text:
Felsted

Felsted (sometimes spelt Felstead) is a village and civil parish in the Uttlesford district of Essex, England. The civil parish includes the hamlets of Bannister Green, Bartholomew Green, Causeway End, Coblers Green, Cock Green, Frenches Green, Gransmore Green, Hartford End, Molehill Green, Milch Hill, Thistley Green, Watch House Green and Willows Green.

History
Felsted is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Felesteda, Felstede and Phensteda in the Hundred of Hinckford, where it was held by Earl Ælfgar as feu in the time of King Edward. In 1086, Felstead was part of the land of La Trinité of Caen, who held four hides. The fifth hide was no longer in this manor as King William gave three virgates to Roger God-save-the-ladies and the fourth to Geoffrey fitzSalomon.

The village has links to Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich who founded the public school, the Felsted School, in 1564, and is buried in Holy Cross Church. Lord Rich was an important benefactor of the Felsted Church. The school also has links to Oliver Cromwell, who sent his sons there. The valley between Little Dunmow and Felsted was the location for the only sugar beet factory in Essex, which has been redeveloped for housing in a community called Flitch Green.

Geography
Felsted is south of the A120 and is near Braintree, Great Dunmow and Chelmsford. It lies on the north bank of the River Chelmer as it leaves Great Dunmow and turns south towards Chelmsford.
 * Latitude/Longitude in decimal degrees:51.85656 0.43327
 * Latitude/Longitude in degrees, minutes, and seconds:51° 51' 24" North 0° 26' 60" East
 * Height above sea level:76 m,  249.34 ft,   2992.13 in

Community
Felsted is linked to Little Dunmow by the Flitch Way Country Park, a former railway line. The village has a village store, a coffee shop and a tea room, an antiques shop, a ladies' clothes shop, an estate agent, two public houses (the Chequers and the Swan) and the Felsted Sports injury clinic.

The village is also home of Felsted Rovers Football Club who play their home matches at the rear of the Memorial Hall.

The electoral ward of Felsted had a population of 5,525 at the 2011 census.

title: Felsted


text:
French frigate Vendémiaire

Vendémiaire is a Floréal-class frigate (frégate de surveillance) of the French Navy. She is the fifth ship of the class, and is named after Vendémiaire, the first month of the Republican Calendar. The ship was constructed at Saint-Nazaire, France, in 1992 and entered service in 1993. Vendémiaire is stationed in the French Pacific territories for patrol duties.

Design and description
The Floréal-class frigates were designed in response to a demand for a cheap warship capable of operating in low threat areas and able to perform general patrol functions. As a result, the Floréal class were constructed to mercantile standards in the areas of ammunition stowage, helicopter facilities and damage control, which significantly lowered the cost of the vessels. The Floréal class were designed for using modular construction which shortened their building times.

Vendémiaire has a standard displacement of 2600 LT and 2950 LT at full load. The frigate measures 85.2 m long between perpendiculars and 93.5 m overall with a beam of 14 m and a draught of 4.3 m. Due to the frigate's broad beam, the ship is equipped with fin stabilisers.

The frigate is powered by a combined diesel and diesel (CODAD) system comprising four SEMT Pielstick 6 PA6 L280 BPC diesel engines driving two shafts each turning a LIPS controllable pitch propeller. The CODAD system is rated at 8820 hp The vessel is also equipped with one 272 hp bow thruster. Due to the mercantile construction design, the four diesels are all located within one machinery room for ease of maintenance. Both diesel fuel and TR5 aviation fuel is brought aboard at a single location at the stern compared to naval-constructed vessels which sport two. The ship also has three 750 kW diesel-electric generators located just fore and aft of the machinery room. Vendémiaire has a maximum speed of 20 kn and a range of 9000 nmi at 15 kn.

Vendémiaire was armed with two Exocet MM38 surface-to-surface missiles in launchers situated centrally atop the midships superstructure. However, at the end of the missile's life cycle in 2014, the launchers were removed as the French Navy did not intend to replace the capability aboard the ships. The ship also mounts one 100 mm CADAM turret with the Najir fire control system located forwards and two 20 mm modèle F2 guns situated in atop the aft superstructure. The ship is equipped with DRBV-21C (Mars) air sentry, Racal Decca RM1290 navigation and Racal Decca RM1290 landing radars along with ARBG-1A Saïgon communications intercept, CSF ARBR 16A radar intercept electronic surveillance systems and two Dagaie decoy systems.

The frigate is equipped with a 30 by helicopter landing pad located on the stern and a 10 by hangar. The ship is capable of operating the embarked Eurocopter AS565 Panther up to sea state 5. However, as late as 2021, Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters were also being embarked, notably in the Pacific region. In 2022, the Eurocopter Dauphin N3 was earmarked to replace the Aérospatiale Alouette IIIs after the Alouette IIIs were withdrawn from service. The ship has a complement of 90 including the aircrew and officers and 24 marines with capacity for a further 13 personnel.

Construction and career
Vendémiaire was ordered as part of the third pair in January 1991 from Chantiers de l'Atlantique for construction at their yard in Saint-Nazaire, France, and the keel was laid down on 17 January 1992. The frigate was built using modular construction methods, which reduced the vessel's construction time. Vendémiaire was launched on 23 August 1992 and commissioned into the French Navy on 21 October 1993. Following sea trials, Vendémiaire sailed for Arsenal de Lorient, Lorient where the weapons and sensors were installed and underwent further trials.

Vendémiaire was assigned to Nouméa, New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean. The frigate was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian-led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 20 September to 17 November 1999.

The ship went on a tour of China in 2011, stopping at Hong Kong. Vendémiaire was opened to the public 17 April 2011 in Hong Kong. The ship visited the city again from 26 February to 2 March 2018, being opened for public tours. In October 2013 the vessel participated in the International Fleet Review 2013 in Sydney, Australia.

From 1 to 3 June 2015, Vendémiaire performed French sovereignty missions to Matthew Island and Hunter Island. In 2015, following Cyclone Pam France ordered Vendémiaire to sail from Nouméa to Vanuatu to conduct surveys along with aircraft from the island territory.

After the Cyclone Pam operations, Vendémiaire sailed to Wellington, New Zealand in April 2016 to take part in the ANZAC commemorations. In May 2016, the frigate stopped at Busan, South Korea for joint training with the Republic of Korea Navy. On 27 July 2017, the ship intercepted 1.4 tonne of cocaine from the sailing vessel Afalina off the coast of Tonga. From 17–21 February 2018, the frigate visited Incheon, South Korea, performing joint operations with the Republic of Korea Navy.

On 6 April 2019, Vendémiaire sailed through the Taiwan Strait, shadowed by Chinese naval forces. China issued a diplomatic protest after Vendémiaire allegedly violated Chinese territorial waters; France holds that the Taiwan Strait is international waters and claimed a right to freedom of navigation. Vendémiaire was subsequently absent at the celebration of the 70th anniversary of the People's Liberation Army Navy at Qingdao, which she had been scheduled to attend. In September 2019, Vendémiaire joined naval units from the Royal Australian Navy and Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force for naval exercises off the coast of Australia.

In early 2023, Vendémiaire spent three months in refit in New Zealand before returning to Noumea for the biennial international exercise Croix du Sud 2023.

In April 2024, the ship was the first French vessel to participate in a multilateral maritime exercise as part of Exercise Balikatan in the Philippines. She participated alongside BRP Ramon Alcaraz, BRP Davao del Sur, USS Harpers Ferry (LSD-49) and USS Somerset (LPD-25).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: French frigate Vendémiaire


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lloyd L. Gaines

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was NO CONSENSUS; thus, the article is kept. —Korath (Talk) 10:51, Feb 28, 2005 (UTC)

Lloyd L. Gaines
Original research. POV. Possibly copyvio as a literal transcript of an essay. Not encyclopedic. Radiant! 12:10, Feb 17, 2005 (UTC)

Yes, it's egregious. Agree it should be deleted. Hydriotaphia 14:08, Feb 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Smacks of copyvio even if nothing can be found using Google. Unencyclopedic as things stand. Trilobite (Talk) 14:45, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable - zero Google hits, possible copyright violation. Megan1967 23:25, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * If you get zero Google hits, you must have made a typo. / u p p l a n d 17:21, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * ?????? this search gives me Results 1 - 100 of about 1,510 for "Lloyd L. Gaines" Dpbsmith (talk) 20:26, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Won a historic Supreme Court case in 1938 for admission to the University of Missouri against the State of Missouri. Pioneering civil rights case. Unfortunately, he died shortly afterwards. Capitalistroadster 10:16, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep for reason given by Capitalistroadster. It is a notable case, which a Google search shows, and it is treated in several articles in historical journals. Please look at the history of this article. It is most certainly not originally a copyvio. The essayish text which may be so was inserted on top of the original on Oct. 27, 2004. I have now reverted the article to the last version from before that date. Can the later versions be deleted somehow? (It is still quite possible that it is not a copyvio, and the later version actually had a lot of useful references and links.) / u p p l a n d 17:21, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * After Uppland's revert, I find the article interesting and encyclopedic. Keep. Radiant! 12:35, Feb 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, spurious notability. JamesBurns 10:40, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, significant figure in the history of civil rights in America. Kappa 14:46, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep in present form. The case seems to be very notable and it should be counted as a notable achievement for Gaines, who personally initiated the suit. It turns out that the New York Times published three articles about the case on December 18, 1938. One of is a long article with a long headline: "EDUCATION OF NEGROES TESTED BY NEW RULING; Missouri Plans Law School for Them And South Studies Implications of Supreme Court's Action SOUTH PUT IN QUANDARY." The story opens "State-supported education systems of the South have been severely jolted by the Supreme Court ruling this week... the decision is notice to all the Southern States that they must make far-reaching adjustments." Another says STATE EXPECTED TO ACT, and a third gives a short profile and photograph of the young Gaines. Dpbsmith (talk) 20:22, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete not encyclopaedic. Leanne 23:50, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Mírzá Mihdí

Mírzá Mihdí ( 1848 – June 23, 1870) was the youngest child of Baháʼí Faith founder Baháʼu'lláh and his wife Ásíyih Khánum. He was given the title G͟husn-i-Athar ("Purest Branch" or "Purer Branch").

