text:
Aryne

In organic chemistry, arynes and benzynes are a class of highly reactive chemical species derived from an aromatic ring by removal of two substituents. Arynes are examples of didehydroarenes (1,2-didehydroarenes in this case), although 1,3- and 1,4-didehydroarenes are also known. Arynes are examples of alkynes under high strain.

Bonding in arynes
The alkyne representation of benzyne is the most widely encountered. Arynes are usually described as having a strained triple bond.

Geometric constraints on the triple bond in benzyne result in diminished overlap of in-plane p-orbitals, and thus weaker triple bond. The vibrational frequency of the triple bond in benzyne was assigned by Radziszewski to be 1846 cm−1, indicating a weaker triple bond than in unstrained alkyne with vibrational frequency of approximately 2150 cm−1. Nevertheless, benzyne is more like a strained alkyne than a diradical, as seen from the large singlet–triplet gap and alkyne-like reactivity.

The LUMO of aryne lies much lower than the LUMO of unstrained alkynes, which makes it a better energy match for the HOMO of nucleophiles. Hence, benzyne possesses electrophilic character and undergoes reactions with nucleophiles. A detailed MO analysis of benzyne was presented in 1968.

Generation of arynes
Due to their extreme reactivity, arynes must be generated in situ. Typical of other reactive intermediates, benzyne must be trapped, otherwise it dimerises to biphenylene.

Early routes to benzyne involved dehydrohalogenation of aryl halides: Such reactions require strong base and high temperatures. 1,2-Disubstituted arenes serve as precursors to benzynes under milder conditions. Benzyne is generated by the dehalogenation of 1-bromo-2-fluorobenzene by magnesium. Anthranilic acid can be converted to 2-diazoniobenzene-1-carboxylate by diazotization and neutralization. Although explosive, this zwitterionic species is a convenient and inexpensive precursor to benzyne.

Another method is based on trimethylsilylaryl triflates. Fluoride displacement of the trimethylsilyl group induces elimination of triflate and release of benzyne:

A hexadehydro Diels-Alder reaction (HDDA) involves cycloaddition of 1,3-diyne and alkyne.

N-amination of 1H-benzotriazole with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid generates an intermediate which can be oxidised to benzyne in almost quantitative yield with lead(IV) acetate.

Reactions of arynes
Even at low temperatures arynes are extremely reactive. Their reactivity can be classified in three main classes: (1) nucleophilic additions, (2) pericyclic reactions, and (3) bond-insertion.

Nucleophilic additions to arynes
Upon treatment with basic nucleophiles, aryl halides deprotonate alpha to the leaving group, resulting in dehydrohalogenation. Isotope exchange studies indicate that for aryl fluorides and, sometimes, aryl chlorides, the elimination event proceeds in two steps, deprotonation, followed by expulsion of the nucleophile. Thus, the process is formally analogous to the E1cb mechanism of aliphatic compounds. Aryl bromides and iodides, on the other hand, generally appear to undergo elimination by a concerted syn-coplanar E2 mechanism. The resulting benzyne forms addition products, usually by nucleophilic addition and protonation. Generation of the benzyne intermediate is the slow step in the reaction.

"Aryne coupling" reactions allow for generation of biphenyl compounds which are valuable in pharmaceutical industry, agriculture and as ligands in many metal-catalyzed transformations.

The metal–arene product can also add to another aryne, leading to chain-growth polymerization. Using copper(I) cyanide as the initiator to add to the first aryne yielded polymers containing up to about 100 arene units.

When leaving group (LG) and substituent (Y) are mutually ortho or para, only one benzyne intermediate is possible. However, when LG is meta to Y, then regiochemical outcomes (A and B) are possible. If Y is electron withdrawing, then HB is more acidic than HA resulting in regioisomer B being generated. Analogously, if Y is electron donating, regioisomer A is generated, since now HA is the more acidic proton.

There are two possible regioisomers of benzyne with substituent (Y): triple bond can be positioned between C2 and C3 or between C3 and C4. Substituents ortho to the leaving group will lead to the triple bond between C2 and C3. Para Y and LG will lead to regioisomer with triple bond between C3 and C4. Meta substituent can afford both regioisomers as described above. In case of triple bond located between C2 and C3, electron withdrawing (EWG) substituents, e.g. CF3, will direct the nucleophile addition to place carbanion as close as possible to EWG. However, electron donating (EDG) substituents, e.g. CH3, will provide little selectivity between products. In the regioisomer where triple bond is located between C3 and C4 the effect of substituent on nucleophile addition is diminished, and mixtures of para and meta products are often obtained.

Pericyclic reactions of arynes
Benzyne undergoes rapid dimerization to form biphenylene. Some routes to benzyne lead to especially rapid and high yield of this subsequent reaction. Trimerization gives triphenylene.

Benzynes can undergo [4+2] cyclization reactions. When generated in the presence of anthracene, trypticene results. In this method, the concerted mechanism of the Diels-Alder reaction between benzyne and furan is shown below. Other benzyne [4+2] cycloadditions are thought to proceed via a stepwise mechanism.

A classic example is the synthesis of 1,2,3,4-tetraphenylnaphthalene. Tetrabromobenzene can react with butyllithium and furan to form a tetrahydroanthracene

[4+2] cycloadditions of arynes have been commonly applied to natural product total synthesis. The main limitation of such approach, however, is the need to use constrained dienes, such as furan and cyclopentadiene. In 2009 Buszek and co-workers synthesized herbindole A using aryne [4+2]-cycloaddition. 6,7-indolyne undergoes [4+2] cycloaddition with cyclopentadiene to afford complex tetracyclic product.

Benzynes undergo [2+2] cycloaddition with a wide range of alkenes. Due to electrophilic nature of benzyne, alkenes bearing electron-donating substituents work best for this reaction.

Due to significant byproduct formation, aryne [2+2] chemistry is rarely utilized in natural product total synthesis. Nevertheless, several examples do exist. In 1982, Stevens and co-workers reported a synthesis of taxodione that utilized [2+2] cycloaddition between an aryne and a ketene acetal.

Mori and co-workers performed a palladium-catalyzed [2+2+2]-cocyclization of aryne and diyne in their total synthesis of taiwanins C.

Bond-insertion reactions of arynes
The first example of aryne σ-bond insertion reaction is the synthesis of melleine in 1973.

Other dehydrobenzenes
If benzyne is 1,2-didehydrobenzene, two further isomers are possible: 1,3-didehydrobenzene and 1,4-didehydrobenzene. Their energies in silico are, respectively, 106, 122, and 138 kcal/mol (444, 510 and 577 kJ/mol). The 1,2- and 1,3- isomers have singlet ground states, whereas for 1,4-didehydrobenzene the gap is smaller.

The interconversion of the 1,2-, 1,3- and 1,4-didehydrobenzenes has been studied. A 1,2- to 1,3-didehydrobenzene conversion has been postulated to occur in the pyrolysis (900 °C) of the phenyl substituted aryne precursors as shown below. Extremely high temperatures are required for benzyne interconversion.

1,4-Didehydroarenes
In classical 1,4-didehydrobenzene experiments, heating to 300 °C, [1,6-D2]-A readily equilibrates with [3,2-D2]-B, but does not equilibrate with C or D. The simultaneous migration of deuterium atoms to form B, and the fact that none of C or D is formed can only be explained by a presence of a cyclic and symmetrical intermediate–1,4-didehydrobenzene.

Two states were proposed for 1,4-didehydrobenzene: singlet and triplet, with the singlet state lower in energy. Triplet state represents two noninteracting radical centers, and hence should abstract hydrogens at the same rate as phenyl radical. However, singlet state is more stabilized than the triplet, and therefore some of the stabilizing energy will be lost in order to form the transition state for hydrogen cleavage, leading to slower hydrogen abstraction. Chen proposed the use of 1,4-didehydrobenzene analogues that have large singlet-triplet energy gaps to enhance selectivity of enediyne drug candidates.

History
The first evidence for arynes came from the work of Stoermer and Kahlert. In 1902 they observed that upon treatment of 3-bromobenzofuran with base in ethanol 2-ethoxybenzofuran is formed. Based on this observation they postulated an aryne intermediate.

Wittig et al. invoked zwitterionic intermediate in the reaction of fluorobenzene and phenyllithium to give biphenyl. This hypothesis was later confirmed.

In 1953 14C labeling experiments provided strong support for the intermediacy of benzyne. John D. Roberts et al. showed that the reaction of chlorobenzene-1-14C and potassium amide gave equal amounts of aniline with 14C incorporation at C-1 and C-2.

Wittig and Pohmer found that benzyne participate in [4+2] cycloaddition reactions.

Additional evidence for the existence of benzyne came from spectroscopic studies. Benzyne has been observed in a "molecular container".

In 2015, a single aryne molecule was imaged by STM.

1,3-Didehydroarenes was first demonstrated in the 1990s when it was generated from 1,3-disubstituted benzene derivatives, such as the peroxy ester 1,3-C6H4(O2C(O)CH3)2.

Breakthroughs on 1,4-didehydrobenzene came in the 1960s, followed from studies on the Bergman cyclization. This theme became topical with the discovery of enediyne "cytostatics", such as calicheamicin, which generates a 1,4-didehydrobenzene.

Examples of benzynes in total synthesis
A variety of natural products have been prepared using arynes as intermediates. Nucleophilic additions to arynes have been widely used in natural product total synthesis. Indeed, nucleophilic additions of arynes are some of the oldest known applications of aryne chemistry. Nucleophilic addition to aryne was used in the attempted synthesis of cryptaustoline (1) and cryptowoline (2).

The synthesis of the tetracyclic meroterpenoid (+)-liphagal involved an aryne intermediate. Their approach employed an aryne cyclization to close the final ring of the natural product.

