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Collection of Sacred Hymns (Kirtland, Ohio)

A Collection of Sacred Hymns, for the Church of the Latter Day Saints. was the first hymnal of the Latter Day Saint movement. It was published in 1835 by the Church of the Latter Day Saints.

Early LDS Hymns
In July 1830, Joseph Smith stated he received a revelation from God for his wife, Emma, to select hymns for the Church of Christ:

And it shall be given thee, also, to make a selection of sacred hymns, as it shall be given thee, which is pleasing unto me, to be had in my church. For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart; yea, the song of the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a blessing upon their heads.

Initially, it seems that this revelation was interpreted to mean that Emma Smith was commanded to select which hymns were appropriate for use in the worship services of Latter Day Saints and not necessarily to compile a hymnbook. Due in part to this ambiguity in the revelation and in part to persecutions and the constant uprooting of the church in those early days, she was not able to compile a hymnbook for several years. However, in the meantime, other followers continued to write, arrange, and collect hymns.

The first Latter-day Saint hymns were published by W. W. Phelps in June, 1832 in Independence, Missouri. These appeared as text only (no music) in The Evening and the Morning Star, the church's semimonthly newspaper. Many of these lyrics were written by Phelps, while others were borrowed from various Protestant sources and edited by Phelps. The first of these hymns published by Phelps was "What Fair One Is This".

On July 20, 1833, a mob destroyed the church's printing office in Independence, and the publication of the Star was moved to Kirtland, Ohio – the headquarters of the church at that time. In December, 1834, The Evening and the Morning Star was replaced by a new publication: The Messenger and Advocate. Phelps continued to write and collect hymn texts, with assistance from Frederick G. Williams and others.

Collection of Sacred Hymns
On September 14, 1835, at a meeting of the high council and the First Presidency at Kirtland, Emma Smith was again counseled to begin compiling a hymnbook in a joint effort with W. W. Phelps:

It was further decided that Sister Emma Smith proceed to make a selection of Sacred Hymns, according to the revelation; and that President W.W. Phelps be appointed to revise and arrange them for printing.

Emma Smith selected 90 hymn texts for the hymnal, 35 of which were written by Latter-day Saints. Many of these texts were revised or corrected by W. W. Phelps to fit with the theology of the early Latter Day Saint church.

The title page states 1835 as the publication date, but because of the printing of the Doctrine and Covenants the same year, printing of the hymnal was not completed until February 1836.

The book is small – just 3" by 4$1/2$" in size. An indication of the poverty of the church members in Kirtland at that time is that the hymnal was published in "sexadecimal" form, the least expensive publishing format for books in those days: sixteen pages were printed on both sides of a single sheet, which was then folded, cut, and sewn into the leather binding. Thus, the entire hymnbook could be printed on just four large sheets of paper. The completed hymnal contained ninety hymns, but only the words were included. As a result, today it is difficult to determine which tunes were used with many of the hymn texts.

Although the book was printed in 1836, it is still referred to as the "1835 hymnal" because of the publication date on the title page. The Kirtland printing of the hymnbook was probably very small – perhaps 500 copies at most. Today, original copies of this hymnbook are extremely rare; less than a dozen are known to exist. On December 5, 2006, an original 1835 hymnal was sold at Christie's Auction House in New York City for $273,600.

The English-language hymnal used by Latter-day Saints today contains 26 songs from this original LDS hymanal, including “The Spirit of God” and “I Know That My Redeemer Lives.”

Sacred Hymns
Know then that ev’ry soul is free (Joseph Proud)† Let ev’ry mortal ear attend (Isaac Watts) What fair one is this (?Samuel Hutchinson; alt. William W. Phelps) Glorious things of thee are spoken (John Newton)† The time is nigh, that happy time (Rebecca Voke) Redeemer of Israel (William W. Phelps; adapt. from Joseph Swain)†§ See all creation join (Isaac Watts; alt. William W. Phelps) O happy souls who pray (Isaac Watts; alt. William W. Phelps)
From the regions of glory (Anon.; alt. William W. Phelps)

'''He died! The great Redeemer died''' (Isaac Watts; alt. William W. Phelps)†

Earth with her ten thousand flowers (Thomas R. Taylor)†

Praise to God, immortal praise (Anna L. Barbauld)

Guide us, O thou great Jehovah (William Williams; alt. William W. Phelps)†

We’re not ashamed to own our Lord (William W. Phelps; adapt. from Isaac Watts)†

Joy to the World (Isaac Watts; adapt. William W. Phelps)†§

An angel came down from the mansions (William W. Phelps)

To him that made the world (William W. Phelps)

	Now let us rejoice (William W. Phelps)†

Ere long the vail will rend in twain (Anon.)

My soul is full of peace and love (William W. Phelps)

The happy day has rolled on (Philo Dibble)†

The great and glorious gospel light (Frederick G. Williams)

This earth was once a garden place (William W. Phelps)†

Gently raise the sacred strain (William W. Phelps)†

When Joseph his brethren beheld (John Newton)

Now we’ll sing with one accord (William W. Phelps)†

Through all the world below (Elder Hibard)

The sun that declines in the far western sky (Anon.)

The towers of Zion soon shall rise (William W. Phelps)

Let all the saints their hearts prepare (Anon.)

Let us pray, gladly pray (William W. Phelps)

'''Awake, O ye people! the Savior is coming''' (William W. Phelps)

What wond’rous things we now behold (Anon.)

There is a land the Lord will bless (William W. Phelps)

There’s a feast of fat things for the righteous (William W. Phelps)

There’s a power in the sun (Anon.)

Morning Hymns

Lord in the morning thou shalt hear (Isaac Watts)

Once more, my soul, the rising day (Isaac Watts)

See how the morning sun (Elizabeth Scott)

My God, how endless is thy love (Isaac Watts)

'''Awake! for the morning is come''' (William W. Phelps)

Awake, my soul, and with the sun (Thomas Ken)

Evening Hymns

Come let us sing an evening hymn (William W. Phelps)†

Lord thou wilt hear me when I pray (Isaac Watts)

Glory to thee, my God, this night (Thomas Ken)

'''Great God! to thee my evening song''' (Anne Steele)†

When restless on my bed I lie (Gerard T. Noel)

The day is past and gone (John Leland)

Farewell Hymns

The gallant ship is under way (Richard Huie)

Farewell, our friends and brethren (William W. Phelps)

Yes, my native land, I love thee (Samuel F. Smith)

Adieu, my dear brethren adieu (Seth Mattison)

On Baptism

Come ye children of the kingdom(Anon.)

Jesus Mighty King in Zion (John Fellows)

In Jordan’s tide the prophet stands (John Fellows)§

Salem’s bright King, Jesus by name(Anon.)

On Sacrament

O God th’eternal Father (William W. Phelps)†

’Twas on that dark, that solemn night (Isaac Watts)

Arise, my soul, arise (Charles Wesley)

Behold the Savior of mankind (Samuel Wesley Sr.)

Alas! and did my Savior bleed (Isaac Watts)

On Marriage

When earth was dress’d in beauty (Anon.)

Miscellaneous

O stop and tell me, Red Man (William W. Phelps)

And did my Savior die (Anon.)

Come all ye sons of Zion (William W. Phelps; adapt. from Caleb J. Taylor)†

Let Zion in her beauty rise (Edward Partridge; adapt. from John A. Granade)†

Jesus the name that charms our fears (Charles Wesley)

Come all ye saints, who dwell on earth (William W. Phelps)†

God spake the word, and time began (William W. Phelps)

Great is the Lord: ’tis good to praise (Eliza R. Snow)†

The glorious day is rolling on (Eliza R. Snow)

Before this earth from chaos sprung (Anon.)

Thy mercy, my God, is the theme of my song (John Stocker)

From Greenland’s icy mountains (Reginald Heber)

'''O Jesus! the giver of all we enjoy''' (Anon.)

In ancient days men fear’d the Lord

'''Mortals, awake! with angels join''' (Samuel Medley)

The Lord into his garden comes (Anon.)

I know that my Redeemer lives (Samuel Medley)†§

How often in sweet meditation, my mind (Anon.)

Let thy kingdom, blessed Savior (Anon.)

How firm a foundation (K.)†

How pleasant ’tis to see (Isaac Watts)

How pleased and blest was I (Isaac Watts)

Though in the outward church below (John Newton)

'''O God! our help in ages past''' (Isaac Watts)†§

'''Hark! from the tombs a doleful sound''' (Isaac Watts)

Why do we mourn for dying friends (Isaac Watts)

Why should we start and fear to die! (Isaac Watts)

The Spirit of God like a fire is burning (William W. Phelps)†§

† Included in the 1985 LDS Hymnal

§ Included in the 2013 Community of Christ Sings hymnal

Prior Publication of LDS Hymns
Many of the hymns which had previously been published in The Evening and the Morning Star were inserted into the 1835 hymnal as a block, almost exactly in the same order as their earlier publication. Eleven of the hymns were also published in The Messenger and Advocate between December 1834 and January 1836:


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John Newlands

John Newlands may refer to:
 * John Newlands (chemist) (1837–1898), English analytical chemist
 * John Newlands (Australian politician) (1864–1932), Australian Senator
 * John Newlands (Canadian politician) (1889–19??), politician in Ontario, Canada

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Newlands


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Landsat 3

Landsat 3 is the third satellite of the Landsat program. It was launched on March 5, 1978, with the primary goal of providing a global archive of satellite imagery. Unlike later Landsat satellites, Landsat 3 was managed solely by NASA. Landsat 3 decommissioned on September 7, 1983, beyond its design life of one year. The data collected during Landsat 3's lifetime was used by 31 countries. Countries that cannot afford their own satellite are able to use the data for ecological preservation efforts and to determine the location of natural resources.

Background
The first satellite of the Landsat program, Landsat 1 (originally designated ERTA-1), took and transmitted over 100,000 photos during its lifetime.

Landsat 3 (originally designated Landsat C) was the third satellite launched as a part of the Landsat program, and the last Landsat satellite managed by NASA. The satellite had a very similar designs to Landsat 1 and Landsat 2.

Development
Landsat 3 was built by GE Aerospace. The objective of Landsat 3 was to extend the period of space data acquisition for Earth resources by Landsat 1 and Landsat 2. Landsat 3 was to obtain information on agricultural and forestry resources, geology and mineral resources, hydrology and water resources, geography, cartography, environmental pollution, oceanography and marine resources, and meteorological phenomena.

