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Matrix norm

In the field of mathematics, norms are defined for elements within a vector space. Specifically, when the vector space comprises matrices, such norms are referred to as matrix norms. Matrix norms differ from vector norms in that they must also interact with matrix multiplication.

Preliminaries
Given a field $$K$$ of either real or complex numbers, let $$K^{m \times n}$$ be the $K$-vector space of matrices with $$m$$ rows and $$n$$ columns and entries in the field $$K$$. A matrix norm is a norm on $$K^{m \times n}$$.

Norms are often expressed with double vertical bars (like so: $$\|A\|$$). Thus, the matrix norm is a function $$\|\cdot\| : K^{m \times n} \to \R$$ that must satisfy the following properties:

For all scalars $$\alpha \in K$$ and matrices $$A, B \in K^{m \times n}$$,
 * $$\|A\|\ge 0$$ (positive-valued)
 * $$\|A\|= 0 \iff A=0_{m,n}$$ (definite)
 * $$\left\|\alpha A\right\|=\left|\alpha\right| \left\|A\right\|$$ (absolutely homogeneous)
 * $$\|A+B\| \le \|A\|+\|B\|$$ (sub-additive or satisfying the triangle inequality)

The only feature distinguishing matrices from rearranged vectors is multiplication. Matrix norms are particularly useful if they are also sub-multiplicative:

 * $$\left\|AB\right\| \le \left\|A\right\| \left\|B\right\| $$

Every norm on $m = n$ can be rescaled to be sub-multiplicative; in some books, the terminology matrix norm is reserved for sub-multiplicative norms.

Matrix norms induced by vector norms
Suppose a vector norm $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$ on $$K^n$$ and a vector norm $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta}$$ on $$K^m$$ are given. Any $$m \times n$$ matrix $A$ induces a linear operator from $$K^n$$ to $$K^m$$ with respect to the standard basis, and one defines the corresponding induced norm or operator norm or subordinate norm on the space $$K^{m \times n}$$ of all $$m \times n$$ matrices as follows: $$ \begin{align} \|A\|_{\alpha,\beta} &= \sup\{\|Ax\|_\beta : x\in K^n \text{ with }\|x\|_\alpha = 1\} \\ &= \sup\left\{\frac{\|Ax\|_\beta}{\|x\|_\alpha} : x\in K^n \text{ with } x\ne 0\right\}. \end{align} $$ where $$ \sup $$ denotes the supremum. This norm measures how much the mapping induced by $$A$$ can stretch vectors. Depending on the vector norms $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$, $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta}$$ used, notation other than $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha,\beta}$$ can be used for the operator norm.

Matrix norms induced by vector p-norms
If the p-norm for vectors ($$1 \leq p \leq \infty$$) is used for both spaces $$K^n$$ and $$K^m,$$ then the corresponding operator norm is: $$ \|A\|_p = \sup_{x \ne 0} \frac{\| A x\| _p}{\|x\|_p}. $$These induced norms are different from the "entry-wise" p-norms and the Schatten p-norms for matrices treated below, which are also usually denoted by $$ \|A\|_p .$$

Geometrically speaking, one can imagine a p-norm unit ball $$V_{p, n} = \{x\in K^n : \|x\|_p \le 1 \}$$ in $$K^n$$, then apply the linear map $$A$$ to the ball. It would end up becoming a distorted convex shape $$AV_{p, n} \subset K^m$$, and $$ \|A\|_p $$ measures the longest "radius" of the distorted convex shape. In other words, we must take a p-norm unit ball $$V_{p, m}$$ in $$K^m$$, then multiply it by at least $$ \|A\|_p $$, in order for it to be large enough to contain $$AV_{p, n}$$.

p = 1, ∞
When $$p = 1, \infty$$, we have simple formulas.$$ \|A\|_1 = \max_{1 \leq j \leq n} \sum_{i=1}^m | a_{ij} |, $$which is simply the maximum absolute column sum of the matrix.$$ \|A\|_\infty = \max_{1 \leq i \leq m} \sum _{j=1}^n | a_{ij} |, $$which is simply the maximum absolute row sum of the matrix. For example, for $$A = \begin{bmatrix} -3 & 5 & 7 \\ 2 & 6 & 4 \\ 0 & 2 & 8 \\ \end{bmatrix},$$ we have that $$\|A\|_1 = \max(|{-3}|+2+0; 5+6+2; 7+4+8) = \max(5,13,19) = 19,$$ $$\|A\|_\infty = \max(|{-3}|+5+7; 2+6+4;0+2+8) = \max(15,12,10) = 15.$$

