text:
Talk:Jay Greenberg (composer)

Comment
The update story on 60 Minutes just now said that his parents had no musical ability. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.100.191.44 (talk • contribs)
 * Not actually true. I know the composer's father and he is a quite good amateur pianist. 130.132.144.169 20:09, 13 December 2006 (UTC)
 * It's possible there's some confusion caused by the fact that his father's name is Robert Greenberg, and there is a different Robert Greenberg who is also a musician. +Angr 13:59, 24 February 2010 (UTC)

Works
How can he have a Symphony no. 5 without having no. 1, 2, 3 and 4? Is that just because it was the only symphony which he released, or does he pick random numbers for his symphonies? ► Adriaan90 ( Talk ♥ Contribs ) ♪♫ 11:40, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Symphony numbering is not so clear and logical as you suggest. Although in the case of Greenberg, he has actually composed 1, 2, 3, and 4, and I suspect more. As far as we know, Schubert didn't even bother to number his, and Bach seems not to have numbered any of his compostions. The BWV numbers were assigned by a music publisher, as were the K. numbers for Mozart's stuff. In both cases, they seem to have gotten the chronological sequence wrong in several respects. For that matter, there are similar issues with Hayden's work and with Vivaldi's. Many issues in musicology, or musical archaeology, are less than well understood. 67.86.174.12 12:34, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Oh ok... thanks for that. ► Adriaan90 ( Talk ♥ Contribs ) ♪♫ 15:21, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I suppose, unlike earlier composers, he [i.e. Greenberg] would have numbered the symphonies chronologically himself to prevent confusion... although there are disadvantages to this system. Someone like Brahms, for instance, didn't number his string quartets because he claims to have written twenty of them before he could conscientiously allow one to be published; if he had numbered them all, his first string quartet might have been published as #21, which would prompt the question of what happened to the other twenty (and likely lower Brahms's esteem in the eyes of the German music critics and listeners alike). If Greenberg does choose to renumerate his symphonies in this way, as symphonies 1 to 4 may have simply not been very good, he'll have to most likely number his next symphonies as #1-4, as this one already has gathered some reputation as #5. (Although, I preferred the quintet anyway.) 130.132.144.169 20:09, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Clairaudience
Would it be reasonable to speculate whether Greenberg's ability could be likened to clairaudience? In the latest 60 Minutes program it was described rather vividly how he hears the music performed fully orchestrated in his head. He himself also used the term "multi-channeling" which he had been told was the name for his ability to hear two or three works performed simultaneously and still retaining an additional (apparently rather undisturbed) "channel" for dealing with everyday life. __meco 14:24, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

 * um, no I don't think that would be reasonable, and many composers can hear multiple layers of melody in their head. Drsmoo 09:22, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, the latter part of what you write certainly has no bearing on my question. __meco 16:59, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Clairaudience redirects to clairvoyance, and skimming that article makes me suspect this is something close to a branch of the occult. This article currently includes these remarks: "Greenberg describes the process by which he receives the music in such a way that he hears the music performed inside his head, and often several musical pieces simultaneously, and he is then able to simply notate what he has listened to. He rarely needs to make corrections to what he has notated." "Receives the music" in itself seems to me an odd way to say "composes". The suggestion appears to be that Greenberg is taking dictation from God or some such thing. It so happens that the average person, musician or not, very often "hears...music performed inside his head, and often several musical pieces simultaneously", especially at night before bed when his mind enters an alpha state. There's nothing unusual about that, but it also so happens that in the vast majority (at least) of these cases the music in question has been previously composed by someone else, is retained in the memory of an auditor, and is being rehashed at the time. It's possible, I suppose, that Greenberg actually composes in the normal way but thinks so rapidly that he almost immediately forgets his thought process and this gives him the illusion that he is merely listening and transcribing rather than truly composing. A normal well-trained composer (in contradistinction to my "average person" above) should be able to invent melody in his head in real time, knowing precisely what pitches and rhythms he is thinking of by name such that he could notate them if he cared to, and hearing them in his mind's ear more or less simultaneously. I'm inclined to call this improvisation rather than composition, and it strikes me that it's possible (another, maybe related, possibility) that this is more or less what Greenberg is doing, just with greater proficiency. TheScotch (talk) 10:02, 16 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Anyway, I propose that "Greenberg describes the process by which he receives the music in such a way that he hears..." be changed to "Greenberg says he hears...", eliminating fourteen wasteful words and removing the POV term "receives". I'll change it now, and if anyone objects he can explain his objection here. TheScotch (talk) 07:06, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I am not at all certain that the process described in the words of Greenberg himself isn't more comparable to that described in p. 201 and pp. 208–211 of Gopi Krishna's Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man. __meco (talk) 11:24, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

Studies
Hey everybody! I came to read this article as I was talking about him with some friends today - I noted that it says that he studies Music at Peterhouse as of 2012, which I'm afraid is wrong. He started his studies in 2009. I unfortunately can't give you a written source for that, which I know Wikipedia always (rightfully) asks for, but we've been matriculated together at Peterhouse in 2009, and to my knowledge he has even left Peterhouse by now. The source which is given as a reference for him starting in 2012 doesn't have anything at all about Jay, by the way, so is no better.

81.157.147.233 (talk) 02:14, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
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title: Talk:Jay Greenberg (composer)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Stuart Reid

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. -- AllyUnion (talk) 08:52, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Stuart Reid
also Stuart reid Vanity/not-notable.--ZayZayEM 06:46, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Rhobite 06:50, Feb 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Postdlf 06:57, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Hoary 08:51, 2005 Feb 10 (UTC)
 * Delete. Agreed with ZayZayEM. Mgm|(talk) 08:54, Feb 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, possible vanity. Megan1967 09:32, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, does not establish notability. - Jpo 14:00, Feb 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Careful, this guy attempted to change the votes. Grue 17:26, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Tragically, he was eaten by a Grue. Delete. --TenOfAllTrades | Talk 19:09, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete it. Wyss 20:30, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Carrp | Talk 04:13, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

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User:Ardekum

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Cabin pressurization

Cabin pressurization is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for humans flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic, tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air by one or more environmental control systems before it is distributed to the cabin.

The first experimental pressurization systems saw use during the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1940s, the first commercial aircraft with a pressurized cabin entered service. The practice would become widespread a decade later, particularly with the introduction of the British de Havilland Comet jetliner in 1949. However, two catastrophic failures in 1954 temporarily grounded the Comet worldwide. These failures were investigated and found to be caused by a combination of progressive metal fatigue and aircraft skin stresses caused from pressurization. Improved testing involved multiple full-scale pressurization cycle tests of the entire fuselage in a water tank, and the key engineering principles learned were applied to the design of subsequent jet airliners.

Certain aircraft have unusual pressurization needs. For example, the supersonic airliner Concorde had a particularly high pressure differential due to flying at unusually high altitude: up to 60000 ft while maintaining a cabin altitude of 6000 ft. This increased airframe weight and saw the use of smaller cabin windows intended to slow the decompression rate if a depressurization event occurred.

The Aloha Airlines Flight 243 incident in 1988, involving a Boeing 737-200 that suffered catastrophic cabin failure mid-flight, was primarily caused by the aircraft's continued operation despite having accumulated more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure.

For increased passenger comfort, several modern airliners, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB, feature reduced operating cabin altitudes as well as greater humidity levels; the use of composite airframes has aided the adoption of such comfort-maximizing practices.

Need for cabin pressurization
Pressurization becomes increasingly necessary at altitudes above 10000 ft above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude. For private aircraft operating in the US, crew members are required to use oxygen masks if the cabin altitude (a representation of the air pressure, see below) stays above 12500 ft for more than 30 minutes, or if the cabin altitude reaches 14000 ft at any time. At altitudes above 15000 ft, passengers are required to be provided oxygen masks as well. On commercial aircraft, the cabin altitude must be maintained at 8000 ft or less. Pressurization of the cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. The principal physiological problems are listed below.

