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Cylinder stress

In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis.

Cylinder stress patterns include: These three principal stresses- hoop, longitudinal, and radial can be calculated analytically using a mutually perpendicular tri-axial stress system.
 * circumferential stress, or hoop stress, a normal stress in the tangential (azimuth) direction.
 * axial stress, a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry.
 * radial stress, a normal stress in directions coplanar with but perpendicular to the symmetry axis.

The classical example (and namesake) of hoop stress is the tension applied to the iron bands, or hoops, of a wooden barrel. In a straight, closed pipe, any force applied to the cylindrical pipe wall by a pressure differential will ultimately give rise to hoop stresses. Similarly, if this pipe has flat end caps, any force applied to them by static pressure will induce a perpendicular axial stress on the same pipe wall. Thin sections often have negligibly small radial stress, but accurate models of thicker-walled cylindrical shells require such stresses to be considered.

In thick-walled pressure vessels, construction techniques allowing for favorable initial stress patterns can be utilized. These compressive stresses at the inner surface reduce the overall hoop stress in pressurized cylinders. Cylindrical vessels of this nature are generally constructed from concentric cylinders shrunk over (or expanded into) one another, i.e., built-up shrink-fit cylinders, but can also be performed to singular cylinders though autofrettage of thick cylinders.

Hoop stress

The hoop stress is the force over area exerted circumferentially (perpendicular to the axis and the radius of the object) in both directions on every particle in the cylinder wall. It can be described as:
 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{F}{tl} \ $$

where:
 * F is the force exerted circumferentially on an area of the cylinder wall that has the following two lengths as sides:
 * t is the radial thickness of the cylinder
 * l is the axial length of the cylinder.

An alternative to hoop stress in describing circumferential stress is wall stress or wall tension (T), which usually is defined as the total circumferential force exerted along the entire radial thickness:
 * $$ T = \dfrac{F}{l} \ $$

Along with axial stress and radial stress, circumferential stress is a component of the stress tensor in cylindrical coordinates.

It is usually useful to decompose any force applied to an object with rotational symmetry into components parallel to the cylindrical coordinates r, z, and θ. These components of force induce corresponding stresses: radial stress, axial stress, and hoop stress, respectively.

Thin-walled assumption
For the thin-walled assumption to be valid, the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more than about one-tenth (often cited as Diameter / t > 20) of its radius. This allows for treating the wall as a surface, and subsequently using the Young–Laplace equation for estimating the hoop stress created by an internal pressure on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel:

 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{Pr}{t} \ $$  (for a cylinder)

 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{Pr}{2t} \ $$  (for a sphere)

where
 * P is the internal pressure
 * t is the wall thickness
 * r is the mean radius of the cylinder
 * $$ \sigma_\theta \! $$ is the hoop stress.

The hoop stress equation for thin shells is also approximately valid for spherical vessels, including plant cells and bacteria in which the internal turgor pressure may reach several atmospheres. In practical engineering applications for cylinders (pipes and tubes), hoop stress is often re-arranged for pressure, and is called Barlow's formula.

Inch-pound-second system (IPS) units for P are pounds-force per square inch (psi). Units for t, and d are inches (in). SI units for P are pascals (Pa), while t and d=2r are in meters (m).

When the vessel has closed ends, the internal pressure acts on them to develop a force along the axis of the cylinder. This is known as the axial stress and is usually less than the hoop stress.
 * $$ \sigma_z = \dfrac{F}{A} = \dfrac{Pd^2}{(d+2t)^2 - d^2} \ $$

Though this may be approximated to
 * $$ \sigma_z = \dfrac{Pr}{2t} \ $$

There is also a radial stress $$ \sigma_r \ $$ that is developed perpendicular to the surface and may be estimated in thin walled cylinders as:
 * $$ \sigma_r = {-P} \ $$

In the thin-walled assumption the ratio $$ \dfrac{r}{t} \ $$ is large, so in most cases this component is considered negligible compared to the hoop and axial stresses.

Thick-walled vessels
When the cylinder to be studied has a $$\text{radius} / \text{thickness} $$ ratio of less than 10 (often cited as $$ \text{diameter} / \text{thickness} < 20$$) the thin-walled cylinder equations no longer hold since stresses vary significantly between inside and outside surfaces and shear stress through the cross section can no longer be neglected.

These stresses and strains can be calculated using the Lamé equations, a set of equations developed by French mathematician Gabriel Lamé.
 * $$ \sigma_r = A - \dfrac{B}{r^2} \ $$
 * $$ \sigma_\theta = A + \dfrac{B}{r^2} \ $$

where:
 * $$A$$ and $$B $$ are constants of integration, which may be found from the boundary conditions,
 * $$r$$ is the radius at the point of interest (e.g., at the inside or outside walls).

For cylinder with boundary conditions:
 * $$p(r=a) = P_a$$ (i.e. internal pressure $$P_a$$ at inner surface),
 * $$p(r=b) = P_b$$ (i.e. external pressure $$P_b$$ at outer surface),

the following constants are obtained:
 * $$ A = \dfrac{P_a a^2 - P_b b^2}{b^2 - a^2} \ $$,
 * $$ B = \dfrac{a^2 b^2 (P_a - P_b)}{b^2 - a^2} \ $$.

Using these constants, the following equation for hoop stress is obtained:
 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{P_a a^2 - P_b b^2}{b^2 - a^2} + \dfrac{a^2 b^2 (P_a - P_b)}{(b^2 - a^2)r^2} \ $$

For a solid cylinder: $$R_i = 0$$ then $$ B = 0$$ and a solid cylinder cannot have an internal pressure so $$ A = P_o $$.

Being that for thick-walled cylinders, the ratio $$ \dfrac{r}{t} \ $$ is less than 10, the radial stress, in proportion to the other stresses, becomes non-negligible (i.e. P is no longer much, much less than Pr/t and Pr/2t), and so the thickness of the wall becomes a major consideration for design (Harvey, 1974, pp. 57).

In pressure vessel theory, any given element of the wall is evaluated in a tri-axial stress system, with the three principal stresses being hoop, longitudinal, and radial. Therefore, by definition, there exist no shear stresses on the transverse, tangential, or radial planes.

In thick-walled cylinders, the maximum shear stress at any point is given by half of the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stresses, which is, therefore, equal to half the difference between the hoop and radial stresses. The shearing stress reaches a maximum at the inner surface, which is significant because it serves as a criterion for failure since it correlates well with actual rupture tests of thick cylinders (Harvey, 1974, p. 57).

Engineering
Fracture is governed by the hoop stress in the absence of other external loads since it is the largest principal stress. Note that a hoop experiences the greatest stress at its inside (the outside and inside experience the same total strain, which is distributed over different circumferences); hence cracks in pipes should theoretically start from inside the pipe. This is why pipe inspections after earthquakes usually involve sending a camera inside a pipe to inspect for cracks. Yielding is governed by an equivalent stress that includes hoop stress and the longitudinal or radial stress when absent.

Medicine
In the pathology of vascular or gastrointestinal walls, the wall tension represents the muscular tension on the wall of the vessel. As a result of the Law of Laplace, if an aneurysm forms in a blood vessel wall, the radius of the vessel has increased. This means that the inward force on the vessel decreases, and therefore the aneurysm will continue to expand until it ruptures. A similar logic applies to the formation of diverticuli in the gut.

Theory development
The first theoretical analysis of the stress in cylinders was developed by the mid-19th century engineer William Fairbairn, assisted by his mathematical analyst Eaton Hodgkinson. Their first interest was in studying the design and failures of steam boilers. Fairbairn realized that the hoop stress was twice the longitudinal stress, an important factor in the assembly of boiler shells from rolled sheets joined by riveting. Later work was applied to bridge-building and the invention of the box girder. In the Chepstow Railway Bridge, the cast iron pillars are strengthened by external bands of wrought iron. The vertical, longitudinal force is a compressive force, which cast iron is well able to resist. The hoop stress is tensile, and so wrought iron, a material with better tensile strength than cast iron, is added.

title: Cylinder stress


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Strong antichain

In order theory, a subset A of a partially ordered set P is a strong downwards antichain if it is an antichain in which no two distinct elements have a common lower bound in P, that is,

 * $$\forall x, y \in A \; [x \neq y \rightarrow \neg\exists z \in P \; [ z \leq x \land z \leq y]]. $$

In the case where P is ordered by inclusion, and closed under subsets, but does not contain the empty set, this is simply a family of pairwise disjoint sets.

A strong upwards antichain B is a subset of P in which no two distinct elements have a common upper bound in P. Authors will often omit the "upwards" and "downwards" term and merely refer to strong antichains. Unfortunately, there is no common convention as to which version is called a strong antichain. In the context of forcing, authors will sometimes also omit the "strong" term and merely refer to antichains. To resolve ambiguities in this case, the weaker type of antichain is called a weak antichain.

If (P, ≤) is a partial order and there exist distinct x, y ∈ P such that {x, y} is a strong antichain, then (P, ≤) cannot be a lattice (or even a meet semilattice), since by definition, every two elements in a lattice (or meet semilattice) must have a common lower bound. Thus lattices have only trivial strong antichains (i.e., strong antichains of cardinality at most 1).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Strong antichain


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Bubiyan Island

Bubiyan Island (جزيرة بوبيان) is the largest island in the Kuwaiti coastal island chain situated in the north-western corner of the Persian Gulf, with an area of 863 km2. Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta. The Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is currently under construction on the island. As part of the port's development, there are plans for Bubiyan Island to contain power plants and substations. A 5,000-megawatt power plant has already been built in the neighbouring Kuwaiti region of Subiya.

Antiquity
Bubiyan was formed by debris from the Tigris–Euphrates river. There is archaeological evidence of Sassanian (300–650 AD) to early Islamic (650–800 AD) periods of human presence on Bubiyan as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery sherds on several prominent beach ridges.

Gulf War
During the Gulf War of 1991, there was a big oil spill in the area; in addition to this, four spans of the bridge were destroyed; they were rebuilt in 1999. The island itself was converted to a military base in 1991. In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1992), and 833 (1993) which formally ended an earlier claim to Bubiyan Island.

