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Az-Zahir Hakim

Az-Zahir Ali Hakim (born June 3, 1977) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver for nine seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the San Diego State Aztecs. He was selected by the St. Louis Rams in the fourth round (96th overall) of the 1998 NFL Draft. He also was a member of the Detroit Lions, New Orleans Saints, San Diego Chargers, Miami Dolphins, and Las Vegas Locomotives.

As a coach, he served as the wide receivers coach of the San Diego Fleet of the Alliance of American Football in 2019 and the St. Louis BattleHawks of the XFL in 2020.

High school
Hakim was an All-City selection as a quarterback, wide receiver, and defensive back at Fairfax High School in Los Angeles, where he also played basketball and ran track.

College career
Hakim was a four-year letterman in football at San Diego State where he started eight games as a senior and caught 37 passes for 595 yards (16.1 avg.) and six touchdowns. He caught 36 passes as a junior for 635 yards and five touchdowns. He was an All-Western Athletic Conference second-team selection as a sophomore after he started 12 games and was fourth in conference with career-high 57 receptions for 1,022 yards (17.9 avg.) and eight touchdowns.

1998
Hakim was drafted by the St. Louis Rams in the fourth round (96th overall) of the 1998 NFL Draft. He appeared in nine games including four starts during his rookie season, catching 20 passes for 247 yards and a touchdown. He collected three receptions in first career game at the Chicago Bears on November 8, 1998. He made his first start against the Carolina Panthers two weeks later, making two receptions for 25 yards. He scored two touchdowns (nine-yard touchdown reception, 34-yard run on reverse for a touchdown) in victory over the New England Patriots on December 13.

1999
1999 was quite possibly Hakim's best career season. He would also earn a Super Bowl ring after the Rams beat the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV. During the regular season, Hakim appeared in 15 games and caught 39 passes for 677 yards and eight touchdowns. His touchdown total was second on the team behind only Isaac Bruce's 12, while Hakim's 18.8 average also remains a personal best. Hakim also added his first punt return touchdown on the season.

Hakim had the best game of his career against the Cincinnati Bengals on October 3, becoming only the fourth player in team history to score four touchdowns in a game. The feat tied the mark previous reached by Bob Shaw, (1949) Elroy Hirsch (1951), and Harold Jackson (1973). His 84-yard punt return for a touchdown tied for the fifth longest in team history and was the third longest in the league during the 1999 season. He also set the team record for punt return yards in a game with 147. All three of his receptions went for touchdowns (9, 51, 18), and he became the first Rams’ player with three receiving touchdowns in a game since December 15, 1996, when Eddie Kennison accomplished the feat against the Atlanta Falcons.

In addition to his career game, Hakim also posted his first 100-yard receiving game against the Carolina Panthers on December 5. Hakim's four receptions, 122 yards and two scores helped St. Louis clinch the division that day.

2000
Hakim continued his impressive production in 2000, setting career highs in multiple statistical categories. His 53 catches, 734 yards, long reception of 80 yards and 32 receptions for first downs remain personal bests. His four touchdowns on the year also represent the second-best total of his career. On special teams, Hakim's 15.8 punt return average led the NFC and was second in the NFL. He also returned his second punt for a score during the season.

The best game of the season for Hakim came in the regular season opener against the Denver Broncos on September 4. During the game, Hakim racked up five catches, 116 yards and two touchdowns. He set a career best with an 80-yard touchdown grab, and also took a punt 86 yards for a score. Hakim was one of three Rams players to surpass 100 yards on offense during the game (wide receiver Torry Holt and running back Marshall Faulk being the others), marking just the second time in franchise history the feat had been accomplished.

Other highlights on the season for Hakim include a November 5 contest against the Panthers when he had eight catches for 116 yards and a touchdown, as well as a 65-yard punt return in the NFC Wild Card playoff game against the New Orleans Saints on December 30. That game also featured a lowlight for Hakim, as he muffed a Saints' punt in the closing minute, allowing the Saints to retain possession and run out the clock, killing what was nearly an impressive Rams comeback.

2001
In his last season as a member of the Rams, Hakim totaled 39 receptions for 374 yards and three touchdowns. He appeared in all 16 games for the second straight season and started two of them. His punt return average took a significant dive from the year before, dropping from 15.3 in 2000 to just 9.2 in 2001.

In late September, Hakim joined Henry Ellard, LeRoy Irvin, and Eddie Kennison as the only Rams players to amass more than 1,000 career punt return yards. He passed Kennison to move into third place all-time the following month.

Also during the season, Hakim completed his first career pass with a 51-yard touchdown to Isaac Bruce. Hakim also had 90 receiving yards and five rushing yards in a Super Bowl XXXVI loss to the New England Patriots.

2002
Hakim joined the Detroit Lions as a free agent in 2002 and had a rebound season in the punt return game. He started all 10 games in which he appeared during the season, catching 37 passes for 541 yards and three touchdowns. He also posted a 14.8 punt return average and had his third career return touchdown.

It did not take long for Hakim to make a splash with his new team, as he holds the honor of scoring the first touchdown at Ford Field following the team's move from the Pontiac Silverdome. Other season highlights include a career-high nine receptions against the Miami Dolphins and seven catches for 143 yards against and a score on the first offensive play of the game against the Green Bay Packers.

Hakim suffered a hip injury on a shuffle pass against the New York Jets on November 17. He would miss the rest of the season due to the injury, and was the team's leading receiver when he was placed on Injured Reserve on November 10.

2003
Despite missing the first two games of the 2003 season recovering knee surgery, Hakim went on to start 12 of the 14 games he appeared in and become Detroit's leading receiver during the season. He finished the year with 49 catches for 449 yards and four touchdowns.

Highlights from the season include a 21-yard pass to fellow wideout Charles Rogers (the second pass and completion of his career), a two-point conversion on a pass from Joey Harrington against the Chicago Bears, and a crucial 18-yard catch on a game-winning drive in another contest against the Bears. He had 19 catches over a three-game span during the year, which was the most ever for him in that amount. However, his best game of the season came against his former team, as he totaled 101 yards on offense and scored a touchdown against the Rams.

2004
In 2004, Hakim finished second on the team in both receiving yards and receiving touchdowns despite missing four games due to ankle, back and groin injuries during the season. He finished with 31 receptions for 533 yards and three touchdowns.

Early in the season against the Houston Texans, Hakim eclipsed the 3,000-yard receiving mark for his career. In a game against the Minnesota Vikings, he and Roy Williams became the first Lions duo to each reach 100 receiving yards in the same game in nearly five years.

2005
Hakim was released by the Lions in April 2005. He received interest from multiple teams before and on June 15 it was believed he had signed with the Kansas City Chiefs. The move would have reunited him with former Rams head coach Dick Vermeil. However, some provisions in the contracts caused the league to void the deal, and Hakim and Vermeil decided it would be best if he did not join the team. Hakim signed a one-year deal with the New Orleans Saints on June 19.

During the season, Hakim was the team's third best receiver and finished with 34 catches for 489 yards and two touchdowns. He set a career-high with nine kickoff returns, while his punt return average was the lowest of his career at just 7.6 yards.

2006
Despite receiving some interest in the 2006 offseason, Hakim remained unsigned until the regular season began. He signed a one-year deal to return to the Lions in 2006, despite new head coach Rod Marinelli in charge. Not all was unfamiliar to Hakim, however, as this time around with the Lions he would be working with former Rams offensive coordinator and head coach Mike Martz, who was now the offensive coordinator in Detroit.

Hakim's second tenure with the Lions was not nearly as productive or long as the first. In six games with the team, he caught just 17 passes for 147 yards. He was eventually released on October 30, and remained unsigned until joining the San Diego Chargers on December 14 after wide receiver Malcom Floyd was placed on Injured Reserve. Hakim was inactive for all three games as a Charger, resulting in the first season of his professional career in which he did not score a touchdown.

Later career
After his contract expired following the 2006 season, Hakim once again became a free agent. On March 22, he signed a one-year contract with the Miami Dolphins. The move reunited him with new Dolphins head coach Cam Cameron, who was offensive coordinator in San Diego the previous season.

Hakim signed a contract in the UFL and the Las Vegas Locomotives.

Coaching career
In November 2018, Hakim was named the wide receivers coach for the San Diego Fleet of the Alliance of American Football. The following year, he joined the St. Louis BattleHawks of the XFL in the same position.

title: Az-Zahir Hakim


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Category talk:Military leaders by nationality

Untitled
I can't get the link to military people by nation to work due to a software error. Wincoote 20:05, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Marco Sanchez

Marco Sanchez is an American actor, producer, and writer.

Life and career
Sanchez studied theater throughout junior high and high school and graduated from the UCLA School of Theater, Film, and Television in 1992.

His television work includes series regular roles on Steven Spielberg's seaQuest DSV, and Walker, Texas Ranger, recurring roles on NCIS and The Client List, as well as numerous guest star appearances on shows such as 24, Desperate Housewives, ER and The Mentalist.

His film performances include Showtime's The Last Debate (directed by John Badham), Illusion (written and directed by Michael Goorjian), The Rookie (with Dennis Quaid), and most recently in Super 8 and Star Trek Into Darkness (both directed by J. J. Abrams).

In 2006, Marco co-founded Lyceum Films with actor/director Michael Goorjian, and Muse Media Center founder Noah Veneklasen. Marco’s producing credits with Lyceum include: Players' Club, 5 Wishes, The War Prayer (for which he also wrote the adapted screenplay), The Shift, and Tales of Everyday Magic.

title: Marco Sanchez


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Daniel W. Voorhees

Daniel Wolsey Voorhees (September 26, 1827 – April 10, 1897) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States Senator from Indiana from 1877 to 1897. He was the leader of the Democratic Party and an anti-war Copperhead during the American Civil War.