Early life
He was born in Tehran with the given name of Mihdí in 1848. Since birth, he held the style of Mirza as the son of an aristocrat. His father was Bahá’u’lláh, son of a court minister Mírzá `Abbás Núrí. His mother, Ásíyih Khánum was the daughter of nobility from Mazandaran. He was named after his deceased paternal uncle, who Bahá’u’lláh had been close to. Mírzá Mihdí was four when his father was arrested, their home looted, and the family reduced to near poverty. At its worst, his mother was forced to feed the children flour to satiate their hunger. In 1852, Bahá’u’lláh was exiled to Baghdad but due to his ill-health, Mírzá Mihdí was left with relatives in Tehran.

Returning to his family, 1860 - 1868

Mírzá Mihdí was reunited with his family in 1860 and grew very close to his father. He served Bahá’u’lláh as his secretary, transcribing letters on his behalf. Mírzá Mihdí accompanied Bahá’u’lláh in His successive exiles to Istanbul, Edirne, and, finally, to Acre, Israel. Bahá’u’lláh (who described his family as a tree) entitled Mírzá Mihdí as "The Purest Branch".

Exile to Acre and death, 1868
In the summer of 1868, Bahá’u’lláh and his family were condemned to perpetual imprisonment in the penal-colony of Akka, Palestine, Ottoman Empire (later became Acre, Israel after 1948). The family was housed in a cluster of dilapidated cells. Mírzá Mihdí occupied a cell with his mother and his sister Bahíyyih Khánum.

It was common practice for the prisoners to use the roof for exercise in the summer months. Mírzá Mihdí was pacing the roof reciting the Ode of the Dove (a prayer revealed by his father). Wrapped in prayer, he fell through the skylight in the roof of the prison onto a crate lying on the floor below. The family heard the crash and rushed to the scene to find Mihdí covered in blood. He was so badly injured that his clothes had to be torn from him. Prison guards allowed for a doctor to attend to him, but by that time the injuries were too severe. As he lay dying, Mírzá Mihdí told Bahá’u’lláh he wished that pilgrims (many of whom walked from Iran but were denied the chance to meet Bahá’u’lláh) would be permitted to enter Acre.

Mírzá Mihdí died with his father beside him on June 23, 1870. His father had to sell a small carpet in his cell to fund the hastily prepared funeral, that no family were permitted to attend.

Legacy
The sudden and unexpected death of Mírzá Mihdí brought deep sadness to his parents and destroyed any morale that was left among the prisoners. His mother was so overcome with grief that family members feared she would never recover. His sister collected the blood-soaked clothes of Mihdí and other relics. These are seen in the International Archives in Israel. Baháʼu'lláh eulogized his son and connected the subsequent easing of restrictions and pilgrims' ability to visit him to Mihdí's dying prayer.

Shoghi Effendi later removed the body of Mírzá Mihdí and reinterred it alongside his mother, in the gardens below the Arc on Mount Carmel, Haifa, in an area now called the Monument Gardens. He then cabled the Baháʼís:

"Blessed remains Purest Branch and Master's mother safely transferred hallowed precincts Shrines Mount Carmel. Long inflicted humiliation wiped away. Machinations Covenant-breakers frustrate plan defeated. Cherished wish Greatest Holy Leaf fulfilled. Sister brother mother wife ʻAbdu'l-Bahá reunited one spot designed constitute focal centre Baháʼí Administrative Institutions at Faith's World Centre. Share joyful news entire body American believers. Shoghi Rabbani."

His resting-place now serves as a place of pilgrimage for Bahá’ís.

Appearance and personality
In physical appearance Mírzá Mihdí grew to resemble `Abdu'l-Bahá with blue eyes, dark hair and a fair complexion but was taller. Mírzá Mihdí was remembered as gentle and self-effacing by contemporaries, winning him the affection of the exiled Bahá'í community.

Notes and citations

 * Notes

 * Citations

title: Mírzá Mihdí


text:
French frigate Germinal

Germinal is a Floréal-class frigate (frégate de surveillance) of the French Navy. She is the sixth and last ship of her class, and the first French vessel named after Germinal, the seventh month of the Republican Calendar. The ship was constructed at Saint-Nazaire, France, in 1992–1993 and entered service in 1994. The frigate has served in the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas and the Gulf of Guinea. Germinal is stationed in the Antilles (Fort-de-France) for patrol duties in the Caribbean Sea.

Design and description
The Floréal-class frigates were designed in response to a demand for a cheap warship capable of operating in low threat areas and able to perform general patrol functions. As a result, the Floréal class were constructed to mercantile standards in the areas of ammunition stowage, helicopter facilities and damage control, which significantly lowered the cost of the vessels. The Floréal class were designed for using modular construction which shortened their building times.

Germinal has a standard displacement of 2600 LT and 2950 LT at full load. The frigate measures 85.2 m long between perpendiculars and 93.5 m overall with a beam of 14 m and a draught of 4.3 m. Due to the frigate's broad beam, the ship is equipped with fin stabilisers.

The frigate is powered by a combined diesel and diesel (CODAD) system comprising four SEMT Pielstick 6 PA6 L280 BPC diesel engines driving two shafts each turning a LIPS controllable pitch propeller. The CODAD system is rated at 8820 hp The vessel is also equipped with one 272 hp bow thruster. Due to the mercantile construction design, the four diesels are all located within one machinery room for ease of maintenance. Both diesel fuel and TR5 aviation fuel is brought aboard at a single location at the stern compared to naval-constructed vessels which sport two. The ship also has three 750 kW diesel-electric generators located just fore and aft of the machinery room. Germinal has a maximum speed of 20 kn and a range of 9000 nmi at 15 kn.

Germinal was armed with two Exocet MM38 surface-to-surface missiles in launchers situated centrally atop the midships superstructure. However, at the end of the missile's life cycle in 2014, the launchers were removed as the French Navy did not intend to replace the capability aboard the ships. The ship also mounts one 100 mm CADAM turret with the Najir fire control system located forwards and two 20 mm modèle F2 guns situated in atop the aft superstructure. The ship is equipped with DRBV-21C (Mars) air sentry, Racal Decca RM1290 navigation and Racal Decca RM1290 landing radars along with ARBG-1A Saïgon communications intercept, CSF ARBR 16A radar intercept electronic surveillance systems and two Dagaie decoy systems.

The frigate is equipped with a 30 by helicopter landing pad located on the stern and a 10 by hangar. The ship is capable of operating the embarked Eurocopter AS565 Panther up to sea state 5. The ship is capable of operating helicopters up to the size of the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma. The ship has a complement of 90 including the aircrew and officers and 24 marines with capacity for a further 13 personnel.

Construction and career
Germinal was ordered as part of the third pair in January 1991 from Chantiers de l'Atlantique for construction at their yard in Saint-Nazaire, France, and the keel was laid down on 17 August 1992. The frigate was built using modular construction methods, which reduced the vessel's construction time. Germinal was launched on 13 March 1993 and commissioned into the French Navy on 18 May 1994. Following sea trials, Germinal sailed for Arsenal de Lorient, Lorient where the weapons and sensors were installed and underwent further trials. The vessel is stationed in the Antilles (Fort-de-France) for patrol duties in the Caribbean Sea.

In 1997, Germinal was part of the French naval presence in the Gulf of Guinea, known as the Corymbe Mission. That year, the frigate participated in Operation Espadon, evacuating French nationals from Sierra Leone.

In January 2009, Germinal was reassigned from the UNIFIL mission along the Lebanese coast to a surveillance mission along the Gaza coast for ten days, beginning on 24 January.

In 2014, while stationed at Fort-de-France, Martinique, the frigate intercepted a smuggler go-fast boat with 595 kg of cocaine aboard. The smugglers were turned over to the Colombian frigate ARC Caldas. In March 2015, Germinal, with support, intercepted another go-fast, this time 50 nmi off the coast of Barbados. The frigate seized 124 kg of cocaine and 33 kg of marijuana. On 19 June 2015 Germinal caught up with a sailboat making a trans-Atlantic crossing 250 nmi southeast of Martinique. The two crew of the sailboat were apprehended and 93.5 kg of cocaine intended for Europe was seized. In April 2016, Germinal caught another go-fast, roughly 50 km from the Martinique coast and seized 700 kg of marijuana. In October, the frigate intercepted a transfer of 55 kg of cocaine between a go fast and a fishing boat 75 km from Dominica. Then on the night of 17/18 November, while operating off the coast of Guajira Peninsula, Colombia, Germinal took part in the chase of another go-fast, seizing 780 kg of cocaine.

In September 2017, Germinal, with sister ship FRENCH FRIGATE Ventôse, was deployed to Saint Martin after the island was hit by Hurricane Irma. Departing Saint Martin on 9 October, Germinal sailed for the Gulf of Guinea as part of the Corymbe Mission until December. In 2018, Germinal underwent a four-month overhaul at Fort-de-France. On 20 July 2018, the frigate seized 53 bundles of cocaine weighing a combined 1506 kg. Germinal intercepted a sailboat with two crew at sea. The crew set the sailboat on fire and jumped overboard and were collected by the frigate. Germinal's crew successfully extinguished the fire aboard the sailboat and then boarded it. The frigate took the two prisoners and the sailboat back to Fort-de-France.

In 2022 the frigate operated with the amphibious assault ship FRENCH SHIP Tonnerre in anti-piracy operations in the Gulf of Guinea. In March 2023, she deployed to the Pacific for two months via the Panama Canal to conduct sovereignty surveillance missions in the French Pacific territories, while also carrying out port visits in Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico. In April 2023, the frigate visited the uninhabited French territory of Clipperton Island to carry out sovereignty protection duties.

title: French frigate Germinal


text:
Nuclear Polynesian languages

Nuclear Polynesian refers to those languages comprising the Samoic and the Eastern Polynesian branches of the Polynesian group of Austronesian languages.

The Eastern Polynesian group comprises two major subgroups: Rapa Nui, spoken on Easter Island, and Central-Eastern, which is itself composed of Rapan, and the Marquesic and Tahitic languages.

Nuclear Polynesian is differentiated, among Polynesian languages, by its distinguishing characteristics from the Tongic languages spoken in most of Tonga and in Niue.

