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Breeda Moynihan-Cronin

Breeda Moynihan-Cronin (Moynihan; born 31 March 1953) is an Irish former Labour Party politician who served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Kerry South constituency from 1992 to 2007.

She was born in Cork in 1953, but is a native of Killarney, County Kerry. She was educated at St. Brigid's Secondary School, Killarney; Dominican College Sion Hill, Dublin; and Skerry's College, Cork. Her father, Michael Moynihan, was a TD for Kerry South from 1981 to 1987 and from 1989 to 1992. She worked as a bank official before becoming involved in politics in 1991 when she was elected to Kerry County Council. She was first elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1992 general election as a Labour Party TD for Kerry South, succeeding her father. She was re-elected at every election until 2007.

She held a number of Front Bench positions in the Labour Party, including, Spokesperson on Justice, Equality and Law Reform (1997–1998), Social, Community and Family Affairs (1998–1999), Tourism and Recreation (1999–2002), Social, Community and Family Affairs (2002–2003), and Equality and Law Reform (2003–2007). Moynihan–Cronin is a former Chairperson of the Labour Party.

On 11 October 2005, she announced that she would not stand for re-election at the forthcoming general election due to ill-health. Her decision to retire presented considerable difficulties for the Labour Party to retain her seat, as the party performed poorly at the local elections in 2004, failing to elect any councillors within the constituency. However, on 28 October 2006, she announced that she would stand in the forthcoming general election, having overcome her health difficulties. However, she failed to retain her seat.

In June 2011, she returned to politics when she was co-opted onto Kerry County Council to represent the Killarney area, filling the seat left vacant when Marie Moloney was elected to Seanad Éireann. In 2013, she stood down from the council and was replaced by Sean Counihan.

title: Breeda Moynihan-Cronin


text:
Talk:Mykolaiv

Some corrections
Corrected economics, removing obsolete specializations. All those clothing, knitting and foot-wear are now made in China :((. Also deleted the following:

The city is surrounded by extremely fertile chernozem fields that facilitate good agriculture.

It definitely belongs to Mykolayivs'ka oblast', not here. Also, Novorossiya is an important concept of the Imperial Russian (and Ukrainian) history. Somebody please develop it.

Pryvit, AlexPU

City birthday
The article says that April 27, 1789 is considered the city birth day, yet the celebrations are held in September. Which date is correct? Or, is there a reason for this discrepancy?—Ëzhiki (erinaceus amurensis) 15:12, 14 September 2005 (UTC)

 * It was a mistake. Birthday of City - 21 August... --Aleksandrit 19:22, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Would you by any chance have a reference to that? Thanks!—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); 19:27, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I see that you know Russian. So watch result of google --Aleksandrit 15:01, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Oh, I could google it up alright. What I wanted to see, however, was something that could be used as a reference to the statement that Mykolaiv's city day is August 21. You and me both know it is, but WP:V requires this fact to be verifiable (i.e., sourced). If this date is mentioned in the City Charter or some other official document, that'd make an ideal reference. Would you have anything like that? Thanks!—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); 15:40, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I apologize to all for Russian, but it will be more comfortable me now to write on it. So… Ezhiki, нашел я неплохой источник Юрия Крючкова, это известный на местном уровне краевед. Здесь ссылка на книгу в формате rar. Так что я думаю нужно подправить статью согласно этому источнику. ~ Aleksandrit 19:38, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Does anyone reading this live in Mykolaiv?
I am trying to figure out some confusing information I have read in other places. According to several articles a large radar site was built about 20 km NE of Mykolaiv in the early 1970s. Does anyone reading this live in the area and can confirm or deny this? The system may have been torn down since it was constructed, but if I am reading the history correctly it likely operated into the 1980s, at a minimum.

Maury 19:59, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Give, please, links to information which you saw ~ Aleksandrit 19:48, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

I have found a link to the coordinates outside Mykolaiv that they say is the radar site. However the Google Maps photography of this area is low quality. Can someone who lives nearby tell me if this is the right place? 47.0412°N, 32.19925°W Maury 12:02, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, this is right place ~ Aleksandrit 19:48, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I read elsewhere that this is the place where the US builds a military base. Is this fact or fake news? If fact, when was the contract made or the actual building commence? Either way, it is important to include, me thinks. 2001:8003:AD87:D400:448C:FC26:1B28:363B (talk) 04:23, 2 December 2018 (UTC)

Translation? pronounciation?
I see that translations (the meaning of the city's name) are listed for the Russian and Ulranian names of the city. Might these by pronunciations - the way the city's names would be sound in English? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Badger151 (talk • contribs) 16:47, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

Regional Shipyards
I've been "slowly" working on expanding (and creating) articles related to shipbuilding in the area. I added links to the three major shipyards to this document. I simply put them in a see also section. I am always open to suggestions and recommendations... thanks chiefhuggybear (talk) 21:36, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

City’s name
I think, yi in Mykolayiv more accurately reproduces sound /ji/, than i in Mykolaiv. So I suggest to change article’s name to Mykolayiv. Any objections? ~ aleksandrit (talk) 14:24, 14 July 2009 (UTC)

Tell us the trues, are you the owner of domain name Mykolayiv? Why make it more complicated? Mykolaiv is the best possible spelling can be for the city! --68.36.49.223 (talk) 21:56, 14 January 2012 (UTC)

Search on Google - pages from UK only:
 * Mikolaev = 75
 * Mykolaev = 120
 * Nikolayev = 4,330
 * Mykolayiv = 4,740
 * Mykolaiv = 4,940
 * Nikolaev = 44,800

Of course there are false positives on all of these, for example people called 'Mykolaiv' or 'Nikolayev'. Why don't you change it to Nikolaev? That is after all the normal English spelling.--Toddy1 (talk) 18:46, 14 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Romanization of Ukrainian in Wikipedia is subject to the WP:UKR guideline. The "Mykolaiv" spelling is in compliance with that guideline.—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); 19:17, July 14, 2009 (UTC)

Romanization of Russian says When possible, use a conventional English name instead of romanization. So why is it not possible to use 'Nikolaev' instead of 'Nikolayev'? And for that matter, why is a romanisation of the Ukrainian language name take preference over the most common English language name?--Toddy1 (talk) 20:17, 14 July 2009 (UTC)
 * This is a Ukrainian city, and the titles of articles about the Ukrainian cities are romanized using WP:UKR, not WP:RUS. WP:UKR explicitly states that [t]he Ukrainian National system of 1996 defines official place names in Ukraine, and is used by the United Nations.  The name of the city in Ukrainian is "Миколаїв", hence the romanization produced by the Ukrainian National System of 1996 is "Mykolaiv".
 * WP:UKR does go further and says that [s]ome places are also known by familiar or traditional English forms, or names derived from other languages, but, unlike WP:RUS, it unfortunately does not provide any criteria as to what constitutes a "familiar" or "traditional" English form. Since WP:UKR fails us here, we need to consult the guideline that supercedes it in such matters, and in this case it would be WP:UE.  WP:UE, in turn, explicitly states that Google hits are an unreliable test.  In your case (based on the results you posted above), it exactly suggests that of all available variants no single term is predominant in English.  I am discarding "Nikola(y)ev" spike as a fluke, by the way, because it is a fairly common Russian last name (and also a possible genitive form of an even more common first name Nikolay), which skews the results quite a bit.  I would imagine that presently "Nikola(y)ev", when referred to the city proper, is about as common as all other variants you listed.
 * WK:UE further advises to give more weight to the variants used by verifiable reliable sources. This is not something that's easy to do unless one knows the topic fairly well, but the easiest way to approximate the results that would have been achieved by applying this recommendation in practice is to do a Google Books search.  Here's what I got: mykolaiv|mykolayiv ukraine=666 hits; nikolaev|nikolayev ukraine=947 hits.  As we can see, using this approach "Nikola(y)ev" is a bit more common (I would imagine because of the wealth of historical literature, which, of course, would use the Russified name), but it is hardly a 10:1 case any more.
 * When WP:UE cannot recommend a definite solution, the best course of action is to go with the default provisions of the most applicable guideline—in this case WP:UKR and its Ukrainian National System recommendation. Which brings us back to "Mykolaiv", of course.
 * All this, of course, is my interpretation of the guidelines, although thoroughly rooted in experience of dealing with similar matters in the past. In any case, you are very welcome to list this page on WP:RM or perhaps first drop a note at WT:UKRAINE, and see how it goes from there.  Cheers,—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); 20:52, July 14, 2009 (UTC)

Seems like russification of Ukraine is still continuing. Mykolaiv from Ukrainian Миколаїв is the best translating could be. PERIOD!!!--68.36.49.223 (talk) 03:46, 30 December 2011 (UTC)

According to Ukrainian translation from Ukraine to Latin, the proper way should be Mykolaiv http://life.pravda.com.ua/surprising/4b66e4e1d5c14/ And why make the name more complicated? Mykolaiv is just fine. The best spelling of all the spellings. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.162.52.131 (talk) 15:41, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

While obtaining access to a copy of the actual document would be difficult, i.e., the "legal order (writ) Number 1065 by Prince Potemkin to Mikhail Faleev, dated 27th of August, 1789"; it would seem that the article's claim that the name "Mykolaiv is known from" this order is unlikely to be correct. My sense is that the founding naming order specified "Nikolaev" (Николаев). Can someone verify from a copy of the actual document? Tachypaidia (talk) 16:26, 26 August 2014 (UTC)

From secondary sources in English it appears clear that Potemkin named it after "St Nikolai". Moreover, the citation (http://www.gorsovet.mk.ua/center/history.ua) made in support of the statement does not do so, but rather supports the founding as "Николаев." Not a simple correction as the paragraph is shaped around this statement. Tachypaidia (talk) 01:12, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

I have located sufficient evidence in a primary source (https://sites.google.com/site/phoenixlibr/dokumenty/ordera-potemkina-faleevu), viz. order 14, that the the Potemkin order was Николаев. Being that the present claim in article is unsourced, this evidence, unless controverted, is sufficient to change the article. What is needed now is a fair explanation of the ascendancy of Миколаїв. Tachypaidia (talk) 22:58, 30 August 2014 (UTC)

