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Erich Hoepner

Erich Kurt Richard Hoepner (14 September 1886 – 8 August 1944) was a German general during World War II. An early proponent of mechanisation and armoured warfare, he was a Wehrmacht army corps commander at the beginning of the war, leading his troops during the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France.

Hoepner commanded the 4th Panzer Group on the Eastern Front during Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. During the invasion of Poland, he resisted mistreatment and murder of prisoners of war, but in Russia, Hoepner called for a war of extermination. Units under his authority closely cooperated with the Einsatzgruppen and he implemented the Commissar Order that directed Wehrmacht troops to summarily execute Red Army political commissars immediately upon capture. Hoepner's Panzer group, along with the 3rd Panzer Group, spearheaded the advance on Moscow in Operation Typhoon, the failed attempt to seize the Soviet capital.

Dismissed from the Wehrmacht after the failure of the 1941 campaign, Hoepner restored his pension rights through a lawsuit. He was implicated in the failed 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler and executed in 1944.

Early years and World War I
Hoepner was born in Frankfurt (Oder), the son of Prussian medical officer Kurt Hoepner. He was commissioned into the Prussian Army as a cavalry lieutenant in 1906, joining the Schleswig-Holstein Dragoons Regiment No. 13 (de). In 1911 he attended the Prussian Staff College and was assigned to the General Staff of the XVI Corps. When the First World War began he was assigned to the Western Front, serving as a company commander and staff officer for several corps and armies. He fought with the 105th Infantry Division in the German spring offensive of 1918, ending the war in the cavalry.

Interwar period
Hoepner remained in the Reichswehr during the Weimar Republic period. He was promoted to the rank of Generalmajor in 1936 and in 1938 was given command of the 1st Light Division (later 6th Panzer Division), an early armoured unit that was part of the nucleus of the expanding German Panzerwaffe. Claus von Stauffenberg served on Hoepner's divisional staff. After the Blomberg–Fritsch affair in early 1938, the result of which was the subjugation of the Wehrmacht to dictator Adolf Hitler, and as the Sudetenland Crisis unfolded, Hoepner joined the Oster conspiracy. The group planned to kill Hitler and overthrow the Nazi SS, should Hitler move to invade Czechoslovakia. Hoepner's role in the plan was to lead the 1st Light Division toward Berlin and seize key objectives against the SS forces in the city. The conspiracy collapsed with the appeasement by Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier and the signing of the Munich Agreement. Upon his rival Heinz Guderian's assumption of command of the XIX Army Corps, Hoepner replaced him as the commander of the XVI Army Corps. He led the corps in the occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 and was promoted the next month to General of the Cavalry.

Invasion of Poland and Battle of France
Hoepner commanded the XVI Army Corps in the Invasion of Poland where he covered the 230 km to Warsaw in only a week as part of the 10th Army. Hoepner and his corps were transferred to the 6th Army for the Battle of France, where he spearheaded attacks on Liège and then Dunkirk and Dijon. On 22 May, the SS Division Totenkopf was assigned to XVI Corps, starting what was to be a long period of friction and mutual dislike between Hoepner and the SS. During the Battle of Dunkirk, rumours began to spread of SS troops mistreating prisoners and on 24 May Hoepner issued a special order to his units that any soldiers caught mistreating prisoners would face immediate court-martial.

Three days later troops from the SS Division Totenkopf killed almost a hundred British prisoners in the Le Paradis massacre. When word of the massacre reached Hoepner he ordered an investigation into the allegations, demanding that the SS division commander, Theodor Eicke be dismissed if evidence could be found that British prisoners had been mistreated or killed by SS forces. Eicke made an excuse to Himmler that the British had used dum-dum bullets against his forces. He and the Totenkopf unit suffered no consequences and the matter was officially forgotten. However, Hoepner continued to hold a personal and professional dislike of Eicke, calling him a "butcher" for his disregard of casualties. He also maintained his existing low opinion of the Waffen-SS.

War against the Soviet Union
After the conclusion of the fighting in France, Hoepner was promoted to the rank of Generaloberst in July 1940. The German High Command had commenced planning for Operation Barbarossa, and Hoepner was appointed to command the 4th Panzer Group that was to drive toward Leningrad as part of Army Group North under Wilhelm von Leeb. On 30 March 1941, Hitler delivered a speech to about two hundred senior Wehrmacht officers where he laid out his plans for an ideological war of annihilation () against the Soviet Union. He stated that "wanted to see the impending war against the Soviet Union conducted not according to the military principles, but as a war of extermination" against an ideological enemy, whether military or civilian. Many Wehrmacht leaders, including Hoepner, echoed the sentiment. As a commander of the 4th Panzer Group, he issued a directive to his troops:

"The war against Russia is an important chapter in the struggle for existence of the German nation. It is the old battle of Germanic against Slav peoples, of the defence of European culture against Muscovite-Asiatic inundation, and the repulse of Jewish-Bolshevism. The objective of this battle must be the destruction of present-day Russia and it must therefore be conducted with unprecedented severity. Every military action must be guided in planning and execution by an iron will to exterminate the enemy mercilessly and totally. In particular, no adherents of the present Russian-Bolshevik system are to be spared."

- 2 May 1941

The order was transmitted to the troops on Hoepner's initiative, ahead of the official OKW (Wehrmacht High Command) directives that laid the groundwork for the war of extermination, such as the Barbarossa Decree of 13 May 1941 and other orders. Hoepner's directive predates the first OKH (Army High Command) draft of the Commissar Order. Jürgen Förster wrote that Hoepner's directive represented an "independent transformation of Hitler's ideological intentions into an order" and illustrated a "degree of conformity or affinity" between Hitler and military leadership, which provided a sufficient basis for collaboration in the aims of conquest and annihilation against a perceived threat from the Soviet Union.

Advance on Leningrad
The 4th Panzer Group consisted of the LVI Panzer Corps (Erich von Manstein) and the XLI Panzer Corps (Georg-Hans Reinhardt). The Army Group was to advance through the Baltic States to Leningrad. Barbarossa commenced on 22 June 1941 with a massive German attack along the whole front line. The 4th Panzer Group headed for the Dvina River to secure the bridges near the town of Daugavpils. The Red Army mounted a number of counterattacks against the XLI Panzer Corps, leading to the Battle of Raseiniai.

After Reinhardt's corps closed in, the two corps were ordered to encircle the Soviet formations around Luga. Again having penetrated deep into the Soviet lines with unprotected flanks, Manstein's corps was the target of a Soviet counteroffensive from 15 July at Soltsy by the Soviet 11th Army. Manstein's forces were badly mauled and the Red Army halted the German advance at Luga. Ultimately, the army group defeated the defending Soviet Northwestern Front, inflicting over 90,000 casualties and destroying more than 1,000 tanks and 1,000 aircraft, then advanced northeast of the Stalin line.

During his command on the Eastern Front, Hoepner demanded "ruthless and complete destruction of the enemy." On 6 July 1941, Hoepner issued an order to his troops instructing them to treat the "loyal population" fairly, adding that "individual acts of sabotage should simply be charged to communists and Jews". As with all German armies on the Eastern Front, Hoepner's Panzer Group implemented the Commissar Order that directed Wehrmacht troops to execute Red Army political officers immediately upon capture, contravening the accepted laws of war. Between 2 July and 8 July, the 4th Panzer Group shot 101 Red Army political commissars, with the bulk of the executions coming from the XLI Panzer Corps. By 19 July, 172 executions of commissars had been reported.

By mid-July, the 4th Panzer Group seized the Luga bridgehead and had plans to advance on Leningrad. The staff and detachments 2 and 3 of Einsatzgruppe A, one of the mobile killing squads following the Wehrmacht into the occupied Soviet Union, were brought up to the Luga district with assistance from the army. "The movement of Einsatzgruppe A—which the army intended to use in Leningrad—was effected in agreement with Panzer Group 4 and at their express wish", noted Franz Walter Stahlecker, the commander of Einsatzgruppe A. Stahlecker described army co-operation as "generally very good" and "in certain cases, as for example, with Panzer Group 4 under the command of General Hoepner, extremely close, one might say even warm."

By late July, Army Group North positioned 4th Panzer Group's units south and east of Narva, Estonia, where they could begin an advance on Leningrad in terrain conditions relatively suitable for armoured warfare. By that time, however, the army group lacked the strength to take Leningrad, which continued to be a high priority for the German high command. A compromise solution was worked out whereas the infantry would attack north from both sides of Lake Ilmen, while the Panzer Group would advance from its current position. Hoepner's forces began their advance on August 8, but the attack ran into determined Soviet defences. Elsewhere, Soviet counter-attacks threatened Leeb's southern flank. By mid to late August, the German forces were making gains again, with the 4th Panzer Group taking Narva on 17 August.

