text:
Talk:Xylem

[Untitled]
American English was introduced to this article 23:09, 23 January 2005, with hyphenless "nonliving". Sminthopsis84 (talk) 12:12, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

Merger of Vessel element
With regards to the proposed merger of vessel element into xylem:
 * oppose - since only the xylem of angiosperms contains vessel elements. My reasoning is thus (1) the two words are not synonyms, (2) vessel elements a specialized and taxonomically/evolutionarily significant specialization not found in most clades, (3) the structure, diversity, and evolutionary significance of vessel elements warrants an entire article in its own right. --EncycloPetey 02:38, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

(talk) 19 january 11:23 GMT
 * oppose - per above; also, you'd have to merge in other things (tracheids, perhaps?) in order for this merge to be fair. it's 1) too much work and b) would bake xylem too big. -- Jjjsixsix (talk)/(contribs) @ 05:05, 19 January 2006 (UTC)
 * support- the xylem is a tissue that contains the xylem vessels in many plants and should be reflected in the article. I also think that tracheids should be included as again it is part of the tissue and is used instead of xylem vessels in many plants. I do not think that the risk of making the article is a valid reason for not including these elements as people who only require a very basicunderstanding can stop reading after the summary paragraph at the start or continue reading if they become intrested - —Preceding unsigned comment added by AdamClarke (talk • contribs)

 * oppose: "vessel element" appears to be in order, while "xylem" remains not only an accident waiting to happen, but an accident in progress. Not all xylem contains vessel elements. Xylem (secondary xylem that is) may contain many kind of cell types except vessel elements . Brya 18:44, 19 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Qualifying this: merging can be made to work, but this still would need illustrations and quite a bit of careful work. At the moment the differences between primary and secondary xylem are snowed under. I would be a lot happier about merging if indeed separate (if short) entries for secondary xylem, tracheid and vessel element could be maintained. If it were possible to make redirects to wiktionary the shortened versions of "tracheid" and "vessel element" could be moved to become wiktionary entries. Starting with a summary would be a good idea also.
 * All in all, if "xylem" is to be expanded I would prefer to see the various aspects built up as separate items, before considering merging. Brya 08:35, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * support: Since I have contributed to this article I suppose I should weigh in to say that I support putting information on vessel elements here, rather than in an article of their own. Either redirect or give "vessel" or "vessel element(s)" minimal definitions with a link to this article.  It just makes sense to discuss all the elements of xylem together, even if they don't always occur together at the same time in the same plant. (And yes, I suppose that implies merging "secondary xylem" into this article sooner or later also...) MrDarwin 22:02, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * support: It seems to me that vessel elements - and indeed tracheids - are the defining features of xylem, and the details of their function, their similarities and their differences are best described in a single article. Obviously it is important that basic definitions of vessel elements and tracheids exist under their own headings, but as these articles currently stand, moving the bulk of each of them into "xylem" would allow a more consistent and cohesive treatment. "Vessel element" would need to be a much larger article to warrant independence. Lycanthrope 20:49, 26 January 2006 (UTC)
 * This is incorrect. Most clades of xylem-bearing plants lack vessel elements. The defining feature of xylem in recent cladistic and morphological literature seems to be the presence of the compound lignin, not a cell type. In fact, some of the "xylem" in the Silurian rhyniophytes has been found not to be true xylem, despite the structure of the cells. See the research of Paul Kenrick for details. --EncycloPetey 18:44, 15 May 2006 (UTC)

 * comment Barring the above indented bit, it seems like no discussion has been going on for several months but the merge tags are still there? Personally I have no preference over merging or not, but if you do merge, perhaps organize xylem into sections with a Main article: .... I still don't understand the difference between tracheids and xylem elements, at least my textbook gives the exact same descriptions of both, so please make these distinctions clearer thanks. 218.102.71.167 14:32, 19 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Tracheids are one of the kinds of cells found in xylem; there are many others that may be found in xylem. --EncycloPetey 05:33, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * oppose This is a very important part of a plant, along with the phloem. That is a seperate article and this should be too. Superbowlbound 19:07, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

Merge of Tracheid into xylem

 * Oppose I do not believe that every information need to stay only in giantic compilations of it's superordinate topic.
 * Tracheid is not the synonymum of xylem nor such merging would help to understand the topic of tracheids, tracheids formation, it's contribution to plant developement, the role of auxin to plant organ selforganisation. Nor inclusion of all that stuff in the xylem would help the xylem article, as not all those actions are relevant to xylem etc. Simply let each information unit have it's own article. We can simply borow some descriptive sentences from one article to the second one. It does'nt harm anything.  R eo  ON   |   + + +  23:03, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

oppose. whats up retard nation —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.15.169.132 (talk) 17:11, 18 November 2010 (UTC)

Note
Well, obviously I am glad to see people taking an interest, and even more glad to see some movement in this incomprehensible deadlock. However, this insertion of a discussion on vessel elements means that in effect the merge is going through, here and now. To me it looks as if clarity would be served by moving everything on vessel elements into either vessel element or into a evolution related topic (like the big vascular system entry that was hinted at. Brya 21:54, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Oppose on the basis that the xylem article is still too unstable to merge anything into it. In cases of incomprehensible deadlocks we must go with the no concensus - no merge plan, clear the tags, and allow progress to resume. Meggar 18:27, 14 September 2006 (UTC)

Xylem function
For the simpler folk amongst us, could you put in a statement (if it is true) that "in trees, all the inside wood of the tree is xylem. In other words, soil water with nutrients is transported by the entire stem of the tree, exclusive of the outer layer which transports sugars from the leaves around the tree to where it is needed." This is implied by the article but is it indeed so? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 125.239.169.115 (talk) 05:59, 9 January 2008 (UTC)
 * No, it is not so. The central wood (heartwood) in a tree usually is dead and no longer functional.  In tropical trees, the center may even rot away, leaving the tree as a hollow cylinder.  Only the living xylem continues to transport.  --EncycloPetey (talk) 01:29, 11 January 2008 (UTC)
 * In addition, not all the sapwood conducts water; in many temperate oaks, only the last year of xylem conducts water, all the previous years' vessels being blocked by air embolisms.--Curtis Clark (talk) 05:46, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

Massive (?) merge
(from User talk:Ettrig)
 * This isn't the title I gave to the section when I created it... Peter coxhead (talk) 08:36, 23 March 2011 (UTC)

I notice that you have been adding/moving material re evolution into Xylem. I think it would be useful if you could (a) explain the overall idea behind your work, perhaps at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Plants (b) seek some consensus for it. Personally, I think that it just swamps articles like Xylem to have such a large section on its evolution. Someone who wants to know what xylem is, what the word means, doesn't want such a large article. What are the arguments for and against a separate article on the evolution of xylem? Peter coxhead (talk) 15:38, 21 March 2011 (UTC)

 * You assume that a person who looks up xylem in Wikipedia only wants to know what xylem is, what the word means. I hold it is extremely unlikely that this holds for all readers. And even if it did, it would be against the general principles of Wikipedia to follow up this thought in action. I don't like the strict separation, but Wikipedia is about the world and Wiktionary is about the words and their meanings. This holds also for xylem. We should split up the information about xylem when the article is too long. To see what the optimum length is we can take a hint from the average length of featured articles. Xylem has long to go before reaching this standard. --Ettrig (talk) 16:44, 21 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Actually I don't assume that everyone who looks up xylem only wants to know this, although I would point out that xylem is cross-referenced from many plant articles which need to use the term in describing plants, so there could be many readers who just want morphological/anatomical information – this requires much more than a Wiktionary entry. I'm not sure that you can rely on the length of featured articles per se; coherence is a more important issue. One test I would apply is how other editors are likely to want to wikilink; if wikilinks start becoming to sections that might suggest splitting, regardless of length. Just as an example, Xylem development is currently separate from Xylem. Is this a good idea or not? I tend to think it is, because in developing articles on early land plants, I regularly want to link to some aspect of xylem development, rather than the whole topic of xylem. But it's debatable – so to merge them would require a debate.
 * I can only repeat that I think it would be helpful to everyone if explained how you think evolutionary issues should be dealt with in plant articles and discovered whether there is a consensus behind this approach. Peter coxhead (talk) 17:26, 21 March 2011 (UTC)
 * You would rather follow your own views than taking the example from the articles that the community has spent much effort on identifying as the best. You think that xylem isn't worthy of a full length article. You have many personal views. I am probably not as interested in them as you are. In the swedish community I would have called this rått kött (raw meat). A not well adwised person created a lot of articles by adding a qualification to a noun. It took some effort by the community to make him (?) stop. Xylem development is a lot like raw meat. One aspect broken out arbitrarily. I find your motivation very constructed and (again) personal. --Ettrig (talk) 17:39, 21 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Imagine that the article was nominated for Good Article. The complaints would not be that the merged material does not belong here, neither would it be that the article is too long. This is a statement that can be tested. --Ettrig (talk) 20:09, 21 March 2011 (UTC)
 * All I asked, and I think it is quite reasonable, is that you don't make major changes to articles without seeking consensus, either on the talk page for the article, or on the Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Plants page. I did not say that I wanted you or anyone else to follow my own views, only that there should be discussion first. In the specific case of Xylem development, I actually merged separate articles on centrarch, endarch, etc. I have no general preference for lots of separate articles, nor for single large articles. I think there should be a case-by-case discussion and an attempt to reach consensus. Now you have merged two articles without any discussion. This is not helpful.
 * The redirections for Centrarch, Endarch, etc. are now wrong. They should not be to the whole article but to the section on xylem development. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:44, 22 March 2011 (UTC)

