text:
Names of the Irish state

According to the Constitution of Ireland, the names of the Irish state are Ireland (English) and Éire (Irish). From 1922 to 1937, its legal names were the Irish Free State (English) and Saorstát Éireann (Irish). The state has jurisdiction over almost five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The rest of the island is Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. In 1948 Ireland adopted the terms Republic of Ireland (English) and Poblacht na hÉireann (Irish) as the official descriptions of the state, without changing the constitutional names.

The terms Republic of Ireland (ROI), the Republic, the 26 counties or the South are the alternative names most often encountered. The term "Southern Ireland", although only having legal basis from 1921 to 1922, is still seen occasionally, particularly in Britain.

Until the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, British government and media declined to use the name Ireland, preferring Eire (without síneadh fada accent) until 1949 and Republic of Ireland thereafter.

Constitutional name
Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that "[t]he name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland". Hence, the Irish state has two official names, Éire (in Irish) and Ireland (in English). For official purposes, the Irish government uses the name Éire in documents written in Irish, while using Ireland where the language of the documents is English, including in international treaties and other legal documents. The name of the state is reflected in its institutions and public offices. For example, there is a President of Ireland and a Constitution of Ireland. The name Ireland is also used in the state's diplomatic relations with foreign nations and at meetings of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, International Monetary Fund, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

The Constitution gives the Irish language formal precedence over English, and a reflection of this is that Éire is the only name of the Irish state to feature on a range of national symbols including the Seal of the President, postage stamps and Irish euro coins. In 1981 the Department of Posts and Telegraphs recommended the inclusion of the word "Ireland" along with "Éire" on stamps but the Department of the Taoiseach vetoed the idea on the basis it could cause "constitutional and political repercussions" and that "the change could be unwelcome", as the name "Ireland" was considered by Unionists in Northern Ireland to refer to all 32 counties of Ireland. The spelling "Eire", with an E rather than an É, is not correct Irish orthography despite being preferred for many years by British government and media and others.

Official description
Since 1949, the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 has provided that the Republic of Ireland (or Poblacht na hÉireann in Irish) is the official description for the state. However, Ireland remains the constitutional name of the state.

The constitutional name Ireland is normally used. However, the official description Republic of Ireland is sometimes used when disambiguation is desired between the state and the island of Ireland. In colloquial use this is often shortened to 'the Republic'.

This distinction between description and name was and remains important because the Act was not a constitutional amendment and did not change the name of the state. If it had purported to do so, it would have been unconstitutional. The distinction between a description and a name has sometimes caused confusion. The Taoiseach, John A. Costello introduced the legislation with an explanation of the difference in the following way: "If I say that my name is Costello and that my description is that of senior counsel, I think that will be clear to anybody who wants to know...[Similarly, the state's] name in Irish is Éire and in the English language, Ireland. Its description in the English language is 'the Republic of Ireland.'"

Many republics, including the French Republic and the Italian Republic reference the institutional form of the state in their long form names, but others, such as Hungary (since 2012) and Ukraine (since 1991) do not.

European Union
The state joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union) in 1973. Its accession treaty was drawn up in all of the EU's then-official treaty languages (including English and Irish) and, as such, the Irish state joined under both of its names, Éire and Ireland. On 1 January 2007, Irish became an official working language of the EU. This did not change the name of the Irish state in EU law. However, it has meant for example that at official meetings of the EU Council of Ministers, nameplates for the Irish state now read as Éire – Ireland, whereas previously they would simply have read as Ireland.

The Inter Institutional Style Guide of The Office for Official Publications of the European Communities sets out how the names of the member states of the European Union must always be written and abbreviated in EU publications. Concerning Ireland, it states that its official names are Éire and Ireland; its official name in English is Ireland; its country code is IE; and its former abbreviation was IRL. It also adds the following guidance: "NB: Do not use 'Republic of Ireland' nor 'Irish Republic'."

Ancient
The Annals of the Four Masters describe how Ireland was referred to in ancient times:
 * During the time of the Partholonians, Nemedians, Fomorians, and Firbolg, the island was given a number of names:
 * Inis Ealga signifying the noble or excellent island. The Latin translation was Insula Nobilis
 * Fiodh-Inis signifying the Woody island. In Latin this was Insula nemorosa
 * Crioch Fuinidh signifying the Final or remote country. In Latin as Terra finalia.
 * Inisfáil meaning the Island of Destiny, and Inisfalia or Insula Fatalis in Latin. This was the name used by the Tuatha Dé Danann and from this 'Fál' became an ancient name for Ireland. In this respect, therefore, Lia Fáil, the Stone of Destiny, came to mean 'Stone of Ireland'. Inisfail appears as a synonym for Erin in some Irish romantic and nationalist poetry in English in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; Aubrey Thomas de Vere's 1863 poem Inisfail is an example.
 * Ériu (from which derived Éire), Banba and Fódla were names given by the Dananns from three of their queens.
 * Ierne refers to Ireland by various ancient Greek writers and many scholars have the opinion that in the poem when the Argonauts pass Neson Iernida, that is, the Island Iernis, they are referring to the island of Ireland, thus referring to Ireland longer ago than 1000 BC.
 * Ogygia meaning the most ancient land is a name used by Plutarch in the first century which may refer to Ireland.
 * Hibernia is first used to refer to Ireland by Julius Caesar in his account of Britain, and became a common term used by the Romans. They also used a number of other terms, namely Juverna, Juvernia, Ouvernia, Ibernia, Ierna, Vernia. Ptolemy also refers to it as Iouernia or Ivernia.
 * Scotia or the land of the Scots is a term used by various Roman and other Latin writers, who referred to Irish raiders as Scoti. Some of the earliest mentions are in the 5th century, St. Patrick calls the Irish "Scoti", and in the 6th century, St. Isidore bishop of Seville and Gildas the British historian both refer to Ireland as Scotia. It was a term that exclusively referred to Ireland up until the eleventh century when modern Scotland was first referred to as Scotia. But even up until the sixteenth century, many Latin writers continued to refer to Ireland as Scotia. From the twelfth to the sixteenth century, various scholars used to distinguish between Ireland and Scotland by using Scotia Vetus or Scotia Major meaning Old Scotia or the Greater Scotia for Ireland, and Scotia Minor or Lesser Scotia for Scotland.. The name Scoti is used to describe the High King of Ireland in the 9th Century Book of Armagh, where Brian Boru is declared Imperator Scottorum, or Emperor of the Irish (Gaels)
 * Insula Sanctorum or the Island of the Saints and Insula Doctorum or the Island of the Learned are names used by various Latin writers; hence the modern-day quasi-poetic description of the island as the "Island of Saints and Scholars".

Pre-1919
Following the Norman invasion, Ireland was known as Dominium Hiberniae, the Lordship of Ireland from 1171 to 1541, and the Kingdom of Ireland from 1541 to 1800. From 1801 to 1922 it was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as a constituent country.

According to Roderick O'Flaherty, Joseph Justus Scaliger "reckons up eleven of twelve matricular languages yet remaining in Europe ; viz. Latin, Greek, Teutonic, Sclavonian, Epirotic, Tartarian, Hungarian, Finnonian, Hibernian, (which he by a barbarism calls Hirlandian) the Cantabrian, and the British.". This could be the first mention of the name of Ireland.

Irish Republic (1919–22)
In English, the revolutionary state proclaimed in 1916 and ratified in 1919 was known as the Irish Republic or, occasionally, the Republic of Ireland. Two different Irish language names were used: Poblacht na hÉireann and Saorstát Éireann, based on two competing Irish translations of the word republic: Poblacht and Saorstát. Poblacht was a direct translation coming from the Irish pobal, cognate with the Latin populus. Saorstát, on the other hand, was a compound of the words: saor (meaning "free") and stát ("state").

The term Poblacht na hÉireann is the one used in the Easter Proclamation of 1916. However the Declaration of Independence and other documents adopted in 1919 eschew this title in favour of Saorstát Éireann. A slight variant of this title, Saorstát na hÉireann, was also sometimes used in later days as was the Latin Respublica Hibernica.

(For an explanation continuing usage of the term Irish Republic in the United Kingdom, see Name dispute with the UK (below). Some republicans also continue to use the term because they refuse to recognise the Anglo-Irish Treaty – see below).

Southern Ireland (1921–22)
Southern Ireland (Deisceart Éireann) was the official name given to an autonomous Home Rule region (or constituent country) of the United Kingdom. It was established under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 on 3 May 1921. It covered the same territory as the present day Irish state.

However, political turmoil and the ongoing War of Independence meant that it never fully functioned as envisaged. Southern Ireland was superseded in law on 6 December 1922 by the establishment of the Irish Free State. The term Southern Ireland does not have any official status today. However, it is sometimes still used colloquially, particularly by older people, in the United Kingdom.

Irish Free State (1922–37)
During the negotiations on secession leading to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Irish politicians wanted the state to be a republic, and its name to be the Republic of Ireland or the Irish Republic. However the British government refused to contemplate a republic because this would have entailed the Irish state severing the link with the British crown and ceasing to be a part of the British Empire. Instead, the parties agreed the state would be a self-governing Dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations. The self-proclaimed Irish Republic had used Saorstát Éireann as its Irish name, and "Irish Free State" was derived by literal translation of Saorstát Éireann back into English; a South African province had a similar name. Article One of the treaty stated: "Ireland shall have the same constitutional status ... as the Dominion of Canada ... and shall be styled and known as the Irish Free State."

The May 1922 draft of the Constitution of the Irish Free State used only Irish forms of many names and titles, but on British insistence these were replaced with English equivalents; one exception was that references to "Saorstát Éireann" were amended to "the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann)". After the establishment of the Free State the Irish government often used the name Saorstát Éireann in documents in English as well as Irish; an exception was that postage stamps of the period used Éire. Because the Irish Free State was not a republic, since 1922 the word saorstát has fallen out of use in Irish as a translation of republic. When the official description of the state was declared to be the Republic of Ireland in 1949, its official Irish description became not Saorstát Éireann but Poblacht na hÉireann. It appears that the "Irish Free State" name was not generally popular, The Times reporting on the Irish general election in 1932: "The official parties in Ireland – the Free State is not a popular designation over there, for the other is, after all, the older name..."