On 29 August, Leeb issued orders for the blockade of Leningrad in anticipation that the city would soon be abandoned by the Soviets. On September 5, Hitler ordered Hoepner's 4th Panzer Group and an air corps transferred to Army Group Centre effective 15 September, in preparation for Operation Typhoon, the German assault on Moscow. Leeb objected and was given a reprieve in the transfer of his mobile forces, with the view of making one last push towards Leningrad. The 4th Panzer Group was to be the main attacking force, which reached south of the Neva River, where it was faced with strong Soviet counter-attacks. By 24 September, Army Group North halted its advance and transferred the 4th Panzer Group to Army Group Centre.

Battle of Moscow

As part of Operation Typhoon, the 4th Panzer Group was subordinated to the 4th Army under the command of Günther von Kluge. In early October, the 4th Panzer Group completed the encirclement at Vyazma. Kluge instructed Hoepner to pause the advance, much to the latter's displeasure, as his units were needed to prevent break-outs of Soviet forces. Hoepner was confident that the clearing of the pocket and the advance on Moscow could be undertaken at the same time and viewed Kluge's actions as interference, leading to friction and "clashes" with his superior, as he wrote in a letter home on 6 October. Hoepner did not seem to appreciate that his units were very short on fuel; the 11th Panzer Division, reported having no fuel at all. Only the 20th Panzer Division was advancing towards Moscow amid deteriorating road conditions.

Once the Vyazma pocket was eliminated, other units were able to advance on 14 October. Heavy rains and onset of the rasputitsa (roadlessness) caused frequent damage to tracked vehicles and motor transport further hampering the advance. By early November, Hoepner's forces were depleted from earlier fighting and the weather but he, along with other Panzer Group commanders and Fedor von Bock, commander of Army Group Center, was impatient to resume the offensive. In a letter home, Hoepner stated that just two weeks of the frozen ground would allow his troops to surround Moscow, not taking into account the stiffening Soviet resistance and the condition of his units. David Stahel wrote that Hoepner displayed "steadfast determination, and often excessive confidence" during that period.

On 17 November the 4th Panzer Group attacked again towards Moscow alongside the V Army Corps of the 4th Army, as part of the continuation of Operation Typhoon by Army Group Centre. The Panzer Group and the army corps represented Kluge's best forces, most ready for a continued offensive. In two weeks' fighting, Hoepner's forces advanced 60 km (4 km per day). Lacking strength and mobility to conduct battles of encirclement, the Group undertook frontal assaults which proved increasingly costly. A lack of tanks, insufficient motor transport and a precarious supply situation, along with tenacious Red Army resistance and the air superiority achieved by Soviet fighters hampered the attack.

The 3rd Panzer Group further north saw slightly better progress, averaging 6 km a day. The attack by the 2nd Panzer Group on Tula and Kashira, 125 km south of Moscow, achieved only fleeting and precarious success, while Guderian vacillated between despair and optimism, depending on the situation at the front. Facing pressure from the German High Command, Kluge finally committed his weaker south flank to the attack on 1 December. In the aftermath of the battle, Hoepner and Guderian blamed slow commitment of the south flank of the 4th Army to the attack for the German failure to reach Moscow. Stahel wrote that this assessment grossly overestimated the capabilities of Kluge's remaining forces. It also failed to appreciate the reality that Moscow was a metropolis that German forces lacked the numbers to encircle. With the outer defensive belt completed by 25 November, Moscow was a fortified position which the Wehrmacht lacked the strength to take in a frontal assault.

As late as 2 December, Hoepner urged his troops forward stating that "the goal [the encirclement of Moscow] can still be achieved". The next day, he warned Kluge that failure to break off the attack would "bleed white" his formations and make them incapable of defence. Kluge was sympathetic since the south flank of the 4th Army had already had to retreat under Red Army pressure and was on the defensive. Hoepner was ordered to pause his attack, with the goal of resuming it on 6 December. In a letter home, Hoepner blamed Kluge for the inability to seize Moscow, "I alone came to within thirty kilometres to Moscow ... It's very bitter ... in the deciding moment to be left in the lurch and forced to resignation". Such "blinkered thinking" on Hoepner's part was common among the German commanders in charge of the operation, which in Stahel's opinion "even before it began, made little practical sense". On 5 December 1941, with orders to attack the next day, Hoepner called a conference of chiefs-of-staff of his five corps. The reports were grim: only four divisions were deemed capable of attack, three of these with limited objectives. The attack was called off; the Red Army launched its winter counter-offensive on the same day.

Dismissal and 20 July plot
In January 1942, Hoepner requested permission from Kluge, the new commander of Army Group Centre, to withdraw his over-extended forces. Kluge advised him that he would discuss the matter with Hitler and ordered Hoepner to get ready. Assuming that Hitler's permission was on the way and not wanting to risk the matter any longer, Hoepner ordered his troops to withdraw on 8 January 1942. Afraid of what Hitler might think, Kluge immediately reported Hoepner, causing Hitler's fury. Hoepner was dismissed from the Wehrmacht on the same day. Hitler directed that Hoepner be deprived of his pension and denied the right to wear his uniform and medals, contravening the law and Wehrmacht regulations. Hoepner filed a lawsuit against the Reich to reclaim his pension. Judges at the time could not be dismissed, even by Hitler, and Hoepner won his case.

Hoepner was a participant in the 20 July plot against Hitler in 1944 and after the coup failed he was arrested and tortured by the Gestapo. He refused an opportunity to commit suicide and demanded a trial. A summary trial was conducted by the Volksgerichtshof and Hoepner was verbally attacked and sentenced to death. Like other defendants, including Erwin von Witzleben, Hoepner was humiliated during the trial by being made to wear ill-fitting clothes, and not being allowed to have his false teeth. Judge Roland Freisler berated Hoepner, but, in an extremely unusual move given his very aggressive personality, he objected to him being made to dress in such a way. Hoepner was hanged by wire mounted from meat hooks on 8 August, at Plötzensee Prison in Berlin.

Under the Nazi practice of Sippenhaft (collective punishment) Hoepner's wife, daughter, son (a major in the army), brother and sister were arrested. The women were sent to Ravensbrück concentration camp. His sister was soon released but Frau Hoepner and her daughter were placed in the notorious Strafblock for four weeks' additional punishment. Hoepner's son was first held at a specially created camp at Küstrin (now Kostrzyn nad Odrą) and then sent to Buchenwald concentration camp.

Commemoration
In 1956, a school in Berlin was named after Hoepner because he had joined the 20 July plot and was executed by the Nazi regime. The school voted to drop the name in 2008. In 2009, the school director attested to the fact that "the name had been controversial from the start and was repeatedly debated".

Awards

 * Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 27 October 1939 as General of the Cavalry and commander of XVI. Armee-Korps

title: Erich Hoepner


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Mughal garden

Mughal Gardens are a type of garden built by the Mughals. This style was influenced by the Persian gardens particularly the Charbagh structure, which is intended to create a representation of an earthly utopia in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature.

Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walls enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and India have a number of gardens which differ from their Central Asian predecessors with respect to "the highly disciplined geometry".

History
The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his favourite type of garden as a charbagh. The term bāgh, baug, bageecha or bagicha is used for the garden. This word developed a new meaning in South Asia, as the region lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Central Asian charbagh. The Aram Bagh of Agra is thought to have been the first charbagh in South Asia.

From the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the construction of gardens was a beloved imperial pastime. Babur, the first Mughal conqueror-king, had gardens built in Lahore and Dholpur. Humayun, his son, does not seem to have had much time for building—he was busy reclaiming and increasing the realm—but he is known to have spent a great deal of time at his father's gardens. Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi, then in Agra, Akbar's new capital. These tended to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress gardens that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than fortress gardens influenced later Mughal garden architecture considerably.

Akbar's son, Jahangir, did not build as much, but he helped to lay out the famous Shalimar garden and was known for his great love for flowers. His trips to Kashmir are believed to have begun a fashion for naturalistic and abundant floral design. Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal garden architecture and floral design. He is famous for the construction of the Taj Mahal, a sprawling funereal paradise in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. He is also responsible for the Red Fort at Delhi and the Mahtab Bagh, a night garden that was filled with night-blooming jasmine and other pale flowers, located opposite the Taj across the Yamuna river at Agra. The pavilions within are faced with white marble to glow in the moonlight. This and the marble of the Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling naturalistic floral motifs, the most important being the tulip, which Shah Jahan adopted as a personal symbol.

Gol Bagh was the largest recorded garden of the Indian subcontinent, encompassing the town of Lahore with a five-mile belt of greenery; it existed until as late as 1947. The initiator of the Mughal gardens in India was Zaheeruddin Babur who had witnessed the beauty of Timurid gardens in Central Asia during his early days. In India, Babur laid out the gardens more systematically. Fundamentally, the Mughal gardens have had edifices in a symmetrical arrangement within enclosed towns with provisions for water channels, cascades, water tanks and fountains etc. Thus, the Mughals maintained the tradition of building fourfold (chaharbagh)-symmetrical garden. Babur, however, applied the term chaharbagh in its widest sense which includes terraced gardens on mountain slopes and his extravagant rock cut garden, the Bagh-i Nilufar at Dholpur.