 * I support the merge of Xylem development into Xylem–it strikes me as material which is more naturally discussed along with other aspects like primary versus secondary and so on. The evolutionary material might be slightly more easily split out, but I'd probably keep it here for the moment (and make the decision largely on size, per Splitting). As for discussion, there is no requirement to discuss merges, but on the other hand, there is no rule against reverting merges either (see Help:Merging), so this isn't an especially strong argument one way or the other. With respect to statements like "I find your motivation very constructed" and so on, I would ask you, Ettrig, to WP:AGF. I've had plenty of civil conversations with Peter coxhead on many plant-related articles and in a case like this there is no need to attack motives instead of discussing the pros and cons of merged versus separate articles. If the two of you can't agree, get a third opinion from WT:PLANTS or Third opinion. And I'd also ask you, Peter coxhead, to realize that Ettrig is improving the encyclopedia (the evolutionary material looks nice, although I didn't spend too much time reading it, and which article it should live in is a detail rather than a big deal). Kingdon (talk) 01:33, 23 March 2011 (UTC)

 * I don't think that reversion would be a helpful move here, although I know that it is within WP policies. I also know that Ettrig doesn't have to discuss merges first, although it seems to me that most people working in the plants area do (see the discussion above re merging "vessel element" into "xylem"). Notification/discussion is useful not only because there may not be a consensus for a merge, and thus unhelpful reversions can be avoided, but also because other editors often know of links to the original articles and why they are there and hence where they can best be re-directed. Merging "Xylem development" into a section of "Xylem" without checking individual links leaves some in an unhelpful state to readers, e.g. Exarch is usually best not linked to the entire article on xylem.
 * Given that Xylem is now a large comprehensive article, there are others that should be looked at, e.g. is there now a point in keeping Tracheid separate? Vessel element is a little different because it covers more than xylem.
 * Everyone's time and effort could be saved, in my view, if there is prior discussion. Peter coxhead (talk) 08:00, 23 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Xylem is an article of high importance in project Plants. With a low effort I made it comprehensive (cited from previous comment). In my view this is a very good change. I consider the negative side-effects mentioned in this discussion to be minor in comparison. --Ettrig (talk) 08:15, 23 March 2011 (UTC)

Ok, well the merge has been made. Some comments: I'll only have intermittent online access for a while, so I can't look at this myself at present, but will later if no-one else does. Peter coxhead (talk) 08:36, 23 March 2011 (UTC)
 * I would now merge Tracheids. This would make it more comprehensive.
 * The evolution section needs a bit more work. The discussion re early plants is not quite up to date with the latest ideas on the evolution of water conducting vessels. If you are going to discuss the evolution of tracheids, then S-type, G-type, P-type, etc. need describing and discussing. I was going to do this somewhere later on, because it's really needed in describing early land plants.
 * The effects of changing levels of are not universally accepted; the article could do with some balance from other views.

Primary Xylem vs. Metaxylem
In the section "Primary and secondary xylem" it says "Metaxylem has wider vessels and tracheids than primary xylem.". This should probably be edited to "Metaxylem has wider vessels and tracheids than secondary xylem.", as Metaxylem is part of the primary Xylem and the vessels of sec. Xylem are generally wider.

Can s.o. please confirm and maybe edit this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.23.254.52 (talk) 20:04, 15 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Good catch, but I think it means "than protoxylem". Depending on the plant, the metaxylem vessel elements can be wider or narrower than secondary xylem elements.--Curtis Clark (talk) 20:39, 15 November 2012 (UTC)

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Main Function - upward water transport
It might add to this section if there was a short description of hydrogen bonds and the role they play or just a hyperlink added. At the moment it says only adhesion as the reason the water moves through the elements.

Frazie25 (talk) 07:03, 8 February 2018 (UTC)

Merge in ascent of sap?
The article Ascent of sap, which (from what I can see) could be alternatively be titled "how xylem work", seems a bit redundant. Should it be merged in here? --Nanite (talk) 07:15, 14 July 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Xylem


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User:Lampo

Account is permanently blocked as User:Sud-Pol sockpuppet -- Chris 73 Talk 16:39, Feb 3, 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Lampo


text:
Talk:IHTFP

Untitled
Mike Bauer reports several non-MIT-connected IHTFP sightings. Given how many other in-jokes have their own wikipedia articles.. --Sommerfeld 15:58, 2005 Feb 3 (UTC)

 * Added this reference to Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lentower (talk) 15:18, 23 April 2012 (UTC)

Split Hacks?
Shouldn't the hacks be given their own category? They're not directly related to IHTFP.
 * Was thinking the same. We should merge... Isopropyl 22:34, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * On second thought, Roof and tunnel hacking does not really encompass the various hacks around MIT. Is there a more specific category, or shall we create one? Isopropyl 22:36, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

Is this really a disambiguation page?
I don't know how to flag it as such, and I'm not sure how to remove that status.... zenbobby (talk) 16:42, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

 * This article has not been a disambiguation page for years. I removed the project tag. Lentower (talk) 15:19, 23 April 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:IHTFP


text:
List of Internet organizations

This is a list of Internet organisations, or organizations that play or played a key role in the evolution of the Internet by developing recommendations, standards, and technology; deploying infrastructure and services; and addressing other major issues.

Standards development and broad-based advocacy and educational organizations

 * IAB  (Internet Architecture Board)
 * ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
 * IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
 * IESG (Internet Engineering Steering Group)
 * IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
 * IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
 * ISOC (Internet Society)
 * NANOG (North American Network Operators' Group)
 * NRO  (Number Resource Organization)
 * W3C  (World Wide Web Consortium)
 * OTF (Open Technology Fund)
 * EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation)

Regional Internet Registries (RIRs)

 * AfriNIC (African Network Information Centre)
 * ARIN   (American Registry for Internet Numbers)
 * APNIC  (Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre)
 * LACNIC (Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre)
 * RIPE   (Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre)

United Nations bodies

 * Internet Governance Forum
 * World Summit on the Information Society
 * Working Group on Internet Governance

Research and education organizations

 * Merit (Merit Network, Inc.)
 * NLR (National LambdaRail)
 * Internet2 (aka University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development)

Accessibility and affordability initiatives

 * Internet.org
 * Alliance for Affordable Internet

Commercial organizations
Commercial organizations that made early and significant contributions to the development of the Internet or services available on the Internet:

 * Amazon.com
 * AOL (America Online)
 * Cloudflare
 * eBay
 * Facebook
 * Flickr
 * Google
 * LinkedIn
 * Netflix
 * Network Solutions (NSI)
 * Paypal
 * Twitter
 * Yahoo!
 * YouTube
 * Instagram
 * SourceForge

Historical organizations
Organizations that played an important role in the development of the Internet in the past:

 * Advanced Network and Services (ANS)
 * DARPA (U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)
 * InterNIC
 * NSF (U.S. National Science Foundation)
 * PSINet
 * UUNet

title: List of Internet organizations


text:
Cosmic Coasters

Cosmic Coasters is a board game designed by Andrew Looney and published by Looney Labs. In 2002, Cosmic Coasters won the Origins Award for Best Abstract Board Game of 2001.

The game is played on custom bar coasters bearing the image of a Galilean moon on one side and a rules summary on the other. The coasters are designed for use as actual coasters as well as game boards, and the game does not use anything unlikely to be in a bar (such as dice).

Gameplay
Each coaster represents a space colony with four "factories", four "control points" and one "teleporter". Each player takes seven distinctive counters - for example, coins of the same denomination - and places them on their coaster.

Players take turns to move. Each turn, they may Teleport, Build, or Move.

 * Teleport:So long as a player is the only player to control (have a counter on) two or more of the control points on a coaster, they may teleport a counter from that coaster's teleporter onto another coaster, or out of the game. If they teleport onto another counter, that counter is destroyed.
 * Build:So long as a player controls the two control points adjacent to an empty factory, and they have spare counters, they may put one of their spare counters on that factory.
 * Move:The player may move one of their counters to an adjacent space. If the space is occupied, attacker and defender play one round of "Rock, Paper, Scissors" to determine the outcome:
 * Attacker wins - The defender is removed and the attacker moves into the space.
 * Tie - The defender is removed but the attacker does not move into the space.
 * Defender wins - The defender is not removed and the attacker does not move into the space. The turn is wasted.

Each player has a special power, depending on their coaster. The first player to teleport a counter back onto their own coaster wins.

Reviews

 * Pyramid

title: Cosmic Coasters


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hurr

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Joyous 01:07, Feb 9, 2005 (UTC)

Hurr
Not sure if it's notable, but what's there is just an excerpt from what may be copyvio. Not to mention that the article it references claims it's spelled "Horr", anyway. --InShaneee 16:01, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Horr if it is a common misspelling or alternative name, otherwise delete. jni 16:28, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, article as it stands is un-encyclopaedic. Megan1967 01:49, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete what looks to be original research. --Deathphoenix 02:10, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This could go into Battle of Karbala or Horr, and in fact both articles already contain this information. JoaoRicardo 04:02, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, reads like game cruft. Wyss 00:00, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hurr


text:
Talk:Seed saving

Untitled
What is the case with genetically engineered seed, can it reliably be saved? Tsavage 16:01, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Not legally, as re-use infringes the manufacturer's patent to produce that seed.

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British Interplanetary Society

The British Interplanetary Society (BIS), founded in Liverpool in 1933 by Philip E. Cleator, is the oldest existing space advocacy organisation in the world. Its aim is exclusively to support and promote astronautics and space exploration.

Structure
It is a non-profit organisation with headquarters in London and is financed by members' contributions.

It is situated on South Lambeth Road (A203) near Vauxhall station.

History
The BIS was only preceded in astronautics by the American Interplanetary Society (founded 1930), the German VfR (founded 1927), and Soviet Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel (founded 1924), but unlike those it never became absorbed into a national industry. Thus it is now the world's oldest existing space advocacy body.

When originally formed in October 1933, the BIS aimed not only to promote and raise the public profile of astronautics, but also to undertake practical experimentation into rocketry along similar lines to the organisations above. However, early in 1936 the Society discovered that this ambition was thwarted by the Explosives Act of 1875, which prevented any private testing of liquid-fuel rockets in the United Kingdom.

