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Nordhorn

Nordhorn (Northern Low Saxon: Nothoorn, or Notthoarn, Netthoarn and Noordhoorn) is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the district seat of Grafschaft Bentheim in Lower Saxony's southwesternmost corner near the border with the Netherlands and the boundary with North Rhine-Westphalia.

Etymology
One story holds that the town's name – which means "North Horn" – came about when the town was under attack, in which case a horn – the so-called Nothorn or emergency horn – was blown by the watchmen to warn the Vechteinsel (Vechte Island) inhabitants and also to call for help. Since the town lay north of Bentheim (now Bad Bentheim) and its castle, it is said that this yielded the name Nordhorn.

A horn, however, was also used by the boatmen on the river Vechte to warn each other of ships' movements in fog. Since the 1970s, the Tuter ("Tooter"), a bronze memorial to the beginnings of inland shipping, has stood at the old harbour.

Since a settlement with a harbour arose between Schüttorf and Emlichheim in the Early Middle Ages whose coat of arms bore a horn as a charge, it seems likely that Nordhorn could have arisen from this.

A more scientifically based variation on what the arms mean holds that "horn" is meant in the sense of "pointed end", making "Nordhorn" a northern point – the jutting northerly end of a field into the Vechte Valley. Heinrich Specht pointed this out in his 1941 town chronicle in reference to the spur, or "horn", of land on which the town's first centre was built. (Lit.: Nordhorn Geschichte einer Grenzstadt. Publisher: Heimatverein der Grafschaft Bentheim)

A more fanciful story holds that the locals once worshipped the god Nod, Node or Nothe, the beginning of whose festival was heralded by blows on ox and cow horns. To pay homage to him, holy fire, called Nodfyr, was lit either by striking flintstones or by rubbing dry sticks together. From the god's name and the hornblowing, the town's name is said to have come.

The name actually has nothing to do with any emergency horn or any god named Nod. "No(r)dhorn" is perhaps similar to the "Maa(r)s", "Meu(r)s" or "Marsh" river. That is what has caused the confusion; a silent "r" or a difficulty in pronouncing the "r" due to the proximity to France.

Nordhorn is called Nothoorn or Notthöörntin in the local speech. In the compilation Werdener Heberigister, the town's name is recorded in 890 as Norhthornon (note the silent "r") and in 1050 as Northornon. In 1184 it is Northorne. On town seals between 1400 and 1715 also appears the form Northorne, and only from 1827 forth does it become Nordhorn. (Lit.: Specht, 1941/1979).

Location
The town lies in southwesternmost Lower Saxony, near the border with the Netherlands and the boundary with North Rhine-Westphalia, on the river Vechte, which is the most popular river in the city. The nearest major city is Hengelo in the Netherlands, some 20 km southwest of Nordhorn. The nearest German cities are Münster, about 75 km to the southeast, and Osnabrück, about 85 km to the east.

The landscape in and around Nordhorn is marked by the Vechte, the Vechtesee (lake), through which the Vechte flows, and three canals: the Süd-Nord-Kanal, the Nordhorn-Almelo-Kanal and the Ems-Vechte-Kanal.

Climate
Nordhorn lies in the Mid-European Temperate Zone. The average yearly temperature is 8.5 °C, the mean air pressure is 761.5 hPa and the mean yearly precipitation amounts to between 700 and 800 mm. The climate is Subatlantic with rather mild winters and fairly warm summers.

Extent of the municipal area
Through various amalgamations the town's area has grown to 14 959 ha, only slightly smaller than the Principality of Liechtenstein.

Neighbouring communities
North of Nordhorn lie the town and joint community (Samtgemeinde) both called Neuenhaus, while the communities of Engden and Isterberg lie to the south. The town's western limit is also part of Germany's border with the Netherlands.

Constituent communities
Nordhorn is subdivided into 17 quarters ("Stadtteile"), grouped here under "older" and "newer".

Older quarters
Altendorf

The settlement of Nordhorn originally had its centre here, but on strategic grounds it was later moved to the island in the river Vechte. Town rights were granted in 1379, and this older centre was given the name Oude Dorp – "Old Village".

Bakelde

The name comes from Bak (ridge) and Lo (grove). (according to H.Specht - Nordhorn - Geschichte einer Grenzstadt) ?Bach Alte?

Bimolten

Called Bimolt in 1252 and Bimolte in 1213, opinions are rather divided over the name's origin. Specht says it refers to heaps of earth, Reurik says it refers to a grove by the woods (bi'm holte, which in more modern German might be rendered bei dem Holze or beim Holz), and Abels holds that it refers to a settlement on the field. (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Bimolten - Jahrbuch des Heimatvereins 1973).

Bookholt

The name refers to a beech (Buche) or birch (Birke) grove. (according to H.Specht - Nordhorn - Geschichte einer Grenzstadt)

Brandlecht

Called Bramtelghet in 1313, the name comes from Bram (gorse) and telge (twig). (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Brandlecht - Der Grafschafter, Folge 160, June 1966).

Frensdorf

Called Frenstrup in Low German, the name might come from a personal name. It was also called Friethelstorpe or Frieldorp about 800, and Vrinsthorpe about 1000. (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Frensdorf - Jahrbuch des Heimatvereins 1971).

Frenswegen

Earlier also known as Vrendeswegen, the name's meaning could have been "lying on the way to Frensdorf".

Hesepe

The name Hesepe refers to the community's location on the river Vechte (epe means water). (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Hesepe - Jahrbuch, Heimatverein 1982)

Hestrup

Hestrup was first known in 1150 as Hersebruc and in 1212 as Hersedorp ("Steed Village"). The ending –dorf or –trup, which is cognate with the English word and placename ending "thorpe", identifies it as a farming community that came into being as an enclosed settlement about 800 with Christianity's arrival. (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Hestrup - Der Grafschafter, Folge 168, February 1967)

Hohenkörben

Hohenkörben arose about 600 as Hankorve in Bakelde's market on a dune ridge with limited space. An exact interpretation of its name has not been achieved; however, the town of Neuenhaus also has an outlying centre by the name of Hohenkörben-Veldhausen. (according to Dr. Ernst Kühle - Der Grafschafter, Folge 170, May 1967)

Newer quarters
Blanke

The Blanke (the article is used with the name in German – Die Blanke) was once a sunken heath and bog area, raised only at the edges, between which were water pools that glinted in the sunlight. Thus, they were also called Blänke. The two biggest were the "Große Blanke" and the "Kleine Blanke". By and by, this area dried up and before the Second World War there was building on the raised edges (Dorotheenstr., Klarastr.). After the war came more widespread settlement by refugees and textile workers. As a reference to the earlier heath ponds, the new neighbourhood was given the name Blanke, which is also so with some street names, such as Blankering and Innere Blanke. One can get an impression of what this area once looked like by visiting the Dutch nature protection area De Bergvennen west of Nordhorn.

Blumensiedlung

In the 1920s, a scheme was undertaken to build houses for jobless miners from the Ruhr area hired for the textile industry, and for young Nordhorn families. Because the streets were named after flowers, the new neighbourhood was called Blumensiedlung ("Flower Settlement").

Bussmaate

Earlier a meadowland, the so-called Buss Maate was owned by the farmer Busch in Altendorf (Buss from the farmer's name). About 1910, the textile manufacturer Rawe bought the land and had a spinning works built there. In 1913 there followed workers' dwellings.

Klausheide

This community was named for the son of the founder of the Klausheide Estate (Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach), who was named Claus (Heide means "heath"). At first, the settlement was known as die Claus-Heide.

Neuberlin

In the early 20th century, southeast of Denekamper Straße near Frensdorf a housing coöperative was founded on an initiative by a Mr. Mäulen. It then tackled the job of building houses. To thank Mr. Mäulen for his efforts, the new neighbourhood was named Neuberlin – literally "New Berlin" – after the city where he was born.

Stadtflur

In earlier centuries, Nordhorn's townsfolk had so-called peat cutting rights in this area, which at that time was moorland belonging to the community of Bakelde. In 1864, this area was divided and Nordhorn received this plot as part of its municipal area. It was therefore called the Stadtsche Flur, or "town lea". By the turn of the century there was building here and the area came to be called Stadtflur. Stadtflur now has roughly 7,700 inhabitants, putting it among Nordhorn's bigger Stadtteile.

Streng

Although the modern German meaning of streng is "stern" or "strict", the name actually comes from the so-called Strang ("string" or "strand"), a row of dunes. The Strang stretches from Bogenstraße to Nyhoegen Bridge on Bentheimer Straße. In the early 19th century, the textile manufacturer Ludwig Povel built workers' dwellings on the near part of the Strang in the Bogenstr.-Ludwigstr. area. On the farther part of the Strang, private houses were built in the 1930s and later.

Amalgamations

 * 25 June 1921 Frensdorf
 * 1 April 1929 Frenswegen
 * 1 July 1929 Altendorf, Bakelde, as well as parts of the communities of Bookholt, Hesepe and Brandlecht
 * 1 March 1974 Bimolten, Bookholt, Brandlecht, Hesepe, Hestrup, Hohenkörben – Nordhorn and Klausheide

History
Nordhorn's landscape was shaped millions of years ago by climate changes, especially the ice ages. The oldest sediments from a depth of about two thousand metres come from the Carboniferous. With the onset of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, the Earth's crust here formed itself into drape folds. In the mid-Tertiary, subtropical temperatures held sway on Nordhorn's plains. Thereafter began the gradual cooling, which reached its high point in the ice ages. After the last ice had melted, lowlands developed. Strong winds swept dunes up in the lifeless surface. Even today, the remains of such dune complexes can be found at the nearby Tillenberge (mountains). Archaeological finds from the Old Stone Age and the Bronze Age that followed bear witness to human settlement on Nordhorn's sand plains more than 6,000 years ago.

In the rainy and colder Ice Age, early people settled on the dry riverside heights along the river Vechte. Archaeologists come across traces of Iron Age settlements, the foundations of later farming communities such as Frensdorf, Bookholt, Altendorf, Hesepe and Bakelde, in almost every field.

From to, the Roman commanders Drusus, Tiberius, Germanicus and Varus undertook in all thirteen campaigns in what was then still free Germany. From their camp in Xanten, these Roman troops would have undertaken forays into the lands of the Chamavi and Tubanti who then dwelt in the Nordhorn area. It is believed that the Romans used the prehistoric banks of the Vechte and sandy paths along the moors as military roads. This east-west overland connection would later become an important trade road, joining cities such as Brussels, Amsterdam, Bremen and Hamburg.

