Married to Grace O'Malley ("Granuaile"), and tanist to the Ó Flaithbheartaigh title.
 * Murrough na dTuadh Ó Flaithbheartaigh, Chief of the Name, died 1593.
 * Teige Ó Flaithbheartaigh, warlord, died 1589.
 * Roderick O'Flaherty, author and historian, died 1720.
 * Edmond O'Flaherty, Jacobite, died 1749.
 * Edmund O'Flaherty, Irish M.P., fl. 1854.
 * Maidhc Ó Flaithearta, member of the Irish National Land League, fl. 1882.
 * Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde 16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900, Irish writer and poet
 * Liam O'Flaherty (Liam Ó Flaithearta 28 Aug 1896 – 7 Sep 1984) novelist and short story writer.
 * Monsignor Hugh O'Flaherty, The Scarlet Pimpernel of the Vatican.
 * Colman O'Flaherty, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross.
 * Michael O'Flaherty, Director of the European Union Fundamental Rights Agency, human rights lawyer.
 * Tom Sailí Ó Flaithearta, actor.
 * Patrick O'Flaherty, Mayor of Galway 1964–1965 and 1973–1975.
 * Bridie O'Flaherty, Mayor of Galway 1980–1981 and 1985–1986.
 * Terry O'Flaherty, Mayor of Galway 2003–2004.
 * Maire Eilis Ní Fhlaithearta, actress and former model.
 * Fionnuala Ní Fhlatharta, actress, Ros na Rún.
 * Eric O'Flaherty, American baseball player

Flahertys

 * Daniel Flaherty (born 1993), American actor
 * Francis C. Flaherty (1919-1941), American Medal of Honor recipient
 * Honor Flaherty (died 1848) Irish Famine victim
 * Jack Flaherty (born 1995), American baseball player
 * James Louis Flaherty (1910-1975), American Catholic bishop
 * Jim Flaherty (1949-2014), Canadian M.P, Federal Minister of Finances
 * Joe Flaherty (1941–2024), American actor
 * Joseph A. Flaherty Jr. (born 1930 or 1931), American engineering executive
 * Maggie Flaherty (ice hockey) (born 2000), American ice hockey player
 * Mary Pat Flaherty (born 1955), American journalist
 * May O'Flaherty (1904–1991), Irish bookshop operator and literary patron
 * Michael F. Flaherty (born 1969), American politician
 * Michael John Flaherty (1917-1992), sportsperson
 * Paddy O'Flaherty (1942/3 - 2016), broadcaster and journalist
 * Pat Flaherty (racing driver) (1926-2002), winner of the 1956 Indianapolis 500
 * Robert J. Flaherty (1884-1951), film director
 * Ryan Flaherty (born 1986), American baseball player
 * Thomas J. Flaherty (born 1963), Garda Síochána recipient of the Scott Medal
 * Vincent Flaherty (active 1958-), American producer, recording artist, writer, and political activist

title: Ó Flaithbheartaigh


text: File:Train My Private Nation.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Train My Private Nation.jpg


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Talk:Romanization of Hebrew

Nomination of ISO_259-3 for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article ISO_259-3 is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/ISO_259-3 until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article.
 * Note: It's not yet clear whether the outcome will affect this article as well -- which is precisely why we hope contributors to this article will join the discussion.
 * MisterGoodTime (talk) 22:20, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

Contents
Should this article include an indication that the romanization is specifically for Modern Hebrew (if that is indeed the case?) It's very different from the transliteration scheme used in the Hebrew alphabet article. rossb 15:54, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

'Agreed! In its present state the article is very confusing! I will leave a note on the author's talk page... --VivaEmilyDavies 17:49, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * As much as I understand it the official romanization of Hebrew is for Modern Hebrew pronunciations, trying to cover not only the most common Israeli accent but also the Israel's "official" Sepharadic accent (when Het and Ayin are different than unstressed-Kaf and Alef for example, or when Schwa-Na` is pronounced as short e). A nice summary of Hebrew romanizations can be found in http://www.geocities.com/raz_h_h which also includes some reference to older pronunciations of consonants. -- 203.144.160.246 01:38, October 11, 2005

How does the UN scheme differ from what the Hebrew alphabet page calls the "Israeli" scheme, and which one is used on expressway signs in Israel? We're trying to decide on a standard for Hebrew over at Wikitravel... Jpatokal 13:51, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * If you're interested, see my comments at Talk:Hebrew alphabet. Tomer TALK  02:06, Mar 30, 2005 (UTC)

 * The UN's romanization scheme for Hebrew is a copy of the official "simple" Israeli scheme (by the Academy for the Hebrew Language). This one is also used for official documents and intercity road signs. The problem is that this romanization is not part of school studies and many people in Israel are not so familiar with it, so many use non-standard versions (even on street signs). -- 203.144.160.246 05:25, October 12, 2005

 * Welcome and thank you for your comments. I think your observation applies to all standard romanizations of Hebrew. I'm incorporating a note to that effect into the article. You are also welcome to incorporate your ideas directly into the article.

 * You can help us follow this discussion by signing your comments with " --~ " (which will be automatically converted to "-- 203.144.160.246 05:25, October 12, 2005"). You may also wish to create an account. I hope you'll stay. Please note that the comments that you found here are months older than any of the text in the article.

 * --Hoziron 12:53, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

 * A summary of the official Romanizations of Hebrew for Hebrew readers with some suggestions and examples can be found in "Romanization of Hebrew" --61.90.95.254 23:23, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

Hebrew naming conventions
Urgent: see Naming conventions (Hebrew) to add your opinions about this important matter. Thank you. IZAK 17:59, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

Explain don't complain
Please let's not present the subject as if it's so confused and complex that only mavens like us can understand it. That's not fair to the reader, who has come here willing to learn. It's like Shammai when he drove the seeker away with his building rod. If there's a point too complex to cover in this one article, at least provide a link to a fuller treatment somewhere else. I don't have time right now to clear this up myself. --Hoziron 14:46, 23 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree this needs a cleanup template. Also, get down to business in the intro. We need a scientific standard that we endorse for use on Wikipedia. For Arabic, this is DIN 31635 (see ArabDIN). What about ISO 259? I can't seem to find a clean specification of it. What is the transliteration scheme used on e.g. Shekhem (Šəḫem? I am familiar with seeing these transliterations with superscript vowels etc. in academic publications, but I don't know what the transliteration scheme is called, and how it is officially specified. See also Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Writing systems. dab (ᛏ) 16:20, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

This is an encyclopedia article. If you're looking for a policy proposal and discussion, please see Naming conventions (Hebrew). The transliteration scheme that you have noticed is a product of User:Gilgamesh who has described it on his user page. I'll put policy comments at Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (Hebrew). —Hoziron 04:06, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * thank you, I realize this is an encyclopedia article; I was going to inform myself by this encyclopedia article for the purpose of deciding what convention to use myself, by WP:NOR we shouldn't just pull conventions out of our hats. Naming conventions (Hebrew) is interesting but it doesn't answer my question, since it has "Latin Transcription" instead of specifying a standard. I am no closer to knowing ISO 259 now, and I don't know how close Gilgamesh's proposal is to ISO because he does not compare it to ISO. dab (ᛏ) 17:14, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Sorry, I think I struck a firmer tone than I intended. I generally agree with what you just wrote. ISO 259 has a-ring for kamatz, non-joining ring for shva, e-cedilla for segol, w-circumflex for vav-holem, w-overdot for shuruk, and the awesomely weird e-cedilla-breve for hatef segol. Gilgamesh is not following ISO 259 for vowels. Gilgamesh does have the same values as ISO 259 for consonants. --Hoziron 04:40, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

Online web transliteration service for Hebrew
Adding a new external link to Hebrew transliteration service at http://www.latkey.com/translit (it stayed here for ages, but was recently erroneously removed). It matches wiki guidelines as it's free and doesn't contain advertising content on its pages. I suggest reviewing other links as some have changed or contain Google adwords. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by DanIssa (talk • contribs).