Proposals for design of space vehicles
In the late 1930s, the group devised a project of landing people on the Moon by a multistage rocket, each stage of which would have many narrow solid-fuel rockets. Their lander was gumdrop-shaped but otherwise quite like the Lunar Module. As it was considered that the cabin would have to rotate, BIS member Ralph A. Smith, who helped re-establish the society post-WW2, invented the first instrument for space travel: the Coelostat, a navigation mechanism that would ingeniously cancel out the rotating view. R.A. Smith and Harry Ross were the aerospace visionaries named on the original patent. Smith also authored and illustrated the 1947 book 'The Exploration of the Moon' showing the first ever conceptual 'orbital satellite' (text by Arthur C. Clarke), which is said to have inspired both John F. Kennedy and Stanley Kubrick.

In a November 1949 conference in the BIS, Harry Ross presented a paper on a concept of a Lunar spacesuit. In the paper, Ross had examined the problem of a 68 kg lunar space suit which could be worn for up to 12 hours, within the temperature range of +120°C to -150°C.

In 1946, the BIS started a programme known as Megaroc. The purpose of the programme was to develop a Sub-orbital spaceflight that could provide crewed ascents to a maximum of 1 million feet (304 km). The craft was made by enlarging and re-designing a V-2 rocket after it was noted by H.E. Ross in 1946 that the V-2 rocket was "nearly big enough to carry a man." The project was noted to be 10 years ahead of its time by NASA engineers who reviewed it. The same NASA engineers predicted the rocket would have been capable of first achieving a crewed suborbital flight between 1949 and 1951, and capable of sending people to space reliably by 1951.

Role in international space
During the second International Astronautical Congress, held in London in 1951, the BIS was one of 13 national space societies who together founded the International Astronautical Federation. The other founding members no longer exist as national societies, leaving only the BIS.

Nearest stars
In 1978, the Society published a starship study called Project Daedalus, which was a detailed feasibility study for a simple uncrewed interstellar flyby mission to Barnard's Star using present-day technology and a reasonable extrapolation of near-future capabilities. Daedalus was to have used a pellet driven nuclear-pulse fusion rocket to accelerate to 12 per cent of the speed of light.

Mars
The latest in this series of far-reaching studies produced the Project Boreas report, which designed a crewed station for the Martian North Pole. The report was short-listed for the 2007 Sir Arthur Clarke Awards in the category of Best Written Presentation.

Publications
The BIS publishes the academic journal Journal of the British Interplanetary Society and the monthly magazine Spaceflight. In 2008, the BIS published Interplanetary, a history of the society to date.

Awards given by the society
The science and science fiction writer Sir Arthur C. Clarke was a well-known former Chairman of the British Interplanetary Society. The society was presented with the first Special Award, from the 2005 Sir Arthur Clarke Awards. This was a gift of Clarke's choice, independent of the judging panel. In 2008 the Society's magazine, Spaceflight, edited by Clive Simpson, was the winner of the award for Best Space Reporting.

Charles Chilton joined the society before writing and producing the science-fiction radio trilogy Journey Into Space.

The Sir Patrick Moore Medal was made possible by long-time Fellow of the BIS, Sir Patrick Moore, to recognise outstanding contributions to the Society.

The British Interplanetary Society UK-Born Astronaut Silver Pin Award was introduced in 2009, this BIS silver pin award recognises the achievement of UK-born individuals who have undertaken a spaceflight into full Earth orbit.

The Rising Star Awards were founded in 2021 by BIS Fellows, Vix Southgate and Alan Bond and run by the BIS NextGen Network. In 2021, the RSA awards celebrated 'Women in Space', to coincided with the World Space Week theme of the same year. The five winners were presented with BIS Silver Comet Brooches and certificates.

Responsibilities
The British Interplanetary Society, collaborates and coordinates at a national and international level to promote space and astronautics.

 * Coordinator for the UK Selection for the International Astronautical Federation's IAC Student Paper Competition, in partnership with the Institution of Engineering and Technology Technical Network.
 * Official UK National Coordinators for World Space Week, supporting and encouraging the creation of educational opportunities, activities, and events during 4-10 October.

Logo
In 2020, the British Interplanetary Society website was redesigned and updated with a new-look logo, with a streamlined sans-serif version of the original 'Stag' font and both the banner and medallion designs incorporating the BIS motto 'From Imagination To Reality'.

title: British Interplanetary Society


text:
World Car Awards

The World Car Awards (also known as World Car of the Year, WCOTY) is a group of automobile Car of the Year awards selected by a jury of 102 international automotive journalists from 30 countries. Cars considered must be sold in at least two major markets (North America, Europe, Asia, Latin America) on at least two separate continents prior to 30 March of the year of the award. The contest was inaugurated in 2003, and officially launched in January 2004.

This started as a single award, similar to many of the continent and nation specific Car of the Year awards already given. Since 2006, awards for performance, green cars, and car design have also been given. In April 2013, an award for luxury design was inaugurated.

History

 * 2005
 * Ten finalists were reduced to three, before the winner was selected at the Canadian International AutoShow in Toronto. The Audi A6, Porsche 911, and Volvo S40/V50 were the top three finalists.

 * 2006
 * For 2006, in addition to the WCOTY award, the performance, green, and design categories were added; the award was announced at the New York International Auto Show. The BMW 3 Series, Mazda MX-5, and Porsche Cayman were the top three finalists.

 * 2007
 * The Lexus LS, MINI, and Audi TT were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2008
 * The Mazda2 / Demio, Ford Mondeo, and Mercedes-Benz C-Class were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2009
 * The Volkswagen Golf, and Toyota iQ were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2010
 * The Volkswagen Polo, Mercedes-Benz E-Class, and Audi A5 were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2011
 * The Nissan Leaf, Audi A8, and BMW 5 Series were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2012
 * The Volkswagen up!, BMW 3 Series, and Porsche 911 were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2013
 * The Volkswagen Golf, Mercedes-Benz A-Class, Porsche Boxster and Subaru BRZ/Toyota GT-86 were the top four finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2014
 * The Audi A3, Mazda3 and BMW 4 Series were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2015
 * The Mercedes-Benz C-Class, Volkswagen Passat and Ford Mustang were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2016
 * The Mazda MX-5, Mercedes-Benz GLC and Audi A4 were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2017
 * The Jaguar F-Pace, Volkswagen Tiguan and Audi Q5 were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2018
 * The Volvo XC60, Range Rover Velar and Mazda CX-5 were the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

 * 2019
 * The Audi e-tron, Jaguar I-Pace and Volvo S60/V60 are the top three finalists. The winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show.

title: World Car Awards


text:
Keith Stroup

Keith Stroup is an American attorney and founder of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws.

Biography
After graduating from the University of Illinois in 1965, he enrolled in Georgetown Law School and worked in the office of Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen. He graduated from law school in 1968 and began working for the federal Consumer Product Safety Commission. The job put him in contact with consumer activist Ralph Nader whose work inspired Stroup to create a consumer group for cannabis users.

Using $5,000 in seed money from the Playboy Foundation, Stroup founded NORML in 1970. He served as executive director until 1979, during which time 11 states adopted marijuana decriminalization laws. However, his directorship was cut short by a serious blunder. The administration of President Jimmy Carter had favored marijuana reform; however, Peter Bourne, Carter's drug adviser, disagreed with Stroup on ending the spraying of Mexican marijuana fields with the herbicide paraquat. In retaliation, Stroup revealed to a reporter that Bourne had snorted cocaine at NORML's 1977 Christmas party. Bourne was subsequently fired. Stroup eventually lost his job too; "The folks at NORML didn't like snitches and eased him out the door."

Stroup worked as a lobbyist for family farmers for a few years in Washington, DC, and he lobbied for artists in Boston, MA, before being hired as the executive director of the National Association for Criminal Defense Lawyers (NACDL), the specialized bar association for criminal lawyers, also in Washington, DC, where he worked from 1989 through 1994.

In 1994, Stroup was invited to return to the NORML board of directors, and in 1995, when then Executive Director Richard Cowan stepped aside, Stroup was rehired as executive director of NORML, where he worked for the next 10 years, serving as the primary spokesperson for marijuana smokers in America. In January 2005, he announced he was stepping aside as executive director, citing the need for a younger crop of activists to take over the organization, with a fresh perspective and new ideas. Stroup remains active with NORML, serving as legal counsel, giving college lectures, and he recently published a book on the history of NORML entitled It's NORML to Smoke Pot: the 40-year Fight for Marijuana Smokers' Rights.

title: Keith Stroup


text:
William Prior

William Prior may refer to:

 * William Wain Prior (1876–1946), Danish general
 * William Prior (priest) (1883–1969), Anglican priest
 * William Matthew Prior (1806–1873), American folk artist
 * W. H. Prior (1812–1882), British painter and engraver
 * Billy Prior, a fictional character in Pat Barker's Regeneration Trilogy of novels

title: William Prior


text: User talk:204.184.214.66

title: User talk:204.184.214.66


text:
Bertrand competition

Bertrand competition is a model of competition used in economics, named after Joseph Louis François Bertrand (1822–1900). It describes interactions among firms (sellers) that set prices and their customers (buyers) that choose quantities at the prices set. The model was formulated in 1883 by Bertrand in a review of Antoine Augustin Cournot's book Recherches sur les Principes Mathématiques de la Théorie des Richesses (1838) in which Cournot had put forward the Cournot model. Cournot's model argued that each firm should maximise its profit by selecting a quantity level and then adjusting price level to sell that quantity. The outcome of the model equilibrium involved firms pricing above marginal cost; hence, the competitive price. In his review, Bertrand argued that each firm should instead maximise its profits by selecting a price level that undercuts its competitors' prices, when their prices exceed marginal cost. The model was not formalized by Bertrand; however, the idea was developed into a mathematical model by Francis Ysidro Edgeworth in 1889.

Underlying assumptions of Bertrand competition
Considering the simple framework, the underlying assumptions that the Bertrand model makes is as follows:

Furthermore, it is intuitively deducible, when considering the law of demand of firms' competition in the market:
 * there are $$n$$ firms ($$i = 1, 2, ...$$) competing in the market that produce homogenous goods; that is, identical products;
 * the market demand function $$Q=D(p)$$, where Q is the summation of quantity produced by firms $$Q=\sum_{i=1}^n$$$$Q_i$$, is continuous and downward sloping with $$D'(p)<0$$ ;
 * the marginal cost is symmetric, $$c_1=c_2=...=c$$ ;
 * it is a static game; firms simultaneously set price, without knowing the other firm's decision; and
 * firms don't have a capacity constraint; that is, each firm has the capability to produce enough goods to meet market demand.