In the late 4th century, with the onset of the Migration Period (or Völkerwanderung), the Saxons were pushing in from the north and towards the west. They forced the Tubanti farther westwards into Twente. After Charlemagne's conquest of the Saxon lands, the first border between the Frankish Empire and Saxony, albeit as an internal boundary, came into being. This line has largely survived history's changing fortunes and still forms the German-Dutch border today.

In 687, Bishop Wilfrid of York sent missionaries across the sea to Christianize the former Tubanti land. Willibrord founded the Bishopric of Utrecht and Werenfried spread Christianity into the Vechte Valley. About 800, the settlement at Nordhorn was assigned to the Bishopric of Munster. Bishop Ludger built a wooden church on a spur of ground that thrust into the river's floodplain. About 900, the settlement's name was first mentioned in the Werden an der Ruhr Monastery's Heberegister as Northhornon.

About 1180, the Counts of Bentheim acquired the Nordhorn Gogericht (regional court). They built a castle in the middle of the river Vechte on an island. Until 1912, parts of this castle were still maintained. Nowadays, the Catholic St.-Augustinus-Kirche (church) stands there. After building a milldam and two mills, it became possible to regulate the river's water flow, thereby also making it possible to settle the island. Other waterways were built – it is supposed under Dutch builders' influence – which, it is believed, divided the island into six smaller ones. Once two gateway bridges were built and the castle was protecting it, it became easier to defend the settlement against attackers than was so for the old settlement around the market church. Today's main street, which has now grown into an attractive buying and selling place, might have already passed over the island at that time. Merchants and shipowners put down roots here; a marketplace arose. The name Nordhorn was henceforth used for the newer settlement, now standing on the threshold of becoming a town, whereas the old settlement around the market church came to be known as the "Old Village", and is indeed still known as Altendorf ("Old Village").

Nordhorn had taken a key place on the Flemish Road, the area of today's Bundesstraße 213 and 403 crossroads. Goods from Scandinavia and the Hanseatic towns found their way through Nordhorn into the trade centres to the west all the way to Paris. The Vechte was navigable as far up as Schüttorf.

The Vechte is roughly 167 km long and in the Middle Ages emptied directly into the sea: it flowed by Zwolle into the Zuider Zee, which at that time had not yet been cut off from the North Sea and was the centre of Dutch sea trade. Since modern land reclamation projects have been put in place, the river flows north of Zwolle into the Zwarte Water, which itself empties into the IJsselmeer, the lake that arose from the old Zuider Zee once the Afsluitdijk was completed.

Already by 1160, the first loads of Bentheim sandstone were being shipped into the Netherlands. Up to 1,200 freight cranes, scows and barges lay each year at anchor and brought their goods to Holland. The Steinmaate (street) became a staple market. The like-named street still recalls today that Bentheim sandstone was shipped from here to many other countries. From it were built stately buildings such as the Royal Palace in Amsterdam, but also many mills, churches, locks, town halls and other public buildings. The returning ships brought spices, textiles, paper and foods as well as luxury articles such as coffee, tea, cacao and tobacco. Trade, crafts and agriculture were the region's economic foundations until the mid 19th century. Shipping on the Vechte and the canals (the Ems-Vechte-Kanal, the Nordhorn-Almelo-Kanal, the Süd-Nord-Kanal and the Coevorden-Piccardie-Kanal) together with the transported goods formed an important source of earnings at this time, when the town was also home to wealthy merchants, shipowners and mariners.

On the ninth day after Whitsunday in 1379, Count Bernhard I granted Nordhorn town rights, and in 1416 also gave it privilege. The small settlement between the arms of the Vechte had grown to be important to the Bentheim Counts as a goods handling centre. With the economic upswing, cultural life also reached a high point in these years. Augustinian canons established the Marienwolde Monastery in Frenswegen in 1394. Through endowments and donations the monastery became well known as "Westphalia's Paradise" beyond borders. After secularization in 1806, brought about by Napoleon, monastic properties passed to the Bentheim Counts' ownership. The settlement spanning thousands of years and the town's thus far 628-year history have left behind very little in the way of buildings, besides the Marienwolde Monastery, as witness to earlier times.

In imitation of the Late Romanesque churches in neighbouring Westphalia, churches were built in the 13th century out of Bentheim sandstone. The only artwork preserved from this time is the baptismal font in Brandlecht. Bearing witness to the 15th century is the Alte Kirche ("Old Church") at the market. It was built in the Late Gothic style under Dutch influence and to honour Saint Ludger, who founded the town's first church, and in whose name this newer church was consecrated. It is likely that three generations worked on this impressive three-naved hall church. Originally, the tower was 102 m tall and fell under town council's stewardship as a watchtower and firetower. A violent storm toppled the steeple, which came down in the marketplace before the building. The new steeple was considerably shorter – about 70 m – and was designed to let wind pass through it. During restoration work inside the church in 1967, some paintings were uncovered in the sanctuary, the Nordhorner Apostelbilder ("Nordhorn Apostle Pictures"). They show the Twelve Apostles and various Biblical scenes. The paintings were preserved because it could not be agreed what should be done with them, since the Calvinist Church order of the Reformed Creed introduced by Count Arnold II at Bentheim in 1588 forbade pictures and adornment in church rooms. During more restoration work in the late 1990s, these pictures were rediscovered, and the church council decided to cover the pictures over with rice paper, as they seemed too valuable simply to paint over.

Sharply decimated by war and epidemics, the town had to deal with several occupations and troop movements in the 17th and 18th centuries. In the Eighty Years' War waged by the Dutch against the Spaniards, Nordhorn was a way station for Spanish troops because the neighbouring County of Lingen was Spanish territory. It is said that once, the Duke of Parma camped around Nordhorn with 6,000 soldiers.

During the Thirty Years' War, Swedes, Hessians, Lüneburg troops and Imperial forces passed through Nordhorn on the old Flemish army and trade road. They all wanted to feed on the scanty crop yields. The harried town, however, was left hardly any time to recover from the war's ravages. Only a few years later, the warlike Bishop Christoph Bernhard Count of Galen from Münster waged a war against the Dutch on the plains outside Nordhorn, which was brought to an end in 1666 by the Peace of Nordhorn.

In Napoleonic times there was once again much afoot in Nordhorn. In these years, the trading place on the Vechte grew and the two harbours defined the town's image. Napoleon's continental blockade against British trade made Nordhorn into a smuggling centre by 1806. The broad moors and heaths abetted this lucrative trade.

As a result of Europe's new political landscape in the wake of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, the hitherto flourishing transit trade in Nordhorn was once again disrupted. The border became a customs barrier, stripping Nordhorn of its trading, which had been oriented towards the west. In the years that followed, the town became poorer. Because the Vechte could not be upgraded and modernized, and because it silted up, shipping was disrupted. The townsfolk turned to farming small plots and traders and shippers left town. Only home weaving still afforded some earnings. Whole families emigrated to the New World.

It is said that 1839 was the year when Nordhorn's textile industry was founded. The first mechanized weaving mill, established by Willem Stroink from Enschede, sprang up on the trade road. Here, cotton was processed and calico and watertwist were woven. Later mills were founded in 1864 by Jan van Delden and in 1851 by Josef Povel and Hermann Kistemaker. Textile manufacturing came to set the pace for the languishing economy. Progress came with gradual industrialization. The groundwork for the town's growth into one of Germany's biggest textile-producing towns had been laid.

The town's mayor between 1843 and 1872 was the apothecary and chemical manufacturer Ernst Firnhaber, whose house on the main street stood in the middle of what then was the town's business life. With its classicist building elements it is the last architectural example of a stately townsman's house from the 18th century. After the apothecary came Germany's first quinine plant. In 1843, 32,403 Pfund – roughly 16 metric tons – of cinchona was processed and exported. The manufacturers Ludwig Povel, Bernhard Rawe, Bernhard Niehues and Friedrich Dütting founded further textile businesses in the years from 1872 to 1897, some of which are still supplying domestic and international markets in the early 21st century.

In the 1890s, Nordhorn was incorporated into a network of man-made waterways. Through the river Ems, the Dortmund-Ems Canal and the Ems-Vechte Canal, coal was transported from the Ruhr area to the up-and-coming textile centre. The Nordhorn-Almelo Canal saw to it that the town was also connected to Dutch inland waterways, and the North-South Canal spurred the peat trade. Even if today all these canals have no further use for shipping, they can still be prized for their worth as sources of leisure.

The Bentheim Railway brought a rail connection to the international network in 1896. Roughly 1,500 people were working in the various textile companies in these years. The Great Depression in the 1920s led many jobseekers from all over Germany to Nordhorn. By 1939, the population had reached 23,457, and it is worth noting that just under a third of those people had actually been born in town. This unusual economic upswing earned Nordhorn the nickname Klein Amerika – "Little America".

Even the Third Reich left its mark on Nordhorn. The small Jewish community was annihilated. The synagogue was utterly destroyed, an event recalled by a memorial plaque on the street still called Synagogenstraße. The old Flemish Trade Road was used by German troops, who on 10 May 1940 marched into the Netherlands, as a military road. Some of the townsfolk lived through this time with very mixed feelings – were they not, they thought, bound to their Dutch neighbours by friendship and blood? These bonds were something upon which those seeking to fight persecution and the Nazi régime itself could build. Adolf Pazdera and Ferdinand Kobitzki, Nordhorn KPD functionaries and trade union secretaries, were persecuted many times and in 1943 and 1944 respectively, they were murdered in concentration camps.

After the World War II ended, nearly ten thousand people from Germany's lost eastern territories poured into Nordhorn, where they found a new home, soon bringing the town's population to more than 40,000. There arose a new community within the town housing 13,000 inhabitants, called die Blanke.

Non-commercial housing building companies and private initiatives made Nordhorn into "the town of the privately owned home". The enormous building accomplishments called for the municipal administration to be expanded and modernized. Thus, Nordhorn built itself a new town hall, and buildings for district administration, the employment office and the Amt court arose on the town's ring road. The court now stands on Seilerbahn.

Northwest Germany's first indoor swimming pool after 1945 could be dedicated, new schools, sport halls and fields, the concert and theatre hall and the town park led to the townscape's revival.