After Babur, the tradition of building chaharbagh touched its zenith during the time of Shah Jahan. However, modern scholars are now increasingly questioning the excessive use of the term chaharbagh in the interpretation of Mughal gardens, since it was not always symmetrical. This view finds archaeological support also. The excavated Mughal garden at Wah (12 km west of Taxila), near Hasan Abdal, associated with Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan reveals that the pattern and overall design has not been symmetrical on the first and second terraces.

As for location, the Mughal emperors were much particular in selecting places of great natural beauty. Often they selected mountain slopes with gushing water to layout gardens, the finest example being Bagh-i Shalimar and Bagh-i Nishat in Kashmir.

Almost all the Mughal gardens contained buildings such as residential palaces, forts, mausoleums, and mosques. The gardens became an essential feature of almost each kind of Mughal monuments and were interrelated to these monuments which can be categorized as: (i) gardens attached with Imperial palaces, forts and gardens which beautified private residential buildings of the nobles (ii) Religious and sacred structures i.e., tombs and mosques erected in the gardens, and (iii) Resort and public building in the pleasure gardens.

Waterworks
Like Persian and Central Asian gardens, water became the central and connecting theme of the Mughal gardens. Water played an effective role in the Mughal gardens right from the time of Babur. He was more interested in 'beauty' than 'ecclesiastical prescription. The beauty of Babur's classic chaharbagh was the central watercourse and its flowing water. Most of these gardens were divided into four quadrants by two axis comprised with water channels and pathways to carry the water under gravitational pressure. At every intersecting point, there used to be a tank. In India, the early gardens were irrigated from the wells or tanks, but under the Mughals the construction of canals or the use of existing canals for the gardens provided more adequate and dependable water supply. Thus, the most important aspect of the waterworks of gardens was the permanent source of water supply. The hydraulic system needs enquiry about the 'outside water source' as well as 'inside distribution of water' in the paradisiacal Mughal gardens. The principal source of water to the Mughal gardens were: (i) lakes or tanks (ii) wells or step-wells (iii) canals, harnessed from the rivers, and (iv) natural springs.

The fountain was the symbol of 'life cycle' which rises and merges and rises again. The Paradise possessed two fountains: 'salsabil' and 'uyun'. 131 Salih Kambuh, a native of Lahore, described very artistically the water system and its symbolic meaning in the garden of Shalamar at Lahore that 'in the center of this earthly paradise a sacred stream flows with its full elegance and chanting, fascinating and exhilarating nature and passes through the gardens irrigating the flower beds. Its water is as beautiful as greenery. The vast stream is just like clouds pouring rains and opens the doors of divine mercy. Its chevron patterns (abshar) are like an institution of worship where the hearts of believers are enlightened. The Mughals developed hydraulic system by using Persian wheel to lift the water and obtained adequate pressure necessary for gardens. The main reason behind the location of gardens on the bank of river was that water was raised to the level of the enclosure wall by Persian Wheel standing on the bank from where it was conducted through aqueduct, to the garden where it ran from the top of the wall in a terra-cotta pipe which also produced adequate pressure needed to work the fountains.

Design and symbolism
Mughal gardens design derives primarily from the medieval Islamic garden, although there are nomadic influences that come from the Mughals' Turkic-Mongolian ancestry as well as inherent elements from Ancient Persia. Julie Scott Meisami describes the medieval Islamic garden as "a hortus conclusus, walled off and protected from the outside world; within, its design was rigidly formal, and its inner space was filled with those elements that man finds most pleasing in nature. Its essential features included running water (perhaps the most important element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of sky and garden; trees of various sorts, some to provide shade merely, and others to produce fruits; flowers, colorful and sweet-smelling; grass, usually growing wild under the trees; birds to fill the garden with song; the whole is cooled by a pleasant breezes.

The garden might include a raised hillock at the center, reminiscent of the mountain at the center of the universe in cosmological descriptions, and often surmounted by a pavilion or palace." The Turkish-Mongolian elements of the Mughal garden are primarily related to the inclusion of tents, carpets and canopies reflecting nomadic roots. Tents indicated status in these societies, so wealth and power were displayed through the richness of the fabrics as well as by size and number.

Fountainry and running water was a key feature of Mughal garden design. Water-lifting devices like geared Persian wheels (saqiya) were used for irrigation and to feed the water-courses at Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, Akbar's Gardens in Sikandra and Fatehpur Sikhri, the Lotus Garden of Babur at Dholpur and the Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar. Royal canals were built from rivers to channel water to Delhi, Fatehpur Sikhri and Lahore. The fountains and water-chutes of Mughal gardens represented the resurrection and regrowth of life, as well as to represent the cool, mountainous streams of Central Asia and Afghanistan that Babur was famously fond of. Adequate pressure on the fountains was applied through hydraulic pressure created by the movement of Persian wheels or water-chutes (chaadar) through terra-cotta pipes, or natural gravitational flow on terraces. It was recorded that the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore had 450 fountains, and the pressure was so high that water could be thrown 12 feet into the air, falling back down to create a rippling floral effect on the surface of the water.

The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in many ways. The standard Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture, layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including numerological and zodiacal significances connected to family history or other cultural significance, were often juxtaposed. The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can be found in the number of terraces or in garden architecture such as octagonal pools. Garden flora also had symbolic meanings. The Cypress trees represented eternity and flowering fruit trees represented renewal.

Academic research
An early textual references about Mughal gardens are found in the memoirs and biographies of the Mughal emperors, including those of Babur, Humayun and Akbar. Later references are found from "the accounts of India" written by various European travellers (Bernier for example). The first serious historical study of Mughal gardens was written by Constance Villiers-Stuart, with the title Gardens of the Great Mughals (1913). She was consulted by Edwin Lutyens and this may have influenced his choice of Mughal style for the Viceroy's Garden in 1912.

Afghanistan

 * Bagh-e Babur, Kabul

Bangladesh

 * Lalbagh Fort

Delhi

 * Humayun's Tomb, Nizamuddin East
 * Qudsia Bagh
 * Amrit Udyan
 * Red Fort
 * Roshanara Bagh
 * Safdarjung's Tomb
 * Shalimar Bagh, Delhi

Haryana

 * Pinjore Gardens
 * Sheikh Chilli's Tomb

Jammu and Kashmir

 * Naseem Bagh
 * Achabal Gardens
 * Chashma Shahi
 * Nishat Bagh
 * Pari Mahal
 * Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar
 * Verinag

Karnataka

 * Lal Bagh
 * Brindavan Gardens
 * Daria Daulat Bagh

Maharashtra

 * Bani Begum Garden
 * Bibi Ka Maqbara
 * Himayat Bagh

Punjab

 * Aam Khas Bagh

Rajasthan

 * Jahangir's Garden at Ajmer
 * Lotus Garden at Dholpur

Uttar Pradesh

 * Agra Fort
 * Akbar's Tomb
 * Aram Bagh
 * Khusro Bagh
 * Mehtab Bagh
 * Taj Mahal
 * Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah
 * Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani
 * Zenana Gardens

Pakistan

 * Chauburji
 * Gulabi Bagh
 * Hazuri Bagh
 * Hiran Minar, Sheikhupura
 * Quadrangle gardens at Lahore Fort
 * Shahdara Bagh
 * Shalimar Gardens, Lahore
 * Tomb of Asif Khan
 * Tomb of Jahangir
 * Wah Gardens
 * Gardens of Mahabat Khan
 * Baradari of Kamran Mirza
 * Shahi Bagh

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mughal garden


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Talk:Nogais

Merge from Nogai Horde
The Nogai Horde article could basically be a section of this article dealing with the history of the Nogai people. Niether article is large, and persons interested in one are likely going to be interested in the other. Caerwine 19:13, 3 September 2005 (UTC)

nogai people and nogai horde
i do not agree with merging those different topic despite they are dealing with the same: the nogai. the nogai horde has only to do with history and what has happened to the nogai horde in the past, which has nothing to do with the nogai people now. of course, the nogai people are coming from the nogai horde, but in terms of talking about ethnic group it would be better to present the topics seperately. would you like to merge the topics "commonwealth" and "scottish people"? cheers

 * It appears someone else has decided to merge them anyway, despite your objection... I'm just trying to fix all the redirect issues this has caused now! Codex Sinaiticus 02:37, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I moved Nogai Horde back. bogdan 20:20, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I really do think that these two articles should be merged, the article on the Nogai Horde should simply be part of the section on Nogai history.!