 * the firm that sets the lowest price will acquire the whole market; since, product is homogenous and there is no cost of switching for the customers; and
 * if the price set by the firms is the same, $$p_1=p_2=...=p$$, they will serve the market equally, $$\frac{p}{n}$$.

The Bertrand duopoly equilibrium
In the Bertrand model, the competitive price serves as a Nash equilibrium for strategic pricing decisions. If both firms establish a competitive price at the marginal cost (unit cost), neither firm obtains profits. If one firm aligns its price with the marginal cost while the other raises its price above the unit cost, the latter earns nothing, as consumers opt for the competitively priced option. No other pricing scenario reaches equilibrium. Setting identical prices above unit cost leads to a destabilizing incentive for each firm to undercut the other, aiming to capture the entire market and significantly boost profits. This lack of equilibrium arises from the firms competing in a market with substitute goods, where consumers favor the cheaper product due to identical preferences. Additionally, equilibrium is not achieved when firms set different prices; the higher-priced firm earns nothing, prompting it to lower prices to undercut the competitor. Therefore, the sole equilibrium in the Bertrand model emerges when both firms establish a price equal to unit cost, known as the competitive price.

It is to highlight that the Bertrand equilibrium is a weak Nash-equilibrium. The firms lose nothing by deviating from the competitive price: it is an equilibrium simply because each firm can earn no more than zero profits given that the other firm sets the competitive price and is willing to meet all demand at that price.

Classic modelling of the Bertrand competition
The Bertrand model of price competition in a duopoly market producing homogenous goods has the following characteristics:

 * Players: Two firms $$i=1, 2$$ with constant marginal cost $$c,\ (c_1=c_2)$$;
 * Strategic Variables: Firm's select the price level (i.e., $$p_i=p_1$$);
 * Timing: Simultaneous move game;
 * Firm Payoffs: Profit; and
 * Information: Complete. Economics_bertrand_diag1.png

Firm $$i$$’s individual demand function is downward sloping and a function of the price set by each firm:

$$D(p_i,p_j) = \begin{cases} D(p_i), & \text{if }p_i<p_j \\ \frac{D(p_i)}{2}, & \text{if }p_i=p_j \\ 0, & \text{otherwise}\end{cases}$$

Important to note, in this case, the market demand is continuous; however, the firm's demand is discontinuous, as seen in the above function statement. This means the firm's profit function is also discontinuous. Therefore, firm $$i$$ aims to maximise its profit, as stated below, taking $$p_j$$ as given:

$$\pi_i=(p_i-c)D(p_i)$$

In order to derive the best response for firm $$i$$, let $$p_m$$ be the monopoly price that maximises total industry profit, where $$p_m=argmax_p(p-c)D(p)$$. This highlights the incentive for firms to 'undercut' rival firms. As if the rival sets the price at $$p_m$$ firm $$i$$ can reduce its price by the smallest currency unit, $$\epsilon$$,  to capture the entire market demand, $$D(p)$$. Therefore, firm $$i$$ ’s best response is: $$R_i(p_j) = \begin{cases} p_m, & \text{if }p_j \geq p_m \\ p_j-\epsilon, & \text{if }c<p_j<p_m \\ c, & \text{if } p_j\leq c\end{cases}$$ Diagram 1 illustrates firm 1's best response function, $$P_1''(P_2)$$, given the price set by firm 2. Note, $$MC$$ in the diagram stands for marginal cost, $$c$$. The Nash Equilibrium ($$N$$) in the Bertrand model is the mutual best response; an equilibrium where neither firm has an incentive to deviate from it. As illustrated in the Diagram 2, the Bertrand-Nash equilibrium occurs when the best response function for both firm's intersects at the point, where $$P_1^N= P_2^N =MC$$. This means both firms make zero economic profits.

Therefore, if rival prices below marginal cost, firm ends up making losses attracting extra demand and is better of setting price level to marginal cost. Important to note, Bertrand's model of price competition leads to a perfect competitive outcome. This is known as the Bertrand paradox; as two competitors in a market are sufficient to generate competitive pricing; however, this result is not consistent in many real world industries.

If one firm has lower average cost (a superior production technology), it will charge the highest price that is lower than the average cost of the other one (i.e. a price just below the lowest price the other firm can manage) and take all the business. This is known as "limit pricing".

Critical analysis of the Bertrand model
The Bertrand model rests on some very extreme assumptions. For example, it assumes that consumers want to buy from the lowest priced firm. There are various reasons why this may not hold in many markets: non-price competition and product differentiation, transport and search costs. For example, would someone travel twice as far to save 1% on the price of their vegetables? The Bertrand model can be extended to include product or location differentiation but then the main result – that price is driven down to marginal cost – no longer holds. With search costs, there may be other equilibria apart from the competitive price – the monopoly price or even price dispersion may be equilibria as in the classic "Bargains and Rip-offs" model.

The model also ignores capacity constraints. If a single firm does not have the capacity to supply the whole market then the "price equals marginal cost" result may not hold. The analysis of this case was started by Francis Ysidro Edgeworth and has become known as the Bertrand–Edgeworth model. With capacity constraints, there may not exist any pure strategy Nash equilibrium, the so-called Edgeworth paradox. However, in general there will exist a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium as shown by Huw Dixon.

Moreover, some economists have criticized the model as leading to impractical outcomes in situations, where firms have fixed cost $$F$$ and, as mentioned previously, constant marginal cost, $$c$$. Hence, the total cost, $$TC$$, of producing $$Q$$ units is, $$TC = F + cQ$$. As described in the classic model, prices eventually are driven down to marginal cost, where firms are making zero economic profit and earn no margins on inframarginal units. Thus, firms are not able to recoup any fixed costs. However, if firms have an upward-sloping marginal cost curve, they can earn marginal on infra-marginal sales, which contributes to recouping fixed costs.

There is a big incentive to cooperate in the Bertrand model; colluding to charge the monopoly price, $$p_m$$, and sharing the market equally, $$\frac{p_m}{n}$$, where $$n$$ is the number of firms in the market. However, not colluding and charging marginal cost is the non-cooperative outcome and the only Nash equilibrium of this model. Therefore, moving from a simultaneous move game to a repeated game with infinite horizon, then collusion is possible because of the Folk Theorem.

Bertrand competition versus Cournot competition
The Bertrand and Cournot model focus on different aspects of the competitive process, which has led to the model identifying different set of mechanisms that vary the characteristics of the market demand that are exhibited by the firms. Cournot model assumes that the market allocates sales equal to whatever any given firm quantity produced, but at the price level determined by the market. Whereas the Bertrand model assumes that the firm with the lowest price acquires all the sales in the market.

When comparing the models, the oligopoly theory suggest that the Bertrand industries are more competitive than Cournot industries. This is because quantities in the Cournot model are considered as strategic substitutes; that is, the increase in quantity level produced by a firm is accommodated by the rival, producing less. Whereas the prices in the Bertrand model are strategic complements; a firm aggressively counters an increase in price level by reducing its price below the rivals.

Moreover, both models are criticised based on the assumptions that are made in comparison to the real-world scenario. However, the results from the classic models can be reconciled in a manner of thinking, as presented below. Considering the models appropriate application in the market:

 * Cournot model is applicable in markets where the firm must make production decision in advance and must be committed to selling that quantity level; thus, unlikely to react to fluctuations in rival's quantity produced.
 * Bertrand model is applicable in markets where capacity is sufficiently flexible and firms are capable to meet any market demand that arises at price level, which they set.

Neither model is necessarily "better" than the other. The accuracy of the predictions of each model will vary from industry to industry, depending on the closeness of each model to the industry situation. If capacity and output can be easily changed, Bertrand is generally a better model of duopoly competition. If output and capacity are difficult to adjust, then Cournot is generally a better model.

Under some conditions the Cournot model can be recast as a two-stage model, wherein the first stage firms choose capacities, and in the second they compete in Bertrand fashion.

Bertrand Competition with Asymmetric Marginal Costs
In Bertrand Competition, we have made several assumptions, for instance, each firm produces identical goods and cost. However, this is not the case in the real world because there are a lot of factors that lead the cost of different firms to become slightly different like the cost of renting and the larger scale of the firm can enjoy economies of scale. Thus, different researchers tried to investigate the result of Bertrand Competition with asymmetric marginal cost. According to the experiment from “Bertrand competition with asymmetric costs: Experimental evidence”, the author found that there is a negative relationship between the level of asymmetry in the cost and the price set by the firms (J Boone, et al., 2012). It means that firms have different incentives to set their prices.

Thomas Demuynck et al. (2019) conducted research to find out a solution in pure strategies in Bertrand competition with asymmetric costs. Ha has defined the Myopic Stable Set (MSS)for Normal-form games. Suppose there are two firms, we use C for the marginal cost, C1 stands for the marginal cost of firm 1 and C2 stands for the marginal cost of firm 2. From the result, there are two cases:

 * C1 = C2 = C

This is the case of the basic Bertrand Competition which both firms have the same marginal cost. From the figure, MSS has illustrated that there is only one unique point that both firms are going to set their price. It is the pure strategy of Nash equilibrium.

 * C1 < C2

It means that the marginal cost of Firm 2 is higher than the marginal cost of Firm 1. Under this situation, firm 2 can only set their price equal to their marginal cost. On the other hand, Firm 1 can choose its price between its marginal cost and Firm 2's marginal cost. Thus, there are a lot of points for Firm 1 to set its price.

As you can see, Firms may not set their price equal to their marginal cost under asymmetric costs, unlike the standard Bertrand Competition Model. From the situation, firms with the lower marginal cost can choose whatever they want within the range between their marginal cost and other firms’ marginal costs. There is no absolute answer to which price they should set, it is just based on different factors, for example, the current market situation.