Éire (Irish language name since 1937)
As mentioned above, Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland, gives the state its two official names, Éire in Irish and Ireland in English. Each name is a direct translation of the other. From 1937, the name Éire was often used even in the English language.

In May 1937, when the President of the Executive Council, Éamon de Valera presented the first draft of the Constitution to the parliamentary committee on the Constitution, Article 4 simply provided: "The name of the State is Éire". There was no reference to Ireland at all. Opposition politicians immediately proposed that the word Ireland be substituted for the word Éire throughout the English text. They argued that Ireland was the name known by every European country; that the name should not be surrendered; that the name Ireland might instead be adopted by Northern Ireland; and that the choice of Éire might damage the status of the state internationally by drawing a "distinction between the state...and what has been known for centuries as Ireland". Responding, de Valera stressed that the Irish text of the constitution was to be the foundation text. In light of this, he said the name Éire was more logical and that it would mean an Irish name would become accepted even in the English language. However, he said he had "no strong views" and he agreed "that in the English translation the name of the state [would be] Ireland".

When de Valera subsequently tabled an amendment to give effect to this concession, he proposed Article 4's current wording: "The name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland." In doing so, he remarked that as "the Irish text is the fundamental text [it is as well] that Éire is used here and there." With almost no debate, the wording was agreed to and subsequently became the law of the land.

It is sometimes said that de Valera wished to reserve the names Republic of Ireland or Irish Republic for the day when a united Ireland might be achieved. These names were not discussed in the parliamentary debates on the Constitution. However, the reason which de Valera gave in the debates for omitting any reference to the word republic throughout the constitution was that he thought the constitution would gain broader support if it did not refer to a republic.

After the adoption of the Constitution, de Valera's government generally encouraged use of the name Éire (rather than Ireland) but not always. His government also appreciated the significance of the name Ireland. So for example, when the Irish ambassador in Berlin, Charles Bewley sought instructions concerning the new name of the State, he was advised by Joseph P. Walshe, for decades the top civil servant in the Irish Department of External Affairs that:

"When informing the German Government of the change of the name of the State, you should not emphasise the Irish form. The change of name would not, of course, have the same political or national significance if 'Éire' were to be used by foreigners. As you are aware, it is the hope of everybody in this country that the use of 'Ireland' to describe the Twenty-Six Counties will have a definite psychological effect in favour of the unity of this country on both Irish and foreign minds."

Thus, while sometimes encouraging the use of the name Éire even in English, de Valera's government insisted at other times on the use of the name Ireland. The United Kingdom disputed Irish adoption of the name "Ireland" (below). De Valera's decision to generally use the name Éire was sometimes severely criticised as a poor choice of name. Some argued that it was confusing. Others said the name Éire might strengthen the claim of the government of Northern Ireland to the ancient name of Ulster for their state. However, the name Éire (generally appearing as Eire in English) quickly became widely accepted in English. Nevertheless, this only fuelled more criticism of the name, as once free in the English language, it evolved – leading to what opposition politicians stated were "sneering titles such as Eirish". These criticisms were aired at length in the Oireachtas when the Republic of Ireland Act was being debated. De Valera's use of the name Éire as well as the wording of Article 4 were sharply criticised. The Taoiseach of the day, John A. Costello said "that tremendous confusion ha[d] been caused by the use of that word Éire in Article 4. By a misuse by malicious people of that word, Éire, they have identified it with the Twenty-Six Counties and not with the State that was set up under this Constitution of 1937."

Despite these criticisms, de Valera initially called for the proposed Irish description of the state, Poblacht na h-Éireann to also be inserted into the English text of the Act in the same way both the Irish and English names of the state are used in Article 4. However, de Valera subsequently retreated from this position and in what may be seen as an implicit acceptance of the criticisms made of the wording of Article 4 itself, de Valera accepted that it was better not to also use the Irish description in the English text. Despite not changing the name, when the Republic of Ireland Act was passed, the name Éire quickly fell into disuse (except in the Irish language). However the name continues to linger on, particularly in the United Kingdom. The Constitution review group's 1967 report discusses Article 4: "Throughout the years since 1937 the term 'Éire' has been widely misused in English as the name of the State. Those who so use it can point to the Article itself as their justification, arguing that the word 'or' in the English text of the Article indicates that 'Ireland' is merely an alternative English form of the name. There is, perhaps, at least an ambiguity in the Article that provides a colourable pretext for this misuse. In the light of past experience we feel that the opportunity might now be taken to remove this difficulty by declaring in the Irish text 'Éire is ainm don Stát' and in the English text 'The name of the State is Ireland'. There would seem to be no objection to this simplification since both texts are of equal validity (except in a case of conflict), and the word 'Ireland' is the English equivalent of the Irish word 'Éire'."

Historically, "Eire" was commonly used as a state-name by a variety of organisations. For example, in 1938, the "Irish Amateur Athletic Union" (IAAU) changed its name to "Amateur Athletic Union of Eire" (AAUE) and affiliated to the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) under the country name "Eire". In 1967, the AAUE merged with most of the rival NACA to form Bord Lúthchleas na hÉireann (BLÉ). BLÉ requested the IAAF to change the country's name to "Ireland". This finally happened in 1981.

Abbreviations
Under the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 3166 standard, the two-letter code for Ireland is "IE" while the three-letter code is "IRL". The "IE" code is the basis for the choice of ".ie" for Irish internet addresses. The IRL code features on Irish driving licences, passports and is most visible on contemporary Irish EU style vehicle registration plates. Under the Convention on International Civil Aviation Irish registered aircraft carry the nationality mark "EI", although this abbreviation has nothing to do with the state's name. For example, the ICAO gives "EG" and "EH" as the abbreviations for Belgium and the Netherlands.

Alternative names
A variety of alternative names are also used for the Irish state. Sometimes alternative names are chosen because the name "Ireland" could be confused with the name of the island the state shares with Northern Ireland. Other times alternative names are chosen for political reasons.

"Republic of Ireland", the "description" of the state according to the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, is often used. In sport, the national football team plays as the "Republic of Ireland". This is because the Ireland national team was organised by the Irish Football Association, from 1882 to 1950. A new organisation, the Football Association of the Irish Free State was formed after partition to organize a new team to represent the newly formed Irish Free State. Over time the Irish Football Association came to be the body for organising association football in Northern Ireland only. However, both association football federations continued to field a team called "Ireland". Despite protests from both organisations, in 1953 FIFA decreed that neither team could be referred to as Ireland in competitions which both teams were eligible to enter. The two teams now play under the names "Republic of Ireland" and "Northern Ireland".

"Irish Republic" is commonly used as a name for the state in Britain but disliked in the Republic, where "Irish Republic" refers to the revolutionary state of the First Dáil in 1919. The initialism "ROI", for "Republic of Ireland", is also often used outside official circles. Shorter colloquial names include "the Republic" or "the South".

Irish republicans, and other opponents of Partition, often refer to the state as the "Twenty-Six Counties" or "26 Counties" (with Northern Ireland as the "Six Counties" or "6 Counties") and sometimes as the "Free State" (a reference to the pre-1937 state). Speaking in the Dáil on 13 April 2000, Sinn Féin's Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin explained it as follows: "'In the republican political tradition, to which I belong, the State is often referred to as the 26-County State. This is a conscious response to the partitionist view, prevalent for so long and still sadly widespread, that Ireland stops at the Border. The Constitution says that the name of the State is Ireland, and Éire in the Irish language. Quite against the intentions of the framers of the Constitution, this has led to an identification of Ireland with only 26 of our 32 counties in the minds of many people'." "Southern Irish Commonwealth" and "Southern Irish Republic" were names suggested by the British publication, The Spectator, in 1921. These suggestions never became widely used but are noteworthy for showing how fluid names for the territory were at the time.

Distinguishing the state from the island
Goods originating in Northern Ireland can be sold in the Republic as "Irish" or "made in Ireland", which some consumers find confusing or misleading. The private National Dairy Council introduced a "Farmed in the Republic of Ireland" logo in 2009, whereas Bord Bia, the statutory food labelling authority, has distinct "Ireland", "Northern Ireland", and "Ireland & Northern Ireland" logos; the "Ireland" logos incorporate an Irish tricolour as well as text. The private Guaranteed Irish logo is mostly used by firms in the Republic, but there is one in Northern Ireland.

Name dispute with the UK
This section concerns a protracted dispute which existed between the Irish and British governments over the official names of their respective states: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Although following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 the dispute was supposed to end as each government now accepts the official name of the other state, the Irish Ministry of Foreign Affairs still refers to the UK as "Great Britain".

"Eire" and "Éire" versus Ireland
In 1937, the Irish Free State Government arranged for a plebiscite to approve a new Irish Constitution. Articles 2 and 3 of the new Constitution expressed a territorial claim to the "whole island of Ireland" and thus an irredentist claim to the territory of Northern Ireland. In addition, Article 4 provided that "the name of the state is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland". This too was seen by the British Government as another anti-partitionist attempt to lay claim to the whole of the island.

In the run up to the adoption of the new Irish Constitution which took effect on 29 December 1937, the British Cabinet considered how to respond as regards the new name. A report to Cabinet by the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs reported that "[De Valera] feels strongly that the title Irish Free State was one of the things imposed on the Irish by the British in 1921". The same report recommended that the UK Government use "always the Irish term 'Eire' when referring to the State, and ourselves avoiding the use of the term 'Ireland,' except to describe the whole island as a geographical entity". It so happened that the Constitution would come into force when the Westminster Parliament was adjourned over the Christmas. Accordingly, the preferred course of the Prime Minister making a statement on the matter in Parliament was ruled out.