Religion
When the first church was built in Nordhorn is unknown. The story goes, however, that it stood at the guildfield and was named after Saint Ludger. Ludger was one of the first Christian missionaries in the area, and in 804 he became the first Bishop of Münster. In 809 he died near Billerbeck.

In the municipal area's northwest, a monastery of Augustinian Canons (Chorherrenstift) was founded in Frenswegen, earlier known as Marienwolde, in 1394. Its church, consecrated in 1444, was destroyed in 1881 by a lightning strike. The monastery was of great importance to Nordhorn and to places far beyond. Bit by bit the monastery building arose, and in the early 15th century, so did a church.

Also in Nordhorn, a bigger church was needed. On 6 July 1445, both churches were consecrated by an auxiliary bishop from Münster. The new Nordhorn church's patron was once again Saint Ludger. The three-naved Late Gothic market church was built out of Bentheim sandstone and with its 71-m-high steeple, it dominated the town's skyline.

After the Reformation (1517), Count Arnold I – and along with him almost the whole county – adopted the Lutheran faith in 1544. In 1588, the County of Bentheim (Grafschaft Bentheim) converted to the Reformed faith under Count Arnold II. Thereafter, the church at the market belonged to the Reformed parish. Count Arnold II, however, had come into contact with Calvin's teachings while studying in Strasbourg. A further link to the faith came with his marriage to Countess Magdalena of Neuenahr, who confessed the Reformed faith. The few Catholics left in Nordhorn had to go to services at the Frenswegen Monastery.

In 1578, the Augustinian Canons bought the castle on the Vechte Island in Nordhorn. In the manor house they established, among other things, a chapel. Now the Catholics once more had a room for their services, albeit a small one. In 1712 a small church was built next to the castle. The Augustinian Canons chose – alongside Saint Ludger, their order's patron saint – Saint Augustine of Hippo as the church's first patron.

At the time of Secularization by the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, the monastery at Frenswegen was abolished. The year 1824 was an important one for the Augustinian community: the county, which for centuries had belonged to either the Bishopric of Utrecht or the Bishopric of Münster, was assigned to the Diocese of Osnabrück, while the community itself was raised to parish. The first minister was the Augustinian Canon Johann B. Cordes, who had been overseeing the community since 1810.

In 1826, the castle was converted into a church. In the late 19th century, the community grew very quickly; so plans were made to build a new, big church on the castle square on the Vechte. The castle was torn down. Models for the new church were found in Italy by the architect Keith from Hamburg, for instance the Pantheon in Rome or the San Giorgio in Venice. The church's footprint is octagonal. From 1911 to 1913, the building work was finished and the church's consecration was celebrated. The steeple was built together with the church. To offset any influence that the tower might have on the impression that the dome was meant to give, the tower stands somewhat to the side. A two-story arcade joins the steeple to the church. It is 45 m high and houses four bells. The church's dome – a peculiarity in northern Germany – shapes Nordhorn's skyline. Over the massive iron-concrete dome arches a wooden, copper-covered outer dome, crowned with a lantern. Its total height is 35 m. Nordhorn's Lutheran Christians were first served from Lingen, and then from Bentheim. Once they had established their own parish, the Kreuzkirche ("Cross Church") was built in 1929 and 1930. Today roughly 20% of Nordhorners count themselves as Lutherans. There are three Lutheran churches.

All together, there are twelve Houses of God available in Nordhorn, seven of which have been built since the Second World War.

Nordhorn's synagogue was destroyed on Kristallnacht (9 November 1938). The town's Jews either emigrated or were deported and murdered, an event now marked by a memorial.

Population
Nordhorn has 53,608 inhabitants (as of 31 December 2006) in an area of 149.64 km2, making the population density 358 to a square kilometre.

Evangelical-Reformed Christians account for 28.14% of the population, while Lutherans account for 21.05% and Roman Catholics for 29.19%. Another 21.64% either are not members of any faith or adhere to other faiths.

Population development
(each time for 31 December)

Town council
After the municipal election on 11 September 2016, the 42 council seats were apportioned thus:

The mayor, Thomas Berling, is also a voting member of town council.

Museums
The Town Museum (Stadtmuseum) in the Povelturm was opened in October 1996. Within, one can inform oneself about Nordhorn's history. On the upper floor of the Povelturm is the museum café, which offers a view over Nordhorn from a height of 26 m.

Buildings
Nordhorn has mostly kept itself from being spoiled by the few individual building styles of the postwar years. The town's appearance has kept the appealing red brickwork that has long been a tradition in northern Germany and in the neighbouring Netherlands. It is even seen in modern buildings. The new district building, for instance, combines the local building materials of brick and sandstone with glass, concrete and copper.

A fine example of restored architecture formerly overgrown by plant life is the Frenswegen Monastery from the 14th century in the town's northwest. A lightning strike in 1881 destroyed the church consecrated in 1445. The monastery buildings, however, were mostly preserved, even the square, two-floored cloister, the little wellhouse, the bridge over the moat and the impressive cellar vaulting. On the east wing's outer façade, a "Madonna and Child" made of Bentheim sandstone attracts the beholder's attention. After cautious renovations, the building now houses an ecumenical educational and meeting place whose origin and basis the unusually broad mix of faiths in Nordhorn and its environs is.

Traces of Gothic mark the Reformed church, which stands defiantly in Brandlecht's old village centre. Among examples of Romanesque sculpture is this church's baptismal font, which is Nordhorn's oldest artwork, made out of Bentheim sandstone, and still holds its original importance today.

At present, two buildings characterize Nordhorn's skyline. The Alte Kirche on the marketplace, built out of Bentheim sandstone in the 15th century and the Augustinuskirche, built in 1913 on the former castle's lands, can both be seen from afar. The inner town, today as in days of yore an island around which flows the Vechte, is now a pedestrian precinct.

Painstakingly restored façades, modern arcades, shops, boutiques and pleasant outdoor cafés invite one to tarry. The oldest building on the main street is the former mayor and chemical manufacturer Firnhaber's house, in which he both lived and worked. Behind the two-story classicist façade, the triangular gable with its hipped roof and a round-arched window with a plaster swag, the tradition of Nordhorn's first apothecary lives on.

When walking about town, one finds little oases untouched by hectic daily life. In big, parklike gardens, behind old trees and tall rhododendron hedges, stately manor houses may be discovered. These villas built on Dutch models were textile manufacturers' homes a hundred years ago. A walk through Nordhorn will in many places also still bring to light signs of the recent and more distant past, be it the town hall completed in 1952 with its little belltower or the old well at the park at the Völlinkhoff. Memories of a time when the heavy blocks of sandstone used in the oil mill's edgerunner still fulfilled their original function are brought forth at the town park.

When the grist mill and sawmill on the milldam were shut down, an almost 600-year history of milling came to an end in Nordhorn. These buildings were renovated and now offer an appealing venue for cultural events.

Nordhorn's industrial history was written by, among others, the Povel textile plant, which shut its gates in 1979 after nearly a hundred years of production. As a last witness to the town's economic heyday early in the last century, the former spinning works tower has been maintained as an industrial memorial. It serves today as a museum. The upper floor can be hired for private celebrations.

In the Bussmaate, a former boggy area, another textile plant with an adjoining residential area for textile workers was built a hundred years ago. In the early 1950s, Professor Emanuel Lindner, lecturer at Bauhaus and student of Mies van der Rohe, together with architect Eberhard Heinrich Zeidler, who now lives in Canada, designed expansion building works for this business. With a clearly structured glass façade, the timeless industrial building fits seamlessly into the industrial complex dating from the Gründerzeit. This building today stands empty and is to be converted for urban development.

Landscape
The Vechte's riverine landscape and the canals with their rows of trees are a popular place for a walk, and to enjoy the idyll. The canals, built more than 100 years ago for transport and draining the moorlands, now form part of a faunal habitat with many species and are now used for leisure and recreation. Sluices made out of sandstone and clinker, some still worked by hand, separate different water levels and are popular destinations for nature lovers. Fields and meadows frame farmlands on the town's outskirts. Wetlands and heathlands with birches, junipers and orchids growing wild are marks of this rustic landscape. In the Tillenberge a small protected area with heather, gnarled oaks and junipers.

A fine legacy from the Gründerzeit is the Town Park (Stadtpark), a villa park of one of the earliest manufacturers. At the concert bowl in the Town Park, concerts regularly take place.

Euregium
The Euregium was actually built for the HSG Nordhorn. The name comes from the Euregio. The HSG team plays in the first handball Bundesliga. The Euregium is also used for other cultural events. It lies right near the vocational school and the district sport hall. The three halls' proximity to each other makes it possible to stage great tournaments. The Euregium has for a few years now been the venue for the Grafschafter Sportgala.

Eissporthalle
The Eissporthalle – "Ice Sport Hall" – has wed ice hockey and figure skating into one ice sport club. It was built in the mid-1970s. In 1984, the band BAP gave a concert there.

The ice sport club in Nordhorn changed its name several times. Until 1999 there was the GEC Nordhorn, which, among other things, played in the hockey Bundesliga, in what was then the second highest class. Thereafter the club called itself EC Euregio Nordhorn 1999 e. V. and will play in the coming season (2007–2008) in the Verbandsliga NRW. In 2002, the Eissporthalle was renovated from the ground up. It is also open to the public for skating.

Regular events
Yearly, over Whitsun weekend, a great table tennis tournament, the Euregioturnier is held. At the outdoor swimming pool there is also an international swimming tournament at Whitsun. The VfL Weiße Elf Nordhorn stages every year, also over Whitsun weekend, the Pfingstturnier ("Whitsun Tournament"), a traditional C-youth soccer tournament. In 2007 they held their 25th yearly tournament. The teams that take part come from all over Germany as well as from other European countries such as the Netherlands, Poland and Hungary.

German record
The football team Heseper SV, whose home field is in Nordhorn's south end, is a German record holder. Between 1996 and October 1999, the team managed to play a streak of 98 championship matches without being beaten, managing at the same time to rise from the fifth to the second district class. TSV Buchbach had held the old record with an unbeaten streak of only 75 matches.

Industry
Industrialization brought about a rise in population from 2,540 in 1903 to 18,104 in 1930, rising to 50,000 in the textile industry's heyday from the 1950s to 1970s.

Today, Nordhorn has roughly 53,500 inhabitants, and the trend is upward.