At the same time, Subhasish Dugar et al. (2009) conducted research about the relationship between the size of cost asymmetry and Bertrand Competition. They found that there is no huge difference when the cost asymmetry is small as there is relatively little impact on competition. However, the lower-cost firm will undercut the price and capture a large market share when the size of cost asymmetry is large.

Bertrand Competition with Network effects
Also, the standard Bertrand Competition also assumes that all consumers will choose the product from the firm with a lower price and the firm can only set their price based on their marginal costs. However, it is not perfectly correct as the theory did not mention the network effects. Consumers will buy a product based on the number of other consumers using it. It is very rational, like when you purchase sports shoes, most of us will prefer Nike and Adidas. As they are relatively huge brands and both of them have a strong customer network, we will have a certain confidence guarantee with many people are using their products.

However, Christian and Irina (2008)found a different result if the market has a network effects. Firms will prefer to set their price aggressively in order to attract more customers and increase the company network. Masaki (2018) also mentioned firms can gain a larger customer base by setting their prices aggressively and they will attract more and more customers through network effects. It creates a positive feedback loop. As you can see, firms are not only setting their price blindly but also willing to gain a larger customer network.

title: Bertrand competition


text:
Horka (title)

Horka, or harka, was a title used by the Magyar tribes in the 9th and 10th centuries. According to Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenetos in De administrando imperio, the horka had judicial authority. However, in other sources, the term was applied to a military leader (such as Bulcsú, who led the Magyar forces at the Battle of Lechfeld). Certainly at some point in the 10th century, the roles of horka and gyula (the chief warlord) had become similar, with the horka having authority in Western Transdanubia and the gyula in Transylvania in the east. In later sources the word appears, only as a personal name.

The title is somewhat similar to the word harki, which is used to describe soldier in Arabic.

title: Horka (title)


text:
Delphinium bakeri

Delphinium bakeri, or Baker's larkspur, is a species of perennial herb in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. It is endemic to California in the United States, where it is a federally listed endangered species. It is known in the wild from one remaining occurrence near Salmon Creek in Sonoma County, where only seven plants remained.

D. bakeri grows from a thickened, tuber-like, fleshy cluster of roots, to a height of 70 cm. The leaves occur primarily along the upper third of the stem and are green at the time the plant flowers.

The flowers are irregularly shaped. It has five conspicuous sepals, bright dark blue or purplish, with the rear sepal elongated into a spur. The inconspicuous petals occur in two pairs. The lower pair is oblong and blue-purple, the upper pair oblique and white. Seeds are produced in several dry, many-seeded fruits that split open at maturity on only one side. The species flowers from April through May.

Baker's larkspur grows on decomposed shale within coastal scrub plant community. Its range historically included the Point Reyes Peninsula and areas between Camp Meeker and Petaluma, California.

Near-extinction incidents caused by road crews
In July 2002, county-hired road crews mowing weeds in the critical habitat area cut down 30 to 50 Baker's larkspurs. Scientists initially believed the action may have caused the species' extinction.

In October 2004, the plant was nearly made extinct in earnest by road workers using heavy machinery to unclog a roadside drain. The last remaining population of about 100 plants was reduced to five individuals.

title: Delphinium bakeri


text:
Long March (disambiguation)

The Long March was the 1934 retreat by the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party.

Long March may also refer to:

Marches and protests

 * Long Walk of the Navajo, the 1864 deportation of the Navajo people by the U.S. federal government
 * Little Long March, the 1927 withdrawal by Left-Guomindang forces after the Nanchang uprising
 * Partisan Long March, the 1942 military retreat of the Yugoslav Partisans across Bosnia
 * The March (1945), a series of forced marches during the final stages of the Second World War in Europe
 * Long March for Justice, Freedom and Hope, 1988 protest march against the Australian Bicentenary
 * Sindh Peasants Long March, 2009
 * Long March (Pakistan), a 2013 public protest against alleged governmental corruption
 * 2014 retreat from Western Bahr el Ghazal, or the "long march north", in the South Sudanese Civil War
 * PPP long march, by Pakistan Peoples Party's Chairman Bilawal Bhutto Zardari in 2022

Film and television

 * Darah dan Doa, or The Long March, a 1950 Indonesian war film
 * "The Long March" (American Dad!), a 2019 TV episode
 * "The Long March" (Playhouse 90), a TV play

Literature

 * The Long March (novel), by William Styron, 1956
 * The Long March, a 1957 book by Simone de Beauvoir

Music

 * The Long March (album), by Max Roach and Archie Sheep, 1979
 * The Long March EP, by Blue Scholars, 2005
 * A Long March: The First Recordings, a 2006 album by As I Lay Dying

Other uses

 * Long March (rocket family), Chinese expendable launch system rockets
 * Long march through the institutions, a slogan for socialist strategy in West Germany coined by Rudi Dutschke around 1967

title: Long March (disambiguation)


text:
Nissan Stagea

The Nissan Stagea, pronounced as "stage-EE-A", is a station wagon produced by Nissan from 1996 to 2007. It was originally produced by Nissan in 1996 as direct competition for the Subaru Legacy Touring wagon in Japan, and was exclusive to Nissan Prince Store Japanese dealerships. The Stagea shares many mechanical parts with the Nissan Skyline and Nissan Laurel.

There are 4 different versions of the Stagea: the WC34 Series 1 (September 1996 to July 1997), the WC34 Series 1.5 (August 1997 to July 1998), the WC34 Series 2 (August 1998 to March 2001), and the M35 Series (2001 to 2007).

Series 1
The WC34 Series 1 was produced from October 1996 to July 1997. This model bears many visual similarities to the R34 Nissan Skyline, giving the impression of lineage to the R34 Nissan Skyline, though mechanically it is most similar to the R33 Nissan Skyline.

The WC34 Stagea was available with a 2.0L single-cam inline-six engine, a 2.5L twin-cam naturally-aspirated inline-six, a 2.5L twin-cam turbocharged inline-six, or a 2.6L twin-cam twin-turbocharged inline-six engine. All engines were from the Nissan RB engine family, with the 2.6L (260RS model) being the same as that equipped in the R33 Skyline GTR. Engine power ranged from 96 kW in the 2.0L to 172 kW in the 2.5L turbo and 206 kW in the 2.6L twin turbo.

The Stagea was available in rear wheel drive (RWD) and all-wheel drive (AWD) variants, with the RWD variants using RWD Laurel front suspension of the strut type and AWD versions using RWD R34 Skyline front suspension of the multi-link type. Both RWD and AWD shared its chassis platform with the C35 Laurel, which had the same wheelbase of 2720mm, and was also available in RWD and AWD.

There were some differences in the chassis between 2WD and AWD model Stageas. The main difference being that the driver's side chassis rail on the AWD version was positioned closer to the lower sill. This was done to make room for the transfer case located on the end of the AWD transmission.

The AWD system, ATTESA E-TS, is identical in operation to the Nissan Skyline GTS-FOUR and GT-R AWD system. The AWD Stageas fitted with an automatic transmission also featured a transfer case lock; this locked the transfer case in full 4WD and bypassed the ABS, g-force sensor inputs and ATTESA E-TS engine control unit which were all normally required for the AWD system to work.

Unlike the Skyline and Laurel which had 5 speed automatic transmissions on some automatic 2.5L non turbo versions, all automatic Stageas were 4 speed. All manual models were 5 speed although only 2 models were available manual, the Series 2 turbo RS4S and the Series 1.5 & Series 2 Autech Version 260RS, which were exclusively manual.

Paint Options
Series 1 paint options:
 * KR4 Sonic Silver
 * BP9 Dark blue pearl
 * DS0 Emerald green
 * DR2 Dark Emerald green
 * AR1 Super clear red II
 * WK1 Silky Snow Pearl

Note - There are a very small number of Series 1 Stageas produced in non-standard paint codes.
 * KJ6 Dark Bluish Black Pearl (1)
 * KN6 Dark Grey Pearl (5)
 * KN4 Yellow Bluish Silver (2)
 * KT2 Bluish Silver (1)

Series 1.5
In August 1997, the Stagea received minor changes to the model lineup, lasting until July 1998. The main reason for the change was the replacement of the RB25DE and RB20E engines (found in X and G models) with the updated RB25DE NEO and RB20DE NEO engines. Series 1.5 also added several new model configurations to the lineup:
 * 25t X Four - X/G trim interior with RB25DET engine
 * 25RS - RS trim interior with RB25DE NEO engine and RWD configuration
 * Aero Limited - Factory installed Dayz aero bumper, side skirts, rear skirt, and wing. This option was only available in AR1, KR4 and WK1 paint codes.
 * Autech Version 260RS - see below

In November 1997, two more models were added to the series 1.5 lineup:
 * 20X - X/G trim interior with RB20DE NEO engine
 * 25RS Four - RS trim interior with RB25DE NEO engine and 4WD configuration

Paint options
Series 1.5 paint options:
 * KR4 Sonic Silver
 * BP9 Dark blue pearl
 * DS0 Emerald green
 * DR2 Dark Emerald green
 * AR1 Super clear red II
 * WK1 Silky Snow Pearl
 * 5S5 Silky Snow Pearl over Sonic Silver
 * KJ6 Dark Bluish Black Pearl (260RS only, although Nissan Database shows one RS Four V produced in this paint code as well)

260RS Autech version
The Stagea 260RS Autech Version, or just 260RS, is a tuned version of the Stagea made by Japanese tuning company Autech. The 260RS uses the 2.6L RB26DETT coupled to a 5-speed manual transmission and features ATTESA E-TS all-wheel drive from the R33 GTR and a limited-slip rear differential. Other modifications include Brembo brakes, 17" BBS forged alloy wheels, body strengthening, an undercarriage protector, upgraded suspension, a front strut brace, a special rear stabilizer, Autech badging and an Autech bodykit that includes unique sideskirts, front bumper and tailgate spoiler. Interior modifications include an R33 GTR steering wheel, GTR style gauges, a leather shift knob and parking brake handle and special seat trim. Like other Japanese sports cars of the time, the 260RS officially produced 280 PS but most sources believe the actual horsepower to be higher. 1,734 260RS (series 1.5 and series 2) models were produced from November 1997 to March 2001.