Ultimately, in response to the new constitution and in consultation with all the governments of the British Commonwealth except the Irish Government, the British government published a communiqué on 30 December 1937, the day after the constitution took effect. In the communiqué, the British government recognised that the new constitution gave the Irish state two names Ireland or Éire. It also implicitly recognised that the two names had an identical meaning, by declaring:

The British government finessed article 4 and ignored articles 2 and 3: if the Irish constitution said the name of the state in the national language was Éire, then that (written as "Eire") was what the British government would call it. By doing so, it avoided any need to call the Irish state, in the English language, Ireland. The change of name effected by the 1937 constitution (but not the other constitutional changes), was given effect in United Kingdom law in the Eire (Confirmation of Agreements) Act 1938 which covered the Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement between "The Government of Éire and the Government of the United Kingdom". Under Section 1 of that Act, it was declared that (for the purposes of United Kingdom legislation) the territory "which was ... known as Irish Free State shall be styled as ... Eire".

The British approach of calling the state Eire was greatly assisted by the general preference of Éamon de Valera, the leader of the Irish government at the time, that the state be known as Éire, even in English. This is seen in the English-language preamble of the Constitution. However, the Irish government, even when led by de Valera, also appreciated the significance of the name Ireland and insisted on that name in some fora. For example, in 1938 Irish representatives in the Commonwealth countries gave their official titles as High Commissioner for Ireland and the League of Nations was informed that Ireland was the correct English name for the country. A unique modus vivendi was adopted by the two states when they concluded a bilateral agreement on air services in 1946. That agreement was styled as an "Agreement between the United Kingdom and Ireland (Eire)". A parliamentary question as to why the term "Ireland (Eire)" was used rather than simply "Eire" was put in the British House of Commons. A parliamentary secretary for the Government, Ivor Thomas, explained the position as follows:

The practice in other Commonwealth countries varied: At the outset at least, it appears the Union of South Africa and Canada used the name Ireland while New Zealand favoured Eire. In 1947, the United Kingdom Home Office went further by issuing instructions to United Kingdom government departments to use Eire. Nevertheless, over time the name Éire fell increasingly out of use by both the Irish government (except in the Irish language) and internationally, in particular after the passing of the Republic of Ireland Act.

Republic of Ireland v Ireland
On 18 April 1949, the Republic of Ireland Act, 1948 (No. 22 of 1948), came into operation, removing the last functions of the King (King George VI). Section two of the Act states, "It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland."

The following note of what Prime Minister Clement Attlee said at a British Cabinet meeting on 12 January 1949 illustrates some of the considerations the British government had to consider following this declaration:

Ultimately, the British responded by passing the Ireland Act 1949 which provided that:

It was the culmination of careful consideration by the Prime Minister Attlee. He put it that "a refusal to use the title 'Republic of Ireland' in any circumstances would involve [the UK] in continuing friction with the Eire Government: it would perpetuate the "inconveniences and indignities" which we now experience as a result of our present policy of insisting on the title 'Eire' as against Dublin's preference for 'Ireland.'"

Hence, the Ireland Act formally provided the name Republic of Ireland for use instead of the name Eire in British law. Later the name Eire was abolished entirely in British law under the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1981. This has meant that the Republic of Ireland is the only name for the Irish state officially provided for in domestic UK law.

Notwithstanding the Ireland Act 1949, the British government would often continue to refer to the Irish state by other names such as the Irish Republic or Southern Ireland. A good example of this was in the Treaty of London, 1949. The UK government had been centrally involved in preparing the treaty which was signed in London and established the Council of Europe. The treaty consistently describes the Irish state as the Irish Republic. Opposition leader, Éamon de Valera, queried this. The Minister for External Affairs, Seán MacBride, responded that he agreed "that the description is not possibly as accurate as we would have liked it to be". Yet he also said that the term Irish Republic was used in the treaty "in a general sense in the way the country is described; French Republic, Irish Republic, Italian Republic, Kingdom of the Netherlands and so on." However, leading opposition politician, Frank Aiken, was not satisfied with this response. Speaking in the Dáil, Aiken cited article 26 of the treaty where "the names of the countries are given as "Belgium", "Denmark" and "France", not "Republic of France" or "French Republic"" noting that "one would expect that the next thing one would find would be "Ireland", but instead we have "Belgium, Denmark, France, Irish Republic, Italy, Luxembourg" and so on. Aiken remarked that some British MPs wanted "to popularise the name Irish Republic". He asked the Taoiseach, John Costello to clear up "what exactly is the name of this State going to be in international documents, international agreements and matters of that kind." Aiken expressed the view that "We want to keep up the name given in the Constitution, "Ireland", in order to show that our claim is to the whole island of Ireland and in international documents, in my opinion, the State should be alluded to as "Ireland" or the "Republic of Ireland"."

The following month the Minister for External Affairs clarified at the Council of Europe that Ireland was how the state should be described. This was reported on in The Times on 8 August 1949 in the following terms:

Therefore, even with the UK's Ireland Act and its provision of Republic of Ireland as a UK "name" for the Irish state, a dispute over the names of their respective states was to continue between the UK and Irish governments. For the Irish, Republic of Ireland was still not the name of the state, merely its description. For a brief period from the coming into effect of the Republic of Ireland Act until the second half of 1950 the Irish Government was inconsistent in the way it described itself and the state: At times it described itself internationally as the Government of the Republic of Ireland; At other times it continued to insist that the name of the Irish state was Ireland.

From the second half of 1950, the Irish government reverted to consistently styling itself the Government of Ireland. The Irish state joined the United Nations in 1955 as Ireland over protests concerning its name by the United Kingdom. Similarly, the United Kingdom protested when the Irish state was admitted to the European Economic Community in 1973 as Ireland. Australia also for several years following the declaration of a republic refused to exchange ambassadors with Dublin on the basis of the name "Ireland" rather than "Republic of Ireland", on the basis that this would have involved recognition of a territorial claim to part of His/Her Majesty's dominions. A legacy of this dispute was the designation of the Irish legation in London as the "Irish Embassy", rather than the title "Embassy of Ireland" preferred by Dublin. A further Commonwealth anomaly was the title of the monarch in Canada. In 1950, following the declaration of a republic the Irish and Canadian High Commissioners were replaced by Ambassadors / Ministers Plenipotentiary, accredited on the basis of the sovereign's title in Canada still encompassing the whole of Ireland. Even in 1952, following the accession of Queen Elizabeth II, and prior to the revised definition of the royal title in 1953, Canada's preferred format was: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas.

For its part, the Irish government also disputed the right of the British state to call itself the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Irish government objected to the words "and Northern Ireland" in the name of the British state. The name also ran against the Irish state's territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The dispute over the names of their respective states was most apparent when the two states concluded bilateral treaties. For example, when the Anglo-Irish Agreement was made in 1985 between the two states, the British text of the agreement gave it the formal title "Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Republic of Ireland" whereas the Irish government's text of the very same agreement gave it the formal title "Agreement between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom".

The Government Information Bureau in 1953 issued a directive, noting that Article 4 of the 1937 Constitution gave the name as "Éire" or, in the English language, "Ireland"; they noted that whenever the name of the state was mentioned in an English language document, Ireland should be used and that "Care should be taken", the directive stated, "to avoid the use of the expression Republic of Ireland or Irish Republic in such a context or in such a manner as might suggest that it is a geographical term applicable to the area of the Twenty‐Six counties." According to Mary Daly, this directive remained in use for a number of years. A copy was sent to Bord Fáilte (the Irish tourist board) in 1959, reminding them not to use the title "the Republic of Ireland" on their promotional literature.

In 1963, under the auspices of the Council of Europe, to revise geography textbooks, the Irish Department of Education issued guidelines to delegates on politically correct geographic terminology: "British Isles" and "United Kingdom" were deemed objectionable and that delegates insist on "Ireland" and "Great Britain." The term "Republic of Ireland" should be avoided but that delegates were no longer to insist on "the Six Counties" in place of "Northern Ireland" in an attempt to improve relations with Northern Ireland.

In February 1964, the Irish government indicated its wish to appoint an ambassador to Canberra. The one issue, however, that blocked the exchange of ambassadors had been the insistence of Australia that the letters carried by the Irish ambassador should have the royal title as "Elizabeth the Second, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Australia and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen." This was, according to Daly, despite the fact that the Australian Royal Style and Titles Act did not mention Northern Ireland, referring only to "the United Kingdom, Australia" etc. However, that November when Eoin MacWhite presented his credentials as Irish Ambassador to Australia, a circular was issued to all Australian government departments indicating to them to use the word "Ireland" rather than "the Irish Republic". The UK was by the mid-1960s the only country not to refer to the state as Ireland.

In 1985 the British command papers described the Anglo-Irish Agreement as an "Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Republic of Ireland", with the Irish official papers described it as an "Agreement Between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom". The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office referred to Ireland as the "Republic of Ireland" – however since 2000 it has referred to the State as "Ireland." The credentials presented by the British ambassador, Stewart Eldon, in 2003, were addressed to the President of Ireland.

Republic of Ireland versus Irish Republic
When the Republic of Ireland Act was enacted, the United Kingdom cabinet debated whether it should use the new name in preference to "Eire". Having said that it was minded to do so and invited comment, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (Sir Basil Brooke, Ulster Unionist) objected in the strongest possible terms, saying that the new description "was intended to repeat Eire's claim to jurisdiction over the whole island." Attlee partly accepted this argument, saying that the [UK] bill should formally recognise the title 'Republic of Ireland' but that the description "The Irish Republic" would be employed in all official usage. Indeed, despite the Belfast Agreement, almost all British publications still follow this style (see below).