Once Nordhorn's biggest textile firms with up to 6,000 employees, NINO was until the 1980s one of Europe's leading textile producers. This stands out not least of all in coöperative efforts with renowned fashion photographers like Karl Lagerfeld and Helmut Newton. The only clothing manufacturer still in business in Nordhorn is Erfo Bekleidungswerk GmbH & Co. KG. The three formerly biggest companies, NINO, Povel and Rawe, are all gone.

Since the textile industry waned, mostly midsize businesses from various service and production areas have settled in town, albeit without quite managing to offset job losses due to the textile industry's virtual death. Even though Citibank's temporary presence, with 550 jobs, eventually folded – despite massive local subsidies – the location is still quite attractive for service businesses. This can be seen in the latest firm to locate in town, Bertelsmann, which will soon have 250 jobs. ETF EUROPEAN TRUCK FACTORY GmbH is located in this town.

Taken together, however, the shift in structure to the tertiary sector in and around Nordhorn, unlike in other regions, is very far advanced. The greater Nordhorn area is well off when compared with the country as a whole, with the Nordhorn employment agency area (Agenturbezirk) reporting the lowest jobless rate in Lower Saxony. The neighbouring region of Rheine in North Rhine-Westphalia, too, is experiencing a peak in employment. This is further substantiated in the 2005 land use planning report from the Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning (Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung) in which is discussed a forecast, based on current indicators, that sees in northwestern North Rhine-Westphalia and in Nordhorn and its environs an area with great economic dynamism in the coming years.

What should be highlit is the great number of food markets in Nordhorn, with Nordhorn having roughly twice the sales area proportionally by population as the national average. Because of the often misguided evictions, however, of newer locations outside the integrated sites, there are many empty premises in the inner town.

In March 2007, the Rawe-Ring-Center with roughly 22 000 m² of new sales area was opened on a plot that was once part of the Rawe textile factory. This project met with considerable opposition, mainly among local retailers and professionals. The retailers feared that the glut of new premises would bring about further vacancies, especially in the southern inner town, while professionals criticized the consequences for urban development, the lack of cleanup operations and above all the demolition of factory buildings that were protected as monuments. Despite 12,000 Nordhorners' protest signatures gathered by the Pro Grafschaft initiative, the project was endorsed by a majority of the local politicians and in the end put into action.

Under the slogan "Nordhorn - Die Wasserstadt" ("Nordhorn – the Water Town"), the town fathers are now seeking to put the emphasis on new aspects of the town's development, bringing forth plans to open canals for pleasure boats and to further development by building a town harbour. Whether these plans will indeed be implemented, and to what extent, remains to be seen in the coming years,

Also found at Nordhorn is the controversial bombing range, the Nordhorn Range. After the Second World War, this was first run by the Royal Air Force, but then later by the German Bundeswehr.

Transport
Nordhorn has two railway stations (Nordhorn and Nordhorn-Blanke), which are served by the RB 56 train service going to Neuenhaus and Bad Bentheim. These trains are operated by Bentheimer Eisenbahn and operate hourly. Passenger train services to Nordhorn resumed on 7 July 2019, after Nordhorn having been Germany's second-largest town without passenger trains for 45 years.

The combined length of the road network in Nordhorn is 586.5 km, of which 28 km is Bundesstraßen, 10.8 km is state highways (Landstraßen), 30.6 km is district roads (Kreisstraßen) and 517.1 km is town streets and roads. All together, Nordhorn has 2,807 parking spaces. The town lies near two Autobahnen, the A 30 and the A 31. It is furthermore connected to the highway network through two Bundesstraßen, the B 403 and the B 213.

The most popular means of transport in town is what is locally known as the Fietse – the bicycle (Fahrrad in Standard German, fiets in Dutch). The Nordhorners' fondness for the Fietse and their morning rides led to the building of a special cycling path network that runs throughout the district of Grafschaft Bentheim. Signposts, known locally as Paddestolen, show cyclists the way on these Fietsenpads (also a local term, the standard German word for them being Radwege). Cycle paths to the neighbouring Netherlands are in use.

Nordhorn has at its disposal a small airport in the outlying centre of Klausheide, called Nordhorn-Lingen (EDWN).

Through an initiative by the club Graf-SHIP, founded in 2003, state councillor Friedrich Kethorn approved on 14 November 2005 the reopening of the Ems-Vechte-Kanal to shipping, now allowing captains to bring ships of up to 12 m in length through the canal. Approval for the other two canals continues. The Klukkert-Hafen (port) was opened once again in 2006.

Old weaving mill
The old weaving mill once belonged to the Povel factory. Nowadays, the old weaving mill is a cultural centre for exhibitions, tourism and concerts. In the mill's building are found, alongside the county brewhouse, a musical pub for live acts and also Ems-Vechte-Welle, a regional radio station for Grafschaft Bentheim and the Emsland.

Jugendzentrum Nordhorn
The Jugendzentrum Nordhorn – Nordhorn Youth Centre – has existed since the early 1970s. It was Germany's first youth centre and is therefore also its oldest. It was once a farm. At first, only the "threshing floor" was used, but in the 1980s, the "barn" also came into use. In the 1980s, the barn was also the scene of the punk movement in Nordhorn.

Concerts were held in the barn, and still are, with such acts as Cochise, Geier Sturzflug, Helge Schneider, Killerpilze, Wir sind Helden and In Extremo. Early in 2007, the barn's ceiling lining was destroyed by a storm, but with help from unpaid workers, the youth centre had a complete, new paint job inside by the summer.

Tierpark Nordhorn
Nordhorn's animal park harbours on his premises compounds for exotic and also home-grown domestic animals, as well as a museum, a farm, a traditional pub and a playground.

Lebenshilfe Nordhorn
The Lebenshilfe – an institution dedicated to helping those with handicaps live full lives – was founded as early as 1963.

Now, the institution's organs assist, attend and take care of well over 600 people with handicaps. These organs include kindergarten for early assistance, various homes and also various workplaces (such as carpentry workshops), where clients can go with the proper guidance and according to each one's interests and talents. As well, there is the musical band Tabuwta, made up wholly of people with handicaps and supported by Lebenshilfe educational employees and celebrities such as Guildo Horn. In 2005 they recorded their third CD and presented it at the old weaving mill.

Vechtetalschule
The Vechtetalschule – Vechte Valley School – has existed as a school for those with a very broad array of handicaps since 1989. In 1992 it moved to a new building. It was given its name in 1997. Now, the school has 210 pupils, divided into 27 classes, ten of which are in outlying locations. Employed at the school are roughly 90 employees along with those doing community service (instead of military service), would-be teachers and trainees. Levels currently run at the school are Primary, Secondary I and Secondary II.

Notable people

 * Siegmund Helms (born 1938), musicologist, music educator and writer.
 * Bernhard Brink (born 1952), entertainer, musician and schlager singer
 * Michael Schneider (born 1953), flautist, recorder player, conductor and academic teacher.
 * Beate Merk, (DE Wiki) (born 1957), politician (CSU), Bavarian State Justice Minister
 * Johnny de Brest, (DE Wiki) (born 1963), artist and photographer
 * Petra Schmidt (born 1963), operatic soprano and academic.
 * Albert Stegemann (born 1976), politician

Sport

 * Ernst Küppers (1904–1976), swimmer, competed in two Olympics; died locally
 * Otto Geisert (born 1939), footballer, played 198 games
 * Ernst-Joachim Küppers (born 1942), swimmer, team silver medallist at the 1964 Summer Olympics
 * Silke Pielen (born 1955), swimmer, team bronze medallist at the 1972 Summer Olympics
 * Jan Fitschen (born 1977), long-distance runner
 * Simon Cziommer (born 1980), footballer, played 302 games
 * Anna-Lena Grönefeld (born 1985), tennis player
 * Jennifer Janiska (born 1994), volleyball player, captain of the Germany women's national volleyball team.

Twin towns – sister cities
Nordhorn is twinned with:
 * Coevorden, Netherlands (1963)
 * 🇫🇷 Montivilliers, France (1963)
 * 🇩🇪 Reichenbach im Vogtland, Germany (1987)
 * 🇵🇱 Malbork, Poland (1995)
 * 🇮🇹 Rieti, Italy (2010)

title: Nordhorn


text:
Malgré-nous

Malgré-nous (lit. 'we despite ourselves', or more figuratively 'we who are forced against our will') is a term that refers to men from Alsace–Lorraine who were conscripted into the German military after the region's annexation from France during World War II. The female term Malgré-elles is sometimes used to refer to the Alsace-Moselle women also drafted against their will into the general German war effort.

History
Based on orders from Gauleiter Robert Heinrich Wagner, the regional military governor of Alsace, of 25 August 1942, some 100,000 Alsatians and 30,000 Mosellans were drafted by force into the German armed forces. Heller and Simpson (2013) say: "Forced enrollment was organized in Alsace largely because of the disappointing number of Alsatians volunteering for the SS (at most 2,000). The fear from the high loss rates of the German Wehrmacht especially in Russia, were the most important point to stay away from any form of volunteering in German military units. Additionally, many men who refused conscription saw their 'entire family...deported after they refused to serve'."Most of those were sent to the Eastern Front. A smaller number served in the Waffen-SS.

Some Malgré-nous deserted the Wehrmacht to join the French Resistance or escape to Switzerland, thereby running the risk of having their families sent to work or concentration camps by the Germans. According to historian David Kaplan, 40,000 "either avoided the draft or deserted once in uniform". This threat obliged the majority of them to remain in the German army. After the war, they were often accused of being traitors or collaborationists. In July 1944, 1,500 Malgré-nous were released from Soviet captivity and sent to Algiers, where they joined the Free French Forces.

Thirteen Malgré-nous were involved in the massacre of Oradour-sur-Glane together with one genuine volunteer from Alsace. In a trial in Bordeaux in 1953 they were sentenced to prison terms between 5–11 years, while the volunteer was sentenced to death. The trial caused major civil unrest in Alsace, as most of the Malgré-nous had, by definition, been forced to serve in the Waffen-SS; public pressure led to a re-examination of the convictions, ultimately resulting in a general amnesty by the French National Assembly on 19 February 1953.