 * Sure there are other inappropriate links, people just keep adding them, you know. It does not matter if it's "free" or "useful". Linking to download sites for Microsoft Office plugins to use the online service of a company is not appropriate. There is no encyclopedic content on the site, and it does promote other products of that comany. If you reference and the corresponding user contributions, you'll see that there were repeated attempts to place links in several articles, despite all warnings not to re-add them (including the ignored warning on your own talk page). Not only to the transliteration service but also to the company main page, with link descriptions promoting the keyboard stickers. You will not add any more links to latkey.com, i-keyboard.com, or related domains. Femto 13:19, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

dhalet -- dhet
Is there really an official Academia transliteration of dhet, namely d with line below (the same as for dhalet)? I only know the transliteration z with dot below. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.178.92.246 (talk) 18:16, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

Mutations
Please don't take the following personally, someone obviously invested a lot of time and effort in the comparative table, however it includes some absurd mutations which can only be the result of a feverishly imaginative mind and bare no resemblance to reality. Two of the more extreme monstrosities are " " and "  ". But seriously: mainly these mistakes seem to be the result of a superficial generalization of rules not fully understood, e.g. the difference between dagesh kal and dagesh chazak. Or could anyone state some source? Dan Pelleg (talk) 00:11, 23 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Couldn't see those any more, tool them out. Dan ☺ 23:15, 21 November 2009 (UTC)

ch?
What about "ch" for, as in "Halacha"? Is that just from the German transliteration or is it part of a standard that is not included here?--87.162.37.108 (talk) 23:33, 18 August 2009 (UTC)
 * "ch" for is very common, though not standard. I think this information should be included in the article. Dan ☺  14:26, 21 August 2009 (UTC)

Dhalet
I've lived in Israel all my life and I've never seen this letter. I don't think any Israeli can pronounce it anyway. TFighterPilot (talk) 18:10, 17 January 2010 (UTC)
 * You're right, "dhalet" and "thav" were invented for the transliteration into Hebrew of sounds that are not part of Hebrew phonology – however they are standard, and the rare occasion of needing to romanize a Hebrew text which contains transliterations of these sounds into Hebrew justifies including them in this table (e.g. he:סאות' פארק or he:מד'הב). Dan ☺  17:00, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

 * There are no variants of Alef and Ayin except for pronounced vs. silent, therefore usage of various slightly different symbols for their transliteration has no significance except for consistency and aesthetics. Personally I prefer the half circles ( ʾ, ʿ ): most unambiguous in my opinion. Dan ☺ 16:31, 21 February 2010 (UTC)

Wrong direction
Angr, your edit is a move in the wrong direction. IPA for Hebrew is the page we should update: recently articles such as Mid front unrounded vowel, Mid back rounded vowel and Open central unrounded vowel were added to Wikipedia, which provide clarity and conteract the misleading absence of distinct IPA characters for these vowels. In phonemic transcriptions, the diacritics are left out for simplicity, however, in tables such as in this article, a precise phonetic definition is better. The simplified phonemic convention can be added to it but shouldn't replace it: it simply denotes the wrong vowels. Dan ☺ 20:05, 3 March 2011 (UTC)

Someone please add an example.
In many of the pages on a language, there is sample text in a table with variations. For example, see this article. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_German_language

Maybe someone can have a table with English, Transliteration 1, Transliteration 2, Hebrew

Maybe something from here? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.64.108.61 (talk) 03:12, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

Citation in "How to transliterate"
The quoted sentence in Section "How to transliterate" does not require a citation as it is an invented statement for the purpose of demonstrating a technical point. Eaglebrowne (talk) 14:37, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

Source for transliteration
The column "ISO 259" in Romanization of Hebrew is not a version of ISO 259; with its macron for some long vowels it looks a little like the "academic style" of the but it does not use the circumflex for matres lectionis. The transliteration in Niqqud is based on the same principle but also demonstrates the use of the circumflex, even more extensively than the SBL transliteration. Both of these variants are a more accurate transliteration than the ISO or the SBL transliteration, they would only need a source. Oliv0 (talk) 12:25, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

 * Yes, it is Standard of Poland «Polska Norma "Transliteracja alfabetu hebrajskiego PN-74 / N-01211"». This standard is in active use by Roman-Catholic Church of Poland, Public and non-Public Libraries of Poland. Also it is in some use in Educational System of Poland. Yes, this system is similar to SBL, but in opposite to SBL it really is "A State of The Art", and allows precise and accurate transliteration in both directions
 * Proof: «Protokół 74. posiedzenia Komisji Standaryzacji Nazw Geograficznych poza Granicami Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej» — Preceding unsigned comment added by Vitaly.v.ch (talk • contribs) 00:24, 1 November 2019 (UTC)

Unicode modifier letters
The main text has, "The two letters that represent a stop may be written using the forward and backward quote marks, or similar marks."

The two "similar marks" that are sometimes used to represent a glottal stop are:
 * U+02BB MODIFIER LETTER TURNED COMMA which is used for the letter ʻáyin
 * U+02BC MODIFIER LETTER APOSTROPHE which is used for the letter aleph

These characters are used by ICU when transliterating Hebrew.

DFH (talk) 15:21, 21 March 2016 (UTC)

 * The page for the letter ʻáyin includes this statement, which rather complicates matters:
 * ʿAyin is usually transliterated into the Latin alphabet with ʿ, (U+02BF) "modifier letter left half ring".
 * DFH (talk) 15:38, 21 March 2016 (UTC)

 * ISO-259-2 defines the following characters to represent the stops:
 * U+02BF Modifier letter left half ring for the letter ʻáyin
 * U+02BE Modifier letter right half ring for the letter aleph
 * DFH (talk) 13:42, 22 March 2016 (UTC)

Regarding the romanization of Gimel Grusha, Zayin Grusha and Tsadi Grusha
Saying the Hebrew Language Academy standard does not offer the romanization of those letters is a bit of an error. See http://hebrew-academy.org.il/wp-content/uploads/Transcription2_1.pdf, page three. Itsused (talk) 12:06, 3 August 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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2017 merge
I note that User:Dbachmann created a page with a merge template on it (DIN 31636), but I can't find the matching discussion. It does look like the table might be helpful on the Romanization page, but I'm far from an expert so it would be nice to have some comment in support or opposition. Klbrain (talk) 22:01, 22 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Given no support, I've closed the proposal, but have improved the links between the articles and given some context to the German article. Klbrain (talk) 11:54, 3 April 2019 (UTC)

ISO letter names
Some of them don't seem phonologically possible, e.g. ḥăṭep̄ - what is this even supposed to represent? 82.208.108.68 (talk) 23:16, 25 January 2023 (UTC)

Made-up information
Looking further into it, the article describes something completely different from the standard in question. An online preview of this standard can be found here, of which ISO 259 seems to be an accurate description. As can be seen, it has next to nothing in common with the system this article calls 'ISO 259'. 82.208.108.68 (talk) 23:53, 25 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Romanization of Hebrew


text:
User talk:149.243.232.3

AfD nomination of Saratlas
An editor has nominated one or more articles which you have created or worked on, for deletion. The nominated article is Saratlas. We appreciate your contributions, but the nominator doesn't believe that the article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion and has explained why in his/her nomination (see also Notability and "What Wikipedia is not").

Your opinions on whether the article meets inclusion criteria and what should be done with the article are welcome; please participate in the discussion(s) by adding your comments to Articles for deletion/Saratlas. Please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ).

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Please note: This is an automatic notification by a bot. I have nothing to do with this article or the deletion nomination, and can't do anything about it. --Erwin85Bot (talk) 01:08, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Good sources provided for relation but argument regarding 'House of Cramm' is reasonable. The question was regarding where the lines for dates is drawn as they entered England as Von Cramms and left as Crams due to the English reformation the coming revolution etc. and nobility is not official in Germany now for sometime while the 18th century codifications which are still honored.  The lines of cultural continuity from Germany to England via the Netherlands and then to America are striking particularly the involvement with politics and the church at the highest or nearly highest levels over such a long period despite geographic and political differences -particularly now when the Western tradition appears to be under threat 2600:1700:F860:2290:78E4:9761:2A4E:8082 (talk) 17:07, 6 May 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:149.243.232.3


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User talk:Eden Cogan

here you can talk with me. (I'm Eden Cogan)

title: User talk:Eden Cogan


text:
Redhill, Nottinghamshire

Redhill is a small community forming part of the much larger town of Arnold in Nottinghamshire, England. It is approximately 4 miles north of the city of Nottingham in the borough of Gedling. The area is home to approximately 2,000 people, many of whom are commuters. The population is shown in the Gedling ward of Bonington.

Facilities
Although there is no commercial centre to Redhill, there is Redhill Academy, a specialist performing arts school, Redhill Leisure Centre and Redhill Stores and a newsagent. There are also two pubs: ‘The Ram Inn’ and ‘The Waggon And Horses’. Redhill also hosts the nearest municipal cemetery for the residents of the Greater Arnold area. Redhill also boasts a unisex hairdressing salon, two car servicing garages and a used car dealership.