Attitude control system (ACS)
The spacecraft used an attitude control system (ACS) with freon gas as the propellant. Combined with horizon scanners, Sun sensors, and a command antenna, the ACS was able to control the spacecraft in all three axes to plus or minus one degree.

Data collection systems (DCS)
The satellite also carried two wide-band video tape recorders (WBVTR) capable of storing up to 30 minutes of scanner or camera data, giving the spacecraft's sensors a near-global coverage capability. Video was transmitted back to Earth in both real time and from the recorders at 2265.5 MHz.

The satellite was also equipped with a data collection system (DCS) to collect information from remote, individually equipped ground stations and to relay the data to central acquisition stations. The DCS was composed of three different collection methods. The first was the data collection platforms (DCPs), which could consist of ocean buoys, constant pressure balloons, or automatic ground stations. The second was the satellite equipment, and the third the ground data centers. Due to the orbit of the satellite, data could be obtained at a minimum of every 12 hours. No data processing or signal multiplexing occurred on the satellite. The design of the DCS came from the Nimbus-3 platform, then known as the interrogation, recording, and location system (IRLS).

Multispectral Scanner (MSS)
Landsat 3 carried a Multispectral Scanner, built by Hughes Aircraft Corporation. The sensor weighed 64 kg, required 50 W of power, and had a maximum 75 m resolution. It was made up of a double reflector telescope, scanning mirror, and detectors. The primary mission of the MSS was to obtain data for agriculture, forestry, geology, and hydrology, but the MSS could also collect information for oceanography and meteorology purposes.

The MSS had five spectral bands, which is one more than Landsat 1 and 2. Each spectral band had different scientific uses. Band 4 primarily investigated areas of water, with the ability to detect sediment laden areas and areas of shallow water. Band 5 was primarily used to identify cultural features. Band 6 sensed the vegetation boundaries between land, water, and landforms. Band 7 was the most proficient at sensing through atmospheric haze, and identified water and land boundaries, vegetation, and landforms. The scene size for the scanners of the MSS was 170 km to 185 km, which is the area the sensors could survey per scan. The ground sampling interval of the MSS was 57 m to 79 m, which is medium resolution. Unlike the previous two Landsat missions, a thermal band was built into Landsat 3's MSS, but this instrument failed shortly after the satellite was deployed on July 11, 1978. The thermal band would have enabled the MSS to have remote sensing capabilities during the night.

Return Beam Vidicon (RBV)
The Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) was designed at RCA in Princeton, New Jersey. It contained two cameras to cover the 0.53 to 0.75 micrometer spectral band. The cameras were structurally isolated from the satellite so that they could maintain their alignment. Each camera was triggered every 12.5 seconds so that the images would overlap in the direction the spacecraft was moving. The cameras each had a 98 km square viewing range, and combined the range was 185 km. The cameras contained an optical lens, RBV sensor, thermoelectric cooler, deflection and focus coils, a mechanical shutter, and erase lamps. Landsat 3's RBV had a resolution of 40 m, which was twice the resolution of Landsat 1's 80 m.

Launch
The 960 kg Landsat 3 was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California on March 5, 1978. It was placed into a Sun-synchronous, near polar orbit at an inclination of 99.1 degrees and an altitude of 570 mi. Landsat 3 completed 14 orbits of the Earth daily, and its cycle repeated every 18 days.

Operations
Landsat 3's MSS had five spectral bands, but one failed shortly after launch. The satellite was placed in standby mode on March 31, 1983. Landsat 3 was decommissioned on September 7, 1983.

Results
The data from Landsat 3 was used by over 400 programs in 31 countries. Countries that could not afford their own satellite used the data to discover and monitor resources that they would have not been capable of otherwise. For example, Bolivia spent $10,000 on data which was used to discover vast lithium deposits, while United States companies have invested more than $136 million for further exploration. Kenya used the data to monitor grazing conditions and to help lion and cheetah preservation efforts, and Pakistan used the data to decide where to dredge the river delta to build a new port.

Specific locations for Landsat 3's data can be found by using the World Reference System (WRS). To find any specific location on Earth, a row and path number are required; for example, Row 60 is at the equator. Landsat 1-3 use WRS-1, but Landsats 4 and after used WRS-2.

title: Landsat 3


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Talk:Melbourne Cricket Ground

The MCG isn't a stadium
Hey can you edit it so it says arena or oval instead of stadium the MCG can't be a stadium as it isn;t ine — Preceding unsigned comment added by 210.50.250.155 (talk) 06:16, 1 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I know what you mean, but Wikipedia tends to use language the way Americans use it. The stadium article says "A stadium...is a place or venue for (mostly) outdoor sports, concerts, or other events and consists of a field or stage either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event." That's a very accurate description of the G. HiLo48 (talk) 06:53, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Melbourne Cricket Ground


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Pam Bricker

Pamela Carroll Bricker (July 7, 1954 – February 20, 2005) was a jazz singer and professor of music at George Washington University. She was a frequent collaborator and guest vocalist with the group Thievery Corporation, and the voice on their track "Lebanese Blonde", which was popularized by its inclusion on Zach Braff's Garden State soundtrack. She was also a member of Mad Romance vocal quartet from 1983–1989. Bricker was frequently nominated for Washington Area Music Association (WAMA) honors and won as best contemporary jazz vocalist in 1999, 2000 and 2001, and best contemporary jazz album in 2001 for U-topia.

In 2005, Bricker died due to suicide by hanging. On May 2, 2006, Thievery Corporation released one of Pam's last recordings, "The Passing Stars", on iTunes to raise money for Chernobyl Children's Project International and Children of Chernobyl Relief and Development Fund. In 2007, Bricker was given WAMA's "Special Appreciation" award. Her long-time musical partner, Wayne Wilentz (with whom she recorded U-Topia), presented the award.

title: Pam Bricker


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Acoemetae

Acoemetae (also spelled Acoemeti or Akoimetoi   ) was an order of Eastern Christian (Greek or Basilian ) monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission day or night. This was done by dividing the communities into choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. The alternating choirs came in three groups by liturgical language: Greek, Latin, and probably Syriac.

History
The Acoemetae order was founded in about 425, by the monk Alexander the Acoemete. He was of noble birth, originally from the Greek archipelago, and had ties to Messalianism. Alexander was supported by the people and monks such as Hypatius of Bithynia, as well as the empress Pulcheria. He changed residence many times, once fleeing from the court of Byzantium to the desert, both from love of solitude and fear of episcopal honours. The first monastery of Acoemetae was established on the Euphrates, in the beginning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in Constantinople, with three hundred monks. The enterprise, however, proved difficult, owing to the hostility of Patriarch Nestorius and Emperor Theodosius. Driven from the monastery of Saint Mennas which he had reared in the city, and thrown with his monks on the hospitality of Hypatius, abbot of Rufiniana, he finally succeeded in building at the mouth of the Black Sea the monastery of Gomon, where he died, about 430.

Alexander's successor, Abbot John, founded on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus, opposite Sosthenion, the Irenaion, always referred to in ancient documents as the "great monastery" or motherhouse of the Acoemetae. In Constantinople, under the third abbot, hegumen, when the hostility of Patriarch and Emperor had somewhat subsided, Studius, a former consul, founded the famous Studium monastery in c. 460. Marcellus provided the first monks for the Studium in 463. The Studium was put in the hands of the Acoemetae and became their chief house, so that they were sometimes called Studites.

At Agaunum (St Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Burgundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion with the Eastern Acoemetae. Later, chiefly under Abbot Theodore (759-826), the Studium became a centre of learning as well as piety, and brought to a culmination the glory of the order. On the other hand, the very glamour of the new "Studites" gradually cast into the shade the old Acoemetae. The feature that distinguished the Acoemetae from the other Basilian monks was the uninterrupted service of God. Their monasteries, which numbered hundreds of inmates and sometimes went into the thousand, were distributed in national groups, Latins, Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians; and each group into as many choirs as the membership permitted and the service required.

Liturgy
With them the divine office was the literal carrying out of Psalm 119:164: "Seven times a day have I given praise to Thee," consisting as it did of seven hours: ὀρθρινόν, τρίτη, ἐκτη, ἐνάτη, λυχνικόν, πρωθύπνιον, μεσονύκτιον, which through Benedict of Nursia passed into the Western Church under the equivalent names of prime, tierce, sext, none, vespers, compline, matins (nocturns) and lauds. The influence of the Acoemetae on Christian life was considerable. The splendour of their religious services largely contributed to shape the liturgy, but their library and overall culture might have had an even bigger influence. Even before the time of the Studites, the copying of manuscripts was in honour among the Acoemetae, and the library of the "Great Monastery," consulted even by the Roman Pontiffs, is the first mentioned by the historians of Byzantium.

Relationship with Rome
The Constantinopolitan Acoemetae took a prominent part in the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries; first those raised by Nestorius and Eutyches, and later, in the controversies of the Icons. At first, they strongly supported the Holy See in the schism of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, who attempted compromise with the monophysites. The Acoemetae supported Rome in defending the Chalcedonian Confession, but after continued to insist on the Three Chapters, their importance diminished after 534. In Justinian's reign in the sixth century, the Acoemetae fell under ecclesiastical censure for Nestorian tendencies. Consequentially, their loyalty to Rome was marred, and they were excommunicated by Pope John II. But it was considered "the error of a few" (quibusdam paucis monachis, says a contemporary document), and it could not seriously detract from the praise given their order by the Roman Synod of 484: "Thanks to your true piety towards God, to your zeal ever on the watch, and to a special gift of the Holy Ghost, you discern the just from the impious, the faithful from the miscreants, the Catholics from the heretics." The Studites supported the Holy See in the schism of Photius.

title: Acoemetae


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title: Template:FRA


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Battle of 73 Easting

The Battle of 73 Easting was fought on 26 February 1991, during the Gulf War, between Coalition armored forces (US VII Corps and UK 1st Armoured Division) and Iraqi armored forces (Republican Guard and Tawakalna Division). It was named for a UTM north–south coordinate line (an "Easting", measured in kilometers and readable on GPS receivers) that was used as a phase line by Coalition forces to measure their progress through the desert. The battle was later described by Lt. John Mecca, a participant, as "the last great tank battle of the 20th century." This battle took place several hours after another, smaller, tank battle at Al Busayyah.