 * Yes, to me it does seem that the Nogai Horde thing is about the Nogai History? Is it not? It is proper to put the history in the history section!?--Erkin2008 17:27, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

hi
Hi I am a descendant of nogai too. I find it a little bit odd that the nogai people have a flag of a somewhat doglike creature. But its clear the nogai were sunni muslims. Then ask yourself this. Would a sunni muslim state take a flag that looks like a dog with wings? . I find it very questionable. Also I would like to add some other things to the article I heard from my grandmother etc. It is commenly known in my village the nogai were famous for their horse skills and often raided tartar villages. After a while they settled down and lived with tartars. Most of them moved into the Crim area and eventually alot of them migrated to Turkey. so does everyone agree with this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 145.53.211.52 (talk)

 * I'm not sure what Nogai means in Turkic, but it is the Mongolian word for dog. It is pronounced "nuh-huh."--Buzava (talk) 04:52, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

"related groups" info removed from infobox
For dedicated editors of this page: The "Related Groups" info was removed from all Infobox Ethnic group infoboxes. Comments may be left on the Ethnic groups talk page. Ling.Nut 23:09, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

Why the Nogai Population is very small?
The Nogais have been in Western Russia for hundreds of years.Why the Nogai population is very small compared to the ethnic Russian population which is over 100 millions? Even if you add the Nogai population in Turkey with the Nogai population in Russia, it is still small. Sonic99 02:51, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

The population of Nogais in Russia is perhaps higher as it seems, because on the Population Consensus in Russia many peoples proclaim for ethnic Russians while they arent. However, the number of Nogais in Russia is now increasing. Spring01 21:56, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Spring01, why would the Nogais want to lie on the Russian census and claim they are ethnic Russians? The Mongolians killed many slavic people in the 13th century. During Nazi German Invasion of Russia, there were many ethnic Russian casualities. How can the slavic Russian population still be much bigger than the Turkic population? Sonic99 02:03, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

 * a/ The Nogais are only one very small group among the Turkic peoples of Russia. There are 5 million Volga Tartars, 3(?) million Bashkirs, etc. So the Turkic total is 10,000,000+. But dont forget many Russian provinces in Europe have always been 99% Slavic with virtually no Turkic speakers. The Mongols never settled there. Jameswilson 01:42, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

Because of ethnic discrimination, for example at finding jobs etc. Some sources state that today there are more than 5 millions of Nogais. Spring01 21:33, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Spring01, where are the sources that state that there are over 5 million Nogais? Any link? Sonic99 17:38, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

I have more than enough links for that. Can it be in Russian language?? Spring01 02:22, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, thats no problem. Jameswilson 23:17, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

Spring01, can you read Russian? I can't read Russian. Please try to find an English translated version if you can. Sonic99 02:09, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

Of course I can read Russian language. I mean will it count as a prove if I give link in Russian language because I know that sometimes people say I wont accept that because it isnt in english. So will it count on english wikipedia?? Spring01 15:08, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Spring01, put your Russian language link in this Nogais article. Thanks. Sonic99 03:46, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Achikulak Nogai
It would be helpful if those with an understanding of this topic (ie, not me) could please see Achikulak Nogai. That article states The Achikulak Nogai are one of the three territorial divisions of the Nogai, but there is no mention of them on this page (or three territorial divisions). A cleanup/clarification/expansion may be in order to sufficiently cover the topic. Thank you, sassf (talk) 23:14, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I just deleted that, as it was an orphaned stub that should be covered here. The contents were:

 * The Achikulak Nogai are one of the three territorial divisions of the Nogai. They live primarily in Achikulak Rayon in Stavropol Krai.  They speak a dialect of the Nogai language.

 * Sources:
 * Wixman, Ronald. The Peoples of the USSR: An Ethnographic Handbook. (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1984) p. 4
 * Olson, James S., An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994) p. 13

(Actually, it linked to an "Achikulak Nogai dialect" orphaned stub which I also deleted.) kwami (talk) 08:43, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

History
A passing use of old anthopological terms in a book about religion is not a good source for referring to the Nogais as "Caucasoid" or "Mongoloid", especially when the book is talking about the modern Nogais, not the 16th century people. Ergative rlt (talk) 00:32, 21 October 2012 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 22:28, 8 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Ногайский этнический флаг.jpg

Indigenous status?
Why are the Nogais listed as an indigenous people in Template:Ethnic groups of Russia but not the page itself? Are the Nogais an indigenous people? ~Cherri of Arctic Circle System (talk) 05:14, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

 * They're also listed as indigenous people in List of larger indigenous peoples of Russia, but that list also lists "ethnic Russians" as an indigenous people for some reason so I have no idea what's going on there. ~Cherri of Arctic Circle System (talk) 05:20, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

sources are wikipedia pages
the Russian empire knew the Nogais very well, and if anyone needs help translating the page let me know, it is very simple Soyembika (talk) 07:41, 8 July 2023 (UTC)

Fiddling with sourced content
I am amazed to see the level of confidence you display when changing back and forth the total population figures, even though the cited source (Golden's article in the Encyclopaedia of Islam is in plain sight. Do you have access to this source? I do. If you don't, don't change content that is based on this source. Read WP:V. Read it well. I advise to slow down (sounds familiar, right?) before you have properly understood what this pillar of Wikipedia editing entails. Thank you. Austronesier (talk) 20:27, 4 April 2024 (UTC)

 * I don’t know what Goldeb means (the old dead link source?) but I added 50k of Kazakh-Nogais which are well known in the region to 120,000. I also added a possibility of 170k-270k due to sources claiming on average 100k Turk Nogais. Is this the only complain? He reverted all of my contributions claiming a broken source about Turkey,even though the source doesn’t have a website but has YouTube affiliates, he is just trying to deny that any Nogais live in Turkey (for no reason) I will not fiddle with the source but change his revert back and place (citation needed,is that okay?) Vofa (talk) 06:08, 5 April 2024 (UTC)
 * 120k+50k is 170k. Vofa (talk) 06:13, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

He wants to delete any trace of Nogais in Turkey
He just edited out the Turkish population and region in the population box. That’s bad. When I first started editing the page, the number was 90,000 I never touched it,until recently when he deleted it and the Turkish population in population box. That’s how it all started. Vofa (talk) 06:16, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

Im powerless here,since I’ll be blocked from editing if I try to bring it back.
That’s actually crazy. Even he acknowledges its 170k without Turkish population. What he deleted | region13         = 🇹🇷 turkey

| pop13           = ?-100,000

| ref13           =

now here’s what I wrote to accommodate it   They mainly settled in Ceyhan/Adana, Ankara and Eskisehir provinces. The Nogai language is still spoken in some of the villages of Central Anatolia – mainly around Salt Lake, Eskişehir and Ceyhan. To this day, Nogais in Turkey have maintained their cuisine: Üken börek, kaşık börek, tabak börek, şır börek, köbeteand Nogay şay (Nogai tea – a drink prepared by boiling milk and tea together with butter, salt and pepper). ((I wrote the first part))

Vofa (talk) 06:23, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

 * And he never contested that. So why did he delete the Turkish region? Vofa (talk) 06:24, 5 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Where did the source have 120k? It’s impossible to know,since the ,,source doesn’t have any info and can’t be accessed as it’s dead link,, populations change all the time Vofa (talk) 07:16, 5 April 2024 (UTC)
 * The citation for 120k from the Encyclopedia of Islam was in plain sight, albeit incomplete (what's a "dead link" in your definition?). You cannot just change numbers which have a source even (or especially) if that source is not available to you. Just to give you an idea what this manipulation of sourced content is like, imagine that you write on your user page "I think Wikipedia is a great site and I want to improve it", and the somebody else cites you: "According to Vofa, Wikipedia is a great site to contribute to with improvements", that's a faithful citation, right? But then, another one shows up who doesn't like Wikipedia and hijacks the preceding text by changing it to: "According to Vofa, Wikipedia sucks and is not worth wasting even a second of one's time", that's obviously a forged citation, isn't it? So when you change "120.000k " to "170.000k ", that's exactly the same thing. Golden (our source) never wrote that. –Austronesier (talk) 18:04, 6 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Then removing the source and replacing it with several new ones would be neat. Right??? It’s about the population number, it constantly changes. I found out about Kazakh-Nogais (a prominent group of people in Kazakhstan) I provided a source. Their population number is 50k. Currently, Nogai leaders try to include Siberian Tatars in the Nogai nation. Good analogy. Vofa (talk) 07:10, 8 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Where does the article by Yarygin & Kalikov mention the figure of 50k Nogais in modern Kazakhstan? It's not there. The authors in fact say on p. 188 that the Nogais were assimilated into the Kazakh people. The only refer to the Nogai descendants in the North Caucausus (without explicitly mentioning the diaspora in Eastern Europe and Turkey) as modern Nogais since have retained a distinct identity: На Северном Кавказе  группам  ногайцев  удалось сохранить  отдельное  самосознание  и сформировать современных ногайцев, те группы, которые оказались в составе Казахского ханства, а потом Букеевской Орды, были ассимилированы в казахском народе, составив значительную часть младшего жуза. (Emphasis added.)
 * I will mark the Kazakhstan entry in the infobox with a "failed verification"-tag; I'll give you some time to explain if I have missed something in the source before I remove the complete entry in the following days.
 * Finally, you are basically right: you can replace a source which appears to reflect an outdated number with another more recent source, but only if (!) it is at at least as reliable as the exisiting source (note the Encyclopaedia of Islam is published by Brill, a highly prestigeous academic publishing house) and if (!!) it actually supports the claim. Nothing is bad about not having the most recent population figures; verifiablity and reliablity come before the (admittedly quite natural) urge to be most update all the time. –Austronesier (talk) 18:19, 8 April 2024 (UTC)