Bus services

 * Nottingham City Transport
 * 87: Nottingham - Sherwood- City Hospital - Edwards Lane - Redhill - Arnold

 * Stagecoach
 * Pronto: Chesterfield - Mansfield - Nottingham
 * Sherwood Arrow: Worksop - Retford - Ollerton -Nottingham

History
It is generally accepted by historians that Redhill takes its name from the clay-like red soil making up the hill at the centre of the community. Running through Redhill is the primary road leading north out of Nottingham, now named Mansfield Road, which is part of the A60. Prior to c. 1800 it was considered to be the southern limit of Sherwood Forest. A professional guide to lead travellers safely through the forest to Mansfield could be hired from the now-demolished ‘Guide House’, which stood on the eastern side of Mansfield Road to the north of Roscoe Avenue.

title: Redhill, Nottinghamshire


text:
ARMIGER

The ARMIGER (Anti Radiation Missile with Intelligent Guidance & Extended Range) was a missile  developed by the Diehl BGT Defence to replace existing AGM-88 HARM missiles in the German Air Force by the end of the decade. It was to be an advanced high supersonic missile intended to destroy modern and future air defenses through direct hit. Its development has been stopped, mainly on the cost basis.

ARMIGER was to feature an IR seeker, accurate Inertial Measurement Unit (INS) for navigational purposes, long range, high supersonic speed, reliability, and direct hit capability. It was to be powered by a combined rocket-ramjet, and would use a dual-mode seeker.

title: ARMIGER


text:
Western Province, Zambia

Western Province is one of the 10 provinces in Zambia and encompasses most of the area formerly known as Barotseland. The capital is Mongu, and together with the neighbouring town of Limulunga, Mongu is treated as the capital of Barotseland.

Geography
The geography of the province is dominated by the Barotse Floodplain of the Zambezi river, extending from the confluence of the Zambezi with the Lungwebungu and Kabompo Rivers at the northern border of the province, to a point below Senanga and above the Ngonye Falls in the south. This floodplain is inundated from December to June, and is fed by other rivers with their own floodplains, and serves as a vast reservoir storing the waters of the Zambezi. The seasonal flooding is very important to agriculture in the province, providing natural irrigation for the grasslands on which huge herds of cattle depend, and bringing water to the settlements along the edges of the plain. Away from the Zambezi and its tributaries, much of the landscape is a gently undulating series of fossil sand dunes from a previous extension of the Kalahari Desert, with numerous lagoons, pans and seasonal swamps in hollows between the dunes. Dry grassland plains, teak forest, miombo woodlands and patches of evergreen Cryptosepalum forest cover the land.

Transport
Mongu is now well supplied with paved roads and drainage. The main one and the chief access for the province is the 590-kilometre Lusaka–Mongu Road from Central Province, through Kaoma to Mongu. There is a plan to link Zambia to its neighbouring Angola and as of 2016, the Barotse Floodplain Causeway, which extends the Lusaka-Mongu Road and connects Mongu with the other side of the Zambezi River (Kalabo) has been completed.

The M10 Road is the other main road in the province, connecting Mongu with Livingstone via Senanga, Sioma (where it crosses the Zambezi) and Sesheke (where it bypasses the Katima Mulilo Border Post and crosses the Zambezi again as the Katima Mulilo Bridge)

The other roads in the province vary from a few good dry-season gravel roads such as Kaoma to Lukulu, to sandy or muddy tracks passable only by trucks and four-wheel drive vehicles.

Demographics
As per the 2010 Zambian census, Western Province had a population of 902,974, (though the current population (2021) is estimated to be 1,076,683.) accounting to 6.72% of the total Zambian population of 13,092,666. There were 433,505 males and 469,469 females, making the sex ratio 1,083 females for every 1,000 males, compared to the national ratio of 1,028 females for every 1000 males. The literacy rate stood at 61.60% against a national average of 70.2%. The rural population constituted 86.73%, while the urban population was 13.27%. The total area of the province was 126,386 sq. km and the population density was 7.10 per sq. km. The population density during 2000 Zambian census stood at 7.10. The decadal population growth of the province was 1.70%. The median age in the province at the time of marriage was 20.5. The average household size was 5.0, with the families headed by females being 4.3 and 5.4 for families headed by men. The total eligible voters in the province was 68.90%. The unemployment rate of the province was 7.70%. The total fertility rate was 6.0, complete birth rate was 5.5, crude birth rate was 36.0, child women population at birth was 802, general fertility rate was 152, gross reproduction rate was 2.3 and net reproduction rate was 1.7. The total labour force constituted 63.80% of the total population. Out of the labour force, 67.1% were men and 61.1% women. The annual growth rate of labour force was 0.5%. Lozi was the most spoken language with 69.6% speaking it. Albinism is a condition where the victims do not have any pigment in their skin, hair or eyes. The total population in the province with the condition stood at 1,747. The life expectancy at birth stood at 53 compared to the national average of 51.

Ethnicity
The Lozi are the major ethnic group in the province. The Lozi are traditionally cattle-keepers. They are a collection of 24 subgroups, with a well-established system of traditional rulers headed by the Litunga. The Litunga is assisted by subchiefs in Sesheke Senanga and Kalabo. The seasonal migrations of the Litunga and his court from the dry-season capital of Lealui, on the Zambezi flood-plain, to Limulunga, is an important cultural and now tourist event called the Kuomboka ceremony. There is an ethnic Nkoya minority centered on Kaoma (previously called Mankoya) district with their own chieftainship. The main traditional leaders of the Nkoya are Mwene (Chief) Mutondo and his equal counterpart, Mwene (Chief) Kahare all of Kaoma District and the surrounding areas. The Nkoya celebrate their annual traditional ceremony called the Kazanga or Kathanga between June and August in Kaoma District.

Economy and education
As of 2004, the province had 648 basic schools, 26 high schools and the number of school children out of school in ages between 7 and 15 stood at 36,984. The unemployment rate was 10 per cent and the general unemployment rate for youth stood at 18 per cent as of 2008. The province had 46 doctors as of 2005. There were 430 Malaria incidence for every 1,000 people in the province as of 2005 and there were 6,044 AIDS death as of 2010.

Cattle are the mainstay of the traditional economy, and are sold in the population centres further east when money is required for cash goods or school or medical expenses. Crops are grown on the fertile Barotse floodplains and along the margin of the flood plain, in particular maize, rice, millet and vegetables. The sandy soils of the province are good for Cashew nuts plantations which are not being exploited this day. The province has a huge forest a high potential for timber cutting and finishing investment. The locals exploit the timber at a small scale for curios and canoe making.

The total area of crops planted during the year 2014 in the province was 112,153.47 hectares which constituted 5.91% of the total area cultivated in Zambia. The net production stood at 103,127 metric tonnes, which formed 2.53% of the total agricultural production in the country. Rice was the major crop in the province with 20,862 metric tonnes, constituting 42.03% of the national output.

Industry
Logging for Zambian Teak, which grows wild in the south of the province, was important, and resulted in the construction of the longest private railway in southern Africa from Livingstone to Mulobezi, but this industry has declined due to the very slow rates of re-growth and the reduced demand for railway sleepers. There is no mining within the province, although there have been extensive exploration campaigns for diamonds and petroleum.

Tourism
The main tourist attractions are water sports and fishing on the Zambezi river, the annual Kuomboka ceremony and the annual Kazanga ceremony held in Kaoma District.