Childhood and early career
Voorhees was born in Liberty Township, Butler County, Ohio, of Dutch and Irish descent. He was the son of Stephen Pieter Voorhees and Rachel Elliott. During his infancy his parents moved to Fountain County, Indiana, near Covington. In 1849, he graduated from Indiana Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Indiana. He then studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1850, and began to practice in Covington, Indiana. In 1857, he moved to Terre Haute, where he continued to practice law. From 1858 to 1861, Voorhees was U.S. District Attorney for Indiana.

Representative
From 1861 to 1866 and 1869 to 1873, Voorhees was a Democratic representative in Congress. During the American Civil War he was an anti-war Copperhead, though not as radical as Clement Vallandigham. He was accused of membership in the Knights of the Golden Circle, an organization promoting Southern conquest of much of Central America and the Caribbean as a pro-slavery empire.

Historian Kenneth Stampp has captured the Copperhead spirit in his depiction of Voorhees of Indiana: There was an earthy quality in Voorhees, "the tall sycamore of the Wabash." On the stump his hot temper, passionate partisanship, and stirring eloquence made an irresistible appeal to the western Democracy. His bitter cries against protective tariffs and national banks, his intense race prejudice, his suspicion of the eastern Yankee, his devotion to personal liberty, his defense of the Constitution and state rights faithfully reflected the views of his constituents. Like other Jacksonian agrarians he resented the political and economic revolution then in progress. Voorhees idealized a way of life which he thought was being destroyed by the current rulers of his country. His bold protests against these dangerous trends made him the idol of the Democracy of the Wabash Valley. [Stampp, p. 211]

After the Civil War, Voorhees was a staunch opponent of Black civil and political rights. He believed that whites' temporary loss of total political control in places where they were not in the majority made them "as very a slave in the hands of a brutal overseer as any negro ever driven in a cotton-field, and that he had no more power under existing laws to protect his personal freedom than an African bondsman on the auction-block before the war...the liberation of one race had been followed by the enslavement of another."

Voorhees complained repeatedly about what he perceived as the North's unjust treatment of the vanquished South, claiming it would be a challenge to find a group in history treated worse than white Southerners during Reconstruction.

In his "Plunder of the Eleven States" speech made to the U.S. House of Representatives on March 23, 1872, Voorhees outlined the crimes he perceived to be committed upon the South by the North:

From turret to foundation you tore down the government of eleven States. You left not one stone upon another. You not only destroyed their local laws, but you trampled upon their ruins. You called Conventions to frame new Constitutions for these old States. You not only said who should be elected to rule over these States, but you said who should elect them. You fixed the quality... of the voters. You purged the ballot box of intelligence and virtue, and in their stead you placed the most ignorant and unqualified...in the world to rule over these people....You clung to her throat; you battered her features out of shape and recognition, determined that your party should have undisputed possession and enjoyment of her offices, her honors, and her substance. Then bound hand and foot you handed her over to the rapacity of robbers....

There is no form of ruin to which she has not fallen a prey, no curse with which she has not been baptized, no cup of humiliation and suffering her people have not drained to the dregs. There she stands the result of your handiwork bankrupt in money, ruined in credit... her prosperity blighted at home and abroad, without peace, happiness, or hope. There she stands with her skeleton frame admonishing all the world of the loathsome consequences of a government fashioned in hate and fanaticism, and founded upon the ignorant and vicious... Her sins may have been many and deep, and the color of scarlet, yet they will become as white as snow in comparison with those you have committed against her in the hour of her helplessness and distress.

I challenge the darkest annals of the human race for a parallel to the robberies which have been perpetrated on these eleven American States. Had you sown seeds of kindness and good will they would long ere this have blossomed into prosperity and peace. Had you sown seeds of honor, you would have reaped a golden harvest of contentment and obedience. Had you extended your charities and your justice to a distressed people you would have awakened a grateful affection in return. But as you planted in hate and nurtured in corruption so have been the fruits which you have gathered.

Senator
Throughout the 1880s, during the Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester Arthur, Voorhees and his fellow Indiana Senator Benjamin Harrison both advocated increasing America's trade and interaction with the United Kingdom. Voorhees viewed Britain as a large market with which America could do business and with whom America had much in common.

Personality
Voorhees was widely liked on both sides of the aisle in the Senate. He had struck up a warm friendship with Abraham Lincoln in their circuit-riding days before the war, and that friendship outlasted their political differences and to the end Lincoln's life. President Ulysses Grant also got along well with Voorhees, and it was said of President Chester Alan Arthur that Voorhees had as much influence with him as any Republican could hope to have. Republican senator George F. Hoar of Massachusetts, who rarely agreed with his Indiana colleague about anything, declared him "a very kind-hearted man indeed, always willing to do a kindness to any of his associates, or to any person in trouble. If he could not be relied on to protect the Treasury against claims of doubtful validity, when they were urged by persons in need, or who in any way excited his sympathy, it ought to be said in defence of him, that he would have been quite as willing to relieve them to the extent of his power from his private resources."

That was very likely true. Stories abounded about Voorhees's freehandedness with anyone telling a hard luck story. "Uncle Dan is the most unsophisticated person in the use of money you ever saw," an old friend commented in 1894. "He will lend or give away a pocketful of money in a day, and at night he will not have the least idea what he has done with it. I have been with him when he would feel in his pocket and suddenly discover that he had not enough to pay his restaurant bill or buy a newspaper." After Voorhees's death, Senator Vest of Missouri declared that if every one for whom Voorhees did a good deed "would but bring a single leaf to his grave and lay it there, the Indiana Senator would sleep tonight beneath a mountain of foliage." That same generosity meant that Voorhees rarely met a pension bill that he could oppose. The Treasury, as far as he was concerned, was open to whoever needed help. As Vest once told him, Voorhees "would have put Aladdin's Lamp in the hands of a receiver within thirty days."

Senator
Voorhees served in the U.S. Senate from 1877 to 1897. He was a member of the powerful Finance Committee throughout his service in the Senate, and his first speech in that body was a defence of the free coinage of silver and a plea for the preservation of the full legal tender value of greenback currency. He had an active part in bringing about the building of the new Congressional Library. On tariff matters, he voted dutifully with his party, but he was no enthusiast for free trade, and his frankness could be embarrassing, at least from a Democrat. "Why, the cow and the goose are the greatest fools in the world," he blurted out once, "except the man who thinks that a tariff can be laid without protection." Voorhees made a fascinating speaker, if somewhat careless in his use of facts. "The readers of the News are aware that it has been repeatedly forced, by the variety and brilliance of his misinformation, to compliment Senator Voorhees on the unfailing inaccuracy of his historical statements, whether political, social, or literary," an Indianapolis newspaper remarked. He was widely known as an effective advocate, especially in jury trials. In allusion to his unusual stature he was called "the Tall Sycamore of the Wabash."

In 1893, Voorhees came in for serious controversy when President Grover Cleveland called Congress into extra session to repeal the silver purchase clause of the 1890 Sherman Act. As chair of the Senate Finance Committee, the senior senator from Indiana could prevent action, and three years before, he had stood among the leading supporters for an unlimited coinage of silver. His views, in fact, had not changed. He remained, to the end of his days, a believer in bimetallism: the use of both silver and gold to back up the United States currency. But Indiana was less friendly to an inflated currency than it had been twenty years before, and manufacturers and industrialists were much more decisive in their demand for a gold standard. From members of the Indiana House delegation, Voorhees found an intense desire that he do nothing to risk their own political futures, as any blockage of the repeal bill would be sure to do. Finally, the senator had to reckon with the other big issue pending, on which he and the president would have to part company: tariff reduction. Realizing that he would have to pick his fights, and sweetened with great dollops of patronage by the Administration, Voorhees agreed to carry the repeal bill through, and he kept absolute faith. In late October, when a compromise was proposed that would delay the silver purchase act's repeal until July 1, 1894, thirty seven of the forty-four Democratic senators signed a letter endorsing it. Voorhees's name was not among them. He refused to consider any halfway measures, and saw to it that unconditional repeal went through within the month.

Vooorhees delivered his last speech in the Senate in January 1896, a plea on behalf of silver coinage and denouncing the tariff protectionists and centralizers of government power. He meant it as something of a valedictory. His health was in steep decline, and in any case the Indiana legislature had gone heavily Republican, and Democrats' chance of regaining it that fall were slim. The following winter, when the lawmakers assembled, Voorhees was replaced with a Republican, though every Democratic vote went for him.

Retirement and death
Voorhees returned to Indiana, preparing lectures that he intended to deliver on the lyceum circuit, should his health permit, and writing a memoir, "The Public Men of My Times," that he hoped would be completed and would sell, as General Grant's memoirs did; without it, he would be leaving his daughter with no estate at all. Only three sections of it were completed before his death in Washington, D.C., in April 1897 at the age of 69. His generosity or profligacy was such that his estate could not even afford his funeral expenses.

title: Daniel W. Voorhees


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Daniel Voorhees

Daniel Voorhees may refer to:

 * Daniel W. Voorhees (1827–1897), lawyer and United States Senator from Indiana
 * Bust of Daniel W. Voorhees, a public artwork by American artist James Paxton Voorhees
 * Daniel S. Voorhees, transient restaurant porter who confessed to the 1947 murder of Elizabeth Short
 * Daniel Spader Voorhees (1852–1935), New Jersey state treasurer

title: Daniel Voorhees


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Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that form when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic crystals, known as clay. It is named after Montmorillon in France. Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite group, is a 2:1 clay, meaning that it has two tetrahedral sheets of silica sandwiching a central octahedral sheet of alumina. The particles are plate-shaped with an average diameter around 1 μm and a thickness of 0.96 nm; magnification of about 25,000 times, using an electron microscope, is required to resolve individual clay particles. Members of this group include saponite, nontronite, beidellite, and hectorite.