Spectral norm (p = 2)
When $$p = 2$$ (the Euclidean norm or $$\ell_2$$-norm for vectors), the induced matrix norm is the spectral norm. (The two values do not coincide in infinite dimensions — see Spectral radius for further discussion. The spectral radius should not be confused with the spectral norm.) The spectral norm of a matrix $$A$$ is the largest singular value of $$A$$ (i.e., the square root of the largest eigenvalue of the matrix $$A^*A,$$ where $$A^*$$ denotes the conjugate transpose of $$A$$): $$ \|A\|_2 = \sqrt{\lambda_{\max}\left(A^* A\right)} = \sigma_{\max}(A).$$where $$\sigma_{\max}(A)$$ represents the largest singular value of matrix $$A.$$

There are further properties:
 * $\|A \|_2 = \sup\{x^* A y : x \in K^m, y \in K^n \text{ with }\|x\|_2 = \|y\|_2 = 1\}.$ Proved by the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.
 * $ \| A^* A\|_2 = \| A A^* \|_2 = \|A\|_2^2$ . Proven by singular value decomposition (SVD) on $$A$$.
 * $ \|A\| _2 = \sigma_{\mathrm{max}}(A) \leq \|A\|_{\rm F} = \sqrt{\sum_i \sigma_{i}(A)^2}$, where $$\|A\|_\textrm{F}$$ is the Frobenius norm. Equality holds if and only if the matrix $$A$$ is a rank-one matrix or a zero matrix.

 * $$ \|A\|_2 = \sqrt{\rho(A^{*}A)}\leq\sqrt{\|A^{*}A\|_\infty}\leq\sqrt{\|A\|_1\|A\|_\infty} $$.

Matrix norms induced by vector α- and β-norms
We can generalize the above definition. Suppose we have vector norms $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$ and $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta}$$ for spaces $$K^n$$ and $$K^m$$ respectively; the corresponding operator norm is$$ \|A\|_{\alpha, \beta} = \sup_{x \ne 0} \frac{\| A x\| _\beta}{\|x\|_\alpha}. $$In particular, the $$\|A\|_{p}$$ defined previously is the special case of $$\|A\|_{p, p}$$.

In the special cases of $$\alpha = 2$$ and $$\beta=\infty$$, the induced matrix norms can be computed by$$ \|A\|_{2,\infty}= \max_{1\le i\le m}\|A_{i:}\|_2, $$where $$A_{i:}$$ is the i-th row of matrix $$ A $$.

In the special cases of $$\alpha = 1$$ and $$\beta=2$$, the induced matrix norms can be computed by$$ \|A\|_{1, 2} = \max_{1\le j\le n}\|A_{:j}\|_2, $$where $$A_{:j}$$ is the j-th column of matrix $$ A $$.

Hence, $$ \|A\|_{2,\infty} $$ and $$ \|A\|_{1, 2} $$ are the maximum row and column 2-norm of the matrix, respectively.

Properties
Any operator norm is consistent with the vector norms that induce it, giving $$\|Ax\|_\beta \leq \|A\|_{\alpha,\beta}\|x\|_\alpha.$$

Suppose $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha,\beta}$$; $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta,\gamma}$$; and $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha,\gamma}$$ are operator norms induced by the respective pairs of vector norms $$(\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}, \|\cdot\|_{\beta})$$; $$(\|\cdot\|_{\beta}, \|\cdot\|_{\gamma})$$; and $$(\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}, \|\cdot\|_{\gamma})$$. Then,
 * $$\|AB\|_{\alpha,\gamma} \leq \|A\|_{\beta, \gamma} \|B\|_{\alpha, \beta} ;$$

this follows from $$\|ABx\|_{\gamma} \leq \|A\|_{\beta, \gamma} \|Bx\|_{\beta} \leq \|A\|_{\beta, \gamma} \|B\|_{\alpha, \beta} \|x\|_{\alpha}$$ and $$\sup_{\|x\|_\alpha = 1} \|ABx \|_{\gamma} = \|AB\|_{\alpha, \gamma} .$$

Square matrices
Suppose $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha, \alpha}$$ is an operator norm on the space of square matrices $$K^{n \times n}$$ induced by vector norms $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$ and $$\|\cdot\|_\alpha$$. Then, the operator norm is a sub-multiplicative matrix norm: $$\|AB\|_{\alpha, \alpha} \leq \|A\|_{\alpha, \alpha} \|B\|_{\alpha, \alpha}.$$