 * Hypoxia
 * The lower partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude reduces the alveolar oxygen tension in the lungs and subsequently in the brain, leading to sluggish thinking, dimmed vision, loss of consciousness, and ultimately death: In some individuals, particularly those with heart or lung disease, symptoms may begin as low as 5000 ft, although most passengers can tolerate altitudes of 8000 ft without ill effect. At this altitude, there is about 25% less oxygen than there is at sea level.
 * Hypoxia may be addressed by the administration of supplemental oxygen, either through an oxygen mask or through a nasal cannula. Without pressurization, sufficient oxygen can be delivered up to an altitude of about 40000 ft. This is because a person who is used to living at sea level needs about 0.20 bar partial oxygen pressure to function normally and that pressure can be maintained up to about 40000 ft by increasing the mole fraction of oxygen in the air that is being breathed. At 40000 ft, the ambient air pressure falls to about 0.2 bar, at which maintaining a minimum partial pressure of oxygen of 0.2 bar requires breathing 100% oxygen using an oxygen mask.
 * Emergency oxygen supply masks in the passenger compartment of airliners do not need to be pressure-demand masks because most flights stay below 40000 ft. Above that altitude the partial pressure of oxygen will fall below 0.2 bar even at 100% oxygen and some degree of cabin pressurization or rapid descent will be essential to avoid the risk of hypoxia.

 * Altitude sickness
 * Hyperventilation, the body's most common response to hypoxia, does help to partially restore the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, but it also causes carbon dioxide (CO2) to out-gas, raising the blood pH and inducing alkalosis. Passengers may experience fatigue, nausea, headaches, sleeplessness, and (on extended flights) even pulmonary edema. These are the same symptoms that mountain climbers experience, but the limited duration of powered flight makes the development of pulmonary oedema unlikely. Altitude sickness may be controlled by a full pressure suit with helmet and faceplate, which completely envelops the body in a pressurized environment; however, this is impractical for commercial passengers.

 * Decompression sickness
 * The low partial pressure of gases, principally nitrogen (N2) but including all other gases, may cause dissolved gases in the bloodstream to precipitate out, resulting in gas embolism, or bubbles in the bloodstream. The mechanism is the same as that of compressed-air divers on ascent from depth. Symptoms may include the early symptoms of "the bends"—tiredness, forgetfulness, headache, stroke, thrombosis, and subcutaneous itching—but rarely the full symptoms thereof. Decompression sickness may also be controlled by a full-pressure suit as for altitude sickness.

 * Barotrauma
 * As the aircraft climbs or descends, passengers may experience discomfort or acute pain as gases trapped within their bodies expand or contract. The most common problems occur with air trapped in the middle ear (aerotitis) or paranasal sinuses by a blocked Eustachian tube or sinuses. Pain may also be experienced in the gastrointestinal tract or even the teeth (barodontalgia). Usually these are not severe enough to cause actual trauma but can result in soreness in the ear that persists after the flight and can exacerbate or precipitate pre-existing medical conditions, such as pneumothorax.

Cabin altitude
The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as the equivalent effective cabin altitude or more commonly as the cabin altitude. This is defined as the equivalent altitude above mean sea level having the same atmospheric pressure according to a standard atmospheric model such as the International Standard Atmosphere. Thus a cabin altitude of zero would have the pressure found at mean sea level, which is taken to be 101325 Pa.

Aircraft
In airliners, cabin altitude during flight is kept above sea level in order to reduce stress on the pressurized part of the fuselage; this stress is proportional to the difference in pressure inside and outside the cabin. In a typical commercial passenger flight, the cabin altitude is programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to a regulatory maximum of 8000 ft. This cabin altitude is maintained while the aircraft is cruising at its maximum altitude and then reduced gradually during descent until the cabin pressure matches the ambient air pressure at the destination.

Keeping the cabin altitude below 8000 ft generally prevents significant hypoxia, altitude sickness, decompression sickness, and barotrauma. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations in the U.S. mandate that under normal operating conditions, the cabin altitude may not exceed this limit at the maximum operating altitude of the aircraft. This mandatory maximum cabin altitude does not eliminate all physiological problems; passengers with conditions such as pneumothorax are advised not to fly until fully healed, and people suffering from a cold or other infection may still experience pain in the ears and sinuses. The rate of change of cabin altitude strongly affects comfort as humans are sensitive to pressure changes in the inner ear and sinuses and this has to be managed carefully. Scuba divers flying within the "no fly" period after a dive are at risk of decompression sickness because the accumulated nitrogen in their bodies can form bubbles when exposed to reduced cabin pressure.

The cabin altitude of the Boeing 767 is typically about 7000 ft when cruising at 37000 ft. This is typical for older jet airliners. A design goal for many, but not all, newer aircraft is to provide a lower cabin altitude than older designs. This can be beneficial for passenger comfort. For example, the Bombardier Global Express business jet can provide a cabin altitude of 4500 ft when cruising at 41000 ft. The Emivest SJ30 business jet can provide a sea-level cabin altitude when cruising at 41000 ft. One study of eight flights in Airbus A380 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 6128 ft, and 65 flights in Boeing 747-400 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 5159 ft.

Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned a type certificate to fly up to 45000 ft without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above 25000 ft "must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of 15000 ft after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system". In the event of a decompression that results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding 25000 ft for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding 40000 ft at any time. In practice, that new Federal Aviation Regulations amendment imposes an operational ceiling of 40000 ft on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004, Airbus acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach 43000 ft in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed 40,000 ft for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed civilian aircraft.

Spacecraft
Russian engineers used an air-like nitrogen/oxygen mixture, kept at a cabin altitude near zero at all times, in their 1961 Vostok, 1964 Voskhod, and 1967 to present Soyuz spacecraft. This requires a heavier space vehicle design, because the spacecraft cabin structure must withstand the stress of 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 atm, 1.01 bar) against the vacuum of space, and also because an inert nitrogen mass must be carried. Care must also be taken to avoid decompression sickness when cosmonauts perform extravehicular activity, as current soft space suits are pressurized with pure oxygen at relatively low pressure in order to provide reasonable flexibility.

By contrast, the United States used a pure oxygen atmosphere for its 1961 Mercury, 1965 Gemini, and 1967 Apollo spacecraft, mainly in order to avoid decompression sickness. Mercury used a cabin altitude of 24800 ft (5.5 psi); Gemini used an altitude of 25700 ft (5.3 psi); and Apollo used 27000 ft (5.0 psi) in space. This allowed for a lighter space vehicle design. This is possible because at 100% oxygen, enough oxygen gets to the bloodstream to allow astronauts to operate normally. Before launch, the pressure was kept at slightly higher than sea level at a constant 5.3 psi above ambient for Gemini, and 2 psi above sea level at launch for Apollo), and transitioned to the space cabin altitude during ascent. However, the high pressure pure oxygen atmosphere before launch proved to be a factor in a fatal fire hazard in Apollo, contributing to the deaths of the entire crew of Apollo 1 during a 1967 ground test. After this, NASA revised its procedure to use a nitrogen/oxygen mix at zero cabin altitude at launch, but kept the low-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere at 5 psi in space.

After the Apollo program, the United States used "a 74-percent oxygen and 26-percent nitrogen breathing mixture" at 5 psi for Skylab, and a cabin atmosphere of 14.5 psi for the Space Shuttle orbiter and the International Space Station.

Mechanics

An airtight fuselage is pressurized using a source of compressed air and controlled by an environmental control system (ECS). The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine; from a low or intermediate stage or an additional high stage, the exact stage depending on engine type. By the time the cold outside air has reached the bleed air valves, it has been heated to around 200 °C. The control and selection of high or low bleed sources is fully automatic and is governed by the needs of various pneumatic systems at various stages of flight. Piston-engine aircraft require an additional compressor, see diagram right.

The part of the bleed air that is directed to the ECS is then expanded to bring it to cabin pressure, which cools it. A final, suitable temperature is then achieved by adding back heat from the hot compressed air via a heat exchanger and air cycle machine known as a PAC (Pressurization and Air Conditioning) system. In some larger airliners, hot trim air can be added downstream of air-conditioned air coming from the packs if it is needed to warm a section of the cabin that is colder than others.

At least two engines provide compressed bleed air for all the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full redundancy. Compressed air is also obtained from the auxiliary power unit (APU), if fitted, in the event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the main engines are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up control system.