The main U.S. unit in the battle was the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (2nd ACR), a 4,500 man reconnaissance and security element assigned to VII Corps. It consisted of three ground squadrons (1st, 2nd and 3rd), an attack helicopter squadron (4th), and a support squadron. Each ground squadron was made up of three cavalry troops, a tank company, a self-propelled howitzer battery, and a headquarters troop. Each troop comprised 120 soldiers, 12–13 M3 Bradley fighting vehicles and nine M1A1 Abrams main battle tanks. Task Force 1-41 Infantry breached the berm on the borders between Saudi Arabia and Iraq which was the initial Iraqi defensive position and performed reconnaissance and counter reconnaissance missions prior to the 2nd ACR's actions. This generally included destroying or repelling the Iraqis' reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. The corps' main body consisted of the American 2nd Armored Division (Forward), 1st Armored Division (1st AD), 3rd Armored Division (3rd AD), 1st Infantry Division (1st ID), and the British 1st Armoured Division (1 AD).

The job of the 2nd ACR was to cross the border and advance east as a forward scouting element, led by cavalry scouts in lightly armored M3A1 Bradleys with highly advanced thermals to detect enemy positions. Following closely behind were M1A1 Abrams tanks covering them from the rear, ready to move forward and engage the enemy. Originally advancing ahead of the 3rd Armored Division until late on 25 February, they shifted to the east and ahead of the advancing 1st Infantry Division as it moved north from its initial objectives. The regiment's mission was to strip away enemy security forces, clear the way of significant defenses, and locate the Republican Guard's defensive positions so they could be engaged by the full weight of the armored forces and artillery of the 1st Infantry Division.

On the night of 23/24 February, in accordance with General Norman Schwarzkopf's plan for the ground assault called "Operation Desert Sabre", VII Corps raced east from Saudi Arabia into Iraq in a wide, sweeping maneuver later described by Schwarzkopf as a "Hail Mary." The Corps had two goals: to cut off Iraqi retreat from Kuwait, and to destroy five elite Republican Guard divisions near the Iraq–Kuwait border that might attack the Arab and Marine units moving into Kuwait to the south. Initial Iraqi resistance was light and scattered after the breach, and the 2nd ACR fought only minor engagements until 25 February.

The primary battle was conducted by 2nd ACR's three squadrons of about 4,000 soldiers, along with the 1st Infantry Division's two leading brigades (2nd Armored Division (FWD)), which attacked and destroyed the Iraqi 18th Mechanized Brigade and 37th Armored Brigade of the Tawakalna Division, each consisting of between 2,500 and 3,000 personnel.

Plan
2nd ACR was to advance east, locate and engage the enemy, determine his dispositions, and then allow the mechanized brigades of 1st ID to pass through to finish destroying the Iraqis. 2nd ACR's limit of advance changed during the operation. VII Corps Fragmentary Plan Seven, issued during the night of 25–26 February, made 60 Easting 2nd ACR's initial limit of advance. After 2nd ACR made contact with the Republican Guard's security zone, Corps changed the limit to 70 Easting. Along that line, 1st ID would pass through 2nd ACR and push on to objectives further east. VII Corps commander Lieutenant General Frederick M. Franks Jr. ordered 2nd ACR commander Colonel Don Holder to locate the enemy but avoid becoming decisively engaged. 2nd ACR's three armored cavalry squadrons deployed in line, with Second Squadron in the north, Third Squadron in the center, and First Squadron in the south. Fourth Squadron (the combat aviation squadron) flew reconnaissance and attack missions chiefly in the northern and central zones. Weather restricted flight operations severely, however, and kept Fourth Squadron grounded for about half of the daylight hours. Unusually for a corps covering force, 2nd ACR lacked a reserve tank or mechanized infantry battalion.

Moving through the Republican Guards' security area on the morning of the 26th undetected, 2nd ACR encountered the Tawakalna Division and 12th Iraqi Armored Division (12th AD) in a line facing them with Tawakalna in the north and 12th AD in the center and south. All Iraqi units occupied well-constructed defensive emplacements and had prepared alternate positions which enabled them to reorient to the west to face VII Corps's attack. 12th AD's assignment to the Republican Guard was not known at the time of the engagement.

Despite extensive aerial and artillery bombardment by U.S. forces, most Iraqi units defending along 70 Easting remained effective. 2nd ACR employed M270 MLRS artillery fire from the supporting 27th Field Artillery Regiment, as well as air strikes, and attack helicopters (both AH-64 Apaches of 2-1 Aviation and AH-1 Cobras of Fourth Squadron) against the Republican Guard units as the armored cavalry squadrons moved east through the security zone. Sandstorms slowed this movement throughout the day, restricting visibility to as little as 400 m.

Approach to the 70 Easting
During the period of 23 February 1991 the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, with its attached operational control, attacked into Southern Iraq in the lead of VII Corps with such audacity that the Dragoon Battle Group quickly overwhelmed superior enemy forces, demoralizing them and taking hundreds of enemy prisoners. The 2nd and 3rd Squadrons of the regiment destroyed two brigades of the Iraqi Republican Guards Tawakalna Division. The 2nd Squadron, 2nd ACR alone contributed 55 Iraqi tanks destroyed, 45 other armored vehicles, an equal number of trucks, hundreds of Iraqi infantry KIA, and 865 Iraqi soldiers taken prisoner. As part of the 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) and VII Corps main effort, Task Force 3-37th Armor breached the Iraqi defense on 24 February 1991, clearing four passage lanes and expanding the gap under direct enemy fire. The Task Force then attacked 300 kilometers across southern Iraq into northern Kuwait, severing Iraqi lines of communication, and then drove north once again into Iraq to assist in the seizure of the City of Safwan and the securing of the Safwan Air Base for the Coalition Forces–Iraqi cease-fire negotiations. During the operation, over 50 enemy combat vehicles were destroyed and over 1,700 prisoners were captured.

2nd ACR began the 26th of February on the VII Corps Objective still oriented to the northeast. In the early morning hours, Lt. Colonel Scott Marcy's Third Squadron fought companies of the Iraqi 50th Armored Brigade, which had moved into the regiment's southern area to confirm reports that allied units were in the vicinity.

At 05:22 the regiment received Corps Frag Plan Seven, which adjusted its zone and objective and directed all Corps units to move east to attack units of the Republican Guard. The order adjusted the boundary between 2nd ACR and the 1st UK Armoured Division to the south and the early movements of the day involved re-orienting the regiment's squadrons and coordinating with 1st UK Armored Division along the new boundary, the 80 Northing.

The aviation squadron led by Lt. Colonel Don Olson established a screen along the 50 Easting by 7 am, and by 8 am the armored cavalry squadrons had moved into their new zones. Third Squadron, operating in the center, destroyed a T-72 tank before 8 am, establishing the first ground contact with the Iraqi Republican Guard's Tawakalna Division. All three squadrons were in contact with security forces by 9 am but a violent sandstorm blew into the area and movement to the regiment's limit of advance, the 60 Easting, took until 11 am.

Air cavalry operations ceased just after 9 a.m. and would not resume until afternoon. Lt. Colonel Tony Isaac's First Squadron meanwhile encountered scattered enemy positions in the south and by noon had reported destroying 23 T-55 tanks, 25 armored personnel carriers, six artillery pieces and numerous trucks. Lt. Colonel Mike Kobbe's Second Squadron troops all reported resistance from small Tawakalna Division security outposts while Third Squadron destroyed similar outposts in the Regimental center. Lt. Gen. Franks visited the regiment's main command post just before 1 p.m. There, the regimental executive officer, Lt. Colonel Roger Jones, and the S2, Major Steve Campbell, briefed him on the situation and informed him that sensors were reporting movement of tracked vehicles to the north out of the regiment's zone.

By 3 p.m. Third Armored Division had reached the 50 Easting and begun to move abreast of the regiment to the north. 1st Infantry Division's movement to join the fight was taking longer than expected, however. Lt. General Franks therefore directed the Second Armored Cavalry to continue its attack as far as the 70 Easting and to make contact with the Republican Guard's main defenses and prevent their movement. At the same time, he ordered the regiment to avoid becoming decisively engaged (meaning to refrain from committing all its maneuver forces and thereby losing freedom of action).

Colonel Holder issued a Fragmentary Order at 3:20 to comply with the Corps Commander's directive and by 3:45 Second Squadron's E and G Troops were in contact with well-organized defenses of the Tawakalna Division. At the same time the Third and First squadrons in the center and south moved to clear their zones, encountering T-72s in Third Squadron's north and T-62 and T-55 tanks of the Iraqi 12th Armored Division further south.

Fourth Squadron's air scouts rejoined the operation as the weather cleared around 3 p.m. Air scouts identified enemy defenses to the front of Second and Third Squadrons and attack helicopters struck several of the security outposts.

By 16:10, further south near the east–west UTM coordinate line 00 Northing, 2nd ACR's E- ("Eagle") Troop received fire from an Iraqi dismounted outpost, a dug-in Iraqi ZSU-23-4 and several occupied buildings in an Iraqi village. The American scouts returned fire with their tanks and Bradleys, silenced the Iraqi guns, took prisoners, and continued east. They advanced three more kilometers east to the 70 Easting line. More enemy fire came in and was immediately returned.

73 Easting
The Battle of 73 Easting refers narrowly to the violent armored combat action that took place in the final hours of 2nd ACR's covering force operation in the zone of Second Squadron and in the northern third of the Third Squadron zone. In the battle, four of the 2nd ACR's armored cavalry troops, Troops E, G, and I with Troop K contributing to I Troop's fight (totaling about 36 M1A1 tanks), defeated two enemy brigades, the Tawakalna Division's 18th Brigade and, later in the day, the 9th Armored Brigade.

The defending Iraqi forces, elements of Tawakalna's 18th Mechanized Brigade and the 12th Armored Division's 9th Armored Brigade, had arrived in their positions on the evening of 24 February and had oriented to the west to protect the main supply route, the IPSA pipeline Road, just to their rear. The Iraqi resistance that 2ACR met on the previous day had been from the 50th Armored Brigade whose mission had been to cover the preparation of that defense.