Multicomponent reactions of arynes are powerful transformations that allow for rapid formation of 1,2-disubstituted arenes. Despite their potential utility, examples of multicomponent aryne reactions in natural product synthesis are scarce. A four-component aryne coupling reaction was employed in the synthesis of dehydroaltenuene B.

title: Aryne


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Peter Alexander Janssen

Peter Janssen is a Dubai based Dutch Global Hotelier and Hospitality Advisor. Advisory services include: Start up of new Hotel Management organizations, Interim General Management, Development of Policy & Procedures Manuals, Pre-Opening planning, Mystery Shopper Services, Asset Management and Owning Company Representative. Peter held executive positions in major hotel companies such as; Hilton, Sheraton, Sol Melia Hotels. InterContinental Hotels - West Africa. Intan International Bali. Past managerial posts in MENA and ASIA include Chief Executive Officer Landmark Hotels & Suites, Dubai. Director of Operations Safir Hotels Kuwait, Egypt, Syria, Algeria, Lebanon, Tunis & Morroco. Executive Director and General Manager Gloria Hotels Dubai.

Peter Alexander Janssen
Alleged writer of the "famous and universally acclaimed" "Alexander In Tomorrow's Wind", which gets exactly 0 google hits. Delete as hoax unless evidence to the contrary is given. Thue | talk 20:01, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete as such. Radiant! 09:42, Feb 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No evidence of notabiity, let alone universal acclaim. Jonathunder 22:33, 2005 Feb 27 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
1986 in games

This page lists board and card games, wargames, miniatures games, and tabletop role-playing games published in 1986. For video games, see 1986 in video gaming.

Games released or invented in 1986
• 1830: Railroads and Robber Barons

• 2300 AD (role-playing game)

• AeroTech

• After The Bomb (role-playing game)

• Blood Bowl

• Britannia

• CityTech

• Die Macher

• Federation and Empire

• Fortress America

• Ghostbusters (role-playing game)

• Generic Universal RolePlaying System (GURPS)

• MechWarrior (role-playing game)

• Platoon

• Polarity

• Road Hogs (role-playing game supplement)

• Shogun (Samurai Swords)

• Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay

Game awards given in 1986

 * Spiel des Jahres: Top Secret Spies (German title is Heimlich and Co.)

Significant games-related events in 1986

 * Coleco purchases Selchow and Righter for US$75 million.

title: 1986 in games


text:
Epaticcus

Epaticcus or Epaticcu (d. c. AD 35) was a brother of Cunobelinus, king of the Catuvellauni, a tribe of Iron Age Britain.

Coins bearing his name begin to appear in the northern lands of the neighbouring Atrebates tribe and their capital, Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester), probably fell to him around AD 25. It is likely that Epaticcus was permitted to govern the area by his brother as part of the Catuvellaunian hegemony that was expanding across south eastern Britain at the time.

title: Epaticcus


text:
Demetrius I of Georgia

Demetrius I (დემეტრე I) (c. 1093 – 1156), from the Bagrationi dynasty, was King (mepe) of Georgia from 1125 to 1156. He is also known as a poet. He was King of Georgian kingdom two times, first in 1125 to 1154 and second in 1155 before his death in 1156.

Demetrius I struggled tirelessly to protect the inheritance he had received from his father he guarded Georgia’s borders and fought to enlarge its frontiers. Many regions, including Hereti, Somkhiti, Tashiri, Javakheti, Artaani and Tao were repopulated during King Demetrius' reign.

He is regarded as a saint in the Orthodox Church and his feast day is celebrated on May 23 on the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.

Early life
Demetrius was the eldest son of King David the Builder by his first wife Rusudan. He was brought up in Kutaisi.

David IV proclaimed his son co-ruler of Georgia and crowned him with his own hands. He declared that his son Demetrius, through his wisdom, chastity, bravery, and handsome appearance, would rule Georgia better than he himself had.

In 1117 David sent him to Shirvan to fight, and the young commander astonished the people with his deftness in battle. Demetrius seized Kaladzori Castle (later Alberd, now Agdash ) and returned home with many captives and much wealth.

Reign
Already in 1125, he had to expel the Seljuks from the fortress of Dmanisi, which controlled one of the accesses to Tbilisi from the south.

In 1125 Manuchihr, who was Demetrius' brother-in-law, regained control of western Shirvan. And in 1126, the Muslim population of Shirvan rebelled with the support of the Seljuks. In 1129-30, Demetrius reached a compromise with the support of his sister, Shirvan was again divided into two parts, the Christian part was incorporated into Georgia and the border being the Tetritsqali, while Manuchihr was appointed as the emir of eastern Shirvan and recognized Georgia's vassalage.

In 1130, the ruler of the Shah-Armens launched an attempt to oust Georgians from northern and central Armenia. Demetrius had to come to terms and give up Ani to the Shaddadids on terms of vassalage. They agreed that the Cathedral of Ani should have remained a Christian site and Georgia could intervene to protect the Christians. However, a stand-off continued for two decades.

In 1130, his half-brother Vakhtang rebelled against the king. He was supported by great feudal lord Ivane Abuletisdze, tried to overthrow Demetrius from the throne but the king captured and punished the conspirators and Vakhtang was captured, blinded and cast in prison where he apparently died shortly afterwards.

In 1139, Demetrius raided the city of Ganja in Arran. He brought the iron gate of the defeated city to Georgia and donated it to Gelati Monastery at Kutaisi. Despite this brilliant victory, Demetrius could hold Ganja only for a few years. In reply to this, the sultan of the Eldiguzids attacked Ganja several times, and in 1143 the town again fell to the sultan. According to Mkhitar Gosh, Demetrius ultimately gained possession of Ganja, but, when he gave his daughter in marriage to the sultan, he presented the latter with the town as dowry, and the sultan appointed his own emir to rule it.

Fadl's successor, Fakr al-Din Shaddad, a Shaddadid emir of Ani asked for Saltuk's daughter's hand, however Saltuk refused him. This caused a deep hatred in Shaddad towards Saltuk. In 1154 he planned a plot and formed a secret alliance with Demetrius. While a Georgian army waited in ambush, he offered tribute to Saltukids, ruler of Erzerum and asked the latter to accept him as a vassal. In 1153–1154, Emir Saltuk II marched on Ani, but Shaddad informed Demetrius of this. Demetrius marched to Ani, defeated and captured the emir. At the request of neighbouring Muslim rulers and released him for a ransom of 100,000 dinars, paid by Saltuk's sons in law and Saltuk swore not to fight against the Georgians.

In 1154, Demetrius gave his last daughter, whose name is unknown, in marriage to Iziaslav II of Kiev. Iziaslav died shortly afterwards and no political alliance emerged between the Kingdom of Georgia and Kievan Rus'.

In the 1140s, Georgian nobles sensed an opportunity when it became apparent that Demetrius had disinherited his eldest son David in favour of the younger, George. Those who had supported Demetrius' younger brother, Prince Vakhtang, now opposed Demetrius' unprecedented disinheritance of Prince David. A first coup attempt failed in 1150, but in 1155 David's coup against his father succeeded, Demetrius was banished to a monastery and became a monk, receiving the monastic name Damian (Damianus), while his rebellious son ascended the throne as David V.

However, Davit V died suddenly six months after becoming king. According to Vardan Areveltsi, David was poisoned by Sumbat I and Ivane II Orbeli, who Orbelis with Prince George, or Demetrius, or both had made an agreement that would appoint them as Amirspasalars. According to precedence and law, after David V's death, his young son, Prince Demna should have inherited the throne. But Demetrius was restored to the throne, and he crowned his younger son, George, as co-ruler and retired to David Gareja monastery. Others allege that Demetrius had also died, and that George then seized the throne illicitly. He died in 1156 and was buried at Gelati Monastery.

Marriage and children
The name of Demetrius's wife is unknown, but he had several children:

 * David V (1113 — 1155), King of Georgia (1154–1155);
 * George III of Georgia (died 27 March 1184), King of Georgia (1156–1184);
 * Rusudan, married firstly with Sultan Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud in 1143 and secondly with Sultan Ahmad Sanjar, married thirdly with Sultan Suleiman-Shah;
 * An unnamed daughter who married Emir Abu al-Muzaffar of Derbent in c. 1130;
 * An unnamed daughter, who married Prince Iziaslav II of Kiev in 1154;

Poems
King Demetrius I was an author of several poems, mainly on religious themes. Shen Khar Venakhi (შენ ხარ ვენახი, Thou Art a Vineyard), a hymn to the Virgin Mary, is the most famous of them.

title: Demetrius I of Georgia


text:
Vakhtang VI

Vakhtang VI (ვახტანგ VI), also known as Vakhtang the Scholar, Vakhtang the Lawgiver and Ḥosaynqolī Khan (15 September 1675 – 26 March 1737), was a Georgian monarch (mepe) of the royal Bagrationi dynasty. He ruled the East Georgian Kingdom of Kartli as a vassal of Safavid Persia from 1716 to 1724. One of the most important and extraordinary statesman of early 18th-century Georgia, he is known as a notable legislator, scholar, critic, translator and poet. His reign was eventually terminated by the Ottoman invasion following the disintegration of Safavid Persia, which forced Vakhtang into exile in the Russian Empire. Vakhtang was unable to get the tsar's support for his kingdom and instead had to permanently stay with his northern neighbors for his own safety. On his way to a diplomatic mission sanctioned by Empress Anna, he fell ill and died in southern Russia in 1737, never reaching Georgia.

As a regent
Son of Prince Levan, he ruled as regent (janishin) for his absent uncle, George XI, and his brother, Kaikhosro, from 1703 to 1712. During these years, he launched a series of long-needed reforms, revived economy and culture, reorganised administration and attempted to fortify the central royal authority. In 1707–1709, he substantially revised the legal code (dasturlamali, aka “Vakhtang’s code”) which would operate as a basis for the Georgian feudal system up to the Russian annexation. He was summoned by the shah Husayn in 1712 to be confirmed as wali/king of Kartli. The shah would not grant the confirmation, except on condition of Vakhtang embracing Islam, which having refused to do, he was imprisoned, and, after a brief regency of Prince Simon, his brother Jesse (Ali Quli-Khan), who complied with the condition, was put in his place in 1714. Jesse governed Kartli two years, during which he suffered from internal troubles and the inroads of the Dagestani tribes, otherwise known as Lekianoba.