Russian variants do no require citation
Standard Wikipedia practice in eastern Ukrainian, where as many as half of the population speaks Russian natively, is to include the Russian variants on placenames. No citation is necessary any more than a citation is necessary for placing the Ukrainian variant in placenames where the majority of the community speaks Russian as their first language (as in the Crimea). The citation tags were nothing more than WP:POINTy editing by an anonymous editor who is pushing an anti-Russian Ukrainian POV. Citations are not necessary for these things. --Taivo (talk) 02:15, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

 * This is not the reason to change Ukrainian variant to Russian. Time will show what language Ukrainian speak in Ukraine. --70.111.79.146 (talk) 18:02, 27 March 2012 (UTC)
 * As far as the article titles go, the only thing that matters in the English Wikipedia is the language spoken in countries which it primarily targets. And that, unsurprisingly, is English. Place names come into English from various other languages, including Russian and Ukrainian. Which language English borrows a particular toponym from is a process neither Russians nor Ukrainians are able to control. It's that simple, and it's neither anti-Ukrainian, nor anti-Russian. It's just the way things are with languages.—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); March 27, 2012; 18:12 (UTC)

Who said so that Russian variants do no require citation? I can say the same about you anti-Ukrainian Russian POV :) --Shveik (talk) 02:50, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

Or officially
We have just had the page edited to include the word "officially" for one of the the English language names for the city, when in fact two of the city's English language names are used officially.
 * There are several variations of the city's name. In Ukrainian, the city is named Микола́їв, for which the transliteration is Mykolaiv, or officially, Mykolayiv. The Russian name is Никола́ев, which transliterates as Nikolaev or Nikolayev.

I would like to propose a change to the following:
 * There are several variations of the city's name. In Ukrainian, the city is named Микола́їв, for which the transliteration is Mykolaiv or Mykolayiv. The Russian name is Никола́ев, which transliterates as Nikolaev or Nikolayev. Both Mykolayiv and Nikolaev are used officially by the city council.

--Toddy1 (talk) 20:39, 21 October 2012 (UTC)
 * "Both Mykolayiv and Nikolaev are used by the city council in English language materials." We don't know if the use of both in English is official or not, but it's clear that the city council uses both.  --Taivo (talk) 21:05, 21 October 2012 (UTC)

Latest corrections and Requests by john.lankenau@yahoo.com; vkontakt John Lankenau
From John Lankenau: john.lankenau@yahoo.com Skype: john.lankenau

We need the section on city government and politics filled in. Also we need the section on public health expanded to list how healthcare is provided in Mikolaev (I beleive the polyclinic system, which differs from the general medical practictioner system in the USA). It would also be interesting to add in the urban life section, how apartments/condominiums are bought and sold in Nikolaev. I heared from my new Ukrainian friend that interest rates are 30% so it would be almost impossible to get a loan to buy an apartment it seems to me. Is there still a long waiting list to obtain one's first apartment, as there was in Soviet times? Do adult children in their 20's still live with parents as was common during Soviet times?

Also if anyone knows whether Nikolaev's ship yards still build Russian navy ships, we can add that information.

john.lankenau@yahoo.com Skype: john.lankenau — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.83.46.3 (talk) 06:07, 25 April 2012 (UTC) ```` — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.83.46.3 (talk) 11:58, 25 April 2012 (UTC)

Demographics?
Percent Ukrainian, percent Russian? Sca (talk) 16:11, 26 February 2014 (UTC)

Requested move 31 March 2014

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. The advice in WP:Romanization of Ukrainian/National transliteration table is persuasive. Even on the city council's web site the usage of the extra 'y' is not consistent. In any case WP:OFFICIAL does not require much deference to official names. Toddy1's Google results at Talk:Mykolaiv show that in written English in the UK the extra 'y' is not universal. The proponent's statement that 'Mykolayiv' is more prominent by a wide margin is hard to credit. EdJohnston (talk) 16:17, 8 April 2014 (UTC)

Mykolaiv → Mykolayiv – User:Lvivske proposed a move on 16th March. It should be included on the requested moves page to open the discussion wider. Also, if a decision is made, then the page should be moved. Toddy1 (talk) 08:56, 31 March 2014 (UTC)

'Mykolayiv' is the official name for the city. On Google, it gets 13.7 million results. Meanwhile, mykolaiv gets 0.3 million results. This is a huge discrepancy. If common use and official trump something, lets move this quickly.--User:Lvivske (talk) 15:39, 16 March 2014

The city council website does indeed use that spelling in menus, and some of the time it uses "Mykolaiv" and "Nikolaev" in menus. In the text on the city council website, it mostly uses the spelling "Nikolaev", but on some pages "Mykolayiv" and "Mykolaiv". You will see also that pages of the website give equal prominence to both the Russian and Ukrainian languages. Please do not misinterpret this - this does not mean that they are any less Ukrainian that people who speak the Ukrainian language (a.k.a. little Russian).--Toddy1 (talk) 12:56, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm only talking about the two Ukrainian variants - Mykolayiv and Mykolaiv. The former is used officially and is common use, the latter is obscure. --Львівське (говорити) 21:31, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * The latter is also used by the City Council.--Toddy1 (talk) 21:42, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Well the reason why we stuck with Mykolaiv over Mykolayiv in the first place was due to the Ukrainian National naming convention, which I believe was official by the Ukrainian government on some level.. It was just more simplified and easier to write than the other transliteration naming systems, where under the other systems we would have had articles such as Zaporizhzhia (extra letters which did nothing for the non-Ukrainian speaker, I would say). I suggest sticking to the current name and system, as it would be consistent with all other articles. Otherwise, we could be justified in moving Kiev → Kyyiv over Kyiv, whereas Kyyiv is definitely not more popular than Kyiv. § DDima 13:58, 23 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Ah, beginning words only for 'yi', I slipped on that one. Still, is this not a common use issue if Mykolayiv is more prominent by a wide margin? --Львівське (говорити) 14:24, 28 March 2014 (UTC)
 * If you look at Talk:Mykolaiv you can see that I examined Google results for UK pages in 2009. It is not relevant to English Wikipedia what the prevailing name for this city is in Spain, etc.  With these things there is of course the issue of false positives, etc.  But it is hugely better than just opinion.--Toddy1 (talk) 19:37, 28 March 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

History
The use of Mykolaiv in this history section, certainly from before 1920, is an anachronism and makes for a curious and jarring narrative. After the 1920s emerged a period of joint use between Nikolaev and Mykolaiv. Following the dissolution of the USSR and Ukrainian independence, the name Nikolaev is being phased out. I would like to hear some discussion on how best to transition the name in the history section. Tachypaidia (talk) 19:53, 31 August 2014 (UTC)

Can't get this out of this green section. Would someone fix this for me. Tachypaidia (talk) 19:57, 31 August 2014 (UTC)

 * When you say that "Nikolaev" is being "phased out", who is phasing it out? Do you have any evidence for this?  Please remember that this is English language Wikipedia - it does not matter what the city is called in Spanish/Ukrainian/Hebrew, etc.--  Toddy1 (talk) 21:05, 31 August 2014 (UTC)

 * From a web-basis, it is nearly impossible to pull-up "Nikolaev" in reference to the city. Everything redirects. Referencing maps and newspaper/magazine articles are near exclusively Mykolaiv or variant thereof.  Only with travel and airports is there an enduring remnant of Nikolaev (and in some internationally historic designations).  I find the whole thing curious since the prior text of the history had put "Mykolaiv" onto the lips of Prince Potemkin, a strange thing!  Leaving aside the argument of having to rename towns into an official language (say, in the USA, renaming "Santa Fe" to "Holy Faith", or "Los Angeles" to "The Angels", or an Native American place name, say, "Pensacola" to "Hairy People", or a supposed US city of "Nikolaev" to "Nicholton"), my question is with the WP policy on the retroactive replacement of historical names. 50.190.126.108 (talk) 18:22, 1 September 2014 (UTC)
 * The internet must work differently where you are. Here there is no problem finding websites that call the city "Nikolaev" - a spelling that the city council uses on its website.--  Toddy1 (talk) 21:13, 1 September 2014 (UTC)

 * Not sure where your "here" is, but in the USA internet the hits are few (a travel agency, a flower shop, and a few other trailing debris.) One can only imagine the outcry of the US hispanic community if the town names in the SW were targeted for Anglicization, since after all, we won the US-Mexican War.  Anyway, at least, is there a reason why the citation of name in History section for the period prior to 1992 should not be normalized to the period? Tachypaidia (talk) 13:50, 2 September 2014 (UTC)
 * The problem here is that the city has not changed name; you cannot say that until 1992 the city was called Nikolaev and now it is called Mykolaiv, because that is not true. It is not like Yekaterinoslav, which was renamed Dnepropetrovsk after the good Tsar lost power.  If you read Talk:Mykolaiv, there is no evidence that the Mykolaiv spelling of the city name is any more prevalent than other spellings in current English.  If you read Talk:Mykolaiv you will see that at least one editor has very firm views that the article should use a transliteration from the Ukrainian language.

 * What you want to do is something that you are unlikely to build a consensus for.-- Toddy1 (talk) 18:44, 2 September 2014 (UTC)

 * All you have to do is look at Mykolaiv/Nikolaev's official page here to see that even the official web page uses both English spellings. The title is "Mykolayiv City Council", but the first sentence on the home page says, "the Nikolaev City Council’s Internet-portal."  --Taivo (talk) 06:47, 3 September 2014 (UTC)

 * What I noticed is that frequently articles come up through the Google translate application where the original underlying text gives "Mykolaiv" (Cyrillic characters) but it shows up as "Nikolaev" in Latin transcription. Were that translation function to change, numerous "Nikolaevs" would pass into oblivion.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.202.6.195 (talk) 16:52, 4 September 2014 (UTC)

 * What makes this unsettling is that this isn't a transliteration of Nikolaev into Ukrainian (which it can easily handle) but a translation. By analogy, take the good English name of "Johnstown" (PA);  and say it took up a sizable German residency, and so it begins posting the city name as "Hanston".  Well, that's a different name (cf. Hanston, Kansas).  In any instance, it would certain seem that on anachronistic grounds that in the History section the city should certainly be cited as "Nikolaev" in the pre-Soviet period, and then note the transition to the dual-use of the names beginning with the Soviet Ukrainization (korenizatsiya) policy in the 1920s. Tachypaidia (talk) 05:42, 6 September 2014 (UTC)

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Mykolaiv


text:
Category:Scottish memoirists

Scottish memoirists.

title: Category:Scottish memoirists


text:
Mouseion

The Mouseion of Alexandria (Μουσεῖον τῆς Ἀλεξανδρείας; Musaeum Alexandrinum), which arguably included the Library of Alexandria, was an institution said to have been founded by Ptolemy I Soter and his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Originally, the word mouseion meant any place that was dedicated to the Muses, often related to the study of music or poetry, but later associated with sites of learning such as Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum.