Languages

 * Nuclear Polynesian
 * Samoic
 * East Uvean–Niuafo'ou languages
 * Ellicean languages
 * Futunic languages
 * Pukapuka
 * Samoan
 * Tokelauan
 * Eastern Polynesian
 * Rapa Nui
 * Central Eastern Polynesian
 * Rapa
 * Marquesic languages
 * Hawaiian
 * Marquesan
 * Northern
 * Southern
 * Mangerevan
 * Tahitic languages
 * Austral
 * Māori
 * Tuamotuan
 * Penrhyn
 * Rarotongan
 * Rakahanga-Manihiki
 * Tahitian

Alternative classification

 * Nuclear Polynesian
 * Futunic languages
 * Pukapuka
 * Ellicean languages
 * Samoic
 * Samoan
 * Tokelauan
 * Ellicean–Outlier
 * Tuvaluan
 * Nukuoro
 * Kapingamarangi
 * Nukuria
 * Takuu
 * Nukumanu
 * Ontong Java
 * Sikaiana
 * Pileni
 * Eastern Polynesian

title: Nuclear Polynesian languages


text:
Hawkins grenade

The Grenade, Hand, Anti-Tank, No. 75, also known as the "Hawkins grenade" was a British anti-tank hand grenade used during World War II. It was one of a number of grenades developed for use by the British Army and Home Guard in the aftermath of the Dunkirk evacuation. The grenade first appeared in 1942, and was designed to be more versatile than previous grenades, such as the No. 73 grenade and the sticky bomb.

It was rectangular in shape, about 150 mm in length and 75 mm in width, and contained approximately 0.45 kg of explosive. When a vehicle drove over the grenade, it cracked a chemical igniter and leaked acid onto a sensitive chemical, which detonated the explosive. Multiple grenades were often used to destroy tanks or disable their tracks, and the grenade could also be used as a demolition charge. It was used by the British Army and the United States Army, with the former using it until 1955 and the latter also creating their own variant, the M7 anti-tank mine.

Development
With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely. However, the British Army was not well-equipped to defend the country in such an event; in the weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation it could only field twenty-seven divisions. The army was particularly short of anti-tank guns, 840 of which had been left behind in France and only 167 were available in Britain; ammunition was so scarce for the remaining guns that regulations forbade even a single round being used for training purposes.

As a result of these shortcomings, a number of new anti-tank weapons had to be developed to equip the British Army and the Home Guard with the means to repel German armoured vehicles. Many of these were anti-tank hand grenades, large numbers of which could be built in a very short space of time and for a low cost. They included the No. 73 Grenade, which was little more than a Thermos-sized bottle filled with TNT, and the grenade, hand, anti-tank No. 74, also known as the "sticky bomb", which was coated with a strong adhesive and stuck to a vehicle. A more versatile grenade appeared in 1942 in the form of the grenade, hand, anti-tank, No. 75, more commonly known as the "Hawkins grenade", which was designed so that it could be used in a number of roles.

Design
The grenade was rectangular in shape and approximately 150 mm in length and 75 mm in width, and weighed about 1.02 kg. Its explosive content consisted of around 0.45 kg of blasting explosive, which was usually either ammonal or TNT. On the top of the grenade was a plate, under which the user would insert a chemical igniter, which would act as the weapon's fuse. When a vehicle drove over the grenade, its weight crushed the plate, which in turn cracked the igniter; this then leaked acid onto a sensitive chemical which detonated the charge. The grenade was designed so that it could either be thrown at a vehicle like an ordinary anti-tank grenade, or placed at a location when used as an anti-tank mine. It was also fitted with areas where blasting caps or cordtex could be placed, so that it could be used as a demolition charge. When the grenade was used, it was recommended that the user be within a short distance of their target, ideally concealed within a trench; if the target were an armoured vehicle, then the best areas to target were the sides and rear, where the engine compartment was located and armour was generally thinner.

Operational history
Introduced in 1942, the grenade saw service with the British Army until 1955. The United States Army also used the grenade, as well as developing their own variant known as the "M7 light anti-tank mine". When used in an anti-tank role, a number of the grenades could be strung together in a "daisy chain" at intervals of around two feet, and then placed across a road to damage an armoured vehicle. It was particularly effective at damaging the tracks of tanks. When sufficient grenades were grouped together, they were capable of disabling a medium tank. The Hawkins was also used in other roles, such as breaching walls, and its small size also meant that it could easily be placed into the "web" of a railway line and, when detonated, destroy a section of track. The weapon received the nickname "Johnson's Wax tin" due to its appearance to a commercially produced floor treatment product. In the Battle of Ortona Canadian troops used them as demolition charges to "mousehole" between buildings.

Users
Users of the grenade included:
 * 🇬🇧 united kingdom
 * 🇨🇦 canada
 * 🇺🇸 united states

title: Hawkins grenade


text:
Mashina Vremeni

Mashina Vremeni (Машина времени) is a Russian rock band founded in 1969. Mashina Vremeni was a pioneer of Soviet rock music and remains one of the oldest still-active rock bands in Russia. The band's music incorporates elements of classic rock, blues, and bard's song. Mashina Vremeni's best known members are Andrei Makarevich (founder, principal singer-songwriter, public face of the band), Alexander Kutikov (bass player and producer/sound engineer), and Evgeny Margulis (guitarist/songwriter).

History
Andrei Makarevich's musical career can be traced to a school band called The Kids, which was made up of two male guitarists and two female vocalists. The group sang mostly English-language folk songs and performed primarily at talent shows put on in Moscow schools. According to Makarevich, the momentous event in his musical career came when the Soviet group VIA Atlanty (ВИА «Атланты») visited his school and allowed him to play a couple of songs on their equipment during a break in the performance. On the heels of this experience, Makarevich joined with other musically talented students from his school and another school to form Mashiny Vremeni (Машины времени – in plural form imitating The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, etc.). The most significant founding members included Sergey Kawagoe and Andrey Makarevich. The band's repertoire consisted of eleven songs in English, now lost.

Mashina Vremeni started playing during the last years of the Brezhnev era, but could not get official bookings as a professional band. In 1979 Makarevich signed the band up with Rosconcert, becoming legitimate in the State music system.

Timeline

 * 1971 – Alexander Kutikov becomes the bass player, introducing more of buoyant rock-n-roll into the band's material
 * 1972 – Line-up losses in the band as several members are drafted into service (which to this day is compulsory in Russia)
 * 1973 – Tensions between Sergey Kawagoe and Alexander Kutikov; the latter leaves the band for a hard rock outfit Visokosnoe Leto (Leap Year Summer)
 * 1974 – Sergey Kawagoe leaves, Alexander Kutikov returns. However, Kawagoe also returns after about six months. The band performs with the following line-up: Andrei Makarevich, Alexander Kutikov, Sergey Kawagoe, and Alexey Romanov (future leader of another prominent Russian band Voskreseniye ("Resurrection" or "Sunday"))
 * 1975 – Romanov and Kutikov suddenly depart. Evgeny Margulis joins on guitar
 * 1978 – First studio record of Mashina Vremeni. Alexander Kutikov, though playing in Vis
 * 1979 – Band in crisis. Sergey Kawagoe and Evgeny Margulis leave the band and join Voskresenie. At this time, Andrei Makarevich writes one of the band's most enduring and popular songs: "Poka gorit svecha" ("As long as the candle burns"), as a statement of his not giving up. After some time of frustration, Alexander Kutikov saves the situation by leaving the Visokosnoe Leto band and bringing Valeriy Efremov (also from Visokosnoe Leto) as drummer and Pyotr Podgorodetsky on the keyboards.
 * 1981 – The song "Povorot" (Поворот) stays on the top of charts for 18 months. The band composes the soundtrack to the popular movie Dusha, starring Sofia Rotaru watched by more than 57 million cinema-goers in the Soviet Union.
 * 1982 – Repressions begin in earnest with a denouncing article "'Blue Bird' ragout" ("Blue Bird" was a popular song of the band) which describes the band's output as depressive and ideologically unsound. A nationwide wave of protest against the denunciation sends thousands of fan letters to newspaper editors. Pyotr Podgorodetsky leaves; Alexandr Zaitsev replaces him.
 * 1986 – Best songs 1979–1985 compilation is recorded. Album V dobriy chas ("Good Luck") is recorded.
 * 1987 – Reki i Mosty ("Rivers and Bridges") album recorded. It is considered Mashina Vremeni's first official album (all the previous ones were recorded illegally, for underground distribution). First appearances on the television. The band performs at Live Aid 2 festival in Japan.
 * 1988 – First international tours – USA, Canada, Greece, Spain and Bulgaria.
 * 1989 – V kruge sveta ("In the circle of light") album is released.
 * 1990 – Alexandr Zaitsev leaves and Evgeny Margulis and Pyotr Podgorodetsky join the band once again.
 * 1991 – Medlennaya khoroshaya muzyka ("Slow good music") album is released.
 * 1993 – Alexander Kutikov's company "Sintez Records" releases retro albums Best songs 1979–1985 and That was so long ago. Album Vneshtatniy komandir Zemli ("Part-time commander of the Earth") is released.
 * 1994 – Acoustic live album Unplugged is recorded and released. 25th anniversary is celebrated in a 7-hour concert on the Red Square featuring Chaif, Nautilus Pompilius, Garik Sukachov and Bravo.
 * 1995 – Compilation of old unpublished songs is released. This compilation is known as  ("Whom did you expect to surprise?"), after one of Alexander Kutikov's most acclaimed songs.
 * 1996 – Kartonniye krylia lubvi ("Cardboard wings of love") album is released.
 * 1996 –  ("20 years later") album is released.
 * 1997 – Otryvayas ("Breaking away") album is released.
 * 1999 – The 30th anniversary of the band. A massive concert, usually considered to be the band's best ever, takes place in the main stadium of "sport-complex Olympiyskiy" im Moscow. Chasy i znaki ("Clocks and signs") album is released. Petr Podgorodetskiy leaves due to tensions. Andrey Derzhavin, formerly a solo artist, takes his place on the keyboards.
 * 2001 – Mesto gde svet ("The place where there's light") album is released.
 * 2004 – 35th anniversary of the band. A concert featuring 35 selected songs is played at the Red Square. Mashinalno ("Mechanically") album is released.
 * 2005 – Live album Kremlin rocks is released.
 * 2006 – Sintez Records releases a compilation called Mashina vremeni – chast' 1 ("Time Machine – Part 1"). The band records a new album (which is called in English Time machine) at famous Studio 2 at Abbey Road Studios.
 * 2007 – The group releases the Time machine album.
 * 2010 – The band continues to celebrate its 40th anniversary with a seven-stop North American tour

Musical style
Mashina Vremeni's sound is eclectic and incorporates multiple different genres. Contributions to song composition have been made by almost every band member, and often reflect each member's particular stylistic preferences. Makarevich is a fan of The Beatles, and many of his songs reflect the Beatles' influence. He is also influenced by blues music and Soviet singer-songwriters, the so-called "bards". Kutikov is a quintessential rocker, he composes guitar-oriented hard rock. Margulis is one of the Russia's best known bluesmen, and his songs are usually blues rock ballads.

