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Cold-weather warfare

Cold-weather warfare, also known as arctic warfare or winter warfare, encompasses military operations affected by snow, ice, thawing conditions, or cold, both on land and at sea, as well as the strategies and tactics used by military forces in these situations and environments.

Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or latitudes, and elsewhere materialize seasonally during the winter period. Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow, such as the Alps and the Himalayas. Historically, most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow, ice, and cold may occur throughout the year.

At times, cold—or its aftermath, thaw—has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign, as with the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II.

History
Northern and Eastern Europe were the venues for some well-documented winter campaigns. During World War II several actions took place above the Arctic Circle. Recent cold-weather conflicts have occurred in the Himalayas.

Pre–1800
In 1242, the Teutonic Order lost the Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipus to Novgorod. In 1520, the decisive Battle of Bogesund between Sweden and Denmark occurred on the ice of lake Åsunden.

In 1643 or 1644, Prince Rupert made an abortive attack on the Parliamentarian stronghold of Aylesbury England. 500 men are reported to have frozen to death on 21 January. On 25 January a sudden thaw caused a bridge to collapse over the River Weaver, splitting Royalist cavalry forces at the Battle of Nantwich resulting in their defeat.

The 1557 Siege of Katsurayama was fought between the forces of the Japanese daimyō Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin as part of the Kawanakajima campaigns. Katsurayama castle was a strategically vital Uesugi stronghold in the contested Shinano Province and, when it was isolated from reinforcements due to late snow in early 1557, the Takeda clan used this opportunity to seize it under Baba Nobuharu, shielded from view by heavy snowfall.

Sweden and Denmark fought several wars during the 16th and 17th centuries. As a great deal of Denmark consists of islands, it was usually safe from invasion, but in January 1658, most of the Danish waters froze. Charles X Gustav of Sweden led his army across the ice of the Belts to besiege Copenhagen. The war ended with the treaty of Roskilde, a treaty very favorable to the Swedish.

During the Great Northern War, Swedish king Charles XII set off to invade Moscow, but was eventually defeated at the Battle of Poltava after being weakened by cold weather and scorched earth tactics. Sweden suffered more casualties during the same war as Carl Gustaf Armfeldt with 6,000 men tried to invade Trondheim. Three thousand of them died of exposure in the snow during the Carolean Death March.

19th century
During the Finnish War, the Russian army unexpectedly crossed the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Finland to Åland and, by 19 March 1809, reached the Swedish shore within 70 km from the Swedish capital, Stockholm. This daring maneuvre decided the outcome of the war.

Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 resulted in retreat in the face of winter with the majority of the French army succumbing to frostbite and starvation, rather than combat injuries.

The Battle of Weihaiwei was a battle of the First Sino-Japanese War in the winter of 1895 in Weihai, Shandong, China between the forces of the Japan and Qing China. Through a well coordinated offensive of both naval and land forces, hampered by snow and cold, the Japanese destroyed the forts on shore and sank much of the Chinese fleet.

World War I

During the First World War, soldiers on the Western front involved in trench warfare were forced to deal with freezing conditions, trench foot, frostbite, and disease. The winter of 1916-17 was exceptionally cold, which caused great hardship and deaths among the soldiers. Equipment and vehicles also were not suited for the freezing conditions.

At the Battle of Sarikamish, Ottoman troops were unprepared for winter fighting and suffered major losses, with 25,000 freezing to death before the battle even began.

On the Italian front, fighting bogged down in trench warfare but at mountain elevations. On White Friday, thousands of troops from both sides were killed in avalanches in the Dolomites.

World War II
The Finnish Army used ski troops during the Winter War and the Second World War in which the numerically-superior but road-bound Soviet forces were vulnerable to attack by mobile, white-clad ski troops, approaching from untracked, frozen terrain.

The Wehrmacht maintained elite mountain troops, Gebirgsjäger. They were organized in small, specialized units, which relied on pack animals. Typical weapons were light machine guns, mortars, and anti-tank guns. Control of ridge lines was paramount, using a limited number of outposts. They operated on the principles of fewer arms, but more ammunition per weapon and the economical use thereof.

In Operation Barbarossa in 1941, both Russian and German soldiers had to endure terrible conditions during the Russian winter. The German-Finnish joint offensive against Murmansk (Operation Silver Fox) in 1941 saw heavy fighting in the Arctic environment. Subsequently, the Petsamo-Kirkenes Operation conducted by the Soviet Army against the Wehrmacht in 1944 in northern Finland and Norway drove the Germans out. In late 1944, Finland turned against its former cobelligerents of Nazi Germany under Soviet pressure and pressured the Germans to withdraw in the ensuing Lapland War. While use of ski infantry was common in the Soviet Army, Germany formed only one division for movement on skis. From June 1942 to August 1943, the United States and Canada fought the Japanese in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in the Alaska Territory.

In the Arctic
The following actions were fought in the Arctic by land and naval forces in World War II between 1941 and 1945 in the following theaters of operations:

Finland – The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Finland. It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after the outbreak of World War II, and ended three and a half months later with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940.

In the Battle of Suomussalmi, Finns leveraged cold weather to disadvantage the Soviet enemy troops by targeting field kitchens and campfires for their attacks, thereby denying those troops warmth and nutrition. The Finns rotated their troops so that they could regularly return to warm shelters to recuperate after an attack or patrol. Heavy Soviet equipment and their associated troops were restricted to roads, while Finnish ski troops had broad mobility to outflank the enemy. The threat of Finnish snipers, whom the Russians called "cuckoos", further demoralized the Soviets. The Finns mined ice routes over lakes to sink Soviet equipment.

The Lapland War was fought between Finland and Germany from September 1944 to April 1945 in Finland's northernmost Lapland Province. It included:
 * Operation Birke (birch) was a German operation late in World War II in Finnish Lapland to protect access to nickel.
 * Operation Nordlicht (northern lights) was a German scorched-earth retreat operation in Finland during the end of World War II.
 * The Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive was a major military offensive during World War II, mounted by the Soviet Army against the Wehrmacht in 1944 in northern Finland and Norway.

Norway – The liberation of Finnmark was a military operation, lasting from 23 October 1944 until 26 April 1945, in which Soviet and Norwegian forces wrestled away control of Finnmark, the northernmost county of Norway, from Germany. It started with a major Soviet offensive that liberated Kirkenes.

Northern Russia – Operation Silver Fox was a joint German–Finnish military operation offensive during World War II. It failed to achieve its main goal to cut off and ultimately capture the key Soviet port at Murmansk through attacks from Finnish and Norwegian territory.

Spitsbergen – Operation Gauntlet was a Combined Operations raid by Canadian troops, with British Army logistics support and Free Norwegian Forces servicemen on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, 600 mi south of the North Pole, from 25 August to 3 September 1941. Operation Fritham was a Norwegian military operation, based from British soil, that had the goal of securing the rich coal mines on the island of Spitsbergen (a part of Svalbard) and denying their use to Nazi Germany. Operation Zitronella (Citronella) was an eight-hour German raid on Spitzbergen on 8 September 1943. This marks the highest latitude at which a land battle has ever been fought. However, given the extreme conditions, the German and Allied troops were at times compelled to assist each other to survive.

United States – The Aleutian Islands Campaign was a campaign conducted by both the United States and Imperial Japan from 3 June 1942 to 15 August 1943 in Attu and Kiska, part of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska during World War II.

Post World War II
The Battle of Chosin Reservoir was a stark example of cold affecting military operations in the Korean War. There were many cold injuries and malfunctions of materiel, both vehicles and weapons.

The Sino-Indian War was a Himalayan border conflict between China and India that occurred in 1962. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border in 1961. China launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theaters. Much of the fighting took place in harsh mountain conditions, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres (14,000 feet). Many troops on both sides succumbed to the freezing cold temperatures.

Argentine troops suffered from cold-wet conditions, holding positions in the 1982 Falklands War.

The Siachen conflict is a military confrontation between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. The conflict began in 1984 with India's successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003.

Historical lessons learned
Paton offered a 2001 overview of human factors pertaining to cold in military operations. The understanding of cold injuries evolved in the 19th and 20th centuries; understanding of the causes and treatment of frostbite and trench foot improved. In the Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese learned the importance of foot care, keeping feet dry and warm with replacement socks. In World War I, doctors realized that trench foot was a prolonged exposure to cold, wet conditions on the feet, which were exacerbated by the use of tight puttees, bandage-like leg wrappings.

The Soviet invasion of Finland during the Winter War showed the power of asymmetric warfare on the Finnish side, where small units were able to cut the road-bound Soviet invading troops into segments, like firewood, and vanquish each segment. The small units arrived silently on skis or with light artillery pulled by reindeer over frozen, untracked terrain, using winter conditions as an advantage. Although the Soviet Union gained territory from the Finns, it was at the cost of 200,000 fatalities against 25,000 on the Finnish side.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union induced more than 250,000 cold injuries in one year. The French Army occupying the Maginot Line experienced 12,000 cold injuries. Experiences from the disastrous 1941 German advance on Moscow in winter conditions led to the 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg ("Pocket book for Winter War"), which highlighted ideal approaches to handling winter, but acknowledged that improvisation in the field would be necessary when supplies were lacking. The Soviet troops in that period had felt-lined boots and quilted uniforms, but the Germans continued fighting in their summer uniforms.