Ramsar Convention
In response to Kuwait becoming the 169th signatory of the Ramsar Convention, the Mubarak al-Kabeer reserve was designated as the country's first Wetland of International Importance. The 50,948 hectare reserve consists of small lagoons and shallow salt marshes and is important as a stop-over for migrating birds on two migration routes; Turkey to India and Eurasia to Africa. Breeding water-birds include the world's largest breeding colony of Crab-plover (Dromas ardeola), and the surrounding sea is major nursery for many commercial fish species.

Geography
The island is mainly flat, while salt marshes cover some coasts. There are several intermittent wadis in the center of the island. It is separated from the Iraqi coast in the northeast by the Al-Zubayr channel and from the Kuwaiti mainland in the southwest by the Al-Sabiyyah channel. The latter channel trends around the northern end of Bubiyan Island, separating it from Warbah Island. 5.4 km northwest of Ras al Barshah, the southernmost point, Bubiyan is linked to the mainland by a concrete girder bridge over the Khawr as Sabiyah channel, 2.38 km long, built in 1981-1983 and opened February 1983.

During high spring tides and southerly gales the wet, low lying mud flats that make up most of the island are encroached upon by sea water. The island is considered to be at risk of inundation due to sea level rise.

Mubarak Al Kabeer Port
Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is part of China's Belt and Road Initiative. Under China's Belt and Road Initiative, the Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is part of the first phase of the Silk City project. In September 2020, it was reported that the port is 53% complete. In March 2021, it was announced that Kuwait and Pakistan will develop linkages between Gwadar Port and Mubarak Al Kabeer Port. The Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is currently under construction. As part of Mubarak Al Kabeer Port's development, Bubiyan Island will contain power plants and substations. A 5,000-megawatt power plant has already been built in Subiya.

In literature
The island is mentioned in the 1933 science fiction work The Shape of Things to Come by H. G. Wells, in which it provides the recreational facilities for a conference at Basra.

title: Bubiyan Island


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Eramosa River

The Eramosa River is a river in Wellington County in southwestern Ontario which rises near Erin, Ontario, and flows southwest through the city of Guelph, where it joins the Speed River, which then enters the Grand River in Cambridge. The river is believed to derive its name from the Mississauga word um-ne-mo-sah, meaning "black dog" or "dead dog".

History
John Harris settled in the Rockwood area in 1821 and constructed the first mill on the Eramosa River. Harris and other settlers made use of stone quarried from the banks of the river to build dozens of mills, including the Rockwood Woolen Mills in 1867. Built from wood, the first woolen mill was destroyed in 1880 and rebuilt as a stone building in 1884. The mill eventually transitioned to steam power and then electricity before it closed in 1925. As early as the 19th century the Eramosa River was used as a garbage disposal site. A landfill on Guelph's York Road was operated on the banks of the Eramosa until it was closed in the early 1960s, when it was covered with soil and transformed into an urban park.

The Guelph Boating Club was founded in 1870 when the success of Saint John's Paris Crew made rowing a popular activity throughout Canada. By 1873 the river was a hotbed of local activity, with one site known as "Paradise" hosting facilities such as swings, Picnic areas, and a shooting range. At another location known as "the Rocks", boaters would row out to search for fossils, pick berries, and hunt ducks. An offshoot of the Guelph Boating Club opened Victoria Park on the banks of the Eramosa River in 1886, and the site soon became a popular summer getaway for boaters and campers. The Boathouse, a local landmark, was erected on the banks of the Eramosa River at this time and gave locals a chance to rent boats for taking out onto the river. The Eramosa River was featured on postcards printed by the International Stationery Company and other Ontario-based printing houses in the 1910s.

Charles Ambrose Zavitz, a professor at the Ontario Agricultural College, identified the Paradise area as being ideal for small-scale farming, as it was located on a floodplain too marshy for any agriculture which required wagons or other machinery, and suggested it as a place model prisoners could engage in penal labour and develop a prison farm. The first structures at the Ontario Reformatory was built on the banks of the Eramosa River in 1909 and received its first fourteen prisoners (called "trusties", as they were trusted to work without armed guards or shackles) in April 1910. Another popular site, the Rocks, was made into a quarry where materials such as lime and crushed rock could be mined and used for construction at the Reformatory. The prison and the Rocks were connected by a small railway that traversed the Eramosa River by way of a bridge that was also built by the trusties. The cornerstone of the Ontario Reformatory was laid down by Premier James Whitney on 25 September 1911, who ceremoniously crossed a concrete bridge built by the inmates just a year earlier before arriving at the prison. Inmates at the Ontario Reformatory were also responsible for landscaping and creating ponds along the banks of the Eramosa. Twice in the prison's history prisoners escaped the Ontario Reformatory by boat and rowed down the Eramosa River to Guelph before disappearing, leaving the boat behind. The Ontario Reformatory shut down in 2001, but the land remained property of the government of Ontario until 2019.

The Rookwood Harris Woolen Mill, which was constructed on the banks of the Eramosa River in 1867, was abandoned in 1925. The first textile mill in the region, the machinery inside was powered by the flowing waters of the Eramosa while it was operational. A. J. Casson, a member of the famed Group of Seven painters, visited the site at one point to paint the mill and the Eramosa River. The building became a local landmark until it was closed to the public in 2007 when the structure (which had been gutted in a 1967 fire) was deemed unsafe. Restoration was undertaken on the structure (costing $850,000) by the Rockwood Conservation Area and it was ultimately reopened in August 2011.

24-year-old Guelph resident Cody Thompson disappeared on 1 April 2016 after making a phone call made to his father from the area of the Boathouse and was registered as a missing person on 11 April. A police search of the Eramosa River shortly after turned up a fragment of Thompson's birth certificate. Subsequent searches of the river were made by both police and volunteers, and Thompson's remains were discovered on 21 May. A nine-month police investigation into Thompson's disappearance and tragic death determined that there was no criminal connection to the case.

In 2016, railcars at the Elizabeth Street Facility, a distribution centre owned by trucking company Polymer Distribution Inc. (PDI), spilled thousands of microplastic beads into storm drains, littering the Eramosa River. Local environmentalist Bryan McNeill brought the issue to public attention after recovering thirty-five garbage bags filled with nurdules, causing the Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks (MOE) to launch an investigation in September 2017 and confirm PDI as the source of the beads. In response, PDI consultants surveyed 3.5 km of the Eramosa River's northern bank and cleaned up thousands of nurdules. Subsequent inspections of the river's plastic content have found the beads were present in the Eramora as late as summer 2019, though representatives from the MOE have suggested that PDI is still committed to cleaning the river.

Attempts to install a new sewer line by the city of Guelph resulted in an overflow of sewage into the Eramosa River on 17 February 2019, a spill that sent 4.4 million litres of waste into the river over a period of three hours; this was followed by a smaller spill of 25,000 litres three days later. Also in early 2019, the Eramosa River Conservation Corridor was created by the rare Charitable Research Reserve after the organization purchased 87 acre of riverfront property in Rockwood.

Bridges
A number of bridges have been built to cross the Eramosa River.

The Guelph Junction Railway constructed a bridge over the river in 1888, at a site between Guelph's Royal City Jaycees Park (then known as "Paradise") and Victoria Park.

A three-arched concrete bridge was constructed over the river in 1910 using penal labour from the Ontario Reformatory. A wooden trestle bridge was soon constructed to connect the small railway at the Rocks to the Ontario Reformatory by way of a branch line. The 12.2 m Benham Bridge was also constructed in 1910 to bridge the Eramosa on Eramosa-Erin Townline Road.

MacQuillan's Bridge, a 21.3 m concrete arched truss bridge (also known as a "bowstring bridge"), was constructed in 1916 to replace an earlier wooden bridge. As little boat traffic passed along this point of the Eramosa River, Wellington County engineer A. W. Connor and Italian-Canadian mason Charles Mattaini built the bridge low over the water. The bridge is named for the McQuillan family, which settled in Guelph in 1827, and is today also known as the Stone Road Bridge. It was named an Ontario Heritage Bridge in 2004. It is located along the township boundary between Guelph and Puslinch.

The Eramosa River Bridge is a 15.24 m reinforced concrete ridge frame bridge and was constructed in 1953 (as the Ospringe Bridge) to facilitate travel along Wellington Road 124 in Erin, Ontario, near the springs that feed the river. At the time of construction, the Ospringe Bridge was the fourth concrete ridge frame bridge built in Wellington County. It has since been renamed to, and is now the Eramosa River Bridge. A 2018 survey found the bridge to be in a state of advanced deterioration.

The Lattice Covered Bridge was erected on 1 June 1992 by 400 members of the Timber Framers Guild. It is one of only two lattice bridges in Ontario, and was built based on a design originally drawn up in the 19th century. The bridge is 44 m long.

Hydrology
The Eramosa River is fed by groundwater springs, and travels along the course of a bedrock moraine carved by glacial activity. The banks of the river are marshy and untenable for agriculture. Artificial measures including levees and ponds are used to reduce the Eramosa's floodplain. The Guelph Dam, located at the mouth of the Eramosa, also regulates the flow and depth of the river; when open, the water level can drop to as little as 6 in.

The Eramosa flows through an area covered with over 200 glacial potholes near Rockwood. One of the largest of these is the Devil's Well, which measures 6.4 m wide at the top and 4.9 m at its base; and 13.1 m deep. The glacial landforms are contained within Rockwood Conservation Area, where the bluffs measure 5-30 m deep and 7-200 m wide. All of these landforms were created by the recession of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation.

Erosion has also revealed outcroppings of the Eramosa Formation, a Silurian geological formation known to bear fossils.

Pollution
Relative to other bodies of water in the Grand River watershed, the Eramosa has very low levels of phosphorus, nitrogen, and chloride. The Eramosa's water quality is exceptional nearest to its source but becomes polluted while passing through the city of Guelph, a product of industrial waste, municipal solid waste deposited in landfills on its banks, and untreated stormwater. Erosion regularly exposes long-buried trash on the banks of the river, necessitating annual cleanup efforts. Nonetheless, the Eramosa is clean enough that the city of Guelph draws water from it to be treated and used as drinking water; and a 2019 survey of the Eramosa River Conservation Corridor in Rockwood found that the upriver sections of the Eramosa River have been minimally impacted by invasive plants, the riparian zone has been left untouched by modern development, and even harbour endangered species.