During the years of captivity, Vakhtang requested aid from the Christian monarchs of Europe, particularly he sent his uncle and tutor, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, on a mission to Louis XIV of France. Later, in his last letters to the Pope Innocent XIII and Charles VI dated 29 November 1722, Vakhtang said that he had for years been secretly Catholic, but he could not confess it publicly "because of betraying people about me", and confirmed with it the reports of Capuchin missionaries from Persia. They claimed that Vakhtang became Catholic before he converted to Islam and went to Catholic mass. These political efforts were, however, in vain, and Vakhtang reluctantly converted in 1716, adopting the name of Husayn-Qoli Khan. Appointed sipah-salar (commander-in-chief) of the Persian armies, he also served as beglerbeg (governor-general) of Azerbaijan for some time. He sent his son, Bakar, to govern Kartli, whereas Jesse, having abjured Islam, had retired.

His reign
Vakhtang remained seven years in Persia before he was permitted to return to his kingdom in 1719. He was sent back with the task to put an end to the continual raids by north Caucasian mountain tribes, particularly the Lezgin tribes of Dagestan. Assisted by the ruler of neighboring Kakheti as well as the beglarbeg of Shirvan, Vakhtang made significant progress in putting a halt to the Lezgins. At the campaign's climax however, in the winter of 1721, the Persian government recalled him. The order, which came after grand vizier Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani's fall, was made by the instigation of the eunuch faction within the royal court, having persuaded the shah that a successful end of the campaign for Vakhtang would do the Safavid realm more harm than good; it would enable Vakhtang, the Safavid wali to form an alliance with Russia with the aim to conquer Iran. This terminated Vakhtang's short-lived loyalty to the Shah. He made secret contacts with Tsar Peter the Great of Russia, and expressed his support for Russia's future presence in the Caucasus. After several delays, Peter himself led an army of about 25,000 and a substantial fleet along the west coast of the Caspian Sea in July 1722, initiating the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723).

At this time, Safavid Persia was internally in chaos and had already been declining for years, with the capital Isfahan besieged by rebel Afghans. As a Persian vassal and commander, Vakhtang's brother, Rostom, died during the siege and the Shah appointed Vakhtang's son Bakar as commander of the defense. However, Vakhtang refused to come to the relief of Isfahan. At the same time, the Ottomans offered him an alliance against Persia, but Vakhtang preferred to await the arrival of the Russians. Peter's promises to provide military support to the Caucasian Christians for final emancipation from the Persian yoke created a great euphoria among the Georgians and Armenians.

In September, Vakhtang VI encamped at Ganja with a combined Georgian-Armenian army of 40,000 to join the advancing Russian expedition. He hoped that Peter would not only seek gains for Russia, but would also protect Georgia from both Persians and Turks. However, Peter became and returned to Russia. He directed his armies to seize territories along the Caspian, but chose not to confront the Ottomans who were already preparing to claim succession to Safavid rule in the Caucasus. Vakhtang, abandoned by his Russian allies, returned to Tbilisi in November 1722. The Shah got revenge on him by giving a sanction to the Muslim king Constantine II of Kakheti to take the kingdom of Kartli. In May 1723, Constantine and his Persians marched into Vakhtang's possessions. Vakhtang, after having defended himself for some time at Tbilisi, was finally expelled. Vakhtang fled to Inner Kartli, From there he attempted to win support from the advancing Ottoman forces and submitted to the authority of the Sultan; but the Turks, having occupied the country, gave the throne to his brother Jesse, who again became a nominal Muslim.

In these invasions by Turkey, Persia, Dagestanis and Afghans, three-fourths of the population of Georgia was destroyed. Vakhtang, after having wandered a long time in the mountains with his most faithful adherents, again sought protection from Peter, who invited him to Russia. Accompanied by his family, his close comrades-in-arms, and a retinue of 1,200, he made his way across the Caucasus to Russia in July 1724. Peter had just died, and his successor, Catherine I gave no real help but allowed Vakhtang to settle in Russia, granting him a pension and some estates.

Vakhtang resided in Russia till 1734, but in that year he resolved to try to recover his dominions by the co-operation of the Shah of Persia. Tsarina Anna consented to Vakhtang's project, but gave him instructions how to act in Persia, and in what manner he should induce the Georgians and Caucasian highlanders to become Russian vassals, and bring about their entire submission to Russia. Vakhtang started on his diplomatic journey, in company with a Russian general, but fell ill on his way, and died at Astrakhan on 26 March 1737. He was buried at the city's Church of Assumption. Many of his followers remained in Russia, and later served in the Russian army. A descendant, Pyotr Bagration, was perhaps the most famous of them. A grandson of one of the exiles was Pavel Tsitsianov who became the Russian governor of newly annexed Georgia in 1802.

Scholarly and cultural activities
Although Vakhtang's political decisions have sometimes been object of criticism, his scholarly and cultural activities are the crowning merits of his reign. He was, indeed, one of the most learned monarchs of the time. He was an author and organiser of numerous cultural and educational projects aimed at reviving the country's intellectual life. It was him who, with the help of Anthim the Iberian and Mihai Iștvanovici of Wallachia, established, in 1709, the first printing press in Georgia and the whole Caucasus. Among the books published in "Vakhtang's Printing Press" in Tbilisi was the 12th-century national epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin (Vep’khistkaosani) by Shota Rustaveli, accompanied by scholarly commentaries by the king himself. This induced a new wave of interest towards that great medieval poet and would influence a new generation of Georgian poets of the 18th century, which is generally regarded as the Renaissance of the Georgian literature.

He also undertook the printing of the Bible, which had been, as it is believed, translated as early as the fifth century from the Greek into the Georgian, and corrected in the 11th century by the monks of the Georgian convent on Mount Athos. His printing house printed also the Gospels, the Acts, the Psalms, and several liturgies and prayer-books, causing a great discontent at the court of Persia which perceived that the nominally Muslim Vakhtang, instead of following the Koran, promoted Christianity.

An eminent critic and translator, Vakhtang himself was an author of several patriotic and romantic lyric poems. He is known to have translated an ancient collection of fables Kalila and Demna from Persian to Georgian language. The translation was later finalized and edited by the King's mentor, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani. King Vakhtang's translation, along with an earlier translation work by king David I of Kakheti, is considered to be of significant historical importance, since it may help to identify the original text. Vakhtang also chaired a special commission convened to edit and compile the corpus of Georgian chronicles covering the period from the Dark Ages to the early modern era.

Reburial and portrait fallacy
In July 2013, Georgia raised the possibility to move Vakhtang's remains to Georgia for reburial.

Family
Vakhtang married in Imereti, western Georgia, in 1696, a Circassian princess Rusudan (died in Moscow, 30 December 1740). They were the parents of:
 * Princess Tamar (1696–1746) who married, in 1712, Prince Teimuraz, the future king of Kakheti and Kartli.
 * Princess Anna (Anuka) (1698–1746), who married, in 1712, Prince Vakhushti Abashidze.
 * Princess Tuta (1699–1746), who married the Imeretian nobleman of the ducal family of Racha, Gedevan, Duke of the Lowlands.
 * Prince Bakar (7 April 1700 – 1 February 1750), ruler of Kartli.
 * Prince George (2 August 1712 – 19 December 1786), general of the Russian Empire.

Vakhtang had also several extramarital children, including:
 * Prince Rostom (died 1689, buried in Tiri monastery)
 * Prince Vakhushti
 * Prince Paata
 * Princess Elene
 * Princess Mariam

title: Vakhtang VI


text:
Terfenol-D

Terfenol-D, an alloy of the formula Tb_{x}Dy_{1−x}Fe2 (x ≈ 0.3), is a magnetostrictive material. It was initially developed in the 1970s by the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in the United States. The technology for manufacturing the material efficiently was developed in the 1980s at Ames Laboratory under a U.S. Navy-funded program. It is named after terbium, iron (Fe), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL), and the D comes from dysprosium.

Physical properties
The alloy has the highest magnetostriction of any alloy, up to 0.002 m/m at saturation; it expands and contracts in a magnetic field. Terfenol-D has a large magnetostriction force, high energy density, low sound velocity, and a low Young's modulus. At its most pure form, it also has low ductility and a low fracture resistance. Terfenol-D is a gray alloy that has different possible ratios of its elemental components that always follow a formula of Tb_{x}Dy_{1−x}Fe2. The addition of dysprosium made it easier to induce magnetostrictive responses by making the alloy require a lower level of magnetic fields. When the ratio of Tb and Dy is increased, the resulting alloy's magnetostrictive properties will operate at temperatures as low as −200 °C, and when decreased, it may operate at a maximum of 200 °C. The composition of Terfenol-D allows it to have a large magnetostriction and magnetic flux when a magnetic field is applied to it. This case exists for a large range of compressive stresses, with a trend of decreasing magnetostriction as the compressive stress increases. There is also a relationship between the magnetic flux and compression in which when the compressive stress increases, the magnetic flux changes less drastically. Terfenol-D is mostly used for its magnetostrictive properties, in which it changes shape when exposed to magnetic fields in a process called magnetization. Magnetic heat treatment is shown to improve the magnetostrictive properties of Terfenol-D at low compressive stress for certain ratios of Tb and Dy.

Applications
Due to its material properties, Terfenol-D is excellent for use in the manufacturing of low frequency, high powered underwater acoustics. Its initial application was in naval sonar systems. It sees application in magnetomechanical sensors, actuators, and acoustic and ultrasonic transducers due to its high energy density and large bandwidth capabilities, e.g. in the SoundBug device (its first commercial application by FeONIC). Its strain is also larger than that of another normally used material (PZT8), which allows Terfenol-D transducers to reach greater depths for ocean explorations than past transducers. Its low Young's modulus brings some complications due to compression at large depths, which are overcome in transducer designs that may reach 1000 ft in depth and only lose a small amount of accuracy of around 1 dB. Due to its high temperature range, Terfenol-D is also useful in deep hole acoustic transducers where the environment may reach high pressure and temperatures like oil holes. Terfenol-D may also be used for hydraulic valve drivers due to its high strain and high force properties. Similarly, magnetostrictive actuators have also been considered for use in fuel injectors for diesel engines because of the high stresses that can be produced.