German handbook
The Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg manual contains sections on the influence and duration of winter, the seasons of mud and thaw, preparation for winter warfare, winter combat methods and maintaining morale, including the use of reading material, lectures, movies, and "strength through joy" exercises. Other sections cover marches, the maintenance of roads, winter bivouacs and shelter, construction of winter positions, camouflage and concealment, identification of the enemy, clothing, rations, evacuation of the wounded, care and use of weapons and equipment, signal communication, and winter mobility. The manual was designed to provide information at the officer level for indoctrination of troops via the non-commissioned officer ranks. The scope of the manual is to train troops in the following areas:

 * Protection of personnel, vehicles and weapons against snow and cold
 * Training personnel to be hardened against the conditions encountered and able to improvise shelter from found materials
 * Mobility on skis, winter roads, ice crossings, and conversion of wheeled vehicles into tracked versions
 * Construction of positions and obstacles in frozen terrain
 * Combat in deep snow and severe cold

Some highlights include addressing:

 * Human factors – Providing the right level of clothing to maintain agility and avoid overheating. Maintaining a slow, steady marching pace to avoid chilling down in the wind. Boosting morale with up-to-date newspapers from home and nearby areas. Providing improvised shelters and bivouacs. Hygiene, emphasizing cleanliness.
 * Mobility – Setting up and maintaining winter roads and trails. Warming up engines for reliable starting.
 * Positions and fortifications – Using logs and snow as materials to provide trenches and gun emplacements.
 * Care of equipment – Keeping equipment dry, when possible, and substituting low-temperature lubricants for oils and hydraulic fluids.

Soviet experience
The Soviet Army learned from its 1939–40 Winter War experiences and the 1941 German advance on Moscow. The high command realized that it must prepare entire divisions for winter warfare in 1942, beginning with warm uniforms, winter equipment (skis, etc.), and training for winter operations. Analysis of previous experiences resulted in a series of manuals that covered flight, engineer, and combat arms operations in winter. Issues covered included:

 * Flight operations – Reduced daylight, snow drifting, cold temperatures impeded the added need for air transport.
 * Engineer operations – Engineer troops build new roadways, airfields, water crossings, and encampments with water supply. They destroy obstacles, requiring engineering equipment. Regular troops entrench tanks, construct tank obstacles, and build simple shelters.
 * Combat arms operations – Addressing the German methods of defense with automatic weapons strongholds, supplemented with mines, wires, and anti-tank obstacles. Against these, the Russians used coordinated massed fire.

In his 1981 paper, Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies, Chew draws on experiences from the Allied-Soviet War in Northern Russia during the Winter of 1918–19, the destruction of the Soviet 44th Motorized Rifle Division, and Nazi–Soviet Warfare during World War II to derive winter warfare factors pertaining to military tactics, materiel and personnel:

 * Tactics – Defensive positions are highly advantageous because of the ability to maintain warmth and protection, compared to attacking in extreme cold. Mobility and logistical support are often restricted by snow, requiring plowing or compacting it to accommodate wide-tracked vehicles or sleds. Infantry movement in deep snow requires skis or snowshoes to avoid exhaustion. Sound carries well over crusted snow, diminishing the element of surprise. Explosives are useful for excavating foxholes and larger shelters in frozen ground. Attacking field kitchens and encampments deprives the enemy of food and shelter. Rapid removal of the wounded from the battlefield is essential to their survival in the cold.
 * Materiel – Weapons and vehicles require special lubricants to operate at low temperatures. Mines are unreliable in winter, owing to deep snow that may cushion the fuse or form an ice bridge over the detonator.
 * Personnel – Proper winter clothing is required to maintain body heat and to avoid such cold injuries as frostbite. Troop efficiency and survival requires either making use of available shelter or providing portable shelter.

Land operations
Operational factors encompass planning for the climate and weather in which military operations are required with snow, ice, mud and cold being the primary considerations. Military tactics, materiel, combat engineering and military medicine all require specialized adaptations to the conditions encountered in cold weather.

Cold and mountainous regions
In its 2016 "Mountain Warfare and Cold Weather Operations" manual, the United States Army defines cold regions as "where cold temperatures, unique terrain, and snowfall have a significant effect on military operations for one month or more each year." It describes regions that are either severely cold or moderately cold, each comprising approximately one quarter of the Earth's land mass.
 * Severely cold – Where mean annual air temperatures stay below freezing, maximum snow depths exceed 60 cm, and ice covers lakes and rivers for more than 180 days each year.
 * Moderately cold – Where the mean temperatures during the coldest month are below freezing.

The manual also delineates the principal mountain ranges of the world, which lie along broad belts which encircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into North Africa. Secondarily, rugged chains of mountains lie along the Atlantic margins of the Americas and Europe.

Weather conditions
Temperature, wind, snow, and thaw are the primary conditions that affect the winter battlescape.

Temperature
The U.S. Army groups cold temperatures using categories. The temperature categories are (with quoted summaries): The combined cooling effect of ambient temperature and wind (wind chill) is an important factor that affects troops.
 * Wet cold – From 39 to 20 F. Wet cold conditions occur when wet snow and rain often accompany wet cold conditions. This type of environment is more dangerous to troops and equipment than the colder, dry cold environments because the ground becomes slushy and muddy and clothing and equipment becomes perpetually wet and damp.
 * Dry cold – From 19 to -4 F. Dry cold conditions are easier to live in than wet cold conditions. Like in wet cold conditions, proper equipment, training and leadership are critical to successful operations. Wind chill is a complicating factor in this type of cold. The dry cold environment is the easiest of the four cold weather categories to survive in because of low humidity and the ground remains frozen. As a result, people and equipment are not subject to the effects of the thawing and freezing cycle, and precipitation is generally in the form of dry snow.
 * Intense cold – From -5 to -25 F. This temperature range can affect the mind as much as the body. Simple tasks take longer and require more effort than in warmer temperatures and the quality of work degrades as attention-to-detail diminishes. Clothing becomes more bulky to compensate for the cold so troops lose dexterity. Commanders consider these factors when planning operations and assigning tasks.
 * Extreme cold – From -25 to -40 F. In extreme cold the challenge of survival becomes paramount as personnel withdraw into themselves. Weapons, vehicles and munitions are likely to fail in this environment.
 * Hazardous cold – From -40 F and below. Units require extensive training before operating in these temperature extremes.

Snow

For military purposes, the U.S. Army categorizes snow as light, moderate, or heavy. Each classification affects visibility and ground movement due to accumulation and is quoted below: Snow and snowdrifts can create advantages on the battlefield by filling in ditches and vehicle tracks and flattening the terrain. It also creates hollows on the downwind side of obstacles, such as trees, buildings, and bushes, which provide observation points or firing positions. Snowdrifts may provide cover for soldiers to approach an objective. Soviet Army doctrine cited 30 cm as the threshold snow depth that impairs mobility for troops, cavalry and vehicles, except tanks for which the threshold was 50 cm.
 * Light snow – Visibility is equal to or greater than 5/8 mile in falling snow. A trace to 1 in per hour accumulates.
 * Moderate snow – Visibility is 5/16 to 1/2 mile in falling snow. 1 to 3 in per hour accumulates.
 * Heavy snow – Visibility is less than 1/4 mile in falling snow. 3 in or more inches per hour accumulates.

Thaw
Thawing conditions can impair mobility and put soldiers at risk of trench foot by turning soil to mud; it can also weaken and break up ice cover on bodies of water. Maintaining roads becomes more difficult during spring-thaw run-off periods and requires mud removal by heavy equipment. Slushy and muddy ground causes clothing and equipment to become wet, damp and dirty. Muddy conditions greatly inhibited Napoleon's ability to maneuver in Russia in the autumn of 1812 and also the German attempt to take Moscow in the autumn of 1941.

The 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg acknowledges that neither tracked nor wheeled vehicles can maneuver during conditions of thaw and that aircraft operations must be constrained to concrete runways. It addresses minimizing the use of roads during this period and dismantling bridges that are likely to be taken out by ice floes. It emphasizes how positions in frozen soil must be improved to avoid deterioration from thaw and the necessity of changing uniforms from ones for cold to those for wet conditions.

Tactics
The dominant tactical concern in cold conditions is the ability to maneuver in vehicles or on foot. Additionally, during winter, night operations become the norm at higher latitudes with their long periods of darkness. Snow enhances night vision because of high reflectivity and the visibility of combatants against the white background.

Mounted movement
The German Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg emphasizes reconnaissance to ascertain the conditions and capacity of the roads to be used. It describes snow clearing from roads and recovery of bogged-down vehicles.

Soviet Army doctrine emphasized the use of sleds for transporting machine guns and mortars over snow, towed in a train by tracked tractors. It addressed the need to pre-heat tanks for use in winter and their application in advance of marching troops to take out enemy positions.

Finnish military doctrine calls for small-unit movements with Anti-tank guided missiles and multiple launch rocket systems to attack foreign forces that have entered the country.