All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via an outflow valve, usually at the rear of the fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief valve, in addition to other safety relief valves. If the automatic pressure controllers fail, the pilot can manually control the cabin pressure valve, according to the backup emergency procedure checklist. The automatic controller normally maintains the proper cabin pressure altitude by constantly adjusting the outflow valve position so that the cabin altitude is as low as practical without exceeding the maximum pressure differential limit on the fuselage. The pressure differential varies between aircraft types, typical values are between 7.8 psi and 9.4 psi. At 39000 ft, the cabin pressure would be automatically maintained at about 6900 ft, (450 ft lower than Mexico City), which is about 11.5 psi of atmosphere pressure.

Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, have re-introduced electric compressors previously used on piston-engined airliners to provide pressurization. The use of electric compressors increases the electrical generation load on the engines and introduces a number of stages of energy transfer; therefore, it is unclear whether this increases the overall efficiency of the aircraft air handling system. They do, however, remove the danger of chemical contamination of the cabin, simplify engine design, avert the need to run high pressure pipework around the aircraft, and provide greater design flexibility.

Unplanned decompression

Unplanned loss of cabin pressure at altitude/in space is rare but has resulted in a number of fatal accidents. Failures range from sudden, catastrophic loss of airframe integrity (explosive decompression) to slow leaks or equipment malfunctions that allow cabin pressure to drop.

Any failure of cabin pressurization above 10000 ft requires an emergency descent to 8000 ft or the closest to that while maintaining the minimum sector altitude (MSA), and the deployment of an oxygen mask for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below 8000 ft. Without emergency oxygen, hypoxia may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in the cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The time of useful consciousness varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of hypothermia or frostbite.

For airliners that need to fly over terrain that does not allow reaching the safe altitude within a maximum of 30 minutes, pressurized oxygen bottles are mandatory since the chemical oxygen generators fitted to most planes cannot supply sufficient oxygen.

In jet fighter aircraft, the small size of the cockpit means that any decompression will be very rapid and would not allow the pilot time to put on an oxygen mask. Therefore, fighter jet pilots and aircrew are required to wear oxygen masks at all times.

On June 30, 1971, the crew of Soyuz 11, Soviet cosmonauts Georgy Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patsayev were killed after the cabin vent valve accidentally opened before atmospheric re-entry.

History
The aircraft that pioneered pressurized cabin systems include:
 * Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11, (1920, a modified French design, not actually pressurized but with an enclosed, oxygen enriched cockpit)
 * Engineering Division USD-9A, a modified Airco DH.9A (1921 – the first aircraft to fly with the addition of a pressurized cockpit module)
 * Junkers Ju 49 (1931 – a German experimental aircraft purpose-built to test the concept of cabin pressurization)
 * Farman F.1000 (1932 – a French record breaking pressurized cockpit, experimental aircraft)
 * Chizhevski BOK-1 (1936 – a Russian experimental aircraft)
 * Lockheed XC-35 (1937 – an American pressurized aircraft. Rather than a pressure capsule enclosing the cockpit, the monocoque fuselage skin was the pressure vessel.)
 * Renard R.35 (1938 – the first pressurized piston airliner)
 * Boeing 307 Stratoliner (1938 – the first pressurized airliner to enter commercial service)
 * Lockheed Constellation (1943 – the first pressurized airliner in wide service)
 * Avro Tudor (1946 – first British pressurized airliner)
 * de Havilland Comet (British, Comet 1 1949 – the first jetliner, Comet 4 1958 – resolving the Comet 1 problems)
 * Tupolev Tu-144 and Concorde (1968 USSR and 1969 Anglo-French respectively – first to operate at very high altitude)
 * Cessna P210 (1978) First commercially successful pressurized single-engine aircraft
 * SyberJet SJ30 (2005) First civilian business jet to certify 12.0 psi pressurization system allowing for a sea level cabin at 41000 ft.

In the late 1910s, attempts were being made to achieve higher and higher altitudes. In 1920, flights well over 37000 ft were first achieved by test pilot Lt. John A. Macready in a Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11 biplane at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. The flight was possible by releasing stored oxygen into the cockpit, which was released directly into an enclosed cabin and not to an oxygen mask, which was developed later. With this system flights nearing 40000 ft were possible, but the lack of atmospheric pressure at that altitude caused the pilot's heart to enlarge visibly, and many pilots reported health problems from such high altitude flights. Some early airliners had oxygen masks for the passengers for routine flights.

In 1921, a Wright-Dayton USD-9A reconnaissance biplane was modified with the addition of a completely enclosed air-tight chamber that could be pressurized with air forced into it by small external turbines. The chamber had a hatch only 22 in in diameter that would be sealed by the pilot at 3000 ft. The chamber contained only one instrument, an altimeter, while the conventional cockpit instruments were all mounted outside the chamber, visible through five small portholes. The first attempt to operate the aircraft was again made by Lt. John A. McCready, who discovered that the turbine was forcing air into the chamber faster than the small release valve provided could release it. As a result, the chamber quickly over pressurized, and the flight was abandoned. A second attempt had to be abandoned when the pilot discovered at 3000 ft that he was too short to close the chamber hatch. The first successful flight was finally made by test pilot Lt. Harrold Harris, making it the world's first flight by a pressurized aircraft.

The first airliner to enter commercial service with a pressurized cabin was the Boeing 307 Stratoliner, built in 1938, prior to World War II, though only ten were produced before the war interrupted production. The 307's "pressure compartment was from the nose of the aircraft to a pressure bulkhead in the aft just forward of the horizontal stabilizer."

World War II was a catalyst for aircraft development. Initially, the piston aircraft of World War II, though they often flew at very high altitudes, were not pressurized and relied on oxygen masks. This became impractical with the development of larger bombers where crew were required to move about the cabin and this led to the first bomber with cabin pressurization (though restricted to crew areas), the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. The control system for this was designed by Garrett AiResearch Manufacturing Company, drawing in part on licensing of patents held by Boeing for the Stratoliner.

Post-war piston airliners such as the Lockheed Constellation (1943) made the technology more common in civilian service. The piston-engined airliners generally relied on electrical compressors to provide pressurized cabin air. Engine supercharging and cabin pressurization enabled aircraft like the Douglas DC-6, the Douglas DC-7, and the Constellation to have certified service ceilings from 24000 to 28400 ft. Designing a pressurized fuselage to cope with that altitude range was within the engineering and metallurgical knowledge of that time. The introduction of jet airliners required a significant increase in cruise altitudes to the 30000 - 41000 ft range, where jet engines are more fuel efficient. That increase in cruise altitudes required far more rigorous engineering of the fuselage, and in the beginning not all the engineering problems were fully understood.

The world's first commercial jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet (1949) designed with a service ceiling of 36000 ft. It was the first time that a large diameter, pressurized fuselage with windows had been built and flown at this altitude. Initially, the design was very successful but two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954 resulting in the total loss of the aircraft, passengers and crew grounded what was then the entire world jet airliner fleet. Extensive investigation and groundbreaking engineering analysis of the wreckage led to a number of very significant engineering advances that solved the basic problems of pressurized fuselage design at altitude. The critical problem proved to be a combination of an inadequate understanding of the effect of progressive metal fatigue as the fuselage undergoes repeated stress cycles coupled with a misunderstanding of how aircraft skin stresses are redistributed around openings in the fuselage such as windows and rivet holes.

The critical engineering principles concerning metal fatigue learned from the Comet 1 program were applied directly to the design of the Boeing 707 (1957) and all subsequent jet airliners. For example, detailed routine inspection processes were introduced, in addition to thorough visual inspections of the outer skin, mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by operators; the need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread radiography examination in aviation; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise. Another visibly noticeable legacy of the Comet disasters is the oval windows on every jet airliner; the metal fatigue cracks that destroyed the Comets were initiated by the small radius corners on the Comet 1's almost square windows. The Comet fuselage was redesigned and the Comet 4 (1958) went on to become a successful airliner, pioneering the first transatlantic jet service, but the program never really recovered from these disasters and was overtaken by the Boeing 707.