Manufacturing
The increase in use of Terfenol-D in transducers required new production techniques that increased production rates and quality because the original methods were unreliable and small scale. There are four methods that are used to produce Terfenol-D, which are free stand zone melting, modified Bridgman, sintered powder compact, and polymer matrix composites.

The first two methods, free stand zone melting (FSZM) and modified Bridgman (MB), are capable of producing Terfenol-D that has high magnetostrictive properties and energy densities. However, FSZM cannot produce a rod larger than 8 mm in diameter due to the surface tension of the Terfenol-D and how the FSZM process has no container to restrict the material. The MB process offers a minimum of 10 mm diameter size and is only restricted due to the wall interfering with the crystal growth. Both methods create solid crystals that require later manufacturing if a geometry other than a right-angle cylinder is needed. The solid crystals produced have a fine lamellar structure.

The other two techniques, sintered powder compact and polymer matrix composites, are powder based. These techniques allow for intricate geometry and detail. However, the size is limited to 10mm in diameter and 100mm in length due to the molds used. The resulting microstructures of these powder based methods differ from the solid crystal ones because they do not have a lamellar structure and have a lower density. However, all methods have similar magnetostrictive properties.

Due to size restriction, MB is the best process to produce Terfenol-D, however it is a labor-intensive method. A newer process like MB is ET-Ryma crystal growth (ECG) that results in larger diameter Terfenol-D crystals and increased magnetostrictive performance. The reliability of magnetostrictive properties of the Terfenol-D throughout the life of the material is increased by using ET-Ryma.

Terfenol-D has some minor drawbacks which stem from its material properties. Terfenol-D has low ductility and low fracture resistance. To solve this, Terfenol-D has been added to polymers and other metals to create composites. When added to polymers, the stiffness of the resulting composite is low. When composites of Terfenol-D with ductile metal binders are created, the resulting material has increased stiffness and ductility with reduced magnetostrictive properties. These metal composites may be formed by explosion compaction. In a study done on processing Terfenol-D alloys, the resulting alloys created using copper and Terfenol-D had increased strength and hardness values, which supports the theory that the composites of ductile metal binders and Terfenol-D result in a stronger and more ductile material.

title: Terfenol-D


text:
Villa de Cortés metro station

Villa de Cortés is a station on Line 2 of the Mexico City Metro system. It is located in the Benito Juárez borough of Mexico City, directly south of the city center on Calzada de Tlalpan. It is a surface station.

General information
The station logo depicts a helmet of the type used by the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) who, led by Hernán Cortés, invaded the Aztec empire in the 16th century. The name of this station comes from the area in which it is now located, which was known as the Villa de Cortés in colonial times. The metro station opened on August 1, 1970.

Metro Villa de Cortés provides a transfer with trolleybus Line "M", which runs between this station and the INFONAVIT Iztacalco neighbourhood.

Exits

 * East: Calzada de Tlalpan and Plaza Victoria, Villa de Cortés
 * West: Calzada de Tlalpan between Guipúzcoa street and Ahorro Postal street, Colonia Niños Héroes de Churubusco

title: Villa de Cortés metro station


text:
Giorgi Sanaia

Giorgi Sanaia, sometimes spelled as Giorgi Sanaya (გიორგი სანაია) (February 24 1975 - July 26 2001) was a Georgian television journalist of the independent broadcasting company Rustavi 2 who was murdered under controversial circumstances in 2001.

Background
He was a very popular television personality as the anchorman of the "Night Courier" news program, and he was known for investigating allegations of official corruption. He was killed at his flat in Tbilisi on July 26, 2001. The killing of Sanaia was referenced in the documentary Power Trip, which details the Georgian transition to privatized electricity.

Death
The murder of Giorgi Sanaia was widely believed to be politically motivated and triggered an unprecedented outpouring of public grief and anger. The government demonstrated to the Georgian public that everything was being done to find his killer, and subsequently arrested a certain Giorgi Khurtsilava who was eventually sentenced to 13 years in prison. However, Sanaia's widow and many Georgians are dissatisfied, as the court neither established a true motive for the murder, nor found answers to a number of key questions.

Giorgi Sanaia was survived by a wife and a son.

title: Giorgi Sanaia


text:
South Jamaica, Queens

South Jamaica (also commonly known as "The Southside") is a residential neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City, located south of downtown Jamaica. Although a proper border has not been established, the neighborhood is a subsection of greater Jamaica bounded by the Long Island Rail Road Main Line tracks, Jamaica Avenue, or Liberty Avenue to the north; the Van Wyck Expressway on the west; Rockaway Boulevard on the south; and Merrick Boulevard on the east, adjoining the neighboring community of St. Albans. Other primary thoroughfares of South Jamaica include Baisley, Foch, Linden, Guy R. Brewer, and Sutphin Boulevards. The 180th Street Business Improvement District is responsible for the development of the area.

Considered a slum in the early 20th century, the neighborhood now consists of working-class and middle-class residents.

South Jamaica is located in Queens Community District 12 and its ZIP Codes are 11433 through 11436. It is patrolled primarily by the New York City Police Department's 113th Precinct, but also by the 103rd Precinct. Politically, South Jamaica is represented by the New York City Council's 27th and 28th Districts.

Location
South Jamaica is generally considered to be the area south of Downtown Jamaica (Jamaica Center) or Jamaica Avenue, with the Van Wyck Expressway to the west, and Merrick Boulevard to the east. The eastern border extends as far as the LIRR Montauk Branch tracks in the northern part of the neighborhood. John F. Kennedy International Airport lies to the south across the Belt Parkway. This area overlaps with the neighborhoods of St. Albans to the east, and Rochdale and Springfield Gardens to the south. Many maps however consider South Jamaica to be bounded by Linden Boulevard to the north, and Rockaway Boulevard and Baisley Boulevard to the south, with the section north of Linden Boulevard (including the South Jamaica Houses) defined as part of Jamaica. Other maps consider the area between Linden Boulevard and Baisley/Rockaway Boulevards to be a southern subsection of South Jamaica called Baisley Park; Baisley Pond Park, the Baisley Park Houses, the Baisley Park Branch of Queens Public Library, and the Baisley Park Bus Depot are located in this area. The neighborhood south of Rockaway and Baisley Boulevards to the Belt Parkway (including Rochdale Village) historically has been considered part of South Jamaica, but is now often mapped as Springfield Gardens North or Rochdale. The three sections constitute the western half of Queens Community Board 12.

South Jamaica is covered by the 113th Precinct of the New York City Police Department.

Nicknames
South Jamaica is often referred to as "Southside" or "Southside Jamaica" (also spelled as "South Side"). This is said to be derived from the location of the neighborhood and its demographics; Hollis, Queens in the northeast corner of greater Jamaica and Queens CB12 is referred to as "Northside". The South Side nickname dates back to the first half of the 20th century, when several local community organizations carried the name. An additional nickname, "South Suicide Queens", is a reference to the high crime rate in the neighborhood since the 1980s.

Etymology
South Jamaica is named for its location south of Jamaica; the name Jamaica itself is derived from the Lenape word Yameco meaning "beaver". This was reflected in the naming of Beaver Pond at the border of Jamaica and South Jamaica. Through the 20th century, the neighborhood was also known as Cedar Manor.

17th century to 1930s
Through the 19th century, what is now South Jamaica consisted of farmland. Early developments in South Jamaica included the Prospect Cemetery opened in 1668, and the Prospect and St. Monica's Churches opened around 1857. Baisley Pond, created by local farmers from dammed streams, was acquired by the City of Brooklyn's Williamsburg Water Works Company in 1852 for municipal water supplies.

The Jamaica Race Course was opened in 1894 at Baisley Boulevard and New York Avenue (today's Guy R. Brewer Bouelvard), and expanded in the early 1900s. Some sources state its official opening year as 1903. Transportation was introduced into the neighborhood at the turn of the century. The Far Rockaway Line streetcar was opened along New York Avenue between downtown Jamaica and the Jamaica Racetrack on September 1, 1896, and was extended to the Rockaways by summer 1897. The Cedar Manor station opened at Linden Boulevard along the LIRR Atlantic Branch in 1906. The Queens Boulevard Line streetcar to Midtown Manhattan was extended along Sutphin Boulevard to 109th Avenue in South Jamaica in April 1916. Baisley Pond Park was opened by the city in 1919.

In the 1920s, the neighborhood's population exploded after streets were laid down and houses constructed. Many African Americans began moving into the neighborhood at this time, while White residents began leaving the neighborhood, coinciding with other white flight periods in the city. By the 1930s, the neighborhood was considered to be predominantly Black, especially in contrast to other southeast Queens neighborhoods, although a significant White population remained. At this time, the neighborhood was considered a major slum, due to overcrowding, high crime, and lack of infrastructure. Many houses were frame houses constructed only of wood and were not fireproof, while residences in the neighborhood were without modern utilities such as electricity and indoor plumbing. The Jamaica Racetrack, meanwhile, was blamed for bringing down property values, and was in poor operating condition.

Urban renewal
In 1939, the city began slum clearance projects in the neighborhood. The first was the South Jamaica Houses public housing project, originally referred to as the "'South Jamaica' slum clearance project", opened in July 1940. A second portion of the project opened in 1954. By 1955, following the takeover of the Jamaica Race Course by the Greater New York Association, the city and city planner Robert Moses began evaluating plans to replace the track with new development. Plans included an additional public housing development, and one of several potential Queens sites for the failed relocation of the Brooklyn Dodgers. In October 1956, Moses planned a middle-income cooperative to be constructed on the site. The track was closed in 1959 and demolished in 1960, replaced by an expanded Aqueduct Racetrack.