U.S. Army guidance advocates that over snow-covered terrain, vehicles may be employed to establish and maintain trails by establishing a well concealed track with the first vehicle, followed by a vehicle traveling offset from the track of the first, to flatten the trail, and subsequent vehicles widening and flattening the trail. Marked trails avoid obliteration in snowstorms or drifting conditions. In mountainous terrain, tracked vehicles, including tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and cavalry fighting vehicles, rarely accompany dismounted infantry in the assault. Instead, they assist forces by occupying positions where they can use their firepower to isolate enemy objectives.

Dismounted movement
The German Taschenbuch describes preparation and conduct of marches and advocates maintaining slow, steady progress with brief stops to avoid exposure to the wind, and the provision of warm beverages by support vehicles along the way.

Soviet Army doctrine emphasized the use of ski troops for dismounted operations over snow.

U.S. Army guidance explains that troops moving in a wedge-like "column" formation travel more slowly, with no one breaking the trail in undisturbed snow, than the in-line file formation. Therefore, column formation is reserved for imminent enemy contact. As slope angle increases, the amount of travel time is likely to increase substantially.

Water crossings
The German Taschenbuch describes the assessment and reinforcement of ice crossings and also the opportunity to use them as tank traps by removing the ice and bridging the gap with a weak structure, disguised as reinforced ice. It offers the following guidance for crossing ice sheets:

The Soviet Army was an early adopter of a protocol for winter warfare. Its doctrine described the assessment and reinforcement of ice crossings and suggested the use of frozen lakes and rivers as expeditionary airfields, located close to the front to take advantage of short daylight hours in winter.

According to the U.S. Army, rivers found in cold regions may be major obstacles. Subarctic rivers usually have many braided channels and swift currents. During spring and early winter, rivers may become impassable due to freezing or thawing ice flows. Once firmly frozen, rivers may offer routes for both mounted and dismounted movement. Some swampy areas do not freeze solidly during the coldest periods of winter to support troop movements. Nonetheless, it is possible to construct "ice bridges" to thicken an iced-over waterway, using pumps or some other means of flooding the ice-covered area, when temperatures are below 10 °F and the pre-existing natural ice is thicker than 10 cm to support the construction activity.

Snow camouflage

Armies have made use of improvised and official snow camouflage uniforms and equipment since the First World War, such as in the fighting in the Dolomite Mountains between Austria-Hungary and Italy. Snow camouflage was used far more widely in the Second World War by the Wehrmacht, the Finnish Army, the Soviet Army and others. Since then, snow variants of disruptively patterned camouflage for uniforms have been introduced, sometimes with digital patterns. For example, the Bundeswehr has a Schneetarn (snow) variant of its widely used Flecktarn pattern.

Soviet Army doctrine emphasized the importance of camouflage over positions and the need to remove telltale signs of artillery actions, such as smoke stains or shell casings. It also cited the usefulness of decoy targets. It describes the establishment of breastworks made from snow 2 to 3 m thick, ice 1.5 m thick or soil and wood 0.9 m thick.

Materiel
Snow, ice and cold temperatures affect munitions and military vehicles.

Munitions – Snow, ice, frozen ground, and low temperatures affect mine-laying operations. Burying mines in a frost layer may be difficult, requiring mines to be placed on top of the ground and then camouflaged. Snow or ice may prevent detonation, owing to freezing the firing device or isolating from pressure above. This can be mitigated with plastic laid over the top of the mine.

Vehicles – Adaptations of military vehicles to winter operations include tire chains for maintaining traction of wheeled vehicles. Diesel engines start less well in cold and may require pre-heating or idling during cold periods. A variety of military vehicles have been developed for over-snow travel, including the Sisu Nasu, BvS 10, and M29 Weasel.

Military engineering
Military engineers design and construct transportation and troop-support facilities. In cold climates frozen ground can make digging difficult. Soviet Army doctrine gave them the responsibility to establish build and maintain routes, including water crossings, build and destroy obstacles that require special equipment, construct and maintain airfields, and to build shelter for personnel. Operations that didn't require special equipment were left to other troops. The Taschenbuch describes a variety of ways to employ local resources to create roads, shelters and fortifications.

Engineers provide roadways, landing zones, shelter, water supply and wastewater disposal, and electrical power to encampments. Roadway and landing zones require heavy equipment, which is more fatiguing to operate in the cold and necessary to protect from freezing. Snowstorms require cleanup and spring thaw requires management of thawed soil. Landing zones require stabilization of dust and snow to avoid blinding helicopter pilots. The U.S. Army has cold-weather adaptive kits for providing water and electrical utilities. The tactical engineer has limited options for providing a water supply; they are in order of ease of provision: drawing water from rivers or lakes, melting ice or snow, or drilling wells.

Water supply and treatment is especially challenging in the cold. U.S. Army tactical water purification systems require a winter kit operate between 32 and -25 F. Water storage may require heating. Water source exploitation may require augering through ice, if shaped charges are not available. The water distribution system can be subject to freezing and clogging from frazil ice. Where chemical treatment is used, it takes longer to dissolve in the treated water.

Medicine
Three types of cold injury can occur in the theater, hypothermia, trench foot, and frostbite in ascending amount of exposure to cold temperatures.

Hypothermia
Hypothermia occurs when the body core temperature drops below 35 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature and range from shivering and mental confusion to increased risk of the heart stopping. The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks, warm clothing and physical activity. In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended. People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently. In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful. In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is indicated along with the above measures. Rewarming is typically continued until a person's temperature is greater than 32 C. Adequate insulation from clothing is the best way to avoid hypothermia in the field.

Trench foot

Trench foot is a medical condition caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to damp, unsanitary, and cold conditions at temperatures as warm as 16 C for as few as 13 hours. Exposure to these environmental conditions causes deterioration and destruction of the capillaries and leads to morbidity of the surrounding flesh. Affected feet may become numb, affected by erythema (turning red) or cyanosis (turning blue) as a result of poor blood supply, and may begin emanating a decaying odour if the early stages of necrosis (tissue death) set in. As the condition worsens, feet may also begin to swell. Advanced trench foot often involves blisters and open sores, which lead to fungal infections. If left untreated, trench foot usually results in gangrene, which may require amputation. If trench foot is treated properly, complete recovery is normal, though it is marked by severe short-term pain when feeling returns. Trench foot affected tens of thousands of soldiers engaged in trench warfare in World War I. Keeping feet warm and dry, or at least changing into warm and dry replacement footgear, is the best way to avoid trench foot.

Frostbite
Frostbite is localized damage to skin and other tissues due to freezing. At or below 0 C, blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away from the extremities. The same response may also be a result of exposure to high winds. This constriction helps to preserve core body temperature. In extreme cold, or when the body is exposed to cold for long periods, this protective strategy can reduce blood flow in some areas of the body to dangerously low levels. This lack of blood leads to the eventual freezing and death of skin tissue in the affected areas. Frostbite was responsible for over one million casualties in wars in the 20th century. Adequate insulation from clothing is the best way to avoid hypothermia in the field.

Training by nation

The following nations report regular training programs in cold-weather warfare:
 * Canada – In 2008, the Canadian Forces established the Nanisivik Naval Facility, a winter warfare training center above the arctic circle in Resolute, Nunavut for annual exercises.
 * China – The People's Liberation Army trains annually in regions subject to harsh winter conditions. Lightly armed border patrol units are mounted on horseback or snowmobiles and are expected to provide early detection of incursion.
 * Finland – The Finnish Defence Forces train every conscript for skiing and Arctic warfare regardless of the branch, approximately 25,000 soldiers per year. Finland also trains U.S. Army students in Arctic warfare.

 * Germany – The Bundeswehr maintains its mountain troops in Bavaria. After the 2001 disbandment of the 1st Mountain Division, mountain troops were reorganized as the Gebirgsjägerbrigade 23 with a strength of 5,000 Troops.
 * India – The Indian Army trains 100 officers and 400 non-commissioned officers and junior commissioned officers annually, at its High Altitude Warfare School. Its graduates are assigned to the Siachen Glacier border garrison.
 * Iran – Members of the 65th Airborne Special Forces Brigade train for warfare on snow at their winter camp in Emamzadeh Hashem, Iran.
 * Italy - The Alpini are the Italian Army's specialist mountain infantry. Established in 1872, they are the oldest active mountain infantry in the world.
 * Japan – In the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Cold Weather Combat Training Unit (冬季戦技教育隊) is mandated for research and training for cold-weather warfare. The Winter Ranger Course (冬季遊撃課程), the advanced post-graduate ranger training for cold-weather warfare, is established by this unit.
 * Norway – Hosts an annual, multi-national winter exercise Cold Response course. In 2016, the participants came from Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, the United States, the United Kingdom and Norway.
 * Russian Federation – Russia trains combined forces in winter annually. In 2013, it held four winter readiness exercises under shorter-than-usual notice, according to Wilk: A February exercise with seven thousand soldiers, several hundred fighting vehicles and 48 aircraft and helicopters and three March exercises, one using seven thousand soldiers, 250 fighting vehicles, 50 artillery units, 20 aircraft and helicopters as well as 36 warships. Training occurs at the Far Eastern Higher Combined Arms Command School in Blagoveshchensk in the Amur Oblast of eastern Russia. The school covers mountain and Arctic warfare and qualifies officers as "Commanders of Motorized Rifle Platoons (Arctic)".
 * Sweden - Since 1999 Sweden has operated the Swedish Armed Forced Winter Unit as apart of the Norrbotten Regiment in northern Sweden. The unit acts as the Swedish centre of knowledge regarding arctic warfare and is responsible for the development and training of arctic warfare doctrine. In 2024, an officer of the unit (Fredrik Flink) was awarded the Defense Meritorious Service Medal from the United States Special Operations Command for his role in training and developing arctic warfare doctrine for the 10th Special Forces Group.
 * United Kingdom – Royal Navy sailors and Royal Marines train in Norway above the Arctic Circle. The Royal Marines Mountain Leader Training Cadre is the UK premier cold-weather troop detachment.
 * United States – The U.S. military maintains cold-weather and mountain warfare training centers at the Army Northern Warfare Training Center at Fort Wainwright, Fairbanks, Alaska, the Army Mountain Warfare School at Camp Ethan Allen, Jericho, Vermont, the Special Forces Command Mountaineering Warfare Training Detachment at Fort Carson, Colorado Springs, Colorado, the U.S. Air Force Arctic Survival School at Eielson AFB, Alaska, and the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center, in Bridgeport, California.
 * Equipment used in cold-weather training exercises