Even following the Comet disasters, there were several subsequent catastrophic fatigue failures attributed to cabin pressurisation. Perhaps the most prominent example was Aloha Airlines Flight 243, involving a Boeing 737-200. In this case, the principal cause was the continued operation of the specific aircraft despite having accumulated 35,496 flight hours prior to the accident, those hours included over 89,680 flight cycles (takeoffs and landings), owing to its use on short flights; this amounted to more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure. Aloha 243 was able to land despite the substantial damage inflicted by the decompression, which had resulted in the loss of one member of the cabin crew; the incident had far-reaching effects on aviation safety policies and led to changes in operating procedures.

The supersonic airliner Concorde had to deal with particularly high pressure differentials because it flew at unusually high altitude (up to 60000 ft) and maintained a cabin altitude of 6000 ft. Despite this, its cabin altitude was intentionally maintained at 6000 ft. This combination, while providing for increasing comfort, necessitated making Concorde a significantly heavier aircraft, which in turn contributed to the relatively high cost of a flight. Unusually, Concorde was provisioned with smaller cabin windows than most other commercial passenger aircraft in order to slow the rate of decompression in the event of a window seal failing. The high cruising altitude also required the use of high pressure oxygen and demand valves at the emergency masks unlike the continuous-flow masks used in conventional airliners. The FAA, which enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft, determined that, in relation to Concorde's higher operating altitude, the best response to a pressure loss incident would be to perform a rapid descent.

The designed operating cabin altitude for new aircraft is falling and this is expected to reduce any remaining physiological problems. Both the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB airliners have made such modifications for increased passenger comfort. The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of 6000 ft altitude resulting in a higher pressure than for the 8000 ft altitude of older conventional aircraft; according to a joint study performed by Boeing and Oklahoma State University, such a level significantly improves comfort levels. Airbus has stated that the A350 XWB provides for a typical cabin altitude at or below 6000 ft, along with a cabin atmosphere of 20% humidity and an airflow management system that adapts cabin airflow to passenger load with draught-free air circulation. The adoption of composite fuselages eliminates the threat posed by metal fatigue that would have been exacerbated by the higher cabin pressures being adopted by modern airliners, it also eliminates the risk of corrosion from the use of greater humidity levels.

General references

 * Cornelisse, Diana G. Splendid Vision, Unswerving Purpose; Developing Air Power for the United States Air Force During the First Century of Powered Flight. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: U.S. Air Force Publications, 2002. ISBN 0-16-067599-5. pp. 128–29.
 * Portions from the United States Naval Flight Surgeon's Manual
 * "121 Dead in Greek Air Crash", CNN
 * Portions from the United States Naval Flight Surgeon's Manual
 * "121 Dead in Greek Air Crash", CNN

title: Cabin pressurization


text:
Dōbutsuen-mae Station

Dōbutsuen-mae Station (動物園前駅) is a metro station on the Osaka Metro in Nishinari-ku, Osaka, Japan. The name in English means "in front of the zoo". It is one of the nearest stations to the Tennōji Zoo and Tsutenkaku.

The station is located close to the Shin-Imamiya station operated by JR West and Nankai Electric Railway, but no physical connection exists between these two stations.

Lines

 * (M22)
 * (K19)
 * (K19)

Layout

 * Midōsuji Line
 * There are two side platforms with two tracks.

 * Sakaisuji Line
 * There is an island platform with two tracks under the Midosuji Line.

Surroundings

 * Shinsekai
 * Tsutenkaku
 * SpaWorld
 * Tennoji Park
 * Tennoji Zoo
 * Osaka Municipal Museum of Art
 * Imamiya-ebisu
 * Nishinari Police Station
 * Kamagasaki
 * Tobita Shinchi

Bus

 * Subway Dobutsuen-mae (Osaka City Bus)
 * Route 7: for Abenobashi / for Sumiyoshigawa-nishi
 * Route 48: for Abenobashi / for Subway Suminoekoen
 * Route 52: for Abenobashi / for Namba
 * Route 80: for Abenobashi / for Tsurumachi Yonchome

title: Dōbutsuen-mae Station


text:
White River, Mpumalanga

White River (Witrivier) is a small holiday and farming town situated just north of Mbombela in Mpumalanga, South Africa. The farms in the region produce tropical fruits, macadamia nuts, vegetables, flowers and timber. As of 2011, White River had a population of 16,639.

Early history
Archaeological evidence from surrounding areas suggests the land that later became White River has been occupied for thousands of years. Remains of settlements from the 6th-century point to Iron Age African agricultural and livestock-keeping societies that lived in the area. The Plaston site, east of White River, shows evidence of communities in the area from circa 620 CE. Numerous Khoe-San rock painting sites nearby are indicative of even longer human settlement. By the early 19th century, the area was inhabited by Eastern Sotho (MaPulana, Kutswa and Pai) societies and later Swazi chieftaincies. What was known as the Emanzimhlope River, a tributary of the Crocodile River flowed through the region. Emanzimhlope translates to 'White Waters' in siSwati. According to Surplus People Project report, White River was known as Nyavaland by Africans who lived in the area before white settlement.

Colonial Era
Malaria and animal trypanosomiasis pervasive in the lowveld in the 19th century meant that white settlers initially avoided year-round settlement in the White River area. Boer traders, hunters and farmers from settlements in the highveld only came down to the area in the winter. The first year round settlement in the White River area was an isolated farm only in 1873 by Bill Sanderson a Scottish gold prospector, hunter and trader. Only after the 1890s African rinderpest epizootic, which wiped out trypanosomiasis, did white settlers begin to settle in the White River area. By claiming especially the most agriculturally productive, wettest areas with the best climates as their own, they dispossessed Africans of land that they had lived on for generations.

In 1905, after the South African War, Lord Alfred Milner (British administrator of the Transvaal) demarcated land along the Emanzimhlope river for settlement by British settlers, mainly demobilised British Anglo-Boer War soldiers. Milner tasked soldier Tom Lawrence to allocate land to the settlers. Lawrence became the first manager of the new settlement, with the longest street in the town still named after him. Initially, the colonial administration provided settlers with farming equipment and a weekly salary until they began to make an income from their tobacco, citrus, maize and other vegetable crops. Farmers were heavily subsidized until 1907 and the building of a 25 kilometer long irrigation canal improved prospects for some. However, the scheme largely failed and many settlers gave up farming when their contracts ended. In 1911, the Union government sold the farms at White River for a significant loss to a syndicate that planted scale citrus farms on the land. After WWI, the settlement scheme expanded as the land was sold at discounted rates to demobilised white soldiers.

In 1923, a tiny plot of land on the edge of White River was designated as a "location" for black wage workers and their families. The rest of White River was reserved for white settlers. In the mid 1960s, the Lowvelder newspaper reported that while the white residential areas of White River expanded significantly in the following decades, the black location remained confined to just 15 hectares, although the population of the community had expanded to over 3000 people.

Apartheid Era
Under the Apartheid era Group Areas Act, White River was designated a white area. The aparthied state and white farmers forcibly resettled thousands of Black people living in White River and as labour tenants on surrounding farms were to African reserves and towns like Bushbuckridge, Peinaar and Kabokweni. These removals accelerated especially under policies of separate development in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1968, the Bantu Affairs Department forcibly removed 3000 people from the White River location to a newly established township at Ngodini. Many people in these resettled township communities commuted daily between what became the bantustan of KaNgwane to White River and other towns segregated as white.

White River was the base for the Whiteriver Commando, an infantry regiment of the South African Army.

Region
White River lies 20 km north of Mbombela, and 46 km south of Hazyview, not far from the border with Kruger National Park. It is 15 km west-north-west of the Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport. The town includes a residential, commercial, and industrial areas while agricultural holdings are on the outskirts of the town. The town features a library, municipal buildings, car dealerships, filling stations, lodges and hotels, churches, a mosque, a police station, and retail centers. It is a popular holiday destination for those looking to visit the Crocodile River Valley, Panorama and Lowveld Legogote Tourism Routes and the Kruger National Park. The town itself has a reputation for its arts and crafts. The Casterbridge Lifestyle Centre situated on the outskirts of the city is a popular tourist stop. Once a mango plantation, the centre now has a cinema, a vintage motor museum and restaurants and hosts art exhibitions, plays and concerts.

Government
White River is in the Mbombela A Municipal Zone, falling under Ward 30 and is governed by the Democratic Alliance (DA), South Africa's official opposition party.