Series 2
The WC34 series 2 (August 1998 to March 2001) was a minor revision of the WC34 Series 1. The headlights were changed in shape and made from high impact plastic (previous model had glass headlights) and the high beam lights moved into the grill. The indicators were changed to a clear unit, and changed shape slightly. Front aero was slightly revised and body mouldings colour matched. Interior trim choices were also changed. It has the same engine choices, but they are the updated NEO version of the RB series and higher spec models included a tiptronic auto transmission. The power ranges from 114 kW in the updated NEO 2L to 206 kW for the 2.5L turbo and 2.6L twin turbo. 2WD and 4WD versions available. A choice of transmissions is also available: 4-speed auto (E-AT) for X and G series models, 4-speed tiptronic auto (M-AT) found in RS series models, and 5-speed manual for the 25t RS FOUR S and 260RS.

New models and options for Series 2 included:
 * 25t RS V - RS interior trim with RB25DET NEO in RWD configuration
 * 25t RS Four S - RS interior trim with RB25DET NEO, 4WD, and 5-speed manual transmission
 * Type B Option for the two models above - a minimally equipped version with steel wheels meant for the customer to modify to their taste
 * 1999 and up Prime Edition Option - Available on all 25RS and 25t RS model Stageas. Included premium leather and wood grain appointed interior
 * 2000 and up Navi Edition Option - Available on all 20RS and 25RS model Stageas. Included an 8-inch LCD Multi-AV Compass Link system in the center console with updated Navigation system.

Paint options
Series 2 paint options:
 * KR4 Sonic Silver
 * BP9 Dark blue pearl
 * EV1 Lightning Yellow
 * DR2 Dark Emerald green
 * AR2 Active Red
 * QT1 Pearl White
 * 5T3 Pearl White over Sonic Silver
 * TV2 Bayside Blue (model year 2000/2001 only)

Specs

 * Frame: E-WGC34 (2WD); E-WGNC34 (4WD)
 * Exterior dimensions (LxWxH): 4800 mm x 1755 mm x 1495 mm
 * Interior dimensions (LxWxH): 1900 mm x 1425 mm x 1155 mm
 * Wheel base: 2720 mm
 * Treads (F/R): 1460 mm / 1515 mm
 * Ground clearance: 145 mm
 * Kerb vehicle weight: 1620 kg

Second generation (M35; 2001)
The M35 series (2001 to 2007) looks very different from the previous C34 models and is derived from the Skyline/G35 sedan (V35 platform). As per the Skyline, the engine was changed from the RB series straight-six to the VQ series V6 engine.

Series 1
From October 2001 to August 2004, the following range of models were available:
 * 250RS/RS V/RX: VQ25DD engine - V6 2.5L NA, direct injection, 215 PS, rear-wheel drive
 * 250RS FOUR/RX FOUR: VQ25DD engine - V6 2.5L NA, direct injection, 215 PS, four-wheel drive
 * 250tRS FOUR V/RX FOUR: VQ25DET engine - V6 2.5L single turbo, 280 PS, four-wheel drive
 * 300RX: VQ30DD engine - V6 3.0L NA, direct injection, 260 PS, rear-wheel drive.
 * 350S: VQ35DE engine - V6 3.5L NA, 280 PS, Autech Axis Model, rear-wheel drive

The Autech Axis 350S was the only M35 chassis Stagea to ever be offered with a manual transmission and was produced from June 2003 to July 2004

There were a couple of sub-variants:
 * 250tRS FOUR V HICAS: A 250tRS FOUR V with the addition of the Nissan HICAS four-wheel steering system
 * AR-X FOUR: A 250t FOUR (i.e. 2,5L turbo/4wd) model with increased ride height and SUV-like body ornaments. 280 PS
 * There were 4 'aero selection' models added in 2002 to the 250RS/250tRS FOUR/250tRS FOUR V/250tRS FOUR V HICAS ranges, this added a bodykit to the standard car.

Series 2
In August 2004, the range was modified:
 * 250RX: VQ25DD engine - V6 2.5L NA, direct injection, 215 PS, rear-wheel drive
 * 250RX FOUR: VQ25DD engine - V6 2.5L NA, direct injection, 215 PS, four-wheel drive
 * 350RX: VQ35DE engine - V6 3.5L NA, 200 kW, rear-wheel drive
 * 350RX FOUR: VQ35DE engine - V6 3.5L NA, 200 kW, four-wheel drive
 * AR-X FOUR: VQ35DE engine - V6 3.5L NA, 200 kW, four-wheel drive

End of life
Nissan ceased production of the Stagea in early June 2007, Nissan Japan stated that it would continue to sell the remaining stock of the vehicle but that production of the vehicle had ended. The model segment served by this vehicle was replaced by the Nissan Skyline Crossover.

title: Nissan Stagea


text:
Template:London Stock Exchange

LSE:

title: Template:London Stock Exchange


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Jon Gettman

Jon B. Gettman (born August 20, 1957) is a marijuana rights activist, a leader of the Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis, and a former head of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. He has a PhD in public policy and regional economic development from George Mason University and is a longtime contributor to High Times magazine. Gettman filed a petition in 1995 to remove cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act that was eventually denied. A second petition was filed in 2002, with the Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis, that remains under review by the Department of Health and Human Services. Gettman frequently publishes on the marijuana industry and is an associate professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Shenandoah University in Virginia.

Education
Gettman received a BA in Anthropology from the Catholic University of America and a MS in Justice, specializing in drug policy, from American University. He holds a PhD in public policy and regional economic development from George Mason University, where he is a senior fellow. In addition to his advocacy work, he is an adjunct instructor at Shepherd University in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, teaching public administration.

Advocacy
Gettman is a marijuana reform activist and head of the Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis. A former director of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws, he is a longtime contributor to High Times magazine, where he writes the Cannabis Column. As leader of the Bulletin of Cannabis Reform, he publishes frequently on the marijuana industry.

Medical marijuana
Gettman is a medical cannabis advocate.

Science and the End of Marijuana Prohibition
In 1999, Gettman presented a speech, Science and the End of Marijuana Prohibition, at the 12th International Conference on Drug Policy Reform. He noted that under the Controlled Substances Act, the key decision-makers on marijuana are the scientists at the United States Department of Health and Human Services, whose scientific and medical findings are binding on the Drug Enforcement Administration. Pointing out that Schedules I and II are, by law, reserved for drugs like heroin and cocaine with a "high potential for abuse," Gettman proposed that drug policy reformers use the petitioning process to "cross-examine under oath and penalty of perjury every HHS official and scientist who claims that marijuana use is as dangerous as the use of cocaine or heroin."

Petitions
In 1995 Gettman submitted a petition to the Drug Enforcement Administration calling for the rescheduling of cannabis. The petition sought to remove marijuana and its cannabinoids from Schedules I and II of the Controlled Substance Act on the grounds that the drug lacks the potential for abuse that warrants inclusion there. The DEA must by law forward all petitions which advocate the rescheduling of a drug to the Department of Health and Human Services for further review. By proceeding to do so, the DEA implicitly judged that "sufficient grounds" exist for the rescheduling of cannabis.

In 1999, Gettman speculated that if removed from Schedule I, cannabis could be:
 * Regulated as a Schedule III or IV prescription drug, similarly to ketamine or anabolic steroids;
 * Regulated as a Schedule V over-the-counter substance; or
 * Removed from the Schedules and regulated similarly to alcoholic beverages or tobacco.

However, upon reviewing the HHS evaluation, the DEA concluded in 2001 that adequate evidence did not exist to necessitate the change. In response, Gettman brought the case before the US Court of Appeals. The court denied the case judicial review because Gettman, not a medical cannabis patient, was unharmed by the DEA restricting access to the drug. Gettman explained that apparently "only those who are actually injured by DEA's refusal to reschedule cannabis have standing to submit DEA's potential actions in this area to judicial review by the federal courts" and organized a coalition to meet this requirement for a subsequent petition.

In October 2002, the Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis (headed by Gettman and composed of an agglomeration of organizations) filed another petition before the DEA. In April 2002, the DEA formally accepted the proposal, which sought federal recognition of the medicinal value of cannabis, reclassification of the drug, and the establishment of a legal framework for the production and distribution of medical cannabis. In doing so, the DEA acknowledged sufficient merit in the evidence presented in the petition, which focused on accepted medicinal value rather than relative harm, to warrant additional review rather than dismissal. In 2004, the DEA referred the petition to the Department of Health and Human Services for a full-scale evaluation where, as of May 2006, it remains.

The Cannabis Column, a longstanding column on High Times magazine, tracks the progress of this petition. As of September 16, 2009, the column has eclipsed fifty issues.

Marijuana Production in the United States
In 2006 Gettman wrote a special report, entitled "Marijuana Production in the United States, published in the Bulletin of Cannabis Reform. In it, he estimated the monetary value of the marijuana crop and determined marijuana the largest cash crop in the nation, exceeding the combined values of corn and wheat. Gettman then argues that marijuana prohibition has failed and calls for the legalization and regulation of what he calculated to be a $35.8 billion industry.

Lost Taxes and Other Costs of Marijuana Laws
In 2007 Gettman authored another special report for the Bulletin of Cannabis Reform, entitled "Lost Taxes and Other Costs of Marijuana Laws." The study examined the effects of marijuana prohibition from an economic perspective and calculated that prohibition costs taxpayers approximately $42 billion in enforcement costs and foregone tax revenues.

title: Jon Gettman


text:
M1 (missile)

The M1 MSBS was the first French submarine-launched ballistic missile.