Moreover, any such norm satisfies the inequality

for all positive integers r, where $K^{n×n}$ is the spectral radius of $$. For symmetric or hermitian $A$, we have equality in ($A$) for the 2-norm, since in this case the 2-norm is precisely the spectral radius of $$. For an arbitrary matrix, we may not have equality for any norm; a counterexample would be $$A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix},$$ which has vanishing spectral radius. In any case, for any matrix norm, we have the spectral radius formula: $$\lim_{r\to\infty}\|A^r\|^{1/r}=\rho(A). $$

Consistent and compatible norms
A matrix norm $$\| \cdot \|$$ on $$K^{m \times n}$$ is called consistent with a vector norm $$\| \cdot \|_{\alpha}$$ on $$K^n$$ and a vector norm $$\| \cdot \|_{\beta}$$ on $$K^m$$, if: $$\left\|Ax\right\|_{\beta} \leq \left\|A\right\| \left\|x\right\|_{\alpha}$$ for all $$A \in K^{m \times n}$$ and all $$x \in K^n$$. In the special case of $ρ(A)$ and $$\alpha = \beta$$, $$\| \cdot \|$$ is also called compatible with $$\|\cdot \|_{\alpha}$$.

All induced norms are consistent by definition. Also, any sub-multiplicative matrix norm on $$ K^{n \times n} $$ induces a compatible vector norm on $$K^n$$ by defining $$ \left\| v \right\| := \left\| \left( v, v, \dots, v \right) \right\| $$.

"Entry-wise" matrix norms
These norms treat an $$ m \times n $$ matrix as a vector of size $$ m \cdot n $$, and use one of the familiar vector norms. For example, using the p-norm for vectors, p ≥ 1, we get:

 * $$\| A \|_{p,p} = \| \mathrm{vec}(A) \|_p = \left( \sum_{i=1}^m \sum_{j=1}^n |a_{ij}|^p \right)^{1/p}$$

This is a different norm from the induced p-norm (see above) and the Schatten p-norm (see below), but the notation is the same.

The special case p = 2 is the Frobenius norm, and p = ∞ yields the maximum norm.

$m = n$ and $L_{2,1}$ norms
Let $$(a_1, \ldots, a_n) $$ be the columns of matrix $$A$$. From the original definition, the matrix $$A$$ presents n data points in m-dimensional space. The $$L_{2,1}$$ norm is the sum of the Euclidean norms of the columns of the matrix:

 * $$\| A \|_{2,1} = \sum_{j=1}^n \| a_{j} \|_2 = \sum_{j=1}^n \left( \sum_{i=1}^m |a_{ij}|^2 \right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$$

The $$L_{2,1}$$ norm as an error function is more robust, since the error for each data point (a column) is not squared. It is used in robust data analysis and sparse coding.

For p, q ≥ 1, the $$L_{2,1}$$ norm can be generalized to the $$L_{p,q}$$ norm as follows:

 * $$\| A \|_{p,q} = \left(\sum_{j=1}^n \left( \sum_{i=1}^m |a_{ij}|^p \right)^{\frac{q}{p}}\right)^{\frac{1}{q}}.$$

Frobenius norm
When p = q = 2 for the $$L_{p,q}$$ norm, it is called the Frobenius norm or the Hilbert–Schmidt norm, though the latter term is used more frequently in the context of operators on (possibly infinite-dimensional) Hilbert space. This norm can be defined in various ways:

 * $$\|A\|_\text{F} = \sqrt{\sum_{i}^m\sum_{j}^n |a_{ij}|^2} = \sqrt{\operatorname{trace}\left(A^* A\right)} = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{\min\{m, n\}} \sigma_i^2(A)},$$

where the trace is the sum of diagonal entries, and $$\sigma_i(A)$$ are the singular values of $$A$$. The second equality is proven by explicit computation of $$\mathrm{trace}(A^*A)$$. The third equality is proven by singular value decomposition of $$A$$, and the fact that the trace is invariant under circular shifts.

The Frobenius norm is an extension of the Euclidean norm to $$K^{n \times n}$$ and comes from the Frobenius inner product on the space of all matrices.

The Frobenius norm is sub-multiplicative and is very useful for numerical linear algebra. The sub-multiplicativity of Frobenius norm can be proved using Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.

Frobenius norm is often easier to compute than induced norms, and has the useful property of being invariant under rotations (and unitary operations in general). That is, $$\|A\|_\text{F} = \|AU\|_\text{F} = \|UA\|_\text{F}$$ for any unitary matrix $$U$$. This property follows from the cyclic nature of the trace ($$\operatorname{trace}(XYZ) =\operatorname{trace}(YZX) = \operatorname{trace}(ZXY)$$):

 * $$\|AU\|_\text{F}^2 = \operatorname{trace}\left( (AU)^{*}A U \right)

= \operatorname{trace}\left( U^{*} A^{*}A U \right) = \operatorname{trace}\left( UU^{*} A^{*}A \right) = \operatorname{trace}\left( A^{*} A \right) = \|A\|_\text{F}^2,$$

and analogously:

 * $$\|UA\|_\text{F}^2 = \operatorname{trace}\left( (UA)^{*}UA \right)

= \operatorname{trace}\left( A^{*} U^{*} UA \right) = \operatorname{trace}\left( A^{*}A \right) = \|A\|_\text{F}^2,$$

where we have used the unitary nature of $$U$$ (that is, $$U^* U = U U^* = \mathbf{I}$$).