Montmorillonite is a subclass of smectite, a 2:1 phyllosilicate mineral characterized as having greater than 50% octahedral charge; its cation exchange capacity is due to isomorphous substitution of Mg for Al in the central alumina plane. The substitution of lower valence cations in such instances leaves the nearby oxygen atoms with a net negative charge that can attract cations. In contrast, beidellite is smectite with greater than 50% tetrahedral charge originating from isomorphous substitution of Al for Si in the silica sheet.

The individual crystals of montmorillonite clay are not tightly bound hence water can intervene, causing the clay to swell, hence montmorillonite is a characteristic component of swelling soil. The water content of montmorillonite is variable and it increases greatly in volume when it absorbs water. Chemically, it is hydrated sodium calcium aluminium magnesium silicate hydroxide (Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2*nH2O. Potassium, iron, and other cations are common substitutes, and the exact ratio of cations varies with source. It often occurs intermixed with chlorite, muscovite, illite, cookeite, and kaolinite.

Cave conditions
Montmorillonite can be concentrated and transformed within cave environments. The natural weathering of the cave can leave behind concentrations of aluminosilicates which were contained within the bedrock. Montmorillonite can form slowly in solutions of aluminosilicates. High HCO3− concentrations and long periods of time can aid in its formation. Montmorillonite can then transform to palygorskite under dry conditions and to halloysite-10Å (endellite) in acidic conditions (pH 5 or lower). Halloysite-10Å can further transform into halloysite-7Å by drying.

Uses
Montmorillonite is used in the oil drilling industry as a component of drilling mud, making the mud slurry viscous, which helps to keep the drill bit cool, and to remove drilled solids. It is also used as a soil additive to hold soil water in drought-prone soils, used in the construction of earthen dams and levees, and to prevent the leakage of fluids. It is also used as a component of foundry sand and as a desiccant to remove moisture from air and gases.

Montmorillonite clays have been extensively used in catalytic processes. Cracking catalysts have used montmorillonite clays for over 60 years. Other acid-based catalysts use acid-treated montmorillonite clays.

Similar to many other clays, montmorillonite swells with the addition of water. Montmorillonites expand considerably more than other clays due to water penetrating the interlayer molecular spaces and concomitant adsorption. The amount of expansion is due largely to the type of exchangeable cation contained in the sample. The presence of sodium as the predominant exchangeable cation can result in the clay swelling to several times its original volume. Hence, sodium montmorillonite has come to be used as the major constituent in nonexplosive agents for splitting rock in natural stone quarries in an effort to limit the amount of waste, or for the demolition of concrete structures where the use of explosive charges is unacceptable.

This swelling property makes montmorillonite-containing bentonite useful also as an annular seal or plug for water wells and as a protective liner for landfills. Other uses include as an anticaking agent in animal feed, in papermaking to minimize deposit formation, and as a retention and drainage aid component. Montmorillonite has also been used in cosmetics.

Sodium montmorillonite is also used as the base of some cat litter products, due to its adsorbent and clumping properties.

Montmorillonite can be used to remove arsenic from wastewater.

Calcined clay products
Montmorillonite can be calcined to produce arcillite, a porous material. This calcined clay is sold as a soil conditioner for playing fields and other soil products such as for use as bonsai soil as an alternative to akadama.

Medicine and pharmacology
Montmorillonite is effective as an adsorptive of heavy metals, however the impact this has on human health is unknown. It's assumed that heavy metal adsorption would only be applicable when the clay has direct contact. Hence it will not help when ingested, as it almost certainly doesn't pass through the intestinal mucous membranes.

For external use, montmorillonite has been used to treat contact dermatitis.

Pet food
Montmorillonite clay is added to some dog and cat foods as an anti-caking agent and because it may provide some resistance to environmental toxins, though research on the subject is not yet conclusive.

In a fine powder form, it can also be used as a flocculant in ponds. Tossed on the surface as it drops into the water, making the water "clouded", it attracts minute particles in the water and then settles to the bottom, cleaning the water. Koi and goldfish (carp) then actually feed on the "clump" which can aid in the digestion of the fish. It is sold in pond supply shops.

Discovery
Montmorillonite was first described in 1847 for an occurrence in Montmorillon in the department of Vienne, France, more than 50 years before the discovery of bentonite in the US. It is found in many locations worldwide and known by other names. Recently, a new source of Montmorillonite has been explored in Sulaiman Mountains of Pakistan.

title: Montmorillonite


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Betty Rubble

Betty Rubble is a fictional character in the television animated series The Flintstones and its spin-offs and live-action motion pictures. She is the black-haired wife of caveman Barney Rubble and the adoptive mother of Bamm-Bamm Rubble. Her best friend is her next-door neighbor Wilma Flintstone.

Betty lives in the fictional prehistoric town of Bedrock, a world where dinosaurs coexist with cavepeople and the cavepeople enjoy primitive versions of modern conveniences such as telephones, automobiles and washing machines. She speaks with a Midwestern accent.

Betty's personality was based on the stock character of the lead character's best friend's wife, commonly seen in 1950s television (other prominent examples including Trixie Norton of The Honeymooners, which by conflicting accounts was a major inspiration for The Flintstones, and Ethel Mertz of I Love Lucy). Much like Trixie or Ethel, Betty spent a lot of her time socializing with Wilma, and the two would often end up working together to bail their husbands out of whatever scheme of Fred's had landed them in trouble, sometimes scheming with each other.

Character
Betty typically follows the lead of Barney or Wilma, so may appear to be the least developed character in the show. In spite of this, Betty is portrayed as having a distinctly emotional marriage with Barney, which often includes pet names and more obvious affection than the dynamic and energetic interaction between Fred and Wilma. Occasions when Betty leads the action are extremely scarce: one episode centers around her working undercover as a gentle old lady to earn money for a present for Barney; in another, the plot focuses on her and Wilma's suspicions of Barney being involved with another woman (who turns out to be Fred in a disguise in order to attend a ball game free of charge). This lack of protagonism (her continuous presence almost becoming a backdrop for supporting characters Pebbles, Bamm-Bamm and Dino) makes Betty less of the lead than the show's general concept might imply.

Biography
Betty is a friend of Wilma since their childhood. As a child, she lived with her parents who ran a convenience store and her older brother, Brad. She also has a married sister with a baby son named Marblehead Sandstone.

As young adults, Betty and Wilma were employed as cigarette girls/waitresses at a resort. There, they first met and fell in love with their future husbands, Fred and Barney. Eventually, Betty and Barney were married, presumably not long after Fred and Wilma.

Betty became a homemaker, keeping house with such prehistoric aids as a baby mammoth vacuum cleaner, pelican washing machine, and so forth. Betty, much like Wilma, also enjoyed volunteering for various charitable/women's organizations in Bedrock, shopping, and (occasionally) meeting the celebrities of their world, including "Stony Curtis", "Cary Granite", and "Ann-Margrock". Betty at one time also had a job working for an 'old lady' who turned out to be a young lady in disguise and who was using Betty to pass counterfeit money; this was the only episode centered principally around Betty. Despite her cheerful nature, she has occasions to be angry at Barney and once knocked out crooks with her stone purse who tried to kill Barney.

In the fourth season of the original series, Betty and Barney found an abandoned infant on their doorstep, by the name of "Bamm-Bamm." After a court battle for possession of Bamm-Bamm (in which the Rubbles faced the opposition's noted prehistoric lawyer "Perry Masonry"), the couple were allowed to adopt Bamm-Bamm. The Rubbles never had biological children. The story depicted Betty as despondent over their inability to conceive, which was a surprisingly serious topic for any cartoon. It is unknown if this was due to a medical reason or simply bad luck, though after adopting Bamm-Bamm they never tried again.

When Bamm-Bamm was a teenager, Betty gained employment as a reporter for one of Bedrock's newspapers, the Daily Granite (presumably a parody of the Daily Planet of Superman fame), under the editorial guidance of Lou Granite (presumably a parody of Lou Grant of the contemporaneous eponymous series, and formerly of The Mary Tyler Moore Show). While employed there, she shared various adventures with prehistoric superhero Captain Caveman, who (in a secret identity) also works for the newspaper.

Later still, after Bamm-Bamm grew up and left home, Betty started a successful catering business with her neighbor and friend Wilma, before becoming a grandmother to Bamm-Bamm's twin children, Chip and Roxy.

Portrayal
June Foray voiced Betty in a 1959 Flintstones pilot titled The Flagstones, but Bea Benaderet was cast for the series and voiced Betty for the first four seasons before stepping down in 1964 (due to her scheduling conflicts with Petticoat Junction). Gerry Johnson took over the role for the last 2 seasons. B.J. Ward has since performed the role in later Flintstones media since 1986–2000. Grey DeLisle started voicing Betty in The Flintstones: On the Rocks and voiced her in The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!. In The Flintstones: Welcome to Bedrock, Betty's voice was provided by Dina Monaco-Boland. In the scrapped series Bedrock, Betty was going to be voiced by Nicole Byer.

In the 1994 film, Betty was portrayed by Rosie O'Donnell, who reportedly won the role because she captured the high-pitched laugh at her audition. Jane Krakowski replaced O'Donnell in the 2000 prequel The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, in which Betty's maiden name is "O'Shale".