In the Irish courts
The name of the state — both in English and in Irish — was considered in one case in the Irish courts. In the 1989 Supreme Court case of Ellis v O'Dea, the court objected to the issuing of extradition warrants (in English) by the United Kingdom's courts naming the state as Éire and not Ireland. Judge Brian Walsh said that while the courts of other countries were at liberty to issue such warrants in the Irish language, if they used the English language they had to refer to the state as Ireland. Walsh and Judge Niall McCarthy expressed the view that where extradition warrants did not use the correct name of the state it was the duty of the courts and of the Gardaí to return such warrants for rectification. Both judges also noted that the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 did not change the name of the state as prescribed in the Constitution. The following is an extract from Walsh's judgement:

Good Friday Agreement
The dispute between the UK and Irish governments over the names of their respective states has not yet been finally resolved. The Ireland Act 1949 has not been formally repealed by the UK but has been in effect overridden. This resolution took place when the Good Friday Agreement (or Belfast Agreement) was concluded in 1998. That Agreement concerned a wide range of constitutional and other matters regarding Northern Ireland. Notably, as part of it, the Irish state dropped its legal claim to the territory of Northern Ireland. In the title of the Agreement, the two governments used their respective domestic law names, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of Ireland. However, the Irish Ministry of Foreign Affairs still refers to the UK as "Great Britain". Some Unionist members of the British parliament objected strenuously to the use of the term the Government of Ireland. They proposed that the practice of referring to the Irish government as the Government of the Republic of Ireland should be continued. Their objections were not accepted. Responding for the British government in the House of Lords, Lord Dubs explained that the new practice of referring to the Irish state by the name Ireland:

This policy has been respected by both governments since the Belfast Agreement. A House of Lords debate, ten years later in May 2008, on Regulations governing political donations by Irish citizens and bodies to political parties in Northern Ireland, is a good example of this. During the debate Lord Rooker, a Government minister, said that the Regulations would: "acknowledge the special place that the island of Ireland and the Republic of Ireland occupy in the political life of Northern Ireland". Responding, Lord Glentoran suggested that Lord Rooker in fact "meant to say that [the draft Regulations recognise] the special place that Ireland occupies in the political life of Northern Ireland." Agreeing with Lord Glentoran's observation, Lord Rooker responded:

So far there has been no domestic British legislation explicitly providing that Ireland may be used as a name for the Irish state for the purposes of domestic British law. While the UK's Ireland Act 1949 provides for use of the name Republic of Ireland in domestic British law, that legislation is permissive rather than mandatory so it does not mean Ireland cannot be used instead.

There are now a growing number of UK statutes and regulations that refer to the Irish state as simply Ireland and make no reference to the Republic of Ireland. One example is the Disqualifications Act 2000 which refers, inter alia, to the "legislature of Ireland", the "House of Representatives of Ireland" and the "Senate of Ireland". The Loans to Ireland Act 2010 refers to the state as simply "Ireland", as does the British Nationality (Irish Citizens) Act 2024. The Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use uses simply Ireland for the country name. Similarly, the British Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office do not use the term Republic of Ireland but rather apply the term Ireland when advising potential British Nationals choosing to live in Ireland. In contrast, the Qualified Lawyers Transfer Regulations 1990 referred to barristers and solicitors qualified "in Ireland" and made no reference to the "Republic of Ireland" but when these regulations were replaced by the Qualified Lawyers Transfer Regulations 2009, the Regulations were amended to refer to the Republic of Ireland and not Ireland.

British media usage
The names attributed to the state by the British media are sometimes the subject of discussion in the state. The style guides of British news sources adopt differing policies for referring to the state (though notably all deprecate 'Eire' even though it was often used even in the late 20th century):
 * The Times: "Ireland: the two parts should be called the Republic of Ireland or the Irish Republic (avoid Eire except in direct quotes or historical context), and Northern Ireland."
 * The Guardian: "Ireland, Irish Republic, not Eire or "Southern Ireland""
 * The Daily Telegraph: "Ireland includes Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Irish Government means the one in Dublin. Use Irish Republic or the Republic according to context, but not Eire."
 * The Economist: "Ireland is simply Ireland. Although it is a republic, it is not the Republic of Ireland. Neither is it, in English, Eire."
 * BBC Radio: "Ireland is an island, comprising Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic."
 * BBC News style guide: Using Ireland is acceptable but it may be helpful to make clear early on we are talking about the country rather than the island. Republic of Ireland or the Irish Republic are also fine. However, when writing stories that cover both parts (eg: The numbers of songbirds are declining throughout Ireland), we should try to make clear that we are talking about the island as a whole. : Do not use either Eire or Southern Ireland. Say Ireland, the Republic of Ireland or the Irish Republic. Its people (and the adjective) are Irish - some people living in Northern Ireland may also describe themselves as Irish or Northern Irish.

title: Names of the Irish state


text:
Sânziană

Sânziană is the Romanian name for gentle fairies who play an important part in local folklore, also used to designate the Galium verum or Cruciata laevipes flowers. Under the plural form Sânziene, the word designates an annual festival in the fairies' honor. Etymologically, the name comes from the Latin Sancta Diana, the Roman goddess of the hunt and moon, also celebrated in Roman Dacia (ancient Romania). Diana was known to be the virgin goddess and looked after virgins and women. She was one of the three maiden goddesses, Diana, Minerva and Vesta, who swore never to marry.

People in the western Carpathian Mountains celebrate the Sânziene holiday annually, on June 24. This is similar to the Swedish Midsummer holiday, and is believed to be a pagan celebration of the summer solstice in June. According to the official position of the Romanian Orthodox Church, the customs actually relate to the celebration of Saint John the Baptist's Nativity, which also happens on June 24.

Sânziene rituals
The folk practices of Sânziene imply that the most beautiful maidens in the village dress in white and spend all day searching for and picking flowers, of which one MUST be Galium verum (Lady's bedstraw or Yellow bedstraw) which in Romanian is also named "Sânziànă". Using the flowers they picked during the day, the girls braid floral crowns which they wear upon returning to the village at nightfall. There they meet with their beloved and they dance around a bonfire. The crowns are thrown over the houses, and whenever the crown falls, it is said that someone will die in that house; if the crown stays on the roof of the house, then good harvest and wealth will be bestowed upon the owners. As with other bonfire celebrations, jumping over the embers after the bonfire is not raging anymore is done to purify the person and also to bring health.

Another folk belief is that during the Sânziene Eve night, the heavens open up, making it the strongest night for magic spells, especially for the love spells. Also it is said that the plants harvested during this night will have tremendous magical powers.

It is not a good thing though to be a male and walk at night during Sanziene Eve night, as that is the time when the fairies dance in the air, blessing the crops and bestowing health on people - they do not like to be seen by males, and whoever sees them will be maimed, or the fairies will take their hearing/speech or make them mad.

In some areas of the Carpathians, the villagers then light a big wheel of hay from the ceremonial bonfire and push it down a hill. This has been interpreted as a symbol for the setting sun (from the solstice to come and until the midwinter solstice, the days will be getting shorter).

In cultural references
The consequences of heavens opening on Sânziene are connected by some to paranormal events reported during that period of each year. According to popular beliefs, strange things, both positive and negative, may happen to a person wandering alone on Sânziene night. Strange ethereal activities are believed to happen especially in places such as the Băneasa forest (near the capital of Bucharest) or the Baciu forest (near the city of Cluj-Napoca).

Mircea Eliade's novel, Noaptea de Sânziene (translated as The Forbidden Forest), includes references to the folk belief about skies opening at night, as well as to paranormal events happening in the Băneasa Forest.

In the form Sânziana ("the sânziană"), the word has also come to be used as a female name. It is notably used as such in Vasile Alecsandri's comedy Sânziana şi Pepelea (later an opera by George Stephănescu).

The fairy Sânziene, "the fairy of the summer solstice", is described in a colinda (Romanian folk song) as the "sister of the Sun".

Moldovan band Zdob şi Zdub recorded a song called Sânziene, which tells the story of a search for one's soulmate throughout a midsummer night festival.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sânziană


text:
User:Tommos~enwiki

Greetings - I'm getting Wiki'd by starting to review the home page nightly. Great learning in a cool format.

I'm a Nashvillian, age 53, and a happy reader.

Tom Moss

title: User:Tommos~enwiki


text: User talk:66.251.99.130

title: User talk:66.251.99.130


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Buchacher

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mackensen (talk) 00:48, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Buchacher
vanityGeni 02:22, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete. Vanity. --Sn0wflake 04:18, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. (Will everyone please bear in mind Don't bite the newcomers. "Vanity" is a Wikipedia jargon term that may cause offence to contributors, even though that's unintentional.) Wikipedia is an encyclopedia I'm afraid, not a resource for people's family stories. This is best recorded on a personal website. Trilobite (Talk) 14:18, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: let me rephrase, then. The Wikipedia follows a series of standards and conventions; it would be nice if you could check the Help section. This sort of contribution would better fit an user-space. To create one you just need to create an article like this: User:YourAlias/Something. Hope that clarifies things. Well, in the end of the day it is still vanity. ;) Cheers. --Sn0wflake 18:24, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete and this article is not vanity, it's genealogy, which is why it belongs on VfD. Wyss 20:18, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Genealogy. An encyclopedia is not the right place to put it in. Zzyzx11 00:58, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete genealogy Ana Jessica 06:42, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)


text: User talk:63.231.136.205

title: User talk:63.231.136.205


text:
The Cadillacs

The Cadillacs were an American rock and roll and doo-wop group from Harlem, New York, active from 1953 to 1962. The group was noted for their 1955 hit "Speedoo", written by Esther Navarro, which was instrumental in attracting white audiences to black rock and roll performers.

History
The group came together as The Carnations in 1953, with the members Earl Carroll (lead vocalist), Bobby Phillips, Lavern Drake (bass vocalist), and Gus Willingham. As the group moved into the recording studios, James "Poppa" Clark was added as a fifth member, and the name "The Cadillacs" was given to them. The group's first recording came in July 1954, with Josie Records #765, featuring "Gloria" and "I Wonder Why."

In 1955, Willingham and Clark left the group and were replaced by Earl Wade and Charles Brooks. At this time, the group first began to experiment with choreography, suggested by manager Esther Navarro. Later that year came the group's biggest hit, "Speedoo", Carroll's nickname. Lavern Drake left the group in 1956 and was replaced by J. R. Bailey.