It also satisfies

 * $$\|A^* A\|_\text{F} = \|AA^*\|_\text{F} \leq \|A\|_\text{F}^2$$

and
 * $$\|A + B\|_\text{F}^2 = \|A\|_\text{F}^2 + \|B\|_\text{F}^2 + 2 Re \left( \langle A, B \rangle_\text{F} \right),$$

where $$\langle A, B \rangle_\text{F}$$ is the Frobenius inner product, and Re is the real part of a complex number (irrelevant for real matrices)

Max norm
The max norm is the elementwise norm in the limit as p = q goes to infinity:

 * $$ \|A\|_{\max} = \max_{i, j} |a_{ij}|. $$

This norm is not sub-multiplicative; but modifying the right-hand side to $$\sqrt{m n} \max_{i, j} \vert a_{i j} \vert$$ makes it so.

Note that in some literature (such as Communication complexity), an alternative definition of max-norm, also called the $$\gamma_2$$-norm, refers to the factorization norm:

 * $$ \gamma_2(A) = \min_{U,V: A = UV^T} \| U \|_{2,\infty} \| V \|_{2,\infty} = \min_{U,V: A = UV^T} \max_{i,j} \| U_{i,:} \|_2 \| V_{j,:} \|_2 $$

Schatten norms
The Schatten p-norms arise when applying the p-norm to the vector of singular values of a matrix. If the singular values of the $$m \times n$$ matrix $$A$$ are denoted by σi, then the Schatten p-norm is defined by

 * $$ \|A\|_p = \left( \sum_{i=1}^{\min\{m,n\}} \sigma_i^p(A) \right)^{1/p}.$$

These norms again share the notation with the induced and entry-wise p-norms, but they are different.

All Schatten norms are sub-multiplicative. They are also unitarily invariant, which means that $$\|A\| = \|UAV\|$$ for all matrices $$A$$ and all unitary matrices $$U$$ and $$V$$.

The most familiar cases are p = 1, 2, ∞. The case p = 2 yields the Frobenius norm, introduced before. The case p = ∞ yields the spectral norm, which is the operator norm induced by the vector 2-norm (see above). Finally, p = 1 yields the nuclear norm (also known as the trace norm, or the Ky Fan 'n'-norm ), defined as:

 * $$\|A\|_{*} = \operatorname{trace} \left(\sqrt{A^*A}\right) = \sum_{i=1}^{\min\{m,n\}} \sigma_i(A),$$

where $$\sqrt{A^*A}$$ denotes a positive semidefinite matrix $$B$$ such that $$BB=A^*A$$. More precisely, since $$A^*A$$ is a positive semidefinite matrix, its square root is well defined. The nuclear norm $$\|A\|_{*}$$ is a convex envelope of the rank function $$\text{rank}(A)$$, so it is often used in mathematical optimization to search for low-rank matrices.

Combining von Neumann's trace inequality with Hölder's inequality for Euclidean space yields a version of Hölder's inequality for Schatten norms for $$ 1/p + 1/q = 1 $$:

 * $$ \left|\operatorname{trace}(A'B)\right| \le \|A\|_p \|B\|_q, $$

In particular, this implies the Schatten norm inequality

 * $$ \|A\|_F^2 \le \|A\|_p \|A\|_q. $$

Monotone norms
A matrix norm $$\|\cdot \|$$ is called monotone if it is monotonic with respect to the Loewner order. Thus, a matrix norm is increasing if

 * $$A \preccurlyeq B \Rightarrow \|A\| \leq \|B\|.$$

The Frobenius norm and spectral norm are examples of monotone norms.

Cut norms
Another source of inspiration for matrix norms arises from considering a matrix as the adjacency matrix of a weighted, directed graph. The so-called "cut norm" measures how close the associated graph is to being bipartite: $$\|A\|_{\Box}=\max_{S\subseteq[n], T\subseteq[m]}{\left|\sum_{s\in S,t\in T}{A_{t,s}}\right|}$$ where $L_{p,q}$. Equivalent definitions (up to a constant factor) impose the conditions $A ∈ K^{m×n}$; $‖A‖_{□}$; or $2|S| > n & 2|T| > m$.