The majority of the band's lyrics are written by Makarevich.

Current line-up

 * Andrey Makarevich — lead vocals, guitar (1969–present)
 * Alexander Kutikov — bass guitar, vocals (1971–1975, 1979–present)
 * Valeriy Efremov — drums, percussion (1979–present)

 * Touring musicians

 * Sergey Ostroumov — additional percussions (regular on live performances, 2004–2019) †
 * Alexandr Ditkovsky — trumpet (regular on live performances since 2004)
 * Igor Homich — guitar (regular on live performances since 2012)

Former members

 * Sergey Kawagoe — bass-guitar (1969–1971), keyboards (1971–1975), drums (1975–1979) †
 * Evgeny Margulis — guitar, bass-guitar, vocals (1975–1979, 1990–2012)
 * Pyotr Podgorodetsky — keyboards, vocals (1979–1982, 1990–1999)
 * Alexander Zaicev — keyboards (1982–1990) †
 * Sergey Rizenko — viola (1982–1983)
 * Yuri Borzov — drums (1969–1971) †
 * Maxim Kapitanovsky — drums (1971–1973) †
 * Yuri Fokin — drums (1973–1975)
 * Andrei Derzhavin — keyboards, vocals (2000–2017)

Involvement in public debate
During the Russo-Ukrainian War frontman Andrey Makarevich denounced Russian military intervention in Crimea and eastern Ukraine. Other people associated with the band kept a low profile in the matter through 2014, but in 2015 it became known that at least Kutikov was against Russian policy in Ukraine, while Derzhavin and director/manager Vladimir Sapunov sided with President Vladimir Putin's policies.

title: Mashina Vremeni


text:
Drukair

Drukair Corporation Limited (འབྲུག་མཁའ་འགྲུལ་ལས་འཛིན།), operating as Drukair — Royal Bhutan Airlines, is the flag carrier of the Kingdom of Bhutan, headquartered in the western dzongkhag of Paro.

Founded in 1981, ten years after Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuck gradually began to open up the kingdom from self-imposed isolation, and seven years after welcoming its first foreign visitors, the airline commenced operations in 1983 with flights from Kolkata to Paro utilising Dornier 228 aircraft. A switch to BAe 146-100 equipment occurred in November 1988, and, to meet increased demand, those aircraft were replaced in 2004 with five Airbus A319s.

Drukair operates a modest scheduled flight network within the South Asian and Southeast Asian region from its base at Paro Airport and currently serves thirteen destinations in six countries. The airline also owns a small fleet of four Airbus A320 family jets, three A319 and one A320neo, and one ATR 42 turboprop regional aircraft.

History
In 1968, the Indian Border Roads Organisation built an airstrip in the Paro valley, which was initially used for on-call helicopter operations by the Indian Armed Forces for the Royal Government of Bhutan. After consideration by King Jigme Singye Wangchuck and the Tshogdu, Drukair was established by royal charter on 5 April 1981, ten years after the Druk Gyalpo, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck gradually began to open up the Kingdom from self-imposed isolation, and seven years after welcoming its first foreign visitors.

Paro Airport is located deep in a valley 2235 m above sea level, and is surrounded by mountains as high as 4900 m. At the time, the runway was 1200 m in length, giving the Bhutanese government specific requirements for a choice of aircraft to be operated. They required an 18–20 seat STOL-capable aircraft with operating capabilities which included a high service ceiling, high rate of climb and high manoeuvrability. The major requirement for the aircraft was that it must be capable of flying Kolkata – Paro – Kolkata, a 1200 km round-trip flight, without refuelling, due to minimal infrastructure being available at Paro for this purpose. Three different aircraft types were considered after flight tests in India and Bhutan between 1978 and 1980; however, none was deemed suitable.

In mid-1981, the Indian government set up a committee to study its own requirements for a light transport aircraft. Based upon this competition, the Bhutanese government ordered one Dornier 228-200 for delivery in January 1983, with the option for a second aircraft for delivery in late 1983. The first 18-seat Dornier 228-200 landed at Paro Airport on 14 January 1983, the exact time of landing, the number of passengers on board and even the direction in the aircraft was parked on the airport apron were predetermined by the high lama of Paro Dzong.

The airline inaugurated scheduled revenue flights on 11 February 1983, with Flight 101 departing Paro for Kolkata and returning the next day as Flight 102. For the first four weeks, the flight was operated three times a week, after which it was increased to a daily flight. At the time of service commencement, Paro Airport consisted of the runway, a two-room air traffic control building (with the ground floor acting as the check-in counter) and a departure lounge on the lawn. Before the establishment of the Department of Civil Aviation in January 1986, the airline was responsible for the operation and maintenance of airport infrastructure. The airline commenced flights to Dhaka in Bangladesh on 30 October 1986.

Jet era
On 30 December 1987, a US$25 million order was placed with British Aerospace for a BAe 146-100 STOL regional jet. The purchase of the aircraft was financed by the government, obtaining, for the first time in the country's history, a commercial loan. In 1988, the airlines' operational base was shifted from Kolkata to Paro Airport and the airline also hired its first seven flight attendants who were trained by Thai Airways International. On 21 November 1988, the BAe 146 was delivered to Paro Airport. With the introduction of the BAe 146, Drukair was able to widen its network to link Paro with Delhi on 26 November 1988, Bangkok on 28 January 1989 and Kathmandu in April 1989. In the first full year of operational service with the BAe 146, the airline achieved an average load factor of 50–60 percent, more than the 40 percent which was expected, carrying 12,732 passengers over the 1989 – 1990 period. In 1990, the runway at Paro Airport was lengthened from 1400 m to 2000 m and reinforced for heavier aircraft. A hangar was also constructed for the aircraft, which was funded by the Indian government as part of the Paro Airport Development Project.

The airlines' only aircraft was requisitioned by King Jigme Singye on 9 November 1990, in order to allow the king and his party to travel to Tokyo for the coronation of Akihito as Emperor of Japan. From Japan, the King then travelled to Malé in the Maldives for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation summit between 21 and 23 November, and returned to Bhutan in order for the aircraft to re-enter service with the airline on 25 November. Due to a requirement stipulated by the Bhutanese government that all foreign tourists, with the exception of Indian nationals, enter and leave Bhutan by air, the country's tourism industry was brought to a halt, which saw the airline paying hefty penalties to disgruntled tour operators. This problem was somewhat alleviated when a second BAe 146 entered service in 1992, and on 11 November 1993, the airline introduced a 10 Executive Class on the aircraft. On 13 May 1991, Drukair was registered under the Companies Act of Bhutan. Service to Yangon, the capital of Myanmar, began on 6 January 1997. During 2000–2001, Drukair could operate with only one single aircraft for over a year due to a corrosion defect in its A5-RGD aircraft in the wing tanks that was detected during a check at Woodford. The wings were replaced. In 2002, an RJ70 was wet-leased from airBaltic to cover for maintenance to A5-RGE.

Drukair became the launch customer for the Avro RJX-85 in April 2000 when it placed an order with BAE Systems for two aircraft, with deliveries initially scheduled to take place in November 2001 and January 2002. Delays in the first flight and certification of the RJX pushed back expected delivery to Drukair to after April 2002. BAe Systems cancelled the RJX program in November 2002, due to receiving orders from only two airlines, Drukair and British European. With British European threatening legal action to enforce their contract with BAE Systems, the aircraft manufacturer offered to fulfil the contract for Drukair, although airline management decided against acquiring the aircraft, citing potential problems with sourcing spare parts for the aircraft in future.

In order to find a replacement for the 2 BAe 146s, Drukair management fielded submissions from Airbus, Boeing and Embraer to determine their products' suitability to meet Drukair's stringent operational requirements. Bombardier was also invited by management to demonstrate the CRJ900 regional jet, however, the airline was advised by Bombardier the aircraft would be unsuited for operations at Paro. In February 2002, the Airbus A319 became the largest aircraft to ever land at Paro Airport, when Airbus demonstrated the aircraft to the airline. By October, Boeing had withdrawn from the competition due to not being able to source an aircraft to demonstrate to the airline. With the Embraer E-190 yet to fly, it was expected that Drukair would order the A319. However, the government had concerns regarding financing for the purchase, and in October the final decision was delayed. After a short period of time, the government instructed management to begin evaluations once again, and a Boeing 737-700 conducted eleven test flights at Paro Airport in February 2003, in which it was demonstrated it met the requirements of the airline for operation into Paro.

Airbus signed a memorandum of understanding with Drukair in July 2003 for two 114-seat Airbus A319-115, powered by two CFM56-5B engines, for delivery in the second half of 2004. The purchase of the two jets, valued at 3,534.36 million Bhutanese ngultrum (BTN), was the biggest single purchase ever made by Bhutan, and was largely responsible for a 250 percent increase in the Bhutanese trade deficit over the previous year for the financial year 2004–2005. The Bhutanese government issued BTN 1,767.18 million in government bonds to pay for one aircraft and for only the second time in Bhutan's history intended to seek a commercial loan for the other aircraft. However, in October 2004 it announced it would instead seek a soft loan for this purpose.

On 11 November 2003, the king's birthday, Drukair initiated services to Gaya, India. Bodh Gaya, 10 km from Gaya, is the site of the Mahabodhi Temple where Siddhārtha Gautama, the Buddha, reached enlightenment, and 30,000–40,000 Bhutanese make the pilgrimage every year. Pilgrims have previously made the pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya via a 2–3-day overland trip from the Bhutanese border town of Phuntsholing, and Drukair management plans on acquiring 20–30% of this traffic, although the airline had yet to record a profit on the route at of February 2006. The following month, as a result of Royal Bhutan Army efforts to expel from Bhutan territory Indian separatist insurgent groups, notably the United Liberation Front of Asom and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland, flights to Dhaka were suspended from 29 December in order to prevent insurgents from using Drukair flights to escape to alleged hideouts in Bangladesh.