In 1959, the LIRR Atlantic Branch was grade-separated, leading to the closure of the Cedar Manor station. The Baisley Park Houses were opened in 1961. Rochdale Village opened in December 1963 on the former Jamaica Racetrack site, bringing with it the neighborhood's first supermarkets and shopping centers. The Cedar Manor Co-op opened around this time as well. By this time, the neighborhood was overwhelmingly Black, with the exception of the racially integrated Rochdale Village. In 1970, the New York City Board of Higher Education approved plans to replace 50 acre of slum land with a permanent campus for York College. The site included the Prospect Cemetery and the Prospect and St. Monica's Churches. At the same time, under the Program for Action the Metropolitan Transportation Authority planned to extend subway service into the neighborhood, by connecting the LIRR Atlantic Branch with the planned Archer Avenue subway in downtown Jamaica via a ramp in or near the campus site. The subway connection was never constructed, due to funding issues caused by the city's fiscal crisis. The York College campus, also delayed by the fiscal crisis, began construction in 1980 and opened in stages beginning in 1988.

1970s to 1990s
Despite urban renewal efforts, in 1966 South Jamaica was designated an official poverty zone by the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson during the president's War on Poverty, and was considered one of the few remaining slums in the otherwise middle-class borough of Queens. In the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, South Jamaica and other Southeast Queens neighborhoods saw increasing rates of drug sales and usage, including cocaine and heroin epidemics. The neighborhood also had some of the highest rates of automobile theft in the city, attributed to the proximity to car theft rings centered in John F. Kennedy International Airport. In 1972, South Jamaica was declared "the largest officially designated poverty area in Queens" by the Human Resources Administration.

The neighborhood was also the center of several racial issues in the 1970s. Students from South Jamaica were bused into other school districts in order to maintain integration of schools, leading to outcry from White residents of those districts. Other racial events included the shooting of Clifford Glover on April 28, 1973 by a plainclothes NYPD officer. The acquittal of the officer and his partner led to incidents of looting, rioting, and incidents of violence against Whites in South Jamaica and Downtown Jamaica.

In the 1980s and 1990s, South Jamaica was one of several New York City neighborhoods victimized by the national crack cocaine epidemic. Several gangs operated in the neighborhood. The Corley gang operated out of the South Jamaica Houses. The Supreme Team, formed in 1981 by Kenneth "Supreme" McGriff, operated out of the Baisley Park Houses. The cartel of Lorenzo "Fat Cat" Nichols was also headquartered in the neighborhood, supplying much of the cocaine in the area and around Queens. These groups had originated from the Seven Crowns gang that was started during the cocaine and heroin epidemic in the 1970s, and which expanded into a multi-state operation by the 1980s. Increases in murder rates and other crime followed the spike in drug-related activity. In 1986, the 113th and 103rd police precincts led Queens in murder incidents, with the 113th precinct ranking tenth in the city. On February 26, 1988, rookie police officer Edward Byrne was killed while guarding the house of a witness in a drug-related trial. Byrne's murder, and other violent crime in the neighborhood led South Jamaica to become a symbol for the national drug epidemic, and the city's war on drugs instigated by Mayor Ed Koch. Following the killing, Koch created the Tactical Narcotics Team (TNT) program, with the first team dispatched to South Jamaica on March 14, 1988.

2000s
Entering the 21st century, South Jamaica has seen a revival in terms of safety and quality of life. While crime is still higher than other Queens areas, the NYPD 113th Precinct (which also patrols Hollis, St. Albans and Springfield Gardens) saw dramatic decreases in violent crime since the 1990s, with a drop in major crime of 76 percent between 1993 and 2010.

Demographics
Based on data from the 2020 United States Census, the population of South Jamaica was 270,688, an increase of 231,794 from the 38,894 counted in 2010. Covering an area of 918.87 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 42.3 PD/acre.

The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 55% African American, 1.0% White, 0% Native American, 16% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 6% from other races, and 5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16% of the population.

South Jamaica is predominantly African-American with a strong majority of Afro-Caribbean descent. In recent decades, the Hispanic community has expanded, with residents from Mexico, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic moving to the area. Guyanese and Bangladeshis make up much of the larger portion of newcomers to the community. Bengalis can be found mostly around Sutphin and Merrick Boulevards along 145th, 153rd, 157th, and 170th Streets; South Road; and 105th, 107th, and 109th Avenues. There is also a small population of Haitians, Pakistanis and Trinidadians who live in this area.

Housing
The area is largely a middle-class community consisting of suburban one- and two-family houses ranging from colonials built around the 1960s to new developments.

A small section of South Jamaica is named Bricktown, for its many brick row houses.

A number of smaller apartment buildings along with some public housing projects are also located in the area. This includes the NYCHA-operated Baisley Park Houses and South Jamaica Houses housing projects, as well as the Rochdale Village and Cedar Manor Co-op developments, and the Baisley Park Garden development (also known as Baisley Gardens).

Police and crime
South Jamaica and St. Albans are patrolled by the NYPD's 113th Precinct, located at 167-02 Baisley Boulevard. The 113th Precinct ranked 55th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. The 113th Precinct also has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 86.1% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 5 murders, 28 rapes, 156 robberies, 383 felony assaults, 153 burglaries, 414 grand larcenies, and 138 grand larcenies auto in 2018.

Post offices and ZIP Codes
South Jamaica is covered by multiple ZIP Codes. West of Sutphin Boulevard, South Jamaica falls under ZIP Codes 11435 north of Linden Boulevard and 11436 south of Linden Boulevard. East of Sutphin Boulevard, South Jamaica is part of two ZIP Codes: 11433 north of Linden Boulevard and 11434 south of Linden Boulevard. The United States Post Office operates the Rochdale Village Station post office at 165-100 Baisley Boulevard.

Public and charter schools
Several elementary schools are located in South Jamaica:
 * Samuel Huntington School (P.S. 40), on 109th Avenue and Union Hall Street near the South Jamaica Houses.
 * William Wordsworth School (P.S. 48), on 155th Street and 108th Avenue, two blocks west of the South Jamaica Houses. It is a New York CIty designated landmark for its Art Deco design.
 * Walter Francis Bishop School (P.S. 160), on Inwood Street off of Sutphin Boulevard.
 * P.S. 123, on 119th Avenue between Inwood Street and 145th Street, just south of Foch Boulevard.
 * Edward K. Ellington School (P.S. 140), on 116th Avenue east of Brewer Boulevard; named after Duke Ellington.
 * Ruby S. Couche Elementary School (P.S. 30) and P.S. 354, on Baisley Boulevard and Bedell Street in Rochdale Village.
 * Lyndon B. Johnson School (P.S. 223), on Sutphin Boulevard just north of Rockaway Boulevard adjacent to the Baisley Park Garden development; named after U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson.
 * Clarence Witherspoon School (P.S. 45), on Rockaway Boulevard and 150th Street across from Baisley Pond Park and Baisley Park Garden.
 * Talfourd Lawn Elementary School (P.S. 50), on 101st Avenue and Allendale Street one block north of Liberty Avenue, and just west of the Van Wyck Expressway.
 * Thurgood Marshall Magnet School (P.S. 80), on 137th Avenue in Rochdale Village; named after Thurgood Marshall.
 * Rochdale Early Advantage Charter School, on Baisley Boulevard and 165th Street across from Rochdale Village.

Middle and junior high schools include:
 * Junior High School 40, adjacent to P.S. 40.
 * Richard Grossley Junior High School (J.H.S. 8), just off of Merrick Boulevard between 108th and 109th Avenues.
 * Eagle Academy for Young Men of Southeast Queens (Eagle Academy III), a middle and high school located at Merrick and Linden Boulevards.
 * Catherine and Count Basie School (M.S. 72; formerly J.H.S. 72), on Brewer Boulevard in Rochdale Village.
 * York Early College Academy, a middle and high school in the M.S. 72 building on Brewer Boulevard in Rochdale Village.

High schools include:
 * August Martin High School, a vocational aviation school, on Baisley Boulevard on the south side of Baisley Pond Park; named after Tuskegee Airmen Army Air Forces pilot August Martin.
 * Eagle Academy for Young Men III
 * The High School for Law Enforcement and Public Safety, on Brewer Boulevard and 116th Avenue just north of Foch Boulevard, adjacent to the Baisley Park Houses.
 * Queens High School for the Sciences, a specialized high school, located on the York College campus.
 * York Early College Academy

The closest zoned high school is Hillcrest High School just north of Hillside Avenue in Jamaica. Richmond Hill High School is located west of the Van Wyck Expressway in Richmond Hill. Many other regional high schools serving the area have since been converted into educational campuses, housing multiple small high schools. The closest educational campuses are the Jamaica Campus (formerly Jamaica High School) near the Grand Central Parkway to the north, and Springfield Gardens Educational Campus (formerly Springfield Gardens High School) to the south. Campus Magnet (formerly Andrew Jackson High School) is located in Cambria Heights to the east. John Adams Educational Campus (formerly John Adams High School) is located in Ozone Park to the west. The Young Women's Leadership School of Queens was formerly located in the P.S. 40 facility, but is now located across from Hillcrest High School.

Other schools:
 * Queens Transitional Center or Queens Transition Center (former J.H.S. 142/I.S. 142), a special education school at Linden Boulevard and 142nd Street (142-10 Linden Boulevard). The facility also houses a branch of The School of Cooperative and Technical Education (Coop Tech), and the Jamaica campus of Queens Academy High School.

Higher education
The campus of CUNY York College is located at the north end of South Jamaica, between the LIRR Main Line to the north and South Road to the south, across from the South Jamaica Houses.

Libraries
The Queens Public Library operates three branches in South Jamaica:
 * The Baisley Park branch at 117-11 Sutphin Boulevard
 * The Rochdale Village branch at 169-09 137th Avenue
 * The South Jamaica branch at 108-41 Guy R Brewer Boulevard

Parks and recreation
Baisley Pond Park has over 100 acre of outdoor recreational space, including a 30 acre pond.