As a result of manufacturing facilities near the river, plastic resin pellet pollution became cause for concern in 2016, when thousands of nurdles were found to be entering the Eramosa River through storm drains. Though microplastics are still being found in the river, the rate at which they are found in the Eramosa have decreased in recent years.

Ecology
The Eramosa River provides hydration to the local ecosystem and is surrounded mostly by the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forest, a temperate broadleaf and mixed forest which covers much of southeastern Ontario. The Eramosa River and its riparian zone are considered "core greenlands" by Wellington County, and are regulated by the Grand River Conservation Authority.

Trees present along the banks of the Eramosa include conifers.

Beavers live and construct dams in the Eramosa River. Hundreds of species of birds are also endemic to the region, with gulls and passerines being the most common types sighted around the Eramorsa-Speed River confluence. Multiple species of duck also call the river home, including ring-necked ducks and mallards; as do Canada geese.

Fishes living in the river include the largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, northern pike, rainbow trout, brook trout, brown trout, brown bullhead, and pumpkinseed.

The largely-undeveloped upriver sections of the Eramosa River serve as a natural refuge for a number of at-risk and endangered species. Bobolinks, golden-winged warblers, eastern wood pewees, and barn swallows roost in the area, but are threatened elsewhere by habitat loss. Rock polypody, maidenhair spleenwort, and goldthread are all rare or at-risk in the region, but are present around the Eramosa River. Blanding's turtles, northern map turtles, eastern ribbonsnakes, little brown bats, and monarch butterflies have also been spotted in the area.

Recreation
The Eramosa River Trail in Guelph extends 4.1 km from York Road to Stone Road, passing through Eramosa River Park and crossing Victoria Road along the way. It is open year-round, and is amenable to snowshoeing in the winter. A section of the trail between York Road and Lawrence Avenue is wheelchair accessible. It is part of a 20 km network of trails that intersect around the Eramosa River.

Camping and other outdoor activities can be done at Rockwood Conservation Area in Rockwood. An unsupervised beach offers opportunities for swimming. The park represents the greatest concentration of glacial landforms along the Eramosa River, and features opportunities for spelunking in its many limestone caves. The caves are closed to the public from mid-October to the beginning of April to accommodate bat hibernation. The park is open throughout winter (with an exception for the Christmas holiday) but the park offers no specific winter activities besides hiking.

Boating on the Eramosa River has been a popular activity since the 19th century. It is possible to canoe on the Eramosa, though downed trees and exposed rocks serve as obstacles along the course of the river. Canoeing trips can begin near the river's headwaters near Erin or further downstream in Guelph/Eramosa and continue as far as the Guelph Dam, passing waterfront homes and a number of local landmarks (including the Ontario Reformatory prison and Cargill meat packing plant) along the way into and through Guelph. When the Guelph Dam is open, water levels in the river become so low that paddlers are forced to frequently disembark and drag their canoe across its shallowest sections.

Even in the urban stretches of the Eramosa, anglers are able to catch and cook fish from the river.

title: Eramosa River


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Matthew Forster Heddle

Matthew Forster Heddle FRSE (28 April 1828 – 19 November 1897) was a Scottish physician and amateur mineralogist active through the 19th century.

Life
He was born at Melsetter in Orkney, the son of Robert Heddle (1780–1842) and his wife, Henrietta Moodie.

After receiving his early education at Edinburgh Academy 1837 to 1843 he moved to Merchiston Castle School. In 1845, he entered as a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of MD at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there.

In the 1850s, together with Patrick Dudgeon, he undertook a survey of the Faroe Islands also collecting many minerals. This was followed by similar survey expeditions to the Shetland Islands and Orkney. They co-founded the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain in 1876.

Medical work, however, possessed for him little attraction. He became an assistant to Arthur Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh. In 1874 he joined Ben Peach on various scientific explorations and from 1878 was also joined by John Horne.

In 1876, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were John Hutton Balfour, Peter Guthrie Tait, Alexander Crum Brown, and Sir Archibald Geikie. He won the society's Keith Prize for the period 1875–1877.

It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the manuscripts fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy of Scotland, in two volumes, edited by JG Goodchild, was issued in 1901.

Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

He was a keen amateur mountaineer and one of the first honorary members of the Scottish Mountaineering Club. He is known to have climbed with his friend, the artist Colin Bent Phillip, and the chemist, William Inglis Clark.

He died in St Andrews on 19 November 1897. He is buried in the ground of A. MacKechnie, surgeon, his father-in law, with his wife in the churchyard of St Andrews Cathedral. The grave lies on the south wall of the original churchyard, midway between the door to the south cemetery and the Whyte-Melville monument in the south-east corner.

Publications

 * The Mineralogy of Scotland (1923) co-written with Donald Esme Innes

Family
He was a cousin of Charles Heddle.

He married Mary Jane Sinclair MacKechnie (1831–1891) in 1858. They had ten children.

Their daughter Clementina Christian Sinclair Heddle (1860–1942) married the mineralogist Alexander Thoms FRSE.

A plaque in St Andrews marks the house where they lived from 1871, now in the grounds of St Leonards School.

title: Matthew Forster Heddle


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Grafton Regis

Grafton Regis is a village and civil parish in West Northamptonshire, England, on the border with Buckinghamshire. The village is east of the A508 road, on which it has a short frontage and two bus stops, and is around 8 mi south of Northampton and 9 mi north of Milton Keynes. The population of the civil parish (including Alderton) at the 2001 census was 152. This increased to 253 at the 2011 census.

This village is "linked" with the title of the Duke of Grafton (the first Duke was an illegitimate son of King Charles II of England).

History
The village's name means "Grove farm/settlement". The village was a crown possession, hence the "Regis" addition.

The prehistoric site dates back to circa 2500 BC according to Iron Age pottery which was found to the west of the main Northampton Road and to the south of Grafton Lodge, which was a Roman site which produced pottery.

A substantial capital messuage stood west of the Church in the Middle Ages. From 1100 to 1348, the manor was in the hands of a Norman monastery whose bailiff or lessee probably occupied the house.

In 1440, the mansion officially became a 'manor house' which belonged to the Woodville family during which time the village was known as Grafton Woodville. The manor was the birthplace of Elizabeth Woodville, queen consort to King Edward IV. Also born at the manor was Elizabeth's younger brother, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers KG (ca.1440 –1483), a courtier, bibliophile and writer.

The house and manor passed to the Grey Marquesses of Dorset who were descendants of queen consort Elizabeth Woodville by her first marriage to Sir John Grey. At the end of the 15th century, the house and manor passed to King Henry VIII, grandson of Elizabeth Woodville by Edward IV.

Anne of Denmark and King James stayed at Grafton Regis in June 1603 and travelled on to Salden Manor at Mursley. They were hosted at Grafton by George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, Keeper of Grafton Regis since 1602, who organised a tournament involving the Alexander or Zinzan brothers. Lady Anne Clifford later wrote that her father lived in the "old house at Grafton" and entertained the king and queen with "great magnificence". The manor was granted to Prince Henry, and he rewarded musicians at Grafton with £1 on 19 August 1610.

Geography
The ancient parish of Grafton Regis occupied some 1,300 acres on the west bank of the river Tove. The village extends back some distance from the road, albeit at a very low density, towards a church at the eastern edge of the village. Grafton is on the southern ridge of the valley of the River Tove which flows east between the village and Stoke Bruerne to the north and then to the east of the village. Stoke Bruerne church and Stoke Park Pavilions are clearly visible in the distance. The Grand Union Canal passes close by to the east.

Almost all the village on the east side of the A508 is a conservation area.

Buildings
Woodville Manor House appears to have stood on the west side of the A508 road according to excavation in 1964-5. These revealed a medieval of monastic origin with a cloister and small church. They were converted to secular use in the 15th century. Tiles with the Woodville family arms were discovered in the church.

Another Manor House is on the east side of the A508 road near the parish church. It is the remains of a house built by Henry VIII. Francis Crane demolished a part of the house in the 1620s for materials to build Stoke Park at Stoke Bruerne.

The parish church is dedicated to St Mary and of early 13th-century origin.

title: Grafton Regis


text:
Talk:Strong antichain

Untitled
Because it's handy to have a convention to stick to and because no one else seems to care about the subject, I've made a judgement call on which convention to use. If anyone is particularly bothered by this, feel free to change it - I don't have a terribly strong opinion on the subject. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kitarak (talk • contribs) 12:56, 27 February 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Strong antichain


text: User talk:68.41.32.251

title: User talk:68.41.32.251


text:
Greens Norton

Greens Norton is a village and civil parish in West Northamptonshire, England, just over 1 mi north-west of Towcester. At the 2011 census the parish, including Caswell and Duncote, had a population of 1,526, a slight decrease since the 2001 census.

History
Located on Watling Street, in medieval times the village was known a simply 'Norton' and was a royal domain of Edward the Confessor and later William the Conqueror. In the 14th century the whole village was sold to Sir Henry de Grene for a total of 20 shillings, hence the name Grene's Norton, which today was modernized to just Greens Norton.

Buildings
The Grade I listed parish church is dedicated to St Bartholomew and is Saxon in origin. Its tall spire, last rebuilt in 1957, is a landmark for miles around. The architect H. R. Gough rebuilt the chancel arch in 1882. There are monuments and a brass to members of the de Grene or Greene family. The church is in the Diocese of Peterborough, and the benefice of Towcester with Caldecote and Easton Neston and Greens Norton and Bradden (The Tove Benefice).

There are 27 listed buildings in the parish, all but the church at Grade II. Other notable buildings include Bengall Manor and nearby farms built about 1840 by the Grafton Estate at nearby Caswell and Field Burcote.

Amenities
Greens Norton has a pub, a post office, a village shop, a primary school, a playground and playing field, a butcher and a doctors' surgery. The village is the northern terminus of the Grafton Way footpath, and there is a local nature reserve, Greens Norton Pocket Park. The village holds an annual village show, affiliated to the RHS, has a Neighbourhood Watch scheme, and produces a free bi-monthly village newsletter.