The cut-norm is equivalent to the induced operator norm $S = T$, which is itself equivalent to another norm, called the Grothendieck norm.

To define the Grothendieck norm, first note that a linear operator $S ∩ T = ∅$ is just a scalar, and thus extends to a linear operator on any $‖·‖_{∞→1}$. Moreover, given any choice of basis for $K^{1} → K^{1}$ and $K^{k} → K^{k}$, any linear operator $K^{n}$ extends to a linear operator $K^{m}$, by letting each matrix element on elements of $K^{n} → K^{m}$ via scalar multiplication. The Grothendieck norm is the norm of that extended operator; in symbols: $$\|A\|_{G,k}=\sup_{\text{each } u_j, v_j\in K^k; \|u_j\| = \|v_j\| = 1}{\sum_{j \in [n], \ell \in [m]}{(u_j\cdot v_j) A_{\ell,j}}}$$

The Grothendieck norm depends on choice of basis (usually taken to be the standard basis) and $A$.

Equivalence of norms
For any two matrix norms $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$ and $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta}$$, we have that:

 * $$r\|A\|_\alpha\leq\|A\|_\beta\leq s\|A\|_\alpha$$

for some positive numbers r and s, for all matrices $$A\in K^{m \times n}$$. In other words, all norms on $$K^{m \times n}$$ are equivalent; they induce the same topology on $$K^{m \times n}$$. This is true because the vector space $$K^{m \times n}$$ has the finite dimension $$m \times n$$.

Moreover, for every matrix norm $$\|\cdot\|$$ on $$\R^{n\times n}$$ there exists a unique positive real number $$k$$ such that $$\ell\|\cdot\|$$ is a sub-multiplicative matrix norm for every $$\ell \ge k$$; to wit,
 * $$k = \sup\{\Vert A B \Vert \,:\, \Vert A \Vert \leq 1, \Vert B \Vert \leq 1\}$$.

A sub-multiplicative matrix norm $$\|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$ is said to be minimal, if there exists no other sub-multiplicative matrix norm $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta}$$ satisfying $$\|\cdot\|_{\beta} < \|\cdot\|_{\alpha}$$.

Examples of norm equivalence
Let $$\|A\|_p$$ once again refer to the norm induced by the vector p-norm (as above in the Induced norm section).

For matrix $$A\in\R^{m\times n}$$ of rank $$r$$, the following inequalities hold:

 * $$\|A\|_2\le\|A\|_F\le\sqrt{r}\|A\|_2$$
 * $$\|A\|_F \le \|A\|_{*} \le \sqrt{r} \|A\|_F$$
 * $$\|A\|_{\max} \le \|A\|_2 \le \sqrt{mn}\|A\|_{\max}$$
 * $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{n}}\|A\|_\infty\le\|A\|_2\le\sqrt{m}\|A\|_\infty$$
 * $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{m}}\|A\|_1\le\|A\|_2\le\sqrt{n}\|A\|_1.$$

title: Matrix norm


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Talk:Gauldal

I put Midtre Gauldal in the Gauldal landscape in the infobox. Isn't this correct, or was it an unintentional omission? Larsivi -- 25 Feb 2005, 10.00 (CET)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Gauldal


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Bobby Locke

Arthur D'Arcy "Bobby" Locke (20 November 1917 – 9 March 1987) was a South African professional golfer. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest golfers of all time. He won The Open Championship four times and 15 PGA Tour events in total. In addition, he was a prolific tournament winner in South Africa, ultimately recording over 50 significant victories in his home country, including the South African Open nine times.

Early life
Locke was born in Germiston, South Africa the only son of Mr. C.J. and Mrs. O. Locke of 70 Nottingham Road, Kensington, Johannesburg. He obtained his Educational Junior Certificate pass at Benoni High School in 1934.

Amateur career
Locke won the South African Open for the first of nine times in 1935, at the Parkview Golf Club in Johannesburg, with a score of 296, playing as an amateur. He played in his first Open Championship in 1936, when he was 18 years old, and finished as the low amateur.

Professional career
He turned professional in March 1938 at the age of 20 and was engaged by the Maccauvlei Country Club as club professional in December 1939. Problems arose when Locke wanted to give lessons to non-members as well as take leave of absence, without advance request, to take part in outside competitions such as the U.S. Open. Locke resigned from the club, by letter, on 26 July 1940. His golf career was interrupted by service in the South African Air Force during World War II.