Of the estimated 130,000 Malgré-nous, some 32,000 were killed in action and 10,500 are still missing in action (and presumed dead). Between 5,000 and 10,000 prisoners-of-war died in captivity, most of them at the Soviet camp at Tambov. The last POWs were released in 1955. Forty thousand of the Malgré-nous were invalids after the war. <!-- work area for translation from corresponding French article version 189019757

Contexte historique
L’Alsace (moins l'arrondissement de Belfort), une partie de la Lorraine — le département de la Moselle dans ses limites actuelles — et quelques villages du département des Vosges furent cédés à l'Empire allemand au Traité de Francfort, après la défaite française de 1871 laissant aux populations pendant quelques mois le choix d' "opter" pour la France. Les populations de ces contrées qui restent sur place - notamment pour garder une présence française en zone annexée - se sont ainsi retrouvées sujets de l'Empereur germanique et soumises aux obligations et usages des ressortissants du nouveau Reich. Les jeunes hommes durent accomplir leur service militaire et tous ces soldats Alsaciens-Lorrains ont été mobilisés - au sein des armées de l'empire germanique - durant la Première Guerre mondiale. Entre 1914 et 1918, environ 18000 Alsaciens-mosellans « réfractaires » choisissent de quitter leurs familles pour aller s'engager dans l'armée française, alors que 380000 conscrits Alsaciens et Lorrains partent servir l'Allemagne et le Kaiser. This mobilisation au début de la Première Guerre mondiale se fait globalement sans heurt, les jeunes générations n'ayant jamais connu la France et se considérant comme citoyens allemands. On le voit dans l’article en allemand Ich bin ein Kriegskind du pasteur Jean-Jacques Reutenauer, né en 1952. Son grand-père lui ayant dit quand il était encore tout jeune : « Si en 1917 les Américains n’étaient pas venus, nous n’aurions pas perdu la guerre ! », l’enfant répondit : « Mais, grand-père, la guerre c’est bien nous qui l’avons gagnée ! – Tu es trop jeune pour comprendre. » . À la fin de la guerre, en 1918, après 4 ans de dictature militaire, de brimades et de destructions volontaires, la population d'Alsace-Moselle n'éprouve plus la moindre sympathie pour l'Allemagne et fait le dos rond en espérant une paix prochaine.

Le problème est radicalement différent en 1942, tant sur le plan sociologique que sur le plan juridique. D'un point de vue humain, les jeunes appelés Alsaciens et Mosellans ne sont pas nés Allemands ; ils sont majoritairement restés « Français de cœur » et n'ont pour la plupart pas opté pour obtenir la nationalité allemande, qui leur a été octroyée d'office au nom du Volkstum. D'un point de vue légal, l’annexion de facto des trois départements français par l'Allemagne nazie n'a pas été ratifiée par le droit international ni d’ailleurs par aucun traité entre la France de Vichy et l’Allemagne ; c’est ce que précise le une protestation du général Huntziger au général von Stulpnagel, président de la commission allemande d’armistice. Il y est bien dit : « C’est avec la France entière, dans ses frontières de l’état de 1939, que l’Allemagne a signé la Convention du » et on rappelle que cette Convention avait précisé « que le Gouvernement français avait le droit d’administrer les territoires occupés et non occupés, sans limitation territoriale aucune ». « Dès l'été 1940, écrit Bernard Vogler, l'attitude des catholiques est quasi-unanime dans le refus, qui ne fait que s'accentuer durant les quatre années, soit une attitude totalement différente de leurs coreligionnaires sous le régime de Vichy […] En été 1940 la grande majorité des protestants s'imaginent que ce sont les mêmes Allemands que ceux d'avant 1918. Aussi ce malentendu initial favorise-t-il un certain nombre de ralliements […] Mais cette attitude initiale est rapidement balayée : en l'espace de six mois on passe de la confiance à l'amertume de la parole trahie. »

Bien que le terme « malgré-nous » apparaisse déjà en 1920, après la Première Guerre mondiale, lorsque des associations d'anciens combattants alsaciens et lorrains de la Grande Guerre emploient cette formule pour mettre en avant le fait qu'ils avaient dû se battre « malgré eux » dans l'armée allemande contre la France, les premiers véritables « malgré-nous » ont été incorporés de force par l'armée allemande à partir d'.

Quand l'armistice du 22 juin 1940 est signé, les cas de l'[0[Alsace]] et de la Moselle ne sont pas évoqués. Ce territoire reste donc juridiquement français, bien qu'il fasse partie de la zone militairement occupée par l'Allemagne.

Le régime nazi l'annexe de fait au territoire allemand, par un décret du signé par le Führer Adolf Hitler qui en interdit la publication.

Le gouvernement de Vichy se borne à des notes de protestation adressées aux autorités allemandes de la commission de Wiesbaden, mais sans les rendre publiques, craignant les réactions allemandes : « Vous comprenez, disait en le maréchal Pétain à Robert Sérot, député de la Moselle, les Allemands sont des sadiques qui nous broieront si, actuellement, nous faisons un geste. » . D’ailleurs ces notes restaient toujours sans réponses.

Le bruit se répand alors qu'une clause secrète avait de nouveau livré l'Alsace-Lorraine à l'Allemagne, à cette différence près que les trois ex-départements français ne formaient plus une entité propre, comme c'était le cas lors la précédente annexion. Ainsi, le Bas-Rhin et le Haut-Rhin deviennent le CdZ-Gebiet Elsass, territoire rattaché au Gau Baden-Elsaß ; tandis que la Moselle devient le CdZ-Gebiet Lothringen, territoire rattaché au Gau Westmark le. -->

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Malgré-nous


text:
Open-source hardware

Open-source hardware (OSH, OSHW) consists of physical artifacts of technology designed and offered by the open-design movement. Both free and open-source software (FOSS) and open-source hardware are created by this open-source culture movement and apply a like concept to a variety of components. It is sometimes, thus, referred to as FOSH (free and open-source hardware). The term usually means that information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it – coupling it closely to the maker movement. Hardware design (i.e. mechanical drawings, schematics, bills of material, PCB layout data, HDL source code and integrated circuit layout data), in addition to the software that drives the hardware, are all released under free/libre terms. The original sharer gains feedback and potentially improvements on the design from the FOSH community. There is now significant evidence that such sharing can drive a high return on investment for the scientific community.

It is not enough to merely use an open-source license; an open source product or project will follow open source principles, such as modular design and community collaboration.

Since the rise of reconfigurable programmable logic devices, sharing of logic designs has been a form of open-source hardware. Instead of the schematics, hardware description language (HDL) code is shared. HDL descriptions are commonly used to set up system-on-a-chip systems either in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) or directly in application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designs. HDL modules, when distributed, are called semiconductor intellectual property cores, also known as IP cores.

Open-source hardware also helps alleviate the issue of proprietary device drivers for the free and open-source software community, however, it is not a pre-requisite for it, and should not be confused with the concept of open documentation for proprietary hardware, which is already sufficient for writing FLOSS device drivers and complete operating systems. The difference between the two concepts is that OSH includes both the instructions on how to replicate the hardware itself as well as the information on communication protocols that the software (usually in the form of device drivers) must use in order to communicate with the hardware (often called register documentation, or open documentation for hardware), whereas open-source-friendly proprietary hardware would only include the latter without including the former.

History
The first hardware-focused "open source" activities were started around 1997 by Bruce Perens, creator of the Open Source Definition, co-founder of the Open Source Initiative, and a ham radio operator. He launched the Open Hardware Certification Program, which had the goal of allowing hardware manufacturers to self-certify their products as open.

Shortly after the launch of the Open Hardware Certification Program, David Freeman announced the Open Hardware Specification Project (OHSpec), another attempt at licensing hardware components whose interfaces are available publicly and of creating an entirely new computing platform as an alternative to proprietary computing systems. In early 1999, Sepehr Kiani, Ryan Vallance and Samir Nayfeh joined efforts to apply the open-source philosophy to machine design applications. Together they established the Open Design Foundation (ODF) as a non-profit corporation and set out to develop an Open Design Definition. However, most of these activities faded out after a few years.

A "Free Hardware" organization, known as FreeIO, was started in the late 1990s by Diehl Martin, who also launched a FreeIO website in early 2000. In the early to mid 2000s, FreeIO was a focus of free/open hardware designs released under the GNU General Public License. The FreeIO project advocated the concept of Free Hardware and proposed four freedoms that such hardware provided to users, based on the similar freedoms provided by free software licenses. The designs gained some notoriety due to Martin's naming scheme in which each free hardware project was given the name of a breakfast food such as Donut, Flapjack, Toast, etc. Martin's projects attracted a variety of hardware and software developers as well as other volunteers. Development of new open hardware designs at FreeIO ended in 2007 when Martin died of pancreatic cancer but the existing designs remain available from the organization's website.

By the mid 2000s open-source hardware again became a hub of activity due to the emergence of several major open-source hardware projects and companies, such as OpenCores, RepRap (3D printing), Arduino, Adafruit, SparkFun, and Open Source Ecology. In 2007, Perens reactivated the openhardware.org website, but it's currently (August 2023) inactive.

Following the Open Graphics Project, an effort to design, implement, and manufacture a free and open 3D graphics chip set and reference graphics card, Timothy Miller suggested the creation of an organization to safeguard the interests of the Open Graphics Project community. Thus, Patrick McNamara founded the Open Hardware Foundation (OHF) in 2007.

The Tucson Amateur Packet Radio Corporation (TAPR), founded in 1982 as a non-profit organization of amateur radio operators with the goals of supporting R&D efforts in the area of amateur digital communications, created in 2007 the first open hardware license, the TAPR Open Hardware License. The OSI president Eric S. Raymond expressed some concerns about certain aspects of the OHL and decided to not review the license.

Around 2010 in context of the Freedom Defined project, the Open Hardware Definition was created as collaborative work of many and is accepted as of 2016 by dozens of organizations and companies.

In July 2011, CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) released an open-source hardware license, CERN OHL. Javier Serrano, an engineer at CERN's Beams Department and the founder of the Open Hardware Repository, explained: "By sharing designs openly, CERN expects to improve the quality of designs through peer review and to guarantee their users – including commercial companies – the freedom to study, modify and manufacture them, leading to better hardware and less duplication of efforts". While initially drafted to address CERN-specific concerns, such as tracing the impact of the organization's research, in its current form it can be used by anyone developing open-source hardware.