The map in the page clearly shows these regions in red,in Turkey where Nogais live
The title Vofa (talk) 06:26, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

Association of Nogais in Turkey
It doesn’t have a site,but it’s in Turkey and has social media channels/pages where they claim the number of Nogais is 100k-5m (5m is an absurd and obviously made up term) all map of Nogais include regions where they’re most present in,so please don’t erase it. I put (?-100k) to leave room for mistakes. Stop reverting it,thank you. Vofa (talk) 07:25, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

 * The video is in Turkish,so for a certain Turkish nationalist there,he can listen to it. Ногайцы в Турции enter that in Google search and watch some videos from secure networks. Vofa (talk) 07:27, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nogais


title: Talk:R101


text:
Marie-Madeleine Guimard

Marie-Madeleine Guimard (27 December 1743 — 4 May 1816) was a French ballerina who dominated the Parisian stage during the reign of Louis XVI. For twenty-five years she was the star of the Paris Opera. She made herself even more famous by her love affairs, especially by her long liaison with the Prince of Soubise. According to Edmond de Goncourt, when d'Alembert was asked why dancers like La Guimard made such prodigious fortunes, when singers did not, he responded, "It is a necessary consequence of the laws of motion".

Biography
She was the love child of Fabien Guimart and Anne Bernard, and was legitimised at a late date (December 1765).

Dancer
She was trained by the great choreographer d'Harnoncourt, who had entered her at the age of fifteen among the corps de ballet of the Comédie-Française.

After a first affair with the dancer Leger, which produced a child, she was engaged at the Opéra (1761) and made her debut, as Terpsichoré, 9 May 1762, and soon was seen dancing at Court.

Not known for hazarding the more difficult movements that were being added to the professional repertory of ballet, she was renowned for her perfectly composed and fluid aristocratic movements, her mime and above all for her expressively smiling visage. She wore her skirt hitched up to reveal an underskirt, without hoops or paniers, held out simply by a starched muslin petticoat. The portrait painter Mme Vigée-Lebrun said, "her dancing was but a sketch; she made only petits pas, simple steps, but with movements so graceful that the public preferred her to every other dancer." Other dancers, like Jean-Georges Noverre, praised her enthusiastically, but Sophie Arnould, who thought that she had more graceful gesture than true dancing talent, remarked, after a piece of scenery fell and broke her arm in January 1766, after which she continued to make public appearances gamely, her arm in a sling, "Poor Guimard! if she had only broken a leg! that would not have kept her from dancing."

Courtesan
Aside from her career as a dancer, she has been famed for her love life as well as for her life as a courtesan. She was kept by a stream of highly placed admirers, including the gentleman composer Jean-Benjamin de La Borde, with whom she had a daughter in April 1763, and who always remained in her circle, even after she was finally taken up by Charles de Rohan, Prince de Soubise, a maréchal de France and great connoisseur of ballet dancers, who settled on her, it was said, 2000 écus a month.

House at Pantin
In a career of hitherto unequaled luxury, she bought a magnificent house near Paris at Pantin, and built a small private theater connected with it, where Collé's Partie de chasse de Henri IV which was prohibited in public, most of the Proverbes of Carmontelle and similar licentious performances were given to the delight of high society.

In truth there were three dinner parties a week, according to Edmond de Goncourt, one for the grandest of grands seigneurs and those of the highest consideration at Court; a second composed of writers and artists and wits that all but rivaled the salon of Mme Geoffrin; and a third to which were invited all the most ravishing and lascivious young women, according to the Mémoires secrets attributed to Bachaumont.

At the same time, according to Baron Grimm, during a bitter cold spell in January 1768, she asked for her allowance in coins, and, without taking an entourage, climbed to all the garrets of her neighborhood at Pantin, giving purses of money, coats and warm bedclothes. Throughout her career, her open-hearted generosity disarmed the pamphleteers. Among her admirers was Louis-Sextius de Jarente de La Bruyère, bishop of Orléans.

Hôtel Guimard

In the early 1770s, in defiance of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Paris, she opened the gorgeous hôtel Guimard in the Chaussée d'Antin designed by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux in the latest neoclassical taste, decorated with paintings by Fragonard, and with a theater seating five hundred spectators. The house was almost finished March 1773 when Grimm's Correspondance littéraire reported the famous anecdote of Fragonard's revenge: La Guimard had quarreled with the painter, who had depicted her as Terpsichore in large panels of her salon, and found a substitute. Finding his way into the house unaccompanied, Fragonard picked up a palette of paints, and with a few deft touches transformed Mlle Guimard's Terpsichorean smile into a grimace of fury, without lessening in the least the likeness. When La Guimard arrived with an entourage and discovered it, the angrier she became, the more she represented the new portrait. In this Temple de Terpsichore, as she named it, the wildest orgies took place, according to her detractors. In 1786 she was compelled to get rid of the property, and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of 300,000 francs.

Later life
Soon after her retirement in 1789, she married Jean-Étienne Despréaux (1748–1820), a dancer, songwriter and playwright.

Legacy
In 2009 the bed made for Guimard to a Louis XVI design by French visionary neoclassical architect Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736–1806) as "the high altar of the temple of love,” as Alan Rubin, the gallery owner, said, was offered for sale by Pelham Galleries at the European Fine Arts Fair in Maastricht.

Aside from her portrait at the Louvre Museum (illustration), several other Fragonard portrait drawings are conserved at the Musée des Beaux-Arts et d'archéologie de Besançon as well as a bust by Gaetano Merchi (1779) is at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris.

title: Marie-Madeleine Guimard


text: User talk:68.126.183.231

title: User talk:68.126.183.231


text:
User talk:Theaterfreak64

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DON'T PANIC
I'm wondering if, perhaps, your latest edit to Don't Panic perhaps violates Avoid self-references... -Theaterfreak64 03:02, 9 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Howdy! I thought that disambiguation pages were exempt, ala at the top of Template, Admin, etc.  - C HAIRBOY  (☎) 03:10, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Theaterfreak64


text: Category talk:1944 deaths

title: Category talk:1944 deaths


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Joseph de Guignes

Joseph de Guignes (19 October 1721 – 19 March 1800) was a French orientalist, sinologist and Turkologist born at Pontoise, the son of Jean Louis de Guignes and Françoise Vaillant. He died at Paris.

He succeeded Étienne Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the Eastern languages. His Mémoire historique sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs, published in 1748, earned him admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754. There soon followed the five-volume work Histoire générale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares occidentaux (1756–1758). In 1757, he was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the Collège de France.

Guignes originated the proposition that the Huns who attacked the Roman Empire were the same people as the Xiongnu mentioned in Chinese records. This view was popularised by his contemporary Edward Gibbon in Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The idea has been strenuously debated by central Asianists, including Maenchen-Helfen, Henning, Bailey, and Vaissière.

Guignes maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every refutation, he obstinately clung. He published a number of articles arguing that Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters were related, one deriving from the other. Although he was mistaken in that, he is recognized for proving that cartouche rings in Egyptian texts contained royal names, a thesis he developed from a hint previously made by J. J. Barthélemy.

Works

 * 1748 – Mémoire historique sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs
 * 1756 – Histoire generale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares occidentaux, 3 vols. Paris: Desaint & Saillant.
 * 1761 – Recherches sur les Navigations des Chinois du Cote de l'Amerique, et sur quelques Peuples situés a l'extremite orientale de l"asie.
 * 1789 – An historical essay on the origin of the Oriented characters in the Royal printing-house, on the works which have been printed at Paris, in Arabic in Syriac, in Armenian, &c. and on the Greek characters of Francis I. commonly called the King's Greek. London:

title: Joseph de Guignes


text: Category:Communes of Haute-Marne

title: Category:Communes of Haute-Marne


text:
Tenali

Tenali is a city in Guntur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a municipality, and the headquarters of Tenali mandal and Tenali revenue division. The city is renowned for art, culture, drama, and hence, it is called Andhra Paris. It is one of the twelve urban local bodies in Andhra Pradesh Capital Region and the twelfth most populous town in the state, with a population of 199,345 as of 2011. Tenali town is also part of Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority (APCRDA).

Tenali Rama, one of the jesters and eight poets of the early 16th century Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya, hailed from Tenali.

Etymology
The word Tenali is derived from Teravali. Local lore claims that the word is a misnomer of Tella Naali, meaning White Naali tree. The white colour bark is an uncommon occurrence of Holoptelea integrifolia(Indian Elm), which is found in abundance around the town.