Overview
In French, MSBS is the abbreviation for Mer-Sol Balistique Stratégique, or Sea-Ground Strategic Ballistic Missile. It has two stages. It was deployed on the Redoutable-class SNLEs (Sous-marin Nucléaire Lanceur d'Engins) (Device-launching Nuclear Submarine) or SSBNs from 1971 to 1975. It was replaced by the M2 MSBS in 1974–75.

title: M1 (missile)


text:
Distraint

Distraint or distress is "the seizure of someone’s property in order to obtain payment of rent or other money owed", especially in common law countries. Distraint is the act or process "whereby a person (the distrainor), traditionally even without prior court approval, seizes the personal property of another located upon the distrainor's land in satisfaction of a claim, as a pledge for performance of a duty, or in reparation of an injury." Distraint typically involves the seizure of goods (chattels) belonging to the tenant by the landlord to sell the goods for the payment of the rent. In the past, distress was often carried out without court approval. Today, some kind of court action is usually required, the main exception being certain tax authorities – such as HM Revenue and Customs in the United Kingdom and the Internal Revenue Service in the United States – and other agencies that retain the legal power to levy assets (by either seizure or distraint) without a court order.

History
Article 61 of Magna Carta extended the law of distraint to the monarch's properties, including "our castles, lands, possessions, or anything else saving only our own person and those of the queen and our children".

In England in 1267 the Statute of Marlborough was passed making distraint unlawful without a court order.

"Chapter 1 [of the Statute of Marlborough 1267] provided that all persons "as well of high as of low estate" were to receive justice in the King's court. No individual was to be entitled to seek "revenge or distress of his own authority" against his neighbour for any damage or injury suffered without first obtaining an award from the court."

Distress in this context was (and still is) a summary remedy designed to secure performance of an obligation or settlement of an outstanding debt. First, it was the bedrock of the notion that all citizens, irrespective of rank, were entitled to seek civil justice through the King's court or courts. Secondly, it laid down a prohibition on individuals taking the law into their own hands and seeking remedies (revenge or distress) without the court's sanction. That prohibition was reinforced with criminal penalties.

Procedure
The goods are held for a given amount of time, and if the rent is not paid, they may be sold. The actual seizure of the goods may be carried out by the landlord, the landlord's agent, or an officer of the government, a bailiff or sheriff officer in the United Kingdom or a sheriff or marshal in the United States.

Certain goods are protected against distraint; these are called "privileged goods". Such goods include, for example, goods belonging to the state, fixtures, goods delivered to the tenant or debtor for business purposes, the goods of a guest, perishable goods (e.g. food), livestock, gas, water, electricity, and tools of the tenant's trade.

Forced entry is usually not permitted by the distraint officer, but in the UK, in the event of entry being refused to the HMRC distraint officer, HMRC can apply for a break open warrant under Section 61(2) of the Taxes Management Act 1970. This permits forced entry to the debtor's premises by the HMRC distraint officer. Any additional costs incurred from obtaining the warrant are passed onto the debtor and added to the debt to be collected by distraint.

Also in the UK, forced entry is also permitted if the distress warrant is for amounts of a criminal nature, for instance court fines. The use of forced entry for these purposes is covered in the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the proposals which have been implemented to reduce the area to post-warrant executions by registered court bailiffs (enforcement officers) gained serious traction in the late 20th century.

In post-warrant execution and former civil distress concerns were regularly expressed that certain instances of distraint/distress violate human rights, such as Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, the right to respect for private life. The Lord Chancellor's Department (now the Ministry of Justice) in May 2001 issued Enforcement Review Consultation Paper No. 5: Distress for Rent, which spurred the abolition of distraint for residential leases and reduced it to peaceable re-entry, that is closing down of commercial premises and no taking of goods, by authorised, registered bailiffs ("Enforcement Officers") in commercial property subject to safeguards – to ensure compliance with the Human Rights Act 1998.

It was thought that distraint would be abolished in the UK when the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007, s.71 came into force, replacing it, solely for leases on commercial property, by a statutory system of Commercial Rent Arrears Recovery (CRAR). (The Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 received Royal Assent July 2007 but no date for implementation was published. A Commencement Order of 2012 followed which brings into force sections 93 and 94 of the Act (on 1 October 2012 and 17 May 2012 respectively), which amend the Charging Orders Act 1979.)

Bailiffs must provide evidence of their identification upon request by the debtor, as a well as sight of the warrant providing them with authority to enter. They must also legally give the debtor an enforcement notice seven days before they visit. In contrast, private sector debt collectors can chase a debtor to pay what is owed to a creditor, but they cannot levy distress. Debt collectors are not allowed to pretend to be a bailiff. Debtors can also check the register of certificated bailiffs if they are unsure about whether a bailiff is certificated or not.

Practices relating to distress or seizing goods are now referred to as "taking control of goods" and governed by the Taking Control of Goods Regulations 2013.

United States
Distraint was adopted into the United States common law from England, and it has recently been challenged as a possible violation of due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment. In decisions like Luria Bros. and Co. v. Allen, 672 F.2d 347 (3d Cir. 1982), however, the courts have upheld the rule because, as a landlord's self-help remedy, distraint involves no state action and thus cannot violate due process rights. In the case of distraint by the federal government for collection of taxes, the power of administrative levy by distraint (distress) dates back to the year 1791, according to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Sweden
In Sweden, distraint (utmätning) is performed by the Swedish Enforcement Authority. Bank assets and similar are taken first, but if needed the Enforcement Authority can visit people's homes, assisted by the police. Goods needed for an acceptable standard of living are protected, like clothes, TV-sets and stoves. Protected items that are expensive can be replaced with cheaper, and excess items can be taken. Goods found in the home, but belonging to others, e.g. to a romantic partner, can also be taken unless it is proven who it belongs to. Homes can be forcibly sold (exekutiv auktion), and everyone living there might be evicted.

title: Distraint


text:
Talk:Occitania

date
Has anyone got a date for the first use of Occitan/Occitania - at present the articles states both that they date from the 13th and 19th centuries. And is it true that the French kings abolished Occitan parlements? There were still parlements and états généraux in the south of France up till the Revolution. Hedgehog 16:16, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * There are no links to any of the history of these culturally unified but politically separate areas that has been developed at Wikipedia: Foix, Septimania etc. --Wetman 12:53, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Distracting blank spaces
Formatting that encases the framed table of contents in text, in just the way a framed map or image is enclosed within the text, is now available: in the HTML does the job.

Blank space opposite the ToC, besides being unsightly and distracting, suggests that there is a major break in the continuity of the text, which may not be the case. Blanks in page layout are voids and they have meanings to the experienced reader. The space betweeen paragraphs marks a brief pause between separate blocks of thought. A deeper space, in a well-printed text, signifies a more complete shift in thought: note the spaces that separate sub-headings in Wikipedia articles.

A handful of thoughtless and aggressive Wikipedians revert the "TOCleft" format at will. A particularly aggressive de-formatter is User:Ed g2s

The reader may want to compare versions at the Page history. --Wetman 19:59, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

I find this entire article well-meaning but ill-conceived
I became aware of this article when someone decided that, because I was born in Toulon (Var), I should be listed an an "Occitan" writer and changed my page. What I want to say is this: 1. Being born in Toulon might conceivably make me a "Provençal" writer; calling me an "Occitan" writer is akin to mixing up a Sioux (Lakota) and a Cheyenne because they're both Plains Indians. In mondern-day terms, the label "Occitan" should be reserved only to those born in the Languedoc-Roussillon area (excluding Catalans) and parts of the Midi-Pyrenees, period. Using the wider geographic area covered in this article is at best misleading, at worst preposterous. 2. Being called an "Occitan" writer or artist should be a cultural statement, not an accident of birth. There are a number of famous writers and artists in America who have Native American ancestry and Wiki does not refer to them as a "Cheyenne writer" -- unless of course they have written about or produced works pertinent to the Cheyenne Nation. For example: Comic artist Philippe Druillet (born in Toulouse) is no more an "Occitan" artist than Tom Wolfe is a Mattaponi writer because he was born in Richmond, Virginia. I think the attempt by User 81.67.178.49 to label all kinds of French writers and artists as "Occitan" solely because of their birthplaces is akin to vandalism and should be reversed. JMLofficier 14:31, 25 December 2006 (UTC)JMLofficier 25 December 2006 03:30 p.m.
 * I also live in Toulon, I belong to an old Provençal family and I do consider myself as an Occitan. You should learn the exact linguistic and cultural meaning of 'Occitan' and you should study more accurately the culture of your own country.--Aubadaurada 08:48, 22 January 2007 (UTC)
 * His country is France. You should not seek to impose your own romantic longings on millions of other people. All over the world, wherever one lives, the land is likely to have been occupied by several different cultures at different periods. As I found it this article had POV problems bordering on fantasy. CalJW 14:32, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Please read my response below. I am afraid that the lack of objectivity is your problem, not mine.--Aubadaurada 15:53, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I am afraid that the lack of objectivity is your problem, not mine. CalJW 03:39, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Kafka was a Czech writer in German, and there are many more examples of people from a place belonging to another culture.
 * In Catalonia we categorize as Catalan writers those who use Catalan (by default), but also Spanish (Catalan writers in Spanish) or French (Catalan writers in French), but they all are Catalans since they live in a place where Catalan is spoken.
 * --Casaforra (parlem-ne) 15:53, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

Please read with extreme caution
This is the sort of article which is of most interest to people with an intense bias and an antagonistic relationship with modern reality. Southern France is Southern France, and romantic pretences to the contrary have no place in an encyclopedia. Readers should be highly sceptical about this article, as it may relapse into extreme POV at any time. CalJW 14:36, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Nobody says that Occitania is not in Southern France and nobody says that Occitan is the first spoken language of this territory. Nevertheless, the definition of Occitania as the country where Occitan is the traditional language remains exact. When you talk about "modern reality", I suggest you to notice that Occitan is still a part of this modern reality since it is not a dead language (although minoritary). So you should be more objective and open-minded toward this complex reality.--Aubadaurada 15:32, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I am entirely unbiased, but you most certainly are biased. However if you refuse to acknowledge that I don't suppose I will be able to do anything to about it. CalJW 03:39, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * ????? And then? Now let's be serious and let's make an encyclopedia.--Aubadaurada 01:42, 3 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Again: Occitania is not a country, there is no historical proof. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.96.71.114 (talk) 12:25, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