National Parks and wildlife areas

 * The Zambezi River and its wide floodplain
 * Liuwa Plain National Park
 * Sioma Ngwezi National Park
 * West Zambezi Game Management Area

Administration
Central Government Provincial administration is set up purely for administrative purposes. The province is headed by a Provincial Minister appointed by the President and there are ministries of central government for each province. The administrative head of the province is the Permanent Secretary, appointed by the President. There are Deputy Permanent Secretaries, District Commissioners, heads of government departments and civil servants at the provincial level. Western Province is divided into sixteen districts, namely, Kalabo District, Kaoma District, Limulunga District, Luampa District, Lukulu District, Mitete District, Mongu District, Mulobezi District, Mwandi District, Nalolo District, Nkeyema District, Senanga District, Sesheke District, Shangombo District, Sikongo District and Sioma District. All the district headquarters are the same as the district names. There are sixteen councils in the province for each district with political heads who are the Mayor in the case of Mongu District and Council Chairpersons for the other districts. the administrative heads of the councils are the Town Clerk in the case of Mongu District and Council Secretaries for the other districts. Each Mayor/ Council Chairperson holds office for a term of five years in accordance with the Zambian electoral cycle. The administrative staff of the council is selected based on Local Government Service Commission from within or outside the district. The office of the provincial government is located in each of the district headquarters and has provincial local government officers and auditors. Each council is responsible for raising and collecting local taxes and the budgets of the council are audited and submitted every year after the annual budget. The elected members of the council do not draw salaries, but are paid allowances from the council. Western is a predominantly rural province and hence there are no city or municipal councils. The government stipulates 63 different functions for the councils with the majority of them being infrastructure management and local administration. Councils are mandated to maintain each of their community centres, zoos, local parks, drainage system, playgrounds, cemeteries, caravan sites, libraries, museums and art galleries. They also work along with specific government departments for helping in agriculture, conservation of natural resources, postal service, establishing and maintaining hospitals, schools and colleges. The councils prepare schemes that encourage community participation.

title: Western Province, Zambia


text:
User talk:Maarten Rottschafer

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
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New pages
Hi,

You sended me a message a few minutes ago about the pages a was making. I can tell you I have the permission to publish this information. The information is comming from the Unrepresented Nations and People organisation. Since i work for this organisation it will not be a problem. I'm planning to make some other pages tomorrow. I hope thats not a problem?

kind regards,

Maarten Rottschafer

 * If you have permission to post it then it is fine, yes. Just note that by posting it you are licensing it under the GFDL, which grants more permissions than the licence on your web page. Also, when posting content also available elsewhere on the net under a non-GFDL-compatible license you should always note that you give permission that it be used on the article talk page.
 * But if you intend to contribute to wikipedia you should really try to integrate the articles better. Right now you are just dumping unformatted text en masse, but the content needs to be wikified, and the articles need wikipedia-style introductions. Ideally the articles should look somewhat like fx The Netherlands. Also, Batwa seems to talk about Rwanda in the text. Thue | talk 15:57, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Maarten Rottschafer


text:
Fernando Canales (swimmer)

Fernando J. Canales (born November 2, 1959, in Guaynabo, Puerto Rico) is a former freestyle swimmer from Puerto Rico and swimming coach. Up until the Beijing Olympics in 2008, he was the head assistant coach for men's swimming & diving at his alma mater, The University of Michigan, and also for the USA National Championship Team, Club Wolverine, home for numerous Olympic champions and medalists. He is a member of the USA Swimming's International Relations Committee as well as the United States' technical representative for the Amateur Swimming Union of the Americas (ASUA/UANA). He is an assistant director of development for The University of Michigan Athletic Department. He then was the head coach at Colgate University. In his first season at Colgate, the women's team took home the 2011 Patriot League Championship, and the men's team finished the meet in fifth place. In 2016 he coached his home country Puerto Rico at the Olympics in Rio. Currently he is the head coach for Pitchfork Aquatics and Puerto Rico.

His father is Francisco Canales Roman, from Toa Baja, Puerto Rico, and his mother is Carmen Alvarez Canales, from Mexico City D.F. Fernando has two brothers (swimmer Francisco—Harvard '78 and Stanford '82; Harry Noel—Michigan '87) and one sister (Sandra Lee—CMU '88 & Grand Valley State '89). He graduated from Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola (San Juan) in 1977 and was honored for civic service and athletic achievements with the symbolic key to the City of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, in 1978.

He graduated in 1982 with a Bachelor of Science in physiology of exercise and a Bachelor of Arts in history and English from the University of Michigan. After his graduation he worked with legendary Olympic coaches Jon Urbanchek and Dick Kimball from 1982 to 1987 and helped the Wolverines reclaim the Big Ten Championship Title after a 24-year drought in March 1986. Canales was the head swimming and water polo coach at the University of California, Santa Cruz from 1990 to 1992, where he also taught classes within the Physical Education Department.

He became a national swimming champion at an early age by becoming the top-ranked 17 and under, 100 meter freestyler in the US in 1977 while training under Coach Brad Glenn in Huntsville, Alabama. Canales was ranked 25th in the world that very same year in the 100 Free. His triumphs brought him to the University of Michigan from 1977 to 1982. He excelled at the national and international level by winning All-America Awards in each of his four years of competition. He earned a total of 13 Big Ten Championship titles. Canales was the first swimmer in Big Ten Conference history to capture an individual title (100 yard freestyle) during his four years of competition while training under Head Olympic Coach Gus Stager and 1964 US Olympian Bill Farley.

Canales was a 100-meter freestyle finalist in the 1978 World Championships in West Berlin, Germany, earning a 5th place. He was the "first" Puerto Rican swimmer to final in the world championships along with Jesse "Cheyenne" Vassallo. He earned five gold medals and one silver medal during the 1978 Central American and Caribbean Games in Medellín, Colombia. He became the first Puerto Rican to win an individual medal in the Pan American Games by winning silver in the 100 meters free in 1979 (San Juan, Puerto Rico) and repeating that feat in 1983 (Caracas, Venezuela). He also won a bronze medal in the 4 x 100 meters medley relay in 1979.

Fernando became a national champion while representing Club Wolverine in 1986, when he won the 4 x 100 meter free relay alongside three other Wolverines, Joe Parker, Greg Varner and Dave Kerska. This was the fastest Club Relay in the World for that year. He won the 100 meter free gold medal during the Soviet Spartakiade National Championships in 1979. He won the 50 meter and 100 meter freestyle events during the Swedish and German World Cup events in 1983 and 1984. He won the Latin Cup in 1978, 1979 and 1981. He won sprint freestyle titles in Italy, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Puerto Rico, The United States, Germany, Sweden, Dominican Republic and Guadeloupe.

Canales made three Olympic Teams: Montreal '76, Moscow '80 and Los Angeles '84). He was honored as the flag bearer for the Puerto Rican Olympic Team during the 1984 Summer Olympics Opening and Closing Ceremonies in Los Angeles, 1984. Canales, a 13-time Big Ten Champion and 4 year All-America at Michigan, is featured in the book "Paths to the Olympics – Maize and Blue to Olympic Gold" by Marc Parrish, Colemar Press 1997.

He attributes his triumphs to the support of his mother, brothers and sister, the memory of his father, John Daly's tutelage, his teammates, and the wonderful coaches that helped him during his career: Kika, Julia, Mr. Tom Forte, Carlos Sala, Brad Glenn, Gus Stager, Bill Farley, Dick Kimball, Maggie Shook, Bob Bowman, Mona Nyheim and Jon Urbanchek. All of these coaches shared one thing in common: they participated in the Olympics or the Pan American Games, thus instilling the Olympic dream and the desire to rise above the rest of the competition from an early age.

Canales was inducted into the Puerto Rico Sports Hall of Fame with the class of 1993, which also included internationally famous sports personalities: Orlando "Peruchin" Cepeda, Carlos "Charlie" Passarell, Raymond Dalmau, Amado Morales and Osvaldo Gil. In addition, he was also inducted into the City of Bayamon, P.R., Sports Hall of Fame in 2009.

Fernando is married to Mona Nyheim-Canales, a Norwegian national swimming champion and Arizona Wildcat, she is the head assistant coach for Club Wolverine in Ann Arbor. They have two sons, Francisco Enrique Canales and Thor Bjorn Canales. Canales coached in Texas from 1992 to 2006 with the City of Richardson Swim team. He speaks five languages and has lived in Canada, Italy, Brazil, the United States and Puerto Rico. He is an active volunteer with the American Red Cross.

title: Fernando Canales (swimmer)


text:
My Private Nation

My Private Nation is the third studio album by American pop rock band Train. It was released June 3, 2003. The album was reissued February 8, 2005, as a CD+DVD dual disc set. The album is certified Platinum in the US.

Singles
Four singles were released from this album. The first, "Calling All Angels", was a top 20 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at #19, and was a huge success on the Adult Contemporary and Adult Top 40 charts. Second single "When I Look to the Sky" also hit the Top 100 and was successful in Adult Top 40 and the Adult Contemporary chart as well. Third single "Get to Me" was also a successful song on the Adult Top 40 chart, and the album as a whole has been certified platinum by the RIAA.

"I'm About to Come Alive" was covered in 2008 by country music artist David Nail, who released it as a single from his debut album of the same name.