That same year the Cadillacs released a doo-wop version of "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" that peaked at No. 11 on Billboard magazine's Rhythm & Blues Records chart.

In 1957 differences in opinion caused the group to split. One group was initially known as The Four Cadillacs, with current bass J. R. Bailey, former bass Lavern Drake, and new members Roland Martinez and Bobby Spencer. The previous year, Bobby Spencer had written the "My Boy Lollipop" pop song shuffle for Barbie Gaye, which was played by Alan Freed and secured Barbie Gaye a spot in his 1956 Christmas Show opening for Little Richard. In 1964, an Ernest Ranglin produced ska version of the song became a multi-million seller for Jamaican teenager Millie Small and made producer Chris Blackwell rich, leading to further development of his Island Records label.

The other four current members - Carroll, Wade, Brooks, and Phillips - continued recording separately, later as Earl Carroll and the Cadillacs. Bailey's group also included former group saxophonist Jesse "Tex" Powell, and recorded in early 1958 as Jesse Powell and the Caddys. Both groups recorded simultaneously on Josie Records. Later in 1958, the groups combined back into one. Carroll's backup vocalists, Wade, Brooks, and Phillips, all decided to retire and Carroll joined Bailey, Drake, Martinez and Spencer. Carroll's lead spot had been given to Spencer and Bailey, and he left shortly thereafter, creating a new group, Speedo and the Pearls, which recorded briefly in 1959. In 1959, the Cadillacs were also featured in the movie Go Johnny, Go.

The group split and re-formed in 1960, with Carroll, Martinez, Kirk Davis, and bass Ronnie Bright. Later the group was Carroll, Martinez, the returning Bobby Spencer, Milton Love, and Reggie Barnes. Martinez, Love and Barnes were all members of The Solitares at one time.

In 1961, the group began to resemble The Coasters in their music. The lineup shifted again, now with Carroll, Martinez, Curtis Williams, Ray Brewster, and Irving Lee Gail. Carroll was out by 1962 to enter the group they'd been emulating, The Coasters, with Carl Gardner, Billy Guy, and Will "Dub" Jones. 1963 also ended the group's run on Josie Records.

Brewster and Martinez brought in former members Bobby Spencer and J. R. Bailey and continued to record through 1963. The group split, with Bailey joining The Jive Five. Brewster brought in former Cadillac/Solitare Milton Love with Solitares Bobby Baylor and Fred Barksdale. This group recorded briefly in 1964. Spencer became lead vocalist, with Joey Levine (Ohio Express, Reunion) as backing vocalist, for Crazy Elephant, a bubblegum music group, in 1969.

The Cadillacs were back in 1970 with J. R. Bailey, Bobby Spencer, original member Bobby Phillips (who had retired from Speedo's group during the split), and new member Leroy Binns, of The Charts. Stephen Brown later replaced Phillips. The group split into the mid-1970s.

In 1979, Earl Carroll, Earl Wade, Bobby Phillips, and Johnny Brown came together for two Subaru commercials in which they sang, "Cadillac drives Subaru," as part of the automaker's "car names" campaign.

Stephen Brown had joined Cleveland Still's Dubs In the Mid-80s.

Stephen Brown died on January 20, 1989.

Carroll had remained with the Coasters during this time, and left in the 1979 to permanently re-form the Cadillacs with Phillips, Johnny Brown, Gary K. Lewis, and musical director Eddie Jones.

Johnny Brown Died In 2004.

Phillips died on March 6, 2011.

Earl "Speedoo" Carroll died on November 25, 2012.

Awards and recognition
The Cadillacs were inducted into The Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2004.

title: The Cadillacs


text:
James M. Barnes

James M. Barnes may refer to:
 * Jim Barnes (James Martin Barnes, 1886–1966), English golfer
 * James M. Barnes (politician) (1899–1958), U.S. Representative from Illinois

title: James M. Barnes


text:
Talk:Zak Whitbread

Untitled
This page was voted on for deletion at Votes for deletion/Zak Whitbread. The consensus was to keep it. dbenbenn | talk 02:24, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Zak Whitbread


text:
Judgment (Star Trek: Enterprise)

"Judgment" is the nineteenth episode of the second season of Star Trek: Enterprise, the forty-fifth episode overall. It first aired April 9, 2003, on UPN.

Captain Archer appears before a Klingon tribunal, charged with attacking a Klingon space ship and inciting a rebellion.

This episode guest stars J. G. Hertzler as a Klingon lawyer. Bakula picked this episode as a favorite of his.

Plot
Captain Archer finds himself in the witness stand of a Klingon tribunal where he's charged with both aiding rebels opposed to the Empire and of attacking a Klingon ship. In his cell, under the pretext of needing to be checked for contagion, Archer is visited by Doctor Phlox, who gives Archer an update that efforts to have him released are under way. Archer tells Phlox to relay a message, that no matter what the outcome, Sub-Commander T'Pol will leave orbit and keep the Enterprise's crew safe. In the chamber, the prosecutor, Orak, faces off against Archer's advocate, a veteran of the courts named Kolos.

Orak calls as his first witness Second Weapons Officer (formerly Captain) Duras to testify—a process in which Archer is not allowed to interject. Duras then relates a biased tale of himself confronting a belligerent Archer, who supposedly fires on the Klingon ship first. Archer cannot hold his tongue, and is quickly silenced with pain sticks by the tribunal guards. Back in the cells, Kolos is tasked with offering Archer a deal. Rather than plea bargain, Archer insists that Kolos actually work harder to put up a valid defense. In response, Kolos relates how the judiciary used to be about the law and honor, but more recently the warrior mindset meant that victories became the accepted norm.

Kolos re-enters the court and advocates for Archer's right to testify based on an archaic judicial charter. Archer is permitted to relate his tale of helping the neglected refugees and merely damaging the Klingon warship, giving Kolos the chance to relate the numerous times Archer has helped the Empire in the past. Archer is still found guilty and sentenced to life on the Klingon dilithium mining planet of Rura Penthe. Kolos protests, and is himself sentenced to a year at Rura Penthe. Meanwhile, T'Pol uses irregular back-door diplomatic channels and bribes to arrange to get the captain back. Kolos remains, deciding to obey the law he has served for so long with honor.

Continuity
Archer's escape from Rura Penthe is referred to in the 51st episode "Bounty", when he is captured by a bounty hunter. In the season finale, "The Expanse", there is a subplot where he is again pursued by Duras.

This episode noted for featuring Rura Penthe and also connecting to the Duras plot.

In the script, the name of the Klingon colony where the tribunal takes place, was revealed to be Narendra III, which was an important plot point in the 1990 Star Trek: The Next Generation episode, "Yesterday's Enterprise".

In the 1991 film, Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, Captain Kirk and Doctor McCoy are held prisoner by the Klingons, and sentenced to work in the mines of Rura Penthe. The Klingon courtroom in "Judgment" was also made to look like the one from this film, and the judge also bangs a spherical metal gavel that creates sparks.

Production
James Conway returns to direct, his last episode having been the Enterprise pilot "Broken Bow". The script was written by David Goodman, based on an idea from himself and newcomer Taylor Elmore. Goodman said the episode was fun to write, and that he included as many references as possible to the Klingons from Star Trek: The Next Generation and most of them remain in the final episode. The episode was an attempt to reconcile how the Klingons in The Original Series seemed different from the Klingons in The Next Generation. Goodman explained that the Klingons were undergoing a cultural shift, but deeper under the surface was the basis for what we later learn about the Klingon culture. Goodman would explore the topic further in his book Star Trek Federation: The First 150 Years. Originally, the crew would have rescued Archer from a prison transport rather than Rura Penthe, but Brannon Braga liked "Archer on a prison transport" concept so much he wanted to make it into a separate episode, which eventually became "Canamar". Filming took place from January 17 to 28.

Guest star J. G. Hertzler portrayed Advocate Kolos. Hertzler is known for playing the Klingon General Martok in Deep Space Nine and many other Star Trek roles. He also previously worked with Scott Bakula on Quantum Leap in the episode Sea Bride. The episode was directed by James L. Conway who cast Hertzler as Martok in Deep Space Nine. Hertzler was required to audition for the part and he was surprised to get the role, but he grew to like Kolos immensely and was pleased to get the chance to work with Scott Bakula again. Hertzler said the Klingon makeup still took about 3 hours, and he worked 3 days that were as long as 16 to 18 hours, but he loved it.

Reception
"Judgment" first aired April 9, 2003 on UPN. According to Nielsen Media Research it was rated 2.5/4 and was watched by 3.7 million viewers.

Scott Bakula said he picked it as his favorite episode because he loved the simplicity of it, the tremendous guest cast, and the moral lesson of a few people standing up and making a difference.

In 2014, The A.V. Club gave this episode an honorable mention in their list of recommended Enterprise television episodes.

In 2019, Den of Geek recommended this episode to understand the importance of the character Kolos to the show, praising "great acting" by actor J.G. Hertzler and said the episode has a "thought provoking" narrative about culture.

In 2021, The Digital Fix noted this episode for its focus on Klingons, but showing the audience a different side to the aliens with a "brilliant performance" by J.G. Hertlzer as a Klingon lawyer. They felt the episode reminded them of scenes from Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, and noting that it is set on Rura Penthe which was also featured in that theatrical film.

In his 2022 rewatch, Keith DeCandido of Tor.com gave it 10 out of 10.

Home media release
"Judgment" was first released for home media use on DVD as part of the second series box set of Star Trek: Enterprise. The episode also featured as one of the three Enterprise episodes on the Star Trek Fan Collective DVD Set "Captain's Log", the episode was selected by Bakula. A release on Blu-ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20, 2013.

title: Judgment (Star Trek: Enterprise)


text:
Ultramatic

Ultramatic was the trademarked name of the Packard Motor Car Company's automatic transmission introduced in 1949 and produced until 1954, at Packard's Detroit, Michigan, East Grand Boulevard factory. It was produced thereafter from late 1954, thru 1956 at the new Packard "Utica" Utica, Michigan facility.