The Ptolemies reputedly established their Mouseion and Library with the intention of bringing together some of the best scholars of the Hellenistic world and collect all the books known at the time. Although it did not imply a collection of works of art, the word mouseion is the root for the modern usage of the word museum.

History
According to Johannes Tzetzes, the Mouseion was an institution founded by Ptolemy I Soter (c. 367 BC – c. 283 BC) at Alexandria, Egypt, though it is more likely that Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) saw to its completion. As a community gathered together under the protection of the Muses, the Mouseion remained supported over the centuries by the patronage of the royal family of the Ptolemies, and later by that of the Roman emperors.

Unlike the modern museum in the sense that has developed since the Renaissance, the Mouseion of Alexandria did not have a collection of sculpture and painting presented as works of art, as was assembled by the Ptolemies' rival Attalus at the Library of Pergamum. Instead, it was an institution of learning that attracted some of the best scholars of the Hellenistic world, as Germain Bazin puts it, "analogous to the modern Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton or to the Collège de France in Paris."

It is uncertain how many scholars lived in the Mouseion at any given time, as surviving reports are few and rather brief. Nonetheless, it appears that scholars and staff members were salaried by the State and paid no taxes. According to Strabo, they also received free room and board, and free servants.

Based on extant works of scholars associated with the Mouseion, it seems likely that literary criticism and other similar activities took place there. In addition to Greek works, some foreign texts were translated from Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Jewish, and other languages. Many of the edited versions of the Greek canon that we know today, from Homer and Hesiod forward, exist in editions that were collated and corrected by the scholars assembled in the Mouseion and the Library of Alexandria.

Appearance
In the first century AD, the Greek geographer Strabo described the Mouseion as part of a bigger, richly decorated campus of buildings and gardens:

"The Mouseion is also part of the Brucheion (palace complex), possessing a peripatos (lobby), an exedra (columned hall), and large oikos (dining hall), in which the common table of the philologoi, men who are members of the Mouseion, is located. This synodos (assembly) has property in common and a priest in charge of the Mouseion, formerly appointed by the kings, but now by Caesar."

According to this description, the Mouseion featured a roofed walkway, an arcade of seats, and a communal dining room where scholars routinely ate and shared ideas. The building may have also hosted private study rooms, residential quarters, and lecture halls, based on similar structures that were built much later in Alexandria. However, it is unclear if the premises provided accommodations for anatomical research or astronomical observations. In addition to the Library of Alexandria, another smaller library was housed in the nearby Serapeum (Temple of Serapis), which may have been open to people other than Mouseion scholars.

Decline
During the reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II, at a time of territorial losses and political turmoil in Egypt, most intellectuals were either killed or expelled from the city, including the last recorded head librarian of the Library of Alexandria, Aristarchus of Samothrace, who supposedly was forced to resign his position in 145 BC and died in exile a few years later. Johannes Tzetzes and other Byzantine sources do not mention any further directors after him, albeit four obscure 'caretakers' are mentioned in an Oxyrhynchus fragment, and an inscription from the 80s BC speaks of a certain Onesander of Paphos being appointed to the Library. There are reports that, during the Siege of Alexandria in 47 BC, parts of the library collection caught fire and were destroyed.

Despite the fact that the Mouseion continued as an institution under Roman rule, it never regained its former glory. Membership of the Mouseion was not limited to prominent scholars under the Roman emperors but included politicians, athletes, and other people rewarded for their support to the state. Emperor Claudius added an additional building in the first century AD, and much later the emperor Caracalla temporarily suspended Mouseion membership in 216 AD.

Destruction
The last known references to the old Mouseion still functioning occur in the 260s AD. The Brucheion, the complex of palaces and gardens that included the Mouseion, was probably destroyed by fire on the orders of Emperor Aurelian in 272 AD, although it is not known with certainty how much of the original buildings existed at the time. Scattered references in later sources suggest that another comparable institution was established in the 4th century at a different location, but little is known about its organisation and it is unlikely to have had the resources of its predecessor. The mathematician Theon of Alexandria (ca. 335 – ca. 405), father of the philosopher Hypatia, is described in the 10th century Suda as "the man from the Mouseion," but it is not clear what connection he actually had with it. Zacharias Rhetor and Aeneas of Gaza both speak of a physical space known as the "Mouseion" in the late 5th century.

Legacy
The Ptolemies founded the original Mouseion at a time of transition in Greek history, during the passage from a predominantly oral to a more literary culture. The scholars gathered there included:

 * Callimachus, a poet and the first to publish a comprehensive book catalogue (the Pinakes).
 * Zenodotos, the first head librarian of the Library of Alexandria, who laid the foundations for Homeric philology.
 * Apollonius of Rhodes, epic poet and author of the ground-breaking Argonautica.
 * Eratosthenes of Cyrene, head librarian under Ptolemy III Euergetes and a polymath, who worked on literary criticism, philosophy, geography, and mathematics (e.g., his sieve for prime numbers and his measure of the Earth’s circumference).
 * Aristarchus of Samothrace, arguably the greatest grammarian of antiquity, who invented conventional signs nowadays used in critical editions.
 * Didymos of Alexandria, known as βιβλιολάθας (“Book-Forgetting”), who reportedly composed more than 4,000 commentaries on classical authors.

The members of the Mouseion ensured the preservation and production of historical, literary, and scientific works, which would remain part of the Western heritage for centuries, and thanks to their efforts today one can still read Homer and the tragedians.

As an institution dedicated to the Muses, the word mouseion became the source for the modern word museum. In early modern France, it denoted as much a community of scholars brought together under one roof as it did the collections themselves. French and English writers often referred to these collections originally as a "cabinet of curiosities." A catalogue of the 17th century collection of John Tradescant the Elder and his son John Tradescant the Younger was the founding core of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. It was published as ''Musaeum Tradescantianum: or, a Collection of Rarities. Preserved at South-Lambeth near London by John Tradescant'' (1656).

title: Mouseion


text:
User talk:Limbo socrates

Welcome!

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Hello, Limbo socrates. You are encouraged to Be Bold when editing Thermionic emission or any Wikipages. Also, please sign your postings on talk pages with ~. It's the Wikipedian way.... Thanks. Happy editing ! :-) -- PFHLai 22:34, 2005 Feb 13 (UTC)

"Two thumbs down" on Strickland article
LOL! BYT 15:57, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

Moving articles
Hello. When you want to move a page, please follow the procedure at Help:Move. Copying material and placing it in a new space violates the terms of GFDL, under which Wikipedia's contributors have the right to retain credit to their work. While you are undoubtedly the primary contributor to the source article at MP4 Solutions, there have been contributions by an IP address (that may or may not be you) and User:Bluebot, an automated account operated by User:Bluemoose. I will merge the history of the original article at the new location, so this is not a current concern, but I wanted to let you know for future reference. --Moonriddengirl (talk) 21:17, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Limbo socrates


text:
Epinetron

The epinetron (ἐπίνητρον, : epinetra, ἐπίνητρα; "distaff"); Beazley also called them onoi, : onos) was a shape of Attic pottery worn on the thighs of women during the preparation of wool, not unlike a thimble for the thigh. Decorated epinetra were placed on the graves of unmarried girls, or dedicated at temples of female deities.

Because of the strong association between wool-working and the Ancient Greek ideal of women and wives—as in the case of Penelope weaving in the Odyssey—it is a shape associated with the wedding.

The theme of its decoration tended to be related to its use. The top surface was often incised to make it rough in order to rub the wool fibers. There was often a female head placed at the closed end, where the knee was covered. Epinetra were often decorated, sometimes depicting black figure Amazon women, as in the case of an epinetron painted by the Sappho painter between 500 and 490 BCE.

title: Epinetron


text:
Category:School districts in California

 * School districts in California

__NOGALLERY__

title: Category:School districts in California


text:
Nile (disambiguation)

The Nile, in northeast Africa, is one of the world's longest rivers.

Nile may also refer to:

Places

 * Nile Swim Club, Yeadon, Pennsylvania, named after the Nile River
 * Nile Township, Scioto County, Ohio, named after the Nile River

Entertainment

 * Nile (band), an American death metal band
 * Nile (TV series), a BBC Television docudrama
 * "The Nile Song", 1969 song by Pink Floyd
 * Tana Nile, a fictional character in the Marvel Universe

Ships

 * HMS Nile, various British ships
 * SS Nile, various British ships
 * Paddle steamer Nile, built in London for the Egyptian Navy, delivered in 1834 captained by William Light and afterwards John Hindmarsh

People

 * Nile (singer), American hip-hop blues artist

Given name

 * Nile Green, historian
 * Nile Kinnick (1918–1943), American college football player
 * Nile Niami, American film producer and real estate developer
 * Nile Ranger (born 1991), British footballer
 * Nile Rodgers (born 1952), American music producer and guitarist
 * Nile Soik (1923–2001), American politician
 * Nile Wilson (born 1996), British gymnast

Surname

 * Fred Nile (born 1934), Australian politician and activist
 * Elaine Nile (1936–2011), Australian politician
 * Willie Nile (born 1948), American singer and songwriter
 * Cleo de Nile, fictional daughter of the mummy from Monster High
 * Nefera de Nile, fictional daughter of the mummy from Monster High

Other

 * Battle of the Nile
 * Blue Nile Inc, an American online jewelry retailer (NASDAQ: NILE)
 * Link 22 (NATO Improved Link 11), a military wireless data exchange standard
 * Denial

title: Nile (disambiguation)


text:
WDP

WDP may refer to:

 * Walt Disney Pictures, main film studio from The Walt Disney Studios
 * WDP (company), a paintball manufacturer, distributor, and field operator in England
 * William Dudley Pelley, an American writer, occultist, spiritualist and fascist political activist
 * Wireless Datagram Protocol, a datagram-oriented element of the Wireless Application Protocol suite
 * World Day of Prayer, an international ecumenical Christian laywomen’s initiative

title: WDP


text:
The Sons of the Desert

The Sons of the Desert is an international fraternal organization devoted to the lives and films of comedians Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy. The group takes its name from a fictional lodge that Laurel and Hardy belonged to in the 1933 film Sons of the Desert.