Notable businesses

The Federal Aviation Administration Eastern Region has its offices at Rockaway Boulevard in South Jamaica, near JFK Airport.

Points of interest
St. Monica's Church, St. Monica's Cemetery, and Prospect Cemetery are all located on the current York College campus.

The Jamaica Race Course, a former horse racing facility, was located in South Jamaica. The site is now occupied by Rochdale Village.

Transportation
The AirTrain JFK route transports people between Jamaica and JFK International Airport on its elevated route over the Van Wyck Expressway without stopping. A southern extension of the New York City Subway's IND Archer Avenue Line to South Jamaica was planned under the 1968 Program for Action by way of the LIRR Atlantic Branch, but not completed.

Numerous MTA bus lines run through the neighborhood, including the, and.

Notable residents

 * 50 Cent (born 1975 as Curtis Jackson), rapper and actor
 * Rafer Alston (born 1976), former NBA basketball player.
 * Lloyd Banks (born 1982), rapper
 * Bob Beamon (born 1946), Olympic athlete and world record holder in the long jump for 23 years.
 * Yummy Bingham (born 1986), singer
 * Mario Cuomo (1932-2015), former Governor of New York.
 * Sticky Fingaz (born 1973), rapper, actor and member of Onyx
 * Frenchie, rapper
 * G-Unit, rap group
 * Diana Gordon, singer
 * Grafh (born 1982 as Phillip Anthony Bernard), rapper
 * Milford Graves (1941–2021), free-jazz drummer
 * Maurice Harkless, NBA basketball player.
 * Roi Heenok (born 1973), rapper
 * Robert Jones (born 1979), head men's basketball coach at Norfolk State
 * Sutter Kain, rapper and producer
 * Kwamé, rapper and producer
 * Curtis McDowald (born 1996), épée fencer who competed in the 2020 Summer Olympics.
 * Nicki Minaj (born 1982 as Onika Tanya Maraj), rapper
 * Pharoahe Monch, rapper and member of Organized Konfusion
 * Kyle O'Quinn (born 1990), professional basketball player
 * Lamar Odom (born 1979), former NBA basketball player
 * Onyx, rap group
 * Metta Sandiford-Artest (born 1979 as Ron Artest), NBA basketball player
 * Fredro Starr (born 1971), rapper and member of Onyx
 * Supreme, drug lord and leader of the Supreme Team who operated from the Baisley Park Projects
 * Lost Boyz, rap group
 * Mr. Cheeks, rapper
 * Nuttin' But Stringz, duo
 * Waka Flocka Flame, rapper
 * Sha Money XL, music producer
 * Mopreme Shakur (born 1967), rapper
 * Supreme Team, drug trafficking gang
 * Ali Vegas, rapper and member of The Drama Kingz
 * Tony Yayo (born 1978), rapper

Kelvin J. King aka Kelvin J. Ford born in South Jamaica Queens in July 1975 is a real estate mogul and entrepreneur is the youngest black man in the country to own a Hilton Hotel. The son of 2 seven crown members Sheila Ford and Calvin Wilson he grew up on 153rd street and south road later raised in the South Jamaica Houses.

title: South Jamaica, Queens


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Terfenol

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Redirect to Terfenol-D. Deathphoenix 04:32, 11 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Terfenol
No references at all and unencyclopaedic. Obviously, if someone can make this article better, do it! --Neigel von Teighen 20:12, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * A quick Google search turned up the link I've included, and lots more. Maybe the article should be called Terfenol-D. I've made some minor mods (now I'm going to stub it). Not sure what "unencyclopaedic" means in this context. By the way, the time it took to make the minor changes and search out a link was probably not that much longer than it took to put a vote for deletion on it. I vote it is not deleted. Arcturus 20:24, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep, cleanup and expand. @ Megan1967 01:38, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, I'm now interested in what else this alloy is about. I'd say it is encyclopedic. -- Riffsyphon1024 01:43, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * KeepRJFJR 00:10, Feb 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep in present form. Move to Terfenol-D (leaving Terfenol as a redirect. Dpbsmith (talk) 03:03, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect work carried out. Arcturus 12:15, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, merge histories, and make a new redirect Terfenol→Terfenol-D to fix the cut and paste move. Sigh. —Korath (Talk) 14:15, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Chemical trap

In chemistry, a chemical trap is a chemical compound that is used to detect unstable compounds. The method relies on efficiency of bimolecular reactions with reagents to produce a more easily characterize trapped product. In some cases, the trapping agent is used in large excess.

Cyclobutadiene
A famous example is the detection of cyclobutadiene released upon oxidation of cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl. When this degradation is conducted in the presence of an alkyne, the cyclobutadiene is trapped as a bicyclohexadiene. The requirement for this trapping experiment is that the oxidant (ceric ammonium nitrate) and the trapping agent be mutually compatible.
 * [[Image:Cyclobutadiene-DewarbenzeneConversion.png|600px|frameless]]

Diphosphorus
Diphosphorus is an old target of chemists since it is the heavy analogue of N2. Its fleeting existence is inferred by the controlled degradation of certain niobium complexes in the presence of trapping agents. Again, a Diels-Alder strategy is employed in the trapping:
 * [[Image:DiphosphorusReaction.png|400px]]

Silylene
Another classic but elusive family of targets are silylenes, analogues of carbenes. It was proposed that dechlorination of dimethyldichlorosilane generates dimethylsilylene:
 * SiCl2(CH3)2 + 2 K →  Si(CH3)2  +  2 KCl

This inference is supported by conducting the dechlorination in the presence of trimethylsilane, the trapped product being pentamethyldisilane:
 * Si(CH3)2 +  HSi(CH3)3  → (CH3)2Si(H)-Si(CH3)3

Not that the trapping agent does not react with dimethyldichlorosilane or potassium metal.

Related meanings
In some cases, chemical trap is used to detect or infer a compound when present at concentrations below its detection limit or is present in a mixture, where other components interfere with its detection. The trapping agent, for example a dye, reacts with the chemical to be detected, giving a product that is more easily detected.

title: Chemical trap


text:
August Uprising

The August Uprising (აგვისტოს აჯანყება) was an unsuccessful insurrection against Soviet rule in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic from late August to early September 1924.

Aimed at restoring the independence of Georgia from the Soviet Union, the uprising was led by the Committee for Independence of Georgia, a bloc of anti-Soviet political organisations chaired by the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party. It represented the culmination of a three-year struggle against the Bolshevik regime that Soviet Russia's Red Army had established in Georgia during a military campaign against the Democratic Republic of Georgia in early 1924.

Red Army and Cheka troops, under orders of the Georgian Bolsheviks Joseph Stalin and Sergo Ordzhonikidze, suppressed the insurrection and instigated a wave of mass repressions that killed several thousand Georgians. The August uprising was one of the last major rebellions against the early Soviet government, and its defeat marked a definitive establishment of Soviet rule in Georgia.

Background
The Red Army proclaimed Georgia a Soviet Socialist Republic on 25 February 1921, when they took control of Tiflis (Tbilisi), the capital of Georgia, and forced the Menshevik government into exile.

Loyalty of the Georgian population to the new regime did not come easily. Within the first three years of their rule, the Bolsheviks managed to recruit fewer than 10,000 people into their party, while the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party still enjoyed significant popularity in Georgia, counting over 60,000 members in their organizations. The 1918–1921 independence, though short-lived, had played a crucial role in the national awakening of Georgia, winning a popular support to the ruling Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party. The forcible Sovietization and grievances over the ensuing border rearrangements in which Georgia lost sizeable portion of its pre-Soviet territories to Turkey (see Treaty of Kars), Azerbaijan SSR, Armenian SSR, and Russia, fueled a widespread opposition to the new regime. The new Bolshevik government, led by the Georgian Revkom (Revolutionary Committee), enjoyed so little support among the population that it faced the distinct prospect of insurrection and civil war. The Bolsheviks had limited ties with the Georgian peasantry, which was overwhelmingly opposed to collectivization and dissatisfied over land shortages and other economic troubles. The situation in the country was further aggravated by a famine prevailing in many areas and the summer 1921 outbreak of cholera, which carried off thousands of victims. The desperate shortage of food and the breakdown of medical services resulted in heavy mortality, Catholicos Patriarch Leonid being among the dead. The highly politicized working class of Georgia, with its severe economic problems, was also hostile toward the new regime as were the national intelligentsia and nobility who had pledged their loyalty to the Democratic Republic of Georgia. A delayed transition from the Revkom's rule to the Soviets' system, subordination of workers' organizations and trades unions to the Bolshevik party committees and Moscow's centralizing policy created a discontent even among the multiethnic workers of Tiflis who were the most sympathetic towards Communist doctrines.

Public discontent within Georgian society indirectly reflected a bitter struggle among Bolsheviks about the way to achieve social and political transformation in Georgia. Hardliners led by Sergo Ordzhonikidze, head of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee (Zakkraikom) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and Joseph Stalin, People's Commissar for Nationalities for the RSFSR and himself a Georgian, launched a series of measures aimed at the elimination of the last remnants of Georgia's self-rule. They were opposed by a group of Georgian Bolsheviks, described by their opponents as "national deviationists" and led by Filipp Makharadze and Budu Mdivani, who advocated tolerance toward the Menshevik opposition, greater democracy within the party, a moderate approach toward land reform, and, above all, called for greater autonomy from Moscow and stubbornly opposed Stalin's project of uniting all the three Transcaucasian republics economically and politically. The crisis known as the "Georgian Affair" lasted throughout 1922 and ended with the hardliners' victory. As a result, Georgia merged with the Armenian and Azerbaijan republics into the Transcaucasian SFSR—a heavy blow to Georgian national pride.