Naval operations

Subfreezing conditions have significant implications for naval operations. The 1988 U.S. Navy Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships outlines effects on: icing on the topsides of ships, ship systems, underway replenishment, flight operations, and personnel. It also discusses preparations for cold-weather fleet operations.

Topside icing on ships
Topside icing is a serious hazard to ships operating in sub-freezing temperatures. Thick layers of ice can form on decks, sides, superstructures, deck mounted machinery, antennas and combat systems. The presence of topside ice has many adverse effects, principally it:
 * Increases ship displacement
 * Decreases freeboard
 * Impairs operation of deck machinery
 * Impedes personnel movement on deck
 * Restricts helicopter operations
 * Disrupts operation of radio and radars

Combat systems degradation
Icing may prevent a warship from conducting any type of offensive operations, including restraining the doors of a vertical launch systems, binding gears, shafts, hinges and pedestals. Other effects include sluggish performance of lubricants, increased failure rate of seals, plugs and O-rings, frozen magazine sprinkler systems, excessively long warm-up times for electronics or weapon system electronics, and freeze up of compressed-air-operated components.

Arctic operations
Global climate change has opened the waters of the Arctic along the northern shores of Alaska, Russia and Canada. The region is rich in natural resources. Countries abutting the Arctic Ocean have shown greater military patrol activity. The Military Times reported in 2015 that Russia had reactivated ten military bases, had increased surface ship and aircraft patrols of its Northern Fleet, and had conducted missile tests in the region. The U.S. Navy plans to have sufficient assets by 2030 to respond militarily in the Arctic. As of 2015, it conducted regular submarine patrols, but few air or surface ship operations. Russia had twelve ice breakers versus two for the U.S.. As of 2013, Canada had six ice breakers. In 2016, Canada announced the building of five ice-breaking Arctic and offshore patrol ships.

title: Cold-weather warfare


text:
Talk:George Smitherman

Untitled
Article seems a bit too glowing in its description. After all, I don't think I recall any time when a "Furious George" reference was ever meant to be taken in a positive light.

Smitherman as Deputy Premier?
My understanding is that this position has remained vacant since the Liberals formed government in 2003. Smitherman is *not* listed as Deputy Premier on the Ontario legislature page, and I can distinctly remember some rumours that Sandra Pupatello was annoyed at the time that the position was unfilled.

Smitherman may be the "de facto" Deputy Premier in the legislature, but I don't believe he's been given an official title. If anyone has evidence to the contrary, please provide a source. CJCurrie 02:13, 22 May 2005 (UTC)

Yes, Smitherman has officially been Deputy Premier for years -- it's just that he has also held a regular ministerial portfolio at the same time (health, energy, etc.) -- see http://www.premier.gov.on.ca/team/default.asp?Lang=EN --204.40.1.129 (talk) 14:15, 9 October 2009 (UTC)

Assessment
I have assessed this article as a Start, although just barely, given its level of detail and attempts at organization. I have assessed this article as low importance, as I do not feel that many people outside of Canada would be familiar with the subject of this article. Cheers, CP 23:37, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

lead paragraph
Clean-up tag; please remove when lead paragraph iswell sourced. The 1 source/link doesn't seem to work. Definitely needs much more substance and more cited sources, I think, in the lead paragraph. Mr.Grantevans2 (talk) 20:43, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

ehealth scandal omission and other pov problems
Toronto Star: eHealth scandal dents Smitherman's mayoral run EHealth needs a section for sure, and "defeat" drug addiction is a pretty positive and final way of putting it. I'll be back to help with this later. Mr.Grantevans2 (talk) 18:49, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

The page has been edited several times to reference the eHealth scandal, but these references are deleted very quickly by someone, perhaps the subject's campaign managers? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.36.45.176 (talk) 23:47, 5 May 2010 (UTC)

"Cocaine" Vandalism
I'm not watching this BLP but some Anon keeps reinserting a reference to "cocaine" which is not part of the RS. Mr.Grantevans2 (talk) 15:30, 18 April 2010 (UTC)
 * If it becomes too frequent you (we) can always request protection for the article. For now just keep reverting. Thanks. EncyclopediaUpdaticus (talk) 20:08, 18 April 2010 (UTC)

Notable?
I put this in but CJCurrie and EncyclopediaUpdaticus do not think its notable enough: any other opinions?

"Smitherman missed a mayoral debate on September 30th. after being confronted with protesters who questioned him regarding his performance as Health Minister. Rocco Rossi capitalized on the incident, saying in a statement: "What does it say about Mr. Smitherman’s credibility when he literally runs from his record? ... You don’t earn trust by running from the tough questions."  " Mr.Grantevans2 (talk) 19:38, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

Controversy section
Regarding this section I removed. There is negative material in there that is not properly sourced; for example, the first two sentences. The cited articles from the Toronto Sun and the Globe & Mail discuss the eHealth scandal without mentioning Smitherman, which appears to be an argument against inclusion here. The topic is already covered in the section on "Provincial politics" anyway, which is probably enough without running afoul of WP:UNDUE. Any other opinions? Thanks. Paul Erik (talk) (contribs) 18:21, 22 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Note: I requested review from Biographies of living persons/Noticeboard. Paul Erik  (talk) (contribs) 19:27, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

Spouse v. Husband
In the sentence "On September 26, 2009, the Toronto Star reported that Smitherman and his spouse had been approved as adoptive parents by the Toronto Children's Aid Society.", the word 'spouse' should be replaced with 'husband'. In English we usually refer to one's married partner as either 'husband' or 'wife'. In my opinion, referring to "his spouse" is wrong, as it has a homophobic I-don't-want-to-say-his-husband-type air to it. You wouldn't say "her spouse?" if it was a woman married to man would you? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.196.180.76 (talk) 04:38, 26 March 2013 (UTC)
 * In this case I suggest you read the Wikipedia page for spouse. You can also refer to the Free Dictionary definition, as good a definition as any. Both sources agree that the word 'spouse' is interchangeable, gender-neutral and implies no bias. Lastly, the source uses the 'spouse' so that's a good reason for keeping it as is. EncyclopediaUpdaticus (talk) 11:59, 26 March 2013 (UTC)

Ottawa Canada CFRA talk radio show on Ontario Hydro and wind power production
Lowell Green and Rob Snow -- 3 PM show host Rob Snow indicated that the average wholesale price per megawatt hour during the prior day ranged between 2 cents (at 3 AM) to 50 dollars each (during peak demand times), averaging about 18 dollars per megawatt hour for the day. The rate for surplus wholesale power trading are established on a 5 minute basis and published on a web site where hourly reports are available. The green energy program developed by George Smitherman supposedly pays wind farm owners a guaranteed 135 dollars per megawatt hour, creating a daily loss for Ontario Hydro / Ontario Power Generation of between 1 and 1.7+ million dollars per day. These daily losses are one of the key reasons why Ontario Hydro customers will have their power rates increased a few dollars per month as of November 2013 (or whenever the announced increase is to take effect). http://www.saultstar.com/2013/10/18/ontario-hydro-prices-to-rise-again-on-nov-1

Host Rob Snow illustrated that at 3 AM an Ontario customer would be paying 7 to 13 cents per kilowatt hour, while 1 megawatt hour would be wholesale sold by Ontario Hydro / the Power Authority for 2 cents to markets outside Ontario--usually one or all of Michigan, New York, Wisconsin, or Minnesota.

http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/ontario-drives-manufacturers-away-with-overpriced-electricity/article14854752/ Oldspammer (talk) 20:05, 21 October 2013 (UTC)