In keeping with the tongue-in-cheek “desert” theme, each local chapter of the society is called a “tent,” and each tent is named after one of the Laurel and Hardy films and designated with an "Oasis number" (e.g., the Chicago Bacon Grabbers is Oasis #10). There are more than 100 active tents worldwide, mostly in the United States and United Kingdom. Members meet regularly to enjoy Laurel and Hardy movies in an informal atmosphere. Many chapters formed in the 1960s are still active today.

History
In 1964, three years after the book biography Mr. Laurel and Mr. Hardy by John McCabe was published, McCabe formed a small group of Laurel and Hardy admirers, including actor Orson Bean, cartoonist Al Kilgore, TV personality Chuck McCann, and John Municino. McCabe created a mock-serious “constitution” that satirized the formalities of many social organizations. Stan Laurel endorsed and humorously revised the document; he suggested that members might wear a fez or blazer patch with the motto "Two Minds Without a Single Thought". Founding member Kilgore created a logo with the motto in Latin (in the spirit of Laurel’s dictum that the organization should have “a half-assed dignity” about it) as Duae tabulae rasae in quibus nihil scriptum est (literally: "Two blank slates on which nothing has been written").

The first public Sons of the Desert meeting was held in New York City in 1965, shortly after Stan Laurel's death. McCabe's group quickly inspired chapters in other United States cities, and then in the United Kingdom and other countries. By 1971, there were 23 chapters.

In the media
The Sons of the Desert organization has been profiled periodically in media outlets, usually in a newsworthy context (as when long-lost films have been discovered). The Saturday Evening Post magazine profiled the organization in 1971 and again in 2020. In 1974 the British Broadcasting Corporation featured the Sons in its documentary film Cuckoo. NBC's whimsical reality show Real People brought the Sons to a national audience in 1980. The CBN cable-television network scheduled a Laurel & Hardy movie marathon and invited Sons members from across America to take part in the live, national broadcast. A documentary film about the Sons was produced in 1987 by Alexander Marshall: Revenge of the Sons of the Desert is a featurette showing the international membership at one of its conventions, with commentary by celebrity guests. An Emmy Award winner, the film is included in the DVD set The Laurel & Hardy Collection, Volume One (released in 2006).

International conventions
In addition to local and regional meetings, the Sons organization has been holding international conventions every two years. The first conclave was held in Chicago, Illinois (the site of the lodge convention in the original Sons of the Desert film) in 1978. Since then, individual tents in the Sons organization have hosted conventions, typically running four days each and attended by members from around the world. Actors and technicians who worked with Laurel and Hardy have been frequent guests, and rare films and memorabilia are exhibited. Most of the conventions have been located in the United States but some have been held in the United Kingdom and other countries. The next convention will be held in 2026, in San Diego, California.

title: The Sons of the Desert


text: User talk:68.93.99.191

title: User talk:68.93.99.191


text:
Trionic 8

The Trionic 8 is an advanced engine management system in the Trionic series, created by Saab Automobile. It is used in both Saab 9-3 and Opel Vectra vehicles, and is available with 150, 175 and 210 hp engines. It will also be used for a flexifuel version starting production spring 2007. Saab Trionic T8 has been developed by Saab and is a very advanced engine management system. The Engine Control Module (ECM) is used principally to regulated the air mass, fuel and ignition timing.

Functionality
Trionic monitors ionization rates at each spark plug to individually control and adjust the combustion process for each cylinder. Other primary functions are:
 * Ignition timing
 * Fuel injection
 * Turbo boost pressure
 * Air mass measurement
 * Throttle

Throttle regulation
Trionic 8 calculates how much power the driver wants as early as possible to avoid turbo kick or lag, therefore making driving smooth. As the driver depresses the accelerator pedal, it acts on a pedal position sensor integrated in the pedal bracket. This information, in the form of a voltage, is connected to the ECM which converts the voltage value to a torque request from the driver.

The torque request is then processed by the ECM with regard to current operating conditions and limitations. The result is an air mass request to achieve the torque requested by the ECM. The driver's requested torque can be higher than that requested by ECM when, for example:
 * Maximum engine torque at the current operating point has already been attained
 * The traction control system (TCS) intervenes
 * the knock control system intervenes

The ECM regulates the throttle area (opening angle) together with the turbo wastegate so that the correct torque is attained, i.e. air mass per combustion. Fuel injection is sequential and regulated with air mass per combustion and engine speed as parameters.

This system has the following advantages:
 * Advantages
 * Turbocharger delay can be almost eliminated
 * Exhaust emissions are reduced during changes in load
 * Idle speed control is integrated
 * Load compensation is possible over the entire load and engine speed range
 * Efficient engine torque limitation is achieved over the entire load and engine speed range
 * Cruise control can easily be integrated into the system

Ignition
Ignition takes place with individual ignition coils placed on the respective spark plug. The spark plugs, together with the ignition coils and combustion detection module (CDM), are used to detect combustion and possible knocking. This means there is no need for a camshaft position sensor or separate knock sensor.

Comparison with Trionic T7
Compared with the earlier Trionic T7, the following functions are new:

 * Throttle body actuator (604)
 * Contains throttle position sensor and throttle motor with associated reduction gear.
 * The throttle body is spherical to improve the throttle area control with low loads.
 * No mechanical limp-home function as with T7.

 * Accelerator position sensor (379)
 * Integrated in accelerator pedal bracket.

 * Ignition coil with integrated power module (320)
 * Separate inductive ignition coils with ionization current measurement.
 * Power stage integrated in ignition coils

 * Combustion Detection Module (740)
 * Combustion Detection Module (CDM) processes the ion current signal from the ignition coils first.
 * Provides ECM with information on combustion quality and possible knocking.

 * Exhaust temperature sensor (602)
 * Measures temperature of exhaust gases after catalytic converter.
 * Used as enable criteria for catalytic converter diagnosis.

 * Pressure sensor, atmospheric pressure (539)
 * New model located on engine instead of integrated in control module.
 * Same function as in earlier Trionic T7 system.

 * Power steering fluid pressure switch (739)
 * Informs ECM when power steering servo pressure exceeds 17 bar.
 * Used for idle speed compensation.

 * Level monitor, engine oil (243)
 * Informs ECM when oil level is low.
 * Used for indication on Saab Information Display (SID).

 * Level sensor, fuel (46)
 * Informs ECM of current fuel level.
 * Used for certain diagnoses and trip computer, and for indicating fuel level on main instrument unit (MIU).

 * Relay, start relay (517)
 * Controlled by ECM.

 * Radiator fan control
 * Radiator fan logic is in ECM that also activates the radiator fan relays.
 * Radiator fan can run in four different modes.

 * Generator (2)
 * ECM controls whether the generator should charge or not.
 * Used to engage generator charging with a certain delay after starting and in certain cases disengage generator charging. In this case, the engine load will be reduced temporarily when idling to stabilise the idling speed.

 * Pressure monitor, engine oil (44)
 * Informs ECM when oil pressure is low.
 * Used for indicating on MIU and SID.

 * Pressure sensor, A/C (620)
 * Informs ECM of current pressure on the A/C system high pressure side.
 * Used for load compensating, radiator fan operation and is sent out as a bus message to be used by ACC.

Tuning
Due to countermeasures implemented by Saab to protect their intellectual property, Trionic 8 systems are more difficult to reprogram. Despite those countermeasures, some tuning companies do offer performance-tuned Trionic 8 maps.

title: Trionic 8


text: User talk:68.199.88.187

title: User talk:68.199.88.187


text:
Bede BD-5

The Bede BD-5 Micro is a series of small, single-seat homebuilt aircraft created in the late 1960s by US aircraft designer Jim Bede and introduced to the market primarily in kit form by the now-defunct Bede Aircraft Corporation in the early 1970s.

The BD-5 has a small, streamlined fuselage holding its semi-reclined pilot under a large canopy, with the engine installed in a compartment in the middle of the fuselage, and a propeller-driving engine – or jet engine in the BD-5J variant – mounted immediately to the rear of the cockpit. The combination of fighter-like looks and relatively low cost led to the BD-5 selling over 5,000 kits or plans, with approximately 12,000 orders being taken for a proposed factory-built, FAA-certified version. However, few of the kit versions were actually completed due to the company's bankruptcy in the mid-1970s, and none of the factory built "D" models were produced, as a result of the failure to find a reliable engine for the design.

In total, only a few hundred BD-5 kits were completed, although many of these are still airworthy today. The BD-5J version holds the record for the world's smallest jet aircraft, weighing only 358.8 lb.

The Micro concept
Development of the "Micro" dates back as early as 1967, when Jim Bede was inspired by the Schleicher ASW 15. Along with his chief designer, Paul Griffin, they make preliminary designs of what would become the BD-5. At the time, however, Bede was working on the Bede BD-4.

Serious work on the Micro started in 1970, with construction of the prototype starting in earnest late that year. While the BD-4 was fairly conventional looking, the Micro was a radical design. It is an extremely small one-seat design that looked more like a jet fighter than a typical general aviation aircraft, with the pilot sitting in a semi-reclined position under a large fighter-like plexiglas canopy only inches above the pilot's head. Behind the cockpit was a compartment housing a two-cylinder air-cooled 40 hp piston engine driving a pusher propeller.