1935–1948: Development
Packard's Ultramatic transmission was the creation of the company's chief engineer Forest McFarland and his engineering team. The magnitude of this accomplishment is illustrated by the fact that it was the only automatic transmission developed and produced solely by an independent automaker, with no outside help. Devices like the Ultramatic were being tested and designed by Packard from 1935 on, but none satisfied the perfectionist engineer. The Ultramatic's development was halted, as was all automotive work during World War II, but resumed in earnest during 1946.

After World War II, Packard's range had contracted to variants of the mid-priced Clipper line. It was during this period that Packard began to suffer in competition with General Motors' Cadillac Division, thanks in part to their popular self-shifting Hydra-Matic. The Hydra-Matic was available starting in 1941 and became very popular during the 1946–1948 time-frame, pushing along Packard's release of its new automatic drive. Packard at that time (1946–1949) offered only an Electromatic Vacuum Clutch option, which required manual shifting otherwise. As with most vacuum powered shifting and clutching devices, Electromatic was overall generally unreliable.

Finally, in mid 1949, Packard's 50th Anniversary, McFarland's Ultramatic Drive became available as a $199 option ($0 in dollars ). It was first offered only on the top-line Packard Customs, following in 1950 by the entire lineup.

1949–1954: Ultramatic Drive
The first Ultramatic Drive was a hydraulic torque converter automatic transmission with a two-speed plus reverse epicyclic geartrain, with torque converter lockup, called "Direct Drive" by Packard. The unit was fully hydraulically controlled with a "valve body," like most early automatic transmissions before the advent of electronic control.

The original Ultramatic did not switch automatically between high and low gearing ratios. The driver selected "high-range" or "low-range" ratios through the column shift lever. The intention was that in normal driving, the high (1:1) ratio would be selected at all times, and the two stage, dual turbine torque converter (actually a total of four turbines were employed) was used to reduce gearing for starting off. At a speed of 15 - 56 mph (depending on rear axle ratio which affected the rate of governor pressure rise), hydraulic pressure overcame the opposing throttle pressure, as determined by carburetor linkage position, causing the Direct Shift Valve to apply the direct drive clutch. This "locked" the torque converter, giving direct mechanical drive from the engine to the rear wheels. This became the Ultramatic's definitive feature, eliminating the power-robbing slippage of the torque converter at cruising speeds. On the highway, the Ultramatic delivered the same economy and power as a manual transmission. With the exception of Borg-Warner, in their Studebaker "Automatic Drive", major automotive manufacturers did not generally employ a locking torque converter until nearly thirty years later.

The low ratio was available for climbing and descending hills. When using the low ratio, the torque converter lockup happened at a slightly lower speed, and as a result of the reduction in the rate of the opposing throttle advancement, it helped to eliminate torque converter overheating issues that plagued early automatic transmissions, which because of this advancement were avoided in similar conditions with Ultramatic.

Ratio selection was through a column shift, with a lighted selector quadrant on the steering column showing the range. The positions available were Parking, Neutral, High, Low and Reverse (PNHLR).

After its first year, the Ultramatic Drive became available on all Packard models, and was immediately popular. It continued on, with a Packard program of modifications to improve reliability until 1954, although it was mostly trouble free from the start.

In 1954, Ultramatic underwent a major upgrade to both the power transfer and hydraulic control components, which were reconfigured to give low gear starts automatically in the newly added "Drive" (D) range. Many Packard owners had complained of lackluster acceleration with the earlier Ultramatics, and had discovered that starting off in Low ratio, and switching to High while on the move gave a much brisker pickup. Ultramatic Drive, while durable, handled this manual shift from low to high poorly.

To further illustrate the necessity of this feature, by 1954 both the Borg-Warner and Chevrolet Power-Glide in addition to the aforementioned Hydra-Matic and Chrysler's new PowerFlite performed ratio switches automatically as well (low-to high), while Buick's Dynaflow Drive continued using high gear starts until its demise after the 1963 model year.

1954: Gear-Start Ultramatic Drive
Packard's new Ultramatic model introduced in the middle of the 1954 model year was officially called Gear-Start Ultramatic Drive, offering a new selector sequence on the column shift: 'D', for Drive, placed in between High and Low, with High now represented by a simple dot (PN•DLR). In this new DRIVE range, it would use the low ratio and torque converter to start off, switching to the high ratio and ultimately to direct drive as the car accelerated, effectively automating what many Packard drivers had been doing manually with the older Ultramatic Drive.

During 1954, and into 1955, Packard Motor Car Company, later Studebaker-Packard, went on a modernization spree of its aging facilities. It was decided by Packard President James J. Nance (1952–1956), and his manufacturing Vice-President, Ray Powers (1954–1956), that their East Grand Boulevard complex was no longer able, due to age and deterioration of that facility, to be further modified to handle the expected increase in production for the company in 1955 and beyond. A new facility was therefore planned and built for use by Packard as a transmission and engine facility in Utica, Michigan. This facility was actually built on the N/E corner of Packard Proving Ground Complex on Van Dyke Rd. The facility was sided by both 22 Mile Rd, and Mound. After completion, Packard moved the machinery, and production line for the Ultramatic, as well as its yet to be introduced V-8 engine during the summer and early fall of 1954. This facility therefore produced all 1954 "Gear-Start", 1955 "Twin-Ultramatic", and 1956 Ultramatic derivatives through the fall of 1956 when this facility was deactivated and sold as part of a corporate buyout deal with the Curtiss-Wright Company.

1955: Twin-Ultramatic Drive
In 1955, Packard replaced its long-running straight-8 engine range with an all-new V8 design, and launched a new evolution of its automatic transmission at the same time: the Twin-Ultramatic Drive. McFarland, his assistant John DeLorean, and their team had not been satisfied with the improved pick-up of the Gear-Start Ultramatic, and modified the angle of the converter "pump" to allow a higher stall speed thus increasing the torque multiplication better suited to the torque curve of the new V8 engines. In addition, a slightly higher stall converter was produced for the sportier Caribbean model due to its use of two four-barrel carburetors. The Gear-Start's ability to start in low range and switch to high automatically was retained, but the selector quadrant indicator was altered and PN•DLR became PN'D'LR to better reflect the dual drive range capability of this transmission, all the better to compete with the Dual-Range Hydra-Matic. Functionality was the same; the first Drive position, to left of the 'D equated to High on the Gear-Start Ultramatic, while the second, situated to the right of D', was equivalent to the Drive position on the Gear-Start, giving the driver the option of starting in either High or Low with automatic upshifts, ending with Direct Drive engagement of the torque converter, thus the Twin- designation referred to this dual Drive capability.

The Twin-Ultramatic suffered many "teething problems" when introduced, which did significant damage to Packard's reputation for quality and reliability. However, over the years it's become clear that Packard's initial Twin Ultramatic problems were not out of line with any other new contemporary designs and the engineering department's program of running changes and updates greatly increased its functionality, excepting driver abuse through excessive application of the higher torque V8's power potential. Lower-powered models in the Packard range and those sold to American Motors suffered fewer problems. Exacerbating the difficulties, Packard was hemorrhaging experienced dealerships, which meant that many 1955 Packards were not being maintained to the previous high standards.

Packard offered Twin-Ultramatic in the Packard Clipper, Packard Four Hundred, Packard Patrician, and Packard Caribbean ranges, and sold Twin-Ultramatics to American Motors for use along with their 320ci V8 in top-of-the-line Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models for 1955.

1956: Ultramatic and Touch Button Ultramatic

The year 1956 saw a major redesign of a majority of the individual transmission components, including re-calibration of the shift pattern that produced an improvement of shift control. In addition, there was a nomenclature change which reverted to the original Ultramatic Drive brand name. This year also saw the selector quadrant undergo yet another change to a PNHDLR pattern in order to further clarify the two drive ranges and accommodate the soon to be released push button control pod. In addition, General Motors threatened lawsuits regarding Packard's marketing of "dual drive ranges." Despite its completely different design, GM had been marketing a "Dual-Range Hydra-Matic Drive" since 1953, which also used dual drive range selector pattern.

In addition, small but important changes to shift linkages, better build quality, and stricter tolerances restored Packard levels of reliability to the 1956 transmission. Also new that year was an aluminum transmission casing, making the Ultramatic 90 lb lighter than its competition, including the newly-launched push-button Chrysler PowerFlite. Future transmissions from all manufacturers were to follow Packard's lead.

Ultramatic Drive was offered on the Packard Patrician, Packard Four Hundred, and after its introduction in early 1956, the Packard Executive. It was also available in all Clipper models, which were sold as a separate marque for 1956. They were also supplied to American Motors along with 352ci V8 engines for use in the Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet until AMC replaced Packard's V8 and Ultramatic Drive with their own V8 and Borg-Warner automatic at midyear. Packard also supplied Ultramatic Drive transmissions to its corporate partner Studebaker for use in the 1956 Studebaker Golden Hawk, which also used the Packard 352ci V8 engine.

Packard decided to offer a push-button gear selector for the 1956 series called "Touch Button Ultramatic". Mounted in a rectangular control pod at the end of a thick arm stemming from the right side of the steering column, the Touch Button Ultramatic gear selector used six buttons in two rows of three: The bottom row of buttons offered Park, Reverse, and Drive, while the top row contained the Neutral, Low, and High buttons.

The system was electrically actuated, rather than Chrysler's very reliable mechanical pushbuttons, and was troublesome from the beginning. The electric shift motor, essentially a modified starter motor, proved insufficient to move the car out of Park on a steep hill, and would pop the circuit breaker; electrical contact problems, wiring problems and other issues were prevalent even when new, and worsened with age. Later models saw system improvements. When the contract was cancelled after Packard production ceased, Auto-Lite destroyed the tooling, making spare parts for the system unobtainable.