Agriculture
The White River area is one of the most fertile in the province and farming continues to be a central part of the local economy. After a 26 km canal to channel water from the river was built, new farmers planted fruit trees and established new cultivation methods. Today, agriculture involves largely the production of tropical fruits, macadamia nuts, vegetables, flowers and timber. The farms tend to be relatively small and the agriculture is intensive. Farms are irrigated by nearby dams such as Longmere, Witklip and Klipkoppie.

Education

 * Acek Academy
 * Flamboyant School
 * Hoërskool Rob Ferreira High School
 * Laerskool White River Primary School
 * Metropolitan College
 * Uplands Preparatory and College
 * The King’s School

Climate
White River is located  in the low altitude subtropical Lowveld climatic zone. Savannah and woodland scattered with granite outcrops form the indigenous habitat. Compared to other parts of South Africa, the climate is mild with good rainfall. Nevertheless, like the rest of South Africa, White River and its surrounding farms are being adversely impacted by climate change. The area is especially prone to frost, veld fires and droughts that pose food production threats and economic risks to farmers.

Housing and Land
In 2003, 6 000 hectares of land on the outskirts of White River and surrounding areas were redistributed to the Matsafeni trust when the state purchased the land from Hall & Sons for R63 million under the South African national land reform program. As of 2016, Mbombela, the municipality that White River falls under, had a housing backlog of 34 000 units, impacting low income families especially hard. The persistence of Apartheid-era spatial planning means that land close to the town is expensive and privately owned. This, combined with the economic opportunities and employment, mainly in White River and Mbombela mean that informal settlements around Rocky Drift (Msholozi and Phumlani) and other nearby areas have been established in recent years.

Districts

 * Parkville
 * Kingsview
 * Colts Hill
 * Yaverland

Media
The town's local newspaper, the White River Post was established in 2006 has a distribution of 5000 copies every two weeks. Larger local papers, such as the Lowvelder and Mpumalanga News also cover news in White River.

title: White River, Mpumalanga


text:
Talk:Griffith University

Introduction
I have modified the first statement which said: "Gold Coast campus, the largest university campus in Queensland with more than 12,000 students". This statement is not correct. The University of Queensland has 33,635 students enrolled at The St Lucia Campus, making UQ St Lucia the largest university campus in QLD (https://www.mis.admin.uq.edu.au/ReportalSignon/?doc=-1151&sa). I changed the statement to read "Gold Coast campus, the largest campus of Griffith University, with more than 12,000 students..." 21:00, 16 Jul 2007 (UTC)

Removed again
The same old stuff removed again. "Critics"? Which critics? 'Tis an example of weasel words- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weasel_words Allegations of marking bias? Where are the citations? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 144.133.210.44 (talk • contribs).

Academic
Is it possible to maybe have more academic-related information, instead of self-important waffle about the SRC that the vast majority of readers probably couldn't care less about?

Answer
You'll find that each university has similar listings on Wiki. This page is a work in progress, so details of other schools and faculties can be put here. The Law School is not unique in that respect.

title: Talk:Griffith University


text:
Claremont Institute

The Claremont Institute is a conservative think tank based in Upland, California. The institute was founded in 1979 by four students of Harry V. Jaffa. It produces the Claremont Review of Books, The American Mind, and other publications.

The institute was an early defender of Donald Trump. After Joe Biden won the 2020 United States presidential election and Trump refused to concede, Claremont Institute senior fellow John Eastman aided Trump in his failed attempts to overturn the election results. The institute publications in recent years have frequently published alt-right and far-right opinion pieces.

History
The institute was founded in 1979 by four students of Straussian political theorist Harry V. Jaffa, a professor emeritus at Claremont McKenna College and the Claremont Graduate University, although the institute has no affiliation with any of the Claremont Colleges. Under Jaffa and Larry P. Arnn, the institute became a leading Straussian-influenced conservative think tank, publishing on topics such as statesmanship, Lincoln scholarship and modern conservative issues.

Arnn served as its president from 1985 until 2000, when he became the twelfth president of Hillsdale College. Thomas Klingenstein has been the chairman of the board of trustees since approximately 2010. Michael Pack was president from 2015 to 2017. Ryan P. Williams was named president in 2017.

The Claremont Institute publishes The Claremont Review of Books, The American Mind, The American Story Podcast and Claremont Books. The Washington, D.C., branch of the Claremont Institute, called the Center for the American Way of Life, opened in February 2021.

The Claremont Institute provides fellowships. Fellowships in the past have gone to prominent figures on the right such as Laura Ingraham, Ben Shapiro, Mark Levin, Mary Kissel, and Charles C. Johnson. The institute caused controversy by granting a fellowship in 2019 to the Pizzagate conspiracy theorist Jack Posobiec. National Review columnist Mona Charen wrote that "Claremont stands out for beclowning itself with this embrace of the smarmy underside of American politics." In 2020 Mark Joseph Stern of Slate magazine called the institute "a racist fever swamp with deep connections to the conspiratorial alt-right", citing Posobiec's fellowship and the publication of a 2020 essay by senior fellow John Eastman that questioned Kamala Harris' eligibility for the vice presidency. In 2022 the American Mind published an editorial by Raw Egg Nationalist, an author affiliated with neo-Nazi publishing house Antelope Hill.

Trump advocacy and connections
The institute was an early defender of Donald Trump. The Daily Beast stated Claremont "arguably has done more than any other group to build a philosophical case for Trump’s brand of conservatism."

In September 2016 the institute's Claremont Review of Books published Michael Anton's "The Flight 93 Election" editorial. The editorial, written under a pseudonym, compared the prospect of conservatives letting Trump lose to Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election with passengers not charging the cockpit of the United Airlines aircraft hijacked by Al-Qaeda. The article went viral and received widespread coverage across the political spectrum. Rush Limbaugh devoted a day of his radio series to reading the entire essay. Anton would go on to serve under President Trump as spokesman for the National Security Council, holding the position from 2017 to 2018.

The institute became a significant player in the Trump administration, adding a Washington office and contributing ideas and personnel to the administration. In 2019 Trump awarded the Claremont Institute with a National Humanities Medal. In June 2020 former Claremont Institute president Michael Pack became head of the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM) under Trump.

During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the institute received between $350,000 and $1 million in federally backed small business loans from Chain Bridge Bank as part of the Paycheck Protection Program. The institute stated this would allow it to retain 29 jobs.

According to a 4 November 2021 Vice article, the actions of pro-Trump Claremont Institute leaderssenior fellows John Eastman, Brian Kennedy, Angelo Codevilla, and Michael Anton, as well as Ryan P. Williams (the institute's president), and Thomas D. Klingenstein  (chairman of the board)culminated in the January 6 attack on the Capitol. Williams has stated that the institute's mission "is to save western civilization." Vice asserts that Codevilla, who frequently denounced the "ruling class," coined the term "cold civil war" in 2017. On 5 January 2021 using the hashtag #HoldTheLine, Claremont president emeritus Brian Kennedy tweeted from Capitol Hill: "We are in a constitutional crisis and also in a revolutionary moment...We must embrace the spirit of the American Revolution to stop this communist revolution." In early January 2021, along with Trump and other advisors, Eastman unsuccessfully attempted to persuade then-vice president Mike Pence to overturn the 2020 presidential election results. He then spoke at Trump's rally on 6 January 2021, before the attack on the Capitol. The details of Eastman's attempt, described in a book by journalists Bob Woodward and Robert Costa, made national headlines in September 2021.

Shortly afterward, the American Political Science Association canceled panels involving Eastman and Claremont at its 2021 conference. In April 2022 Thomas B. Edsall of the New York Times wrote in a guest essay that the Claremont Institute, as well as the institute's magazine American Mind and other publications, comprised the "substantial intellectual infrastructure that has buoyed the Trumpist right and its willingness to rupture moral codes and to discard traditional norms." An anonymous former fellow said Eastman's ideas are based on the doctrine of natural rights, which has been a key element of the institute's politics for many years. He said "That’s how Claremont goes from this quirky intellectual outfit to one of the main intellectual architects of trying to overthrow the republic." Senior fellow Charles Kesler, who believes Eastman's advice was wrong, said the institute is split between "some who continue to believe that the election was stolen and some who have denied that from the beginning."