Reception
My Private Nation received mixed reviews from most music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 61, based on 6 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Allmusic editor Thom Jurek praised the band's existential lyrics and producer Brendan O'Brien's contribution to the album, stating "O'Brien's gorgeous multi-layered production [...] chromatic shadings and the textures of contemporary psychedelia are rooted in the heart of an ambitious garage band [...] he gets the sound of how big Train actually is in a context that is as aurally beautiful musically as it is emotionally and lyrically poignant". Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker dubbed it Train's "finest effort yet", complimenting the band's "amusingly self-deprecating lyrics" and the songs' "surface attractiveness". Sean Daly of The Washington Post noted layers of "featherweight joy" and "Hallmark-deep, guitar-driven pop", and noted lead singer Pat Monahan's performance, "[he] throws his body into every lyric and sounds like a showoff cross between Live's Ed Kowalczyk and Journey's Steve Perry". E! Online commented that the band "sound[s] like a better Counting Crows (with a dreamier frontman) and less-challenging Wallflowers". Despite writing that "Pat Monahan's vocals can be a bit grating and Train's material sometimes strays into Black Crowes Lite range", Chicago Sun-Times writer Jeff Wisser called the album "a greatsounding collection of slight but irresistible little poprock confections", noting "a sure sense of songcraft and a well-honed pop sensibility" in the songwriting.

Q gave the album three out of five stars and stated "[Train] continues to adhere firmly to the rootsy rock of fellow travellers Matchbox Twenty and Counting Crows, while their earnest musicianship and hard work will delight fans of that sort of thing". Jeff Puma of The Hartford Courant commended Train for their "sincere attempt at a positive message", but wrote "The effect, unfortunately, is schmaltz, and Train comes off as a poor man's Counting Crows". Rolling Stone writer Gavin Edwards called the band "radio-ready, professional and utterly dull", commenting that "The up-tempo songs are worse than the ballads, and the attempts at lyrical sass are even worse than the sentimental cliches". Glenn Gamboa of Newsday found the band's "sorta rock" style "painfully predictable" on most songs, but stated "The last three songs - the Oasis-ish 'Your [Every] Color', the '80s power-ballad throwback 'Lincoln Avenue' and the gorgeous 'I'm About to Come Alive' - finally fulfill the promise hinted at in the previous seven songs and most of the previous two albums, for that matter". Despite calling them "still essentially Matchbox Twenty Jr.", Los Angeles Times writer Steve Hochman commented that the band "expands its menu beyond vanilla, with some playfulness in words and music, and producer Brendan O'Brien helping bring some imagination to the arrangements".

Track listing

 * U.S. Edition

Bonus tracks

 * DVD
 * Entire album in 5.1 Surround Sound and enhanced LPCM Stereo
 * Documentary film 21 Days With Train
 * "I'm About To Come Alive" music video
 * "My Private Nation" live version music video
 * Exclusive footage of a rare instore performance
 * Karaoke surprise appearance footage
 * Band member profiles
 * Discography

Personnel

 * Patrick Monahan – lead vocals, percussion
 * Jimmy Stafford – lead guitar, backing vocals, mandolin
 * Scott Underwood – drums, keyboards, piano, programming, percussion
 * Charlie Colin – bass, rhythm guitar, backing vocals
 * Rob Hotchkiss – rhythm guitar, bass guitar, piano, backing vocals

Additional personnel

 * Brendan O'Brien – keyboards, piano, organ, guitars, marxophone, percussion, backing vocals
 * Soozie Tyrell – violin on "Lincoln Avenue"
 * Jane Scarpantoni – cello on "Lincoln Avenue"
 * Greg Leisz – pedal steel guitar on "Calling All Angels"

title: My Private Nation


text:
Axis Sally

Axis Sally was the generic nickname given to women radio personalities who broadcast English-language propaganda on behalf of the European Axis Powers during World War II. These included:

 * Mildred Gillars, a German American who broadcast for Nazi Germany. She was "the first woman in US history to be convicted of treason" by the United States and following  her arrest in Berlin, "on 8 March 1949 was sentenced to ten to thirty years' imprisonment."
 * Rita Zucca, an Italian American who broadcast for Fascist Italy.

On their radio shows, the two Axis Sally personalities would typically alternate between swing music and propaganda messages aimed at American troops. These messages would typically emphasize the value of surrender, stoke fears that soldiers' wives and girlfriends were cheating on them, and point out that the Axis powers knew their locations. American soldiers listened to Gillars' broadcasts for the popular music, even as they found her attempts at propaganda "laughable".

title: Axis Sally


text:
File:Legolas.jpg

Summary
Artwork from The 1994 J.R.R. Tolkien Calendar, an adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, depicting a character Legolas.

Source: http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/File:Michael_Kaluta_-_Legolas_Draws_the_Bow_of_Galadriel.jpg

Rationale for the fair use of this image in Elves in fiction:
 * The image is used to demonstrate the film's distinctive graphical style
 * The image is being used in an informative way and should not detract from the film
 * The image does not limit New Line Cinema's ability to sell or show the film
 * Inclusion of the image into the articles adds significally to the understanding of the topic

title: File:Legolas.jpg


text:
Talk:Ernesto Cardenal

Untitled
Rad, do you even know what you removed? It means "On Lake Nicaragua they eat freshwater sharks." I believe it is, in fact, a quote from Cardenal's poem, although I cannot find out much about his work on the Internet.

So, I shall let the line stand until such time as it can be shown it doesn't belong here.

 * Yes, I know just enough Spanish to know the rough meaning. If it is a quote with some specific importance that merits mention in the article, that's fine -- explain why and provide a translation. But including a single Spanish sentence, without any context or explanation (and in an article section that is typically used for lists), makes no sense, which is why I'm reverting you. RadicalSubversiv E 18:27, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

footnote help
i'm afraid i don't know how to append the footnotes from the spanish wikipedia article that i translated and added to this english one. thanks for any help.Potholehotline (talk) 22:07, 12 February 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Ernesto Cardenal


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Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol

The Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol (CSV) (Portuguese: Confederação Sul-americana de Voleibol) is the continental governing body for the sports of volleyball in South America. Its headquarters is located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Profile
The CSV's origins are still under dispute. Some argue it was founded in Buenos Aires, Argentina on February 12, 1946; some, that it was founded in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on July 3 of the same year. Either way, it was formed even before the FIVB itself, and stands as the oldest of all volleyball continental confederations.

Up to now (2004), the CSV has had a total of eight presidents, all but one from national federations with some volleyball tradition at a certain point in history: Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Venezuela and Colombia, which is the exception. Following the election of the current president, Brazilian Mr. Ary Graça Filho, in 2003 the headquarters were relocated from Lima, Peru to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

The CSV presides over national volleyball federations located in South America and organizes continental competitions such as the South American Men's Volleyball Championship (first edition, 1951) and the Pan American Games, sometimes in conjunction with the FIVB and with other confederations, notably NORCECA with whom CSV co-organises the Pan-American tournaments. It also takes part in the organization of qualification tournaments for major events such as the Olympic Games or the men's and women's world championships, and of international competitions hosted by one of its affiliated federations.

Teams
Lately, the only national South American federation with expressive results in international competitions is Brazil, which maintains intensive development programs for men's and women's volleyball. Argentina has some tradition in men's volleyball, but it has shown unmistakable signs of decline: in recent years, Venezuela has been constantly threatening to take its long held position as the second volleyball force of the continent. However, Argentina is still one of the dominant forces in Men's volleyball.

With a silver medal at the Seoul Olympic Games, Peru had a very strong women's volleyball team in the 1980s. Its level of play has nevertheless dropped after the retirement of superstar players like Cecilia Tait, Natalia Málaga, Rosa García and Gabriela Pérez del Solar. Nevertheless, Peru is still a respectively good team, and one of the main forces of the continent.

In recent years, the Junior and Youth categories in both boys and girls categories have started to shine in the CSV; as with their senior teams, Brazil in one of the world main forces in Junior and Youth categories but Argentina and Peru have started to shine in the Boys and Girls category respectively; after the I Youth Olympic Games where Argentinean boys got silver and Peruvian girls took bronze, Argentina claimed the top spot and Peru the third spot at the FIVB Senior World Rankings.