The Battle was part of the larger operation and, as it went on, the Third and First Squadron troops in the southern part of the zone continued to fight through the security area of the Republican Guard and fix enemy units of the 12th Armored Division. First Squadron, the regiment's southernmost squadron cleared its zone of remnants of the 50th Armored Brigade before making contact with the 37th Brigade of the 12th Iraqi Armored Division, fighting to the south of the Tawakalna Division. Scout and attack helicopters of Fourth Squadron and 2-1 Aviation Battalion (AH-64 Apache) supported the fight as weather allowed.

The regiment moved from the 60 Easting with eight of its nine cavalry troops generally abreast of each other. (Lt. Colonel Kobbe had pulled his Troop F out of the Second Squadron's leading echelon when his zone narrowed.) The operation escalated into a full-out battle as E Troop (call sign "Eagle") maneuvered to the 70 Easting around 3:45 p.m. Heavy combat then spread to the south as I Troop of the Third Squadron closed the gap between the two squadrons and joined the fight. G Troop's attack to the north of Captain H. R. McMaster's E Troop made contact with defending units farther east and combat there became intense around 16:45 Fighting continued into darkness as the Iraqi division commander reinforced the 18th Brigade with his 9th Armored Brigade in the G Troop zone.

At 16:10 Eagle Troop received fire from an Iraqi infantry position in a cluster of buildings at UTM PU 6801. Eagle Troop Abrams and Bradleys returned fire, silenced the Iraqi guns, took prisoners, and continued east with the two tank platoons leading. The 9 M1A1 tanks of Eagle Troop destroyed 28 Iraqi tanks, 16 personnel carriers and 30 trucks in 23 minutes with no American losses.

At about 16:20 Eagle crested a low rise and surprised an Iraqi tank company set up in a reverse slope defence on the 70 Easting. Captain McMaster, leading the attack, immediately engaged that position, destroying the first of the eight enemy tanks to his front. His two tank platoons finished the rest.

Three kilometers to the east McMaster could see T-72s in prepared positions. Continuing his attack past the 70 limit of advance, he fought his way through an infantry defensive position and on to high ground along the 74 Easting. There he encountered and destroyed another enemy tank unit of eighteen T-72s. In that action the Iraqis stood their ground and attempted to maneuver against the troop. This was the first determined defense the regiment had encountered in its three days of operations. Still, the Iraqi troops had been surprised because of the inclement weather and were quickly destroyed by the better trained and better equipped American troops.

After defeating that force, McMaster sent a scout platoon of two M3 Bradleys north to regain contact with Troop G. In doing that the scout platoon encountered another Iraqi tank position of thirteen T-72s. The lightly armored Bradleys, each equipped only with a 25-mm cannon and two TOW missiles, are intended for reconnaissance, not direct engagement with armored tanks. Despite a misfire, and having to reload the launchers in the face of the enemy, the two Bradleys destroyed 5 tanks before help arrived.

Other 2nd ACR Troops I (call sign "Iron"), K ("Killer"), and G ("Ghost") joined the fight minutes later. Iron Troop of Third Squadron had halted around the 67 Easting to control the limit of advance with its tank cannon. As the troop moved north to secure its northern boundary around 16:45, it came under fire from the same group of buildings E Troop had fought through an hour earlier. Captain Dan Miller, commanding I Troop, silenced the resistance with return fire and then attacked to the 70 Easting. There he confronted T-72s in defensive positions south of those that E Troop had just destroyed. With initial support from Captain Mac Haszard's K Troop, Miller's tanks destroyed sixteen enemy tanks on that position and then attacked through it. Just beyond the defenses, I Troop observed another formation of enemy tanks moving in its direction and attacked it with tank and TOW fire. During that engagement, TOW missile fire from a K Troop Bradley struck and destroyed an I Troop Bradley, wounding all three crewmen. Before returning to positions along the 70 Easting, I Troop located the defending battalion's command post and destroyed its command bunker and security forces.

By 16:40, Captain Joe Sartiano's G Troop had gained a position on a ridge overlooking a wadi at and parallel to the 73 Easting, north of E Troop. As the regiment's northernmost unit, G Troop secured an open flank until the 3rd Armored Division's cavalry squadron arrived to occupy its own positions along the 70 Easting.

Sartiano's men engaged Iraqi 18th Brigade tanks that initially were in defensive positions. Very quickly, however, G Troop found itself facing counterattacks by tank units of the Tawakalna Division and the Iraqi 12th Armored Division. Additionally, other Iraqi units attempted to retreat to the north along the wadi, which led them directly into G Troop's position.

By 18:30, the first of several waves of Iraqi T-72 and T-55 tanks advanced into the wadi. Fierce fighting ensued as wave after wave of tanks and infantry charged the troop. Combat became so intense at times that only massed artillery and mortar fires, attack helicopters and Air Force close air support prevented the enemy from closing with G Troop. At one point a military intelligence (MI) platoon from the 2nd ACR's 502nd MI Company had to suspend its signal intelligence operation and return the fire of Iraqi soldiers who exited a burning BMP-1 and continued to attack.

During the fierce six-hour battle, the G Troop fire support team called in 720 howitzer and MLRS rounds, while using its own mortars continually to turn back attackers at close range. By 21:00, G Troop had expended nearly half of its TOW missiles and was becoming short of 25 mm and 120 mm cannon ammunition. To remedy the emergency, Lt Colonel Kobbe sent his tank company, Captain Bruce Tyler's Company H ("Hawk"), to relieve the troop. By then, G Troop had destroyed "at least two companies of Iraqi armor. Hundreds of Iraqi infantrymen and their lightly armored transporters lay scattered on the wadi floor."

G Troop lost one M3 Bradley to Iraqi IFV fire and one soldier, Sergeant Nels A. Moller, the gunner of the Bradley, was killed. The Bradley's TOW launcher was inoperative, and the 25 mm Bushmaster Cannon had jammed. While the crew was attempting to get the cannon back in action, an Iraqi BMP-1, thought to have been disabled by a tank shell, punched through the Bradley's armor, fired and hit the vehicle's turret with 73 mm cannon fire. Moller died instantly and the remainder of the crew evacuated the damaged vehicle.

Artillery fire and air strikes played a large role in the battle, especially in the far north. In direct support of 2nd ACR, Colonel Garrett Bourne's 210th FA Brigade fired missions out to the 78 Easting. Close air support missions struck targets in greater depth, preventing some Iraqi units from closing with G Troop or escaping the battle area. Attack helicopters flew in support of air scouts at key intervals during the day and the 2-1 Aviation Battalion's Apache helicopters, led by Lt. Colonel John Ward, destroyed two batteries of enemy artillery and struck march units along the IPSA Pipeline Road at 16:30, just as the battle began in earnest.

In total, the regimental fire support officer reported employing 1,382 rounds of 155 mm howitzer ammunition (high-explosive, dual-purpose improved munitions and rocket-assisted HE projectiles) and 147 MLRS rockets on 26 February. The 210th FA Brigade commander estimated that his two FA battalions and single M270 MLRS, C Battery 4th 27th FA, destroyed 17 tanks, seven APCs, six artillery pieces and around 70 other vehicles. The number of vehicles damaged by artillery was greater. The number of enemy infantry casualties caused by indirect fire proved impossible to determine but almost certainly exceeded the thirty infantrymen claimed.

Sporadic fire continued throughout the night, but no major engagements occurred after 22:00. The regiment used artillery fire and some close air support between the end of active fighting and the arrival of the 1st Infantry Division at the line of contact.

Based on the intelligence gained during the battle, Colonel Holder advised the corps commander that the 1st Infantry Division should pass through the southern units of the regiment. Committing the division in that area would keep it clear of the chaotic post-battle conditions to the north and, more importantly, would steer the main attack around now-known positions of the Republican Guard divisions.

Lt. General Franks accepted that recommendation and, beginning around 02:00, two brigades of the 1st Infantry Division passed through the regiment's positions along the 70 Easting. When the division had completed passage of all its combat units around 6 a.m., the Second Cavalry Regiment became part of VII Corps' reserve.

The 2nd and 3rd Squadrons of the 2nd ACR destroyed two brigades of the Iraqi Republican Guards Tawakalna Division in the Battle of 73 Easting. The 2nd Squadron, 2nd ACR alone contributed 55 Iraqi tanks destroyed, 45 other armored vehicles, an equal number of trucks, hundreds of Iraqi infantry KIA, and 865 Iraqi soldiers taken prisoner. The 2nd Cavalry Regiment also captured 2,000 prisoners, destroyed 159 enemy tanks, and 260 other vehicles. The regiment's losses include 6 dragoons killed, and 19 wounded. The 2nd Cavalry Regiment would travel over 155 miles during combat operations.

U.S. 3rd Armored Division participation
On 26 February the U.S. 3rd Armored Division faced the highly touted Republican Guard "Tawakalna" Division, the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division and elements of the 17th and the 10th Armored Divisions. The division engaged in full scale tank battles for the first time since World War II, and as one of the division's veterans states "There was more than enough action for everyone".

After over 300 kilometers movement to contact the 2nd Brigade, 3rd Armored Division engaged enemy forces in prepared defensive positions, engaging the enemy with direct fire, massive artillery and Army aviation. The 2nd Brigade, 3rd Armored Division destroyed the first lines of defense and an attempted armored counterattack.

The 1st Brigade, 3rd Armored Division engaged enemy forces in a large bunker complex with direct and indirect fires. 1st Brigade, 3rd Armored Division's battle formation sliced through successive enemy defensive belts, destroying armored vehicles with marching fires and capturing hundreds of prisoners.

Action continued after nightfall, and by 1840 hours, the ground and air elements of the 3rd AD could report over 20 tanks, 14 APCs, several trucks and some artillery pieces destroyed. That same evening, the 4th Battalion, 32d Armor lost the division's first casualties in a Bradley Fighting Vehicle to 25mm cannon fire – with two soldiers killed and three wounded. During the night, both darkness and sandstorms hampered soldiers' visibility, but thermal sighting systems on board the M1A1 Abrams tanks and Bradleys allowed gunners to knock out Iraqi targets.

The U.S. 1st Armored Division and the 3rd Armored Division had destroyed over 76 Iraqi tanks and 84 infantry fighting vehicles by the end of the battle.