The lands south of the Massif Central and between the Rhone and Garonne rivers were culturally and politically interconnected from the 8th century. It was referred to as a separate political entity by the Papacy and the French Crown on numerous occasions. Much of it was under the very nominal overlordship of the Kings of France, with pieces as fiefs from the Counts of Barcelona and Kings of Aragorn and from the Holy Roman Emperor. It was politically swallowed up by the King of France in the mid and late 13th Century after the Albigensian Crusade, culminating with the County of Toulouse falling to the inheritance of the crown in 1271 with the death of Joan, the last heir of Raymond VII, count of Toulouse. Whiteboar101 (talk) 03:34, 24 January 2016 (UTC)

The map is wrong
It includes some valleys in the north of Aragon as if they were Gascon-speaking, but they are Aragonese-speaking. Occitan is not spoken in Aragon, the only place in Spain where it is spoken is in the Aran Valley, in Catalonia. --Estrolicador 00:21, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * A better map is inserted, from now on.--Nil Blau (talk) 19:48, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Better how? The current map(which, to be fair, might not be the one you are talking of) shows only parts of France which have spoken occitan or occitan-related languages, making no distinction between the two. Bufinidas (talk) 17:40, 2 August 2012 (UTC)

The map screams out a need for labels. Otherwise, one has to consult another map to understand the first, which is demented. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.237.255.106 (talk) 08:29, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

Not a state
Occitania is not and it has never been a state. It consists of an imaginary region with a pseudo common language, that's all. --Frukko (talk) 22:38, 19 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It is not a state but it is the territory of a language fully recognized in Romance linguistics. Please read any Romance linguistics manual.--Nil Blau (talk) 15:48, 25 December 2008 (UTC)

Occitania, Oc Country, Languedoc
It is very misleading to say in the introduction that Languedoc is a synonym or a former synonym of Occitania.Languedoc is absolutely not a synonym for "Occitania" in current, contemporary use, but a region pertaining to Occitania. You can check this in any dictionary of proper names (in English, in French or in Occitan). In a remote past, it is not totally impossible that Languedoc could have been a synonym for Occitania but such a sense is not fully attested in medieval texts. The name Oc Country (Occitan País d'Òc, French Pays d'Oc) is a synonym for Occitania and therefore this has to be mentioned, though this use is rather seldom.--Nil Blau (talk) 16:13, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

Albert Camus
As much interest and respect I have for the Occitan language and culture, I have never seen any proof that Albert Camus is an occitan writer, neither with respect to language nor with respect to culture. I'm going to remove his name from this list of famous Occitans unless and until someone can provide a verifiable primary source for this claim. Esbullin (talk) 19:04, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Merge discussion
There is a new article called Occitan cuisine that by the moment is only the beginning of a traduction of its homologous in catalan, Cuina occitana, which is very long and complet. My English may not be enough good to translate it completelly, so I ask for help to do it. If not, it will only grown slower. Thank you anyway in advance to correct linguistic errors in it.

Someone has demanded to export the article to a section in an article for Occitanie, but it's not a good idea knowing the lenght that it will have (please, see the catalan one: Cuina occitana). However, it is not a bad idea to copy an introduction of it in a section for the general article for occitanie, with a link as "principal article" to the occitan cuisine one. Thank you all.--Slastic (talk) 17:22, 21 October 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree that Occitan cuisine needs to be merged with this article. Maybe, if this article gets big enough, it can be split off again.--I dream of horses (T) @ 19:00, 21 October 2009 (UTC)

 * If even I can make out what the Catalan article is saying, roughly, then someone whose French and Spanish is better than ours can translate the lengthy and serious Catalan article. There used to be a "translation needed" page in Wikipedia. Slastic's point is good: a succinct summary belongs here, with a hatnote alerting readers to the full details. --Wetman (talk) 19:54, 21 October 2009 (UTC)

Removal Of Period
I meant to say in the edit summary "WP:CAPTION".Curb Chain (talk) 05:30, 15 November 2012 (UTC)

Infobox
I've twice removed an IP editor's insertion of an infobox. First of all, infoboxes aren't required or anything, and second, the box was headed by the term "Cultural province", a great misnomer for something with such a long history, much of which not as anything like a "cultural province". In addition, the box listed Occitania as geographically "belonging" to France, flag icon and all, that that's incorrect. Drmies (talk) 18:22, 20 December 2013 (UTC)

Picture caption capitalization
The "a" in this caption on the picture should be capitalized. I still don't know how to edit picture captions...

a bilingual street sign in Toulouse.

Havoc21 (talk) 03:14, 26 May 2014 (UTC)

 * You just find the "[[File:]]"/"[[Image:]]" in the article source that brings in the image you're looking at and change the caption.

 * Regardless, I fixed it for you.

 * Espreon (talk) 03:23, 26 May 2014 (UTC)

Timings.
"...from as early as 1242... ...This derives from the name Lenga d'òc that was used in Italian (Lingua d'òc) by Dante..."

Dante was born circa 1265. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii 02:05, 23 September 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Occitania


text:
Gelendzhik

Gelendzhik (Геленджик) is a resort town in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, located on the Gelendzhik Bay of the Black Sea, between Novorossiysk (31 km to the northwest) and Tuapse (93 km to the southeast). Greater Gelendzhik sprawls for 102 km along the coastline and covers an area of 122754 ha, although only 1926 ha fall within the boundaries of Gelendzhik proper. Population:

History
In antiquity, the Gelendzhik Bay was the site of a minor Greek outpost, mentioned as Torikos in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax. It is unknown to Hellenistic sources, but reappears in Roman ones under the name of Pagrae in 64 BC. The colony was wiped out by the invading Huns, which were succeeded by the Zygii soon after. During the Late Middle Ages, the Genoese Republic had a notable influence on the region, while the Ghisolfi, a Genoese-Jewish family, had a prominent role in the trade and commerce in Gazaria. During this period the town was named Maurolaca or Mauro Laco, and was considered one of the most important Genoese colonies in the Black Sea.

Before Russia secured the coast by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), a brisk slave trade had been carried on between the mountaineers and the Ottoman Empire. Since the Circassian beauties were usually traded for gold and other commodities before being taken to Turkish seraglios, the market place became known as "Gelendzhik" (from "gelincik"), literally, "little bride" in Turkish Language. In 1831, one of the first forts of the Black Sea Coastal Line was set up at Gelendzhik. At the outbreak of the Crimean War the fort had to be blown up and abandoned, but it was resettled by the Cossacks in 1864, at the conclusion of the Russian-Circassian War, and became known as the stanitsa of Gelendzhiksaya. Town status was granted to Gelendzhik in 1915.

Description
During the Soviet period, Gelendzhik was developed as a resort town. It possesses sand beaches, three waterparks, two chairlift lines, and two Orthodox churches (from 1909 and 1913, respectively). The environs of Gelendzhik are noted for a chain of waterfalls, an outcrop of dolmens, two extremely ancient pine and juniper groves, and the Sail Rock, located 17 km from the town's central area. The coastal village of Arkhipo-Osipovka, administrated from Gelendzhik, contains the terminus of the Blue Stream gas pipeline. An annual hydroaviasalon is held in Gelendzhik since 1996.

Revealed on 29 March 2001 between Bietingen and Schaffhausen, Litolmore Trading Limited, a company which conducts business in mineral fertilizers, coal, oil, gas, fuel oil, aviation and diesel fuel, is a Gelendzhik firm.

A 17,691 square meters palace allegedly built for Vladimir Putin is located on the Gelendzhik Bay not far from the city.

Administrative and municipal status

Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with twenty rural localities, incorporated as the Town of Gelendzhik—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the Town of Gelendzhik is incorporated as Gelendzhik Urban Okrug.

Climate
Gelendzhik has a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) and a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). The climate of Gelendzhik is noticeably drier than Novorossiysk and Tuapse. Winters are mild and snowfall is light. Summers are hot with warm evenings. Sometimes Gelendzhik has experienced big floods as it happened in 2012 (2012 Krasnodar Krai floods).

Transportation
Gelendzhik is served by the Gelendzhik Airport. A new terminal of Gelendzhik Airport was built in December 2021.

Twin towns – sister cities
Gelendzhik is twinned with:

 * 🇬🇧 Cramlington, United Kingdom
 * 🇨🇾 Ayia Napa, Cyprus
 * 🇫🇷 Angoulême, France
 * 🇩🇪 Hildesheim, Germany
 * 🇬🇷 Kallithea, Greece
 * 🇮🇱 Netanya, Israel
 * 🇧🇾 Vitebsk, Belarus

title: Gelendzhik


text:
Yasin Abu Bakr

Yasin Abu Bakr (born Lennox Philip; 19 October 1941 – 21 October 2021) was a Trinidadian religious leader who led the Jamaat al Muslimeen, a Muslim group in Trinidad and Tobago. The group staged an attempted coup d’état in 1990.

Life
Abu Bakr was born Lennox Philip in Trinidad and Tobago and grew up in a suburb of Port-of-Spain as the eighth of fifteen children. He would later attend and graduate from Queen's Royal College, and would spend time on his tertiary studies in Toronto, Canada.

Abu Bakr would later convert to Islam, although there are two conflicting descriptions of how it took place. One story states it occurred in 1969 after an Egyptian preacher visited Trinidad. The other story states it occurred in the early 1970s while still in Canada, and that he would return to Trinidad already converted in 1973. He would change his name shortly after converting.

In the 1970s he lived in Libya as a guest of Muammar Gaddafi. Upon his return to Trinidad and Tobago he founded the Jamaat al Muslimeen.

Abu Bakr collapsed and died at his home on 21 October 2021 at the age of 80.

Coup
In 1990, 100 of Abu Bakr's followers stormed the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago and took the Prime Minister A. N. R. Robinson hostage. Abu Bakr surrendered to police six days later, and spent two years in jail.

Personal life
Abu Bakr's son, Fuad, would later embark on a political course, eventually becoming the leader of the New National Vision party, a minor political party founded in 1994 in Trinidad and Tobago. He unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a seat in the 2020 general elections.

Abu Bakr also had two other known sons, Radanfah Abu Bakr who was an internationally recognized footballer and Kevin Rajiv Mahabir also known as Kevin Kravitz who was a musical composer and social justice activist.

title: Yasin Abu Bakr