Three canals of the Krishna River flow through Tenali City, making it a part of the rice bowl of Andhra Pradesh, resembling Paris, where three canals pass through the city. Hence Tenali is affectionately called "Andhra Paris". In 2011 the city limits were expanded by many kilometers. The expansion included the villages of Angalakuduru, Nandivelugu, Kolakaluru, Pinapadu, and Burripalem.

History
The Andhra–Satavahana dynasty ruled the region around the present city from 225 B.C. to 225 A.D. The relics found in the excavations around Tenali reveal the existence of Jainism and Buddhism. One such example is the inscription in Ramalingeswara temple, dating back to the 16th century AD.

Geography

Tenali is situated at 16.239°N, 80.645°W, on the southern deltaic region of Krishna River. The city is spread over an area of 29.56 km2. It lies at an average altitude of 13 m above mean sea level. It is also called as City without a National Highway. The East canal, the Nizampatnam canal and the West canal flow through the city, which originates from Krishna River. The region around the city forms a part of Western Delta System of Krishna river. The area is covered by Alluvium and the main soil varieties are Red and Black.

Climate

Tenali has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw). The average annual temperatures range from a high of 33.3 C to a low of 24.2 C. May is the hottest and December is the coolest months of the year. The city receives maximum rainfall due to the onset of southwest monsoon season from June to October. The annual precipitation averages 1017 mm with the month of August being the highest with 202 mm and January being the lowest with 1 mm.

Demographics
census of India, there were 43,593 households with a population of 164,937. It comprises 81,427 males, 83,510 females and 14,340 children (age group of 0–6 years). The average literacy rate stood at 82.75% with 124,618 literates, of which males were 164,467 and females were 160,151. There are a total of 60,756 workers and 6,238 non–workers. The number of households in 74 slums (37 notified and 7 non–notified) were 18,958 and the total slum population was 75,831.

Language and religion
Telugu is the most spoken language with a total of 142,085 native speakers, followed by 19,923 Urdu speakers. A significant minority speak Hindi, Marathi and Bengali. The religious population constitute 138,156 Hindus (83.76%), 21,619 Muslims (13.11%), 3,206 Christians (1.94%) and 1,355 (0.82%) not stating any religion.

Civic administration

The Tenali Municipality is the seat of local government and the Tenali municipal council is the legislative body. It was constituted in 1909 and is classified as a special grade municipality. The jurisdiction of the civic body is spread over an area of 16.63 km2. It has a total of 70 election wards: 27 unreserved and 43 reserved. The wards are reserved 4 for SCs, 12 for STs and 24 for BCs. Each ward is represented by a ward member and the wards committee is headed by a Chairperson. The present Municipal Commissioner of the city is Venkata Krishna. The municipality of the city has received several awards, such as the Green Leaf Award 2015 for Best Decentralised Solid Waste Management and Green City of the country for waste segregation management.

The city is represented by Tenali Assembly constituency in the state legislative assembly. The assembly segment forms a part of Guntur Lok Sabha constituency, which represents the lower house of Indian Parliament. The present MLA from Tenali is Mr. Nadendla Manohar. Currently, Mr. Nadendla is serving as the Minister of Food and Civil Supplies and Consumer Affairs.

Public utilities

The municipality oversees civic needs, such as water supply, sewerage, roads, and parks, and is included in the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation. The city residents rely on borewells, overhead reservoirs, and a filtration plant for daily water needs, which mainly draws water from the Krishna river of Prakasam Barrage. The city municipality implements two-bin garbage collection, sanitation campaigns like Mana Tenali – It's people's creation for hygiene of the people, ban on plastic bags etc.

Economy

Tenali thrives on trade and agriculture. Irrigation in the Western Delta, the region in which the city lies, is supported by water from the Krishna river. Paddy is the major crop cultivated, producing on an average of 22–24 bags per acre. Major crops include black gram, maize, and jowar. The Tenali Agriculture Market Yard is used for trading and exporting agricultural products.

The city being a part of the capital region, is recognized as one of the future growth centers. It is also a part of the Tenali–Ponnur growth corridor.

Culture

The city is notable for drama, fine arts, literature and poetry. The iconic Martyr's Memorial at Ranarang Chowk denotes the impact of the city on the Indian freedom struggle during the Quit India Movement. The people of Tenali had responded to Mahatma Gandhi's call and organised a bandh on 12 August 1942. The British police had opened fire on them, and seven people had been killed on the spot, at Morrispeta which later came to be known as Ranarang Chowk. After Independence, seven pillars had been erected in the memory of the seven martyrs, and a statue of Mother India with a baby in her arms had been installed at Ranarang Chowk.

It was the domicile of doyen of several social and revolutionary moments viz. Non Bramin Movement 1920 (Suryadevara raghavaiah Chowdary), Rationalist movement 1940 (Kaviraju Sri Tripuranen i), Radical Humanist Movement 1950 (Sri M.N. Roy) etc.

Drama and literature
The city has been the host for events such as the formation of the 1929 Andhra Nataka Kala Parishad, the Kanyasulkam play, and cultural fests. Tenali Ramakrishna, one of the eight poets in the court of Sri Krishna Devaraya, hails from Tenali. In the area of modern literature are contributors such as Chakrapani, Gudipati Venkata Chalam, Kodavatiganti Kutumbarao, Tripuraneni Ramaswamy. Furthermore, Nethi Parameswara Sarma wrote the book Nurella Tenali Rangastala Charitra, which translates to 100 years of theater in Tenali.

Films
Many artists who hail from Tenali and the nearby villages have contributed a major share to the Telugu film industry, such as AVS, Govindarajula Subba Rao (the first Telugu cinema hero), Krishna, Gummadi Venkateswara Rao, Jamuna, Kanchanamala (the first Telugu cinema heroine), Kongara Jaggayya, Rama Prabha, Savitri, Sharada, Siva Parvati and Divya Vani.

Cityscape
There are various religious worship centers in the city, such as the Vaikuntapuram Venkateswara temple and the Iglesia ni Cristo church. The notable Satyanarayana UDA Lake Park (or Chinaravuru park), named after former municipal chairman Ravi Satyanarayana, is maintained by VGTMUDA (now APCRDA).

 Food  Jalebi is very famous in Tenali city. It is made with jaggery instead of traditional way with sugar. There is no color added to Jalebi. When film industry was in Chennai, Jalebi is sent to film industry top people from Tenali. Many parcels will be sent to abroad on a daily basis.

Transport

Tenali has a total road length of 410.00 km. Guntur, Mangalagiri, Burripalem and Ponnur roads are the arterial roads for road connectivity to the city. The road towards Guntur connects with SH 48 at Narakodur. The Tenali–Mangalagiri road, the Tenali–Narakodur road, and the Tenali–Chandole road are a part of the core road network of the district, which connects the city with Mangalagiri, Narakodur and Chandole respectively.

Bus and rail transport are the major modes of public transport for inter district and inter state commuting. The bus transport is provided by Tenali bus station, owned and operated by APSRTC. The station is also equipped with a bus depot for storage and maintenance of buses. It operates bus services to nearby and intrastate destinations.

The city has one of the largest railway station that is well connected to major cities like Guntur, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Hyderabad, Chennai. As it is a junction railway station, the trains are more frequent to any of the cities. Tenali Junction provides rail connectivity to the city and is classified as an A–category station in the Vijayawada railway division of South Central Railway zone. It is an important junction station on the line between the Howrah–Chennai and the New Delhi–Chennai sections, which also connects the Tenali–Repalle branch line and the Guntur–Tenali section.

Education

The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided, and private schools, under the School Education Department of the state. As per the school information report for the academic year 2015–16, there are a total of 71 schools, comprising 26 private schools, 44 municipal schools, and 1 other type of school. The total number of students enrolled in primary, upper primary and high schools of the city is 11,544.

Sri Vivekananda Central School, Adarsh Public School, Sharon Talent School St. John's Public School, Kendriya Vidyalaya, and Westberry School are some of the public and private schools under CBSE and state boards. Yalavarthy Veda Pathashala, one of the oldest vedic schools founded in 1894, is located in Gandhi Nagar area of the city.

There are 20 private aided junior colleges, such as the Taluk Junior college, the JMJ college for Women, the VSR and NVR college, and the Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Memorial Junior college. Additionally, fourteen unaided junior colleges provide undergraduate education. The JMJ college for women and the VSR and NVR college are the two autonomous colleges under Acharya Nagarjuna University. There are colleges for different fields of study, such as nursing, Government Industrial Training Institute, and other institutes for vocational courses.

Sports
The city has an indoor sports complex for Badminton, Tennis and Volleyball at the Chenchupet area.

Sports personalities from the city include National Senior Chess Silver Medalist International Master CRG Krishna, National Challengers Championship winner and chess master S. Ravi Teja and weightlifter Sai Revathi Ghattamaneni, a gold medalist at Senior Nationals in the 63-kg category.