With the defeat of national deviationists, the Bolsheviks became more assertive, and suppressed all kinds of opposition. Between April 1922 and October 1923, parties that still retained legal status were forced to announce their dissolution and declare official loyalty to the Soviet authorities. Those who continued to operate did so as underground organizations. The Soviets also persecuted the Georgian Orthodox Church, closing or demolishing over 1,500 churches and monasteries. They imprisoned a number of clerics, including Catholicos Patriarch Ambrose who was arrested and tried for having sent a letter of protest to the 1922 Genoa Conference, in which he described the conditions under which Georgia was living since the Red Army invasion and begged for the "help of the civilized world".

Preparation

In the course of the Red Army invasion, part of the defeated Georgian forces withdrew into the mountains and organized themselves into a number of small partisan groups. From 1921 to 1922, guerrilla warfare broke out in several regions of Georgia. In May 1921, the highlanders of Svaneti, northwestern Georgia, led by Mosestro Dadeshkeliani, Nestor Gardapkhadze and Bidzina Pirveli, rose in rebellion. After a resistance of six months, the revolt was put down and its leaders were purged. In early 1922, the rebellion against the Soviet rule broke out in Khevsureti, another mountainous district, but in northeast Georgia. Soviet troops using aviation managed to stop this rebellion from spreading, but could not crush it completely. Colonel Kakutsa Cholokashvili, who had led the revolt, managed to escape to the neighboring Chechnya, whence he made several inroads into Georgia, preventing the Bolsheviks from gaining a foothold in the eastern Georgian mountains. The local militsiya chief Levan Razikashvili was arrested and later shot for having sympathized with the rebellion.

Still, these revolts were local and spontaneous and did not attract large masses. Within the period of 1922–1923, 33 of 57 active guerrilla detachments disintegrated or surrendered to the Soviet authorities. The deplorable situation of the anti-Soviet opposition forced all major underground parties to seek closer cooperation. The negotiations proceeded slowly, however, and it was not until mid-1922 that the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party reached an agreement with their formal rivals—the National Democrats and some other political groups—to coordinate their efforts against the Bolsheviks. Soon the opposition parties congregated into an underground movement known as the Committee for the Independence of Georgia or the "Damkom" (short for damoukideblobis komiteti, Committee for Independence). Sponsored by the government of Georgia-in-exile, the Damkom began preparations for a general uprising in Georgia. The organization set up a "Military Center" and appointed General Spiridon Chavchavadze the commander-in-chief of all rebel forces. Several members of the former Democratic Republic of Georgia government returned clandestinely from exile, including the former Minister of Agriculture, Noe Khomeriki, as well as the former commander of the National Guard, Valiko Jugheli. The organizers, encouraged by the Georgian emigrants in Europe, had still more expectations that the Western powers intended to help. They also hoped that the Georgian revolt would further other Caucasian peoples to rise in arms, but the secret negotiations with Armenian and Azeri nationalists yielded no results and even more promising talks with the Muslim Chechen leader, Ali Mitayev, were finally aborted due to mass arrests and repressions in the North Caucasus.

The Georgian branch of the Soviet secret police, Cheka, with recently appointed Deputy Chief Lavrentiy Beria playing a leading role, managed to penetrate the organization and carried out mass arrests. A prominent Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party activist, David Sagirashvili, was arrested and then deported to Germany in October 1922 along with sixty-two other members of Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party. A heavy loss was sustained in February 1923 by the Georgian opposition, when fifteen members of the military center were arrested. Among them were the principal leaders of the resistance movement, Generals Kote Abkhazi, Alexander Andronikashvili and Varden Tsulukidze; they were executed on 19 May 1923. In March 1923 the Cheka discovered an underground Menshevik printshop and arrested several oppositionists. The Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party leaders Noe Khomeriki, Benia Chkhikvishvili, and Valiko Jugheli too fell into the hands of the Cheka on 9 November 1923, 25 July 1924, and 6 August 1924, respectively.

Under these circumstances, some Georgians doubted whether the uprising could be successful. The captured rebel leader, Jugheli, urged Cheka officials to allow him to inform his comrades that their plans had been discovered and advise them to abandon their proposed revolt, but the Cheka refused. Jugheli's message still reached the rebels, but the conspirators decided that this might have been a Cheka provocation and went ahead with plans for the uprising.

There are many indications that Soviet intelligence had been, at a certain level, implicated in provoking the uprising. The Cheka, employing secret agents in local socialist circles, were well informed of the conspiracy and popular dissatisfaction with Bolshevik rule. Instructed by Stalin and Ordzhonikidze, Beria and his superior, Kvantaliani, actually encouraged the rebellion so they would have a pretext for eliminating all political opposition and avenging personal scores with their former rivals in Georgia.

Outbreak and reaction

On 18 August 1924, the Damkom laid plans for a general insurrection for 2:00 am 29 August. The plan of the simultaneous uprising miscarried, however, and, through some misunderstanding, the mining town of Chiatura, western Georgia, rose in rebellion a day earlier, on 28 August. This enabled the Soviet government to timely put all available forces in the region on alert. Yet, at first the insurgents achieved considerable success and formed an interim government of Georgia chaired by Prince Giorgi Tsereteli. The uprising quickly spread to neighboring areas and a large portion of western Georgia and several districts in eastern Georgia were wrested out of Soviet control.

The success of the uprising was short-lived, however. Although the insurrection went further than the Cheka had anticipated, the reaction of the Soviet authorities was prompt. Stalin dissipated any doubt in Moscow of the significance of the disorders in Georgia by the one word: "Kronstadt", referring to the Kronstadt rebellion, a large scale though unsuccessful mutiny by Soviet sailors in 1921. Additional Red Army troops under the overall command of Semyon Pugachev were promptly sent in and Georgia's coastline was blockaded to prevent a landing of Georgian émigré groups. Detachments of the Red Army and Cheka attacked the first insurgent towns in western Georgia—Chiatura, Senaki, and Abasha—as early as 29 August and managed to force the rebels into forests and mountains by 30 August. The Red Army forces employed artillery and aviation to fight the guerrillas who still continued to offer resistance, especially in the province of Guria, a home region to many Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party leaders and thus overwhelmingly disloyal to Bolshevik rule. Tiflis, Batumi and some larger towns, where the Bolsheviks enjoyed more authority, remained quiet as did Abkhazia and most of the territories compactly settled by ethnic minorities.

Following the setback suffered by the insurgents in the west, the epicenter of the revolt shifted into eastern Georgia, where, on 29 August, a large rebel force under Colonel Cholokashvili assaulted the Red Army barracks in Manglisi, on the southwestern approaches of Tiflis, but was driven back by Soviet troops, who had heavily fortified all strategic positions in and around the capital. Reinforcements failed and Cholokashvili's forces were left isolated, forcing them to retreat eastward into the Kakheti province. On 3 September Cholokashvili made a last desperate attempt to turn a tide of the rebellion and took the town of Dusheti in a surprise attack. However, he could not hold off a Red Army counter-offensive and withdrew into the mountains. The suppression of the rebellion was accompanied by a full scale outbreak of the Red Terror, "unprecedented even in the most tragic moments of the revolution" as the French author Boris Souvarine puts it. The scattered guerrilla resistance continued for several weeks, but by mid-September most of the main rebel groups had been destroyed.

On 4 September, the Cheka discovered the rebels' chief headquarters at the Shio-Mgvime Monastery near the town of Mtskheta, and arrested Prince Andronikashvili, the Damkom chairman, and his associates Javakhishvili, Ishkhneli, Jinoria, and Bochorishvili. On the same day, Beria met with the arrested oppositionists in Tiflis, and proposed to issue a declaration urging the partisans to put down their arms. The committee members, tied up and facing death themselves, accepted the proposal on the condition that an order to stop mass executions be given immediately. Beria agreed and the rebels signed the declaration in order to put an end to the bloodshed.

The persecutions did not end, however. In violation of the promise made by Beria to the arrested opposition leaders, mass arrests and executions continued. The political guidance of the anti-revolt operations was effected by the GPU chief in Georgia, Solomon Mogilevsky, and the repressions were largely supported by the Transcaucasian Central Committee. Stalin himself is quoted to have vowed that "all of Georgia must be plowed under".

In a series of raids, the Red Army and Cheka detachments killed thousands of civilians, exterminating entire families including women and children. Mass executions took place in prisons, where people were killed without trial, including even those in prison at the time of the rebellion. Hundreds of arrested were shot directly in railway trunks, so that the dead bodies could be removed faster—a new and effective technical invention by the Cheka officer, Talakhadze.

The exact number of casualties and the victims of the purges remains unknown. Approximately 3,000 died in fighting. The number of those who were executed during the uprising or in its immediate aftermath amounted to 7,000–10,000 or even more. According to the most recent accounts included also in The Black Book of Communism (Harvard University Press, 1999), 12,578 people were put to death from 29 August to 5 September 1924. About 20,000 people were deported to Siberia and Central Asian deserts.

Aftermath

Reports of the extent of the repressions caused an outcry among socialists abroad. Leaders of the Second International sent a resolution to the League of Nations condemning the Soviet government, but did not achieve any substantial results. Clara Zetkin, a notable German Social Democrat, attempted to counteract the negative publicity, visited Tiflis and then wrote a leaflet on Georgia, in which she claimed that only 320 persons had been shot. Nonetheless, the public outcry resulted in unpleasant repercussions for the central government in Moscow, prompting the Politburo to set up a special commission, led by Ordzhonikidze, to investigate the causes of the uprising and the Cheka activities during its elimination. In October 1924, following the issuance of the commission's report, some members of the Georgian Cheka were purged as "unreliable elements" who were presumably offered up as scapegoats for the atrocities. Ordzhonikidze himself admitted before a meeting of the Central Committee in Moscow in October 1924 that "perhaps we did go a little far, but we couldn't help ourselves."