PGA Tour
Following the end of World War II, Locke successfully resumed his career in South Africa in 1946. He hosted Sam Snead, one of the top American golfers of the day, for a series of exhibition matches in South Africa in January/February 1947, winning 12 out of the 16 matches, two were halved and Snead won two. So impressed was Snead that he suggested that Locke come to the United States and give the PGA Tour a try, advice that Locke quickly followed.

Locke arrived in the U.S. for the first time in April 1947, well after the American Tour season had begun. In two-and-a-half years on the PGA Tour, Locke played in 59 events; he won 11, and finished in the top three in 30, just over half. In 1947, despite a late start, Locke dominated the American tour, winning six tournaments (including four in a five-week period), and finishing second to Jimmy Demaret on the money list.

In 1948, he won the Chicago Victory National by 16 strokes, which remains a PGA Tour record for margin of victory (tied for margin of victory with J. Douglas Edgar's win in the 1919 Canadian Open).

The following year, Locke was banned from the tour, ostensibly because of a dispute over playing commitments. Locke had indeed given several advance commitments to appear at tournaments and exhibitions, then had not turned up nor given adequate notice nor explanations for his absences. However, the 1948 Masters champion Claude Harmon stated, unsolicited, to another golf personality during that era: "Locke was simply too good. They had to ban him." The ban was lifted in March 1950. However, Locke chose not to return to play in the United States, except for a few isolated appearances.

Locke explained his point of view and events leading up to the banning. He stated that he had accepted invitations, organised through the PGA to play in two local tournaments, The Inverness Fourball and Western Open. He explained how he had been helped to iron out a putting problem which led to him winning the 1949 Open Championship. He gives the "Open" win as one of his reasons to breach his contract. The text indicates that he understood the contractual nature of his dealings with the PGA.

Worldwide success
After leaving the PGA Tour, Locke continued his career in Europe and Africa, where he felt more comfortable. He won 23 times in Europe, most notably a quartet of successes in The Open Championship, which came in 1949, 1950, 1952 and 1957. He was the first of many South Africans who subsequently won major championships, including Gary Player, Ernie Els, Retief Goosen, Trevor Immelman, Louis Oosthuizen and Charl Schwartzel. His win in the 1957 Open Championship was with some controversy. Locke had failed to properly replace his ball after marking on the 72nd green, and proceeded to putt out. This had been confirmed through newsreel footage provided to the Royal and Ancient after the trophy presentation. The rules at the time made no provision for a two shot penalty, thus Locke's win could have been overturned through disqualification. However, the Championship committee did not enforce the disqualification rule, citing "equity and spirit of the game" as overriding factors in sustaining the posted result.

During this time Locke also played many other parts of the world. In 1955 he won the Australian Open held at Gailes Golf Club in Queensland; he later rated this as one of the best courses he had ever played. In 1959, Locke was involved in a serious car accident. Medical issues related to this incident contributed to the end of his career.

Playing attributes
Locke built his success around his outstanding putting ability, coining the phrase "You drive for show, but putt for dough." Wearing his trademark knickerbockers, white shoes, and stockings, Locke played the game at a slow and deliberate pace, perhaps another reason that American pros were annoyed with him. On the greens, Locke was a bona fide genius, using a very unusual putting style (he would bring the putter back far to the inside on the backstroke, then virtually "trap" the ball with a hooded, closed clubface on the forward stroke, imparting a tremendous amount of overspin), and a great eye for reading breaks, to put on veritable putting clinics every time he played. Locke believed he could put spin on putts (similar to full-swing shots) and make them "hook" and "slice", and used his unorthodox technique to great success.

Locke was not particularly long from the tee, but placed great emphasis on accuracy in hitting fairways and greens; he employed an extreme right-to-left ball flight (one that bordered on a hook) on nearly every full shot.

Australian contemporary pro Jim Ferrier, who played the U.S. Tour during the late 1940s with Locke, described Locke's putting method as being designed to overcome the very heavy grain present on many Bermuda-grass greens of that era, particularly in warm-climate regions such as South Africa and the southern United States. In these regions, greens had to be constructed during that era using Bermuda-grass turf in order to survive the extreme summer heat; turfgrass research eventually developed a wider variety of strains which could be used. Locke's putting method allowed the ball to glide on top of the grass without being affected very much by the grain. Ferrier explained that Locke had apparently learned the technique from an Englishman in Egypt, while he was stationed there during World War II. Locke had in fact learned the technique from Walter Hagen during the "Haigs" tour of South Africa with Joe Kirkwood Sr. in 1938.

Military service
Locke served in the South African Air Force during World War II. His Official War Record is held at the South African Department of Defence archives under his Service No: 103940. Those records show that he first trained as a pilot and later a pilot instructor. He was deployed to the Middle East from December 1944 to May 1945, and then to Italy, post VE Day, on transport duties until August 1945. He was honourably discharged in October 1945 having attained the rank of 2nd Lieutenant. He received the Italy Star and 1939-45 War Medal/Africa Service Medal.