Touch Button Ultramatic was standard only on the 1956 Packard Caribbean, and a $52 option for the Packard Patrician, Packard Four Hundred, and Packard Executive. It was also available in all Clipper models. It was not offered in AMC or Studebaker models using Packard engines.

Although Detroit-based Packard production ceased after the 1956 model year, Studebaker-Packard Corporation continued to fulfill service obligations to Packard owners, and servicing the 1955 Twin-Ultramatic and 1956 Touchbutton Ultramatic were a continuing liability for the company after the Packard range was discontinued.

Historical perspective
Packard's successful development of its own automatic transmission was unique, as no other independent automaker managed such a feat. The company's worsening financial situation, particularly after its merger with Studebaker, made keeping up with competitors' automatic transmission developments particularly difficult. Packard's attempts to update the Ultramatic in 1954, 1955, and 1956, were not sufficiently tested to eliminate teething troubles at launch. Improvements had to be made as running changes, which damaged the company's once sterling reputation for quality and reliability.

Packard's use of a locking torque converter was not only up to date, but more advanced than its competition at the time. However, the company did not take advantage of the opportunity to supply Ultramatics to Lincoln, Nash, Hudson, and Kaiser-Willys in the wake of the 1953 fire at the Livonia, Michigan GM Hydramatic plant that stopped GM's supply of the transmissions, when the aforementioned marques were left searching for other suppliers. However, Packard would learn from this mistake the following year, when Nash and Hudson merged to form American Motors in May 1954. Packard agreed to supply AMC with its new 320ci V8 and Twin Ultramatic transmission for 1955 in the latter company's top-line Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet ranges, giving both models the modern V8 engine option they desperately needed in order to keep pace with the Big Three. This agreement continued into the 1956 model year, as Packard supplied AMC its 352ci V8s equipped with the newly renamed and refined Ultramatic Drive units for the Ambassador and Hornet, but was canceled midway through the year. Unfortunately, a contract dispute and personality conflicts between George Romney at AMC and James Nance at Studebaker-Packard, led to AMC developing and launching their own, in-house AMC V8 engine range backed by automatic transmissions supplied by Borg-Warner beginning at midyear in 1956. Packard would supply Ultramatic Drive units to Studebaker for use in the 1956 Golden Hawk as a $100 option, as that model came standard with Packard's 352ci V8 engine. Unfortunately, no higher-volume Studebaker models would use either the Packard V8 or Ultramatic Drive before Curtiss-Wright ended production of both in 1956.

Despite the problems of later versions, the transmission worked beautifully under the use conditions it was designed for. Packard's Gear-Start Ultramatic (1954), Twin Ultramatic (1955), and Ultramatic Drive (1956), struggled to reliably automate the low to high gear shift transition. Adding a poorly timed high clutch application and low band release over much of the allowable up-shift range resulted in many premature high clutch failures. This situation resulted in an unusual sensitivity to individual driving habits determining useful clutch life. Therefore, while the transmission was designed to physically accept a high torque V8, its control system needed further development. Packard's plans for upgrading the Ultramatic Drive further were in development for 1957 and beyond. These plans were shelved, however, when Studebaker-Packard was taken over by Curtiss-Wright in Spring 1956. Curtiss-Wright's management permanently discontinued Ultramatic production and sold the plant and tooling to raise cash for the beleaguered company at the same time they shut down production of Packard cars in Detroit.

With no Packard V8s or Ultramatic transmissions being made thereafter, Studebaker would replace the 1956 Golden Hawk's Packard V8 with a supercharged version of its own 289ci V8, and its accompanying Ultramatic Drive was replaced by Borg-Warner's Flightomatic transmission, beginning in the 1957 model year. This powertrain combination would also be used on the 1957 and 1958 Packard ranges of Studebaker-based models, in lieu of the Packard V8 and Ultramatic.

title: Ultramatic


text: User talk:64.229.238.231

title: User talk:64.229.238.231


text:
Hatazō Adachi

Hatazō Adachi (安達 二十三) was a general and war criminal in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II.

Early career
Adachi was born into an impoverished family, originally descended from samurai, in Ishikawa Prefecture in 1890 (the 23rd year of the reign of Emperor Meiji, which is why his father, who had been a professional officer in the Japanese military, chose the kanji for "23" to represent his given name "Hatazō"). Too poor to afford the military preparatory schools necessary for a career in the Imperial Japanese Navy, as a youth he tested into the fiercely competitive Tokyo Cadet Academy, which enabled him to enter the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, from which he graduated from the 22nd class in 1910.

Adachi served with the 1st Imperial Guards Division, and then graduated from the 34th class of the Army War College in 1922. Unlike many Army officers of his day, Adachi avoided involvement in the political factions which plagued the Japanese Army in the 1930s. After serving in a number of staff and administrative positions within the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, Adachi was assigned to the Railway Guard unit of the Kwantung Army, responsible for the security of the South Manchuria Railway in 1933.

Second Sino-Japanese War
Adachi was promoted to colonel in 1934, and was given command of the IJA 12th Infantry Regiment in 1936. During the Shanghai Incident of July 1937, Adachi also gained a reputation of leading his troops from the front, where the fighting was the thickest. He was injured by a mortar barrage in September, which permanently damaged his right leg.

He was promoted to major general in 1938, and promoted to commander of the IJA 26th Infantry Brigade. Adachi had a reputation as a "soldier's general", sharing the miserable living conditions of his troops and welcoming open discussion with his officer and staff.

Promoted to lieutenant general in August 1940, he was commander of the IJA 37th Division at the Battle of South Shanxi. In 1940, he became a Chief of staff of the North China Area Army from 1941 to 1942, during the height of its scorched earth campaigns against the Chinese forces.

Pacific War
On 9 November 1942, Adachi was appointed commander in chief of the newly formed 18th Army on Rabaul and the north coast of New Guinea from 1942 to 1945. The 18th Army contained the IJA 20th Division and IJA 41st Division, both of which arrived safely. However, the IJA 51st Division, including Adachi and his senior staff, came under Allied air attack while en route from Rabaul to Lae, in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea. All eight transport ships and four destroyers were sunk with the loss of 3,664 men, and only 2,427 men of the division were rescued.

With the defeat of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Solomon Islands campaign, and with landings of US forces led by Douglas MacArthur at Aitape and Hollandia from 22 to 27 April 1944, the vast majority of Adachi's forces became isolated. His forces, suffering from malaria, heat exhaustion and malnutrition were rendered ineffective for the remainder of the war, despite Adachi's efforts to achieve some form of self-sufficiency by planting crops and giving priority in rations to the sick. As ammunition began to run low, many of Adachi's commanders resorted to banzai charges against the Allied beachhead at Aitape rather than surrender. By the end of the war in September 1945, most of his forces had been annihilated. Of Adachi's original 140,000 men, barely 13,000 were still alive when the war ended. He surrendered to the Australian 6th Division at Cape Wom, by Wewak, New Guinea.

Postwar

At the end of the war, Adachi was taken into custody by the Australian government and charged with war crimes in connection with mistreatment and arbitrary execution of prisoners of war. Although not personally involved in any of the atrocities mentioned, Adachi insisted on absorbing command responsibility for the actions of his subordinates during the military tribunal. On 12 July 1947 he was sentenced to imprisonment for life. On 10 September that year he killed himself in his quarters with a paring knife in the prisoners' compound at Rabaul, having first written a number of letters.

In one of these, addressed to those officers and men of the Eighteenth Army who were then in the compound, he said: ""I felt it a great honour to have been appointed the C-in-C in November 1942, at a time when the issue of the day was to be settled, and posted to the point of strategic importance in order to ensure that the tide of war moved in our favour. I was thankful for that appointment. However, notwithstanding the fact that my officers and men did their best in the exceptional circumstances, surmounting all difficulties, and that my superiors gave the utmost assistance, the hoped-for end was not attained, because of my inability. Thus I paved the way for my country to be driven into the present predicament. The crime deserves death. During the past three years of operations more than 100,000 youthful and promising officers and men were lost and most of them died of malnutrition. When I think of this, I know not what apologies to make to His Majesty the Emperor and I feel that I myself am overwhelmed with shame. . . . I have demanded perseverance far exceeding the limit of man's endurance of my officers and men, who were exhausted and emaciated as a result of successive campaigns and for want of supplies. However, my officers and men all followed my orders in silence without grumbling, and, when exhausted, they succumbed to death just like flowers falling in the winds. God knows how I felt when I saw them dying, my bosom being filled with pity for them, though it was solely to their country that they dedicated their lives. At that time I made up my mind not to set foot on my country's soil again but to remain as a clod of earth in the Southern Seas with the 100,000 officers and men, even if a time should come when I would be able to return to my country in triumph.""

title: Hatazō Adachi


text:
West Portal station

West Portal station is a Muni Metro station in the West Portal neighborhood in San Francisco, California. It is built around the western entrance to the Twin Peaks Tunnel. The station consists of two side platforms, with the entrance at the western end. A non-accessible footbridge connects the platforms inside fare control.

History
Opening in 1918, the station originally was similar to a regular curbside stop at the entrance to the tunnel. But when streetcar system was partially converted to light rail in the late 1970s, the existing underground metro station was built in its place. The BART Board approved the name "West Portal" in December 1965.

On July 18, 2009, the West Portal station was the scene of a collision between a K Ingleside train and a L Taraval train. An estimated 44 people were injured.

The station was temporarily closed from June 25 to August 24, 2018, during the Twin Peaks Tunnel shutdown. A crossover just east of West Portal station, installed during the shutdown, was named the Malcolm Heinicke Crossover after a former SFMTA board member in July 2020.

West Portal is a bottleneck for Muni Metro trains in all directions, as automobiles blocking train traffic momentarily can cause cascading delays. During the shutdown, new switches and a new control panel were installed to improve manual operation of the intersection. In 2019, parking control officers were assigned to direct traffic through the unsignaled intersection, which reduced delays by 40%.