Television shows

 * The Flagstones (1959) (voiced by June Foray)
 * The Flintstones (1960–1964) (voiced by Bea Benaderet)
 * The Flintstones (1964–1966) (voiced by Gerry Johnson)
 * The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971–1972) (voiced by Gay Autterson)
 * The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972–1974)
 * Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977–1978)
 * The New Fred and Barney Show (1979)
 * Fred and Barney Meet the Thing (1979)
 * Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo (1979–1980)
 * The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980–1982)
 * The Flintstone Funnies (1982–1984)
 * The Flintstone Kids (1986–1988) (voiced by B.J. Ward)
 * The Rubbles (2002) (voiced by Grey DeLisle)
 * Yabba Dabba Dinosaurs (2020)
 * Bedrock (cancelled) (voiced by Nicole Byer)

Films and specials

 * The Man Called Flintstone (1966)
 * The Flintstones on Ice (1973)
 * A Flintstone Christmas (1977)
 * The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)
 * The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)
 * The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1980)
 * The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)
 * The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)
 * The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)
 * The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987) (voiced by Julie McWhirter Dees)
 * The Flintstone Kids' "Just Say No" Special (1988)
 * A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration: 50 Years of Hanna-Barbera (1989)
 * I Yabba-Dabba Do! (1993)
 * Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)
 * A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)
 * The Flintstones (1994) (portrayed by Rosie O'Donnell)
 * A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)
 * The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000) (portrayed by Jane Krakowski)
 * The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001) (voiced by Grey DeLisle)
 * The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)
 * Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021)

title: Betty Rubble


text: Template:DeathdecadeBC

title: Template:DeathdecadeBC


text:
Talk:La Plata, Maryland

I just tried to correct the facts on the La Plata tornado, but I need to do the following: get the date of the prior tornado Confirm the death toll for the earlier tornado.

I'm pretty sure the 2002 death toll remained at 4.

Other things I'd like to have done: make a separate page for the two La Plata tornados, and link to it; expand that page to give some possible geographic factors for tornados forming off the Blue Ridge

Walt

The National Weather Service listed the death toll at 3 and not 4. According to the NWS Baltimore/Washington DC, the 2002 tornado caused 3 deaths and 122 injuries. Also the 2002 La Plata twister was one of only two known F4 tornadoes to have hit the state of Maryland. The other was on June 2, 1998 in Frostburg, which caused no fatalities and only 5 people received minor injuries.--Kevjgav (talk) 15:19, 15 October 2014 (UTC)

The first significant tornado to hit near La Plata since 1950 was an F2 in Bryans Road on June 20, 1978. This probably isn't relevant, though.--Kevjgav (talk) 13:03, 22 January 2015 (UTC)

= origin of name La Plata ==

Why was this town named La Plata? G Clark 01:21, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

When the railroad put up a station, it was just a road crossing in the middle of a field, so they seem to have taken the name from the farm that was there, which was La Plata. I've not seen anything on the origins of the name for the farm. Walt 11:37, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

Thank you. G Clark 20:42, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

Im a history major doing reasearch on charles county. One book on the history of charles county (published in 1958) states that the name of the farm was originally le plateau french for the description of that area (La Plata is on top a hill or plateau). Basically after years of being corrupted by local dialects it eneded up as La Plata and has no relation to the spanish word la plata "the silver"

I'm going to make the tornado a headline... I doubt anyone would call that an attraction.--Maddux31holytrinity 14:28, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

Rating for 1926 La Plata, Maryland tornado
I also discussed this in Talk:2002 Midwest to Mid-Atlantic United States tornado outbreak that the 1926 tornado, according to http://roofright.com/blog/?p=502 was actually an F4 rather than F3 and I see that the statement mentioning the F3 rating is cited. However, the source is a chronicle of significant tornadoes whose ratings were given by Grazulis and I don't trust any of his tornado ratings. I believe that the F4 rating in the source I've given is more accurate and is the actual rating given by Ted Fujita.--Kevjgav (talk) 10:59, 9 November 2015 (UTC)

 * When there are only a few sources, it's okay to cite each. There's no large body of sources to refer to here and point to a majority/consensus TEDickey (talk) 00:28, 10 November 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:La Plata, Maryland


text:
SaGa Frontier

SaGa Frontier (サガ フロンティア) is a 1997 role-playing video game developed by Square for the PlayStation. The game was published by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCEA) in North America on March 24, 1998. It is the seventh game in the SaGa series, and the first to be released on the PlayStation. It is also the first in the series to be released under the SaGa brand outside Japan; previous overseas releases had used the Final Fantasy brand instead. A remastered version featuring additional characters, events and features was released on April 15, 2021 for Android, iOS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and Windows.

SaGa Frontier was developed by Square Production Team 2 with Akitoshi Kawazu as director and producer, Koichi Ishii as planning chief, Kenji Ito as composer, and Tomomi Kobayashi as illustrator. Square Production Team 2 included Kyoji Koizumi, Miwa Shoda, Kazuko Shibuya, and Minoru Akao. The musical score for SaGa Frontier was composed and arranged by Kenji Ito, who provided music for many previous entries in the SaGa franchise. When development began, the game's title was intended to be Romancing SaGa 4. The focus shifted from the traditional SaGa style and began to focus on several different characters on their own journeys. Nine stories were crafted, but one of them was dropped during early development because of it being too comedic.

SaGa Frontier takes place in a science fantasy universe called "The Regions", a group of worlds with varying degrees of culture, unique races, technology, and magic. The game allows the player to follow the exploits of one of seven protagonists. The game's "Free Scenario System" offers a large amount of non-linear gameplay, allowing the player to freely travel between many of the Regions, interact with other characters, and take part in turn-based combat. SaGa Frontier enjoyed commercial success, having sold over one million copies. The game was generally well received in Japan and has been re-released under a few best-seller labels, as well as the PlayStation Store. However, it received largely mixed and average reviews in North America, mostly due to its ambitious Free Scenario System.

Gameplay

The basic concept of SaGa Frontier is based on its Free Scenario System, in which one can play as any of seven different protagonists, all of whom exist in the same setting, a solar system known as The Regions: a group of planets, each with its own culture, game-level of technology, and form of magic. The game is considered non-linear, in that from the beginning many of the characters are free to go almost anywhere and interact with almost anyone. Travel through most of the Regions is easy due to inter-regional ships traveling regularly between them. The player controls the protagonist on the field screen, a set of interconnecting pre-rendered backgrounds, and is able to speak with a slew of other characters in order to gather information, recruit party members, and initiate quests. Each character has a storyline and a main quest to fulfill, but there are also several optional quests that any of the characters can participate in. Some of the main characters encounter each other during their quests. The storyline of each character also changes depending on who is chosen, what is said in conversation, what events have already occurred, and who is in the adventuring party, a concept first introduced in Romancing SaGa 2.

Players encounter groups of enemies on the field screen, upon which they switch to the battle screen. The battle screen depicts 2D-animated sprites amidst a 3D-rotating background. Battles are turn-based; the player chooses the characters' actions and must allow them, along with those of the enemies, to play out. A variety of weapons, special skills, and magic spells are at the player's disposal. Most skills are learned mid-battle, while many spells are purchased in the game's shops. If certain conditions are met within the battle, party members on either side can create combination attacks for added damage. Winning battles increases player character statistics such as hit points (HP), life points (LP), strength, and quickness. Outside of combat, players can equip and unequip (or "seal") weapons, armor, skills, spells, and items. First introduced in the Game Boy incarnations of the SaGa series, the game contains different races that exist within the Regions: the Humans, the Mystics, the Half-Mystics (half Human and half Mystic), Monsters, and the Mecs (robots).

The player is encouraged to complete each of the seven scenarios one after the other. For added incentive, beating a character's game and saving its completion to the system data adds some bonuses. After beating one character's game, essentially every character in the following game starts off stronger and with better gear than before, and may depend on how many battles players fought in their previous quest that they saved on the system data. Fulfilling all seven main quests allows the player access to the "2nd Division" room, in which the player can fight all final bosses and talk to the game's programmers.

Plot
At the outset, the player can choose any one of seven main characters to play as, each with their own storyline:

 * Asellus (アセルス), formerly a human girl, was run over by a carriage and given a blood transfusion by the Mystic Lord Orlouge. Chosen as the Charm Lord's heir, she is despised by human and mystic alike due to her status as the only half-Mystic in existence. She escapes Orlouge's castle with the help of the Princess White Rose. Asellus and White Rose remain on the run from Orlouge's many servants, but after White Rose sacrifices herself to save Asellus's life and freedom, Asellus decides to return and defeat Orlouge, to end the struggle once and for all.

 * Blue (ブルー) is a young mage fresh out of magic school. His quest is to collect the "Gift" for as many magics as possible. After that he is destined to fight his twin Rouge who has gained the opposite magics. Whichever brother survives obtains the other's magic and receives the sacred "Life" magic.

 * Emilia (エミリア) is a blond ex-con and secret agent formerly working as a model. Her story began when her fiancé Ren was murdered by a mysterious villain known as the "Joker". Wrongfully accused of the crime, she was sentenced to imprisonment in Despair, where she met Annie and Liza. With their help, they complete a competition the warden created to receive a full pardon for their crimes. After their escape, Emilia was recruited by the two to join the secret organization Gradius, which was also hunting for the "Joker".

 * Lute (リュート) is a carefree bard whose mother kicked him out of the house until Lute found a decent job. He stumbles face-first into a plot involving Trinity general Mondo and resistance leader Captain Hamilton, and the legacy of Lute's deceased father, who was betrayed and killed by Mondo.

 * Red (レッド) is a teenage boy whose family is destroyed by the criminal syndicate called Black X. After being rescued from the same fate by the masked superhero named Alkarl, he is granted the identity of the superhero Alkaiser. After destroying several Black X bases and their main stronghold, Red stands at his father's grave, and Alkarl appears to take Red's powers away, making him a normal man again.