Airbus era
The first Airbus A319 arrived in Bhutan on 19 October 2004; the date chosen after a Buddhist astrologer was consulted to ensure the aircraft arrived in Bhutan on an auspicious day in the Buddhist calendar. Before entering service on commercial flights on 31 October 2004, Drukair took their A319 on a country-wide flight in honour of the ascension of Crown Prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck to the Chhoetse Penlop. The second aircraft was delivered by Airbus to Drukair in December 2004. On 31 August 2012, Druk Air took delivery of a third Airbus A319.

In July 2005, the governments of India and Bhutan signed a new bilateral air services agreement which increased the allowable number of weekly flights between the two countries from 12 to 49. In addition to destinations already served by Drukair, the cities of Mumbai, Chennai and Guwahati were included in their services agreement, with Bhutan being granted fifth freedom rights from several Indian cities to onward destinations such as Yangon, Dhaka and Singapore.

Domestic helicopter service was inaugurated in November 2005, in line with a resolution by the Council of Ministers in April 2001 which stated that domestic services should be introduced. Thirty heliports across the country were identified, and the introduction of services saw, for example, the 550 km trip from Thimphu to Trashigang taking only one hour, instead of two to three days. The Eurocopter Ecureuil helicopter operated by the Nepalese operator, Air Dynasty, had by January 2006 seen 30 hours of service, netting Drukair US$3,000 in profits.

Flights to Dhaka, suspended since 29 December 2003, resumed on 23 October 2006, and the airline was given rights to fly to Chittagong and Cox's Bazar by the Bangladeshi authorities. The airline announced plans in July 2007 to start scheduled flights to Mumbai via Kathmandu from March 2008, inline with the strategy of Drukair management to increase the number of Indian tourists travelling to Bhutan during the low season months of June through August and November through February. These plans were put on hold in March 2008, due to Paro Airport not being able to handle night flights and the airline only being able to secure landing slots at Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport at 3 am. Plans for services to Hong Kong, Singapore, Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Sharjah were also shelved.

The airline posted its first profit in 2007 of BTN 31.15 million. The two BAe 146 aircraft were sold to Star Perú in October 2007 for US$3.3 million, and left Bhutan for Peru in November and December 2007. Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck on 11 November 2007 issued a Royal Kasho establishing Druk Holding and Investments Limited, a holding company which would manage existing and future investments of the Royal Bhutanese government. As a result, seven government-owned companies, including Drukair, had their ownership transferred from the Ministry of Finance to the newly formed holding company. Incorporated on 13 November 2007, Druk Holding and Investments announced in December 2007 that given Bhutan's tourism industry being reliant on Drukair, the head of the government agency overseeing tourism development in Bhutan would become the chairperson of Drukair, and would be responsible for improving the performance of the national airline.

In March 2008, Drukair introduced a new uniform for its flight attendants, consisting of a contemporary kira and tego. The uniforms were introduced for the centenary celebrations of the monarchy, as well as the airlines own silver jubilee. The uniform was chosen by way of a competition in which five Bhutanese fashion designers submitted entries, with the winner receiving a BTN 75,000 prize. The textiles used in the new uniform was chosen via a competition which was jointly organised by Drukair and the United Nations Development Programme to promote the Bhutanese textile industry and culture.

Although the government of Bhutan goes to great lengths to prevent outside influences from intruding on Bhutanese culture, Drukair is not immune to problems which affect the airline industry and the world community at large. In June 2008, citing hikes in the price of oil and the need to contain operational costs, the airline reduced frequencies across its network and announced an increase in airfares to offset the increased costs, whilst taking advantage of the lower cost of jet fuel at Delhi, Kolkata and Bangkok airports. Due to its small network which is reliant on fifth-freedom rights, Drukair regularly leases its aircraft to other airlines, such as Myanmar Airways International and Bangkok Airways in order to keep utilisation rates on its aircraft higher than they would under normal circumstances, whilst at the same time earning extra revenue.

The airline was due to begin flights on 20 April 2009 to Bagdogra Airport in India, but had to delay the inaugural flight due to the lack of immigration and customs facilities at the airport. The inaugural flight to Bagdogra Airport left Paro Airport on 18 June 2009, making Drukair the first international airline to operate into the airport. In Bagdogra, a ceremony was held which was attended by S. M. Krishna, the Indian Minister for External Affairs, and Lyonpo Ugyen Tshering, the Bhutanese Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Contemporary developments
Until 23 August 2010 Drukair was the only airline flying into Bhutan.

The airline is important for Bhutan and the Bhutanese people, connecting Bhutan with the outside world and supporting tourism and export markets.

In October 2009, the Bhutanese government planned construction works for an airstrip in Yongphulla. The airstrip, which was expected to be 3900 ft in length and operational by March 2010, would allow for service by small aircraft in the 15–16 seat category. The project was being financed with Nu. 34 million from the budget which was previously allocated to the development of domestic helicopter services. The airstrip would only be operational during the morning hours due to high winds in the afternoon, making safe operations risky.

Drukair is conducting a feasibility study into operating flights to the airstrip from Paro, as well as two others which are under construction at Bathpalathang and Gelephu.

In 2006, the Indian government, acting for the Bhutanese government, conducted a feasibility study into the viability of an international airport near the southern Bhutanese town of Gelephu. In the five-year plan (which covers 2008–2013) the sum of BTN 2,826 million had been allocated by the Bhutanese government for development of the new airport. A preliminary survey was conducted by India in May 2006 and the survey team from the Airports Authority of India was to return and complete the final survey in September 2006. In October 2008 the project was shelved, and the Bhutanese government decided that the airport at Gelephu would be used for domestic flights only.

Since then, the construction of a domestic airport at Gelephu has been scheduled to commence in late 2010 with the airport proposing to start operations in June 2011. The Bhutanese Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) has indicated that Gelephu's will be an 'all-weather' airport that may be able to accept some international traffic in the future.

Under the Vision 2020 Plan, the Royal Bhutanese Government has identified the requirement for improved external air links by 2017, in an effort to increase tourism revenue 100% by 2012 and 150% by 2017. Drukair is conducting feasibility studies into the commencement of operations to either Hong Kong or Singapore by March 2011. The airline's commercial manager has stated that preliminary studies show that Bhutanese traffic to Singapore would consist mainly of official travel, whilst traffic to Hong Kong would be mainly commercial, with good prospects for tourism development.

On 21 April 2010, an ATR 42 turboprop regional aircraft was delivered to Paro under a nine-month lease. The aircraft was used on flights from Paro to Kolkata and Kathmandu, and was on standby during the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation summit in Thimphu at the end of April. Drukair announced its intention to join the International Air Transport Association in 2009.

During February 2018, Druk air performed a few charter flights to Hong Kong and additional charter flights were on slate during the following months. The airline had received request for charter flights to other destinations in Asia. It was also reported that Druk air would be adding an Airbus A320neo aircraft as well as purchasing a new ATR-42-600 aircraft.

Drukair took delivery of its new ATR 42-600 on 22 October 2019. This was followed by the delivery of the Airbus A320neo in April 2020.

Destinations
Drukair operates scheduled flights to the following destinations:

Current fleet
, the Drukair fleet consists of the following aircraft:

An ATR 42-500 first operated on a nine-month lease from April 2010 was evaluated by the airline with the possibility of a future purchase. On 4 June 2011, a purchased ATR 42-500 arrived in Paro. Drukair had bought the 48-seater with the view of using it to service the domestic routes to Bumthang and Yonphula in late 2011. On 22 October 2019, Drukair received a new ATR 42-600 following which it sold its ATR 42-500 to ATR.

On 12 October 2021, Drukair inaugurated its first Airbus A320neo. The aircraft was ordered in 2018 and received in April 2020.

Helicopter fleet
The Airbus H130 is the primary helicopter used for charter flights to remote villages. Royal Bhutan Helicopter Services which previously operated the helicopter fleet was merged with Druk Air to form Druk Air Helicopter Services.

The Druk Air helicopter services fleet consists of the following aircraft :

Frequent flyer program
"My Happiness Reward" was launched by Drukair on 10 November 2014, in commemorating the birth anniversary of His Majesty the Fourth Druk Gyalpo Jigme Singye Wangchuck and in celebrating his enlightened and visionary philosophy of Gross National Happiness.

The members of the program can accumulate miles corresponding to the distance flown on Drukair and the class of service availed. Accrued miles may then be redeemed for free air tickets (Happiness Reward Ticket), upgrades at airports (Happiness Class Upgrade) and other benefits. Drukair currently offers 3 tiers of membership: Silver (Basic tier), Gold and Platinum (the elite tier).

Accidents and incidents

 * On 16 April 2016, Druk Air Flight KB140 was damaged after flying through a hail storm while on approach to Guwahati. The aircraft, an Airbus A319-115, operated on a flight from Paro to Bangkok via Guwahati. While descending to Guwahati over the Garo Hills, hail stones damaged and punctured the nose cone of the aircraft. A safe landing was made at Guwahati. No injuries were reported.

title: Drukair


text:
Felsted School

Felsted School is a co-educational independent boarding and day school, situated in Felsted in Essex, England. It is in the British public school tradition, and was founded in 1564 by Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich. Felsted is one of the 12 founder members of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference, and a full member of the Round Square Conference of world schools. Felsted School is featured in the Good Schools Guide and is regularly featured in Tatler's Schools Guide. Felsted School was shortlisted for 'Boarding School of the Year' 2020 by the Times Education Supplement (TES). Felsted is notable for having educated a British head of state, Richard Cromwell.

History
Felsted was founded in 1564 by Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich (also known as Riche) who, as Lord Chancellor and Chancellor of the Court of Augmentations, acquired considerable wealth from the spoils of the Dissolution of the Monasteries including the nearby Leez Priory where he lived.

The school became a notable educational centre for Puritan families in the 17th century, numbering a hundred or more pupils, under Martin Holbeach, Headmaster from 1627 to 1649, and his successors (see below). John Wallis and Isaac Barrow were educated at Felsted in this period, as were four of Oliver Cromwell's sons.