The Claremont Institute has hosted Charles Haywood on their podcast. Haywood, a far-right extremist, has described the January 6th attacks as an "electoral justice protest", and wrote about his desire to lead as a "warlord" of an "armed patronage network" following the collapse of the United States. Haywood has founded an organisation, the Society for American Civic Renewal, to which Claremont has donated $26,248. Claremont's president Ryan Williams acknowledged that Claremont "acted as a fiscal sponsor to help the Society for American Civic Renewal (SACR) establish itself as an incorporated 501(c)(10)"; Williams also acknowledged being a founding board member of SACR, continuing into 2024. The Guardian described SACR as an "exclusive, men-only fraternal order which aims to replace the US government with an authoritarian 'aligned regime', and which experts say is rooted in extreme Christian nationalism and religious autocracy.

Biden years
In 2021 Claremont senior fellow Glenn Ellmers wrote a controversial essay in Claremont's The American Mind arguing that the United States had been destroyed by internal enemies and that a "counter-revolution" was necessary to defeat the majority of the people who "can no longer be considered fellow citizens”. According to Ellmers, "Most people living in the United States today—certainly more than half—are not Americans in any meaningful sense of the term."

Williams, the institute's president, said its mission is to "save Western civilization", particularly from the threat he said is posed by the progressive movement.

Claremont is a member of the advisory board of Project 2025, a collection of conservative and right-wing policy proposals from the Heritage Foundation to reshape the United States federal government and consolidate executive power should the Republican nominee win the 2024 presidential election.

Publications
The Claremont Institute publishes the Claremont Review of Books (CRB), edited by Charles R. Kesler and features regular columns by Martha Bayles, Mark Helprin, Michael Anton and Spencer Klavan. The institute also publishes The American Mind. Claremont Vice President of Education Matt Peterson serves as editor; and James Poulos is executive editor. The publication has featured essays by Newt Gingrich, Todd Young, Marco Rubio, Jim Banks, and Tom Cotton.

Finances
The fiscal year for the organization is from the beginning of July to the end of June of the following calendar year. Finances for the fiscal year ending 30 June 2021 (the latest available) consist of: revenue of $9,466,224; expenses of $8,071,035; and donations of $8,392,413.

title: Claremont Institute


text:
Huancavelica

Huancavelica or Wankawillka in Quechua is a city in Peru. It is the capital of the department of Huancavelica and according to the 2017 census had a population of 49,570 people. The city was established on August 5, 1572 by the Viceroy of Peru Francisco de Toledo. Indigenous peoples represent a major percentage of the population. It has an approximate altitude of 3,676 meters; the climate is cold and dry between the months of February and August with a rainy season between September and January. It is considered one of the poorest cities in Peru.

Geography
The Huancavelica area features a rough geography with highly varied elevation, from 1,950 metres in the valleys to more than 5,000 metres on its snow-covered summits. These mountains contain metallic deposits. They consist of the western chain of the Andes, which includes the Chunta mountain range, formed by a series of hills, the most prominent of which are: Sitaq (5,328m), Wamanrasu (5,298m) and Altar (5,268m).

Among the rivers of the region there are the Mantaro, the Pampas, the Huarpa and the Churcampa. The Mantaro River penetrates Huancavelica, forming Tayacaja's Peninsula. Another river that shapes the relief is the Pampas River which is born in the lakes of the high mountains of Huancavelica, Chuqlluqucha and Urququcha.

Geology
The principal ore mineral is cinnabar, which occurs within the Cretaceous Gran Farallón sandstones, and fractures found in the Jurassic Pucara and Cretaceous Machay limestones and igneous rocks. Other sulfide minerals occurring with these deposits include pyrite, arsenopyrite and realgar.

Caving became top to bottom in 1806 in order to avoid several disasters in previous years. The most infamous one being the Marroquin caving in 1786, which took the lives of over two hundred Indians.

Most of the quicksilver was produced from 1571 until 1790, amounting to more than 1,400,000 flasks.

History
At the time of Spanish conquest, Huancavelica was known as the Wankawillka region or "sacred stone". The city itself was established on August 5, 1572 by viceroy Francisco de Toledo. The community has expanded throughout the region.

The deposits of Huancavelica were disclosed in 1564, or 1566, by the Indian Nahuincopa to his master Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera. The Spanish Crown appropriated them in 1570 and operated them until Peruvian independence in 1821. Considered the "greatest jewel in the crown", they eliminated the need to ship mercury from Almadén. A miners guild, Gremio de Mineros, administered the mines from 1577 until 1782. Production stopped from 1813 through 1835. In 1915 E.E. Fernandini took over ownership.

The area was the most prolific source of mercury in Spanish America, and as such was vital to the mining operations of the Spanish colonial era. Mercury was necessary to extract silver from the ores produced in the silver mines of Peru, as well as those of Potosí in Upper Peru (now Bolivia), using amalgamation processes such as the patio process or pan amalgamation. Mercury was so essential that mercury consumption was the basis upon which the tax on precious metals, known as the quinto real ("royal fifth"), was levied.

The extraction of the quicksilver in the socavones (tunnels) was extremely difficult. Every day before the miners came down, a mass for the dead was celebrated. Due to the need of numerous hand-workers and the high rate of mortality, the Viceroy of Peru Francisco de Toledo resumed and improved the pre-Columbian mandatory service of the mita. The allotted concession were rectangular, about 67x33m. Miners were divided in carreteros and barreteros.

Due to the discovery and then the extraction of the azogue (mercury) in a hill close to the actual location of the city, the Santa Barbara mine became famous in the new world and its activity led to the Viceroy of Peru, Francisco de Toledo, to establish the city in 1572 with the name of Villa Rica de Oropesa.

In 1648 the Viceroy of Peru, declared that Potosí and Huancavelica were "the two pillars that support this kingdom and that of Spain." Moreover, the viceroy thought that Spain could, if necessary, dispense with the silver from Potosí, but it could not dispense with the mercury from Huancavelica.

In the modern times, due to different political and economical events, the city went through a period of decades of lack of progress from the rest of the country. Now, this situation appears to change due to the attention of the recent government administrations.

A 1977 recording of a wedding song sung by a young girl from this region was included on the Golden Record carried on board the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes.

Transportation
Buses run from Huancavelica to Huancayo and Lima by a paved road. There is another road that connects it with the city of Pisco in the coast. Buses depart from the bus station on the west side of the city.

Huancavelica is serviced by a train which runs between it and Huancayo known as "el Tren Macho". According to popular saying, this train "leaves when it wants and arrives when it can...".

In 2009, the line between the break-of-gauge at Huancayo to Huancavelica was being converted from gauge to  gauge. By October 2010 it was finished and it is now in service.

Education
Huancavelica is home of the local university, the National University of Huancavelica, which has branches in other cities in the region. The region is also home to the University for Andean Development (Universidad para el Desarrollo Andino) located in Lircay, which is a city one hour from Huancavelica. There are other technical institutes like the Technological High Institute (Instituto Superior Tecnologico) and the Instituto Superior Pedagogico.

Health
The city has one hospital; the Hospital General, that serves the city and the nearby towns. Close to the hospital there is a clinic; the Policlinico EsSalud. Mercury, lead, and arsenic contamination owing to centuries of quicksilver mining in the city's surrounding expose approximately 19,000 of Huancavelica's residents to severe health threats. Exposure to these toxics has been linked to neuropsychological damage, kidney damage, fertility problems, and cancer, amongst others. Pregnant mothers, foetuses, and children are most at risk of health implications from mercury exposure.

Places of interest
The city has monuments from the colonial era, most of them are churches in a number of eight, located in different parts of the city, of which the most important is the cathedral located at the main square. Another important site is the former Santa Barbara mine, located about three km. from the city on an ancient road that was famous during colonial times for the extraction of mercury.

The main sporting stadium is the IPD Stadium of Huancavelica. At 3,676 meters above sea level, it is one of the highest sporting stadiums in the world and has a capacity of 2,500 spectators.