Affiliated federations
As of 2022, the following 12 national federations were affiliated to the CSV:

Men

 * South American Men's Volleyball Championship
 * Men's South American Volleyball Club Championship
 * U23 South American Volleyball Championship (U23)
 * Junior South American Volleyball Championship (U21)
 * Youth South American Volleyball Championship (U19)
 * Child South American Volleyball Championship (U17)

Women

 * South American Volleyball Championship
 * Women's South American Volleyball Club Championship
 * U22 South American Volleyball Championship (U22)
 * Junior South American Volleyball Championship (U21)
 * Youth South American Volleyball Championship (U19)
 * Child South American Volleyball Championship (U16)

Men

 * Men's Pan-American Volleyball Cup
 * U23 Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U23)
 * Junior Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U21)
 * Youth Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U19)

Women

 * Women's Pan-American Volleyball Cup
 * U23 Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U23)
 * Junior Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U20)
 * Youth Pan-American Volleyball Cup (U18)

Beach Tournaments

 * South American Beach Volleyball Circuit

title: Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol


text:
Graphonomics

Graphonomics is the interdisciplinary field directed towards the scientific analysis of the handwriting process, product, and other graphic skills. ,

Researchers in handwriting recognition, forensic handwriting examination, kinesiology, psychology, computer science, artificial intelligence, paleography and neuroscience cooperate in order to achieve a better understanding of the human skill of handwriting. Research in graphonomics generally involves handwriting movement analysis in one form or another.

History and conferences
The first international conference relating to graphonomics was held in Nijmegen, The Netherlands, in July 1982. The term 'graphonomics' was used there for the first time.

The second conference was held in July 1985 in Hong Kong and, at that meeting, a decision was taken to form the International Graphonomics Society. The IGS became a legal non-profit organization under Netherlands law on January 30, 1987.

Subsequently, an international conference, symposium and/or workshop has been held every two years. Past events have been held in various locations with most events having a specific theme, as follows:
 * Nijmegen, The Netherlands (1982), Motor Aspects of Handwriting
 * Hong Kong (1985), Graphonomics
 * Montreal, QC, Canada (1987), Third International Symposium on Handwriting and Computer Applications
 * Trondheim, Norway (1989), Fourth IGS Conference. The Development of Graphic Skills (DOGS)
 * Tempe, AZ, USA (1991), Fifth Handwriting Conference of the IGS. Motor Control of Handwriting
 * Paris, France (1993), Sixth International Conference on Handwriting and Drawing (ICOHD93)
 * London, ON, Canada (1995), Seventh Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Basic and Applied Issues in Handwriting and Drawing Research. Note: this conference was held jointly with Annual Symposium of the Association of Forensic Document Examiners
 * Genoa, Italy (1997), Eighth Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Motor Control and Neuroscience
 * Singapore, Singapore (1999), 9th Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Written Oriental Languages
 * Nijmegen, The Netherlands (2001), Tenth Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Motor Disorders
 * Scottsdale, AZ, USA (2003), 11th Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Connecting Sciences Using Graphonomlc Research
 * Salerno, Italy (2005), 12th Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Advances in Graphonomics: Perceiving, Deciding, Acting
 * Melbourne, Australia (2007), 13th Conference of the International Graphonomics Society
 * Dijon, France (2009), 14th Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Advances in Graphonomics
 * Live Aqua Cancun, Mexico (2011), The 15th International Graphonomics Society Conference. Translational Graphonomics
 * Naraa, Japan (2013), The 16th International Graphonomics Society Conference. Learn from the Past
 * Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe (2015), The 17th International Graphonomics Society Conference. Drawing, Handwriting Processing and Analysis: New Advances and Challenges
 * Gaeta, Italy (2017), 18th International Graphonomics Society Conference. Graphonomics for e-citizens: e-health, e-society, e-education.
 * Cancun, Mexico (2019), The 19th International Graphonomics Society Conference. Graphonomics and Your Brain on Art, Creativity and Innovation.
 * La Palmas De Gran Canaria, Spain (2021), The 20th Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Intertwining Graphonomics with Human movements.
 * University of Évora, Portugal, The 21st Conference of the International Graphonomics Society. Graphonomics in Human Body Movement: Bridging Research and Practice from Motor Control to Handwriting Analysis and Recognition.

International Graphonomics Society
As mentioned above, the IGS was created at the 1985 international conference with the main purpose being to coordinate and assist in the growth and development of the field of graphonomics in all its forms. This has been done through conferences, workshops and publication of proceedings from those events.

IGS Publications
As the main academic body for graphonomics, the IGS publishes a biannual bulletin as well as proceedings of the biennial conference. The Bulletin of the International Graphonomics Society is published by the IGS in March and November each year and it is the primary means of communication among IGS members and the public. A complete list of past BIGS issues is available online. Conference proceedings are published in the form of a peer-reviewed scientific journal or book shortly after each of the conferences.

Research topics
Some research topics in graphonomics include:
 * Handwriting regeneration - the simulated production of a given recording of handwriting movement. This is realized not using recorded kinematic or kinetic signals but by an abstracted model of human movement control.
 * Handwriting generation - the process of producing handwriting (e.g. pen tip) movements. This usually implies the use of a computer simulation model which can generate handwriting movement and/or shape, producing newly generated text in a manner similar to the handwriting of an individual person.
 * Handwriting Production Fluency - Measures of the ability of handwriting in the integral of the absolute of the acceleration signal (velocity peaks), or alternatively the absolute of the integral of the jerk time function.

title: Graphonomics


text:
Kristopher Schau

Kristopher Hugh Martin Schau (born 12 August 1970) is a Norwegian musician, TV host, comedian, author, and songwriter. He was born in Oslo.

Radio and television shows
Schau is known from several radio shows (most of them also with his brother Alexander Schau) including XL, Karate, and Et Norge I Krig. On TV he has been involved in the shows XLTV, Team Antonsen (2004), and De 7 dødssyndene (2007). He has also been part of several bands, among them Gartnerlosjen, Hurra Torpedo, Kåper Gjete, Sinsen, Reidar Roses Orkester, Datsun, The Cumshots, Mongo Ninja, White Urine and The Dogs. He is also the writer of the Norwegian underground comic Margarin which is now discontinued. He has created the television shows Dag and One Night with his friend Øystein Karlsen.

De 7 dødssyndene
In 2007, Schau launched his television show, De 7 dødssyndene, focusing on the seven deadly sins. In the show, Schau attempted to commit all the deadly sins, combined with Schau and his co-hosts, Øystein Karlsen and Morten Ståle Nilsen, presenting information on the history of sin and related subjects. Many Norwegian conservative Christians protested against the program. They organized a petition and a boycott against the show's corporate sponsors, leading to several companies dropping their advertisements. This did not decrease the show's popularity.

"Forfall"
One of his projects had him living in a brown Opel Rekord automobile for a whole week. This event was also televised in daily segments. Another one of his projects was "Forfall" (en. decline), where Schau devoted an entire week to living as unhealthily as possible. Originally the idea was to deteriorate both physically and mentally, but despite the initial intentions in the mental area (reading books by Norwegian pulp fiction authors), the project mainly focused on eating unhealthy foods and smoking. He spent the entire week on display in an Oslo shop window. The project was also shown on TV and streamed on the internet for the entire week. He gained about 10 kg (22 lbs) and his cholesterol level skyrocketed during the project. He also nearly suffered a heatstroke when the temperature in the shop window display was significantly increased. The heat experiment was then aborted.

Court case
During the 2004 Quartfestival, a couple, who were both members of Fuck for Forest, had sex on stage during a concert with The Cumshots, a band fronted by Schau. This led to a lawsuit against Schau, the other band members and the couple who performed the sex stunt. Schau and his bandmate Ole Petter Andreassen were both fined 10 000 NOK for their roles in the stunt.

title: Kristopher Schau


text:
Talk:River Phoenix

Changed River Phoenix’s place of death.
IMDb and Wikipedia incorrectly states that Phoenix died in West Hollywood. His death certificate says he died in Los Angeles. 2600:1700:9BD2:1580:D431:1C33:40B0:BCB3 (talk) 11:55, 29 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:River Phoenix


text:
Talk:Hydrozoa

Flotation of Hyrda
I am not convinced by the statement re Hyrdas secreting gas bubbles from the pedal gland to provide flotation. This was included in many victorian text books and re-iterated in more modern texts but in many years of studying hydra I have never observed the phenomenum. Certainly Hydra move across the surface film of ponds with their tentacles hanging down and they also have been seen to 'walk' across the surface by bending the body stalk up and attaching by the mouth and then swinging the body over to re-attach the pedal gland - but all of this using surface tension only. Any evidence for this supposed gas excretion from modern observational or experimental biology ? Velela 16:04, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

grammar check
"When a gonangia buds, a medusae is produced."

now, i'm no expert, but shouldn't that be "when a gonangion buds, a medusa is produced?"pauli 02:58, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

I am pretty sure that the original grammer is correct because my Biology book (Cambell, Reece, Biology 8th Edition) implies that medusa is plural and that medusae is singular. I am not sure about gonangia, but I am pretty sure that is singular as well, although i cannot remember where I remember that from. BubbleBuggy (talk) 23:44, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

 * This is old, but medusa is singular, medusae is plural. It's a first declension noun in Latin. Esox  id t•contribs 16:12, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

Stylasterina?
Some places on the net names Stylasterina as an order of Hydrozoa. What is the reliable source to check? þħɥʂıɕıʄʈʝɘɖı 04:37, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Probably, current most reliable reference is, J. Bouillon, M.D. Medel, F. Pagès, J.M. Gili, F. Boero and C. Gravili. 2004. Fauna of the Mediterranean Hydrozoa. Scientia Marina, 68 (Suppl. 2). You can find it here. . I think that the infobox for the list of orders  should be revised. I will edit when I have a time. --Isorhiza 08:49, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Invertebrate Zoology
— Assignment last updated by Ibrip99 (talk) 15:25, 12 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hydrozoa


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Exi (subculture)

The Exis were a 1950s youth movement in Hamburg, West Germany. The Exis took their name from the existentialist movement, and were influenced by its chief proponents Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.