Following the 2011 Open Hardware Summit, and after heated debates on licenses and what constitutes open-source hardware, Bruce Perens abandoned the OSHW Definition and the concerted efforts of those involved with it. Openhardware.org, led by Bruce Perens, promotes and identifies practices that meet all the combined requirements of the Open Source Hardware Definition, the Open Source Definition, and the Four Freedoms of the Free Software Foundation Since 2014 openhardware.org is not online and seems to have ceased activity.

The Open Source Hardware Association (OSHWA) at oshwa.org acts as hub of open-source hardware activity of all genres, while cooperating with other entities such as TAPR, CERN, and OSI. The OSHWA was established as an organization in June 2012 in Delaware and filed for tax exemption status in July 2013. After some debates about trademark interferences with the OSI, in 2012 the OSHWA and the OSI signed a co-existence agreement.

The Free Software Foundation has suggested an alternative "free hardware" definition derived from the Four Freedoms.

Forms of open-source hardware
The term hardware in open-source hardware has been historically used in opposition to the term software of open-source software. That is, to refer to the electronic hardware on which the software runs (see previous section). However, as more and more non-electronic hardware products are made open source (for example WikiHouse, OpenBeam or Hovalin), this term tends to be used back in its broader sense of "physical product". The field of open-source hardware has been shown to go beyond electronic hardware and to cover a larger range of product categories such as machine tools, vehicles and medical equipment. In that sense, hardware refers to any form of tangible product, be it electronic hardware, mechanical hardware, textile or even construction hardware. The Open Source Hardware (OSHW) Definition 1.0 defines hardware as "tangible artifacts — machines, devices, or other physical things".

Electronics
Electronics is one of the most popular types of open-source hardware. PCB based designs can be published similarly to software as CAD files, which users can send directly to PCB fabrication companies and receive a build from them in the mail. Or users can obtain components and solder them together themselves.

There are many companies that provide large varieties of open-source electronics such as Sparkfun, Adafruit, and Seeed. In addition, there are NPOs and companies that provide a specific open-source electronic component such as the Arduino electronics prototyping platform. There are many examples of specialty open-source electronics such as low-cost voltage and current GMAW open-source 3-D printer monitor and a robotics-assisted mass spectrometry assay platform. Open-source electronics finds various uses, including automation of chemical procedures.

Mechanics
Purely mechanical OSH designs include mechanical components, machine tools, and vehicles. Open Source Ecology is a large project which seeks to develop a complete ecosystem of mechanical tools and components which aim to be able to replicate themselves.

Open-source vehicles have also been developed including bicycles like XYZ Space Frame Vehicles and cars such as the Tabby OSVehicle.

Mechatronics
Most OSH systems combine elements of electronics and mechanics to form mechatronics systems. A large range of open-source mechatronic products have been developed, including machine tools, musical instruments, and medical equipment.

Examples of open-source machine tools include 3D printers such as RepRap, Prusa, and Ultimaker, 3D printer filament extruders such as polystruder XR PRO as well as the laser cutter Lasersaur.

Examples of open source medical equipment include open-source ventilators, the echostethoscope echOpen, and a wide range of prosthetic hands listed in the review study by Ten Kate et.al. (e.g. OpenBionics' Prosthetic Hands).

Open source robotics combines open source hardware mechatronics with open source AI and control software.

Chip design
Open Standard chip designs are now common. OpenRISC (2000 - LGPL / GPL), OpenSparc (2005 - GPLv2), and RISC-V (2010 - Open Standard, free to implement for non-commercial purposes), are examples of free to use instruction set architecture.

OpenCores is a large library of standard chip design subcomponents which can be combined into larger designs.

Complete open source software stacks and shuttle fabrication services are now available which can take OSH chip designs from hardware description languages to masks and ASIC fabrication on maker-scale budgets.

Other
Examples of open-source hardware products can also be found to a lesser extent in construction (Wikihouse), textile (Kit Zéro Kilomètres), and firearms (3D printed firearm, Defense Distributed).

Licenses
Rather than creating a new license, some open-source hardware projects use existing, free and open-source software licenses. These licenses may not accord well with patent law.

Later, several new licenses were proposed, designed to address issues specific to hardware design. In these licenses, many of the fundamental principles expressed in open-source software (OSS) licenses have been "ported" to their counterpart hardware projects. New hardware licenses are often explained as the "hardware equivalent" of a well-known OSS license, such as the GPL, LGPL, or BSD license.

Despite superficial similarities to software licenses, most hardware licenses are fundamentally different: by nature, they typically rely more heavily on patent law than on copyright law, as many hardware designs are not copyrightable. Whereas a copyright license may control the distribution of the source code or design documents, a patent license may control the use and manufacturing of the physical device built from the design documents. This distinction is explicitly mentioned in the preamble of the TAPR Open Hardware License:

"'... those who benefit from an OHL design may not bring lawsuits claiming that design infringes their patents or other intellectual property.'"

Noteworthy licenses include:
 * The TAPR Open Hardware License: drafted by attorney John Ackermann, reviewed by OSS community leaders Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond, and discussed by hundreds of volunteers in an open community discussion
 * Balloon Open Hardware License: used by all projects in the Balloon Project
 * Although originally a software license, OpenCores encourages the LGPL
 * Hardware Design Public License: written by Graham Seaman, admin of Opencollector.org
 * In March 2011 CERN released the CERN Open Hardware License (OHL) intended for use with the Open Hardware Repository and other projects.
 * The Solderpad License is a version of the Apache License version 2.0, amended by lawyer Andrew Katz to render it more appropriate for hardware use.

The Open Source Hardware Association recommends seven licenses which follow their open-source hardware definition. From the general copyleft licenses the GNU General Public License (GPL) and Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license, from the hardware-specific copyleft licenses the CERN Open Hardware License (OHL) and TAPR Open Hardware License (OHL) and from the permissive licenses the FreeBSD license, the MIT license, and the Creative Commons Attribution license. Openhardware.org recommended in 2012 the TAPR Open Hardware License, Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 and GPL 3.0 license.

Organizations tend to rally around a shared license. For example, OpenCores prefers the LGPL or a Modified BSD License, FreeCores insists on the GPL, Open Hardware Foundation promotes "copyleft or other permissive licenses", the Open Graphics Project uses a variety of licenses, including the MIT license, GPL, and a proprietary license, and the Balloon Project wrote their own license.

Development
The adjective "open-source" not only refers to a specific set of freedoms applying to a product, but also generally presupposes that the product is the object or the result of a "process that relies on the contributions of geographically dispersed developers via the Internet." In practice however, in both fields of open-source hardware and open-source software, products may either be the result of a development process performed by a closed team in a private setting or by a community in a public environment, the first case being more frequent than the second which is more challenging. Establishing a community-based product development process faces several challenges such as: to find appropriate product data management tools, document not only the product but also the development process itself, accepting losing ubiquitous control over the project, ensure continuity in a context of fickle participation of voluntary project members, among others.

One of the major differences between developing open-source software and developing open-source hardware is that hardware results in tangible outputs, which cost money to prototype and manufacture. As a result, the phrase "free as in speech, not as in beer", more-formally known as gratis versus libre, distinguishes between the idea of zero cost and the freedom to use and modify information. While open-source hardware faces challenges in minimizing cost and reducing financial risks for individual project developers, some community members have proposed models to address these needs Given this, there are initiatives to develop sustainable community funding mechanisms, such as the Open Source Hardware Central Bank.

Extensive discussion has taken place on ways to make open-source hardware as accessible as open-source software. Providing clear and detailed product documentation is an essential factor facilitating product replication and collaboration in hardware development projects. Practical guides have been developed to help practitioners to do so. Another option is to design products so they are easy to replicate, as exemplified in the concept of open-source appropriate technology.

The process of developing open-source hardware in a community-based setting is alternatively called open design, open source development or open source product development. All these terms are examples of the open-source model applicable for the development of any product, including software, hardware, cultural and educational. Does open design and open-source hardware design process involves new design practices, or raises requirements for new tools? is the question of openness really key in OSH?. See here for a delineation of these terms.

A major contributor to the production of open-source hardware product designs is the scientific community. There has been considerable work to produce open-source hardware for scientific hardware using a combination of open-source electronics and 3-D printing. Other sources of open-source hardware production are vendors of chips and other electronic components sponsoring contests with the provision that the participants and winners must share their designs. Circuit Cellar magazine organizes some of these contests.

Open-source labs
A guide has been published (Open-Source Lab (book) by Joshua Pearce) on using open-source electronics and 3D printing to make open-source labs. Today, scientists are creating many such labs. Examples include:

 * Boston Open Source Science Laboratory, Somerville, Massachusetts
 * BYU Open Source Lab, Brigham Young University
 * Michigan Tech
 * National Tsing Hua University
 * OSU Open Source Lab, Oregon State University
 * Open Source Research Lab, University of Texas at El Paso

Business models
Open hardware companies are experimenting with business models. For example, littleBits implements open-source business models by making available the circuit designs in each electronics module, in accordance with the CERN Open Hardware License Version 1.2. Another example is Arduino, which registered its name as a trademark; others may manufacture products from Arduino designs but cannot call the products Arduino products. There are many applicable business models for implementing some open-source hardware even in traditional firms. For example, to accelerate development and technical innovation, the photovoltaic industry has experimented with partnerships, franchises, secondary supplier and completely open-source models.

Recently, many open-source hardware projects have been funded via crowdfunding on platforms such as Indiegogo, Kickstarter, or Crowd Supply.

Reception and impact
Richard Stallman, the founder of the free software movement, was in 1999 skeptical on the idea and relevance of free hardware (his terminology for what is now known as open-source hardware). In a 2015 article in Wired Magazine, he modified this attitude; he acknowledged the importance of free hardware, but still saw no ethical parallel with free software. Also, Stallman prefers the term free hardware design over open source hardware, a request which is consistent with his earlier rejection of the term open source software (see also Alternative terms for free software).

Other authors, such as Professor Joshua Pearce have argued there is an ethical imperative for open-source hardware – specifically with respect to open-source appropriate technology for sustainable development. In 2014, he also wrote the book Open-Source Lab: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs, which details the development of free and open-source hardware primarily for scientists and university faculty. Pearce in partnership with Elsevier introduced a scientific journal HardwareX. It has featured many examples of applications of open-source hardware for scientific purposes.