Notable residents

 * Patricia Benavides (born 1969) - Lawyer, Peru's attorney general since June 2022

title: Huancavelica


text:
Huánuco

Huánuco (Wanuku) is a city in central Peru. It had a population of 196,627 as of 2017 and in 2015 it had a population of 175,068. It is the capital of the Huánuco Region and the Huánuco District. It is the seat of the diocese of Huánuco. The metropolitan city of Huanuco is 170,000 hab (2011, urban pop, INEI). It has three districts, Huanuco (head), Amarilis, and Pillco Marca. In this city, the Higueras river meets the Huallaga river, one of the largest rivers in the country.

History
The city of Huánuco was founded by Spanish conquistador Gómez de Alvarado in 1539, in the Inca town of the Yarowilca clan, Wanako. In 1541, the city was moved to its current location in the Pillco Valley.

The indigenous chronicler Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua notes that during the Inca Empire, Pillco was a significant source of Aclla nuns for the capital city of Cusco, stating, "...there were maidens from all nations, especially from three, namely: Cusco and its territory, the Chachapoyas, and Pillco, which they now call Guánuco."

Huánuco was the scene of one of the Chilean massacres during their occupation of Peruvian territory from 1881 to 1883.

Climate
Huánuco has a mild semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). The temperatures are pleasant throughout the year with very warm days and comfortable nights due to its elevation of 1913 m.

Schools

 * C.S. Colegio de Ciencias
 * CNA UNHEVAL
 * G.U.E. Leoncio Prado
 * C.S. San Luis Gonzaga

Universities

 * Universidad Nacional "Hermilio Valdizán"
 * Universidad Privada "Huánuco"

Notable people

 * Mariano Ignacio Prado - President and General, born in 1825.
 * Leoncio Prado - Colonel and hero; fought in Cuba and against the Chilean invasion after The War of the Pacific.
 * Javier Pulgar Vidal - Famous geographer, born in Panao Province.
 * Daniel Alomía Robles - Musical composer and ethnologist born in 1871, famous for El Cóndor Pasa
 * Johan Fano- Professional football player

Transportation
It is served by the Alférez FAP David Figueroa Fernandini Airport. One of the main highways of the country passes by Huanuco, connecting Lima-Callao with Tingo Maria and Pucallpa in the Peruvian Amazonia.

title: Huánuco


text:
Talk:Massurrealism

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title: Talk:Massurrealism


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Riana, Tasmania

Riana (pronounced rye-anna) is a small town in the North West region of Tasmania, south-west of the Dial Range. It is located west of the popular tourist town, Penguin. Riana and its smaller neighbouring town South Riana are a part of the municipality of the Central Coast Council

At the, Riana had a population of 313, and neighbouring South Riana had 212.

The fertile red soil hosts paddocks of vegetables (particularly potatoes) and dairy farms.

History
Riana Post Office opened on 1 August 1899. Riana South Post Office opened on 20 January 1908. The current school, Riana Primary School, has been in its current location since the 1960s. Multiple schools existed in the vicinity of Riana after World War Two; however, they were closed due to a lack of teachers.

title: Riana, Tasmania


text:
Tulane Stadium

Tulane Stadium was an outdoor football stadium in the southern United States on the campus of Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana. It stood from 1926 to 1980 and was officially the Third Tulane Stadium, following the "Second Tulane Stadium", which was located where the Telephone Exchange Building is now.

The former site is currently bound by Willow Street to the south, Ben Weiner Drive to the east, the Tulane University property line west of McAlister Place, and the Hertz Basketball/Volleyball Practice Facility and the Green Wave's current home, Yulman Stadium, to the north.

Tulane Stadium hosted the Sugar Bowl through December 1974 and three of the first nine Super Bowls, in January 1970, 1972, and 1975.

Opening
The stadium was opened in 1926 with a seating capacity of roughly 35,000—the lower level of the final configuration's sideline seats. Tulane Stadium was built on Tulane University's campus (before 1871, Tulane's campus was a backwoods portion of Paul Foucher's property, where on a plantation closer to the river, Foucher's father-in-law, Étienne de Boré, had first granulated sugar from cane syrup).

Since the institution of the annual Sugar Bowl game, Tulane Stadium itself was often informally referred to locally as "the Sugar Bowl". It was also billed as "The Queen of Southern Stadiums". It was in a portion of Tulane University's main campus in Uptown New Orleans fronting Willow Street, with parking stretching to Claiborne Avenue. The original 1926 structure was mostly of brick and concrete.

Track and field
Track meets were once held in the stadium.

The institution of the annual Sugar Bowl game
The first Sugar Bowl game was played at the stadium on January 1, 1935, matching host Tulane against the Temple Owls from Philadelphia. The term "Sugar Bowl" had been coined by Fred Digby, sports editor of the New Orleans Item, who had been pushing for an annual New Year's Day football game since 1927.

Seating expansion
The Sugar Bowl proved to be a hit, and in response the north end was enclosed in 1937, creating a 49,000-seat horseshoe. In 1939, the north end and sides were double-decked, expanding capacity to 69,000. The south end was enclosed in 1947, expanding capacity to 80,735. A seating adjustment in 1955 brought the stadium to its final capacity of 80,985.

In its final configuration, the stadium included four concrete and steel sections (separated at the corners of the field), with a short steel upper deck wrapping around the sides and north end of the stadium. The press box was located on the western side of the field, and the main gate (pictured above) was at the southern end of the field facing Willow Street. The support structure for the upper deck was entirely open, exposing the ramps and lattice work, and hiding the original brick facade underneath with the exception of the Willow Street end of the stadium. Lights were installed in 1957.

The record attendance for the stadium was set on December 1, 1973, when 86,598 watched Tulane defeat in-state rival LSU 14–0, ending a 25-year winless streak for the Green Wave against the Bayou Bengals. It was the last installment of the LSU–Tulane rivalry played on the Tulane campus. Thirty days later, a Sugar Bowl-record crowd of 85,161 watched Notre Dame edge Alabama 24–23 in the first meeting between the traditional powers, allowing the Fighting Irish to capture the Associated Press national championship (the Crimson Tide was voted champion by the United Press International coaches poll, which did not take a poll after bowl games until the next season).

Final Tulane and Sugar Bowl games
Almost exactly one year later, Tulane Stadium hosted its final Green Wave game, a 26–10 loss to Ole Miss on November 30, 1974 (the game was originally scheduled to be the season opener for both teams, but was postponed due anticipated bad weather from Hurricane Carmen). Tulane would not play another on-campus game until Yulman Stadium opened in 2014.

One month after the Ole Miss–Tulane game, Nebraska won the final college game in the stadium, defeating Florida 13–10 in the Sugar Bowl on December 31.

As the home of the New Orleans Saints
In addition to hosting Tulane University football games and the Sugar Bowl, the stadium was also home to the National Football League's New Orleans Saints for the first seven years of the franchise, from 1967 through 1974. The Saints' first home game was a 27-13 loss to the Los Angeles Rams on September 17, 1967, although New Orleans provided fans with a memorable highlight when John Gilliam returned the opening kickoff 94 yards for a touchdown. The Saints won their last game in the stadium, 14-0 over the St. Louis Cardinals on December 8, 1974.

The largest crowd for a Saints game at Tulane Stadium came on November 26, 1967 when 83,437 fans showed up for the first meeting of the Saints-Falcons Rivalry, which the Saints won 27-24.

As the site of the Super Bowl
Tulane Stadium was the site of three early Super Bowls: IV, VI, and IX. Super Bowl IX was the final professional league game ever played at the stadium. The stadium hosted the two coldest outdoor Super Bowls, Super Bowl VI on January 16, 1972, at 39 F; and Super Bowl IX on January 12, 1975, at 46 F. Super Bowl IX had been originally scheduled to be played in the Superdome, but it was unfinished.

Tom Dempsey's 63-yard field goal
Aside from the various bowls, the most memorable moment at the stadium might have been the Saints victory over the Detroit Lions on November 8, 1970. In the NFL prior to the 1974 season, the goal posts were on the goal line instead of the end line. With seconds remaining, the Saints attempted a place kick with the holder spotting at the Saints' own 37-yard line. Kicker Tom Dempsey nailed the 63-yard field goal with a couple of feet to spare, and the Saints won the game 19-17, one of only two games the Saints won that year. That record would stand alone for 28 years before it was tied by Jason Elam of the Denver Broncos, Sebastian Janikowski of the Oakland Raiders, and David Akers of the San Francisco 49ers. Late in the 2013 NFL season, Denver Broncos kicker Matt Prater broke the shared record with a 64-yard field goal against the Tennessee Titans. On September 26, 2021, Baltimore Ravens kicker Justin Tucker set a new NFL record, hitting a 66-yard field goal on the final play of the game, beating the Detroit Lions 19-17.