Parallels
Quite a few of the Hamburg fans of the Beatles, in the period 1960–1962, regarded themselves as "Exis". In some ways, the Exis were the spiritual successors of the Swing Kids of the 1930s. Both movements were heavily influenced by the prevailing popular culture and music of the United States, whether 1930s jazz, in the case of the Swing Kids or 1950s rock and roll, in the case of the Exis.

Aside from the utterly transformed political and cultural atmosphere in Germany after the war, the biggest difference between the two movements was that, where the Swing Kids wholeheartedly embraced American culture (right down to zoot suits and bobby socks), Exis generally wanted to show that they could think for themselves, as many young people do.

Post-war ties between Britain and Hamburg
One of the factors, which had strengthened the link between British musical acts and the Hamburg clubs, was the presence of large numbers of British servicemen (see British Army of the Rhine), in the north-west of Germany. In the aftermath of the Second World War, it became common practice for music promoters in north Western Germany, a number of whom were British themselves, to book British acts. However, some parts of Hamburg were off limits to soldiers and airmen and they never seem to have had the influence, which one might have expected, in the post-war development of St. Pauli. This was partly because of the changing political and legal position. After 1955, they were "guests" on the territory of an ally and NATO member. Before the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany (i.e. West Germany) in 1949, the British forces had actually governed their sector.

St Pauli, a haven for those who are different
In any case, the St. Pauli district was a place for sailors to relax and artisans to experiment with new ideas, long before the Reeperbahn became internationally famous. In addition, "Hamburgers" have always had some sense of being different from other Germans and the area around the Grosse Freiheit, originally just outside the city boundary, was where people were allowed to "do their own thing", in various ways (but primarily when it came to religion), as far back as the eighteenth century.

Influences on fashions and image
While the fashion choices of some Exis had a slightly preppy or conservative quality (and, given the middle-class background of most of them, this was probably unavoidable), many sought to distance themselves from the blue-jeaned, check-shirted excesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's America, by projecting a somewhat darker and more introspective image. Sartre's black polo-neck sweaters and Gauloises cigarettes were the most obvious symbols. In an interview with NPR, Astrid Kirchherr described the Exi style in Hamburg as consisting of black clothes and very long scarves trailing to the floor.

However some American icons of the time, such as James Dean and Marlon Brando, were, in the eyes of most middle-aged Americans of the 1950s, young rebels, rather than suitable role models for the nation's youth. Thus, they were bound to be more attractive to those adolescents, who were trying to stand out from the rest of society, than the "respectable" performers, whom parents admired.

The dress of British and American rockers and bikers, the vast majority of whom had not been anywhere near Hamburg, was not vastly different from some of the Exis but to obsessive teenagers, an extra zip, here and there, can be everything and such comparisons may well have been dismissed by Exis (or Rockers), at the time. There are also similarities to jazz musicians and some of their fans but the Exis did not listen exclusively to rock and roll, that unruly mix of country and western and rhythm and blues.

title: Exi (subculture)


text:
The Second Nun's Tale

"The Second Nun's Tale" (Middle English: Þe Seconde Nonnes Tale), written in late Middle English, is part of Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. Narrated by a nun who remains unnamed, it is a hagiography of the life of Saint Cecilia.

The lack of portrait description for the second nun in the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales has led some scholars to speculate that the tale is merely the second tale of the single nun or of the prioress but this idea is not widely held. Its relationship to the subsequent "The Canon's Yeoman's Tale" is to offer a serious and worthy religious-themed story before a much more irreverent tale of contemporary religious behaviour about foolish alchemists.

Placement in The Canterbury Tales
Although it is unconfirmed what order Geoffrey Chaucer intended The Canterbury Tales, and therefore where "The Second Nun's Tale" would place, the main scholarly consensus has placed "The Second Nun's Tale" in Fragment VIII (Group G) out of X of the Canterbury Tales.

In all of the extant manuscripts, The Second Nun's Tale always occurs with The Canon's Yeoman's Tale, further indicating the two tales are to be regarded as a pair.

The Second Nun's Tales was likely written for another occasion and only later inserted into The Canterbury Tales. In line VIII.62 of the Second Nun's Prologue, the Second Nun refers to herself as an "unworthy sone of Eve", indicating the tale previously has a male narrator. In addition, the attribution of the tale to the Second Nun only occurs in the rubrics of the manuscripts, not in the Prologue or Tale itself.

Notable characters

 * Cecilia – Saint, wife of Valerian
 * Valerian – Husband of Cecilia
 * Tiberuce – Brother of Valerian
 * Almachius – The prefect of the district
 * Pope Urban

Prologue
The Prologue of The Second Nun's Tale contains three sections: 1. four stanzas on the hazards of idleness, 2. the Invocation to Mary (nine stanzas), and 3. the "Interpretation of the name Cecilia which Brother Jacob of Genoa put in his legend". This final section comprises a series of invented etymologies about that name Cecilia. "It is a good example of a medieval method of interpretation that adds rather than discovers meaning; it aims not for one but for a variety of interpretations, all of which are right and none which excludes the others, so that the object of interpretation, here the name Cecilia, gains in richness of meaning and range of reference."

Invocation to Mary
The Invocation to Mary (Invocacio ad Mariam) is a nine paragraph portion of the prologue, telling of the origin of the name of Cecilia. The Invocation has been argued to draw from many other sources in terms of its composure,: first of all Dante, but also many medieval liturgical hymns.

Synopsis
A virgin maiden, Cecilia, is to be wedded to a man Valerian. Cecilia asks Valerian to swear not to betray her if she tells her secret, that she has an angel that watches over her, with Christianity being a crime at the time. From there Valerian is sceptical and Cecilia asks him to embark on a journey to see Saint Urban, who would "purge" Valerian of sin and let him see the angel. Valerian then found Urban who purged him of sin and when Valerian returned he saw Cecilia with an angel. This angel gave Valerian a single wish, of which Valerian answered to give his brother, Tiburce, the same gift he was given, of the truth of Christ. Tiberuce appeared and then accepted the word of Christ. Valerian then took Tiburce to Urban, who had been condemned to die by the state, and christened Tiberuce.

Almachius, the prefect, later seizes the martyrs and orders them to abandon their faith or be sentenced to death; However, the executioners were converted to Christianity. Both Tiburce and Valerian still come forward for the execution as a show of faith, and as their heads fall their spirits rise up to heaven converting even more spectators. Eventually, Almachius orders his men to capture Cecilia, which they do successfully, and they bring her to him during which she boldly spites him with religiously charged words and champions her faith. Almachius orders her execution by a boiling bath; however, due to her faith Cecilia sits safely in the bath. Almachius then orders the executioner to strike three blows on her – but her head does not fall off. Eventually, three days later, after preaching even in her partially decapitated state, she ascends to heaven and Saint Urban buries her body among other saints.

Plot
The Second Nun's Tale explains the story of a young noble lady named Cecilia, and how her unwavering faith in God transformed her into Saint Cecilia.

A young maiden named Cecilia, from "her cradle onward," was highly devoted to her faith in Christ, and her love for Virgin Mary, so she asked God to protect her virginity. Even when she was betrothed to a man named Valerian, on her wedding day she begged God again to protect her virginity and sang to him, "O Lord, keep my soul and my body unspotted, lest I be confounded." On her wedding night, Cecilia asked Valerian to understand her decision to not consummate the marriage, and informed him that her body is protected by an angel of God, and if he was to touch or love her "ignobly," the angel would "without delay...slay you on the spot". However, if he protects Cecilia "in clean love", the angel would also love him and appreciate him for his purity. When Valerian asked to see the angel, Cecilia told him that he must "go forth to the Appian Way," and get baptised by Saint Urban.