Task Force 1-41 Infantry participation
Task Force 1-41 Infantry served at the Battle of 73 Easting with the 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) along with the  2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment. They were responsible for destroying the Iraqi 18th Mechanized and 9th Armored Brigades of the Republican Guard Tawakalna Mechanized Infantry Division and the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Tawakalna Republican Guard Division was Iraq's most powerful division which included approximately 14,000 soldiers, 220 T-72 tanks, 284 infantry fighting vehicles, 126 artillery pieces, and 18 MLRS. In moving to and through the Battle of 73 Easting, 2nd ACR and the 1st Infantry division's lead brigades, which included Task Force 1-41, destroyed 160 tanks, 180 personnel carriers, 12 artillery pieces and more than 80 wheeled vehicles, along with several anti-aircraft artillery systems during the battle.

74 Easting and beyond
By 22:30, the battle at 2nd ACR's front, at 74 Easting, was ending with most of the engaged Iraqi elements burning or destroyed as the 1st Infantry Division began its forward passage of lines. The 1st Infantry Division passed through the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment's line in total darkness and continued to advance on Objective Norfolk, an area encompassing the intersection of the IPSA Pipeline Road, several desert trails, and a large Iraqi supply depot. Now, instead of three armored cavalry squadrons, the Iraqi 18th and 37th Armored Brigades faced six heavy battalions of American tanks and infantry fighting vehicles and another six battalions of 155 mm field artillery. At approximately 23:30, yet another encounter took place: Lt Colonel Taylor Jones's 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor, of Task Force 1-41 Infantry ran into an Iraqi tank battalion equipped with T-55s. As before, the Iraqis did not run or surrender, but manned their vehicles and weapons to face the advancing Americans. Initially, many American units advanced past Iraqi tanks and crews, who were in shelters or had not yet turned on their engines and so did not appear to be threats in the American crew's thermal sights.

A slightly disoriented Bradley platoon, attempting to follow the M1 tanks, moved across the front of these Iraqi positions, illuminated by burning vehicles behind them. The Iraqis took advantage of this excellent target and opened fire from three directions. The initial volley hit a Bradley, killing three American soldiers. An American tank company trailing the lead units observed the Iraqi fire and joined the melee, quickly destroying three T-55s before they could get off another shot. At the same time, several small antitank rockets hit the Bradley platoon. From the perspective of the tank gunners looking through the thermal sights of the approaching M1 tanks, these flashes appeared to be T-55 tanks shooting at them. The American gunners, convinced they were fighting against a determined enemy, opened fire and hit three more Bradleys. The brigade commander, Colonel David Weisman, decided to pull the battalions back, consolidate, and use his artillery to destroy the aggressive Iraqi infantry.

Battle of Norfolk
The forces involved in the battle were the American 1st Infantry Division, the 3rd Brigade of the 2nd Armored Division (fwd) (Hell on Wheels) and the Iraqi 18th Mechanized and 9th Armored Brigades of the Republican Guard Tawakalna Mechanized Infantry Division along with elements from eleven other Iraqi divisions including the Iraqi 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th Infantry Divisions. The Iraqi 52nd Armored Division was also present. The British fielded their 1st Armoured Division.

Task Force 1-41 Infantry was the spearhead of the American assault into Objective Norfolk. The Iraqis halted the 1st Infantry Division's initial push into their sector only temporarily. By 00:30, 27 February, the two attacking brigades of the 1st Infantry Division were positioned along the 75 Easting, 2,000 meters east of 73 Easting. In what has since been dubbed the Battle of Norfolk, they crossed the remaining ten kilometers to their objective, Objective Norfolk, over the next three hours. Elements of approximately 11 Iraqi divisions were engaged and destroyed. By dawn, the 1st Infantry Division had taken Objective Norfolk and the fight shifted away from the 73 Easting area to 1st Armored Division's attack to the north, started at 20:00 on 26 February, and the 3rd Armored Division attack just to the south of the 1st Division.

The British 1st Armoured division was responsible for protecting the right flank of VII Corps. It was assumed by the corps' planners the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division counterattacked VII Corps once their penetration into Iraqi defenses was discovered. The British 1st Armoured Division had two brigades which participated in Operation Desert Storm, the 4th and 7th Brigades. They both rotated responsibilities as the lead brigade. The 1st Armoured was equipped with the Challenger main battle tank. With a 120mm rifled main gun, thermal optics, and Chobham armor, its only rival in theatre was the American M1A1 Abrams tank. British infantry rode into battle on the Warrior infantry fighting vehicle. It had reasonable armor protection and a 30-mm gun. Modified versions of the vehicle included mortar carriers, Milan antitank systems, and command and control vehicles; and the British possessed a variety of excellent light armored vehicles built on their Scorpion chassis. British artillery was primarily American made M109 howitzers (155mm), M110 howitzers (203mm), and MLRS systems which were compatible with American systems. Their air support consisted of Gazelle helicopters, used for reconnaissance, and the Lynx helicopter. The British had their full contingent of engineer, logistics, and medical units.

This division was commanded by forty-seven-year-old Maj. General Rupert Smith. He was a member of the British Parachute Regiment and he was an expert on Soviet armor and tank tactics. His division had two brigades at its disposal. The 4th Brigade, reinforced with extra engineers and artillery, was used for breakout operations and to clear the ground at the breach. The armor-heavy 7th Brigade was used for tank-on-tank engagements.

On 25 February 1991 the 1st Armoured Division smashed into the western flank of the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division which was commanded by Brig. General Saheb Mohammed Alaw. That night the 48th Infantry Division was destroyed and General Alaw was captured by the British. That same night the British cleared two lines of enemy positions during close combat engagements. The British also destroyed several Iraqi companies of T-55 tanks. That same night other elements of the division were engaging the Iraqi 31st Infantry Division.

On 26 February 1991 British artillery units unleashed an hour long artillery strike on Iraqi positions. It was the greatest British artillery display since World War II. That same night the British 7th Brigade fought a night tank battle against an Iraqi tank battalion from the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division. After ninety minutes of battle over 50 Iraqi tanks and armored personnel carriers were destroyed. That same night the British 4th Brigade destroyed a headquarters and artillery site belonging to the 807th Brigade of the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division. British infantry units cleared Iraqi defensive positions which were occupied by the Iraqi 803rd Infantry Brigade. After 48 hours of combat, the British 1st Armoured Division assisted in destroying or isolating four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and had defeated the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division in several sharp engagements. By midnight there was no more organized Iraqi resistance between the 1st Armoured Division and the Persian Gulf. On this day, a British Army Challenger 1 scored the longest tank-to-tank 'kill' in military history, when it destroyed an Iraqi T-55 at a range of 4.7 km (2.9 miles) with an APDS round.

On 27 February 1991 the British 1st Armoured Division secured the final objectives on the Basra Highway north of Multa Ridge. The British 1st Armoured Division had traveled 217 miles in 97 hours. The 1st Armoured Division had captured or destroyed about 200 tanks and a very large number of armoured personnel carriers, trucks, reconnaissance vehicles, etc.

Significance of the battle
The Battle of 73 Easting and the movement to contact south of the battle brought the regiment's covering force mission for VII Corps to its conclusion. During the operation the regiment covered the advance of three different U.S. divisions in turn, moved 120 miles in eighty-two hours and fought elements of five Iraqi Divisions. The violent battle at 73 Easting fixed the southern forces of the Iraqi Republican Guard Corps and permitted the Corps Commander to launch 1st Infantry Division into the depths of the Iraqi defenses and on into Kuwait.

The 2nd ACR, which advanced between the Iraqi 12th Armored Division and the Tawakalna Division, was the only American ground unit to find itself significantly outnumbered and out-gunned. Yet, the 2nd ACR was very efficient. The 2nd Squadron, 2nd ACR alone contributed 55 Iraqi tanks destroyed, 45 other armored vehicles, an equal number of trucks, hundreds of Iraqi infantry KIA, and 865 Iraqi soldiers taken prisoner.

The Battle of 73 Easting has been recognized as the sixth largest tank battle in American history. It is considered the third largest battle of the Gulf War, however, it has received more recognition than any of the other Gulf War battles; mostly due to the fact it has received more media coverage due to the multiple publications written about this specific battle and the multiple interviews given over the years by retired Colonel Douglas Macgregor, who participated as operations officer of 2nd Squadron 2nd ACR.

title: Battle of 73 Easting


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of quotations about dance

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was to complete the transwiki process (which ends with the deletion of the Wikipedia article). Rossami (talk) 23:52, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

List of quotations about dance
This page has been moved over to Wikiquote and there's a link there from the main Dance article. I can't see any reason for retaining this. Bryan 10:25, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Del, although I wouldn't call this 'deletion'; It is a move of the content into different storage. Mikkalai 18:33, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, no article. Megan1967 22:37, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Medical College & Hospital, Kolkata

Medical College, Kolkata, also known as Calcutta Medical College, is a Government medical college and hospital located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. It is one of the oldest existing hospitals in India. The institute was established on 28 January 1835 by Lord William Bentinck during British Raj as Medical College, Bengal. It is the second oldest medical college to teach Western medicine in Asia after Ecole de Médicine de Pondichéry and the second institute to teach in English language. The college offers MBBS degree after five and a half years of medical training.

Politics
Student politics is rooted in tradition, with many students participating in the Indian freedom struggle. Anti-British movements were implemented with the programmes of Bengal Provincial Students' Federation (BPSF), the Bengal branch of All India Students' Federation. Student politics was initially focused on the independence of India. In 1947, Sree Dhiraranjan Sen, a student of the college, died during a Vietnam Day police firing. The Vietnam Students’ Association passed a resolution in its Hanoi session in memory of Sen in March 1947.

Student politics were highly influenced by the partition of Bengal and communal riots during and after the partition of India. Between 1946 and 1952, the college's doctors stood for communal harmony and worked hard in the refugee colonies. During 1952, ex-students of the college, among them Bidhan Chandra Roy who became the second Chief Minister of West Bengal, established the Students' Health Home for the welfare of students.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the college became a centre of leftist and far-left politics. Student politics was highly influenced by the Naxalbari uprising in the early 1970s.

Rankings
Medical College, Kolkata was ranked 45th among Medical Institutions by National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2023. It held the rank of 43 in 2022.

Achievements
In Feb 2023 Sudip Das, professor of ENT Department from The Institution gets a patent for developing a simple and innovative device.