Three children - but where's the source?
Article claims (in infobox) he has three children. In a quick search, I found https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2011/10/25/george_smithermans_growing_family.html which looks like a reliable source, but still leaves child no. 3 unaccounted for. If nobody else can substantiate the number, I will remove it from the infobox as a WP:BLP issue. Samsara 05:42, 16 October 2015 (UTC)
 * Removed. Samsara 06:58, 17 October 2015 (UTC)
 * I found a source and updated the article. EncyclopediaUpdaticus (talk) 12:55, 17 October 2015 (UTC)
 * The source doesn't say that Smitherman adopted Peloso's daughter, so as far as we know she's not his child. I therefore count two (adoptive) children and don't see how we can say otherwise. Samsara 13:13, 17 October 2015 (UTC)
 * But it is clear that there were three children in a somewhat complex relationship, a fact that your reference search should have found. I looked for '"George Smitherman" children' on Google search and easily found this information. EncyclopediaUpdaticus (talk) 13:31, 17 October 2015 (UTC)
 * My willingness to research a subject I have no interest in is not the issue here. The issue is whether we can assert that he has three children, and I don't see any legal basis on which we can do so. His partner's adult child is not Smitherman's own. It's simply an adult that may have visited his home. That doesn't qualify as a child of Smitherman. I'll remind you of WP:BLP. Samsara 13:47, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:George Smitherman


text:
Flora of the Marquesas Islands

The Marquesas Islands have a diverse flora, with a high rate of endemism. They are in the floristic Polynesian subkingdom of the Oceanian realm.

Food Plants
Most of the food plants are not endemic, and include:
 * Avocados
 * Bananas
 * Breadfruit (mei) from which "mā" is made.
 * Cashews
 * Coconuts
 * Jambul
 * Grapefruits
 * Guavas
 * Lemons
 * Mangos
 * Pandanus
 * Papayas
 * Pineapples
 * Plantains
 * Soursops
 * Sugar apples
 * Taro (tao) from which "poke", similar to poi, is made.
 * Vanilla

Other plants

 * Frangipani
 * Hibiscus
 * Mape
 * Nono
 * Tiara

Pelagodoxa henryana, the only species in the genus Pelagodoxa, is a palm tree that is endemic to the Marquesas Islands.

title: Flora of the Marquesas Islands


text:
John Lowell Jr. (philanthropist)

John Lowell Jr. (May 11, 1799 – March 4, 1836) was an American businessman, early philanthropist, and through his will, founder of the Lowell Institute.

Family
Lowell was the son of pioneer industrialist Francis Cabot Lowell (1775–1817), one of the founders of the Boston region's textile industry, and Hannah Jackson, sister of Patrick Tracy Jackson, another industrial pioneer. His grandfather and namesake, Judge John Lowell (1743–1802), referred to as The Old Judge, served in the Congress of the Confederation in 1782 and was appointed later to federal benches by presidents George Washington and John Adams.

After receiving his early education in the Boston public schools, young Lowell was taken by his father to Europe and placed at the high school of Edinburgh. In 1813, at the age of 14, he returned to America and entered Harvard College. Plagued with ill health, he left college after two years and entered his family's mercantile firm, sailing before the mast to India, the East Indies, and England.

Career
Returning from his voyages with invigorated health, Lowell devoted himself to business and, in his leisure time, to book collecting, reading, and politics, serving on the Boston Common Council and in the Massachusetts State Senate. The 1820s and 1830s were a turbulent period in New England, marked by intense political and religious conflict between an insurgent popular democracy, which challenged economic and religious establishments, and an emergent capitalist elite which, though almost invariably defeated at the polls, was learning to use its wealth to advance its political agenda through non-political means.

Conflict between the Unitarian elite and the evangelical urban masses intensified in the 1820s, as followers of popular ministers like Lyman Beecher openly challenged elite-controlled institutions like Harvard and the Boston Athenaeum using a variety of voluntary associations—young men's and mechanics societies, lyceums, debating clubs, and temperance groups. The continuing erosion of the elite's cultural authority was deeply troubling to Lowell and his contemporaries.

Within a few short months in 1830 and 1831, tragedy struck Lowell's household, with the deaths of his wife and two children. Heartbroken, John Lowell retired from business and attempted to assuage his grief with travel, first to the western states and subsequently in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Before departing for Europe in 1832, he wrote a will in which, according to his biographer, "he set aside a large portion of his ample property to be expended, forever, in the support of those courses of lectures in the city of Boston."

Over the course of the next four years, Lowell traveled through France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Persia, and Egypt, down the Nile to Khartoum, through Ethiopia, and ultimately to India. Although the bequest providing for "the maintenance and support of public lectures, to be delivered in Boston, upon philosophy, natural history, the arts and sciences, or any of them, as the trustee shall, from time to time, deem expedient for the promotion of the moral, and intellectual, and physical instruction or education of the citizens of Boston" had been set forth before his departure from Boston, "– in a codicil to his will written "amidst the ruins of Thebes" and, subsequently, in letters written from Egypt, he further amplified his ideas about the trust. Although he expressed a preference for lectures on religion and on topics that would contribute to the material prosperity of the region, he ceded to his trustee discretion to "establish lectures on any subject that, in his opinion, the wants and taste of the age may demand".

Lowell became gravely ill during a camel trip across the Egyptian desert and died on March 4, 1836, shortly after arriving in Bombay, India.

Lowell Institute
Although large-scale philanthropic gestures were a relative novelty in early nineteenth century America, the idea of an elite institution providing popular lectures by eminent scientists and scholars was not. Having spent much of his youth in England, Lowell was undoubtedly familiar with the Royal Institution – an entity that sponsored basic scientific research and popular lectures and demonstrations. Lowell, a supporter of the Lyceum movement, first showed interest in providing education for the public as a founding member of the Boston Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1830. After becoming ill while traveling through Egypt in 1835, John Lowell Jr. revised his will to create a trust to fund free public lectures in Boston on the subjects of philosophy, natural history, and the arts and sciences.

The trust—or Lowell Institute, as it came to be known—had an unusual mode of governance: a single trustee who was empowered to appoint his successor and who was, in the language of Lowell's will, "always choose in preference to all others some male descendant of my grandfather, John Lowell, provided there be one who is competent to hold the office of trustee, and of the name of Lowell." Despite this odd restriction (or perhaps because of it), the Institute proved to be an extraordinarily innovative philanthropic force. The first lecture supported by the trust, by Yale geologist Benjamin Silliman, was offered in December 1839.

Under its first trustee, the founder's first cousin, John Amory Lowell (1798–1881), the Institute flourished. Lowell was both a man of extraordinary financial acumen and a man of high intellect. The list of Lowell Lecturers during his tenure was a veritable pantheon of the most internationally celebrated figures in science, literature, political economy, philosophy, and theology, including Britain's most celebrated geologist, Sir Charles Lyell, Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz, and novelists Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray.

The lectures were so immensely popular that crowds crushed the windows of the Old Corner Bookstore where the tickets were distributed and certain series had to be repeated by popular demand.

title: John Lowell Jr. (philanthropist)


text:
User:Dark MooGoo

Long time stalker, recent contributor.

title: User:Dark MooGoo


text:
The Register-Guard

The Register-Guard is a daily newspaper in the northwestern United States, published in Eugene, Oregon. It was formed in a 1930 merger of two Eugene papers, the Eugene Daily Guard and the Morning Register. The paper serves the Eugene-Springfield area, as well as the Oregon Coast, Umpqua River valley, and surrounding areas. As of 2019, it had a supposed circulation of 18,886 daily.

The newspaper has been owned by The Gannett Company since Gannett's 2019 merger with GateHouse Media. It had been sold to GateHouse in 2018. From 1927 to 2018, it was owned by the Baker family of Eugene, and members of the family served as both editor and publisher for nearly all of that time period. It is Oregon's second-largest daily newspaper and, until the 2018 sale to GateHouse, was one of the few medium-sized family newspapers left in the United States.

Establishment
The Guard was launched in Eugene City on Saturday, June 1, 1867, by JohnB. Alexander, and has been continuously published since October 24 of that year. The paper began as a weekly organ expressing allegiance to the states' rights–oriented Democratic Party and it joined an existing Republican paper in the field, the Oregon State Journal, published by HarrisonR. Kincaid.

Founding publisher Alexander was born about 1830 and came to Oregon from Illinois as a pioneer in 1852. Alexander initially worked as a farmer, supplementing his income as a surveyor and local justice of the peace before learning the printing trade working for the town's earlier pro-Southern newspapers. Although his own venture as a publisher was short and unprofitable, Alexander unwittingly was the scion of a local newspaper dynasty in Oregon, with two of his sons later themselves publishing The Guard (following the tenure of several intermediate owners), while a grandson, GeorgeL. Alexander, would one day edit another Oregon paper, the Lebanon Express.

Alexander and his paper vocally supported the old governing class of the former Confederate States of America and were rabid in their opposition to the policies of the Reconstruction era imposed upon the South by the Northern-based Republican Party. Such views were out of step with the majority of Oregonians, however, with the Republicans coming to dominate Oregon politics during the last quarter of the 19th century. Alexander was forced to liquidate his stake in his money-losing newspaper in 1868.