Transport
Although there was never a railway station at Greens Norton, there was once a junction here, where the lines of the Stratford and Midland Junction Railway from Towcester to Stratford, and Towcester to Banbury diverged. In 1910 however, the physical connection was removed, leaving two separate single lines running side by side from here into Towcester.

title: Greens Norton


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Quintessential Existential Dimensionality

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. jni 18:29, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Quintessential Existential Dimensionality
Looks like either original research or complete nonsense, no Google hits, no references. --Lexor|Talk 13:05, Feb 27, 2005 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete. --Lexor|Talk 13:11, Feb 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No references. Zzyzx11 21:00, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Same nonsense contributor as 62.255.32.13 Meggar 05:14, 2005 Feb 28 (UTC)
 * Delete. Original nonsense. Miss Pippa 23:33, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This guy is either a crank or just a vandal. Deco 06:18, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Timecube is abovegod, but this isn't well-known like Gene Ray's rants.   — Gwalla | Talk 04:38, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)


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Speed River

The Speed River is a river that flows through Wellington County and the Region of Waterloo in southwestern Ontario, Canada. It flows south from its source near Orton, through Guelph, where it is joined by the Eramosa River, then through the towns of Hespeler and Preston, finally uniting with the Grand River in north-west Cambridge.

Guelph Lake
North of Guelph, Guelph Lake was formed as a result of the river being dammed. The dam is one of several features on the river used to prevent flooding in spring. Excess runoff is collected in the 1700 acre Guelph Lake Reservoir which is drained in the previous autumn, and in summer the water is released slowly to regulate the flow of the river.

Parks and conservation areas

Guelph Lake Conservation Area is on the shore of Guelph Lake, which was formed by the damming of the Speed River. It is owned and managed by the Grand River Conservation Authority.

Riverside Park in Guelph, Ontario, is built beside the Speed River, and it is one of the oldest parks in Ontario. It forms part of an attempted natural buffer along the Speed: "OPIRG-Guelph and other community groups have worked, in partnership with the City to rehabilitate the local river environment. Today, the river's edge is allowed to naturalize, benefiting the environment and saving maintenance. The City of Guelph's River Systems Management Plan is a positive approach to river management [whose] vision is to protect the rivers' role within the city, by featuring them in urban design, and enhancing and protecting ecological diversity, while providing beneficial uses for the community." Chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers have been abandoned, in an effort of produce a narrow buffer strip within the thirty meter "riparian zone" between the rivers and their surrounding parklands, including river paths. "The buffer provides food, habitat, and a corridor for wildlife, as well as improving water quality by minimizing erosion, acting as a filter and providing shade, to lower water temperature", increasing oxygen, thus decreasing algae and bacterial contents.

In the town of Hespeler, part of Cambridge, there are several parks on the banks of the Speed River, such as Jacob's Landing, Riverside Park, Hespeler Mill Pond and Ellacott Lookout.

Chilligo Conservation Area, in Cambridge, resides at the confluence of the Speed River and Chilligo Creek. It is owned and managed by the GRCA.

The former site of Idylwild Park is on the Speed River in Cambridge. A portion, along the southern bank, is now a conservation area that is owned and managed by the GRCA.

Riverside Park, Cambridge's largest park, is on the banks of the Speed River.

Linear Park, in Cambridge, lies at the confluence of the Speed and Grand rivers.

Fishing
There are several species of fish in the Speed River, including, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, rainbow, brown and brook trout, northern pike, bullhead, carp and panfish. As of January 2011, efforts are being made to restore the extirpated populations of all trout species to the Speed River in Guelph. Fish impediments, such as dams, have contributed to increasing water temperature and the prevention of migration during spawning, both of which are and continue to be a reason why no trout have been caught in Guelph in decades. Guelph Lake is popular for fishing yellow perch and pike. Although the GRCA hosted ice fishing on Guelph Lake in the past, they no longer do so and the lake, along with the rest of the conservation area it is a part of, is now considered off-limits during the winter.

title: Speed River


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Red Herring Artists

Red Herring is an artists' collective based in Brighton and Hove, England, founded in 1984. It is a non-profit making company, the group was set up to provide affordable Studio space for artists with the aim of increasing public awareness of the visual arts. In keeping with its aims the group has always sought to achieve a balance of varied practises across the arts and crafts, and a balance of gender.

Background
Red Herring was founded in 1984 and opened its first studios in 1985.

As part of its stated aims, Red Herring Studios has provided affordable studio space for professional artists. This has been achieved by renting available industrial and commercial premises (previously, often identified for redevelopment) and dividing the space provided into working areas. In the past, in order to encourage cross disciplinary discussion, interaction and collaboration individual artists' spaces have been kept open and interconnected.

In 1993 the studio group became an Industrial and provident society with charity-like structure and aims. The studio group is funded by its members, in the form of subscriptions for the use of space and is run on a voluntary basis by the members.

Throughout the first decade the Red Herring ran a gallery space within its premises, this was discontinued when several members set up Fabrica, an artist-run contemporary art gallery and commissioner of new work, housed in the former Holy Trinity Church in Brighton City centre.

In 2017 Red Herring were faced with eviction from their Westerman Complex home in Hove, when plans were made to demolish it and build houses on the site. They found a new site in the suburb of Portslade in January 2019.

Artists
From its inception in 1985, Red Herring moved between different premises in Brighton & Hove and the membership consequently varied in number, from approximately 33 to 16. Over the years it has housed several hundred artists as members.

The term "Red Herring Artists" refers both to individual members and the Artists group as a whole. As a group Red Herring Artists have been involved in countless collaborations and group projects, many of which are public art projects and festival events.

In October 2020 Red Herring artists designed and created a mural in Wish Park, Hove, celebrating the work of NHS staff during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Red Herring Artists


text:
User:Conor123

Government

title: User:Conor123


text:
User talk:Conor123

Motion

title: User talk:Conor123


text:
Roberto Muñoz

Roberto Muñoz may refer to:
 * Roberto Rodríguez (baseball), Roberto Muñoz Rodríguez, Venezuelan baseball player
 * Roberto Muñoz (cyclist) (born 1955), Chilean cyclist
 * Bobby Muñoz, Puerto Rican baseball player
 * Roberto Muñoz (producer)

title: Roberto Muñoz


text:
Countable chain condition

In order theory, a partially ordered set X is said to satisfy the countable chain condition, or to be ccc, if every strong antichain in X is countable.

Overview
There are really two conditions: the upwards and downwards countable chain conditions. These are not equivalent. The countable chain condition means the downwards countable chain condition, in other words no two elements have a common lower bound.

This is called the "countable chain condition" rather than the more logical term "countable antichain condition" for historical reasons related to certain chains of open sets in topological spaces and chains in complete Boolean algebras, where chain conditions sometimes happen to be equivalent to antichain conditions. For example, if κ is a cardinal, then in a complete Boolean algebra every antichain has size less than κ if and only if there is no descending κ-sequence of elements, so chain conditions are equivalent to antichain conditions.

Partial orders and spaces satisfying the ccc are used in the statement of Martin's axiom.

In the theory of forcing, ccc partial orders are used because forcing with any generic set over such an order preserves cardinals and cofinalities. Furthermore, the ccc property is preserved by finite support iterations (see iterated forcing). For more information on ccc in the context of forcing, see.

More generally, if κ is a cardinal then a poset is said to satisfy the κ-chain condition if every antichain has size less than κ. The countable chain condition is the ℵ1-chain condition.

Examples and properties in topology
A topological space is said to satisfy the countable chain condition, or Suslin's Condition, if the partially ordered set of non-empty open subsets of X satisfies the countable chain condition, i.e. every pairwise disjoint collection of non-empty open subsets of X is countable. The name originates from Suslin's Problem.

 * Every separable topological space is ccc. Furthermore, the product space of at most $\mathfrak{c}=2^{\aleph_{0}}$ separable spaces is a separable space and, thus, ccc.
 * A metric space is ccc if and only if it's separable.
 * In general, a ccc topological space need not be separable. For example, $$\{ 0, 1 \}^{2^{2^{\aleph_{0}}}}$$ with the product topology is ccc, though not separable.
 * Paracompact ccc spaces are Lindelöf.

title: Countable chain condition


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Science fact

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was a consensus to keep. I count 2 keep, 2 merge, 2 delete. In this near-no-consensus case, the 2 merge votes can count as a keep-equivalent, therefore this is 4 keep and 2 delete. Deathphoenix 00:05, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Science fact
What's there 'ain't bad', but probably doesn't deserve an entire article to itself. Merge into Science Fiction? -- Longhair 13:12, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * So why not just merge it? — RJH 18:40, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * either Keep and expand or merge. Megan1967 22:46, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, put in WikiDictionary Tygar 06:41, Feb 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with science fiction. —Brim 17:32, Feb 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, I see no reason either to delete it or to merge it with its ...contrary. --Pgreenfinch 07:55, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Nothing to salvage here. Gamaliel 07:58, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
William E. Castle

William Ernest Castle (October 25, 1867 – June 3, 1962) was an early American geneticist.

Early years
William Ernest Castle was born on a farm in Ohio and took an early interest in natural history. He graduated in 1889 from Denison University in Granville, Ohio, a Baptist college that emphasized classics, and went on to become a teacher of Latin at Ottawa University in Ottawa, Kansas, where he published his first paper on the flowering plants of the area. After three years of teaching, botany won out over Latin.

Education
Castle entered the senior class of Harvard University in 1892 and in 1893 took a second A.B. degree with honors. He was appointed laboratory assistant in zoology, an A.M. degree in 1894 and a Ph.D. in 1895. He then taught zoology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and at the Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois, each for a year.

Harvard and Drosophila
Castle returned to Harvard in 1897. His early work focused on embryology, but after the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900, he turned to mammalian genetics, especially that of the guinea pig. That same year, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

In 1903 Castle intervened in the debate on mathematical foundations of Mendelian genetics. He corrected some tentative work of Udny Yule on breeding by deliberate selection and genetics. In so doing, he anticipated what has now become known as the Hardy–Weinberg law. Formulated in the terms "as soon as selection is arrested the race remains stable at the degree of purity then attained", it appeared in his paper of November that year.