Notable alumni

 * Bidhan Chandra Roy, noted physician and the 2nd Chief Minister of West Bengal
 * Lamu Amatya, First Nepalese nurse
 * Pasupati Bose, Indian physician and professor of anatomy
 * Upendranath Brahmachari, discoverer of the treatment of Kala-azar
 * Aroup Chatterjee, British Indian atheist physician, author of Mother Teresa: The Untold Story
 * Nirmal Kumar Dutta, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize winner (1965) and the Director of Haffkine Institute
 * Lionel Emmett, member of the Indian field hockey team in the 1936 Summer Olympics
 * Muhammad Ibrahim, former Principal of Sir Salimullah Medical College
 * Sri Yukteshwar Giri, Indian Yogi
 * Dipyaman Ganguly, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize winner (2022)
 * Kadambini Ganguly, the first certified South Asian female physician qualified for Western medical practice
 * Madhusudan Gupta, the first Indian trained in Western medicine to dissect a human corpse.
 * David Hare, founder of Hare School
 * K. B. Hedgewar, also known as Doctorji, was the founding Sarsanghachalak of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.
 * Vikram Marwah, Padma Shri awardee, conferred Dr. B. C. Roy Award by the President of India
 * Nurul Islam, National Professor of Bangladesh
 * Kamaleshwar Mukherjee, filmmaker
 * M. D. Ray, surgical oncologist and author
 * Balai Chand Mukhopadhyay
 * N. C. Paul, first physician to examine yoga
 * Sisir Kumar Bose, noted paediatrician,nephew of Subhas Chandra Bose and son of Sarat Chandra Bose
 * Ram Baran Yadav, first president of Nepal
 * Annu Navani, medical doctor and director at Le Reve Regenerative Wellness Center based in San Jose, California.

title: Medical College & Hospital, Kolkata


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Actinomycosis

Actinomycosis is a rare infectious bacterial disease caused by the gram-positive Actinomyces species. The name refers to ray-like appearance of the organisms in the granules. About 70% of infections are due to either Actinomyces israelii or A. gerencseriae. Infection can also be caused by Streptomyces somaliensis and Propionibacterium propionicus. The condition is likely to be a polymicrobial anaerobic infection.

Signs and symptoms
The disease is characterised by the formation of painful abscesses in the mouth, lungs, breast, or gastrointestinal tract. Actinomycosis abscesses grow larger as the disease progresses, often over months. In severe cases, they may penetrate the surrounding bone and muscle to the skin, where they break open and leak large amounts of pus, which often contains characteristic granules filled with progeny bacteria. These granules are often called "sulfur granules" due to their yellow appearance, although they may also be white, gray or brown.

Causes
Actinomycosis is primarily caused by any of several members of the bacterial genus Actinomyces. These bacteria are generally anaerobes. In animals, they normally live in the small spaces between the teeth and gums, causing infection only when they can multiply freely in anoxic environments. An affected human often has recently had dental work, poor oral hygiene, periodontal disease, radiation therapy, or trauma (broken jaw) causing local tissue damage to the oral mucosa, all of which predispose the person to developing actinomycosis. A. israelii is a normal commensal species part of the microbiota species of the lower reproductive tract of women. They are also normal commensals among the gut flora of the caecum; thus, abdominal actinomycosis can occur following removal of the appendix. The three most common sites of infection are decayed teeth, the lungs, and the intestines. Actinomycosis infections are typically polymicrobial, containing additional bacterial species; as Actinomyces itself has little invasive ability, these other species often aid in the infection process.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of actinomycosis can be a difficult one to make. In addition to microbiological examinations, magnetic resonance imaging and immunoassays may be helpful.

Treatment
Actinomyces bacteria are generally sensitive to penicillin, which is frequently used to treat actinomycosis. In cases of penicillin allergy, doxycycline is used. Sulfonamides such as sulfamethoxazole may be used as an alternative regimen at a total daily dosage of 2–4 grams. Response to therapy is slow and may take months. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may also be used as an adjunct to conventional therapy when the disease process is refractory to antibiotics and surgical treatment.

Epidemiology
Disease incidence is greater in males between the ages of 20 and 60 years than in females. Before antibiotic treatments became available, the incidence in the Netherlands and Germany was one per 100,000 people/year. Incidence in the U.S. in the 1970s was one per 300,000 people/year, while in Germany in 1984, it was estimated to be one per 40,000 people/year. The use of intrauterine devices (IUDs) has increased incidence of genitourinary actinomycosis in females. Incidence of oral actinomycosis, which is harder to diagnose, has increased.

History
In 1877, pathologist Otto Bollinger described the presence of A. bovis in cattle, and shortly afterwards, James Israel discovered A. israelii in humans. In 1890, Eugen Bostroem isolated the causative organism from a culture of grain, grasses, and soil. After Bostroem's discovery, a general misconception existed that actinomycosis was a mycosis that affected individuals who chewed grass or straw. The pathogen is still known as the “great masquerader". Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology classified the organism as bacterial in 1939, but the disease remained classified as a fungus in the 1955 edition of the Control of Communicable Diseases in Man.

Violinist Joseph Joachim died of actinomycosis on 15 August 1907. The Norwegian painter Halfdan Egedius died from actinomycosis on 2 February 1899.

Other animals
Actinomycosis occurs rarely in humans, but rather frequently in cattle as a disease called "lumpy jaw". This name refers to the large abscesses that grow on the head and neck of the infected animal. It can also rarely affect sheep, swine, horses, dogs, and other mammals.

title: Actinomycosis


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Virama

Virama (विराम/हलन्त ्) is a Sanskrit phonological concept to suppress the inherent vowel that otherwise occurs with every consonant letter, commonly used as a generic term for a codepoint in Unicode, representing either Unicode schemes of scripts writing Mainland Southeast Asia languages, such as that of Burmese script and of Tibetan script, generally do not group the two functions together.
 * 1) halanta, hasanta or explicit virāma, a diacritic in many Brahmic scripts, including the Devanagari and Bengali scripts, or
 * 2) saṃyuktākṣara (Sanskrit: संयुक्ताक्षर) or implicit virama, a conjunct consonant or ligature.

Names
The name is Sanskrit for "cessation, termination, end". As a Sanskrit word, it is used in place of several language-specific terms, such as:

Usage
In Devanagari and many other Indic scripts, a virama is used to cancel the inherent vowel of a consonant letter and represent a consonant without a vowel, a "dead" consonant. For example, in Devanagari, If this k क् is further followed by another consonant letter, for example, ṣa ष, the result might look like क्‌ष, which represents kṣa as ka + (visible) virāma + ṣa. In this case, two elements k क् and ṣa ष are simply placed one by one, side by side. Alternatively, kṣa can be also written as a ligature क्ष, which is actually the preferred form. Generally, when a dead consonant letter C1 and another consonant letter C2 are conjoined, the result may be:
 * 1) क is a consonant letter, ka,
 * 2) ् is a virāma; therefore,
 * 3) क् (ka + virāma) represents a dead consonant k.
 * 1) A fully conjoined ligature of C1+C2;
 * 2) Half-conjoined—
 * 3) *C1-conjoining: a modified form (half form) of C1 attached to the original form (full form) of C2
 * 4) *C2-conjoining: a modified form of C2 attached to the full form of C1; or
 * 5) Non-ligated: full forms of C1 and C2 with a visible virama.

If the result is fully or half-conjoined, the (conceptual) virama which made C1 dead becomes invisible, logically existing only in a character encoding scheme such as ISCII or Unicode. If the result is not ligated, a virama is visible, attached to C1, actually written.

Basically, those differences are only glyph variants, and the three forms are semantically identical. Although there may be a preferred form for a given consonant cluster in each language and some scripts do not have some kind of ligatures or half forms at all, it is generally acceptable to use a nonligature form instead of a ligature form even when the latter is preferred if the font does not have a glyph for the ligature. In some other cases, whether to use a ligature or not is just a matter of taste.

The virāma in the sequence C1 + virāma + C2 may thus work as an invisible control character to ligate C1 and C2 in Unicode. For example, is a fully conjoined ligature. It is also possible that the virāma does not ligate C1 and C2, leaving the full forms of C1 and C2 as they are: is an example of such a non-ligated form.
 * ka क + virāma + ṣa ष = kṣa क्ष
 * ka क + virama + ṣa ष = kṣa क्‌ष

The sequences ङ्क ङ्ख ङ्ग ङ्घ, in common Sanskrit orthography, should be written as conjuncts (the virāma and the top cross line of the second letter disappear, and what is left of the second letter is written under the ङ and joined to it).

End of word
The inherent vowel is not always pronounced, in particular at the end of a word (schwa deletion). No virāma is used for vowel suppression in such cases. Instead, the orthography is based on Sanskrit where all inherent vowels are pronounced, and leaves to the reader of modern languages to delete the schwa when appropriate.

title: Virama


text:
Collection of Sacred Hymns

Collection of Sacred Hymns may refer to various hymnals of the Latter Day Saint movement:

 * Collection of Sacred Hymns (Kirtland, Ohio), the first hymnal of the Latter Day Saint Church, published 1835 or 1836, 90 hymn texts
 * Collection of Sacred Hymns, informally known as the Manchester Hymnal, first published in Manchester, England, in 1840, 277 hymn texts
 * Collection of Sacred Hymns (Nauvoo, Illinois), by Emma Smith, published 1841, 304 hymn texts

title: Collection of Sacred Hymns


text:
Minimum viable population

Minimum viable population (MVP) is a lower bound on the population of a species, such that it can survive in the wild. This term is commonly used in the fields of biology, ecology, and conservation biology. MVP refers to the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetic stochasticity. The term "population" is defined as a group of interbreeding individuals in similar geographic area that undergo negligible gene flow with other groups of the species. Typically, MVP is used to refer to a wild population, but can also be used for ex situ conservation (Zoo populations).

Estimation
There is no unique definition of what constitutes a sufficient population for the continuation of a species, because whether a species survives will depend to some extent on random events. Thus, any calculation of a minimum viable population (MVP) will depend on the population projection model used. A set of random (stochastic) projections might be used to estimate the initial population size needed (based on the assumptions in the model) for there to be, (for example) a 95% or 99% probability of survival 1,000 years into the future. Some models use generations as a unit of time rather than years in order to maintain consistency between taxa. These projections (population viability analyses, or PVA) use computer simulations to model populations using demographic and environmental information to project future population dynamics. The probability assigned to a PVA is arrived at after repeating the environmental simulation thousands of times.