Notable people

 * Tenali Rama, poet and key figure of the Court of Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara Empire
 * Savitri (actress), known as Mahanati and one of the greatest Indian female actors of all time
 * Yalavarthy Nayudamma, popular Scientist who died in the Kanishka airplane bombing
 * Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, Politician and former Chief Minister of combined Andhra Pradesh
 * Nadendla Manohar, Politician, s/o Nadendla Bhaskara Rao and former speaker of Andhra Pradesh assembly
 * J. C. M. Sastry, nephrologist
 * Krishna (Telugu actor), popular actor and winner of Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award
 * Sobhita Dhulipala, actress and winner of Femina Miss India Earth 2013
 * Sarada (actress), winner of 4 Indian national awards for best actress
 * Chakrapani (filmmaker), founder of Chandamama and famous film producer

Other notable actors in film industry include Jaggayya, Eminent academicians and poets such as
 * Rajyalakshmi,
 * Kanchanamala,
 * Ashwin Babu,
 * Ohmkar,
 * Maharshi Raghava,
 * Punarnavi Bhupalam,
 * Govindarajula Subba Rao,
 * Gummadi (actor),
 * Priyadarshini Ram,
 * Prabha (actress) among others.

 * Chand Gudi, Roboticist and Entrepreneur (coined Fog robotics)
 * Tripuraneni Ramaswamy

 * Chalam (writer)

 * Kodavatiganti Kutumba Rao

title: Tenali


text:
NORDUnet

NORDUnet is an international collaboration between the National research and education networks in the Nordic countries.

Members
The members of NORDUnet are:

 * SUNET of Sweden
 * UNINETT of Norway
 * FUNET of Finland
 * Forskningsnettet of Denmark
 * RHnet of Iceland

Network
NORDUnet interconnects the Nordic national research and education networks and connects them to the worldwide network for research and education and to the general purpose Internet. NORDUnet provides its services by a combination of leased lines and Internet services provided by other international operators. NORDUnet has peering in multiple important internet exchange sites outside the Nordics, such as Amsterdam, Chicago, Frankfurt, London, Miami and New York.

In addition to the basic Internet service NORDUnet operates information services and provides USENET NetNews and Multicast connectivity to the Nordic national networks. NORDUnet also coordinates the national networks' Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) activities and the Nordic national networks' IPv6 activities - an area where NORDUnet has been active for years.

NORDUnet is one of the members, alongside Internet2, ESnet, SURFnet, CANARIE and GÉANT, to pilot a 100G intercontinental connection between Europe and North America.

History
NORDUnet is the result of the NORDUNET programme (1986 to 1992) financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, officially beginning operations 1989. It was the first European NREN to embrace the TCP/IP technology and to connect to the National Science Foundation Network in the United States providing open access for university students in member countries. Along with other early adopters of TCP/IP, particularly CERN, it encouraged the adoption of TCP/IP in Europe (see Protocol Wars).

NORDUnet has only few permanent employees. Most of the work is contracted to appropriate organisations in the Nordic area.

Distinction
The web site for NORDUNet, nordu.net, is the oldest active domain name. It was registered on January 1, 1985.

title: NORDUnet


text:
Talk:List of Jewish American artists

Jack Goldstein
While Jack Goldstein seems a very plausible entry, does anyone have any solid evidence? He's listed on a list of Jews who died in 2004, but the list doesn't cite sources and doesn't differentiate between people with one and two Jewish parents. Juko 10:17, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, there is solid evidence. What would you like? He is an American Artist born of two Jewish parents, I can supply bio material, please advise?  (He speaks in Jack Goldstein and the CalArts Mafia of being an outsider in Jewish culture as a kid, an and outsider in LA high school as an artist; elsewhere in the book he compares the work ethic of another artist as being foreign to him: "It's so not Jewish!"  So apparently he also had a self-sensibility as a Jew, albeit a non-practicing one.) e 21:15, Feb 13, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the full reply! I had just wanted to make sure that he wasn't added simply for having a Jewish name. Juko 22:39, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Jewish American artists


text:
Bark at the Moon

Bark at the Moon is the third studio album by English heavy metal singer Ozzy Osbourne, released on 18 November 1983 in the US and on 2 December 1983 in the UK. The album marks Ozzy's change to a synth infused pop-metal sound, with both its "sonic production, and in Ozzy's imaging".

A commercial success, Bark at the Moon peaked at number 19 on the Billboard album chart and within several weeks of release was certified gold for over 500,000 sales in the United States. To date, it has sold over 3,000,000 copies in the United States. In the UK, it was the third of four Osbourne albums to attain silver certification (60,000 units sold) by the British Phonographic Industry, achieving this in January 1984. The album was remastered on CD in 1995 and again (with a different mix) in 2002. This is Osbourne's first album to feature guitarist Jake E. Lee and only studio album to feature drummer Tommy Aldridge.

Overview
Bark at the Moon is the only Ozzy Osbourne album on which the songwriting is credited entirely to Osbourne. However, guitarist Jake E. Lee maintains that he composed a significant amount of the album's music but was cheated out of his writing and publishing claims by Osbourne's wife and manager, Sharon. Lee claims that after he had composed the songs and completed recording his parts in the studio, he was presented with a contract which stated that he would have no claim to any writing or publishing relating to the album. The contract also stated that Lee could not mention this publicly. Lee claims he signed the contract because he had no legal representation and because Sharon threatened to fire him and have another guitarist re-record his parts if he refused.

Osbourne himself admitted several years later in the liner notes to The Ozzman Cometh that Lee had been involved in the album's writing to at least some degree, stating that the album's title track was in fact co-written by the guitarist. Osbourne's bassist at the time, Bob Daisley, has mirrored Lee's account of the album's production, stating that he co-wrote most of the music with Lee and wrote the vast majority of the lyrics. Daisley has stated that he accepted a buyout from Osbourne in exchange for a writing credit. Osbourne's former drummer Lee Kerslake, who also played with Daisley in Uriah Heep after leaving Osbourne's band, stated that Daisley had been hired by Sharon Osbourne to write the Bark at the Moon album for "$50–60,000 or whatever it is. He was offered the chance to write with Ozzy. Words, music – write the album." Some European pressings identified the track "Centre of Eternity" as "Forever". On tours for the album, Osbourne referred to it as "Forever". This can be heard on bootleg recordings of tours promoting the album. The title track was released as the album's first single with an accompanying music video, the first Osbourne had made. In the early 1980s infancy of the music video medium, the video was highly anticipated due to his outrageous image. The decision to release the ballad "So Tired" as the album's second single was unpopular with many longtime fans. The track "Spiders in the Night" was originally included only on the European, Australian, New Zealand and Greek releases, but was included on the 1995 CD reissue and the 2002 reissue, listed simply as "Spiders."

Composed by Daisley, the lyrics to the song "Now You See It (Now You Don't)" were a pointed rebuke aimed at Osbourne's wife and manager Sharon, who had fired him from the band in 1981. Daisley stated many years later that he was surprised the Osbourne camp allowed the lyrics on the album.

Shortly after Bark at the Moon's 1983 release, a Canadian man named James Jollimore murdered a woman and her two children after allegedly listening to the album. The media and Christian groups began to infer that the music was Satanic and had influenced Jollimore to commit the act. The timing was particularly inopportune for Osbourne, who was, at the time, facing allegations that his song "Suicide Solution" had influenced a fan to commit suicide.

Bark at the Moon is Osbourne's third solo album after parting ways with Black Sabbath in 1979, and his only studio album to feature drummer Tommy Aldridge, who was a fixture of his live band in the early 1980s. Aldridge departed after the recording of the album and was briefly replaced by Carmine Appice, but returned mid-tour after Appice was removed by the Osbournes. When asked why Aldridge was brought back, Osbourne told Hit Parader magazine in early 1984 "For health reasons. He [Appice] was making me sick." Nonetheless, Appice did appear in the popular music video for the "Bark at the Moon" single.

2002 Remixed edition
Bark at the Moon was re-issued again in 2002, although this release featured alternate mixes of many of the songs.

Track listing
All lyrics and music credited to Ozzy Osbourne (except as noted)

European Edition
† All writing was officially credited to Osbourne. However, Jake E. Lee has claimed that he and Bob Daisley wrote material for the album but were cheated out of writing credits by Ozzy's manager/wife, Sharon Osbourne. Ozzy later admitted that they were involved in the songwriting "to some extent" but stated they were co-written with him.