Another era of prosperity set in under the headmastership of William Trivett between 1778 and 1794; but numbers dwindled under his successors. Thomas Surridge (headmaster 1835–1850) discovered from research among the records, that a larger income was really due to the foundation, a re-organisation took place by Act of Parliament, and in 1850, under the headmastership of the Rev. Albert Henry Wratislaw, the school was put under a new governing body (a revised scheme coming into operation in 1876). Thereafter, Felsted rapidly developed into one of the regular public schools of the modern English type, under the Rev. W. S. Grignon. New buildings were built on an elaborate scale, numbers increased to more than 200, and a complete transformation took place, which was continued under Grignon's successors, like Frank Stephenson, who ordered large extensions to the buildings and playing-fields. This allowed admittance up to 475 pupils, nearly all of whom were boarders.

The school was evacuated to three Herefordshire houses near Ross-on-Wye during the Second World War at the owners invitation to be out of the way of German bombing. Most of the school was in Goodrich Court and Windsor's and Ingle's Houses occupied Hill Court Manor.

On 25 July 1953 the school's Combined Cadet Force armoury was raided by the Irish Republican Army (1922–69), making off with 8 Bren guns, 12 Sten guns, an anti-tank gun, a mortar and 109 rifles. Their van was stopped by a police patrol and Cathal Goulding, Sean Stephenson, later known as Seán Mac Stíofáin and Manus Canning each received 8 years in prison.

Major building works took place for the 400th anniversary celebrations in 1964, when the Queen Mother laid the foundation stone for the then new Music School, subsequently opened by Felsted governor Lord Butler of Saffron Walden, (formerly Rab Butler). In 2008 this building was replaced by a larger new building which was opened in 2009 by Dame Evelyn Glennie. The Princess Royal opened the new Lord Riche Hall in 1989. Girls were taken into the Sixth Form in 1970, and into the whole school in 1993.

21st century
The success of taking drama productions every two years to perform in American high schools from 2000 onwards, led to the school being invited in 2008 by the U.S. authorities to put on a production of Stephen Sondheim's A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum at Bedford Hills Correctional Facility for Women. The audience consisted of life prisoners and received international news coverage. The success of this venture led to three further productions in the Correctional Facility: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (2010), The Secret Garden (2012) and Cabaret (2014).

In July 2012 part of the school was devastated by fire after a blaze broke out in the roof and first floor of Follyfield House, one of the girls' boarding houses. The school term had ended but about 25 students and staff from a summer school were on site and evacuated. Nobody was injured. The school reopened as normal in September, with a new, temporary house situated next to the Lord Riche Hall. Soon after, an all new state-of-the-art boarding house was built in a different location, nearer to Gepp's & Deacon's houses, and opened as planned in September 2014.

On 6 May 2014, the school was visited by reigning monarch Queen Elizabeth II to mark the 450th anniversary of Felsted School. She unveiled plaques for the visit as well as officially opening the newly constructed Follyfield House.

Fees in 2020/2021 range from £24,495 per year for a day pupil to £37,485 per year for full boarding.

Recognition
Felsted is one of the 12 founder members of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference, and a member of the Round Square Conference of world schools. Felsted School is featured in the Good Schools Guide and is regularly featured in Tatler's Schools Guide. Felsted School was shortlisted for 'Boarding School of the Year' 2020 by the Times Education Supplement (TES).

Houses
Girls' boarding houses are Stocks' Follyfield (referred to as 'Follies') Garnetts and Thorne

Boys' boarding houses are Elywn's Gepp's Deacon's and Windsor's.

There are two day houses, Manor and Montgomery's. (referred to as 'Monts')

Notable headmasters

 * 1850–1855: Rev. Albert Henry Wratislaw, MA (1822–1892)
 * 1933–1943: Rev. Canon Kenneth Julian Faithfull Bickersteth, MA, MC, QHC (1885–1962)
 * 2015–present: Christopher James Townsend (b. 1972)

title: Felsted School


text:
Sam Ramsamy

Sam Ramsamy OIS (born 27 January 1938) is an educator, activist and sports administrator from South Africa.

Career
Ramsamy was a physical education lecturer and a primary school teacher.

In the 1980s, he was a high-profile anti-apartheid campaigner in London and was chairman of the South Africa non-racial Olympic Committee (SAN-ROC) during the apartheid years from 1976 to 1990, campaigning against discrimination in sport and against the participation of South Africa's white-only teams in international sporting events.

He returned to South Africa upon the lifting of ban on the ANC and became the President of South Africa's official National Olympic Committee from 1991. He led the first non-racial South African team to the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. He has served with the International Swimming Federation bureau and is currently also a vice-president and official FINA spokesman at all official events.

Ramsamy was a member of the International Olympic Committee and sat on their Commission evaluating the bids for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He was a member of the IOC co-ordination committee for the 2012 London Games. Ramsamy ceased to be a member at the end of 2018 when as per protocol he retired after turning 80.

In May 2011, following the announcement that South Africa will not bid for the 2020 Olympic Games, Ramsamy told Olympic news source Around the Rings that he was "disappointed" in the government's decision, but he is "certain" they will bid for 2024.

title: Sam Ramsamy


text:
Swine influenza

Swine influenza is an infection caused by any of several types of swine influenza viruses. Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) refers to any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs. As of 2009, identified SIV strains include influenza C and the subtypes of influenza A known as H1N1, H1N2, H2N1, H3N1, H3N2, and H2N3.

The swine influenza virus is common throughout pig populations worldwide. Transmission of the virus from pigs to humans is rare and does not always lead to human illness, often resulting only in the production of antibodies in the blood. If transmission causes human illness, it is called a zoonotic swine flu. People with regular exposure to pigs are at increased risk of swine flu infections.

Around the mid-20th century, the identification of influenza subtypes was made possible, allowing accurate diagnosis of transmission to humans. Since then, only 50 such transmissions have been confirmed. These strains of swine flu rarely pass from human to human. Symptoms of zoonotic swine flu in humans are similar to those of influenza and influenza-like illness and include chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness, shortness of breath, and general discomfort.

It is estimated that, in the 2009 flu pandemic, 11–21% of the then global population (of about 6.8 billion), equivalent to around 700 million to 1.4 billion people, contracted the illness—more, in absolute terms, than the Spanish flu pandemic. There were 18,449 confirmed fatalities. However, in a 2012 study, the CDC estimated more than 284,000 possible fatalities worldwide, with numbers ranging from 150,000 to 575,000. In August 2010, the World Health Organization declared the swine flu pandemic officially over.

Subsequent cases of swine flu were reported in India in 2015, with over 31,156 positive test cases and 1,841 deaths.

Signs and symptoms
In pigs, a swine influenza infection produces fever, lethargy, discharge from the nose or eyes, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, eye redness or inflammation, and decreased appetite. In some cases, the infection can cause miscarriage. However, infected pigs may not exhibit any symptoms. Although mortality is usually low (around 1–4%), the virus can cause weight loss and poor growth, in turn causing economic loss to farmers. Infected pigs can lose up to 12 pounds of body weight over a three- to four-week period. Influenza A is responsible for infecting swine and was first identified in 1918. Because both avian and mammalian influenza viruses can bind to receptors in pigs, pigs have often been seen as "mixing vessels", facilitating the evolution of strains that can be passed on to other mammals, such as humans.

Humans

Direct transmission of a swine flu virus from pigs to humans is possible (zoonotic swine flu). Fifty cases are known to have occurred since the first report in medical literature in 1958, which have resulted in a total of six deaths. Of these six people, one was pregnant, one had leukemia, one had Hodgkin's lymphoma, and two were known to be previously healthy. No medical history was reported for the remaining case The true rate of infection may be higher, as most cases only cause a very mild disease and may never be reported or diagnosed.

According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in humans the symptoms of the 2009 "swine flu" H1N1 virus are similar to influenza and influenza-like illness. Symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, watery eyes, body aches, shortness of breath, headache, weight loss, chills, sneezing, runny nose, coughing, dizziness, abdominal pain, lack of appetite, and fatigue. During the 2009 outbreak, an elevated percentage of patients reporting diarrhea and vomiting.

Because these symptoms are not specific to swine flu, a differential diagnosis of probable swine flu requires not only symptoms, but also a high likelihood of swine flu due to the person's recent and past medical history. For example, during the 2009 swine flu outbreak in the United States, the CDC advised physicians to "consider swine influenza infection in the differential diagnosis of patients with acute febrile respiratory illness who have either been in contact with persons with confirmed swine flu, or who were in one of the five U.S. states that have reported swine flu cases or in Mexico during the seven days preceding their illness onset." A diagnosis of confirmed swine flu requires laboratory testing of a respiratory sample (a simple nose and throat swab).

The most common cause of death is respiratory failure. Other causes of death are pneumonia (leading to sepsis), high fever (leading to neurological problems), dehydration (from excessive vomiting and diarrhea), electrolyte imbalance and kidney failure. Fatalities are more likely in young children and the elderly.

Between pigs
Influenza is common in pigs. About half of breeding pigs in the USA have been exposed to the virus. Antibodies to the virus are also common in pigs in other countries.

The main route of transmission is through direct contact between infected and uninfected animals. These close contacts are particularly common during animal transport. Intensive farming may also increase the risk of transmission, as the pigs are raised in very close proximity to each other. Direct transfer of the virus probably occurs though pigs touching noses or through dried mucus. Airborne transmission through the aerosols produced by pigs coughing or sneezing are also an important means of infection. The virus usually spreads quickly through a herd, infecting all the pigs within just a few days. Transmission may also occur through wild animals, such as wild boar, which can spread the disease between farms.

To humans
People who work with poultry and swine, especially those with intense exposures, are at increased risk of zoonotic infection with influenza virus endemic in these animals, and constitute a population of human hosts in which zoonosis and reassortment can co-occur. Vaccination of these workers against influenza and surveillance for new influenza strains among this population may therefore be an important public health measure. Transmission of influenza from swine to humans who work with swine was documented in a small surveillance study performed in 2004 at the University of Iowa. This study, among others, forms the basis of a recommendation that people whose jobs involve handling poultry and swine be the focus of increased public health surveillance. Other professions at particular risk of infection are veterinarians and meat processing workers, although the risk of infection for both of these groups is lower than that of farm workers.

Interaction with avian H5N1 in pigs
Pigs are unusual because they can be infected with influenza strains that usually infect three different species: pigs, birds, and humans. Within pigs, influenza viruses may exchange genes and produce novel strains. Avian influenza virus H3N2 is endemic in pigs in China and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. H3N2 evolved from H2N2 by antigenic shift. In August 2004, researchers in China found H5N1 in pigs.