Further, Vasilis Kostakis et al have argued that open-source hardware may promote values of equity, diversity and sustainability. Open-source hardware initiative transcend traditional dichotomies of global-local, urban-rural, and developed-developing contexts. They may leverage cultural differences, environmental conditions, and local needs/resources, while embracing hyper-connectivity, to foster sustainability and collaboration rather than conflict. However, open-source hardware does face some challenges and contradictions. It must navigate tensions between inclusiveness, standardization, and functionality. Additionally, while open-source hardware may reduce pressure on natural resources and local populations, it still relies on energy- and material-intensive infrastructures, such as the Internet. Despite these complexities, Kostakis et al argue, the open-source hardware framework can serve as a catalyst for connecting and unifying diverse local initiatives under radical narratives, thus inspiring genuine change.

OSH has grown as an academic field through the two journals Journal of Open Hardware (JOH) and HardwareX. These journals compete to publish the best OSH designs, and each define their own requirements for what constitutes acceptable quality of design documents, including specific requirements for build instructions, bill of materials, CAD files, and licences. These requirements are often used by other OSH projects to define how to do an OSH release. These journals also publish papers contributing to the debate about how OSH should be defined and used.

title: Open-source hardware


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Coquitlam River

The Coquitlam River (/koʊˈkwɪtləm/ or /kəˈkwɪtləm/) is a tributary of the Fraser River in the Canadian province of British Columbia. The river's name comes from the word Kʷikʷəƛ̓əm which translates to "Red fish up the river". The name is a reference to a sockeye salmon species that once occupied the river's waters.

The river is an 18 km meandering river with 30 tributaries and various morphological features. Owing to the size and area of its location, the river has a history of disastrous floods.

The Kwikwetlem first nations were the first humans to live in the area, followed by settlers thousands of years later. After settlers arrived the river would soon be altered many times for the resources it holds. The most recent changes are the generation of hydro-electricity with a dam.

The river's long history and importance have led to conservation efforts by different organizations for some of the various mammals, birds, fish, and plants. Some attempts have been made to rejuvenate the salmonid species with hatcheries and direct human intervention to assist wild salmonids. The area is also known to have some species which are included on the BC Species at Risk Act and The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) lists.

Setting
The Coquitlam River is located within the Coquitlam River Watershed, which has a total area of 340 km2 and formed during the last glacial advance. The watershed is split into two sections, the upper and lower Coquitlam River Watershed. Its source is Disappointment Lake, which is in the Coast Mountains near Indian Arm. It flows south into Coquitlam Lake, a reservoir behind the Coquitlam Dam. The Coquitlam River then continues past the dam flowing south until it reaches the Fraser River at the border between Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam.

The Coquitlam River spans a total of 18 km from the dam to its outlet and receives sediment and water from 30 tributaries. It is a meandering river with various features such as large boulders, riffles, undercut banks, sidebars, islands, oxbow lakes, large woody debris and small woody debris. The sediment that is carried in the river is composed of glacial sands, gravel, clays, silts and some boulders. The primary source of this sediment is Or Creek which supplies large amounts of cobbles, sand and silts. The Coquitlam River is also located in a coastal western hemlock biogeoclimatic zone.

This climatic zone and its position on a mountain means that it has a mean annual precipitation of 3498 mm. The mean daily discharge is roughly 14.35 m3/s, however due to the high annual precipitation, the discharge can regularly increase to anywhere between 20 m3/s and 50 m3/s. These high discharge events have been known to last a couple days following larger precipitation events. The river also has a long history of flooding with the largest known flood on record occurring in 1921. This flood resulted in a discharge of 665 m3/s and the second largest flood occurred in 1961 with a discharge of 476 m3/s.

Ecology
The Coquitlam River is a part of the Fraser Lowland ecosection and Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone. The undeveloped land surrounding the river includes an oxbow lake, wetlands, and side channels. This riparian habitat includes a variety of vegetation from evergreens such as western red cedars to deciduous black cottonwoods. This forested area provides cover for animals such as black-tailed deer and racoons within the urban landscape in the lower reaches of the river. The river and its tributaries are home to 24 different species of fish, 5 of these salmonids. These salmon are a critical part of this ecosystem, providing a source of food for species such as black bears and bald eagles. After spawning, the fish carcasses decompose on banks and release nutrients in the soil for vegetation such as salmonberries.

Species
Species status's are classified under the BC's conservation ranks. Red list: "Any species or ecosystem that is at risk of being lost (extirpated, endangered or threatened)". Blue list: "Any species or ecosystem that is of special concern". Yellow list: "Any species or ecosystem that is at the least risk of being lost".

The following lists are not exhaustive, and were created using personal observations as well as observations from previous habitat assessments and reports of the area.

Historic
The Coquitlam River is named for the Kwikwetlem First Nations (kʷikʷəƛ̓əm) who have lived in the region for at least the last nine thousand years. kʷikʷəƛ̓əm translates to "Red fish up the river" in reference to an early sockeye salmon species that once spawned in Coquitlam Lake. The Kwikwetlem were renowned for their canoe and paddle craftsmanship. The Kwikwetlem lived throughout the Coquitlam River watershed and would have relied on fishing, gathering, and trade with other First Nations living along the Fraser River.

European settlers first arrived in the region in the mid-1800s and began using the river for their own purposes. The first dam was built at the mouth of Coquitlam Lake in 1892 to provide a source of drinking water for the growing colony of New Westminster. In 1905 the Vancouver Power Company completed construction on a second dam and a tunnel to nearby Buntzen Lake for power generation. As a result, a large portion of the Coquitlam River's flow was diverted out of the watershed altering the hydrology of the river. In response to increased demand, another larger dam was completed in 1915, however unlike previous dams, fish access to the lake was completely blocked. further impacting the river's ecology. The watershed was logged extensively throughout the 1900s which has resulted in heavy sediment loads to occur during high precipitation events. Throughout the 1950s and 60s it was also common practice to extract gravel directly from the stream bed, although this stopped in 1965 when the B.C. Gravel Removal Order was passed.

Modern
The Coquitlam Lake dam continues to provide power to the residents of Metro Vancouver and is owned and operated by the provincial energy authority, BC hydro. The lake is also one of three reservoirs used by Metro Vancouver and provides drinking water to 900,000 people.

The flow reduction caused by the dam and the water diversion to Buntzen Lake affects fish and wildlife in the river and surrounding riparian zone. The barrier created by the dam restricts migration between the upper and lower parts of the watershed, which impacts salmon species in particular who used the lake as a hatching site. As a result, sockeye salmon have become almost entirely extirpated in the Coquitlam River. The dam also reduces the accumulation of woody debris in the lower reaches of the river which could be used for habitats.

There are several popular parks and trails along the banks of the river including Coquitlam River Park, Lions Parks, and Gates Parks. The river is also popular with local fishermen.

Conservation groups
There have been numerous initiatives to address and educate the public about the issues that threaten the Coquitlam River. These began in 1996 with the Coquitlam River Watershed Community Initiative, and continue today with others, such as the Coquitlam River Watershed Society established in 1998.

Salmon
To rejuvenate the salmonid species in the river, the Port Coquitlam & District Hunting and Fishing Club has operated the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery through the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Salmonid Enhancement Program (SEP). At the hatchery, tens of thousands of juvenile fish are released each spring. These efforts has led to a rebound in coho, chum and pink salmon populations, with approximately 4 times the amount of salmon returning compared to their lowest numbers. However, other species such as sockeye salmon and steelhead trout are either not returning at all or in very low numbers. This is likely due to long-lasting impacts from the Coquitlam Lake dam, logging upstream, and gravel removal.

Since the dam's installation, salmon have been cut off from the valuable rearing habitat of the upper Coquitlam River. To attempt to reverse this, Fisheries and Oceans Canada plan to transport up to 100 returning coho salmon. This plan was presented in 2020 and will likely occur over a 5-year trial period. This transportation will also be managed by the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery.

Threatened species management
There is a protected Wildlife Management Area found on the north side of the Coquitlam and Fraser Rivers confluence. This land is managed by the BC's Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resources Operations and Rural Developments (FLNRORD). The great blue herons found on this reserve are blue-listed species under the BC Species at Risk Act (SARA) and are listed as a "special concern" under COSEWIC.

In 2014, a Species at Risk project was completed and both the great blue heron as well as the blue-listed red-legged frog were identified along the Coquitlam River. Red-legged frogs were observed in the upper reaches, however possible breeding habitat was also identified and recommended as a viable location for restoration. Due to the sensitive nature of this amphibian, it was also recommended to avoid pond draining and ditch cleaning during breeding times.

title: Coquitlam River


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Category:Football teams

The word football (foot+ball) may refer to several sports. For a general history of these games, see Football. For a list of different forms of football see here.

title: Category:Football teams


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Talk:Xanadu (soundtrack)

Deletion
This page was voted on for deletion at Votes for deletion/Xanadu (Soundtrack). The consensus was to keep it. dbenbenn | talk 00:09, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Release date
I'm virtually certain that the soundtrack was released in the United States on August 8, 1980. I have lots of personal reasons to believe that this is true, but additionally, I know a lot more about media strategy than I did when the album first came out. I'm pretty sure the sequence of events was:

 * May 1980 - the following were released simultaneously as 7" singles in the United States on MCA Records:
 * I'm Alive (Electric Light Orchestra song) - this single was sold in a blue paper jacket that didn't have a hole in the middle.
 * Magic (Olivia Newton-John song) - this single was sold in a pink (mauve?) paper jacket that didn't have a hole in the middle.
 * August 8, 1980 - simultaneous release of the film ("Xanadu (film)") and the full 12" soundtrack on sturdy vinyl designed for 33 1/3 rpm turntables by MCA Records (unlike the cheapo vinyl that United Records issued the initial pressing of Out of the Blue on)

I don't have my sources yet, and I haven't even read the "Xanadu (soundtrack)" article in a while, so it could be that the article has been corrected the last time I saw it. It also could be that the UK release was early (I vaguely remember that bit of trivia), but I remember a lot about the U.S. release. -- RobLa (talk) 09:52, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

MusicBrainz has more specific dates on some releases. For Magic, they list May 1980 as you state. I'm not sure if they can confirm everything. --JoelSherrill (talk) 17:18, 26 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Xanadu (soundtrack)


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Mühlberg

Mühlberg may refer to:

Places

 * Mühlberg, Brandenburg, a town in the Elbe-Elster district, Brandenburg
 * Mühlberg, Thuringia, a village in the Gotha district, Thuringia
 * Mühlberg (Neustadt an der Waldnaab), a quarter of the town Neustadt an der Waldnaab, Bavaria
 * Frankfurt Mühlberg station, a S-Bahn station in Frankfurt am Main
 * several hills and mountains are named Mühlberg

Other uses

 * the Battle of Mühlberg, which took in place near Mühlberg, Brandenburg in 1547
 * Georg Mühlberg (1863–1925), German painter

title: Mühlberg


text: User talk:66.82.9.69

title: User talk:66.82.9.69


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Category:Minor planets to be visited by spacecraft

This category holds minor planets that are due to be visited by space probes in the future.