Alternate descriptions of Locke's war record
Other descriptions of Locke's war record suggest he was more active than the transport duties he undertook, with SAAF Number 31 Squadron in Italy, that are described by the official SANDF archives. The descriptions include: he spent twelve months in a Liberator Squadron in Italy he was a bomber pilot who bombed Monte Casino, he fought for Britain as a bomber pilot; he flew over 100 missions over Europe with the SAAF; and 'served with distinction as a Royal Air Force Bomber pilot'. Locke also claims that:
 * In a photograph of him and others, he was playing golf at Gizeh Golf & Country Club, in Cairo, in 1943, and
 * "My stay in the Air Force lasted five years and three months, in which time I completed 1,800 hours on single-, twin- and four-engined aircraft"

Personal life
Following the car crash that ended his competitive career in 1960, Locke suffered from migraines and eye problems, although he continued competing occasionally after that, without much success.

Mental health issues followed, including bouts of depression, alcoholism and even an attempted murder charge following a dispute with a decorator, Big Boy Ndlovu. Locke considered Ndlovu's work below par and refused to pay the 220 rand Ndlovu asked for. Following an argument, Locke shot Ndlovu in the shoulder. Locke was fined 120 rand and had his gun licence suspended for six months.

He died of meningitis in Johannesburg, South Africa in March 1987.

After his death, his wife Mary and daughter Carolyn became reclusive and died together in a suicide pact at their home in 2000, aged 80 and 40 respectively.

Honors and awards

 * Winner of the Harry Vardon Trophy in 1946, 1950, and 1954.
 * In 1977, Locke was elected to the World Golf Hall of Fame.

Amateur wins

 * 1931 South Africa Boys
 * 1935 South African Amateur, Natal Amateur, Transvaal Amateur
 * 1936 Natal Amateur, Lucifer Empire Trophy
 * 1937 South African Amateur, Transvaal Amateur, Orange Free State Amateur

PGA Tour wins (15)
PGA Tour playoff record (4–0)

South Africa wins (50)

 * 1935 Natal Open, South African Open (both as an amateur)
 * 1936 Natal Open (as an amateur)
 * 1937 South African Open, Transvaal Open (both as an amateur)
 * 1938 South African Open, South Africa Professional, Transvaal Open
 * 1939 South African Open, South Africa Professional, Transvaal Open
 * 1940 South African Open, South Africa Professional, Transvaal Open
 * 1946 South African Open, South Africa Professional, Transvaal Open
 * 1949 Stanley Motors 1,000 Guineas Tournament, Transvaal Open
 * 1950 Dunlop £1.000 Tournament, Stanley Motors 1,000 Guineas Tournament, Transvaal Open, Western Transvaal Open, Grey Slax £1,000 Tournament, South Africa Professional, South African Open, Grey Slax £1,000 Tournament
 * 1951 Stag £1,000 Matchplay, Stanley Motors 1,000 Guineas Tournament, Transvaal Open, East Rand Open, South Africa Professional, South African Open, Dunlop Masters £1,000 Tournament
 * 1952 Stag £1,000 Matchplay, Stanley Motors 1,000 Guineas Tournament
 * 1953 SANTA Open, Natal Open
 * 1954 SANTA Open, Transvaal Open, Mills 1,000 Guineas Tournament
 * 1955 Transvaal Open, South African Open, South Africa Professional
 * 1956 Western Province Open
 * 1957 East Rand Open
 * 1958 Transvaal Open, Western Province Open, East Rand Open (tie with Eric Moore)
 * 1960 East Rand Open

Other wins (29)

 * 1938 Irish Open, New Zealand Open
 * 1939 Dutch Open
 * 1946 Yorkshire Evening News Tournament, Brand-Lochryn Tournament, Dunlop Masters
 * 1947 Carolinas Open, Carolinas PGA Championship
 * 1948 Carolinas Open
 * 1950 Dunlop Tournament, Spalding Tournament, North British-Harrogate Tournament
 * 1952 French Open, Mexican Open, Lotus Tournament, Carolinas Open
 * 1953 French Open
 * 1954 Egyptian Open, German Open, Swiss Open, Dunlop Tournament, Dunlop British Masters (tie with Jimmy Adams), Egyptian Match Play, Swallow-Harrogate Tournament (Stroke play stage)
 * 1955 Australian Open
 * 1957 Daks Tournament, Bowmaker Tournament (tied with Frank Jowle)
 * 1959 New Hampshire Open, Bowmaker Tournament