These H5N1 infections may be common. In a survey of 10 apparently healthy pigs housed near poultry farms in West Java, where avian flu had broken out, five of the pig samples contained the H5N1 virus. The Indonesian government found similar results in the same region, though additional tests of 150 pigs outside the area were negative.

Structure
The influenza virion is roughly spherical. It is an enveloped virus; the outer layer is a lipid membrane which is taken from the host cell in which the virus multiplies. Inserted into the lipid membrane are glycoprotein "spikes" of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The combination of HA and NA proteins determine the subtype of influenza virus (A/H1N1, for example). HA and NA are important in the immune response against the virus, and antibodies against these spikes may protect against infection. The antiviral drugs Relenza and Tamiflu target NA by inhibiting neuraminidase and preventing the release of viruses from host cells. Also embedded in the lipid membrane is the M2 protein, which is the target of the antiviral adamantanes amantadine and rimantadine.

Classification
Of the three genera of influenza viruses that cause human flu, two also cause influenza in pigs, with influenza A being common in pigs and influenza C being rare. Influenza B has not been reported in pigs. Within influenza A and influenza C, the strains found in pigs and humans are largely distinct, although because of reassortment there have been transfers of genes among strains crossing swine, avian, and human species boundaries.

Influenza C
Influenza viruses infect both humans and pigs, but do not infect birds. Transmission between pigs and humans have occurred in the past. For example, influenza C caused small outbreaks of a mild form of influenza amongst children in Japan and California. As a result of the limited host range and lack of genetic diversity in influenza C, this form of influenza does not cause pandemics in humans.

Influenza A
Swine influenza is caused by influenza A subtypes H1N1, H1N2, H2N3, H3N1, and H3N2. In pigs, four influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H1N2, H3N2 and H7N9) are the most common strains worldwide. In the United States, the H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998. Since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. As of 2004, H3N2 virus isolates in US swine and turkey stocks were triple reassortants, containing genes from human (HA, NA, and PB1), swine (NS, NP, and M), and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages. In August 2012, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention confirmed 145 human cases (113 in Indiana, 30 in Ohio, one in Hawaii and one in Illinois) of H3N2v since July 2012. The death of a 61-year-old Madison County, Ohio woman is the first in the USA associated with a new swine flu strain. She contracted the illness after having contact with hogs at the Ross County Fair.

Diagnosis
The CDC recommends real-time PCR as the method of choice for diagnosing H1N1. The oral or nasal fluid collection and RNA virus-preserving filter-paper card is commercially available. This method allows a specific diagnosis of novel influenza (H1N1) as opposed to seasonal influenza. Near-patient point-of-care tests are in development.

Prevention
Prevention of swine influenza has three components: prevention in pigs, prevention of transmission to humans, and prevention of its spread among humans. Proper handwashing techniques can prevent the virus from spreading. Individuals can prevent infection by not touching the eyes, nose, or mouth, distancing from others who display symptoms of the cold or flu, and avoiding contact with others when displaying symptoms.

Swine
Methods of preventing the spread of influenza among swine include facility management, herd management, and vaccination (ATCvet code: ). Because much of the illness and death associated with swine flu involves secondary infection by other pathogens, control strategies that rely on vaccination may be insufficient.

Control of swine influenza by vaccination has become more difficult in recent decades, as the evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the infection when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection, and custom (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated are created and used in the more difficult cases. Present vaccination strategies for SIV control and prevention in swine farms typically include the use of one of several bivalent SIV vaccines commercially available in the United States. Of the 97 recent H3N2 isolates examined, only 41 isolates had strong serologic cross-reactions with antiserum to three commercial SIV vaccines. Since the protective ability of influenza vaccines depends primarily on the closeness of the match between the vaccine virus and the epidemic virus, the presence of nonreactive H3N2 SIV variants suggests current commercial vaccines might not effectively protect pigs from infection with a majority of H3N2 viruses. The United States Department of Agriculture researchers say while pig vaccination keeps pigs from getting sick, it does not block infection or shedding of the virus.

Facility management includes using disinfectants and ambient temperature to control viruses in the environment. They are unlikely to survive outside living cells for more than two weeks, except in cold (but above freezing) conditions, and are readily inactivated by disinfectants. Herd management includes not adding pigs carrying influenza to herds that have not been exposed to the virus. The virus survives in healthy carrier pigs for up to three months and can be recovered from them between outbreaks. Carrier pigs are usually responsible for the introduction of SIV into previously uninfected herds and countries, so new animals should be quarantined. After an outbreak, as immunity in exposed pigs wanes, new outbreaks of the same strain can occur.

Humans
Swine can be infected by both avian and human flu strains of influenza, and therefore are hosts where the antigenic shifts can occur that create new influenza strains.
 * Prevention of pig-to-human transmission

The transmission from swine to humans is believed to occur mainly in swine farms, where farmers are in close contact with live pigs. Although strains of swine influenza are usually not able to infect humans, it may occasionally happen, so farmers and veterinarians are encouraged to use face masks when dealing with infected animals. The use of vaccines on swine to prevent their infection is a major method of limiting swine-to-human transmission. Risk factors that may contribute to the swine-to-human transmission include smoking and, especially, not wearing gloves when working with sick animals, thereby increasing the likelihood of subsequent hand-to-eye, hand-to-nose, or hand-to-mouth transmission.

Influenza spreads between humans when infected people cough or sneeze, then other people breathe in the virus or touch something with the virus on it and then touch their own face. The CDC warned against touching mucosal membranes such as the eyes, nose, or mouth during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, as these are common entry points for flu viruses. Swine flu cannot be spread by pork products, since the virus is not transmitted through food. The swine flu in humans is most contagious during the first five days of the illness, although some people, most commonly children, can remain contagious for up to ten days. Diagnosis can be made by sending a specimen, collected during the first five days, for analysis. Recommendations to prevent the spread of the virus among humans include using standard infection control, which includes frequent washing of hands with soap and water or with alcohol-based hand sanitizers, especially after being out in public. Chance of transmission is also reduced by disinfecting household surfaces, which can be done effectively with a diluted chlorine bleach solution.
 * Prevention of human-to-human transmission

Influenza can spread in coughs or sneezes, but an increasing body of evidence shows small droplets containing the virus can linger on tabletops, telephones, and other surfaces and be transferred via the fingers to the eyes, nose, or mouth. Alcohol-based gel or foam hand sanitizers work well to destroy viruses and bacteria. Anyone with flu-like symptoms, such as a sudden fever, cough, or muscle aches, should stay away from work or public transportation and should contact a doctor for advice.

Social distancing can be another infection control tactic. Individuals should avoid other people who might be infected or if infected themselves isolate from others for the duration of the infection. During active outbreaks, avoiding large gatherings, increasing physical distance in public places, or if possible remaining at home as much as is feasible can prevent further spread of disease. Public health and other responsible authorities have action plans which may request or require social distancing actions, depending on the severity of the outbreak.

Vaccination
Vaccines are available for different kinds of swine flu. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the new swine flu vaccine for use in the United States on September 15, 2009. Studies by the National Institutes of Health show a single dose creates enough antibodies to protect against the virus within about 10 days.

In the aftermath of the 2009 pandemic, several studies were conducted to see which population groups were most likely to have received an influenza vaccine. These studies demonstrated that caucasians are much more likely to be vaccinated for seasonal influenza and for the H1N1 strain than African Americans. This could be due to several factors. Historically, there has been mistrust of vaccines and of the medical community from African Americans. Many African Americans do not believe vaccines or doctors to be effective. This mistrust stems from the exploitation of the African American communities during studies like the Tuskegee study. Additionally, vaccines are typically administered in clinics, hospitals, or doctor's offices. Many people of lower socioeconomic status are less likely to receive vaccinations because they do not have health insurance.

Surveillance
Although there is no formal national surveillance system in the United States to determine what viruses are circulating in pigs, an informal surveillance network in the United States is part of a world surveillance network.

Swine
As swine influenza is rarely fatal to pigs, little treatment beyond rest and supportive care is required. Instead, veterinary efforts are focused on preventing the spread of the virus throughout the farm or to other farms. Vaccination and animal management techniques are most important in these efforts. Antibiotics are also used to treat the disease, which, although they have no effect against the influenza virus, do help prevent bacterial pneumonia and other secondary infections in influenza-weakened herds.

In Europe the avian-like H1N1 and the human-like H3N2 and H1N2 are the most common influenza subtypes in swine, of which avian-like H1N1 is the most frequent. Since 2009 another subtype, pdmH1N1(2009), emerged globally and also in European pig population. The prevalence varies from country to country but all of the subtypes are continuously circulating in swine herds. In the EU region whole-virus vaccines are available which are inactivated and adjuvanted. Vaccination of sows is common practice and reveals also a benefit to young pigs by prolonging the maternally level of antibodies. Several commercial vaccines are available including a trivalent one being used in sow vaccination and a vaccine against pdmH1N1(2009). In vaccinated sows multiplication of viruses and virus shedding are significantly reduced.

Humans
If a human becomes sick with swine flu, antiviral drugs can make the illness milder and make the patient feel better faster. They may also prevent serious flu complications. For treatment, antiviral drugs work best if started soon after getting sick (within two days of symptoms). Beside antivirals, supportive care at home or in a hospital focuses on controlling fevers, relieving pain and maintaining fluid balance, as well as identifying and treating any secondary infections or other medical problems. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends the use of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza) for the treatment and/or prevention of infection with swine influenza viruses; however, the majority of people infected with the virus make a full recovery without requiring medical attention or antiviral drugs. The virus isolated in the 2009 outbreak have been found resistant to amantadine and rimantadine.

Pandemics
Swine influenza was first proposed to be a disease related to human flu during the 1918 flu pandemic, when pigs became ill at the same time as humans. The first identification of an influenza virus as a cause of disease in pigs occurred about ten years later, in 1930. For the following 60 years, swine influenza strains were almost exclusively H1N1. Then, between 1997 and 2002, new strains of three different subtypes and five different genotypes emerged as causes of influenza among pigs in North America. In 1997–1998, H3N2 strains emerged. These strains, which include genes derived by reassortment from human, swine and avian viruses, have become a major cause of swine influenza in North America. Reassortment between H1N1 and H3N2 produced H1N2. In 1999 in Canada, a strain of H4N6 crossed the species barrier from birds to pigs, but was contained on a single farm.