Ownership changes

A short interregnum followed, during which ownership was transferred to J.W. Skaggs. Skaggs continued to push Alexander's Democratic Party/states' rights agenda during his short five weeks at the helm. The poor economics of the weekly paper were unchanged, however, and Skaggs immediately moved to unload his newly acquired white elephant. He cut his losses and avoided the stigma of financial failure for himself and the conservative political movement by giving away the paper outright to two men who worked for him as printers, William Thompson and William Victor. According to Thompson's later recollection, Skaggs sweetened the transfer of ownership by tossing in two bundles of paper and two cords of firewood for the new owners.

The leading partner in the new ownership pair, William Thompson (18461934), had come to Oregon from his native Missouri aboard a wagon train during the 1850s and had worked as a printer's devil for the Democratic Eugene City newspapers the Democratic Register and The Review from the age of 16. His acquisition of The Guard required only that he fulfill a contractual obligation "to run the paper and keep it alive." This he and Victor managed to do successfully, earning Thompson a healthy $1,200 for his work before his sale of the paper to GeorgeJ. Buys and A.Eltzroth on December 24, 1869. Thompson would subsequently move to Roseburg, Oregon, and there establish a new newspaper, the Roseburg Plaindealer.

George J. Buys bought out his business partner Eltzroth in July 1870 and subsequently remained solely at the publisher's desk for more than seven years. He continued to battle for the Democratic Party, "first, last, and always" in competition with the Republican Oregon State Journal and the short-lived Eugene City Hawk-Eye, which professed allegiance to the similarly shorter-lived Oregon Independent Party, which ran a full slate of candidates for state and local office in the election of 1874.

Buys ended his tenure as owner of The Guard in May 1877 when he sold out to the sons of the original publisher, F.R. Alexander and W.R. Alexander. Their stint as publishers was nearly as brief as their father's, and in November 1878 they sold the paper yet again, this time to the brothers JohnR. Campbell and Ira Campbell, who would remain owners for 30 years.

Growth

In 1890, the Eugene Guard became a daily newspaper. Charles H. Fisher took over the paper in 1907 and published it until 1912 when E.J. Finneran purchased the paper. Finneran bankrupted the newspaper in 1916, partly due to the purchase of a perfecting press that proved too expensive for such a small newspaper. The University of Oregon's journalism school briefly ran the paper during the receivership under the guidance of EricW. Allen.

In April 1916, Fisher returned along with partner J.E. Shelton, forming The Guard Printing Company. Fisher continued to publish the Capital Journal in Salem until 1921. In 1924, after Fisher died, PaulR. Kelty purchased the Guard and published it with his son, before selling it in 1927. The paper was purchased in 1927 by publisher AltonF. BakerSr., whose father had published The Plain Dealer. Three years later, Baker bought the Morning Register and merged the two papers on November17, 1930; the first Register-Guard edition was the next afternoon. Reporter William Tugman was recruited from The Plain Dealer to be the managing editor of the new paper.

Post-merger history

In 1953, Tugman was one of four editors in the country to sign a declaration opposing Senator Joseph McCarthy's questioning of New York Post editor James Wechsler in closed Senate hearings. Eugene S. Pulliam of The Indianapolis Star, J.R. Wiggins of The Washington Post, and Herbert Brucker of the Hartford Courant were the other editors to sign the declaration, calling Senator McCarthy's actions "a peril to American freedom."

Alton F. "Bunky" Baker Jr., son of AltonF. BakerSr., inherited the newspaper in 1961 and later passed it on to his brother Edwin. In the late 1980s, it was handed down to AltonF. "Tony" BakerIII, who remained the paper's editor and publisher for more than 28 years, until 2015.

It was an afternoon paper on weekdays until 1983; the last evening edition was on Friday, September9, and it dropped "Eugene" from its title. Saturday editions had shifted to mornings a dozen years earlier, in 1971; the last afternoon edition was July 17.

In August 1996, a photographer and reporter from the paper were arrested by the United States Forest Service for trespassing at the site of a timber protest in a national forest. The Register-Guard responded by suing the Forest Service for violating the First Amendment freedom of the press. The criminal charges were later dropped and the civil suit was settled out of court.

Originally located in downtown Eugene, the paper moved to its current location in northeast Eugene in January 1998. The former Register-Guard building was leased by the University of Oregon and renamed the Baker Downtown Center for the Baker family. The building houses the university's printing and mailing facility, archives, and continuing education program, as well as the Oregon Career Information System.

In 2000, the company began negotiations with the employee's union for a new contract, and during negotiations banned the use of the company email system by the union. This led to an unfair labor practice charge against the newspaper, with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) ruling for the paper in December 2007 that employers can ban employees' pro-union emails from the company email system. The NLRB reconsidered the decision on emails on June 26, 2011, under a remand for reconsideration by the United States Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C. Upon review, the NLRB agreed with the Court that the R-G violated union members' rights by changing rules. The new decision allowed Register-Guard employees to send union-related emails without restrictions. On December 27, 2014, the NLRB overturned the 2007 ruling with Purple Communications, Inc., which gave union members the right to send union emails during non-work time.

In the weeks following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the newspaper saw a 1.6 percent increase in paper sales. In 2006, the paper received protests regarding its policy against including birth announcements from same-sex couples. It was reported that managing editor Dave Baker was very helpful when same-sex couples first complained "until he talked to Alton Baker[III], and then he stopped returning our phone calls." In November 2008, the Register-Guard finally changed its policy and printed a birth announcement featuring names of both the child's female parents.

In 2003, the newspaper reduced the width of the printing to 12.5 in to reduce costs, and further shrank the paper to 11 in in 2009.

In 2009, two separate layoffs reduced the newspaper's staff by the equivalent of 41positions; by August 2009, it had 305 full- and part-time employees. The company's management blamed the layoffs on the "lousy economy" and advertising revenues that were 16 percent below projections in May and about 25 percent for June, July, and the first half of August.

In May 2015, Tony Baker stepped down as the Register-Guard's editor and publisher, after 28years, making the end of an 88-year span in which someone from the Baker family had headed the paper. He was succeeded as editor and publisher by N. Christian Anderson III, who had been publisher of The Oregonian since 2009 and president of the Oregonian Media Group since 2013. Anderson began working in the new position on June 1, 2015, but held it for less than seven months. In mid-December 2015, Tony Baker, the chairman of the Guard Publishing Company, announced that Anderson "is no longer Editor and Publisher" of the Register-Guard, and that the Baker family was taking control again. Tony Baker returned to the position of editor and publisher. In July 2016, Logan Molen took over as publisher and CEO of RG Media Company (the newspaper, marketing, advertising and digital services part of Guard Publishing Company), while Baker remained as chairman of the board of Guard Publishing.

Sale to GateHouse Media
In January 2018, the Register-Guard announced its sale to newspaper conglomerate GateHouse Media. The paper's ownership was officially transferred on March 1 of that year, with Molen replaced as publisher by GateHouse hire Shanna Cannon. One of the first actions was to close the statehouse bureau.

Ownership by Gannett
GateHouse Media purchased Gannett in November 2019, retaining the Gannett name for the merged operation.

In April 2020, Cannon departed the paper. Gannett announced Executive Editor Alison Bath would resume leadership of the newspaper. Gannett eliminated the executive editor position May2, 2020, citing the ongoing integration of Gatehouse-Gannett merger. Managing Editor Michelle Maxwell is the highest-ranking editor in the Eugene newsroom. The Register-Guard will collaborate more closely in the Gannett network and with Pacific Northwest newsrooms, including the Statesman Journal in Salem, Oregon; the Kitsap Sun in Bremerton, Washington, and the Great Falls Tribune in Montana.

In May 2023, it was reported that since the paper's sale in 2018, the newsroom staff had shrunk from over eighty employees to six (including only two reporters), the paper no longer employed a local editor, publisher, or advertising representatives, and all advertising and editorial decisions were now made by the staff of Salem's Statesman-Journal.

Awards
The paper won in a tie for best feature photo in 1997 from the Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association. In 1998, the paper took first place for science reporting from the Pacific Northwest Society of Professional Journalists competition for Excellence in Journalism. The Register-Guard took first place in the same competition in 2001 for best arts coverage. In 1999, the newspaper was a Pulitzer Prize finalist for Spot News Photography, for its coverage of the community's reaction to shootings at Springfield's Thurston High School by student Kip Kinkel.

The Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association's 2010 General Excellence Award again went to The Register-Guard, and so did the association's Best Overall Website award.

Blocked in Turkey
Since June 17, 2008, by court order, access to the website of The Register-Guard has been blocked in Turkey because its domain name was once linked to a phishing scam.

title: The Register-Guard


text:
Talk:Boundedness

Untitled
Moved from Bounded to Boundedness so that the page title would be a noun, in accordance with naming conventions. (Of course, keeping the adjective as a very convenient redirect, so all links work fine.) -- Toby Bartels 08:33, 2005 Feb 20 (UTC)

I see your point. I read now the naming conventions, and that rule in general makes sense.