 * Riki (リキ) (Known as Kuhn (クーン) in the Japanese release) is a Lummox, a fox-like creature, and one of the last remaining inhabitants of the mysterious world, Margmel. Determined to save his homeworld, he seeks the Rings of Margmel. In his search, he starts out in Scrap, where he finds the researcher Mei-ling. Riki's quest takes him around the regions to gather the Rings until he comes face to face with Virgil, a Mystic Lord. Following the battle, Riki returns home to attempt to restore Margmel.

 * T260 is an ancient Mec, a model constructed from junk parts, awakened in modern times. Originally part of a combat ship with a secret mission against the RB3 (Region Buster 3), it lost its memory when it crashed into Junk. With help of Leonard, a human who transferred his memories into a Mec, and Gen, a master swordsman, it recovers its memory and finishes the job.

The Remastered Edition adds an eighth character whose scenario was cut from the original due to time and storage constraints:
 * Fuse (ヒューズ) (short for Crazy Fuse (クレイジーヒューズ)) is a patrolman for InterRegional Police Organization (IRPO).

Development
SaGa Frontier was developed by the Square Production Team 2 (referred to as 2nd Division in the game) with Akitoshi Kawazu as director and producer, Koichi Ishii as planning chief, Kenji Ito as composer, and Tomomi Kobayashi as illustrator. Square Production Team 2 included Kyoji Koizumi, Miwa Shoda, Kazuko Shibuya, and Minoru Akao. The musical score for SaGa Frontier was composed and arranged by Kenji Ito, who provided music for many previous entries in the SaGa franchise. Production began in December 1995. The title of this game was "Romancing SaGa 4" during early development. Due to a change in hardware from Super Famicom to PlayStation, Kawazu changed the title. The team did not use 3D graphics, as they were unaware of the hardware capacities at the time.

In the earliest stages of development, two more heroes' quests were also being planned in addition to the existing seven lead characters. One of them was Fuse, the IRPO agent who may be enlisted as a playable character in the actual release. In his quest, Fuse was supposed to be able to take part in other characters' scenarios, and the ultimate goal of his quest might be determined by what the player did in the course of gameplay. The "ninth" protagonist was to be the daughter of a channellers family who is engaging in a controversy as to who of them shall inherit the property of their former patriarch. This scenario seems to be dropped during early development because it was viewed as too comedic.

Due to time constraints, some plot points of Asellus story were removed. During those events, Asellus was supposed to visit Dr. Nusakan's clinic, Bio Research Lab, Lambda Base, and Furdo's Workshop so that she would find her true identity so that she would decide to live as a human being or as a mystic. These quests were also intended to affect her scenario's ending. Kawazu later noted both time constraints and disc space issues as the main reasons for cut content, although the notorious ending of Blue's scenario in the middle of his final boss was always planned.

Release
Due to its popularity in Japan, the game has been re-released a number of times at a budget price: in 2000 as part of the Square Millennium Collection, in 2002 as part of the PSone Books best-seller range, and again in 2004 as a part of Square Enix's Ultimate Hits line. In 2008, the game was released on the PlayStation Store in Japan.

Soundtracks
SaGa Frontier Original Sound Track comprises 75 tracks spanning three compact discs. It was released in Japan on April 21, 1999 by DigiCube and was later reprinted by Square Enix on February 1, 2006. On disc 3 of the soundtrack, there is a hidden track, in the pregap, which can only be heard when rewinding the CD from the beginning; this was originally supposed to be Riki's theme. There also are alternate titles for those pieces of music which can be seen in the songlist in the in-game "2nd Division". Itō states that he wanted to create an arranged album for the game as well, although one has yet to be released.

Merchandise
Two guidebooks for SaGa Frontier have been published in Japan by ASCII: The Essence of SaGa Frontier and The Complete of SaGa Frontier. Another companion book titled SaGa Frontier How To Walk In Regions was published by Kodansha. BradyGames released its own Saga Frontier: Official Strategy Guide in North America in 1998. When the game was re-issued in Japan in 2000 as part of the Square Millennium Collection, it included a collectible teacup set and a tee-shirt depicting the character Blue.

Reception
Saga Frontier sold over 1.05 million copies in Japan by the end of 1997, and 1.1 million as of 2008. It was the 5th top-selling game in Japan in 1997 and is currently the 15th top-selling PlayStation game for the region.

SaGa Frontier for the PlayStation received mostly mixed or average reviews, and held a 71% on GameRankings. Much criticism arose from its Free Scenario System; critics generally remarked that while the non-linearity of this system is conceptually impressive, it leads to the individual scenarios being shorter and weaker than most contemporary RPGs and to players wasting time exploring dungeons intended for a different protagonist or otherwise wandering around the vast game world without direction. Three of the four critics in Electronic Gaming Monthly's review team saw no problem with the Free Scenario System, praising the storyline and combat, though Shawn Smith said battles are too frequent. The fourth critic, Crispin Boyer, disliked both the non-linearity and the varying difficulty between protagonists, but dismissed these as "minor gripes" and gave the game an 8/10, particularly remarking that the combat system is innovative. In his later review for GameSpot, Boyer made much the same comments but emphasized the problems with the non-linearity more and gave it a 6.9/10. He called the game a "solid, if not exactly stellar, RPG that'll certainly keep you busy for a while—or at least until you tire of its occasional lack of focus" and concluded that the many promising upcoming role-playing games like Breath of Fire III made it a holdover title at best. IGN proclaimed SaGa Frontier "the only bruised apple in Square's current collection of role-playing games", similarly stating that the Free Scenario System can become confusing and easily cause the player to become lost. It labelled the story and sprite-based graphics its strong points.

GamePro took a more positive stance, saying that the uniqueness of the Free Scenario System and the ability of certain characters to transform into their opponents set it apart from other RPGs despite the frustration which at times results from the lack of direction. They gave it a 4.5/5 for both sound and control and a perfect 5.0 for both graphics and fun factor. Game Informer found that the plot of SaGa Frontier is more of an outline than a descriptive formula as seen in other Square titles such as Final Fantasy VII and Chrono Trigger. The publication also criticized the game's graphics, but praised its length and gameplay. Staff reviewers at RPGFan and RPGamer agreeably noted the game's battle system to be its highlight; both websites mention that discovering combinations attacks is "fun" and "exciting". Next Generation stated that "With the potential for a deep and involving adventure, SaGa Frontier is a depressing misfire from a company praised for its innovation and high-end titles."

Reviews disagreed on the graphics. Boyer, his three co-reviewers with Electronic Gaming Monthly, and Next Generation all said that the sprites are dated and poorly animated, and that the prerendered backgrounds are flat and non-interactive, and at times make it difficult to see where an area's exit is. Dissenting from this view, GamePro pointed out that the use of prerendered backgrounds was a trick adopted from the critically acclaimed Final Fantasy VII, and IGN argued that with sprite-based graphics being phased out from modern games, their usage in Saga Frontier actually gives the game a look which stands out from other RPGs, enhanced by the inclusion of attractive polygonal effects.

In 2000, SaGa Frontier was voted the 18th best PlayStation game of all time by the editors of Famitsu magazine.

SaGa Frontier Remastered for the PlayStation 4 received generally favorable reviews. The Nintendo Switch version of Remastered received mostly mixed or average reviews.

title: SaGa Frontier


text:
Talk:Culture of Hong Kong/to do

Please add to this list and expand as necessary

title: Talk:Culture of Hong Kong/to do


text:
User:Wroscel

I live in La Plata, MD, and am 38 years old.

I have found Wikipedia to be very useful, and was prompted to start editing when I found an error. Although I won't likely be a big contributor, hopefully my contributions are helpful.

My interests include many topics in mathematics, such as number theory and graph theory, and topics related to cycling, especially utility cycling. I am also a physicist with interests in systems and software engineering and system dynamics.

New Pages

 * Euler's factorization method
 * Category for Mental math techniques
 * Mental math with binomials

Math

 * cross-link digital root, casting out nines, and divisibilty rule
 * cleanup perfect square

Cycling

 * clean up Tricycle
 * edit Recumbent bicycle for encylopedia standards
 * expand Tandem bicycle
 * streamline Utility cycling
 * improve Bicycle gearing

Other

 * improve Innumeracy (book)
 * add Beyond Numeracy (book)
 * move Charles County info from La Plata page
 * expand Southern Maryland
 * clean up quad
 * risk compensation - move inline refs to end
 * research and improve shared space/naked streets/living street

title: User:Wroscel


text:
Yang Chih-yuan

Yang Chih-yuan may refer to:
 * Jerry Yang (born 1968), Chinese name Yang Chih-yuan, Taiwanese-American entrepreneur and the co-founder of Yahoo! Inc
 * Yang Chih-yuan (politician) (born 1990), Taiwanese nationalist politician
 * Yang Chih-yuan, a Taiwanese student involved in a controversy about stamps designed for the International Day of Peace in 2004

title: Yang Chih-yuan


text:
Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩

There are a variety of pronunciations in Modern English and in historical forms of the language for words spelled with the A|letter. Most of these go back to the low vowel (the "short A") of earlier Middle English, which later developed both long and short forms. The sound of the long vowel was altered in the Great Vowel Shift, but later a new long A (or "broad A") developed which was not subject to the shift. These processes have produced the main four pronunciations of in present-day English: those found in the words trap, face, father and square (with the phonetic output depending on whether the dialect is rhotic or not, and, in rhotic dialects, whether or not the Mary–merry merger occurs). Separate developments have produced additional pronunciations in words like wash, talk and comma.