For improved performance the aircraft featured both a V-tail and retractable landing gear in order to reduce drag. Calculated drag was so low that split flaps and spoilers were added to the wing in order to improve deceleration for landing. This was apparently the first application of spoilers on a light aircraft. The low drag implied excellent performance; with the 40 hp engine it was expected to reach "nearly" 200 mph, while the larger 55 hp engine allowed it to cruise at 200 mph with the 21 ft "B" wing, and have 1,215 miles range. With the shorter "A" wing, 14 ft, it would be fully aerobatic and have a slightly higher top speed. Builders could optionally buy both wings, switching them in about 10 minutes.

In addition to being easy to fly, the BD-5 was also intended to be easy to build and own. The fuselage was constructed primarily from fiberglass panels over an aluminum frame, reducing construction time to only a few hundred hours. Although the early designs required some welding in the landing gear area, it was planned that this would be removed in the kit versions, so construction would require no special tooling or skills. Even the cost of operation would be extremely low, offering fuel efficiency of 38 mpgus. With the wings removed, the aircraft could be packed into a small custom trailer, allowing it to be towed away by car for storage in a garage, and from there to any suitable flat area for takeoff.

Bede published an information booklet about the BD-5 in November 1970. Several very positive magazine articles appeared at this point. The October 1971 issue of Science & Mechanics had the BD-5 on the cover, listing the price as $1,950. The associated article showed the construction of the original prototype, with numerous claims about how easy it was to construct. The August 1973 issue of Popular Science also covered the aircraft, although it listed the price at $2,965 with the 40 hp engine. The "miniature fighter" generated intense demand. As one author put it, "Even before the plane first left the ground, thoughts of flying the sleek, bullet-shaped aircraft with its pusher prop stimulated the imagination of nearly everyone who had heard of the program."

On February 24, 1971, the first $200 deposit to reserve a "place in line" to receive a kit was accepted, with the target shipping date being May 24, 1972. By August 1971, 800 deposits had been taken, even though the first BD-5 prototype had yet to complete high-speed taxi tests. By the end of the year, the company had taken over 4,300 orders, making it one of the most popular general aircraft projects in modern history.

N500BD
The prototype, N500BD, flew briefly on September 12, 1971, powered by a 36 hp Polaris Industries snowmobile engine. This was sixteen months after deposits had been taken, which led to some griping in the press.

The stability of the aircraft with the original V-tail was marginal at best and clearly needed a redesign. With the original fibreglass fuselage, this was a time-consuming process, so the decision was made to switch to an all-metal fuselage with the components incorporating compound curves produced using hydroformed aircraft-grade aluminum alloy. These could be modified with relative ease during the testing cycle. It also made economic sense as the orders rolled in, the $30,000 in tooling would be spread over what was now a large order book.

By December 1971, the tooling for the new fuselage was in development. The aircraft now featured a longer, more pointed nose, whereas the N500BD had been patterned on the ASW 15 and had a more rounded, egg-like shaping at the front. While this work was in progress, Bede continued to experiment with modifications to the empennage, eventually abandoning the V-tail for a more conventional rudder and horizontal stabilizer layout with highly swept surfaces. Further testing on N500BD showed flow interference between the horizontal surfaces and the propeller, and the stabilizer was raised six inches to correct it, placing it about midway up the rear fuselage.

N501BD
The first example of the new fuselage arrived in March 1972, and was fitted with a new Kiekhaefer Aeromarine engine Bede had seen at the Oshkosh Airshow in 1971. Finished as N501BD, numerous small delays prevented it from flying until July 11, 1972. These flights demonstrated continued problems with the pitch stability; after briefly considering an all-flying stabilator, it was again redesigned with more area and less sweep, becoming much more conventional in layout.

The program was now far too large for Bede to handle alone. In March 1972, he hired Burt Rutan to head the flight test department, who was soon joined by Les Berven as chief test pilot. They took over development, giving Bede more time to work on business issues. This was proving difficult enough, as Kiekhaefer and Bede could not reach an agreement about deliveries, forcing him to change to a similar 40 hp 440 cc Hirth Motoren design, then selecting a larger 55 hp 650 cc Hirth, instead.

Several additional problems turned up during testing. Stick forces were very low, but this was easily addressed by making the servo tabs 50% larger. A more worrying development was that the engines all had problems with mixture due to changes in engine speed or load, which led to rough engine operation. In August, while Bede was demonstrating the BD-5 (N501BD) to the FAA in order to receive permission to fly at Oshkosh, the engine seized. On its deadstick landing, the aircraft overran the runway, buckling the nose gear. Incorrect mixture was identified as the cause of a second wreck of N501BD, in September 1972, when the mixture control broke and Berven had to execute another forced landing. This landing resulted in damage to all the gear and the fuselage as well.

Since N502BD would be ready in two months, they decided not to repair N501BD, and it ended testing after about 30 hours of flight time.

N502BD
N502BD ran into problems of its own. Early models used a variable speed belt drive system to transfer power from the engine to the propeller shaft. This was removed from N502BD and it suddenly began exhibiting a serious vibration problem during taxi tests. Experts were called in, and a freewheel clutch and additional bearings added to correct the problem, but it was not until March 26, 1973, that N502BD flew. From then on the test program seemed to go more smoothly, although this aircraft also suffered two dead stick landings, one from a pinched fuel line occurred while the plane was being observed by the Popular Science author, and another due to metal in a new engine's cylinder.

By the time the test program neared its conclusion, the aircraft had undergone major changes. One victim of the program was the shorter "A" wing, which calculations showed would only improve performance at speeds very close to Vmax (the highest available speed). Flight testing also showed the stall speed with the smaller wing was decidedly high. Split flaps and spoilers had also disappeared. The canopy and cockpit dimensions had changed, the aircraft had new landing gear systems, and the tail was completely new. Estimated top speed was also reduced 10%.

The biggest change, however, was the engine. The original plans to use a 40 hp model proved to be decidedly underpowered, although they were still offered for a time. It was the need for more power that would fit into the very small engine bay that demanded the use of a high-revving two-stroke engine, and few examples of such a design in the desired power class were available. Additionally, two-stroke engines are very smooth running at high RPM, but have real problems running smoothly at low RPM. Even after months of effort, the Hirth designs showed rough running and high minimum power outputs when idled. Two-strokes also have high fuel consumption, and it was expected that the larger engines would burn between 4.5 and 5.5 gallons per hour.

By this point, it seemed the basic design was complete, and Bede turned his attention to other projects. One was the jet-powered BD-5J, which boosted performance to 305 knots. There was an attempt to sidestep the engine problem with the BD-5S glider (S for Sailplane), with lengthened wings and no engine, which prompted Air Progress magazine to sarcastically note, "At last, a BD-5 with no engine problems." This glider version did not fly well and the project was scrapped. Some work on a BD-6 was also carried out, essentially a downsized BD-4 single-seater. There was some criticism that Bede should have attended to the basic BD-5 rather than move on to these other projects. Bede also decided to seek FAA certification of the BD-5D as a production aircraft and sell it complete, and began taking $600 deposits for this model.

Deliveries begin
By the middle of 1973 the basic design was complete and the tooling set up for production. Now over two and a half years after the deposits started being taken, the engines were the only part holding up deliveries, so Bede offered to ship the kit with the engine to follow. This was a fairly attractive option; it meant the builder could get to work and hopefully complete the airframe by the time the engine arrived, at that point expected in September 1973. Many builders took the company up on the offer, only to receive incomplete kits and plans.

Initially, all three Hirth engines were offered; builders could keep the 40 hp engine, or "trade up" to 55 hp or 70 hp. The latter, which Bede had developed with Hirth, was now considered the baseline engine for the aircraft; when equipped with the original 40 hp the aircraft proved to be underpowered. In a late 1973 newsletter to prospective owners, Bede suggested the 70 hp model and discouraged use of the smaller engines. Prices had risen throughout the 30 months since deposits were first taken. Originally priced at $1,799, the base price was raised to $2,599 with the 55 hp Hirth, and owners were offered a "trade up" for the difference in price if they had ordered the aircraft with the original 40 hp engine.

When 1974 came, engines were still not being delivered in sufficient numbers, although some started to arrive early that year. At that point, unexpectedly, Hirth went bankrupt after about 500 engines had shipped. Once again, the BD-5 lacked a suitable engine, but this time the search for a replacement ended with a Zenoah design from Japan. Development of this engine was lengthy, and in the end it would not be certified for export until 1978, although this was not anticipated at the time.

In the meantime, Bede came up with another novel solution to the problems of converting pilots to the new aircraft. They took an engine-less example and bolted it to the front of a pickup truck on a trapeze, attaching the pilot's throttle control to the truck's. Pilots could test fly the aircraft without danger – if a problem developed the driver of the truck simply hit the brakes. It was named the "Truck-a-Plane" and Jim Bede was awarded a US patent for the design.

Deliveries end, Bede bankruptcy
After more than 5,100 kits had been delivered to prospective builders, the kits stopped shipping as well. Although the company was effectively bankrupt at this point, work on the BD-5D continued for some time. The bankruptcy became official in 1979, by which point the BD-5 project was long dead. During the bankruptcy proceedings, it was learned that the money ostensibly being used to build kits was instead being spent on a variety of other projects. As a result, Bede entered a consent decree with the FTC to no longer accept deposits on aircraft for a period of 10 years.

Many owners stored, abandoned, or sold their incomplete kits, but a few hundred diehard builders finished them with a variety of engines, with installations designed by third parties and former Bede Aircraft dealers. Having to hunt for an engine was only one problem. The time to build the aircraft was much longer than quoted; original estimates from the company put it at 600 to 800 hours but users estimated it to be as much as 3,500 hours. Some of this was due to the need to fit their selected engine into an airframe designed for the Hirth, which was no longer available. Additionally, the construction techniques had improved somewhat since early Bede designs, but fastening the panels still required drilling, deburring, dimpling, drilling again and deburring again for each rivet. With the original mixed-construction design this would not have been as much of a task, but with the all-metal version this was extremely time-consuming. While Bede claimed the aircraft could be put together by anyone in a garage, builders generally agree that doing so without proper construction techniques could result in a potentially dangerous aircraft. One way to overcome that issue is to use a set of properly laid-out jigs to align and drill the pilot holes for the airframe, wings and other components. For all of these reasons, it was some time before completed BD-5s started to appear.