Personnel

 * Ozzy Osbourne – vocals
 * Jake E. Lee – guitar, backing vocals
 * Bob Daisley – bass, backing vocals
 * Tommy Aldridge – drums
 * Don Airey – keyboards

 * Production
 * Produced by Ozzy Osbourne, Bob Daisley, and Max Norman
 * Engineered by Max Norman
 * String arrangements by Louis Clark
 * Mixed by Tony Bongiovi at The Power Station, New York City (except "Slow Down" and "Waiting for Darkness", mixed by Malcolm Pollack at The Power Station)
 * Remastered by Brian Lee with Bob Ludwig (1995 reissue)

title: Bark at the Moon


text:
Talk:List of Jewish American scientists

Can anyone provide any details about Vladimir Risman and his invention? I could find nothing online. Juko 10:18, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Jewish American scientists


text: Category:Communes of Aube

title: Category:Communes of Aube


text:
Chaumont-la-Ville

Chaumont-la-Ville is a commune in the Haute-Marne department in north-eastern France.

title: Chaumont-la-Ville


text: Category:Communes of Marne (department)

title: Category:Communes of Marne (department)


text:
Talk:Anne Brontë

Image
Does this grave image look a little too... Well, grave? -- Goatboy
 * :-) I added a pic of her. Bogdan | Talk 10:34, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Excellent :) -- Goatboy

yeah is the grave needed? she did more that die you know137.154.16.31 02:04, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Agree with merge, so I merged. Thatcher131 00:59, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Why does the grave inscription say she died aged 28 when she was clearly 29 years old at the time of her death? – Alensha   talk  21:33, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

pronunciation
Recent editors have changed the pronunciation to bron-tay. I'd always heard it as bron-tee. Just want to verify this, as all the other Bronte sisters are currently transcribed as bron-tee. — kwami (talk) 06:47, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

Good/Featued
This is one of the finest articles available; is there any reason why it doesn't qualify for Good or Featured article? John Holly (talk) 10:37, 11 August 2008 (UTC)
 * There are a few minor WP:MOS problems that could be fixed-up quickly and a GA nomination made. Feel free to nominate it if you are able to respond and make changes to review comments when they are made. I can fix-up the few problems I see later today. Keith D (talk) 11:53, 11 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I have had a copy-edit pass through to pick up the obvious things and to standardise on some things. If you want to submit a GA nomination then go ahead and see that the response is. Keith D (talk) 17:04, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

 * I nominated this article after keeping it on my watchlist for some time and monitoring edits. I will make any improvements/edits that are needed as a result of the GAN process.--Harkey (talk) 17:20, 7 October 2009 (UTC)

New file File:Anne Brontë by Patrick Branwell Brontë restored.jpg
Recently the file File:Anne Brontë by Patrick Branwell Brontë restored.jpg (right) was uploaded and it appears to be relevant to this article and not currently used by it. If you're interested and think it would be a useful addition, please feel free to include it. Dcoetzee 06:50, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 07:55, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Anne Brontë


text:
Mugain

Mugain, daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, (Mugain Etanchaitrech ingen Echach Feidlig) ( sugg. pron. /Moógen Ait-en-hai-rech/ (Leahy) ; mod. pron. /MOO-in/ ), is a legendary queen in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology; characterized as the "Strumpet wife of Conchobar mac Nessa", the king of Ulster. Also styled Mumain, she had a son with him named Glaisne. She was also a sister of Medb by paternity.

Her epithet, Aitinchairchech, literally means "having gorse-like body hair", or perhaps more specifically pubic hair.

When Cúchulainn returned to Emain Macha after his first foray, his fury was so great the Ulstermen feared he would destroy them. Mugain led her maidens out, and they bared their breasts in front of him. Cúchulainn averted his eyes, and the Ulstermen were able to wrestle him into a barrel of cold water, which exploded from the heat of his body. They put him in a second barrel, and the water boiled; and finally a third barrel, which merely warmed up to a pleasant temperature.

Her affair with Áed, Conchobar's poet, led to the death of Lóegaire Búadach. The Ulstermen took her life, out of the love of her, though they seldom engaged in femicide.

title: Mugain


text:
Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)

Louis, Dauphin of France (Louis Ferdinand; 4 September 1729 – 20 December 1765) was the elder and only surviving son of King Louis XV of France and his wife, Queen Marie Leszczyńska. As a son of the king, Louis was a fils de France. As heir apparent, he became Dauphin of France. Although he died before ascending to the throne himself, all three of his sons who made it to adulthood were to later rule France: Louis XVI (reign in 1774–1792), Louis XVIII (1814–1815, again in 1815–1824) and Charles X (1824–1830).

Early life and education
Louis's birth secured the throne and his mother's position at court, which previously had been precarious due to her giving birth to three daughters in a row before the birth of the Dauphin. He had a younger brother, Philippe, who died as a toddler.

Louis was baptised privately and without a name by Cardinal Armand de Rohan. On 27 April 1737 when he was seven years old the public ceremony of the other baptismal rites took place. It was at this point that he was given the names Louis Ferdinand. His godparents were his cousin Louis, Duke of Orléans, and his great-great-aunt the Dowager Duchess of Bourbon.

Louis's governess was Madame de Ventadour who had previously served as his father's governess. When he was seven years old, the Duke of Châtillon was named his governor, the Count of Muy was named under-governor, and Jean-François Boyer, formerly bishop of Mirepoix, was named preceptor.

From an early age Louis took a great interest in the military arts. He was bitterly disappointed when his father would not permit him to join the 1744 campaign in the War of the Austrian Succession. When his father became deathly ill with fever at Metz, Louis disobeyed orders and went to his bedside, much to the king's resentment. The incident resulted in the dismissal of Louis's beloved governor, the Duke of Châtillon. Later, in 1745, Louis was able to accompany his father on his Flanders campaign and witness the Battle of Fontenoy. After Fontenoy, Louis was not allowed to participate in battles, in part due to the king's escalating jealousy and increasingly distant attitude toward his son. He was very close and protective to his mother and sisters, especially Henriette.

First marriage
In 1744 Louis XV negotiated a marriage between his fifteen-year-old son and the eighteen-year-old Infanta María Teresa Rafaela of Spain, daughter of King Philip V of Spain and his Italian wife, Elisabeth Farnese, and first cousin of Louis XV. The marriage contract was signed 13 December 1744; the marriage was celebrated by proxy in Madrid on 18 December 1744 and in person at Versailles on 23 February 1745.

Louis and María Teresa Rafaela were well matched and had a real affection for each other. They had one daughter, Princess Marie Thérèse of France (19 July 1746 – 27 April 1748). Three days after the birth of their daughter, María Teresa Rafaela died on 22 July 1746. Louis was only 16 years old. He grieved intensely at the loss of his wife, but his responsibility to provide for the succession to the French crown required he marry again quickly.

In 1746, Louis received the Order of the Golden Fleece from his father-in-law, King Philip V of Spain.

Second marriage
On 10 January 1747, Louis was married by proxy in Dresden to Maria Josepha of Saxony, the fifteen-year-old younger daughter of Frederick Augustus II, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and his wife Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria. A second marriage ceremony took place in person at Versailles on 9 February 1747.

Children

 * Stillborn son (30 January 1748)
 * Stillborn son (10 May 1749)
 * Marie Zéphyrine of France (26 August 1750 – 1 September 1755); died in childhood.
 * Louis Joseph of France, Duke of Burgundy (13 September 1751 – 22 March 1761); died in childhood.
 * Stillborn daughter (9 March 1752)
 * Xavier of France, Duke of Aquitaine (8 September 1753 – 22 February 1754); died in infancy.
 * Louis XVI of France (23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793); married Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria, known as Marie Antoinette, and had issue.
 * Louis XVIII of France (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824); married Princess Marie Joséphine of Savoy, no issue.
 * Stillborn son (1756)
 * Charles X of France (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836); married Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy and had issue.
 * Marie Clotilde de France (23 September 1759 – 7 March 1802); married Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia, no issue.
 * Stillborn son (1762)
 * Élisabeth of France (3 May 1764 – 10 May 1794); died unmarried and without issue.

Personality
Louis was well educated: a studious man, cultivated, and a lover of music, he preferred the pleasures of conversation to those of hunting, balls, or spectacles. With a keen sense of morality, he was very much committed to his wife, Marie-Josèphe, and disapproved of his father's mistresses. Family friend Duke de Luynes and Abbe de Proyart noted in their memoirs that like his pious mother, Louis even at a young age, donated much of his money in supporting various charitable causes for the poor which made him popular with the French populace.

Very devout, he was a fervent supporter of the Jesuits, like his mother and sisters, and was led by them to have a devotion to the Sacred Heart. He appeared in the eyes of his sisters as the ideal of the Christian prince, in sharp contrast with their father, who was a notorious womanizer.

Later life and death
Kept away from government affairs by his father, Louis was at the center of the Dévots, a group of religiously minded men who hoped to gain power when he succeeded to the throne.

Louis died of tuberculosis at Fontainebleau in 1765 at the age of 36, while his father was still alive, so he never became king of France. His mother, Queen Marie Leszczyńska, and his maternal grandfather, the former king of Poland, Stanislaus I Leszczyński, Duke of Lorraine, also survived him. His eldest surviving son, Louis-Auguste, duc de Berry, became the new dauphin, ascending the throne as Louis XVI at the death of Louis XV, in May 1774.

Louis was buried in the Cathedral of Saint-Étienne in Sens at the Monument to the Dauphin of France & Marie-Josephe of Saxony, designed and executed by Guillaume Coustou, the Younger. His heart was buried at Saint Denis Basilica next to his first wife.

title: Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)


text: Category:Communes of Isère

title: Category:Communes of Isère