Overview
Late Middle English had two phonemes and, differing only in length. The ("short A") was found in words such as cat  and trap, and also before  in words such as start. The ("long A") was found in words such as face, and before  in words such as scare. This long A was generally a result of Middle English open syllable lengthening. For a summary of the various developments in Old and Middle English that led to these vowels, see English historical vowel correspondences.

As a result of the Great Vowel Shift, the long of face was raised, initially to  and later to. After 1700 it was raised even further, and then diphthongized, leading to the modern standard pronunciation. Additionally, the short of trap was fronted to ; this change became accepted in standard speech during the 17th century. Today there is much regional variation in the realization of this vowel; in RP there has been a recent trend for it to be lowered again to a fully open.

These trends, allowed to operate unrestrictedly, would have left standard English without any vowels in the or  area by the late 17th century. However, this putative gap was filled by the following special developments:
 * In two environments, Middle English developed to  rather than
 * Before non-prevocalic (e.g. in start, star; but not in carry),  developed to  in all words
 * Before some fricatives, broadening happened inconsistently and sporadically
 * Words that had Middle English had a regular development to  (for example, paw). However, before a nasal, such words sometimes instead developed to  (e.g. palm).

The of the late 17th century has generally backed to  in several varieties of contemporary English, for example in Received Pronunciation.

The following table shows some developments of Middle English in Received Pronunciation. The word gate, which derived from Middle English, has also been included for comparison.

The table below shows the results of these developments in some contemporary varieties of English:

* May undergo -tensing.

Old and Middle English
Old English (OE) had an open back vowel, written $⟨a⟩$, as well as a front vowel , written æ|$⟨æ⟩$. These had corresponding long vowels and  but were not normally distinguished from the short vowels in spelling although modern editions of Old English texts often mark them as $⟨ā⟩$ and $⟨ǣ⟩$. In the low vowel area, there was also a pair of short and long diphthongs, and, written $⟨ea⟩$ (the long one also $⟨ēa⟩$ in modern editions).

In Middle English (ME), the short became merged into a single vowel, written $⟨a⟩$. In some cases (before certain pairs of consonants) the corresponding long vowels also developed into this short. Mostly, however, OE and  were raised to become Middle English  (the sound that often gives  in modern spelling), and OE  was raised and rounded to become ME  (often $⟨o⟩$, $⟨oa⟩$ in modern spelling). For more details, see English historical vowel correspondences.

During the Middle English period, like other short vowels, the was lengthened in open syllables. Later, with the gradual loss of unstressed endings, many such syllables ceased to be open, but the vowel remained long.

For example, the word name originally had two syllables, the first being open, so the was lengthened; later, the final vowel was dropped, leaving a closed syllable with a long vowel. As a result, there were now two phonemes and, both written $⟨a⟩$, the long one being often indicated by a silent $⟨e⟩$ after the following consonant (or, in some cases, by a pronounced vowel after the following consonant, as in naked and bacon).

Further development of Middle English
As a result of the Great Vowel Shift, the long that resulted from Middle English open syllable lengthening was raised, initially to  and later to. "seems to have been the normal pronunciation in careful speech before 1650, and after 1650". After 1700 it was raised even further, and then diphthongized, leading to the modern standard pronunciation, found in words like name, face, bacon. However, some accents, in the north of England and in Scotland, for example, retain a monophthongal pronunciation of this vowel, while other accents have a variety of different diphthongs.

Before (historic) /r/, in words like square, the vowel has become (often practically ) in modern RP, and  in General American.

Changes in realization of
Independently of the development of the long vowel, the short came to be fronted and raised to. This change was mostly confined to "vulgar or popular" speech in the 16th century, but it gradually replaced the more conservative in the 17th century, and was "generally accepted by careful speakers by about 1670".

This vowel (that of trap, cat, man, bad, etc.) is now normally denoted as. In present-day RP, however, it has lowered to a fully front. Such a quality is also found in the accents of northern England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the Caribbean. Raised pronunciations are also found in Southern Hemisphere English, and are also associated with Cockney. For the possibility of phonemic length differentiation, see bad–lad split, below.

Development of the new long A
In Modern English, a new phoneme developed that did not exist in Middle English. The phoneme comes from three sources: the word father lengthening from  to  for an unknown reason (thus splitting from gather); the compensatory lengthening of the short  in words like calm, palm, psalm when  was lost in this environment; and the lengthening of  before  in words like car, card, hard, part, etc. In most dialects that developed the broad A class, words containing it joined this new phoneme  as well. The new phoneme also became common in onomatopoeic words like baa, ah, ha ha, as well as in foreign borrowed words like spa, taco, llama, drama, piranha, Bahamas, pasta, Bach, many of which vary between and  among different dialects of English.

Some of these developments are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Before /r/
In late Middle English, pairs such as cat, cart, were pronounced, respectively, distinguished only by the presence or absence of. However, by the late 17th century they were also distinguished by the quality and length of the vowel. In cat, the vowel had been fronted to, while in cart it had been lengthened to. This latter change seems to have first occurred in the dialects of southern England in the early 15th century, but did not affect Standard English until the later 17th century. It has affected most varieties of contemporary English, which have distinct vowels in pairs such as cat, cart. In non-rhotic accents, the of cart has been lost; in modern RP the word is pronounced, distinguished from cat only by the quality and length of the vowel.

This lengthening occurred when was followed by non-pre-vocalic ; it did not generally apply before intervocalic  (when the  was followed by another vowel). Hence the first vowel of carrot and marry has normally remained the same as that of cat (but see the mary–marry–merry merger). However, inflected forms and derivatives of words ending in (historic) generally inherit the lengthened vowel, so words like barring and starry have  as do bar and star.

Before fricatives
Unlike lengthening before nonprevocalic, which applied universally in Standard English, lengthening, or broadening, before fricatives was inconsistent and sporadic. This seems to have first occurred in the dialects of Southern England between about 1500 and 1650. It penetrated into Standard English from these dialects around the mid-17th century.

The primary environment which favored broadening was before preconsonantal or morpheme-final voiceless fricatives. The voiceless fricative has never promoted broadening in Standard English in words like ash and crash. There is, however, evidence that such broadening did occur in dialects.

Once broadening affected a particular word, it tended to spread by analogy to its inflectional derivatives. For example, from pass there was also passing. This introduced broadening into the environment _sV, from which it was otherwise excluded (compare passage which is not an inflectional form, and was never affected by broadening).

In a phenomenon going back to Middle English, alternate with their voiced equivalents. For example, late Middle English path alternated with paths. When broadening applied to words such as path, it naturally extended to these derivatives: thus when broadened to,  also broadened to. This introduced broadening into the environment before a voiced fricative.

Broadening affected Standard English extremely inconsistently. It seems to have been favored when was adjacent to labial consonants or. It is apparent that it occurred most commonly in short words, especially monosyllables, that were common and well-established in English at the time broadening took place (c. 1500–1650). Words of 3 or more syllables were hardly ever subject to broadening. Learned words, neologisms (such as gas, first found in the late 17th century), and Latinate or Greek borrowings were rarely broadened.

A particularly interesting case is that of the word father. In late Middle English this was generally pronounced, thus rhyming with gather. Broadening of father is notable both in two respects: The Oxford English Dictionary describes the broadening of father as "anomalous". Dobson, however, sees broadening in father as due to the influence of the adjacent and  combined. Rather and lather appear to have been subject to broadening later, and in fewer varieties of English, by analogy with father.
 * its occurrence before an intervocalic voiced fricative
 * its distribution in many accents that do not otherwise have broadening, such as those of North America.

The table below represents the results of broadening before fricatives in contemporary Received Pronunciation.

 * * indicates that the other pronunciation is also current in RP.
 * ** indicates that this word had late Middle English (possibly in addition to late Middle English )
 * Words in italics were first recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary later than 1650

In general, all these words, to the extent that they existed in Middle English, had ("short A" as in trap) which was broadened to. The exceptions are:
 * half and calf, which had been pronounced with in early Middle English before developing around the early 15th century to  by L-vocalization. In accents of England the development was subsequently the same as that in words such as palm (see below). The North American development to  as in trap seems to be the result of shortening from  to, although there is little evidence of this development.
 * laugh, laughter and draft/draught, which all had in Middle English. This first changed to  (accepted in Standard English from about 1625, but earlier in dialects), and was then shortened to . The subsequent development was similar to other words with, such as staff. The development of draft/draught is notable: in the 17th century it was usually spelled draught and pronounced to rhyme with caught, making clear its derivation from the verb to draw. The pronunciation with  was rare, and its use in current English is a historical accident resulting, according to Dobson, from the establishment of the spelling variant draft.

The words castle, fasten and raspberry are special cases where subsequent sound changes have altered the conditions initially responsible for lengthening. In castle and fasten, the was pronounced, according to a slight majority of 16th and 17th century sources. In raspberry we find rather than.

The pattern of lengthening shown here for Received Pronunciation is generally found in southern England, the Caribbean, and the Southern hemisphere (parts of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa). In North America, with the possible exception of older Boston accents, broadening is found only in father (the success of broadening in this word alone in North America unexplained) and pasta (which follows the general pattern for recent Italian loanwords, cf. mafia). In the Boston area there has historically been a tendency to copy RP lengthening which perhaps reached its zenith in the 1930s but has since receded in the face of general North American norms.

In Irish English broadening is found only in father (which may, however, also have the FACE vowel). In Scottish and Ulster English the great majority of speakers have no distinction between TRAP and PALM (the Sam–psalm merger). In Welsh English Wells finds broadening generally only in father, with some variation. In the north of England, broadening is usually found only in father and half, and in some regions master.

Before nasals
There was a class of Middle English words in which varied with  before a nasal. These are nearly all loanwords from French, in which uncertainty about how to realize the nasalization of the French vowel resulted in two varying pronunciations in English. (One might compare the different ways in which modern French loanwords like envelope are pronounced in contemporary varieties of English.)