After his baptism, during which he saw God who appeared as an old man in pure white garments, Valerian returned home and saw the angel. The angel gifted him and Cecilia with two crowns of lilies and roses, and asked that they guard the crowns with "a pure body and unspotted thought." The lilies and roses from the crown were fetched by the angel from "Paradise". Valerian then asked his brother, Tiburce, to come and accept God and know the truth, so he could also be protected by the angel. The angel then agreed and called his brother to come.

Upon his arrival, Valerian convinced Tiburce to get baptised by Pope Urban, and renounce his faith in idols. Cecilia referred to them as, "nothing but vain things, for they are dumb and deaf…" Tiburce went with his brother to Pope Urban, and got christened, which allowed him also to see the angel of God.

Eventually, Almachius the prefect heard of this and ordered his officers to take these saints to the idol of Jupiter, and to behead anyone who does not make a sacrifice. On his way, Maximus, one of his officers, started crying and per the saints' instructions, he took the executioners to his house and from their preaching, "...they rooted out the false faith from the executioners," and made them believers of God. Cecilia baptised them all together, and told Valerian and Tiburce that they had served well, and preserved their faith, and in order to save their lives, they should do the sacrifice. However, Valerian and Tiburce did not care for this, and in their unwavering devotion, fell to their knees, ready to lose their heads. When Maximus saw this, he told many others, in turn converting many of them, and also losing his life to his oppressor, Almachius.

After Cecilia buried the three of them, Almachius sent for some of his men to seize her and have her taken to Jupiter to make a sacrifice, who were also converted by her preaching. After hearing this, Almachius ordered her to be brought before him, and in a trial, questioned her about her faith. Cecilia told him that she did not fear his power, and that she would neither make a sacrifice nor renounce her faith in Christianity. Cecilia greeted a man with such power as a "foolish creature". She stated that Almachius "in all things an ignorant officer and a vain judge". Enraged by her boldness and steadfast faith, Almachius commanded his men to bring her to the bathhouse and "burn her right in a bath of red flames."

She laid in the bath for the day and night however her body, representative of her unwavering faith, remained unharmed that "she sat cold and felt no pain; it did not make her sweat even a drop". So Almachius sent for one of his men to slay her and kill her. The executioner struck her thrice in her neck, and no more because it was against the law, yet she still did not die. Cecilia stayed like that, half-dead, with her neck cut open for three days, preaching and converting those who gathered around her. She finally died after the third day, and after she died, Pope Urban buried her body with the other saints and decreed her as Saint Cecilia.

Saint Cecilia's body analysed
Throughout the story, the importance of chastity is first to Saint Cecilia.

Daily, Cecilia prayed that God would "protect her virginity". She then tells her husband, Valerian, that if he were to "touch or love [her] ignobly, without delay [the angel] will slay you on the spot; and thus [he] would die in [his] youth".He hears this and he respects her wishes. Almachius, a Roman prefect, does not.

After learning that she is practising Christianity and of her boldness, he orders her to be burnt. Although she sat in a bath of flames, she sat there untouched by any of them. She sat cold and did not sweat one drop. After realising his failure, he then used his "evil mind" to devise that she be beheaded. She was then sent to be executed by three strokes to the neck. After three strokes, her head was still attached and the executioner could not hit her again. Even with this occurrence, Saint Cecilia still tells the Gospel to anyone that will hear her.

Despite the physical torture that Cecilia's body endures through the beating, burning, and slashing of her throat, she still remains alive for three days, and is able to convert many non-believers through her preachings. Her body supports her, and does not fail her when she needs it the most. Cecilia's body is a symbol for her unwavering faith, and devotion. It refuses to give in to the pain inflicted by her oppressor, Almachius, just like how Cecilia refuses to give in to his psychological tortures.

Cecilia's body's ability to maintain its chastity can also be seen as noteworthy. Despite having been forced into marriage to Valerian, and being punished for her chastity by Almachius, she was still able to preserve her chastity until she died. During this time, the female body was seen as one of the major sources where evil was birthed from. In "Body Symbolism in the Book of Margery Kempe", Susan Morgan states that, "medieval theologians and hagiographers viewed female sin as intrinsically bodily and sexual, emanating from within." By keeping her virginity intact, Cecilia's body was able to evade this "sin" which ultimately helped her maintain her devotion, and led to her being a saint.

According to "Body and Soul Dialogues in the Seventeenth Century", "the body may commit sinful actions, but the guilt is really the soul's". In the case of Cecilia, she controlled her body through her soul. She did not let the ways of the world affect her soul, therefore her body remained unharmed. "Body and Soul" goes on to state that the soul was "created good and noble". The "world and the devil" impacted the flesh, yet the soul can take control and urge the body not to sin. This is what Saint Cecilia does through her faith. "Body without soul does nothing" meaning that her soul and faith are so strong, her body must and will follow her willingly.

Cecilia's ability to maintain control over her body can be explained by her tendency to fast. Cecilia prayed to God to protect her virginity, and "for the love of Him who died upon a tree she fasted every second or third day." By many, fasting was seen as a way to maintain control over one's body. Susan Morgan states that, "[t]he link between eating and sexual domination has a long history in Christian tradition" and "[w]hen women…fasted…they were…punishing and disciplining their flesh in pursuit of the higher goal of asexuality or chastity." Similarly, Cecilia's decision to fast helped her control her body and remain chaste and pure. Additionally, Morgan states that, "food asceticism" helps one "journey into the body, conjoining the humanity of Christ…" Therefore, fasting not only helps Cecilia exhibit control over her body, but it also helped her feel closer to God and his power. As a woman, she holds exponential power when it comes to her religion. According to "Woman and the Church", "all through the history of the church women have played a great part". It goes on to say "Our Lady in the beginning had, and still holds, a most exalted position".

Remaining chaste and being in control of their own bodies, can also help women feel powerful. Cathy Hampton states that, '[a]ll virtuous women must accede directly to the call to chastity, an imperative that places them on equal footing rather than in a relationship of hierarchy." Relating to Cecilia, her decision to keep her virginity intact throughout her life may have also helped her feel more powerful, and made her realise that she had the independence to control her life allowing her to battle the oppression of Almachius.

"Corones two"
An angel gives two crowns both to Valerian and Cecilia in "The Second Nun's Tale", which is symbolic in its nature. The crowns are composed of roses and lilies, which are allegorical references to martyrdom and virginity. These crowns were given to Valerian and Cecilia after the angel told them to "always guard these crowns well, with pure body and unspotted thought". By referencing virginity through the flowers the angel fetched from "Paradise", the crowns are now a symbolic representation of their purity through God and from God.

Importance of bodily sensation on divine comprehension
In the Second Nun's Tale, Geoffrey Chaucer's characters' senses of sight, smell, and touch allows them to perceive the divine nature of things and gain a deeper spiritual understanding, which helped some of them ultimately reach martyrdom.

Sight: When Valerian asks Cecilia to see the angel, she says, "That angel you shall see… so long you believe in Christ and are baptized." Tiburce, also, only sees the angel after he gets baptised by Saint Urban. Elizabeth Robertson states that, "Chaucer validates the body's ability to apprehend the meaning of Christianity through senses." Overcoming their limited sight and seeing the angel, parallels to them gaining a deeper understanding of Christianity and religion.

According to "Truth and Sight: Generalizing without Universalizing", "with the type of psychology that the awareness of deceit creates, the idea that what is seen is more truthful than what is reported in speech seems an obvious way in order to bypass human...deceit".

Smell: Tiburce was immediately able to smell the sweet odour of the crowns of lilies and roses, even if he could not see them. These crowns are symbolic of the divine and his brother's and Cecilia's faith in God, and they lure Tiburce to seek this divinity and become a believer. Robertson confirms this by saying, "the flowers create in Tiburce a desire to know more about the spiritual truth, a desire that leads him to affirm his belief in God."

Touch: Valerian is unable to touch Cecilia's body, because the angel of God will kill him, so long as he is still a non-believer. Later, Cecilia tells Almachius to go beyond the materialised idols, and touch what he cannot see. However, Almachius is unable to do so, thus preventing him from gaining deeper spiritual understanding and belief.

title: The Second Nun's Tale