As part of August 2020 changes to Muni Metro, the K and L were through-routed as an all-surface line, with frequent S Shuttle service between West Portal and Embarcadero. Mini-high platforms were constructed on Ulloa Street at West Portal to provide accessible transfer between the K/L and subway trains. The forced transfer at West Portal was criticized by disability advocates.

On March 16, 2024, a motorist in an SUV crashed into the L Taraval bus stop at the station, killing a family of four. In April 2024, the city announced plans for changes to the intersection including transit lanes and turn restrictions. On July 16, 2024, the SFMTA approved a modified package of changes that included fewer transit lanes and turn restrictions, as well as a redesign of the "horseshoe" area at the station entrance into a pedestrian plaza.

title: West Portal station


text:
Galt, Ontario

Galt is a community in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada, in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Ontario on the Grand River. Prior to 1973, it was an independent city, incorporated in 1915, but amalgamation with the village of Hespeler, the town of Preston and the village of Blair formed the new municipality of Cambridge. Being the largest constituent community in the city, it is commonly seen as the downtown core of Cambridge. The first mayor of Cambridge was Claudette Millar.

There was considerable resistance among the local population to this "shotgun marriage" arranged by the provincial government and a healthy sense of rivalry had always governed relations among the three communities. Even today, many residents identify Galt, Preston, and Hespeler as still being cities or towns in their own right. Each unique centre has its own history that is well documented in the Cambridge City Archives.

No current population data is available for the former Galt since the Census reports cover only the full area of Cambridge.

The former Galt covers the largest portion of the amalgamated municipality, making up the southern half of the city. It is located on the Grand River and has a very long history as an industrialized area. The former Preston and Blair are located on the western side of the city, while the former Hespeler is in the most northeasterly section of Cambridge.

History
In the late 1700s, developers began to buy land around the Grand River from the Six Nations Indians who were led by Joseph Brant. One speculator, William Dickson, a wealthy immigrant from Scotland, bought 90000 acre of land along the Grand River in 1816; this was later to become Galt and the Dumfries Townships. Dickson divided the land and advertised in Scotland for immigrants; many were attracted and arrived in what is now Galt, primarily from Roxburghshire and Selkirkshire. Dickson sold lots to these new settlers. The centre of the planned community was at the junction of Mill Creek and the Grand River, then called Shade's Mills.

Absalom Shade, a carpenter from Pennsylvania, was hired in 1816 by William Dickson to manage his lands in Dumfries Township. He later operated a general store, a mill and a distillery in Shade's Mills, which later became Galt. In 1819, he built a small bridge over the Grand River to serve customers on the other side; it lasted until 1832. Shade also supplied food and built roads for the Canada Company. He helped establish the Grand River Navigation Company to help transport goods along the river, as well as the Gore Bank in Hamilton. Shade also helped develop railways in the area and was among those who built Galt's Trinity Anglican Church in 1844.

Dickson decided to name the Post Office Galt, in honour of John Galt of the Canada Company which was developing this entire area. Primarily agricultural in early years, Galt had attracted industry by 1840 and became the largest town in the Grand River area until the early 1900s. Galt was incorporated as a village in 1850, as a town in 1857 and as a city in 1915. Throughout that entire period, it continued to grow based on a large industrial base.

The Canadian Gazetteer of 1846 discussed the community's water power which was essential to power the local industries which were making the area prosperous. At the time the population was about 1000, most originally from Scotland. There were five churches, a weekly newspaper, a fire department, a public library, a bank and a curling club. The post office received mail every day. Industries already in operation included "two grist mills (each containing four run of stones), two saw mills, two foundries, two carding machines and cloth factories, one brewery, two distilleries, one tannery..." A foundry had also opened on Grand Avenue, initially as Dumfries Foundry which would later become Goldie & McCulloch, a major manufacturer of safes, wood working machinery and engines powered by steam or by gasoline. It would continue as a major operation under several other owners until 2000.

The largest of the early schools in the community, the Galt Grammar School, opened in 1852 with William Tassie as headmaster starting in 1853 at the site of what later became the Galt Collegiate. The school gained widespread recognition and attracted students from across North America. By 1872, it had been recognized as a Collegiate Institute.

Galt incorporated as a town on January 1, 1857, with Morris C. Lutz elected as the first mayor. By 1858, a "Town Hall and Market House" had been built with an "Italianate", particularly Tuscan, influence. In later years, the Town Hall became the City Hall and was extensively modified. Galt was incorporated as a city in 1915.

The population in 1869 was 4000 and the community was said to be one of the principal manufacturing locations in Ontario. The railway reached Galt in 1879, increasing the opportunities of exporting local goods and importing others. In 1889, the former Dickson Mill on the Grand River was converted to a hydro electric plant which operated until July 1911 when a power grid from Niagara Falls reached the community.

In the early 1870s, the Credit Valley Railway planned to implement several lines running west and north from Toronto and in 1873, built freight and passenger buildings in Galt. By 1879, the company had installed a bridge crossing the river and in December completed a preliminary test run with a train; it was successful. The CVR venture was not long-lived however, and in 1883, the line was taken over by the Canadian Pacific Railway which built a brick passenger building that still stands.

A new streetcar system, the Galt, Preston and Hespeler electric railway, (later called the Grand River Railway Company) would begin operation in 1894, connecting Preston and Galt. In 1911, the line reached Hespeler, Berlin (later called Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover. The electric rail system ended passenger services in April, 1955.

Not long after Galt had become part of Cambridge, in May 1974, flooding on the Grand River filled city streets with water to a depth of about four feet. In some areas of the downtown core, the depth was 17.4 feet, smashing windows and carrying goods along the streets. Approximately 75 businesses were affected, with virtually none covered by relevant insurance. The flood caused an estimated $5 million in damage.

The Dickson Hill Heritage Conservation District, also known as Old West Galt, is an affluent neighbourhood full of stately homes from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, found on the western side of the Grand River in West Galt.

Government
The local government is the Cambridge City Council consisting of a mayor and eight councillors, each representing a ward. Cambridge is also represented on the higher-tier Waterloo Regional Council which consists of the Regional Chair, the Mayors of the seven cities and townships, and eight additional Councilors - four from Kitchener and two each from Cambridge and Waterloo. Ken Seiling has held the position of Regional Chair since 1985.

Cambridge is represented in Ottawa by Bryan May (Liberal), the federal member of Parliament who defeated the previous incumbent MP (Gary Goodyear, Conservative – 2004 to 2015) in the October 2015 election.

The MPP for Cambridge is Brian Riddell of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, who was first elected to this position in 2022.

Municipal services
Galt was an independent city in Waterloo County, Ontario until 1973 when amalgamation created the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. At that time, Galt was amalgamated into the new city of Cambridge. The Region handles many services, including Police, waste management, community health, transit, recreation, planning, roads and social services.

The Region consists of the cities of Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo, and the townships of Woolwich, Wilmot, Wellesley, and North Dumfries.

Public transportation
Since 2000, local and regional transit throughout the Region of Waterloo has been provided by Grand River Transit (GRT), which was created by a merger of the former Cambridge Transit and Kitchener Transit.

GRT operates a number of routes in Cambridge, four of which travel outside of the city: presently the 52, 61, and 72 buses run to southern Kitchener.

The Ainslie St. Transit Terminal in Galt was the southern terminus of GRT's original iXpress route (later rebranded as the 200 iXpress after the addition of more routes), which ran through all three cities in the Region of Waterloo before terminating in the north at the Conestoga Mall terminal (later renamed Conestoga station) in Waterloo. The route was launched in 2005 as a part of the Regional Growth Management Strategy, which called for greater densification of urban cores, and was considered an intermediary step while more long-term rapid transit plans were still maturing.

In June 2009 Regional Council voted to approve a plan to construct a light rail line, which has been named the Ion rapid transit. The first phase would run from Conestoga Mall in the north of Waterloo, to Fairview Park Mall in the south of Kitchener, while the second phase of the line would run from Fairview Mall to the Galt area of Cambridge. Mayor Doug Craig was a determined opponent of the plan, arguing that an expanded express bus system would be just as effective but much less expensive. By late February 2017, the Kitchener-Waterloo portion was well into the final phase of construction, but plans for the Cambridge section of the LRT were still in the very early stage. Public consultations were just getting started at the time. Three routes had been agreed on in 2011, with eight "endorsed" stops: at Fairway, Sportsworld, Preston, Pinebush, Cambridge Centre Mall, Can-Amera, Delta and Ainslie Street Terminal. Three others were still being considered.

As the launch of light rail service approached, Grand River Transit began to lay the groundwork for the transition from iXpress to Ion service by renaming the 200 iXpress to the 200 iXpress/ION Bus Rapid Transit. On Monday, 24 June 2019, three days after the launch of Ion light rail between Conestoga station in Waterloo and Fairway station in Kitchener, the 200 iXpress route was discontinued. Its southern section running through Cambridge was replaced with the 302 ION Bus route, terminating in the north at Fairway station, with riders able to continue on the light rail system as a linear transfer. As of June 2019, the Region of Waterloo planned for the 302 ION Bus to ultimately be replaced by an extension of the light rail line to Galt.

Education

Public English-language schooling is provided by the Waterloo Region District School Board, which operates 26 elementary and five secondary schools in Cambridge. The most notable high school is the Galt Collegiate Institute and Vocational School, which is over 150 years old.

Publicly funded Catholic education is available through schools operated by the Waterloo Catholic District School Board.

The University of Waterloo School of Architecture campus is located in Cambridge in the Riverside Silk Mill, also known as the Tiger Brand Building. Inside there is a theatre, a fitness room, and the gallery "Design at Riverside", which is one of two publicly funded galleries dedicated to architecture in Canada. The School of Architecture is home to 380 students who live, study, and learn within the Cambridge community.

Notable people

 * Margaret Avison, poet
 * Florence Carlyle, artist
 * Gordon Guggisberg, army officer and colonial administrator
 * Mike Moffat, ice hockey goaltender
 * Georgina Fraser Newhall, writer
 * Gord Renwick, ice hockey administrator
 * Ron Shaver, figure skating champion

title: Galt, Ontario