At Harvard, Charles W. Woodworth suggested to Castle that Drosophila might be used for genetical work. Castle was the first to use the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and it was his work that inspired T.H. Morgan to use Drosophila and the basis of Morgan's 1933 Nobel Prize.

Bussey Institution
In 1908 Castle moved from the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology to the Bussey Institution for Applied Biology. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1910. At Harvard, his most famous PhD student was Sewall Wright who graduated in 1915. The same year he was elected to membership in the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. When the Eugenics Record Office was founded in 1912, he served as a member of its scientific advisory board, and in 1916 he was one of the 10 founders of the scientific journal Genetics.

His work with hooded rats provided important evidence that evolution could occur by the action of selection on small variations in traits. Other biologists (including T. H. Huxley and William Bates) had doubted Darwin's belief in the sufficiency of small variations (acted upon by natural selection over long periods of time) to explain evolution. He realized that the traits acted upon could be multifactorial. (2)

Later years
Castle retired from Harvard in 1936 when the Bussey Institution closed, and took up a position at the University of California, Berkeley, as Research Associate in mammalian genetics. In 1955 he was awarded the Kimber Genetics Award of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. His last of 242 papers was published in 1961 when he was 91 years old.

Family
In 1896, Castle married Clara Sears Bosworth, and they had three sons, one of whom died as a teenager. The others became professors at Harvard, William B. Castle of medicine, and the younger Edward Castle, of plant physiology.

title: William E. Castle


text:
KXTA

KXTA may refer to:

 * Homey Airport (ICAO code KXTA), located at the installation known as Area 51
 * KXTA-FM, a radio station (99.1 FM) licensed to serve Gooding, Idaho, United States
 * KKRK, a radio station (970 AM) licensed to serve Rupert, Idaho, which held the call sign KXTA from 2015 to 2020
 * KTUB, a radio station (1600 AM) licensed to Centerville, Utah, United States, which held the call sign KXTA from September 2005 to November 2007
 * KEIB, a radio station (1150 AM) licensed to Los Angeles, California, United States, which held the call sign KXTA from August 1997 to February 2005

title: KXTA


text:
Martin's axiom

In the mathematical field of set theory, Martin's axiom, introduced by Donald A. Martin and Robert M. Solovay, is a statement that is independent of the usual axioms of ZFC set theory. It is implied by the continuum hypothesis, but it is consistent with ZFC and the negation of the continuum hypothesis. Informally, it says that all cardinals less than the cardinality of the continuum, 𝔠, behave roughly like ℵ0. The intuition behind this can be understood by studying the proof of the Rasiowa–Sikorski lemma. It is a principle that is used to control certain forcing arguments.

Statement
For a cardinal number κ, define the following statement: In this context, a set D is called dense if every element of P has a lower bound in D. For application of ccc, an antichain is a subset A of P such that any two distinct members of A are incompatible (two elements are said to be compatible if there exists a common element below both of them in the partial order). This differs from, for example, the notion of antichain in the context of trees.
 * MA(κ): For any partial order P satisfying the countable chain condition (hereafter ccc) and any set D = {Di}i∈I of dense subsets of P such that |D| ≤ κ, there is a filter F on P such that F ∩ Di is non-empty for every Di ∈ D.

MA(ℵ0) is provable in ZFC and known as the Rasiowa–Sikorski lemma.

MA(2ℵ0) is false: [0, 1] is a separable compact Hausdorff space, and so (P, the poset of open subsets under inclusion, is) ccc. But now consider the following two 𝔠-size sets of dense sets in P: no x ∈ [0, 1] is isolated, and so each x defines the dense subset { S | x ∉ S }. And each r ∈ (0, 1], defines the dense subset { S | diam(S) < r }. The two sets combined are also of size 𝔠, and a filter meeting both must simultaneously avoid all points of [0, 1] while containing sets of arbitrarily small diameter. But a filter F containing sets of arbitrarily small diameter must contain a point in ⋂F by compactness. (See also .)

Martin's axiom is then that MA(κ) holds for every κ for which it could:
 * Martin's axiom (MA): MA(κ) holds for every κ < 𝔠.

Equivalent forms of MA(κ)
The following statements are equivalent to MA(κ):
 * If X is a compact Hausdorff topological space that satisfies the ccc then X is not the union of κ or fewer nowhere dense subsets.
 * If P is a non-empty upwards ccc poset and Y is a set of cofinal subsets of P with |Y| ≤ κ then there is an upwards-directed set A such that A meets every element of Y.
 * Let A be a non-zero ccc Boolean algebra and F a set of subsets of A with |F| ≤ κ. Then there is a boolean homomorphism φ: A → Z/2Z such that for every X ∈ F, there is either an a ∈ X with φ(a) = 1 or there is an upper bound b ∈ X with φ(b) = 0.

Consequences
Martin's axiom has a number of other interesting combinatorial, analytic and topological consequences:

 * The union of κ or fewer null sets in an atomless σ-finite Borel measure on a Polish space is null. In particular, the union of κ or fewer subsets of R of Lebesgue measure 0 also has Lebesgue measure 0.
 * A compact Hausdorff space X with |X| < 2κ is sequentially compact, i.e., every sequence has a convergent subsequence.
 * No non-principal ultrafilter on N has a base of cardinality less than κ.
 * Equivalently for any x ∈ βN\N we have 𝜒(x) ≥ κ, where 𝜒 is the character of x, and so 𝜒(βN) ≥ κ.
 * MA(ℵ1) implies that a product of ccc topological spaces is ccc (this in turn implies there are no Suslin lines).
 * MA + ¬CH implies that there exists a Whitehead group that is not free; Shelah used this to show that the Whitehead problem is independent of ZFC.

Further development

 * Martin's axiom has generalizations called the proper forcing axiom and Martin's maximum.
 * Sheldon W. Davis has suggested in his book that Martin's axiom is motivated by the Baire category theorem.

title: Martin's axiom


text:
Karl August von Heigel

Karl August von Heigel (25 March 1835 in Munich – 6 September 1905), a German novelist, was the son of a régisseur or stage-manager of the court theatre in Munich.

In that city he received his early schooling and studied (1854–1858) philosophy at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was then appointed librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels.

In 1863 be settled in Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II, who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on 6 September 1905.

Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with his novels:
 * Wohin? (1873)
 * Die Dame ohne Herz (1873)
 * Das Geheimnis des Königs (1891)
 * Der Roman einer Stadt (1898)
 * Der Maharadschah (1900)
 * Die nervöse Frau (1900)
 * Die neuen Heiligen (1901)

He also wrote some plays, notably Josephine Bonaparte (1892) and Die Zarin (1883); and several collections of short stories, Neue Erzählungen (1876), Neueste Novellen (1878), and Heitere Erzählungen (1893).

title: Karl August von Heigel


text:
Marcus (usurper)

Marcus (d. 406) was a Roman usurper who was proclaimed Emperor of Roman Britain. He was killed later that same year in a subsequent mutiny.

Career
Marcus was a high-ranking soldier in Roman Britain who was proclaimed emperor by the local army sometime in 406, possibly during the summer. Possibly one of the army commanders in Britain (Comes Britanniarum, Comes Litoris Saxonici or Dux Britanniarum), he may have risen to power in response to increasing raids from abroad at a time when the Empire was withdrawing troops from its far-flung provinces, such as Britain, to protect its heartland.

While the historian J. B. Bury has suggested that the revolt of the British legions in 406 was primarily directed against Stilicho, the magister militum of the Emperor Honorius, the ancient sources (Olympiodorus of Thebes, Zosimus and Orosius) generally link the revolt to the barbarian incursions into Gaul and Italy, especially the Vandal and Alanic tribes crossing the Rhine, which Prosper of Aquitaine dated to 31 December 406. Modern historians have therefore debated whether this event was the trigger for the rebellion. Historians such as N. H. Baynes and M. Kulikowski argue that the rebellion was triggered by the crossing of the Rhine, which should therefore be dated to 31 December 405. Others, however, such as F. Paschoud and Anthony Birley, argue that Prosper's date is correct and that the events in Gaul which triggered the rebellion were related to the barbarians who entered Gaul from Italy, probably part of the army of Radagaisus which invaded Italy in 405/6.

Whatever the cause of the rebellion, all that is known of Marcus' brief reign is that he did not please the army and was soon killed by them and replaced by another short-lived usurper, Gratian. Marcus died around October 406. Gratian, in turn, was killed by the troops in early 407 and replaced by Constantine III.

In his pseudo-historical work, the Historia Regum Britanniae, Geoffrey of Monmouth tells of a Gracianus Municeps who took the throne of Britain from King Dionotus; it is possible that he based these characters on the historical Gratian and Marcus.

He is one of three would-be emperors described in Alfred Duggan's historical novel The Little Emperors.

title: Marcus (usurper)


text: Category:710 deaths

title: Category:710 deaths


text: Category:Swedish pianists

title: Category:Swedish pianists


text:
User:Otto ter Haar

Welcome
My name is Otto ter Haar. Since January 2005 I contribute to the Dutch version of Wikipedia. From there I became involved in this English version too.

The Greens (Netherlands)
I am an unpaid member of the board of De Groenen (The Greens). Since there are no other contributors do I regularly update the article about this political party. In case the traffic on the article grows I will consider to recuse to avoid a possible conflict of interest.