Usage following the opening of the Louisiana Superdome
In 1975, the day the new Louisiana Superdome was opened, Tulane Stadium was condemned. Upon appeal by the University, the older concrete and brick section was deemed fit to use. However, the newer metal upper deck was declared unsafe. It had rusted badly due to 36 years of exposure to New Orleans' humid climate. The stadium then continued in more limited use for five years with the smaller seating area, used for football practice, high-school games, and other smaller events.

John Curtis Christian School won Louisiana High School Athletic Association Class AA state championship games at the stadium in 1977 and '78.

ZZ Top played Tulane Stadium during its Worldwide Texas Tour July 17, 1976. Fans rioted and threw objects at police officers, prompting Tulane to ban any future concerts on campus, a ban which has extended to Yulman Stadium. Twelve years prior, Tulane refused to host The Beatles on their second U.S. tour, forcing the band to play at the smaller City Park Stadium.

The Denver Broncos used Tulane Stadium as its practice facility prior to Super Bowl XII, the first Super Bowl played in the Superdome.

Tulane Stadium's final game
The last game played in the stadium prior to its demolition was between New Orleans Catholic League teams Chalmette High School and Jesuit High School on November 3, 1979. The final touchdown was on a 9-yard pass from Keith Mason to Craig Stieber with 4:08 remaining, helping Chalmette win by 23-9.

Demolition
On November 2, 1979, Tulane President Sheldon Hackney announced that the stadium would be demolished. The demolition started on November 18, 1979 and ended in June 1980. While the storage areas underneath the seating in the stadium were being emptied prior to demolition, various neglected University possessions were rediscovered, including an Ancient Egyptian mummy couple.

The site of the former stadium is now home to the Aron and Willow student housing complexes, the Diboll parking structure, the Reily Student-Recreation Center and Brown Quad.

Tulane Stadium is one of eight stadiums that had hosted a Super Bowl game which are no longer standing. Tampa Stadium, which hosted two Super Bowls, was demolished in April 1999; Stanford Stadium, which hosted one Super Bowl, was demolished and redeveloped in 2005–06; the Orange Bowl, which hosted five Super Bowls, was demolished in May 2008 with LoanDepot Park, the home ballpark of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball, built on its site; the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, which hosted one Super Bowl, was demolished in March 2014 with its replacement, U.S. Bank Stadium, which itself hosted one Super Bowl to date, built on its site; the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, which hosted two Super Bowls, was demolished in November 2017; the Pontiac Silverdome in suburban Detroit, which hosted one Super Bowl, was demolished a few months after the Georgia Dome in March 2018; and San Diego Stadium, which hosted three Super Bowls, was demolished in March 2021.

Original Tulane Stadium
The Tulane football team played in the "Original Tulane Stadium" or "First Tulane Stadium" starting in 1909. The final season the team played at the stadium was the 1916 season.

Second Tulane Stadium
The Tulane football team played in the "Second Tulane Stadium", where the Telephone Exchange Building is now located, starting in 1917. Contemporaneous maps are difficult to locate but a Sanborn map in the Library of Congress digital archives indicates the stadium and track were located at present day Monroe Quad and surrounding buildings. The final season the team played at the stadium was the 1925 season. The stadium also hosted high school football games.

Soul Bowl '70
The Soul Bowl was a concert held at Tulane Stadium on October 24, 1970. It was sponsored by Tulane University to aid black and minority students. All proceeds were administered by the university's student faculty Committee on Expanding Educational Opportunity. The concert had an estimated attendance of over 25,000 during its six hours of soul music performed by some of the top soul acts of that era. The performers included James Brown, Isaac Hayes movement, The Ike & Tina Turner Revue, Jr. Walker and the All Stars, Pacific Gas & Electric, and Rare Earth.

title: Tulane Stadium


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User:ExpatEgghead

I have recently started to add entries to Wikipedia, primarily to annoy my relatives and friends who doubt its utility and accuracy. As time permits, I shall try and do more. I shall also study harder to learn the difference between an indefinite article and the definite article. Mea cupla.

title: User:ExpatEgghead


text:
Jeremiah Day

Jeremiah Day (August 3, 1773 – August 22, 1867) was an American academic, a Congregational minister and President of Yale College (1817–1846).

Early life
Day was the son of Rev. Jeremiah and Abigail (Noble) Osborn Day, who were descendants of Robert Day, who came from Ipswich, England in 1634, settled in Newtown Cambridge, Massachusetts, and later became one of the original proprietors of Hartford, Connecticut. He was born in the parish of New Preston, Connecticut, then a part of New Milford, but since 1779, of Washington, where his father was pastor of the Congregational Church.

One of the latter's theological pupils, David Hale, brother of Nathan, first instructed Day, and later he continued his preparation for college under John Kingsbury of Waterbury, Connecticut. He entered Yale College in 1789, left because of pulmonary trouble in 1791, reentered in 1793, having taught school in the meantime, and graduated in 1795. While at Yale, he was a member of the Linonian Society.

Career
Day then succeeded Timothy Dwight IV [q.v.], as principal of the academy which the latter had established at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, but soon left there to become tutor at Williams College. Two years later Day accepted a similar position at Yale. On June 3, 1800, he was licensed to preach by the New Haven West Association of Ministers. During all this time Day had been suffering from tuberculosis, and in July 1801 a hemorrhage brought on by the exertion of preaching caused him to go to Bermuda where he spent nearly a year. Upon his return Day went to his father's home with little expectation of recovery, but life among the Connecticut hills arrested the disease, and in the summer of 1803 he undertook the duties of the professorship of mathematics and natural philosophy at Yale to which he had been elected shortly after his departure for Bermuda. On January 14, 1805, Day married Martha, the daughter of the Hon. Roger Sherman and Rebecca Minot Prescott, they had one son child Sherman Day. Martha died in 1806 and on September 24, 1811, Jeremiah married Olivia, daughter of Major Daniel and Olive (Tinker) Jones of Hartford, Connecticut. Day was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1813.

For sixty-nine years Day was officially connected with Yale College. On April 22, 1817, he was appointed president, succeeding Timothy Dwight, and was both installed and ordained to the ministry on July 23. In his seventy-fourth year Day insisted on resigning, but was immediately elected a member of the corporation, in which office he served until a month before his death, which occurred just after the completion of his ninety-fourth year. In 1835, Day had been urged to become head of Andover Theological Seminary, but had declined.

Never strong, and after 1836 subject to attacks of angina pectoris, Day prolonged his life by self-knowledge and moderation in all things. He was a man of dignity and extreme reserve. Although, as described by Timothy Dwight V, the younger, "he was a wise disciplinarian, a judicious governor, a thorough and accurate scholar, a valuable teacher, and a man of intelligent and penetrative mind," his influence was due chiefly to his goodness and his reputation for deep wisdom. Day combined serenity, self-control, modesty, and unselfishness in such a degree that all of the 2,500 students who had been under him, according to President Theodore Dwight Woolsey, would have unquestionably declared him the best man they had ever known. As president, Day built slowly on the foundation laid by his predecessor. Stability, conservatism, and great caution were his conspicuous characteristics. Improvements that were made were generally suggested by others. Outside of Connecticut he was known principally through his textbooks. In 1814, Day published An Introduction to Algebra, which went through many editions. This was followed by works on trigonometry, geometry, and the mathematical principles of navigation and surveying. After 1820, Day taught mental and moral philosophy, and in 1838 published An Inquiry Respecting the Self-determining Power of the Will and A Course of Mathematics containing The Principles of Plane Trigonometry, Mensuration, Navigation and Surveying; and in 1841 An Examination of President Edwards's Inquiry on the Freedom of the Will. He also contributed numerous articles to periodicals, and published a few sermons. Dat was responsible for the publication of "The Yale Report of 1828" defending the classical curriculum.

title: Jeremiah Day