The H1N1 form of swine flu is one of the descendants of the strain that caused the 1918 flu pandemic. As well as persisting in pigs, the descendants of the 1918 virus have also circulated in humans through the 20th century, contributing to the normal seasonal epidemics of influenza. However, direct transmission from pigs to humans is rare, with only 12 recorded cases in the U.S. since 2005. Nevertheless, the retention of influenza strains in pigs after these strains have disappeared from the human population might make pigs a reservoir where influenza viruses could persist, later emerging to reinfect humans once human immunity to these strains has waned.

Swine flu has been reported numerous times as a zoonosis in humans, usually with limited distribution, rarely with a widespread distribution. Outbreaks in swine are common and cause significant economic losses in industry, primarily by causing stunting and extended time to market. For example, this disease costs the British meat industry about £65 million every year.

1918
The 1918 flu pandemic in humans was associated with H1N1 and influenza appearing in pigs; this may reflect a zoonosis either from swine to humans, or from humans to swine. Although it is not certain in which direction the virus was transferred, some evidence suggests that in this case pigs caught the disease from humans. For instance, swine influenza was only noted as a new disease of pigs in 1918 after the first large outbreaks of influenza amongst people. Although a recent phylogenetic analysis of more recent strains of influenza in humans, birds, and other animals including swine suggests the 1918 outbreak in humans followed a reassortment event within a mammal, the exact origin of the 1918 strain remains elusive. It is estimated that anywhere from 50 to 100 million people were killed worldwide.

U.S. 2009
The swine flu was initially seen in the US in April 2009, where the strain of the particular virus was a mixture from 3 types of strains. Six of the genes are very similar to the H1N2 influenza virus that was found in pigs around 2000.

1976 U.S.
On February 5, 1976, a United States army recruit at Fort Dix said he felt tired and weak. He died the next day, and four of his fellow soldiers were later hospitalized. Two weeks after his death, health officials announced the cause of death was a new strain of swine flu. The strain, a variant of H1N1, is known as A/New Jersey/1976 (H1N1). It was detected only from January 19 to February 9 and did not spread beyond Fort Dix.

This new strain appeared to be closely related to the strain involved in the 1918 flu pandemic. Moreover, the ensuing increased surveillance uncovered another strain in circulation in the U.S.: A/Victoria/75 (H3N2), which spread simultaneously, also caused illness, and persisted until March. Alarmed public health officials decided action must be taken to head off another major pandemic, and urged President Gerald Ford that every person in the U.S. be vaccinated for the disease.

The vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems. On October 1, 1976, immunizations began, and three senior citizens died soon after receiving their injections. This resulted in a media outcry that linked these deaths to the immunizations, despite the lack of any proof the vaccine was the cause. According to science writer Patrick Di Justo, however, by the time the truth was known—that the deaths were not proven to be related to the vaccine—it was too late. "The government had long feared mass panic about swine flu—now they feared mass panic about the swine flu vaccinations." This became a strong setback to the program.

There were reports of Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), a paralyzing neuromuscular disorder, affecting some people who had received swine flu immunizations. Although whether a link exists is still not clear, this syndrome may be a side effect of influenza vaccines. As a result, Di Justo writes, "the public refused to trust a government-operated health program that killed old people and crippled young people." In total, 48,161,019 Americans, or just over 22% of the population, had been immunized by the time the National Influenza Immunization Program was effectively halted on December 16, 1976.

Overall, there were 1098 cases of GBS recorded nationwide by CDC surveillance, 532 of which occurred after vaccination and 543 before vaccination. About one to two cases per 100,000 people of GBS occur every year, whether or not people have been vaccinated. The vaccination program seems to have increased this normal risk of developing GBS by about to one extra case per 100,000 vaccinations.

Recompensation charges were filed for over 4,000 cases of severe vaccination damage, including 25 deaths, totaling US$3.5 billion, by 1979. The CDC stated most studies on modern influenza vaccines have seen no link with GBS, Although one review gives an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations, a large study in China, reported in the New England Journal of Medicine, covering close to 100 million doses of H1N1 flu vaccine, found only 11 cases of GBS, which is lower than the normal rate of the disease in China: "The risk-benefit ratio, which is what vaccines and everything in medicine is about, is overwhelmingly in favor of vaccination."

1988 U.S.
In September 1988, a swine flu virus killed one woman and infected others. A 32-year-old woman, Barbara Ann Wieners, was eight months pregnant when she and her husband, Ed, became ill after visiting the hog barn at a county fair in Walworth County, Wisconsin. Barbara died eight days later, after developing pneumonia. The only pathogen identified was an H1N1 strain of swine influenza virus. Doctors were able to induce labor and deliver a healthy daughter before she died. Her husband recovered from his symptoms.

Influenza-like illness (ILI) was reportedly widespread among the pigs exhibited at the fair. Of the 25 swine exhibitors aged 9 to 19 at the fair, 19 tested positive for antibodies to SIV, but no serious illnesses were seen. The virus was able to spread between people, since one to three health care personnel who had cared for the pregnant woman developed mild, influenza-like illnesses, and antibody tests suggested they had been infected with swine flu, but there was no community outbreak.

In 1998, swine flu was found in pigs in four U.S. states. Within a year, it had spread through pig populations across the United States. Scientists found this virus had originated in pigs as a recombinant form of flu strains from birds and humans. This outbreak confirmed that pigs can serve as a crucible where novel influenza viruses emerge as a result of the reassortment of genes from different strains. Genetic components of these 1998 triple-hybrid strains would later form six out of the eight viral gene segments in the 2009 flu outbreak.

2007 Philippines
On August 20, 2007, Department of Agriculture officers investigated the outbreak of swine flu in Nueva Ecija and central Luzon, Philippines. The mortality rate is less than 10% for swine flu, unless there are complications like hog cholera. On July 27, 2007, the Philippine National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS) raised a hog cholera "red alert" warning over Metro Manila and five regions of Luzon after the disease spread to backyard pig farms in Bulacan and Pampanga, even if they tested negative for the swine flu virus.

2009 Northern Ireland
Since November 2009, 14 deaths as a result of swine flu in Northern Ireland have been reported. The majority of the deceased were reported to have pre-existing health conditions which had lowered their immunity. This closely corresponds to the 19 patients who had died in the year prior due to swine flu, where 18 of the 19 were determined to have lowered immune systems. Because of this, many mothers who have just given birth are strongly encouraged to get a flu shot because their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control.

2015 and 2019 India
Swine flu outbreaks were reported in India in late 2014 and early 2015. As of March 19, 2015 the disease has affected 31,151 people and claimed over 1,841 lives. The largest number of reported cases and deaths due to the disease occurred in the western part of India including states like Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat Andhra Pradesh Researchers of MIT have claimed that the swine flu has mutated in India to a more virulent version with changes in Hemagglutinin protein, contradicting earlier research by Indian researchers.

There was another outbreak in India in 2017. The states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were the worst affected. Gujarat high court has given Gujarat government instructions to control deaths by swine flu. 1,090 people died of swine flu in India in 2019 until August 31, 2019.

2015 Nepal
Swine flu outbreaks were reported in Nepal in the spring of 2015. Up to April 21, 2015, the disease had claimed 26 lives in the most severely affected district, Jajarkot in Northwest Nepal. Cases were also detected in the districts of Kathmandu, Morang, Kaski, and Chitwan. As of 22 April 2015 the Nepal Ministry of Health reported that 2,498 people had been treated in Jajarkot, of whom 552 were believed to have swine flu, and acknowledged that the government's response had been inadequate. The Jajarkot outbreak had just been declared an emergency when the April 2015 Nepal earthquake struck on 25 April 2015, diverting all medical and emergency resources to quake-related rescue and recovery.

2016 Pakistan
Seven cases of swine flu were reported in Punjab province of Pakistan, mainly in the city of Multan, in January 2017. Cases of swine flu were also reported in Lahore and Faisalabad.

2017 Maldives
As of March 16, 2017, over a hundred confirmed cases of swine flu and at least six deaths were reported in the Maldivian capital of Malé and some other islands. Makeshift flu clinics were opened in Malé. Schools in the capital were closed, prison visitations suspended, several events cancelled, and all non-essential travel to other islands outside the capital was advised against by the HPA. An influenza vaccination program focusing on pregnant women was initiated thereafter. An official visit by Saudi King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud to the Maldives during his Asian tour was also cancelled last minute amidst fears over the outbreak of swine flu.

2020 G4 EA H1N1 publication
G4 EA H1N1, also known as the G4 swine flu virus (G4) is a swine influenza virus strain discovered in China. The virus is a variant genotype 4 (G4) Eurasian avian-like (EA) H1N1 virus that mainly affects pigs, but there is some evidence of it infecting people. A peer-reviewed paper from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) stated that "G4 EA H1N1 viruses possess all the essential hallmarks of being highly adapted to infect humans ... Controlling the prevailing G4 EA H1N1 viruses in pigs and close monitoring of swine working populations should be promptly implemented."

Michael Ryan, executive director of the World Health Organization (WHO) Health Emergencies Program, stated in July 2020 that this strain of influenza virus was not new and had been under surveillance since 2011. Almost 30,000 swine had been monitored via nasal swabs between 2011 and 2018. While other variants of the virus have appeared and diminished, the study claimed the G4 variant has sharply increased since 2016 to become the predominant strain. The Chinese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs rebutted the study, saying that the media had interpreted the study "in an exaggerated and nonfactual way" and that the number of pigs sampled was too small to demonstrate G4 had become the dominant strain.

Between 2016 and 2018, a serum surveillance program screened 338 swine production workers in China for exposure (presence of antibodies) to G4 EA H1N1 and found 35 (10.4%) positive. Among another 230 people screened who did not work in the swine industry, 10 (4.4%) were serum positive for antibodies indicating exposure. Two cases of infection caused by the G4 variant have been documented as of July 2020, with no confirmed cases of human-to-human transmission.

Health officials (including Anthony Fauci) say the virus should be monitored, particularly among those in close contact with pigs, but it is not an immediate threat. There are no reported cases or evidence of the virus outside of China as of July 2020.

title: Swine influenza