Additionally, some of the kits were shipped with missing parts, adding to the confusion. All of this led to a rash of kits being sold for fire sale prices, although this did allow the builders to complete kits at bargain prices.

Flying starts
Although Bede had suggested using the B wings, the earliest kits shipped only with the short "A" wings. All four examples completed with these wings crashed on their first flight, three on takeoff, one on landing. In three of the four crashes, the pilots were killed. Of the first 25 aircraft completed, with both the "A" and "B" wings, 14 crashed with 9 fatalities.

Even when examples with the "B" wings were completed, the safety record did not improve greatly. Several crashes in the BD-5B were found to have taken place due to engine failure on takeoff, both due to the mix of "oddball" engines as well as endemic cooling problems. The reason this is such an issue with the BD-5 is twofold – the high line of thrust means an engine failure immediately results in an unexpected (for most pilots) nose-up attitude change. Pilots who fail to fly the aircraft first and then attempt to restart the engine inevitably stall, with the associated consequences. This was aggravated by the fact the original wing had a very sharp stall with little warning and a nasty tendency to snap roll. To make matters worse, a documented manufacturing error in some wing skins delivered to kit builders exacerbated the problem. A rather small center of gravity range added to the problems of properly trimming the aircraft.

Further developments
With the demise of the Bede Aircraft Company, the BD-5 entered a sort of limbo while builders completed their kits. The early safety problems and the challenge of adapting a suitable engine exacerbated delays. Over the next few years, however, solutions to most of these problems arrived in one form or another. Many other changes have also been incorporated to improve the original design.

The problem of finding a suitable engine with 60 - 70 hp yet weighing under 100 lb was a serious problem in the 1970s, but today there are a number of off-the-shelf designs in this class. The widely available Rotax 582 is a 65 hp engine weighing 80 lb in standard configuration, almost tailor-made for the BD-5. Other engines successfully used in BD-5s include the Subaru EA-81, Honda EB1 & EB2 (with and without turbocharging), Hirth 2706, AMW 225-3 and 2SI 808. A BD-5A fitted with a Rotax 618UL 74 hp two-stroke two-cylinder, water-cooled engine holds the current FAI C-1a/0 class speed record (aircraft weighing under 300 kg) at 351 km/h.

Problems with the abrupt stall were mostly addressed by Harry Riblett, an airfoil designer who documented a procedure to apply a slight reprofile of the wing root airfoil, which softened the stall response of the aircraft without any significant performance degradation. The reprofile presents other unique problems, associated with the way it is applied to the wing upper surface, essentially glueing foam to the aluminum skin and covering with fiberglass. Similarly, the small center-of-gravity range has since been addressed with 5.5 - 13 in stretch kits for the fuselage.

Several companies were formed to help builders complete their kits, and many of the aftermarket modifications were worked into these services. , BD-Micro Technologies of Siletz, Oregon continues to offer kit building support, including new-build kits featuring (optionally) all of these modifications and powered by a 64 hp Rotax 582 or 65 hp Hirth 2706 two-stroke engine, and even the BD-5T, a turboprop version using a Microturbo TRS 18 turbine powering a mechanically controlled variable-pitch propeller. Alturair, Inc. of San Diego, California also offers extensive parts and construction assistance services, as well as kits for the BD-5B and BD-5G models.

Bede Aircraft Company has since re-formed and has been working on several new designs. Before his death in 2015, Bede hinted at a two-seat tandem version of the aircraft, called the "Super BD-5", using a certified aircraft engine and a number of modifications and improvements, but nothing more than a preliminary design drawing was made available.

BD-5J jet
While the new Hirth engine was being tested, Bede decided to create a variant of the BD-5 with a small jet engine. The result was the sleek BD-5J (also known as the "Acrostar Jet" ), a 300 mph aircraft. The design used the PBS Velká Bíteš PBS TJ100 turbojet with 337 lb (1.5 kN) thrust and the Sermel TRS-18-046 turbojet which produced 225 lbf thrust and which was used on a Caproni certified motorglider design. The original Sermel engines were produced under license by Ames Industrial in the USA. The wing was modified to an "intermediate" size between the original A and B wings, with a 17 ft span.

An effort was made to interest Aeronca in producing the BD-5J commercially. A kit was shipped to Aeronca, but after assembling it, they declined -- reportedly because it had too many problems, and too much risk, and was too difficult to build -- and Aeronca returned the assembled craft to Bede.

Bob Bishop purchased 20 BD-5J kits as soon as they had appeared, and many of the flying examples started life in this batch of 20. Versions from the original batch became a popular airshow fixture. Throughout the 1980s and until 1991, Coors flew two of them as the "Silver Bullets". Budweiser also had a BD-5J called the Bud Light Jet, but that contract has long expired and the aircraft was lost as a result of an engine compartment fire from which Bishop successfully bailed out. The aircraft also appeared in the opening sequence of the James Bond film Octopussy (1983).

Many of these aircraft have since been involved in crashes. The loss of the Bud Light Jet was caused by an incorrectly specified fuel flow sending unit which burst in mid-flight and caused fuel to be sprayed directly into the engine compartment. The fuel ignited when it came in contact with the hot components of the engine, forcing the pilot to trade speed for altitude, climb, and bail out. The aircraft then went into a flat spin and pancaked into the ground, but was sufficiently intact to allow the cause of the fire to be determined relatively quickly. On June 16, 2006, while practicing for an air show at Carp Airport in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Scott Manning fatally crashed in his "Stinger Jet," one of the last BD-5Js to remain on the airshow circuit. The Transportation Safety Board of Canada report assigned probable cause of the wreck to the incorrect installation of the right wing, which caused the flap on that wing to suddenly retract in flight and create a "split flap" condition. The aircraft rolled to the right and Manning was unable to recover in time. On May 1, 2013, Guido Gehrmann was killed while attempting an emergency landing in his BD-5J which he flew as part of Red Bull's Flying Bulls team.

Recently, the BD-5J has operated in the national security arena. The aircraft is certified by the United States Department of Defense as a cruise missile surrogate, with Bishop's Aerial Productions offering a version known as the Smart-1 (Small Manned Aerial Radar Target, Model 1). The radar return and general performance characteristics make it a useful aid in training. On June 27, 2006, while flying one of these aircraft, pilot Chuck Lischer, a highly experienced professional air show pilot, was killed when he crashed into trees on final approach to the Ocean City Municipal Airport in Ocean City, Maryland. The National Transportation Safety Board investigation determined the aircraft returned to land with more fuel than recommended for normal operations and the pilot failed to maintain speed, resulting in a stall and subsequent impact short of the runway.

The BD-5J has also held the Guinness record for the World's Smallest Jet for more than 25 years. Bishop originally garnered the record with one of his jets, and in November 2004, the record changed hands to Juan Jiménez, whose BD-5J weighed in at 358.8 lb empty, 80 lb lighter than Bishop's and the lightest documented weight for a BD-5.

Variants

 * BD-5
 * Prototype and initial kit production aircraft with short wingspan.

 * BD-5A
 * Short wingspan version, with 14 ft wings tuned for high speeds and aerobatics.

 * BD-5B
 * Main piston engined production kits with wings extended to 21 ft. Kits still available in 2011.

 * BD-5D
 * Factory built versions of the BD-5B.

 * BD-5G
 * Piston-engined production kit with wingspan of 17 ft and a gross weight of 660 lb. Kits still available in 2011.

 * BD-5J
 * Jet powered version. Equipped with PBS TJ100 engine with 337 lbf (1,500 N) thrust and 38.8 lb (17.6 kg) weight.

 * BD-5S
 * Sailplane version with extended wingspan. Flight testing was disappointing and further work was abandoned.

 * BD-5T
 * A turboprop conversion by BD Micro Technologies, powered by a Solar T62 gas turbine engine.

 * Acapella 100/200
 * An unusual adaptation of the BD-5, the Acapella 200-S appeared in the early 1980s. Designer Carl D. Barlow of Option Air Reno mated a BD-5 fuselage with a twin-boom empennage and fitted it with a 200 hp Lycoming IO-360 engine. Barlow intended to market conversion kits for BD-5 owners. The prototype, N360CB was first flown on 6 June 1980, with pilot Bill Skiliar at the controls. It flew poorly and was difficult to control. Later it was fitted with a 100 hp Lycoming O-235 and the span increased from 19 ftto 26 ft with increased fuel capacity, becoming the Acapella 100-L. It crashed in 1982. Only one further example was built, 100-L N455CB, which, though built in 1983, was registered in 1989 and later donated to the Experimental Aircraft Association's Airventure Museum in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, USA, where it is occasionally placed on display.

 * FLS Microjet
 * Model produced in kit form by BD-Micro Technologies powered by a PBS TJ-100 engine. The 500 hour kit was sold for US$189,500 in 2011.

Aircraft on display
, there were an estimated 150 BD-5s in airworthy condition.

 * BD-5 on static display at the EAA Aviation Museum in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. It is the prototype BD-5, N500BD, that started with a V-tail and fiberglass fuselage.
 * BD-5 on static display at the Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum in Denver, Colorado
 * BD-5B on static display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia
 * BD-5B on static display at the Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon
 * BD-5J on static display at the Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona
 * BD-5J on static display at the Ernie Hall Aviation Museum in Warren, Ohio. It is on loan from the Ohio History Connection.
 * BD-5T on static display at the Hiller Air Museum in San Carlos, California
 * BD-5J on static display at the Spirit of Flight Center museum in Erie, Colorado
 * BD-5J on static display at the Sagebrush Cantina restaurant in Calabasas, California
 * BD-5J full size replica from the 007 film Octopussy on static display at various touring locations as part of Bond in Motion
 * BD-5 on static display at the Shannon Aviation Museum in Shannon, Ireland
 * BD-5 on static display at the French Valley Airport (F70) in Murrieta, California
 * BD-5J on static display at the Oregon Air and Space Museum in Eugene, Oregon
 * BD-5 on static display at the Oklahoma Science Museum in Oklahoma City, OK.
 * BD-5D (N535X) on static display at the McAllister Museum of Aviation in Yakima, WA.

title: Bede BD-5


text: User talk:68.32.249.241

title: User talk:68.32.249.241


text: File:The Ultimate Yes.jpg

title: File:The Ultimate Yes.jpg


text:
User:JimzMcJimz

Jimz McJimz is a very obvious alias for Jimmy Rodriguez who currently resides in New York City.

title: User:JimzMcJimz


text: User talk:80.14.52.162

title: User talk:80.14.52.162


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Comparative nalysis of world religions

Comparative nalysis of world religions
Doesn't belong on Wikipedia. Possible Speedy. And what's an "nalysis" anyway? — Asbestos | Talk 22:47, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

...I guess that was taken care of. — Asbestos | Talk 22:51, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)


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William Fothergill Cooke

Sir William Fothergill Cooke (4 May 1806 – 25 June 1879) was an English inventor. He was, with Charles Wheatstone, the co-inventor of the Cooke-Wheatstone electrical telegraph, which was patented in May 1837. Together with John Ricardo he founded the Electric Telegraph Company, the world's first public telegraph company, in 1846. He was knighted in 1869.