Extinction
Small populations are at a greater risk of extinction than larger populations due to small populations having less capacity to recover from adverse stochastic (i.e. random) events. Such events may be divided into four sources:

 * Demographic stochasticity
 * Demographic stochasticity is often only a driving force toward extinction in populations with fewer than 50 individuals. Random events influence the fecundity and survival of individuals in a population, and in larger populations, these events tend to stabilize toward a steady growth rate. However, in small populations there is much more relative variance, which can in turn cause extinction.

 * Environmental stochasticity
 * Small, random changes in the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem that a population inhabits fall under environmental stochasticity. Examples are changes in climate over time and the arrival of another species that competes for resources. Unlike demographic and genetic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity tends to affect populations of all sizes.

 * Natural catastrophes
 * An extension of environmental stochasticity, natural disasters are random, large scale events such as blizzards, droughts, storms, or fires that directly reduce a population within a short period of time. Natural catastrophes are the hardest events to predict, and MVP models often have difficulty factoring them in.

 * Genetic stochasticity
 * Small populations are vulnerable to genetic stochasticity, the random change in allele frequencies over time, also known as genetic drift. Genetic drift can cause alleles to disappear from a population, and this lowers genetic diversity. In small populations, low genetic diversity can increase rates of inbreeding, which can result in inbreeding depression, in which a population made up of genetically similar individuals loses fitness. Inbreeding in a population reduces fitness by causing deleterious recessive alleles to become more common in the population, and also by reducing adaptive potential. The so-called "50/500 rule", where a population needs 50 individuals to prevent inbreeding depression, and 500 individuals to guard against genetic drift at-large, is an oft-used benchmark for an MVP, but a recent study suggests that this guideline is not applicable across a wide diversity of taxa.

Application
MVP does not take external intervention into account. Thus, it is useful for conservation managers and environmentalists; a population may be increased above the MVP using a captive breeding program or by bringing other members of the species in from other reserves.

There is naturally some debate on the accuracy of PVAs, since a wide variety of assumptions are generally required for forecasting; however, the important consideration is not absolute accuracy but the promulgation of the concept that each species indeed has an MVP, which at least can be approximated for the sake of conservation biology and Biodiversity Action Plans.

There is a marked trend for insularity, surviving genetic bottlenecks, and r-strategy to allow far lower MVPs than average. Conversely, taxa easily affected by inbreeding depression –having high MVPs – are often decidedly K-strategists, with low population densities occurring over a wide range. An MVP of 500 to 1,000 has often been given as an average for terrestrial vertebrates when inbreeding or genetic variability is ignored. When inbreeding effects are included, estimates of MVP for many species are in the thousands. Based on a meta-analysis of reported values in the literature for many species, Traill et al. reported concerning vertebrates "a cross-species frequency distribution of MVP with a median of 4169 individuals (95% CI = 3577–5129)."

title: Minimum viable population


text:
Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay

Nicholai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay (Никола́й Никола́евич Миклу́хо-Макла́й; 17 July 1846 – 14 April 1888) was a Russian explorer of Ukrainian origin. He worked as an ethnologist, anthropologist and biologist who became famous as one of the earliest scientists to settle among and study indigenous people of New Guinea "who had never seen a European".

Miklouho-Maclay spent the major part of his life travelling and conducted scientific research in the Middle East, Australia, New Guinea, Melanesia and Polynesia. Australia became his adopted country and Sydney the hometown of his family.

He became a prominent figure of nineteenth-century Australian science and became involved in significant issues of Australian and New Guinea history. Writing letters to Australian papers, Miklouho-Maclay expressed his opposition to the labour and slave trade ("blackbirding") in Australia, New Caledonia and the Pacific, as well as his opposition to the British and German colonial expansion in New Guinea. While in Australia, he built the first biological research station in the Southern Hemisphere, was elected to the Linnean Society of New South Wales, was instrumental in establishing the Australasian Biological Association, stayed at the elite Australian Club, became the intimate of the leading amateur scientist and political figure Sir William Macleay, and married Margaret-Emma Robertson, the daughter of the Premier of New South Wales. His three grandsons have all contributed to the public life of Australia.

One of the earliest followers of Charles Darwin, Miklouho-Maclay is also remembered today as a scholar who, on the basis of his comparative anatomical research, was one of the first anthropologists to refute the prevailing view that the different races of mankind belonged to different species.

Ancestry and early years
Miklouho-Maclay was born in a temporary workers' camp in Borovichi county (uyezd), Novgorod Governorate (currently Okulovsky District of Novgorod Oblast) in Russia, a son of a civil engineer working on the construction of the Moscow-St. Petersburg Railway. Miklouho-Maclay was partly of Ukrainian Cossack descent. His Ukrainian father, Nikolai Ilyich Myklukha, was born in 1818, in Starodub, Chernigov Governorate, and descended from Stepan Myklukha, a Zaporozhian Cossack who was awarded the title of noble of the Empire by Catherine II for his military exploits during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), which included the capture of the Ochakov fortress. In fact, his Cossack lineage was extensive and also included the Otaman of Zaporizhian Host Okhrim Myklukha, who later became the prototype of Nikolai Gogol's main character Taras Bulba. His paternal grandparents were friends of Gogol's. About his origins, Miklouho-Maclay wrote:

"My ancestors came originally from the Ukraine, and were Zaporogg-cossacks of the Dnieper. After the annexation of the Ukraine, Stepan, one of the family, served as sotnik (a superior Cossack officer) under General Count Rumianzoff, and having distinguished himself at the storming of the Turkish fortress of Otshakoff, was by the order of Catherine II made a noble..."

Nicholai's father, Mykola Myklukha, graduated from the Nizhyn Lyceum (Nizhyn), after which he walked all the way to Saint Petersburg, where he enrolled in the Roadway Institute of Engineering Corps. He graduated from the institute in 1840 and became an engineer assigned to work on the construction of the Moscow–Saint Petersburg Railway. After becoming the first chief of the Moskovsky passenger railway station in Saint Petersburg, Myklukha moved his family there. He died in December 1857 from tuberculosis and was survived by his wife and five children. Before his death, Myklukha was fired from his job for sending 150 rubles to Taras Shevchenko.

Nicholai's mother, Ekaterina Semenovna, née Bekker, was of German and Polish descent (her three brothers took part in the January Uprising of 1863). After 1873, the Miklouho-Maclay family purchased and lived in a country estate in Malyn, 100 km northwest of Kiev in the Polesia region.

One of Nicholai's brothers, Sergei, became a judge in Malyn where he eventually died. Another brother, Mikhail, became a geologist. A third brother, Vladimir, was a captain of the Russian coast defense ship Admiral Ushakov and participated in the Battle of Tsushima where he perished. Both Mikhail and Vladimir were members of the Russian revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya.

Nicholai was baptised on 21 July 1846 by priest Ioann Smirnov at the Shegrinskaya Church of Nikolaos the Wonderworker. His godfather was Alexander Ridiger, a Borovichi landowner who was a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812 and a participant in the Battle of Borodino.

Education and studies
In 1858 Nicholai enrolled into the third grade of a German Lutheran school at the Saint Anna Kirche in Saint Petersburg. During his studies at the Second Saint Petersburg Gymnasium (1859–1863) along with his brother Sergei, he was arrested and kept for several days in the Peter and Paul Fortress for participating in student protests. The young students were saved by the Russian writer Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy who was a friend of Nicholai's father. In 1863, without finishing the gymnasium, Nicholai enrolled as a free listener at the St. Petersburg University but only spent two months there before being expelled in February 1864 and debarred from tertiary education in Imperial Russia for "breaking the rules". In March of the same year, with a forged passport, he moved abroad to complete his studies in German universities, which provided an opportunity to study and work with leading European scientists. He studied humanities at Heidelberg, medicine at Leipzig, and zoology at the University of Jena, where he came under the influence of the great German scholar Ernst Haeckel, who had a profound influence on his future.

Miklouho-Maclay's brilliant student records attracted the attention of Haeckel, who made him his assistant as part of a field expedition to the Canary Islands in 1866. There, Miklouho-Maclay took an interest in sharks and sponges and discovered a new sponge species, which he named Guancha blanca, in tribute to the Guanches, the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands. He also became a close friend of the biologist Anton Dohrn, with whom he helped conceive the idea of research stations while staying with him at Messina, Italy.

Australia

Miklouho-Maclay left St Petersburg for Australia on the steam corvette Vityaz. He arrived in Sydney on 18 July 1878. A few days after arriving, he approached the Linnean Society and offered to organise a zoological centre. In September 1878 his offer was approved. The centre, known as the Marine Biological Station, was constructed by prominent Sydney architect, John Kirkpatrick. This facility, located in Watsons Bay on the east side of Greater Sydney, was the first marine biological research institute in Australia. He married Margaret-Emma, widowed daughter of the Premier of New South Wales, John Robertson. His residence is in the Sydney suburb of Birchgrove, Wyoming is now heritage-listed due to its association with him.

Anthropological work in New Guinea and the Pacific
Miklouho-Maclay lived in northeastern New Guinea for a two-year period in between 1871 and 1880, from which he also visited the Philippines, Malay Peninsula and Australia on a number of occasions. He returned to New Guinea again in 1883. Living amongst the native tribes, his comprehensive treatise on their way of life and customs was invaluable to later researchers.

Anthropological views
In scientific and anthropological circles during the 1850s and 1860s there was much discussion connected with the study of human races and the interpretation of racial peculiarities. There were some anthropologists, such as Samuel Morton, who tried to prove that not all human races were of equal worth, and that "white people" were predestined by "natural selection" to rule over the "coloured" races.

Some scientists, such as Ernst Haeckel, a teacher of the young Miklouho-Maclay, relegated what they regarded as culturally "backward" people like Papuans, Bushmen and others to the role of 'intermediate links' between Europeans and their animal ancestors. While adhering to Darwin's theory of evolution, Miklouho-Maclay diverged from these concepts, and it was this question that led him to gather scientific facts and to study the dark-skinned inhabitants of New Guinea. On the basis of his comparative anatomical research, Miklouho-Maclay was one of the first anthropologists to refute polygenism, the view that the different races of mankind belonged to different species.

"You were the first to demonstrate beyond question by your experience that man is man everywhere, that is, a kind, sociable being with whom communication can and should be established through kindness and truth, not guns and spirits. I do not know what contribution your collections and discoveries will make to the science for which you serve, but your experience of contacting the primitive peoples will make an epoch in the science for which I serve i.e. the science which teaches how human beings should live with one another."