Removed content
Deleted paragraph from List of airliner shootdown incidents:
 * User:Otto_ter_Haar/near_misses

Restored draft:
 * deleted

Links
My edit counter at Tool Labs.

de:Benutzer:Otto ter Haar es:Usuario:Otto ter Haar fr:Utilisateur:Otto ter Haar fy:Meidogger:Otto ter Haar nl:Gebruiker:Otto ter Haar pt:Usuário:Otto ter Haar ru:Участник:Otto ter Haar

title: User:Otto ter Haar


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was - redirected - SimonP 05:34, Mar 29, 2005 (UTC)

Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé
This article doesn't say anything more than what is already in the Nash article. Did she have any individual achievements that deserve a page? If not, she should be deleted (well not her, the article!). Treborbassett 13:28, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to John Forbes Nash. Megan1967 01:45, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, no encyclopedic content here. Wyss 06:00, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect - David Gerard 14:58, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Angel dust

Angel dust may refer to:

Common uses

 * A common name for the drug phencyclidine (PCP)
 * Angel dusting, a misleading marketing practice

Comics and videos

 * Angel Dust (comics), a fictional mutant
 * Angel Dust, a manga by Kouta Hirano
 * Angel/Dust, a 2000 manga by Aoi Nanase
 * Angel Dust, an anthropomorphic spider in the adult animated series Hazbin Hotel

Films

 * Angel Dust, a 1994 film by Japanese director Gakuryū Ishii

Music

 * Angel Dust (Faith No More album)
 * Angel Dust (German band), a German heavy metal band
 * Angel Dust (American band), an American rock supergroup
 * Angeldust (band), an American industrial music project
 * Angel Dust (Blutengel album)
 * Angel Dust (Indo G album), 1998
 * Angel Dust (Z-Ro album), 2012
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Tim Scott
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Gil Scott-Heron and Brian Jackson from the 1978 album Secrets
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Venom from the 1981 album Welcome to Hell
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Loudness on the 1982 album Devil Soldier
 * "Angel Dust", a song by New Order on the 1986 album Brotherhood
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Mac Miller from the 2014 mixtape Faces
 * "angeldust", a song by Lil Peep from the 2015 mixtape Live forever
 * "Angel Dust", a song by Azahriah released in 2021

title: Angel dust


text:
Talk:Angel dust

Movie
Angel Dust (1994) Enjeru dasuto (original title) http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0109733/ 70.26.1.64 (talk) 02:58, 2 July 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Angel dust


text:
Gratian (usurper)

Gratian or Gratianus (died c. February 407) was a Roman usurper in Roman Britain from 406-407.

Career
After the murder of the usurper Marcus, Gratian was proclaimed emperor by the army in Britain in late 406, probably around October. His background, as recorded by Orosius, was that of a Romano-Briton and member of the urban aristocracy, possibly a curialis. The promotion of a non-military official by the army suggests that there were issues that the army felt would be better handled by a civilian official, such as pay, or perhaps disagreements between the Comes Britanniarum, the Comes Litoris Saxonici and the Dux Britanniarum.

Gratian's usurpation coincided with a major barbarian invasion of Gaul; on the last day of December 406, an army of Vandals, Alans and Suebi (Sueves) had crossed the frozen Rhine. During 407 they spread across northern Gaul towards Boulogne, and Zosimus wrote that troops in Britain feared an invasion across the English Channel.

The historian J. B. Bury speculated that it was Stilicho, the magister militum of Emperor Honorius, who instigated the barbarian invasion of Gaul, concerned about the British usurpers but unable to act against them because of the activities of Radagaisus and Alaric I.The invasion was therefore meant to distract the British army. This hypothesis has been rejected by modern historians such as Thomas Burns, who argues that Stilicho was dependent on the Gallic army to deal with the rebellion. It was only the heavy losses suffered by the Gallic field armies as a result of the Vandal invasion that forced Stilicho to reconsider his response to the British rebellion.

As news of the barbarian invasion reached Britain, and their rapid approach to Boulogne (the main port from which supplies and troops would arrive in Britain), the army became restless. It is speculated that the army wanted to cross into Gaul and stop the barbarians, but Gratian ordered them to stay. Unhappy with this, the troops killed him after four months of rule and elected Constantine III as their leader in early February.

Geoffrey of Monmouth describes a similar figure, Gracianus Municeps, who is probably the same person.

He is one of three would-be emperors described in Alfred Duggan's historical novel The Little Emperors.

title: Gratian (usurper)


text: Category:599 births

title: Category:599 births


text:
Württemberger

The Württemberger, Baden-Württemberger or Württemberg is a Warmblood horse breed originating in Germany. They are primarily riding horses, and are selectively bred for dressage and show jumping.

Breed History
The breed registry studbook was founded in 1895, and around 1896, the Marbach stud began concentrating on the original Württemberger type, which was a multi-purpose horse used for both draft and under-saddle work. The original horses were produced by introducing Arabian, Trakehner, Anglo-Norman, Friesian, Spanish, Barb, and Suffolk Punch blood to local warmblood lines. An Anglo-Norman stallion named Faust was a significant early influence on the breed, and contributed to the original shape of the breed. This type lasted until the mid-1950s, when Marbach recognized, and began breeding a lighter, more athletic horse for modern competition.

The Trakehner stallion Julmond (1943–1965) was the foundation stud of new type, and helped to shape the modern Baden Württemberger. Additions of Hanoverian, Holsteiner, Oldenburg, Thoroughbred and additional Trakehner blood helped to further refine the breed into its current form.

Breed characteristics
The best Württemberger horses have excellent temperaments, combining a sensible attitude with lively and free action. These traits may have originally been installed by the use of draft horse and Arabian blood. They are tough and economical to feed when compared to Thoroughbreds.

The ideal Württemberger stands around high, and is usually bay, chestnut, brown, or black in color. They have an average-sized head with a straight profile, a good neck, and prominent withers. Their chest is deep, the shoulders sloping and well-muscled, the back is long and straight and the croup sloping. They have muscular legs with hard, well-formed hooves.

title: Württemberger


text:
Talk:Marxist–Leninist Party, USA

Actually MLP, USA was the name used by this party, not MLP (US). The article should be moved back. --Soman 13:35, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I do not think the following section is correct: ''at its fifth Congress in November 1993 it voted to dissolve itself. Some local groups disagreed with this decision. One such group became the Communist Voice Organization.'' At the 5th Congress (as I remember) only one person voted to oppose the resolution to dissolve the MLP. That person was based in Chicago and was never in the Communist Voice Organization. 208.100.245.141 (talk) 21:21, 25 December 2007 (UTC)Ben Seattle http://struggle.net/ben/

Poorly Sourced
How would any determine if anyone of this correct? There is virtually nothing on this page cited? Is this even a legitimate organization? There must be some secondary sources out there that provides at least some bit of information. --xcuref1endx 21:17, 9 September 2014 (UTC)

I added several references to secondary sources. Ejrd1993 (talk) 20:13, 23 October 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marxist–Leninist Party, USA


text:
Talk:Samuel Harvey

Untitled
Is the section from the Daily Telegraph copyvio? If it has permission, I think that should be posted on here. Thanks, Smoddy (t) (e) 13:36, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Samuel Harvey


text: Category:635 deaths

title: Category:635 deaths


text:
Kitchen Sink Press

Kitchen Sink Press was a comic book publishing company founded by Denis Kitchen in 1970. Kitchen Sink Press was a pioneering publisher of underground comics, and was also responsible for numerous republications of classic comic strips in hardcover and softcover volumes. One of their best-known products was the first full reprint of Will Eisner's The Spirit—first in magazine format, then in standard comic book format. The company closed in 1999.

Origins
In 1969 Milwaukee artist Denis Kitchen decided to self-publish his comics and cartoons in the magazine Mom's Homemade Comics, inspired in part by the seminal underground comix titles Bijou Funnies and Zap Comix. The selling out of the 4,000 print-run inspired him further, and in 1970 he founded Kitchen Sink Press (initially as an artists' cooperative) and launched the Milwaukee-based underground newspaper The Bugle-American, with Jim Mitchell and others. Under the name of the Krupp Syndicate, he syndicated comic strips to almost fifty other underground and college newspapers.

In addition to Milwaukee artists like himself, Mitchell, Bruce Walthers, Don Glassford, and Wendel Pugh, Kitchen began to publish works by such cartoonists as Howard Cruse, Trina Robbins and S. Clay Wilson (as well as taking over the publishing duties of Bijou Funnies from 1970 to 1973), and he soon expanded his operations, launching Krupp Comic Works, a parent organization into which he placed ownership of Kitchen Sink Press and through which he also launched such diverse ventures as a record company and a commercial art studio.

Kitchen established a long-running relationship with Will Eisner beginning in 1973 with a two-issue series of Eisner's classic comics series The Spirit. As a result of the success of Kitchen Sink Press's underground reprints, Warren Publishing launched a regular Spirit reprint series in magazine format in 1974. After Warren's magazine folded in 1976, Kitchen Sink picked it up in 1977, continuing with Warren's numbering until issue #41 in 1983. Other notable Kitchen Sink titles from the 1970s include anthologies like the horror title Death Rattle vol. 1 (3 issues, launched in 1972), Bizarre Sex (10 issues, launched in 1972), Snarf (15 issues, launched Feb. 1972), and Dope Comix (5 issues, launched in 1978).

The publisher supplemented revenues with the sale of merchandise such as posters, buttons, trading cards, and sound records.

1980s
Legal restrictions in the mid-1970s closed down many head shops, which had been a primary outlet for underground comix. Kitchen Sink diversified what it published, expanding into post-underground alternative comics, such as with the works of Don Simpson, Charles Burns, and Reed Waller, and reprints of older works by artists such as Eisner, Harvey Kurtzman, and Ernie Bushmiller. Kitchen Sink also maintained a large back catalogue. As Kitchen devoted himself to publishing, his own cartooning work became scarce.

Transitioning from an underground publisher, in the 1980s Kitchen Sink launched such titles as Death Rattle vol. 2 (18 issues, beginning in 1985), Mark Schultz' post-apocalyptic Xenozoic Tales (14 issues, beginning in 1987), James Vance & Dan Burr's acclaimed limited series Kings in Disguise (6 issues, 1988–1989), and Doug Allen's Steven (8 issues, 1989–1996). Other titles launched by Kitchen Sink Press in this period, but later continued by other publishers, include Howard Cruse's Gay Comix, Don Simpson's Megaton Man, and Reed Waller and Kate Worley's Omaha the Cat Dancer. Kitchen Sink continued publishing the Snarf anthology until 1990.