Life
He was born at Ealing, Middlesex; his father, William Cooke, was a surgeon there, and later was appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Durham. He was educated at Durham School and at the University of Edinburgh, and at the age of 20 entered the Indian Army.

After five years' service in India Cooke returned home; then studied medicine in Paris, and at Heidelberg under Georg Wilhelm Munke. In 1836 he saw electric telegraphy, then only experimental: Munke had illustrated his lectures with a telegraphic apparatus on the principle introduced by Pavel Schilling in 1835. Cooke decided to put the invention into practical operation with the railway systems; and gave up medicine.

Early in 1837 Cooke returned to England, with introductions to Michael Faraday and Peter Mark Roget. Through them he was introduced to Charles Wheatstone, who in 1834 gave the Royal Society an account of experiments on the velocity of electricity. Cooke had already constructed a system of telegraphing with three needles on Schilling's principle, and made designs for a mechanical alarm. He had also made some progress in negotiating with the Liverpool & Manchester Railway for the use of his telegraphs. Cooke and Wheatstone went into partnership in May 1837; Cooke handled the business side.

Wheatstone and Cooke's first patent was taken out within a month and was "for improvements in giving signals and sounding alarms in distant places by means of electric currents transmitted through electric circuits". Cooke now tested the invention, with the London & Blackwall Railway, the London & Birmingham Railway, and the Great Western Railway companies, successively allowing the use of their lines for the experiment. A five needle model of telegraph was given up as too expensive. In 1838 an improvement reduced the number of needles to two, and a patent for this was taken out by Cooke and Wheatstone.

Before a parliamentary committee on railways in 1840, Wheatstone stated that he had, with Cooke, obtained a new patent for a telegraphic arrangement; the new apparatus required only a single pair of wires. But the telegraph was still too costly for general purposes. In 1845, however, Cooke and Wheatstone succeeded in producing the single needle apparatus, which they patented, and from that time the electric telegraph became a practical instrument, soon adopted on all the railway lines of the country.

In the meantime a priority dispute arose between Cooke and Wheatstone. An arrangement was come to in 1843 by which several patents were assigned to Cooke, with the reservation of a mileage royalty to Wheatstone; and in 1846 the Electric Telegraph Company was formed in conjunction with Cooke, the company paying £120,000 for Cooke and Wheatstone's earlier patents.

Cooke later tried to obtain an extension of the original patents, but the judicial committee of the Privy Council decided that Cooke and Wheatstone had been sufficiently remunerated. The Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts was awarded on equal terms to Cooke and Wheatstone in 1867; and two years later Cooke was knighted, Wheatstone having had the same honour conferred upon him the year before.

A civil list pension was granted to Cooke in 1871. He died on 25 June 1879.

In May 1994, British Rail Telecommunications named locomotive 20075 Sir William Cooke.

title: William Fothergill Cooke


text:
Martin Boos

Martin Boos (25 December 1762 – 29 August 1825) was a German Roman Catholic theologian.

Life
He was born at Huttenried in Bavaria. Orphaned at the age of four, he was reared by an uncle at Augsburg, who finally sent him to the University of Dillingen, where he studied under Sailer, Zimmer, and Weber. There he laid the foundation of the modest piety by which his whole life was distinguished. He had followed the extreme practices of asceticism as a penance for sin, all to no avail, as he believed, and then developed a doctrine of salvation by faith which came very near to pure Lutheranism. This he preached with great effect.

After serving as priest in several Bavarian towns, he was driven from Bavaria by the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities and other priests. He made his way in 1799 to Linz in Austria, where he was welcomed by Bishop Gall, and set to work first at Leonding and then at Waldneukirchen, becoming in 1806 pastor at Gallneukirchen. His pietistic movement won considerable way among the Catholic laity, and even attracted some fifty or sixty priests.

The death of Gall and other powerful friends, however, exposed him to bitter enmity and persecution from about 1812, and he had to answer endless accusations in the consistorial courts. His enemies followed him when he returned to Bavaria, but in 1817 the Prussian government appointed him to a professorship at Düsseldorf, and in 1819 gave him the pastorate at Sayn near Neuwied. He died in 1825.

His autobiography was edited by Johannes Gossner, Leipzig, 1831, Eng. transl., London, 1836, who also issued two volumes of his sermons Berlin, 1830.

title: Martin Boos


text:
Talk:Rafidain List

English terminology
Is the name "Rafidain" generally used in English-language media? Otherwise the article ought to be shifted to "National Two Rivers List". --Soman 22:50, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Google seems to show "National Rafidain List" being the most common English name for this party. - SimonP 23:20, Feb 13, 2005 (UTC)

 * The meaning of Rafidain appears to be Mesopatamia should it be renamed? AndrewRT 22:56, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rafidain List


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Aldgate (disambiguation)

Aldgate may refer to:

 * Aldgate, one of the city gates of the City of London and a road near the site of Aldgate. Now a Ward of the City of London
 * Aldgate tube station in the City of London
 * Aldgate East tube station in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
 * Aldgate, Rutland a village in the County of Rutland, England
 * Aldgate, South Australia, a town in the Adelaide Hills in Australia

title: Aldgate (disambiguation)


text:
Brad Swaile

Bradley Swaile is a Canadian voice actor. His major roles include Light Yagami in Death Note, Rock in Black Lagoon, Kicker Jones in Transformers: Energon, and Nightcrawler in X-Men: Evolution. In the 1990s, he voiced Mousse in Ranma ½ and Teen Gohan in the Ocean dub of Dragon Ball Z. He has also voiced multiple roles in the Mobile Suit Gundam series, including Amuro Ray of Mobile Suit Gundam, Quatre Raberba Winner of Gundam Wing, Dearka Elsman of Gundam SEED, Auel Neider of Gundam SEED Destiny and Setsuna F. Seiei of Gundam 00. In video games, he voices Jin Kazama in Street Fighter X Tekken.

Biography
Swaile attended Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School in Vancouver. He graduated from Kwantlen University with a degree in Graphic and Visual Design.

Swaile has acted in several animated series. One of his earliest anime roles was in the English dub of Ranma ½ where he voiced Mousse. When the Ocean Group dubbed Dragonball Z in the mid-1990s, Swaile voiced Adult Gohan. He also voiced Nightcrawler in X-Men: Evolution and voiced Ace in My Little Pony Tales. In the late 2000s, he voiced the lead characters Rock in Black Lagoon and Light Yagami in the hit anime Death Note. He has reprised his role for the latter's Death Note live action film dub.

Swaile is known for many roles in the Mobile Suit Gundam franchise. These roles include Amuro Ray of Mobile Suit Gundam, Quatre Raberba Winner of Gundam Wing, Dearka Elsman of Gundam SEED, Auel Neider of Gundam SEED Destiny and Setsuna F. Seiei of Gundam 00.

title: Brad Swaile


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Ashley

Ashley is a place name derived from the Old English words æsċ (“ash”) and lēah (“meadow”). It may refer to:

People and fictional characters

 * Ashley (given name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
 * Ashley (surname), a list of people
 * Ashley (singer) (born 1975), Puerto Rican singer
 * Ashley, South Korean singer and leader of Ladies' Code
 * Ashley, a character from the WarioWare video game series.

Australia

 * Ashley, New South Wales

England

 * Ashley, Cambridgeshire
 * Ashley, Cheshire
 * Ashley, Dorset, a settlement in St Leonards and St Ives parish
 * Ashley, Gloucestershire
 * Ashley, East Hampshire
 * Ashley, New Forest, Hampshire
 * Ashley, Test Valley, Hampshire
 * Ashley, Kent
 * Ashley, Northamptonshire
 * Ashley, Staffordshire
 * Ashley, Wiltshire
 * Ashley (Bristol ward)
 * Ashley Heath, Dorset

New Zealand

 * Ashley, New Zealand
 * Ashley (New Zealand electorate), a former electorate 1866–1902
 * Ashley River / Rakahuri, which flows past the settlement in Canterbury

United States

 * Ashley County, Arkansas
 * Ashley, Illinois
 * Ashley, Indiana
 * Ashley, Michigan
 * Ashley, Missouri
 * Ashley, North Dakota
 * Ashley, Ohio
 * Ashley, Pennsylvania
 * Ashley, West Virginia
 * Ashley, Wisconsin
 * Ashley River, South Carolina

Music

 * "Ashley", a 2008 song from This War Is Ours by Escape the Fate
 * "Ashley", a 2008 song from Visiter by The Dodos
 * "Ashley", a 2012 song from ¡Dos! by Green Day
 * "Ashley", a 2020 song from Manic by Halsey

Other uses

 * Ashley (automobile), a kit car manufactured in England from 1954 to 1962
 * Ashley (restaurant), a South Korean restaurant chain
 * Ashley Furniture, an American furniture company
 * Ashley Script, a typeface created by Ashley Havinden
 * Ashley Treatment, a controversial treatment for static encephalopathy

title: Ashley


text:
Four-square cipher

The four-square cipher is a manual symmetric encryption technique. It was invented by the French cryptographer Felix Delastelle.