On 7 October 1924, the Soviet administration (Sovnarkom, "Council of People's Commissars") of Georgia declared an amnesty to all participants of the revolt who surrendered voluntarily. In early March 1925, the Chairman of the All-Union Executive Committee, Mikhail Kalinin, arrived in Georgia and called for the amnesty of the participants of the August 1924 insurrection, and for the suspension of religious persecutions. As a result, the Cheka grip in Georgia was relatively eased (for example, Catholicos Patriarch Ambrose and the members of the Patriarchal Council were released), military pacification was completed and an appearance of normality returned to the country, but Georgians had suffered a shock from which they never completely recovered. The uprising was a last armed effort of Georgians to oust the Bolshevik regime and regain their independence. The most active pro-independence part of Georgian society, the nobility, military officers and intellectual elites were virtually exterminated. Only a few survivors such as Cholokashvili, Lashkarashvili and some of their associates managed to escape abroad. The Georgian émigré Irakly Tsereteli considered the event disastrous both for the future of social democracy and of Georgia. The failure of the uprising and the intensified police repression that followed decimated the Menshevik organization in Georgia and it was no longer a threat to the Bolsheviks. However, Beria and his colleagues continued to use a "Menshevik danger" as an excuse for reprisals in Georgia. During the years 1925–1926 at least 500 socialists were shot without trial.

The uprising was also exploited as the pretext for disrupting Tiflis University, which was seen by the Bolsheviks as a shelter of Georgian nationalism. Despite the fact that several leading academics, who sympathized with or even participated in the anti-Soviet movement, eventually distanced themselves from the idea of an armed revolt and even denounced it in a special statement, the university was purged of unreliable elements and placed under the complete control of the Communist Party. Substantial changes were made in its structure, curriculum, and personnel, including the dismissal of the Rector, a noted historian Ivane Javakhishvili.

On the other hand, the events in Georgia demonstrated the necessity for greater concessions to the peasants; Stalin declared that an August 1924 uprising in Georgia was sparked by dissatisfaction among the peasants and called the party to conciliate them. He admitted that "what has happened in Georgia may happen throughout Russia, unless we make a complete change in our attitude to the peasantry" and placed the responsibility for the errors committed on subordinate officials. Vyacheslav Molotov, an influential member of the Politburo, for his part declared: "Georgia provides a startling example of the breach between the Party and the mass of the peasantry in the country." As a result, the Communist Party of Georgia chose, for the time being, to use peaceful persuasion rather than armed coercion to extend their influence over the peasant masses, and to moderate the attempts to enforce collectivization. The extension of the radical land reform and the relative freedom granted peasants reduced hostility to the new regime. Although the last attributes of Georgia's political and economic sovereignty, which both the Mensheviks and the "national communists" had fought to preserve, had been eliminated, the final victory of Soviet power in Georgia was accompanied by moderate economic growth, that ensured relative stability in the country. Another important factor in lessening opposition to the Bolsheviks, particularly from the intelligentsia, was the policy of "nativization" pursued by the Soviet government in the 1920s; Georgian art, language, and learning were promoted; the spread of literacy was sponsored and the role of ethnic Georgians in administrative and cultural institutions enhanced.

Assessment
Under the Soviet Union, the August Uprising remained a taboo theme and was hardly mentioned at all, if not in its ideological content. Using its control over education and the media, the Soviet propaganda machine denounced the Georgian rebellion as a "bloody adventure initiated by the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party and other reactionary forces who managed to implicate a small and undereducated part of the population in it." With a new tide of independence feeling sweeping throughout Georgia in the late 1980s, the anti-Soviet fighters of 1924, particularly, the leading partisan officer Kakutsa Cholokashvili, emerged as a major symbol of Georgian patriotism and national resistance to Soviet rule. The process of legal "rehabilitation" (exoneration) of the victims of the 1920s repressions began under Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of Glasnost ("openness") and was completed on 25 May 1992 decree issued by the State Council of the Republic of Georgia chaired by Eduard Shevardnadze. In connection with the opening of the Museum of Soviet Occupation in May 2006, the Ministry of Interior of Georgia made public more archival reserves, and started to publish names of victims of the 1924 purges and other materials from the Soviet era secret archives.

title: August Uprising


text:
Canada Child Benefit

The Canada Child Benefit (CCB), previously the Canada Child Tax Benefit (CCTB), is an income-tested income support program for Canadian families. It is delivered as a tax-free monthly payment available to eligible Canadian families to help with the cost of raising children. The CCTB could incorporate the National Child Benefit (NCB), a monthly benefit for low-income families with children, and the Child Disability Benefit (CDB), a monthly benefit for families caring for children with severe and prolonged mental or physical disabilities.

History
The CCTB was enacted in response to a commitment made by the Canadian parliament, in November 1989, to eradicate child poverty in Canada by the year 2000.

Child Tax Benefit (CTB, 1993–1998)
The federal finance minister, Don Mazankowski, announced in the 1992 Canadian federal budget the introduction in January 1993 of a renewed and enriched Child Tax Benefit (CTB) that consolidates the family allowance, the child credit and refundable child tax credit into a unified benefit of $1,020 per child (with a supplementary benefit of $75 for the third child and following children). Unlike family allowance that it replaces, this monthly payment is not taxable for the recipient. This measure was estimated to increase benefits by $2.1 billions over a period of five years.

Working Income Supplement (WIS)
The new benefit includes an earned-income supplement (referred to as the Working income supplement or WIS in future federal budgets) of up to $500 (per family) designed to deliver increased benefits for low-income working families with children. The supplement phases-in at 8% of earned income above $3,750 ; reaches its maximum amount ($500) between $10,000 and $20,921 of earned income and is subsequently reduced by 10% of earning income above $20,921 (i.e. is fully exhausted at $25,921 of earned income).

The law implementing the new benefit is adopted by the House of Commons in September 1992 and received royal assent on 15 October 1992. The National Council on Social Welfare supported the reform as a step in the right direction but pointed out that most families receiving social assistance payments or unemployment insurance payments would not be eligible to the earned-income supplement, hence reducing the impact of the new benefit in reducing child poverty.

However, it has been found that, due to cutbacks to social assistance, the impact of this program in reducing child poverty is negligible.

Canada Child Tax Benefit (CCTB, 1998–2016)
The federal finance minister, Paul Martin, announced in the 1997 Canadian federal budget the gradual replacement of the Child Tax Benefit by a new Canada Child Tax Benefit (CCTB) that combines the CTB and the WIS into a single enhance payment to increase benefit levels for low-income families. The roll-out of the CCTB was scheduled in two steps:
 * First in July 1997 with the increase of the WIS;
 * Secondly on July 1, 1998 with the enactment of the new Canada Child Tax Benefit.

Enhancement of the WIS (1997)
The WIS was greatly enhanced following the passage of the 1997 Canadian federal budget:
 * The WIS is computed on a per-child basis rather than a per-family basis;
 * Maximum benefit level is raised to:
 * $605 for the first child;
 * $405 for the second child;
 * $330 for any additional child.
 * Phase-in is faster so that the income level at which the benefits are maximized remains $10,000.
 * Phase-out is also faster (12.1% for one-child families, 20.2% for two-child families and 26.8% otherwise) but the income level at which the benefits are entirely exhausted remains $25,921.

Enactment of the CCTB (1998)
Under the new system, the CCTB have two main components:
 * The base benefit (that replaced the CTB) that is available to families with income up to $67,000.
 * The NCB supplement (that replaced the WIS) targeted towards low-income families (up to $25,921).

Benefits under the CCTB are increased to provide up to $1,625 for the first child and $1,425 for each additional child (this level of benefits applies to family with income up to $20,921).

The 1999 Canadian federal budget increased the NCB supplement by $350 ($180 in July 1999, $170 in July 2000) and the income level where the base benefit starts to phase out and the NCB supplement fully phases out increased from $25,921 to $29,590 by July 2000.

The reform is part of a proposed National Child Benefit (NCB) System based on collaboration between federal, provincial and territorial governments whereas the federal government strengthen the federal benefit and provincial and territorial government can provide additional benefits and services to low-income families.

Universal Canada Child Benefit (UCCB, 2006–2016)
Following the 2006 Canadian federal election, the new conservative government led by Stephen Harper created the Universal Canada Child Benefit (UCCB), a new benefit of up to $1,200 annually for children under 6. Unlike other benefits, the UCCB is a taxable payment that is included in the recipient income.

The Universal Child Care Benefit Act received royal assent on 22 June 2006 and the UCCB was paid for the first time in July 2006.

In the 2010 Canadian federal budget the UCCB was made shareable between shared-custody parents, and in that instance the payment was evenly split between parents (each receiving $50 per month). The measure entered into force in July 2011.

A significant expansion of the UCCB was announced in November 2014 in the Fall Fiscal Update:
 * The UCCB amount for children under 6 would be increased from $1,200 to $1,920 on an annual basis;
 * The UCCB would be extended to children aged 6 through 17 with a yearly benefit of $720. That new benefit would replace the Child Tax Credit starting in 2015.

The changes were incorporated in the Economic Action Plan 2015 Act, No. 1 which received royal assent on 23 June 2015 and entered into force on 1 July 2015 (even though the new amounts were enacted as of 1 January 2015).

The UCCB remained unchanged until 30 June 2016 when the benefit was terminated and replaced by the Canada Child Benefit.

Canada Child Benefit (CCB, since 2016)
Canada Child Tax Benefit was eliminated in 2016 and replaced by the Canada Child Benefit (CCB), a tax-free payment targeting low- and middle-income families; those with incomes higher than $150,000 will receive less than the previous system. In 2018-19 benefit year, the CCB payments are up to $6,496 per year per child under the age of 6, and up to $5,481 per year per child aged 6 to 17 in benefit year 2018-19. The CCB is income-dependent; the first income threshold for families to receive Canada Child Benefit is $30,450 and the second threshold is $65,975 in 2018-19. Since its inception, the Canada Child Benefit has lifted about 300,000 children out of poverty, and has helped reduce child poverty by 40% from 2013 to 2017. The budget for Canada Child Benefit has been increased in 2019, increasing the annual benefit to a maximum of $6,639 for children under 6 and $5,602 for ages 6 through 17, allowing parents to provide more due to the increased cost of living.

title: Canada Child Benefit


text: User talk:24.166.70.243

title: User talk:24.166.70.243