Kitchen launched a second volume of The Spirit reprints in 1983, with a smaller page count and in standard comic book format. This incarnation of the reprints ran for 87 issues until 1992. Also in 1983, he launched the magazine Will Eisner's Quarterly, featuring new work by Eisner (previously, excerpts of Eisner's new projects had appeared in the Spirit magazine). The 1980s also saw Kitchen Sink branching out into reprints of classic comic strips beyond EIsner's work. Kitchen Sink published Steve Canyon reprints from 1983 to 1992, Li'l Abner collections from 1988 to 1999, and Nancy collections from 1989 to 1991.

1990s
Continuing their practice of collecting comic strips, in the 1990s Kitchen Sink reprinted volumes of Alley Oop, Flash Gordon, and Krazy Kat. Original titles published by Kitchen Sink in the 1990s include Grateful Dead Comix (9 total issues, 1991–1993), editor Diane Noomin's Twisted Sisters limited series, (1994), Death Rattle vol. 3 (5 issues, 1995–1996), and more Eisner projects. Kitchen Sink also launched Charles Burns' Black Hole, which was later republished and augmented by Fantagraphics Books.

Tundra, move to Massachusetts, and demise
In 1993, Kitchen moved operations from Princeton, Wisconsin, to Northampton, Massachusetts, in a controversial – and ultimately disastrous – merger with Tundra Publishing.

Kitchen Sink/Tundra's output was strong through 1993, as reflected in the company's success at the 1994 Harvey Awards, coming away with Harveys for Best Writer (Scott McCloud for Understanding Comics), Best New Series (Captain Sternn), Best Graphic Album of Original Work (Understanding Comics), Best Anthology (Blab!), and Best Biographical, Historical, or Journalistic Presentation (Understanding Comics). (The company also picked up an Eisner Award that year for Best Comics-Related Book for Understanding Comics.)

In 1994, the company was sold to a Los Angeles–based investment group. The company spent the bulk of 1996–1998 releasing various original The Crow limited series, but the writing was on the wall. Media entrepreneur Fred Seibert cobbled together a group of small investors to try to reverse the fortunes of the company in 1997. After the failure of expansion into other venues of entertainment and merchandising, Kitchen Sink Press dissolved in 1999.

Later projects
In 2001 and 2012, Kitchen published comics under the publisher name of Denis Kitchen Publishing.

In 2013, Dark Horse Comics announced an imprint, helmed by Denis Kitchen and John Lind, called Kitchen Sink Books. Dark Horse editor Philip Simon commented on unannounced projects saying "everything [Denis and John] are bringing to the table is going to be historically important".

Also in 2013, Columbia University's Rare Book & Manuscript Library made arrangements with Kitchen to acquire the archives of Kitchen Sink Press, including business documents, artwork, and correspondence. Columbia librarian Karen Green said the archives were "meticulously preserved".

1960s–1970s

 * Bijou Funnies (4 issues, 1970–1973) – issues #5–8, taking over from the Print Mint)
 * Bizarre Sex (10 issues, May 1972–December 1982)
 * Comix Book (2 issues, 1976, acquired from Marvel Comics)
 * Death Rattle vol. 1 (3 issues, 1972)
 * Deep 3D Comix (Summer 1970) – Don Glassford
 * Don Dohler's ProJunior (1971) – anthology of ProJunior (created by Don Dohler) strips by underground cartoonists, including Jay Lynch, Robert Crumb, S. Clay Wilson, Evert Geradts, Jay Kinney, Art Spiegelman, Justin Green, Trina Robbins, Denis Kitchen, Bruce Walthers, Skip Williamson, Joel Beck, Bill Griffith, and Don Dohler himself
 * Dope Comix (5 issues, 1978–1984) – anti-drug anthology
 * Home Grown Funnies (January 1971) – Robert Crumb
 * Hungry Chuck Biscuits Comics and Stories (1971) – anthology featuring Dan Clyne, Skip Williamson, Joel Beck, Denis Kitchen, Don Glassford, Jim Mitchell, and Dave Dozier
 * Mom's Homemade Comics (2 issues, June 1969, Oct. 1972) – 3 issues; 2nd issue published by the Print Mint
 * Smile (3 issues, Summer 1970 - Aug. 1972) – omnibus mostly featuring Jim Mitchell
 * Snarf (15 issues, February 1972 – October 1990)
 * Teen-Age Horizons of Shangrila (2 issues, Summer 1970 – November 1972) – teen humor spoof anthology with contributors like Jay Lynch, Denis Kitchen, Justin Green, Richard "Grass" Green, Joel Beck, Trina Robbins, and Robert Armstrong

1980s

 * BLAB! (6 issues, #3–8, 1988–1995; later continued by Fantagraphics)
 * Border Worlds (7 issues, 1986–1987)
 * Death Rattle vol. 2 (18 issues, 1985–1988)
 * Gay Comix (5 issues, 1980–1984; later published by Bob Ross)
 * Denizens of Deep City (8 issues, 1988–1990) – Doug Potter
 * Kings in Disguise (6 issues, 1988–1989)
 * Megaton Man (10 issues, 1984–1986; now published by Image Comics)
 * Melody (10 issues, 1988–1995; now published by Eros Comix)
 * Omaha the Cat Dancer (21 issues, #0–20; 1986–June 1994; now published by NBM Publishing)
 * Steven (8 issues, 1989–1996)
 * Will Eisner's Quarterly (8 issues, 1983–1986)
 * Xenozoic Tales (14 issues, 1987–1996)

1990s

 * Black Hole (4 issues, 1995–1998) (later republished with additional 8 issues by Fantagraphics Books)
 * Button Man (1994; previously serialized in 2000 AD by Rebellion Developments
 * Cherry (6 issues, #14–19, 1993–1996; taking over from Last Gasp; later published by Cherry Comics)
 * The Crow (various original mini-series, 1996–1998)
 * Death Rattle vol. 3 (5 issues, 1995–1996)
 * From Hell (1998; previously serialized in Taboo by Spiderbaby Grafix & Publications before the series ceased publishing. Kitchen Sink then reprinted the series after Moore and Campbell Published it through Mad Love. Currently a collected edition is published by Top Shelf Productions)
 * Grateful Dead Comix (9 total issues, 1991–1993)
 * Illegal Alien (1994; reprinted by Titan Books and Dark Horse Comics)
 * Life on Another Planet (1996)
 * The Spirit: The New Adventures (8 issues, 1998)
 * Twisted Sisters (4 issues, 1994)

Reprint titles

 * Alley Oop (1990–1995)
 * Armed and Dangerous by Mezzo and Pirus (originally Les Désarmés)
 * Flash Gordon (1990 – c. 1995; now being reprinted by Checker Book)
 * Krazy Kat (1990–1991; now being reprinted by Fantagraphics)
 * Li'l Abner (1988–1999)
 * Nancy (1989–1991)
 * Nard n' Pat (1978, 1981)
 * Phoebe & the Pigeon People (1979–1981)
 * The Spirit (various editions, 1974, 1977–1992; now being reprinted by DC Comics)
 * Steve Canyon (1983–1992; now being reprinted by Checker Books)
 * The Yellow Kid (1995)
 * Zot! (1996–1998)

Artists and authors associated with Kitchen Sink

 * Doug Allen
 * Simon Bisley
 * Eddie Campbell
 * Al Capp
 * Matt Coyle
 * Robert Crumb
 * Howard Cruse
 * Robert Triptow
 * Kim Deitch
 * Will Elder
 * Will Eisner
 * Neil Gaiman
 * Jean “Moebius” Giraud
 * Don Glassford
 * Justin Green
 * Denis Kitchen
 * Harvey Kurtzman
 * Carol Lay
 * Jay Lynch
 * Joe Matt
 * Scott McCloud
 * Dave McKean
 * Jim Mitchell
 * Alan Moore
 * James O'Barr
 * Wendel Pugh
 * Trina Robbins
 * Mark Schultz
 * Art Spiegelman
 * Reed Waller
 * Bruce Walthers
 * S. Clay Wilson
 * Kate Worley
 * Catherine Yronwode

title: Kitchen Sink Press


text:
Social insurance

Social insurance is a form of social welfare that provides insurance against economic risks. The insurance may be provided publicly or through the subsidizing of private insurance. In contrast to other forms of social assistance, individuals' claims are partly dependent on their contributions, which can be considered insurance premiums to create a common fund out of which the individuals are then paid benefits in the future.

Types of social insurance include:
 * Public health insurance
 * Social Security
 * Public Unemployment Insurance
 * Public auto insurance
 * Universal parental leave

Features

 * The contributions of individuals is nominal and never goes beyond what they can afford
 * the benefits, eligibility requirements and other aspects of the program are defined by statute;
 * explicit provision is made to account for the income and expenses (often through a trust fund);
 * it is funded by taxes or premiums paid by (or on behalf of) participants (but additional sources of funding may be provided as well); and
 * the program serves a defined population, and participation is either compulsory or so heavily subsidized that most eligible individuals choose to participate.

Social insurance has also been defined as a program whose risks are transferred to and pooled by an often government organisation legally required to provide certain benefits.

In the United States, programs that meet these definitions include Social Security, Medicare, the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation program, the Railroad Retirement Board program and state-sponsored unemployment insurance programs. The Canada Pension Plan (CPP) is also a social insurance program.

The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work considers the appropriateness of traditional social insurance models that are based on steady wage employment in light of persistently large informal sectors in developing countries and the decline in standard employer-employee relationships in advanced countries.

Social insurance is a public insurance that provides protection against economic risks. Participation in social insurance is compulsory. Social insurance is considered to be a type of social security.

Social insurance differs from public support in that individuals' claims are partly dependent on their contributions, which can be considered as insurance premium. If what individuals receive is proportional to their contributions, social insurance can be considered a government "production activity" rather than redistribution. Given that what some receive is far higher than what they attribute (on an actuarial basis), there is a large element of redistribution involved in government social insurance programs. The largest of these programs is Old Age, Survivors' and Disability Insurance Program (OASDI). It provides income not only for pensioners, but also to their survivors (especially widows and widowers) and people with disabilities. Other major social insurance schemes are workers' compensation, which provides compensation for workers injured at work, unemployment insurance providing temporary benefits after job loss, and Medicare. The Medicare Program, which provides medical services in old age (like Medicaid), has grown rapidly since its first introduction in 1965 and is now the second largest program. Social security and Medicare are sometimes called middle class programs because the middle class are the main beneficiaries and benefits are not provided on a need basis, but when people satisfy a certain requirement, for example age. As soon as they satisfy the criteria, they can receive benefits.