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Lightning (dinghy)

The Lightning is an American sailing dinghy that was designed by Olin Stephens of Sparkman & Stephens, as a one-design racer and first built in 1938.

An accepted World Sailing class, the boat is one of the most popular one-design sailing classes in the United States and is also raced in several other countries.

The design was developed into a smaller boat, as a trainer for the Lightning, the Blue Jay in 1947.

Production
The design has been built by a large number of manufacturers in the United States and also in Canada. There have been 15,550 boats completed and it remains in production by the Allen Boat Company.

In the past it has been built in the US by the Clark Boat Company, Lippincott Boat Works, Nickels Boat Works, Jack A. Helms Co., Lockley Newport Boats, Skaneateles Boat & Canoe, Mobjack Manufacturing, Siddons & Sindle, Lofland Sail-craft, the Eichenlaub Boat Co and WindRider LLC. It was also built in Canada by J.J. Taylor and Sons Ltd.

Boats have been delivered complete, sold as kits for amateur construction and also amateur-built from plans.

Design
The Lightning is a recreational sailboat, initially built with wooden plank construction and, since the early 1960s, of fiberglass with wood trim. It has a fractional sloop rig with wooden or aluminum spars. The rig employs a backstay, anchored off center, so as to not impede the tiller. If equipped with a wooden mast it has a jumper stay from the mast head to the spreaders. The hull has a foredeck, with a V-shaped coaming, a raked stem, an angled transom, a transom-hung rudder controlled by a tiller and a retractable centerboard. It displaces 700 lb and carries a class-prescribed maximum of 130 lb in centerboard weight.

The boat has a draft of 4.95 ft with the centerboard extended and 5 in with it retracted, allowing beaching or ground transportation on a trailer.

For sailing the design is equipped with a 300 sqft spinnaker. Mainsail and jib windows are optional for improved visibility and safety.

The design has a Portsmouth Yardstick racing average handicap of 88.4 and is normally raced with a crew of three sailors, although it can accommodate six adults.

Operational history
The boat has an active class club that regulates the design and organizes races, the International Lightning Class Association. By 1994 there were more than 460 racing fleets in Canada, Europe, South America and the United States.

In a 1994 review Richard Sherwood noted that the design has good freeboard and stability.

title: Lightning (dinghy)


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Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy

 * ' listed by Greco-Roman astronomer ' (after 150 CE) — 48 are.


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User talk:69.231.154.172

Last warning. Please stop deleting informtion from the Kobe Bryant article without discussion, or you will be blocked from editing. RickK 00:16, Feb 4, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.231.154.172


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Magnus Colcord Heurlin

Magnus Colcord "Rusty" Heurlin (July 5, 1895 – March 10, 1986) was a Swedish-American artist best known for his pastel palette and depictions of Alaskan landscapes.

Background
Magnus Colcord Heurlin was born in Christanstad, Skåne County, Sweden. He was the son of Berndt Felix Heurlin and Sophie Bjorklund. He was raised at the house at 2 Nichols Street in Wakefield, Massachusetts after the family returned to the U.S. from Sweden in 1896. He attended art classes conducted by Harold Mathews Brett at the Fenway School of Illustration in Boston, Massachusetts.

Career
Heurlin first came to Alaska in 1916, to Valdez, traveling aboard the SS Northwestern from Seattle, Washington. He later moved to Utqiagvik where he lived and painted, concentrating on the Inupiat, creating many works depicting whaling and hunting. He joined the U.S. Navy in 1917 and left the territory during World War I, serving in France. Because of his extensive knowledge of armaments he attained a job as Admiral Plunkett's orderly in the naval railroad batteries.

After the war, Heurlin lived for many years in Westport, Connecticut, where he began his professional art career as an illustrator for magazines published in New York City. In the early 1930s he was selected as an artist for the WPA Arts Project in Westport's public school buildings. He returned to Alaska around 1935, and moved outside Fairbanks to the gold mining village of Ester with his wife, Anne Downer Severin (d. 1971). The artist worked on the gold dredges near Ester for the Fairbanks Exploration (FE) Company at the Independence Mine. In 1942 Heurlin became an officer in the Alaska Territorial Guard which was organized to protect Alaska from Japanese invasion. After World War II he returned to his cabin in Ester, where he resided until his death at age 90.

Heurlin taught the first art classes at the University of Alaska Fairbanks in the 1950s, and received an honorary doctorate from the university in 1971. He was also named to Alaska's 49ers Hall of Fame. Heurlin was known for his pastel palette and luminous skies, and influenced many later Alaska artists, such as Fred Machetanz.

title: Magnus Colcord Heurlin


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Narrabri

Narrabri is a locality and seat of Narrabri Shire local government area in the North West Slopes, New South Wales, Australia on the Namoi River, 521 km northwest of Sydney. It sits on the junction of the Kamilaroi Highway and the Newell Highway. At the 2021 census, the town of Narrabri had a population of 5,499.

Because of the geography of Narrabri and the surrounding areas, Narrabri township was quite prone to flooding and fire. Recently, changes have been made to the river flow to improve overall safety.

It is the centre of a major cotton-growing industry. Other agricultural industries in the area include wheat, beef, and lamb. Nearby attractions are Mount Kaputar National Park, the Australia Telescope Compact Array at the Paul Wild Observatory (administered by the CSIRO), and a number of agricultural centres. Just to the south of town is the Pilliga Forest, the largest remnant temperate forest in Eastern Australia. Narrabri also has The Crossing Theatre, a 1,000-seat auditorium and cinema complex.

History
Before the arrival of the Europeans in the early 19th century, Narrabri was the home of the Gamilaroi people, who still constitute a significant part of the local population. Narrabri derives its name from an early property in the district called the Narrabri Run. The name Narrabri is Aboriginal in origin and has several possible meanings which include 'snake place', 'big creek', or 'Forked Sticks'.

In 1860, Narrabri was proclaimed a town and a year later, on 1 June 1861, Narrabri Post Office opened. Other buildings followed, with the hospital and the first courthouse (1864–65), the school (1868), the police station (1878–79) and post office (1879). During the 1880s the gaol and the second courthouse were built.

Heritage listings
Narrabri has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * Bowen Street: Narrabri Gaol and Residence
 * 138–140 Maitland Street: Narrabri Post Office

Population
According to the 2021 Australian census, there were 12,703 people in Narrabri Shire and 5,499 people in Narrabri itself.
 * Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 14.8% of the population.
 * 84.0% of people were born in Australia and 86.9% of people spoke only English at home.
 * The most common responses for religion were No Religion at 28.4%, Anglican at 26.1% and Catholic at 22.3%.

Narrabri Airport AWS (2001–2020)
Over the years, Narrabri has had a number of weather stations run by the Bureau of Meteorology or other government agencies. Narrabri West Post Office made rainfall observations from the late 1800s. From June 1960 until August 2002, it observed and reported other weather elements such as temperature and wind speed. Since then it only reports rainfall. The current weather station for Narrabri is Narrabri Airport Automatic Weather Station (AWS), which began observations in 2001.

Significant weather events
On 4 January 1902 a severe thunderstorm, with large hail and destructive winds, struck the town, with many buildings either damaged or destroyed. The storm, which lasted only five minutes, was described as a 'cyclone'. One man died after being struck by lightning and another two people were injured by the storm. Damage caused by the storm was estimated to be around £3,000.

Media
Narrabri has a twice-weekly published newspaper, The Courier, one of the few remaining independent regional newspapers in Australia.

A local volunteer-run community radio station, 2MAX FM services the area, broadcasting on 91.3 MHz FM, from the nearby Mt Dowe, and is able to cover a very large area due to this altitude. The station started in 2006. 2MAX FM has a focus on country music and older listeners.

Transport
Regional airline Link Airways operates scheduled flights to and from Brisbane and Sydney on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The town is also served by charter flights. It is almost equidistant from Brisbane and Sydney.

Railway station
Narrabri railway station is on the Mungindi line, 569 km from Sydney. The station opened in 1897 and is served by a single daily Xplorer diesel railmotor between Sydney and Moree.

Narrabri is an important centre for rail freight, with considerable infrastructure improvements since the mid-1990s.

Sports Teams
The most popular sport in Narrabri by a considerable margin is Rugby league. The local team, the Narrabri Blues, were founded in 1921 and play at Collins Park. They currently compete in the Group 4 Rugby League competition, in which they have won five premierships, the last of which came in 1990.

Other sports teams include the Narrabri Eagles AFC and Narrabri Blue Boars RUFC.

Coal seam gas proposal
A coal seam gas field has been proposed for the Narrabri area. It will extend west to Yarrie Lake, which will be surrounded by 450 gas well pads with 850 gas wells over the next 20 years if the project goes ahead. The project has been opposed by a coalition of rural residents and urban environmentalists.

Popular culture
Narrabri is referenced in the song Tucker's Daughter, by Australian rock singer Ian Moss, where the action takes place on a cotton farm on the plains of Narrabri.

Notable residents

 * Peter Hall, architect who led the completion of the Sydney Opera House after the resignation of Utzon.
 * Jeff Hardy, Australian Paralympic swimmer
 * Chris Latham, former Australian Wallaby rugby union player
 * Sam Naismith, Australian rules footballer
 * Ernest Riddle, former Governor of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia
 * Jason Stoltenberg, former international tennis player. World #1 junior player in 1987
 * Jamie Lyon, former National Rugby League player for the Manly Sea Eagles and New South Wales Origin.
 * Darrell Trindall, rugby league footballer of the 1990s
 * Andrew Curry, Former Australian Olympic javelin athlete and the nation's leading javelin specialist in the 1990s. locals know him as Narrabri's most treasured local sports star
 * Dorothy Jenner (Andrea) (1891–1985) Actor, Art Director, Journalist, Scriptwriter, War Correspondent

title: Narrabri