The technique encrypts pairs of letters (digraphs), and thus falls into a category of ciphers known as polygraphic substitution ciphers. This adds significant strength to the encryption when compared with monographic substitution ciphers which operate on single characters. The use of digraphs makes the four-square technique less susceptible to frequency analysis attacks, as the analysis must be done on 676 possible digraphs rather than just 26 for monographic substitution. The frequency analysis of digraphs is possible, but considerably more difficult - and it generally requires a much larger ciphertext in order to be useful.

Using four-square
The four-square cipher uses four 5 by 5 (5x5) matrices arranged in a square. Each of the 5 by 5 matrices contains the letters of the alphabet (usually omitting "Q" or putting both "I" and "J" in the same location to reduce the alphabet to fit). In general, the upper-left and lower-right matrices are the "plaintext squares" and each contain a standard alphabet. The upper-right and lower-left squares are the "ciphertext squares" and contain a mixed alphabetic sequence.

To generate the ciphertext squares, one would first fill in the spaces in the matrix with the letters of a keyword or phrase (dropping any duplicate letters), then fill the remaining spaces with the rest of the letters of the alphabet in order (again omitting "Q" to reduce the alphabet to fit). The key can be written in the top rows of the table, from left to right, or in some other pattern, such as a spiral beginning in the upper-left-hand corner and ending in the center. The keyword together with the conventions for filling in the 5 by 5 table constitute the cipher key. The four-square algorithm allows for two separate keys, one for each of the two ciphertext matrices.

As an example, here are the four-square matrices for the keywords "example" and "keyword." The plaintext matrices are in lowercase and the ciphertext matrices are in caps to make this example visually more simple:

a b c d e  E X A M P f g h i j   L B C D F k l m n o   G H I J K p r s t u   N O R S T v w x y z   U V W Y Z K E Y W O   a b c d e R D A B C   f g h i j F G H I J   k l m n o L M N P S   p r s t u T U V X Z   v w x y z

Algorithm
To encrypt a message, one would follow these steps:

a b c d e  E X A M P f g h i j   L B C D F k l m n o   G H I J K p r s t u   N O R S T v w x y z   U V W Y Z K E Y W O   a b c d e R D A B C   f g h i j F G H I J   k l m n o L M N P S   p r s t u T U V X Z   v w x y z
 * Split the payload message into digraphs. (HELLO WORLD becomes HE LL OW OR LD)
 * Find the first letter in the digraph in the upper-left plaintext matrix.

a b c d e  E X A M P f g h i j   L B C D F k l m n o   G H I J K p r s t u   N O R S T v w x y z   U V W Y Z K E Y W O   a b c d e R D A B C  f g h i j F G H I J   k l m n o L M N P S   p r s t u T U V X Z   v w x y z
 * Find the second letter in the digraph in the lower-right plaintext matrix.

a b c d e  E X A M P f g h i j   L B C D F k l m n o  G H I J K p r s t u   N O R S T v w x y z   U V W Y Z K E Y W O   a b c d e R D A B C  f g h i j F G H I J   k l m n o L M N P S   p r s t u T U V X Z   v w x y z
 * The first letter of the encrypted digraph is in the same row as the first plaintext letter and the same column as the second plaintext letter. It is therefore in the upper-right ciphertext matrix.

a b c d e  E X A M P f g h i j   L B C D F k l m n o  G H I J K p r s t u   N O R S T v w x y z   U V W Y Z K E Y W O   a b c d e R D A B C  f g h i j F G H I J   k l m n o L M N P S   p r s t u T U V X Z   v w x y z
 * The second letter of the encrypted digraph is in the same row as the second plaintext letter and the same column as the first plaintext letter. It is therefore in the lower-left ciphertext matrix.

Using the four-square example given above, we can encrypt the following plaintext:

Plaintext: he lp me ob iw an ke no bi Ciphertext: FY GM KY HO BX MF KK KI MD

Here is the four-square written out again but blanking all of the values that aren't used for encrypting the first digraph "he" into "FY"

- - - - -  - - - - - - - h - -   - - - - F - - - - -   - - - - - - - - - -  - - - - - - - - - -   - - - - - - - Y - -   - - - - e - - - - -   - - - - - - - - - -  - - - - - - - - - -   - - - - - - - - - -   - - - - -

As can be seen clearly, the method of encryption simply involves finding the other two corners of a rectangle defined by the two letters in the plaintext digraph. The encrypted digraph is simply the letters at the other two corners, with the upper-right letter coming first.

Decryption works the same way, but in reverse. The ciphertext digraph is split with the first character going into the upper-right matrix and the second character going into the lower-left matrix. The other corners of the rectangle are then located. These represent the plaintext digraph with the upper-left matrix component coming first.

Four-square cryptanalysis
Like most pre-modern era ciphers, the four-square cipher can be easily cracked if there is enough text. Obtaining the key is relatively straightforward if both plaintext and ciphertext are known. When only the ciphertext is known, brute force cryptanalysis of the cipher involves searching through the key space for matches between the frequency of occurrence of digrams (pairs of letters) and the known frequency of occurrence of digrams in the assumed language of the original message.

Cryptanalysis of four-square generally involves pattern matching on repeated monographs. This is only the case when the two plaintext matrices are known. A four-square encipherment usually uses standard alphabets in these matrices but it is not a requirement. If this is the case, then certain words will always produce single-letter ciphertext repeats. For instance, the word MI LI TA RY will always produce the same ciphertext letter in the first and third positions regardless of the keywords used. Patterns like these can be cataloged and matched against single-letter repeats in the ciphertext. Candidate plaintext can then be inserted in an attempt to uncover the ciphertext matrices.

Unlike the Playfair cipher, a four-square cipher will not show reversed ciphertext digraphs for reversed plaintext digraphs (e.g. the digraphs AB BA would encrypt to some pattern XY YX in Playfair, but not in four-square). This, of course, is only true if the two keywords are different. Another difference between four-square and Playfair which makes four-square a stronger encryption is the fact that double letter digraphs will occur in four-square ciphertext.

By all measures, four-square is a stronger system for encrypting information than Playfair. However, it is more cumbersome because of its use of two keys, and, preparing the encryption/decryption sheet can be time consuming. Given that the increase in encryption strength afforded by four-square over Playfair is marginal and that both schemes are easily defeated if sufficient ciphertext is available, Playfair has become much more common.

A good tutorial on reconstructing the key for a four-square cipher can be found in chapter 7, "Solution to Polygraphic Substitution Systems," of Field Manual 34-40-2, produced by the United States Army.

title: Four-square cipher


text:
Mysore Palace

Mysore Palace, also known as Amba Vilas Palace, is a historical palace and a royal residence. It is located in Mysore, Karnataka, India. It used to be the official residence of the Wadiyar dynasty and the seat of the Kingdom of Mysore. The palace is in the centre of Mysore, and faces the Chamundi Hills eastward. Mysore is commonly described as the 'City of the Palaces', and there are seven palaces including this one. However, the Mysore Palace refers specifically to the one within the new fort.

The land on which the palace now stands was originally known as mysuru (literally, "citadel"). The first palace inside the Old Fort was built in the 14th century, which was set ablaze and reconstructed multiple times. The Old Fort was built of wood and thus easily caught fire, while the current fort was built of stone, bricks and wood. The current structure was constructed between 1897 and 1912, after the Old Palace burnt down, the current structure is also known as the New Fort. Mysore Palace is one of the most famous tourist attractions in India, after the Taj Mahal, with more than three million annual visitors as on 2014.

History
The last palace, now known as the Old Palace or the Wooden Palace, burned to ashes during the wedding of Jayalakshammani, the eldest daughter of Chamaraja Wodeyar in 1896. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV and his mother Maharani Kempananjammanni Devi commissioned the British architect Henry Irwin to build a new palace. E.W. Fritchley worked as a consulting engineer. Meanwhile, the royal family stayed in the nearby Jaganmohan Palace. Construction was overseen by an executive engineer in the Mysore Palace division. He conducted elaborate architectural studies during his visits to Delhi, Madras, and Calcutta, and these were used to plan the new palace. The construction cost was placed at Rs 41,47,913 (around $ 30 million adjusted to inflation) and the palace was completed in 1912.

The palace was further expanded in around 1930 (including the addition of the present Public Durbar Hall wing) during the reign of Maharaja Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar.

Architecture
Designed by Henry Irwin, an English architect, the style is that of Indo-Saracenic architecture, with elements from Islamic, Rajput, and Gothic architecture styles. It is a three-story, gray granite, structure, about 245 ft long and about 156 ft wide. There are square towers, five stories tall, at each of the cardinal points, topped with pink domes. The tallest tower, 145 ft tall, is at the centre of the palace and is topped with a gold plated dome.

The façade has arches, canopies, and bay windows. There are seven arches and two smaller arches that connect to the centralized arch of the façade. Above the central arch is a sculpture of Gajalakshmi. The palace is surrounded by gardens. It has four entrances: The 'Jaya Maarthaanda' (main entrance) to the East, 'Jayarama' to the North, 'Balarama' to the South, and 'Varaha' to the West.

Attractions
The entrance fee to get into the palace grounds, is 100 rupees per adult, 50 rupees per child aged 7 to 18 years old, and free for children younger than 7 years old.

At the main entrance, there are bronze tigers, sculpted by British sculptor Robert William Colton, on either side of the walkways leading up to the palace. The Gombe Thotti, also known as The Dolls' Pavilion, was a place to display and worship dolls during Dasara festivities. Ane Bagilu, also known as Elephant Gate, is the main entrance to the palace's interior, symbolizing power and strength.

title: Mysore Palace


text:
Gossner

Gossner may refer to:

People

 * Ernst Gossner (born 1967), Austrian film director, screenwriter and producer
 * Johannes Gossner (1773–1858), German clergyman and philanthropist
 * Miriam Gössner (born 1990), German biathlete and cross-country skier
 * Simone Daro Gossner (1920–2002), Belgian-American astronomer

Education

 * Gossner Theological College, a Christian Theological Seminary in Jharkhand, India
 * Gossner College, a Christian college in Assam, India

Other

 * Gossner Foods, one of the largest cheese manufacturers in the United States, based in Logan, Utah

title: Gossner