In this particular case though, I would rather not follow the "recommended" rule. You see, 98% of articles would indeed link to bounded rather than boundedness, and the boundedness noun sounds kind of clumsy and artificial. What do you think? Oleg Alexandrov 18:44, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I certainly don't find the word clumsy and artificial; it's the word that mathematicians use when they want a noun that describes the property shared by bounded functions. You can find examples among the pages that link directly to Boundedness; another (almost) example is on the page Totally bounded space, where I naturally wrote (with no ulterior motive) the phrase "total boundedness" a couple of times. The proportion of links is irrelevant; that's (one reason) why we have redirects: so that people can write " bounded " without needing to use the pipe trick as " bounded ".

(It is true that one reason that we have naming conventions is so that links to nonexistent articles will work properly. Thus anybody familiar with our naming conventions should use the pipe trick as " bounded " so long as the page doesn't yet exist. Then when it's created, ideally under the proper title Boundedness, the next person will creat a redirect from Bounded instead of using the pipe trick. Only once the page has been created can we fall back on writing " bounded " directly.)

I do agree that this isn't an ideal title; I definitely prefer titles like Bounded space and Bounded function. Someday, those will exist as separate articles; and then this page will become a disambiguation page. But it should still be at Boundedness. (See Completeness -- including its edit history -- for an example of how I expect this page to develop.)

-- Toby Bartels 11:27, 2005 Feb 21 (UTC)

Should blue be redirected to blueness? Charles Matthews 20:36, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I don't see why; the word blue is a noun (meaning the same as "blue colo[u]r", much as the noun "English" means the same as "English language"). However, a redirect the other way wouldn't be a bad idea -- I'll create it now! ^_^ (Arguably, the grammatical relationship between the noun "blueness" and the adjective "blue" is the correct analogue of the grammatical relationship between the noun "boundedness" and the adjective "bounded". But then the noun "blue" is more or less the analogue of the noun "bounded space", which I agree is a better title! -- once we have an article that precise.) -- Toby Bartels 11:27, 2005 Feb 21 (UTC)

 * I would interpet Charles's comment as the statement that the word "boundedness" is a cooked up noun. Come on Toby, I get the impression you are just determined to follow the rule even if it does not make much sense in this particular setting.

 * Maybe we should ask more opinions about this, but the way I see it, boundedness is not a good idea. Oleg Alexandrov 19:11, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I completely agree with Toby and I do not think boundedness sounds awkward. But I must admit I am not a native speaker. MathMartin 20:55, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I do suggest bounded space and bounded function are really separate pages for the future; this page should probably mostly give that choice. 'Blue' was just my first reaction. I suppose if the principle is correct, rather than advisory, we should look at semisimplicity from semisimple; but that really is a jargon word, while boundedness is real English (actually I think unboundedness is more familiar). Whatever the principle, it is true that abstract nouns are less used in English than in some other European languages. Charles Matthews 21:06, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * How about a wider discussion on Wikipedia Talk: WikiProject Mathematics? Anybody willing to post this? Oleg Alexandrov 03:23, 23 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Compromise?
I created a bounded function aritcle. I suggest moving this boundedness to bounded set, and making bounded into a disambiguation page. Anybody disagrees? Oleg Alexandrov 05:08, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Having received no objections for one week, performed the move. Oleg Alexandrov 00:07, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

The disambiguation page The new page (Bounded function) is great. However, the disambiguation page should still be at Boundedness, which is, of course, not in any sense a made-up word -- as evidenced by the fact that it is used! (I cited an example above.) -- Toby Bartels 04:41, 2005 Mar 7 (UTC)

 * I disagree, and I feel strongly about it. Would you like to post this on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mathematics, so that we get more opinions? Please do not make unilateral changes before that; above, you had had one week to reply to my comment before I actually performed the move back to bounded. Oleg Alexandrov 04:55, 7 Mar 2005 (UTC)

I take it back. The disambiguation page is terrible! Don't you know how to make a disambiguation page? You can look it up at Disambiguation (particularly section 3) if you like. Since I've just gone through all the work of fixing all of the links to Bounded, and fixing the page Boundedness (which you left redirected the wrong way), and fixing the amazing distortion of grammar that you put through on Totally bounded space, I don't feel the least bit unjustified in that, after fixing all of that as smoothly as I could, the page has just now ended up back at Boundedness.

I will, incidentally, be happy to accept a naming convention that pages like Bounded, Complete, and Semisimple ought to be placed at adjectives. I would disagree with such a change, but it's not a big deal; and I left things so that, once such a naming convention is adopted, anybody (not just an administrator) can make the change. But in the face of current naming conventions, I am hardly making unilateral changes as I clean up your mess.

-- Toby Bartels 08:22, 2005 Mar 7 (UTC)

 * Just like "completeness" and "compactness", "boundedness" seems perfectly fine, and is preferable to "bounded" IMHO. Paul August ☎ 22:21, Mar 7, 2005 (UTC)

 * By the rule of the majority, boundedness wins.
 * What?! Surely, we don't want to resort to the tyranny of the majority? I would prefer that you had been persuaded by my brilliant (though subtle) argument. ;-) Paul August ☎ 02:48, Mar 8, 2005 (UTC)

 * No, no, I did not mean to say your argument is not good. I would on any day vote for "compactness". However, I really love "bounded" more than "boundedness". You see, "bound" is a noun, then you make it into the adjective "bounded", which is very reasonable, and then you force the "ness" at the end just because you want a noun derived from an adjective. And before all this story started, it was so easier to say "a function is bounded " and "a set is bounded rather than "a function is bounded ". Now of course those are separate articles, so this last argument loses force, but the one before is still valid. Anyway, I felt that this is one of those cases in which the (noun) rule trumps common sense; although I can certainly live with "boundedness". Oleg Alexandrov 03:10, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * PS I hope nobody saw in here more than a friendly disagreement. Oleg Alexandrov 01:18, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

New naming convetion talk page
See Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (ambiguous adjectives).

Future changes
Just to make things clear, if people don't want to keep this page organised as it is now: Anything that I haven't thought of, just ask me. Even I disagree with a proposed action, I'll still tell you how to do it! (If I don't respond here, then try my user talk page. Note that I don't check Wikipedia every day, but I'll help you when I get here.) -- Toby Bartels 21:07, 2005 Mar 7 (UTC)
 * To move Boundedness back to Bounded (perhaps after a change in naming conventions?), just use Special:Movepage like normally. This can be done by anybody at any time, and doesn't require an administrator. (And it can be undone by anybody afterwards.)
 * To combine Bounded function and Bounded set once again into a single page (either at Boundedness or at Bounded), you do (now) need help from an administrator. However, I'm pretty sure that nobody actually wants to do this.
 * To add new meanings of "bounded" (I can't think of any offhand, but they must exist), just add more bullet points on the diambiguation page, with appropriate links.

title: Talk:Boundedness


text:
Category talk:Labour parties

Untitled
I would propose the deletion of this category, since it does not list parties by ideology but only by name, for which there is already a disambigation page. Categories such as Communist parties, Socialist parties or Social Democratic parties are better to identify parties ideologically.--Soman 08:36, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Labour parties


text:
Saw Maung

Saw Maung (စောမောင်; ; 5 December 1928 – 24 July 1997) was a Burmese army general and statesman who served as Chairman of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) in Myanmar and Prime Minister of Burma from 1988 until 1992, when he was deposed by rival generals who disapproved Saw Maung decisions that were in favor of Aung San Suu Kyi. Beside this, he was the 8th Commander-in-Chief of the Tatmadaw. He is the first one to get the rank of Senior General which was created for him in 1990.

Early life and career
He was born on 5 December 1928 in Mandalay, British Burma. Saw Maung joined the army in 1945, three years before the country gained independence from Britain, and received a commission in 1952. From 1974 to 1976, he fought against communist insurgents and ethnic rebels along the border with Thailand. In 1976, he became a brigadier general, and in 1981 an adjutant-general. He became armed forces commander in 1983.

Saw Maung was army chief of staff and defence minister in the brief government of Sein Lwin and became chairman of the junta when the army staged its coup in 1988 after the 8888 Uprising. He was an effective ruler of the country as head of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). He also held the posts of prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. As a high-ranking member of the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), he provided continuity of leadership during a succession of short-lived predecessors that followed the toppling of Ne Win earlier in 1988.

Chairman of SLORC
Saw Maung assumed responsibility as chairman of the newly formed SLORC on 18 September 1988, replacing the BSPP and promised multi-party elections to follow soon. He publicly stated that he would hand over power to the winning party and would have the army return to the barracks; where in his own words they "rightfully belonged". This proved to be too much for hardliners in the military and loyalists of Ne Win. SLORC held free elections in 1990. The 1990 parliamentary elections were won by the National League for Democracy (NLD) led by Aung San Suu Kyi. Saw Maung was willing to hand the power to the civilian government; however, other generals representing the hardline faction of the SLORC did not agree to this, and successfully prohibited Saw Maung from respecting the results. At this point he lost control of the military junta, and acted as a figurehead.

Saw Maung resigned as chairman of SLORC in April 1992. According to the junta this was for health reasons. However, this was the result of Saw Maung being sedated, isolated and quietly removed from power in a palace coup, after which it was widely reported that Saw Maung's mental health was rapidly deteriorating, and that he believed himself to be the reincarnation of an 11th-century warrior-king. His departure however was orchestrated by Than Shwe and Maung Aye, who used Saw Maung's weakness as an opportunity to seize power and preserve the hardline profile of the junta.