Justifications
Social insurance is based on the premise that there is not always equitable distribution of resources or benefits in a competitive economy and there must be provisions to ensure that participants in the market do not end up with an "all-or-nothing-game". It is a means to allow participants of a dynamic economy to take risks and engage in economic activity with the assurance that in the instance of an emergency, they will be protected through this accumulated fund. Social insurance provides "social justice" and "social stability".

The following reasons specifically identify the features of a market economy that give rise to the need for social insurance:

Asymmetric information
This is a form of failure in a competitive market where there is not a parity in the provision of information between buyers and sellers or in this situation insurers and the insured. If the risk involved in a transaction is not made equally clear to both parties then the trades are differently valued by the two parties.

The difference in knowledge between insurers and insured about the risk level ultimately leads to the problem of adverse selection. An example of this problem would be the situation where insurers set a particular price for health insurance that is too high for individuals with low risk of getting sick, and thus only those with a high risk of getting sick purchase this insurance. Ultimately the insurance company is losing money since they cannot discriminate between buyers and thus they further increase prices. This increase continues to eliminate individuals whose risk level is not enough to pay the prices of this insurance and insurance companies enter the death spiral.

Redistribution
In order to achieve a better and more equitable distribution of insurance costs, the government intervenes through the means of taxation of low risk individuals in order to subsidise the premiums that have to be paid by high risk individuals. Therefore, there is a redistribution from low risk individuals to high risk individuals. Because of this, income taxes are often used in the efficient implementation of social insurance programs. In the case of the Affordable Care Act, for example, an individual mandate was included which required Americans to purchase health insurance or be subject to a financial penalty. This allowed higher cost individuals, from the perspective of insurance companies, such as people with pre-existing conditions to be covered and not excluded at a reasonable rate. Although causing political controversy, was an example of redistribution within a social insurance program.

Externalities
If individuals do not have social insurance and are thereby unable to afford the basic right of healthcare, then not only are they subjecting themselves to illnesses but also creating the likelihood that others around them will be infected as well. This would be an example of a negative externality. In the case of the now struck down individual mandate, everyone purchasing health insurance creates a positive externality for those that are high cost to insurance companies as they can now afford health care and cannot be discriminated upon because of various emerging or pre-existing conditions.

Durability
The existence of social insurance stems from the acceptance of the ideology that workers should be insured against the risk of losses of economic status due to their participation in the labour market. This inherent idea of fairness has propagated the desirability and subsequent durability of this program.

 * 1) Social insurance provides protection against certain risks in the economy that private insurance fails to deal with. Private insurance often becomes extremely unaffordable due to the issues of adverse selection and moral hazard, and to counteract such steep prices, the need for a publicly mandated social insurance increases.
 * 2) Social insurance is considered fair and socially responsible because it taps into the human desire of wanting to help individuals who face risks that are not their fault and neither are they in their control.
 * 3) The premiums required for the existence of social insurance policies come from workers who will ultimately be covered by the benefits, and this sense of accountability makes the program seem fair and its beneficiaries, deserving.
 * 4) Social insurance helps account for the lack of predictability that individuals in the market have regarding their retirement, health and stability, and thereby insures them against long term risks that they now no longer need to think about but are, for the most part, inevitable.

Moral hazard
An issue of social insurance is that often, individuals who are insured against certain risks become complacent and more likely to take adverse actions because they are secure in the knowledge that they will be insured against the adverse outcomes of these actions. This process is known as moral hazard and is a drawback of providing insurance to everyone because then the government and insurance providers cannot monitor the insured and must bear their costs of immoral actions.

Moral hazard has important implications for optimal social insurance programs, particularly in the case of unemployment benefits: the presence of moral hazard entails that, paradoxical as it may seem, individuals should optimally be only partially insured against unemployment. This is because, in order to incentivize an unemployed worker's job search effort, it is necessary that the benefits paid to the worker during unemployment, meted out as a fraction of the worker's previous salary, are greatest when the individual is actively seeking employment.

Intergenerational acceptance and desirability
Those that critique the program of social insurance bring up the argument that programs such as social security only increase the burden on the employed youth of the country because of the number of retired individuals that are the beneficiaries.

However, this has been mitigated by research that shows that although the number of retirees that benefit from the working youth is significant, the number of children that American families are raising, have considerably fallen. Thus, the number of members in a family that need to be supported have reduced. The question of whether this is fair still remains on the youth who must decide whether this offset in payments is enough of a counteracting effect.

In 2019, receipts from Social Insurance taxes, the second-largest revenue source, increased by $72 billion (or 6 percent), and increased as a share of the economy from 5.8 percent in 2018 to 5.9 percent in 2019, climbing just above the 50-year average of 5.9 percent.

"The increase in payroll tax receipts reflects higher wages and salaries and the reallocations made between payroll and individual income taxes"

Labor supply effects
Unemployment insurance and workers' compensation are essential aspects of Social Insurance that indeed provide unparalleled assistance to citizens facing uncertainty regarding their jobs. Although these programs have obvious benefits, they also affect the labor supply because they incentivise workers to spend time out of work and thus the time that these citizens are unemployed is longer. Unemployment insurance, an example of social insurance, is inherently faced with determining whether individuals face financial hardship in the form of little or no income by choice or by circumstantial necessity. An unemployed worker is able to rejoin the work force through active, effortful job search. In the case of full unemployment insurance, and job search effort is difficult to be monitored and evaluated, the unemployed individual may have no incentive to keep searching as they receive unemployment benefits. This reveals the inherent social insurance tradeoff of the incentives of the insurance and the risk involved.

Similarities to private insurance
Typical similarities between social insurance programs and private insurance programs include:
 * Wide pooling of risks;
 * Specific definitions of the benefits provided;
 * Specific definitions of eligibility rules and the amount of coverage provided;
 * Specific premium, contribution or tax rates required to meet the expected costs of the system.

Differences from private insurance
Typical differences between private insurance programs and social insurance programs include:
 * Private insurance programs are generally designed with greater emphasis on equity between individual purchasers of coverage, and social insurance programs generally place a greater emphasis on the social adequacy of benefits for all participants.
 * Participation in private insurance programs is often voluntary; if the purchase of insurance is mandatory, individuals usually have a choice of insurers. Participation in social insurance programs is generally mandatory; if participation is voluntary, the cost is heavily subsidised enough to ensure essentially universal participation.
 * The right to benefits in a private insurance program is contractual, based on an insurance contract. The insurer generally does not have a unilateral right to change or terminate coverage before the end of the contract period (except in such cases as nonpayment of premiums). Social insurance programs are not generally based on a contract but on a statute, and the right to benefits is thus statutory rather than contractual. The provisions of the program can be changed if the statute is modified.
 * Individually purchased private insurance generally must be fully funded. Full funding is a desirable goal for private pension plans as well, but is often not achieved. Social insurance programs are often not fully funded, and some argue that full funding is not economically desirable. Most international systems of social insurance are funded on an ongoing basis without reference to future liabilities. That is seen as a matter of solidarity between generations and between the sick and the healthy as a part of the social contract. The current generation of healthy working people pay something now to meet the health care and living costs of those who are currently temporarily incapacitated through sickness or who have ceased work through old age or disability. The main exception is in the United States, where the two largest programs, Medicare and Social Security programs, the administrators have historically collected more in social premiums than they have paid out as social benefits. The difference is retained in a trust fund. In both programs, US government actuaries periodically attempt to predict up to 70 years in advance the longevity of the fund and must estimate the future rates of contributions and pensions, the types of health care needs of the beneficiaries, and what that might cost. No other country in the world does so. Despite the US programs being in considerable surplus, the political argument is often that these programs are "going bankrupt" or that politicians have spent the money on other things.

Welfare
Welfare is a large program of social insurance that creates many externalities. With welfare, the beneficiary's contributions to the program are taken into account. A welfare program pays recipients based on need, not contributions. In the US, there are welfare-to-work programs that give unemployed people an incentive to work if they are starting to seek a job. The people who use these programs are government expenditures and are closely monitored to make sure that they are searching for a job. They will receive several benefits once they find a job including wage subsidies and tax breaks. Welfare-to-work programs like these try to give people the incentive to work because, without them, people have a strong incentive to stay unemployed.

title: Social insurance


text:
Talk:Bannerghatta National Park

Cleanup?
Hi, I put the cleanup message up because I thought that the content was a little misorganised, with repeated references to mismanagement alternating with normal "so many species and so many animals" information. I was hoping for someone to come up, put more information, as well as organise it out with sections on the zoo, controversy, etc. nicely separated out. Of course, if you think the article looks better like this, feel free to take out 'cleanup', or replace it with 'stub'. Gaurav 13:42, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * removed the clean-up tag and put stub in its place. Please replace it with topic specific stub template if you can. I searched around and couldn't get to one. --H P Nadig 16:50, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * btw, If you've been to bangalore or visited this national park, you would know that there's nothing else very significant to be mentioned about this zoo cum mini reserve dubbed National park other than the state of dismay it is in as of now. Most state papers here carried out stories on how animals (even the aquatic habitat ones) have had no water in their exhibits. This should tell the terrible state of maintenance its in. --H P Nadig 08:24, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I'd just like to add to that. I recently visited Bannerghatta zoo as part of my school trip and was horrified by some of the conditions there, I wish I had never been. I saw elephant "keepers" prodding the elephants around with sticks with sharp points, ducks and geese in a concrete enclosure with filthy water around the edge and much more. I got photo evidence of this which I intend to send to the relevant authorities (WWF, as there name seems to be on the signs, Karnataka state tourism dept, and the zoo itself.

Were there not any dead fish?? i sawe lots of them when i went in late 96 /early 97

Redundant images
The photo gallery contains many redundant images (same animals) serving no important purpose, which I feel is unnecessary. Your thoughts? Vignyana (talk) 11:24, 14 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bannerghatta National Park