Opposition to slavery
The humanist views of Miklouho-Maclay led him to campaign actively against the slave trade and against blackbirding – carried on between the islands of Melanesia and plantations in Queensland, Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia. In November 1878 the Dutch government informed him that on his recommendations it was checking the slave traffic at Ternate and Tidore. From 1879 onwards he wrote a number of letters to Australian papers, and corresponded with Sir Arthur Gordon, High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, on protecting the land rights of his friends on the Maclay Coast of north-eastern New Guinea, and on ending the traffic in arms and intoxicants in the South Pacific.

Ill health and death in Russia
In 1887 he left Australia, returned to St Petersburg to present his work to the Imperial Russian Geographical Society and took his young family with him. Miklouho-Maclay was in poor health and, despite treatment from Sergei Botkin, Miklouho-Maclay died of an undiagnosed brain tumour at 41 in St Petersburg. He was buried in the Volkovo Cemetery and left his skull to the St Petersburg Military and Medical Academy.

Post-death
Miklouho-Maclay's widow returned to Sydney with their children. Until 1917 the scientist's family received an imperial Russian pension. The money was first allocated by Alexander III and then by Nicholas II. One of his sons, Alexander, married a daughter of R. E. O'Connor. His travel journals were not published until 1923, and an annotated five-volume collection of his works was published in 1953.

Internationally and in science
Nicholai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay is commemorated in the scientific name of the New Guinea tree species Planchonella maclayana, in the banana species Musa maclayi, and in the land snail species Canefriula maclayiana which were some of the species he discovered. The weevil Rhinoscapha maclayi was first collected by Miklouho-Maclay and was then named after him by his friend William Macleay.

Other species named after Nicholai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay include: Colastomion maclayi (a wasp from New Guinea), and Dysmicoccus maclayi (a scale insect from New Guinea)

The asteroid 3196 Maklaj, discovered in 1978, was named in his honour.

Maklaj is the basis of the main character in the Esperanto historical novel "Sed Nur Fragmento" by Trevor Steele.

Australia
The Marine Biological Station in Watson's Bay, built and used by Miklouho-Maclay, was commandeered by the Ministry of Defence in 1899 as a barracks for officers. In the 1980s the Miklouho-Maclay Society unsuccessfully lobbied for the centre to be made into a historical landmark in memory of Miklouho-Maclay's scientific work. Today, although owned by the Sydney Harbour Federation Trust, the building is used as a private residence and is only open to the public on special occasions.

The Miklouho-Maclay Society succeeded in naming a park in his honour in Snails Bay (Birchgrove), not far from a house where he lived in Sydney for a time.

A bust of Miklouho-Maclay was unveiled in front of the Macleay Museum at the University of Sydney to commemorate the 150th anniversary of his birth. The Macleay Miklouho-Maclay Fellowship is available from the University of Sydney each year.

Indonesia
A monument to Miklouho-Maclay was unveiled in Jakarta, Indonesia, on 3 March 2011.

Papua New Guinea
The term Maclay Coast has from time to time been used to refer the North-east coast of Papua New Guinea. Miklouho-Maclay began using the term, defining it as extending for 150 miles between Cape Croisilles and Cape King William, and 30–50 miles inland to the mountains of Mana-Boro-Boro (Finisterre Mountains). However, this name is not in use today. The section of the coast from Cape Croisilles to Madang is referred to as part of the North Coast, the bay in which Madang is situated in called Astrolabe Bay, while the coast from Astrolabe Bay to Saidor is the Rai Coast, which in turn gives its name to Rai Coast District, an electorate returning an MP to the National Parliament of Papua New Guinea.

In Madang, Papua New Guinea – not far from where the explorer stayed in the 1870s – a street has been named after him.

In 2000 a monument was erected in New Guinea by Oleg Aliev. In 2013 a monument to celebrate the legacy of Miklouho-Maclay was erected near Bongu village in Madang Province, funded by "Valeria, Irma, and Valentina Sourin, Chief, Sir Peter Barter and volunteers from the Madang Resort and Friends of the Haus Tumbuna".

Russia
In Russia there is an Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology and a street in South-West Moscow (where the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia is situated) named in his honour. The district museum in Okulovka, Novgorod Oblast, is named after him.

A Khabarov class river passenger ship was named after him. Based at Khabarovsk, it was used on the Amur River between the 1960s and 1990s.

Ukraine
The city of Malyn Zhytomyr Oblast, Ukraine commemorates the scientist and traveler. The city's recreation park and one of the city's streets are named after Miklouho-Maclay. The Malyn Forestry College in the village of Hamarnya, which is located in the house where Nicholas's brother Mykhailo lived, has a museum whose exhibits tell about the life of the scientist, his family, and the Malyn period of his life. Malyn was visited twice, in 1980 and 1988, by the scientist's grandson Robert Micklouho-Maclay from Australia. In 1986, on the occasion of the 140th anniversary of the scientist's birth, a monument to him was unveiled in Malin. Since 1946, Lviv has had a Miklouho-Maclay Street. There is also a bust of him in Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula. In 2011, the Ukrainian Geographical Society declared the year of Nickolai Nicklouho-Maclay in Ukraine in connection with the 165th anniversary of his birth.

General references

 * Greenop, F. S. (1944) Who Travels Alone, K.G. Murray Publishing Company, Sydney
 * Ogloblin, A. K. (1998) 'Commemorating N. N. Miklukho-Maclay (Recent Russian publications)', in Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia: Proceedings of the Conference, pages.487–502. 1998. ISBN 90-420-0644-7. Partial view on Google Books.
 * Tutorsky, A. V., E. V. Govor, and Christopher Ballard. "Miklouho-Maclay’s Legacy in Russian-and English-Language Academic Research, 1992–2017." Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 47.2 (2019): 112-121.

title: Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay


text:
API gravity

The American Petroleum Institute gravity, or API gravity, is a measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water: if its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks.

API gravity is thus an inverse measure of a petroleum liquid's density relative to that of water (also known as specific gravity). It is used to compare densities of petroleum liquids. For example, if one petroleum liquid is less dense than another, it has a greater API gravity. Although API gravity is mathematically a dimensionless quantity (see the formula below), it is referred to as being in 'degrees'. API gravity is graduated in degrees on a hydrometer instrument. API gravity values of most petroleum liquids fall between 10 and 70 degrees.

In 1916, the U.S. National Bureau of Standards accepted the Baumé scale, which had been developed in France in 1768, as the U.S. standard for measuring the specific gravity of liquids less dense than water. Investigation by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found major errors in salinity and temperature controls that had caused serious variations in published values. Hydrometers in the U.S. had been manufactured and distributed widely with a modulus of 141.5 instead of the Baumé scale modulus of 140. The scale was so firmly established that, by 1921, the remedy implemented by the American Petroleum Institute was to create the API gravity scale, recognizing the scale that was actually being used.

API gravity formulas
The formula to calculate API gravity from specific gravity (SG) is:

 * $$\text{API gravity} = \frac{141.5}{\text{SG}} - 131.5$$

Conversely, the specific gravity of petroleum liquids can be derived from their API gravity value as

 * $$\text{SG at}~60^\circ\text{F} = \frac{141.5}{\text{API gravity} + 131.5}$$

Thus, a heavy oil with a specific gravity of 1.0 (i.e., with the same density as pure water at 60 °F) has an API gravity of:

 * $$\frac{141.5}{1.0} - 131.5 = 10.0^\circ{\text{API}}$$

Using API gravity to calculate barrels of crude oil per metric ton
In the oil industry, quantities of crude oil are often measured in metric tons. One can calculate the approximate number of barrels per metric ton for a given crude oil based on its API gravity:

 * $$\text{barrels of crude oil per metric ton} = \frac{\text{API gravity}+131.5}{141.5\times 0.159}$$

For example, a metric ton of West Texas Intermediate (39.6° API) has a volume of about 7.6 barrels.

Measurement of API gravity from its specific gravity
To derive the API gravity, the specific gravity (i.e., density relative to water) is first measured using either the hydrometer, detailed in ASTM D1298 or with the oscillating U-tube method detailed in ASTM D4052.

Density adjustments at different temperatures, corrections for soda-lime glass expansion and contraction and meniscus corrections for opaque oils are detailed in the Petroleum Measurement Tables, details of usage specified in ASTM D1250. The specific gravity is defined by the formula below.

 * $$\mbox{SG oil} = \frac{\rho_\text{crudeoil}}{\rho_{\text{H}_2\text{O}}}$$

With the formula presented in the previous section, the API gravity can be readily calculated. When converting oil density to specific gravity using the above definition, it is important to use the correct density of water, according to the standard conditions used when the measurement was made. The official density of water at 60 °F according to the 2008 edition of ASTM D1250 is 999.016 kg/m3. The 1980 value is 999.012 kg/m3. In some cases the standard conditions may be 15 °C (59 °F) and not 60 °F (15.56 °C), in which case a different value for the water density would be appropriate (see standard conditions for temperature and pressure).

Direct measurement of API gravity (hydrometer method)
There are advantages to field testing and on-board conversion of measured volumes to volume correction. This method is detailed in ASTM D287.

Classifications or grades
Generally speaking, oil with an API gravity between 40 and 45° commands the highest prices. Above 45°, the molecular chains become shorter and less valuable to refineries.

Crude oil is classified as light, medium, or heavy according to its measured API gravity.

 * Light crude oil has an API gravity higher than 31.1° (i.e., less than 870 kg/m3)
 * Medium oil has an API gravity between 22.3 and 31.1° (i.e., 870 to 920 kg/m3)
 * Heavy crude oil has an API gravity below 22.3° (i.e., 920 to 1000 kg/m3)
 * Extra heavy oil has an API gravity below 10.0° (i.e., greater than 1000 kg/m3)

However, not all parties use the same grading. The United States Geological Survey uses slightly different ranges.

Crude oil with API gravity less than 10° is referred to as extra heavy oil or bitumen. Bitumen derived from oil sands deposits in Alberta, Canada, has an API gravity of around 8°. It can be diluted with lighter hydrocarbons to produce diluted bitumen, which has an API gravity of less than 22.3°, or further "upgraded" to an API gravity of 31 to 33° as synthetic crude.

title: API gravity