Saw Maung nextly lived in quiet retirement with his mental fantasies, making him unable to take decisions. He subsequently died on 24 July 1997 due to a heart attack.

Family and personal life
He married Daw Aye Yee who died on 25 December 2004. He is succeeded by his three children; two sons and a daughter, and three grandchildren.

Saw Maung was also a golfer and a devout Buddhist.

title: Saw Maung


text:
Nylex Clock

The Nylex Clock is heritage listed as an iconic feature of Melbourne and is considered part of the popular culture of the city. It is neon sign sitting atop malting storage silos in the suburb of Cremorne, Victoria, Australia. It is located adjacent to the northern bank of the Yarra River and the Monash Freeway and displays the time and temperature alternately. The text also alternates displaying the words 'Nylex Plastics' that changes to 'Nylex Every Time!'. It is visible from many parts of Melbourne, particularly the Melbourne Cricket Ground. This linkage is referred to in the song "Leaps and Bounds" by musician Paul Kelly and was once climbed by Brisbane-based activists Freshellen Frew, Ag Heard and several other Melbourne-based activists.

Australian indigenous hip-hop artists Baker Boy (Danzel Baker) and Dallas Woods shot the video for their musical collaboration 'Black Magic' in various locations throughout the site.

History

The sign and clock were designed and built by South Melbourne company Neon Electric Signs and erected in 1961 on behalf of Nylex, an Australian manufacturer of plastic products. There are 20 silos on the site, located in two groups, and were built in the 1950s and 1960s to store barley.

In 2002 a $70 million office project was proposed for the site of the silos that support the clock. The architectural firm behind the project had assessed the heritage value of the site and did not find the silos historically significant enough to be retained, but agreed the Nylex sign was of value and should be kept. The redevelopment was dropped in October 2003 because of the prospect of heritage protection.

The Nylex Clock had been inoperative for a number of years, until restoration works were announced in May 2004. A listing on the Victorian Heritage Register was also applied to the sign in March that year. The 11,340 square metre silos precinct underneath the clock was sold in September 2004 in a deal believed to be worth $8.75 million. The sign itself had been owned by Australian Neon Signs, until sold to Nylex in August 2004. The location of the clock was leased from the owner of the silo.

On 29 June 2005 the clock was restarted at 7.24am, amid heavy fog and a live broadcast by radio station 3AW. The thousands of white LEDs turned on, but the time stayed stuck on 7.24am due to a 'glitch with satellite alignment' in the equipment used to keep the time and date accurate. The sign had been out of action for 14 months, with the restoration commencing in February and costing $300,000. 17,000 LED lights were used, along with 800 metres of neon tubing and two kilometres of electrical cable.

The use of LEDs diminished the visibility of the clock in certain locations, so the luminaires were once again replaced in December 2005 with 70-degree orange coloured LEDs. For several days in May 2006 the clock was frozen at 6.38, with a surge protector being installed to avoid a recurrence. The clock again broke down at 5.45am on 6 September 2006 but wet weather hampered efforts to investigate the fault. In March 2009 the clock was switched off due to Nylex lapsing into receivership. To date there has been no forthcoming information from Cremorne council about when the sign will be switched on despite public outrage. Because the sign and operating costs were the property of Nylex, the public hope the council will assume responsibility of the costs. Since March 2009, the clock and associated temperature display have been inoperative. The clock was briefly illuminated again on Thursday, 29 January 2015, when a group calling themselves 'The Nylex Clock Collective' broke into the silos and found the switch to the clock. Drivers reported the clock running an hour behind, as it had not been adjusted for daylight saving time.

In March 2017 Heritage Victoria approved permits for development of two towers of 13 storeys and 14 storeys, and also saves some of the sprawling industrial site's landmark concrete silos. Developer Caydon had originally earmarked the silos for demolition to make way for its precinct of apartments, offices and restaurants, but more than half of the 1962 silos will now be retained. Nylex sign and clock which also once showed the temperature will be restored to working order, however the landmark will disappear from Melbourne's skyline for a number of years, as it will be put into storage during construction.

On 12 November 2017 a fire broke out in an abandoned nearby factory causing traffic jams. The Punt Road CityLink onramp was closed for 24 hours. Concerns have been raised that the blaze was deliberately lit, possibly by squatters. Up to 50 firefighters took several hours to contain the blaze.

title: Nylex Clock


text:
User talk:Wikinu~enwiki

Votes for deletion/Guo Bingwen

 * Please feel free to put some of that little lot in the article itself. ☺ Uncle G 17:26, 2005 Feb 27 (UTC)

Liu Boming
Moving articles is fine, but please make sure readers can find the article you just moved. See Hatnotes. Gamaliel 04:23, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes. The Chinese version article Liu Boming(刘伯明) refers to the famous scholar, who is also the first Chinese that received Ph.D in Philosophy from an American university. Thank you for care. -Wikinu

That's fine, but how will people now find Liu Boming (astronaut)? When you move pages like this, it is common courtesy to leave a hatnote at the top of the article directing people to the other article. Gamaliel 04:30, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

 * well, disambiguation needs to be added. --Wikinu 04:34, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

you have left out an entire continent in your article on Higher Education / Universitas. You know where I'm speaking of.

Confucianism
In Confucianism you included the expression "soft-sawdering" to explain Xiangyuan. I think this could be an error or a little-known term in English. Either way, I think it does not help to explain Xiangyuan. Recent Runes (talk) 15:51, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Wikinu~enwiki


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Creambo

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Joyous 18:36, Feb 26, 2005 (UTC)

Creambo
Only 8 Google hits for "Creambo". RickK 08:39, Feb 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * delete. Mikkalai 09:08, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete - --Haham hanuka 09:12, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Longhair 12:47, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Gilgamesh he 16:54, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC) its a famouse israeli snack 17,900 hits in google of one writes in hebrew -
 * Comment. If that is the case, please expand on what it is as quickly as possible. As of now, the article reads as a non-notable dicdef. Zzyzx11 19:26, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep if it's a famous israeli snack. Kappa 20:49, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * How famous can something be that only gets 8 Google hits? RickK 20:50, Feb 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Israeli cuisine? Radiant! 22:29, Feb 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, un-encyclopaedic foodcruft. Megan1967 22:47, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. I haven't seen enough arguments to suppport the notion that there should be an individual page for it. Is it notable enough in Israel? By the way, before writing an article on Creambo, one may consider the suggestion of writing an article on Israeli cuisine, as per Radiant! There is no such page in Wikipedia so far. Conceptually, even a stub on this subject would seem more acceptable to me than an individual article on Creambo. vlad_mv 04:45, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Creambo


text:
Talk:National Highway

Why the redirect?
What exactly does the term National Highway have to do with the Indian National Highway system? This page should be a list or category page for National Highways of any country which terms it's main road system as such, but definitely not a redirect to Indian Highways. Green Giant 16:43, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

National Highways
What is the name of national highway in USA ? Avirup Bhattacharjee (talk) 10:47, 22 February 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:National Highway


text:
Talk:Cultural festival (India)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Cultural festival (India)


text: User talk:69.70.82.173

title: User talk:69.70.82.173


text:
Talk:Peripatric speciation

Heading
Why is it peripatric speciation, but parapatry? I understand that eri and ara might be pronounced the same in American English (as in merry and marry being homophones), so is one just a spelling mistake for the other? or are the distinct for a reason? Felix the Cassowary 08:42, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Peripatric speciation and Parapatric speciation, despite the similar names, actually refer to quite distinct processes. Parapatric speciation = speciation that occurs when there is some gene flow between the two speciating populations (neither complete isolation (allopatry) nor complete overlap (sympatry). Peripatric speciation is a subset of allopatric speciation where the two speciating populations have very different sizes, but are still completely isolated.  Peripatric speciation is usually used to refer to the situation where isolated, peripheral populations rapidly speciate, and is thus often linked with ideas about punctuated equilibrium.  If someone could revert the Peripatric and Parapatric pages to their pre-merge status, I'll happily flesh them both out a bit. --Tsackton 17:08, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I'm new here...just figured out how to revert pages. I reverted this page and the parapatric redirect page to their old versions (pre-merge), and fleshed out the definitions a bit. --Tsackton 15:59, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I understand this page is not necessary since it can be merged with the speciation page.

Bear example and image
In reviewing the literature concerning the example of the bears (and its corresponding image and caption), I was unable to find a conclusion (by the author of the cited study) that suggested this to be an example of peripatric speciation. The article in question does discuss speciation, and is by far a great example of such; however, I believe that the person who originally added that example may have synthesized his or her own conclusion. In addition, none of the major literature on speciation cites this study as an example of peripatric speciation.

I propose a removal of this content. I don't want to delete it without a consensus, as the information is useful and could be applied elsewhere. In addition, I noticed the image is used on several other language wikis of the same article. This is a problem as the information is incorrect.

Thoughts? Andrew. Z. Colvin  •  Talk  09:25, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peripatric speciation