Words with Middle English with the diphthong generally developed to  in Early Modern English (e.g. paw, daughter). However, in some of the words with the alternation, especially short words in common use, the vowel instead developed into a long A. In words like change and angel, this development preceded the Great Vowel Shift, and so the resulting long A followed the normal development to modern. In other cases, however, the long A appeared later, and thus did not undergo the Great Vowel Shift, but instead merged with the long A that had developed before and some fricatives (as described above). Thus words like dance and example have come to be pronounced (in modern RP, although mostly not in General American) with the vowel of start and bath.

Words in this category may therefore have ended up with a variety of pronunciations in modern standard English: (where the short A pronunciation survived),  (where the pronunciation with lengthened A was adopted),  (where the normal development of the AU diphthong was followed), and  (where the A was lengthened before the Great Vowel Shift). The table below shows the pronunciation of many of these words, classified according to the lexical sets of John Wells: for,  for RP  vs. General American ,  for ,  for ,  for. Although these words were often spelled with both $⟨a⟩$ and $⟨au⟩$ in Middle English, the current English spelling generally reflects the pronunciation, with $⟨au⟩$ used only for those words which have ; one common exception is aunt.

* Not a French loanword

In some cases, both the and the  forms have survived into Modern English. For example, from Sandre, a Norman French form of the name Alexander, the Modern English surnames Sanders and Saunders are both derived.

split
The  split is a vowel split that occurs mainly in the southern and mainstream varieties of English in England (including Received Pronunciation), in the Southern Hemisphere accents of English (Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English), and also to a lesser extent in older Boston English, by which the Early Modern English phoneme was lengthened in certain environments and ultimately merged with the long  of father. Similar changes took place in words with $⟨o⟩$; see lot–cloth split.

merger
The merger is a merger of  and  occasionally occurring in Received Pronunciation. It is the outcome of lowering the vowel to  for those speakers who have a fronted  vowel. The merger is likely not categorical, which means that the phonemes remain distinct in their underlying form. In contemporary RP, is the norm for, whereas  is usually backer and somewhat higher than ,  or even. In the early days of -lowering, the fully open pronunciation of was typically heard as a merger regardless of the exact phonetic realization of.

In Cockney, and  can come close as  and. Thus, Cockney may be an example of a language variety that contrasts near-front and fully front vowels of the same height, roundedness and length, though the former tends to undergo lengthening before (see bad–lad split).

In General Australian English, the vowels are distinguished as and  before non-nasal consonants.

A three-way merger of, and  is a common pronunciation error among L2 speakers of English whose native language is Italian, Spanish or Catalan.

merger
The merger is a merger of  and  that occurs in Black South African English and commonly also in non-native speech.

Bad–lad split
The bad–lad split has been described as a phonemic split of the Early Modern English short vowel phoneme into a short  and a long. This split is found in Australian English and some varieties of English English in which bad (with long ) and lad (with short ) do not rhyme.

The phoneme is usually lengthened to  when it comes before an  or, within the same syllable. It is furthermore lengthened in the adjectives bad, glad and mad; family also sometimes has a long vowel, regardless of whether it is pronounced as two or three syllables. Some speakers and regional varieties also use before, ,  and/or ; such lengthening may be more irregular than others. Lengthening is prohibited in the past tense of irregular verbs and function words and in modern contractions of polysyllabic words where the was before a consonant followed by a vowel. Lengthening is not stopped by the addition of word-level suffixes.

British dialects with the bad–lad split have instead broad in some words where an  or  follows the vowel. In this circumstance, Australian speakers usually (but not universally) use, except in the words aunt, can't and shan't, which have broad.

Daniel Jones noted for RP that some speakers had a phonemic contrast between a long and a short, which he wrote as and , respectively. Thus, in An outline of English phonetics (1962, ninth edition, Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons) he noted that sad, bad generally had but lad, pad had. In his pronouncing dictionary, he recorded several minimal pairs, for example bad, bade (also pronounced ). He noted that for some speakers, jam actually represented two different pronunciations, one pronounced meaning 'fruit conserve', the other  meaning 'crush, wedging'. Later editions of this dictionary, edited by Alfred C. Gimson, dropped this distinction.

Outside of England, can meaning 'able to' remains, whereas the noun can 'container' or the verb can 'to put into a container' is ; this is similar to the situation found in /æ/ raising in some varieties of American English. A common minimal pair for modern RP speakers is band and banned. Australian speakers who use 'span' as the past tense of 'spin' also have a minimal pair between longer (meaning width or the transitive verb with a river or divide) and, the past tense of 'spin'. Other minimal pairs found in Australian English include 'Manning' (the surname) and 'manning' (the present participle and gerund of the verb 'to man')  as well as 'planet'  versus 'plan it'.

Apart from Jones's, dictionaries rarely show a difference between these varieties of.

Experimental recordings of RP-speaking Cambridge University undergraduates has indicated that after coarticulatory effects are taken into account, words such as bag, that, gab, Ann, ban, damp, mad, bad, and sad may have slightly longer vowels than relatively shorter words such as lad, snag, pad, Pam, and plan. However, no evidence of consistent duration differentiation was found in the possible minimal pairs adder/adder, cad/CAD, can (noun)/can (verb), dam/damn, jam/jam, lam/lamb, manning/Manning, mass/mass, sad/SAD. This casts doubt on its status as a true phonemic split among RP-speakers, and has been described instead as diachronically stable, lexically specific sub-phonemic variation.

raising
In the sociolinguistics of English,  raising is a process that occurs in many accents of American English, and to some degree in Canadian English, by which, the "short a" vowel found in such words as ash, bath, man, lamp, pal, rag, sack, trap, etc., is tensed: pronounced as more raised, and lengthened and/or diphthongized in various environments. The realization of this "tense" (as opposed to "lax") varies from  to  to  to, depending on the speaker's regional accent. The most commonly tensed variant of throughout North American English is when it appears before nasal consonants (thus, for example, in fan as opposed to fat).

In foreign borrowings
Many foreign borrowed words such as taco, llama, drama, piranha, Bahamas, pasta, Bach, pecan, pajamas etc. vary as to whether or not they have the vowel or the  vowel in various dialects in English. In Canada and Northern England, many speakers pronounce such words with the same vowel as, whereas in American, Australian and New Zealand English as well as RP, they usually have the same vowel as (although taco and pasta have the  vowel in RP). However the pronunciation of certain words can vary even in regions which either usually assign the vowel or usually assign the  vowel to such words; pajamas and pecan, for instance, vary among Americans as to whether or not they have.

Other pronunciations
Other pronunciations of the letter in English have come about through:
 * Fronting of the vowel to a vowel close to, as in conservative RP of the early 20th century (see ). This never led to a merger with the  vowel in RP, but a fronted pronunciation of the  vowel is also found in Singapore English, (typically) along with a partial or full met-mat merger,  as well as in non-native speech, such as in L1 speakers of German (see ).
 * Rounding caused by a following dark L (which may no longer be pronounced), to produce (in RP), e.g. in also, alter, ball, call, chalk, halt, talk, etc. See English-language vowel changes before historic /l/.
 * Rounding following, resulting in the same two vowels as above, as in wash, what, quantity, water, warm. This change is typically blocked before a velar consonant, as in wag, quack and twang, and is also absent in swam (the irregular past tense of swim). See Phonological history of English low back vowels (17th-century changes).
 * Reduction to schwa in most unstressed syllables, as in about, along, Hilary, comma, solar, standard, breakfast. (Like other instances of schwa, this can combine with a following, or  to produce a syllabic consonant in certain environments, as in rival.) Another possible reduced pronunciation (depending on dialect) is  in cases where the reduction of  vowel might be expected, -ace, -age, -ate (only adjectives and nouns), as in the second syllables of palace, message and private, etc.
 * Irregular developments in a few words, particularly any and many. In the case of any, the spelling represents the pronunciation in the Midland dialect of Middle English, while the modern pronunciation comes from that of the southern dialect (the alternative spelling eny is also found in texts up to around 1530; the spelling ony, representing a northern dialect pronunciation, is also found). The situation is similar with many (with the spellings meny and mony formerly occurring).

title: Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩


text:
Belle Isle (Windermere)

Belle Isle is the largest of 18 islands on Windermere, a mere in the English Lake District, and the only one ever to have been inhabited. It is 1 km in length.

It is rumoured that in Roman times a villa was once built on the island, with a possible connection to the Roman fort at Ambleside. In 1250 it was the seat of the district's Lord of the Manor. It was also a Royalist stronghold during the English Civil War. Island House was built in 1774 to designs by John Plaw. It is unusual in that it is circular in plan, built of brick, three floors high with a four column portico; it draws closely on the Pantheon, Rome. The house was sold along with the island to the wealthy Curwen family who renamed the island after their daughter, Isabella. It was then sold on to Isabella Curwen by her family in 1781 for £1,720 and was permanently renamed after her. The descendants of Isabella and her husband John Christian Curwen lived on the island until 1993.

It is called 'Bell Island' not 'Isabella Island' because of use of the shortened form of Isabella- Bella, which lost the 'a' to become 'Bell', spelt 'Belle' by the Ordnance Survey map of 1925 over the years. It was known locally as the Great Island or Long Holme and formerly known as Longholm, before its renaming in 1774.

In 1996 (some records suggest 23 December 1994), Belle Isle House suffered serious damage following a large fire. However, it was repaired and is once again a place of residence.

title: Belle Isle (Windermere)


text:
HMS Searcher (D40)

HMS Searcher was a Ruler-class escort carrier of the Royal Navy. Built in Seattle as a Bogue-class, she was transferred to the United Kingdom under Lend-Lease. Launched in 1942 she served until 29 November 1945. She was sold into merchant service and renamed Captain Theo. In 1966, she was renamed again to Oriental Banker and was finally scrapped in Taiwan in 1976.

Design and description
Ruler-class ships were larger and had a greater aircraft capacity than the preceding American-built escort carrier classes, and were laid down as escort carriers, not converted from merchant ships. They had a complement of 646 men and an overall length of 492 ft, a beam of 69 ft and a draught of 25 ft. Propulsion was provided by one shaft, two boilers and a steam turbine giving 9,350 shaft horsepower, which could propel the ship at 16.5 kn.

Aircraft facilities were a small combined bridge–flight control on the starboard side, two aircraft lifts 43 ft by 34 ft, one aircraft catapult and nine arrestor wires. Aircraft could be housed in the 260 ft by 62 ft hangar below the flight deck. Her armament consisted of two 4"/50, 5"/38 or 5"/51 Dual Purpose guns in single mounts, sixteen 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns in twin mounts and twenty 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns in single mounts. They had a maximum aircraft capacity of twenty-four aircraft which could be a mixture of Grumman Martlet, Vought F4U Corsair or Hawker Sea Hurricane fighter aircraft and Fairey Swordfish or Grumman Avenger anti-submarine aircraft.

Wartime Service
From 1943 Searcher operated mainly around the UK as a Fighter Carrier. In late December 1943 she provided Atlantic convoy escort, escorting ships to the US, and arriving at Norfolk on 2 January 1944. She participated in the attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz as part of the Home Fleet Strike force of Operation Tungsten, during which her role was to provide fighter cover. In August 1944 she took part in Operation Dragoon, the Allied invasion of Southern France.

On 4 May 1945 aircraft from the escort carriers Searcher, HMS Queen (D19), and HMS Trumpeter (D09), taking part in Operation Judgement, sank the GS U-711 in Kilbotn harbour in the Arctic near Harstad, Norway. Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers escorted by Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters attacked the U-boat crew barracks ship MS Black Watch, the submarine tender MS Senja and the floating flak battery Thetis (the former Norwegian coastal defence ship HNOMS Harald Haarfagre). U-711 was alongside Black Watch when she was sunk in position 68.72862°N, 16.57667°W by bombs aimed at Black Watch. Black Watch and Senja were also sunk. This was the last sinking of a U-Boat by the Fleet Air Arm, and the final air-raid of the war in Europe.

Searcher was sent to the Far East as part of the British Pacific Fleet but arrived in mid-August as the war ended.

Return to the US Navy
Searcher was returned to the US Navy under the terms of the Lend-Lease arrangement on 29 November 1945 and was listed for disposal on 7 February 1946.

Merchant Service
The decommissioned escort carrier was sold to J & A T Vatis, a Greek shipping company, and renamed Captain Theo in 1952. In November 1961, she encountered and rescued 11-year-old Terry Jo Duperrault, who had been adrift at sea in a cork raft for four days after surviving a mass murder aboard the Bluebelle and the subsequent scuttling of the ketch by the murderer. The ship was sold again in 1966 to the Chinese shipping magnate Tung Chao Yung, becoming Oriental Banker.

Fate
Oriental Banker was scrapped at Kaohsiung in Taiwan, commencing on 21 April 1976.

title: HMS Searcher (D40)


text:
Dumbwaiter (disambiguation)

A dumbwaiter ( lit. "silent waiter") is a small freight elevator.

Dumbwaiter may also refer to:
 * Lazy Susan, a small rotating table to serve food on a table
 * The Dumb Waiter, a 1957 one-act play by Harold Pinter
 * Dumb Waiters, a 1980 album by The Korgis
 * "Dumb Waiters" (song), a 1981 song by the Psychedelic Furs

title: Dumbwaiter (disambiguation)


text:
User:CaptHayfever

CaptHayfever is a Wikipedia user who sometimes refers to himself in the third person, such as when writing an article/user page about himself. He likes ampersands & thinks they are unfairly maligned. He is very bad at writing autobiographies, so yeah.

Articles I've Started as of 2012
 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: CaptHayfever

 * List of All That characters (AFD'd after 15+ years by some rando violating WP:POINTY)
 * Joseph Blanchette (deleted unjustly twice)
 * Mega 64
 * Michael McMillian
 * Y-O-U
 * Y-O-U (album)
 * Everything is Shifting
 * Flashlights (album) (not to be confused with Flashlight, which I've never touched)
 * The Long-Playing EP
 * The Laptop EP
 * Radio Pet Fencing
 * Anchorman: Music from the Motion Picture
 * Saved (TV series)
 * The Good Times Comedy CD
 * Lindsey Stirling (album)
 * Duality (Lindsey Stirling album) (converted from redirect)
 * Category:All That
 * User:CaptHayfever

''This page about a Wikipedia user is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by not even touching it 'cause it's not yours.''

title: User:CaptHayfever


text:
Talk:Chromatin

euchromatin and heterochromatin definitions
The current text on euchromatin and heterochromatin being equivalent to the beads on a string and 30nm fiber are wrong. The beads on a string seems to be very rare in physiological conditions and the 30nm fiber is present in both euchromatin and heterochromatin. The difference between euchromatin and (the different kinds of) heterochromatin lies in the higher order compactness. (Lodish, molecular cell biology) Kuije002 (talk) 11:52, 3 May 2012 (UTC)

Old image
Created a new and more appropriate image showing major chromatin structures. This is the old figure.

New Image
The new image is beautiful but the simple double structure helix is left handed, where the actual structure in cells is a right handed helix. It need to be fixed.

What is polytene chromatin? My teacher asked us to define this for Genetics homework but I have been unable to find any answers and wikipedia. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Acarrell (talk • contribs) 22:13, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

Vandalism
This page seems to be getting vandalised a lot, or am I just being an anti-vandal n00b? - Zephyris Talk 23:18, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, looking at the Chromatin and DNA repair chapter: bad English and unclear phrasing, see also my comment below...
 * Wolfgang WolfGreg9 (talk) 17:11, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

30nm fiber
solenoidal structure disproven

Nature 2005 436(7047):138-41 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.253.133.106 (talk) 18:20, 29 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Thanks, updated now BooleanQuackery (talk) 08:21, 31 July 2022 (UTC)

A lot of work on 30nm fiber is decently old and some newer stuff does not find evidence to support it, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.054 & 10.1126/science.aag0025 are the top two that come to mind. Maybe some context to this section that the existence of 30nm fiber is debated and at a baseline is not strictly required for packing. My recommendation is to read the papers first however. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.76.8.173 (talk) 12:02, 18 April 2024 (UTC)

Role of chromatin in transcription
I think this article needs to include a section emphasizing the role chromatin plays in transcription, or at least a link to a relevant section on the transcription page (which currently needs a lot of work)...MDG38 16:12, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Chromatin. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive {newarchive} to http://www.chromatin.co.uk/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:34, 27 February 2016 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 11:43, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

30nm Structure - non existant ?
Hi, I was recently teaching mitosis, so looked up on condensation of chromatin. While I was browsing sources I found that some 2012 reviews / articles point towards no 30 nm structure existing - at least in mammals (fractal folding of 10 nm structure was the proposed solution). I'm wondering a) whether that is still the currently held view, and b) whether the info in this article needs updating, regardless of which model exactly is currently assumed to be most likely / best supported by the evidence.

Regards 149.172.147.203 (talk) 22:01, 18 December 2019 (UTC)
 * You're right, I don't know why that's stayed on the article for so long. I've deleted the content pertaining to the incorrect 30nm model, but the article still needs to be updated with current accurate models. Here's the first two results from google:
 *
 *

 * Thanks for pointing this out. I wonder if it would be possible to reincorporate the info I removed into a historical/past research section, along with the images. BooleanQuackery (talk) 08:20, 31 July 2022 (UTC)

 * More relevant info showing that 30 nm model is false:
 * The updated models should be included in this article. (It's still likely that 30 nm chromatin exists in specific rare (or transient) instances: )
 * BooleanQuackery (talk) 19:38, 31 July 2022 (UTC)

 * In my opinion the 30 nm structures shouldn't be removed outright, there are sources on them. The info on the page should be updated with later research. --Gilgul Kaful (talk) 07:23, 1 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Sounds good, it can be reincorporated into a historical/past research context. BooleanQuackery (talk) 09:46, 1 August 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Molecular Genetics
— Assignment last updated by Rgorasiya2022 (talk) 18:39, 4 September 2022 (UTC)

"Chromatin and DNA Repair" section
This entire section of the article requires extensive cleanup. I've fixed some of the grammar mistakes, but there are several parts of this section where I can't tell what the original author was trying to say. Unfortunately, this is not my area of expertise, so it may require rewriting by someone more familiar with the subject matter. Lumberjane Lilly (talk) 00:09, 21 April 2023 (UTC)

some quick proposals
"Structure of DNA" chapter: DNA ist located in a nucleus within the cell, not: DNA consists of a cell nucleus!! next sentence: ..of the 2 DNA strands, homogeneous H-bonds are forming. "30 nm chromatin fiber in mitosis": ..accept that the axis of DNA coiling in nucleosomes lies perpendicular.... "Chromatin and DNA repair": repairing the damaged DNA; not: repairing the damaged cell of DNA... "Methods to investigate chromatin": ChlP-seq: select, not selected; transactivation, not transaction ATAC-seq: transposon-accessible...., not transposable accessible... "Noble prizes": none have much to do with chromatin, I would omit the table. Cheers, Wolfgang WolfGreg9 (talk) 17:30, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree with deleting the table. Done. Genome42 (talk) 16:37, 18 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chromatin