Wins (4)
1 Defeated Harry Bradshaw in 36-hole playoff: Locke (135), Bradshaw (147)

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} NT = No tournament LA = Low amateur CUT = missed the half-way cut WD = Withdrew "T" indicates a tie for a place

Sources: 1936 Amateur Championship, 1937 Amateur Championship

Summary

 * Most consecutive cuts made – 19 (1936 Open Championship – 1952 Masters)
 * Longest streak of top-10s – 5 (1949 U.S. Open – 1951 Open Championship)

Team appearances

 * South African Amateur Golf Team to England 1937.
 * Canada Cup (representing South Africa): 1953, 1954, 1956, 1960
 * Slazenger Trophy (representing British Commonwealth and Empire): 1956
 * Hopkins Trophy (representing Canada): 1952, 1953, 1954

title: Bobby Locke


text:
Talk:Honda CBR900RR

Restart
This article needs to be restarted from the ground up. The entire text is unencyclopedic heavily POV. --Milkmandan 09:05, 2005 Feb 25 (UTC)

I agree. I am a Honda tech of 7 years, but also a Yamaha, Suzuki and Kawasaki tech -- this article is not only biased, but inaccurate. Needs to be revised with better knowledge of the 900RR's history. --[User:kinako mochi] 04:34, 2005 Jun 17

Sounds a bit like a bike review rather than an entry. -- Leitmotif 12:35, 2005 Jul 6 (GMT+2)

Have done my best to remove some of the more glaring emotive language. I'm not completely certain of the technical details, so I'll leave those for some more qualified soul to improve upon. -- Leitmotif 22:11, 2005 Aug 18 (GMT+2)

The text here would pass for unbiased in any bike magazine, but there is another problem. The CBR900 series is the same thing as the Honda Fireblade series, which already has a large and detailed article. This article should just redirect to []

 * Or the other way 'round! The Fireblade page should redirect here (and its content stolen and placed here), as CBR900RR is the bike's model name (Fireblade is its marketing name, of which, for a particular model, there may be more than one).  With this particular model it is not such a problem, but where there are two or more marketing names (neither of which is the model name, e.g., Firestorm and Super Hawk, both for VTR1000F), keeping the model-named page the main page, and the other names redirects, makes a lot of sense.  That said, the Fireblade page needs some grammar work (I wonder which language it was originally!) JZH

20th
Did some re-working of the article based on the 20th Anniversary articles on http://world.honda.com/CBR1000RR/history/index.html. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.106.98.106 (talk) 23:38, 26 February 2014 (UTC)

Fireblade in the title
I moved (i.e. changed the name of) the article to include 'Fireblade'. Now this was revised saying "The CBR 1000RR is aslo calle fireblade in some countries but that page is not called CBR1000RR fireblade". Sorry, I don't see the point. All bikes mentioned in this article were called 'Fireblade' by the producer, media and most users. And you mean that this word should not appear in the title, because it was not always used for a certain CBR1000 in all countries? --Edoe (talk) 09:53, 10 October 2016 (UTC)
 * The CBR900RR like the CBR1000RR was not marketed for sale as fireblade in the US or Canada there were never any markings on the bikes sold in North America saying fireblade. Not even one of the references on the page make any mention of the word fireblade. Even the manufactures 20 year timeline does not make any mention of the word fireblade, in fact it does state this when displacement increases that while still being called just CBR900RR in some markets it is now marketed in North America as CBR929RR. And then with the 954 it is marketed in North America and Japan as CBR954RR. This has all been covered in previous discussions. The fireblade naming is discussed in the CBR900RR article like on the CBR1000RR page so it is not left out of the articles. As this is the English speaking version of Wikipedia the material I believe is suppose to reflect these markets I.E. US, Canada, UK, and  Australia. 72bikers (talk) 17:04, 10 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Honda CBR900RR


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Computer graphics and web browser

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. -- AllyUnion (talk) 17:09, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Computer graphics and web browser
This page is meaningless. Quality is low. Plus, we have comparison of web browsers, which contains a section for comparing image format support. So what's the point of having this useless page? --Minghong 09:04, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Meandering gibberish. Much better sources of info elsewhere. --InShaneee 17:58, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This does not, in my opinion, warrant a page of its own. Particularly as the subject is covered in other places as noted. HyperZonktalk 18:02, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This information can be found in already existing articles. Zzyzx11 20:46, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Firewire Software RAID using Oxford 911 and Windows XP

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Transwikied by author -- AllyUnion (talk) 17:12, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Firewire Software RAID using Oxford 911 and Windows XP
Computer realted howto, not encyclopedic. Delete. jni 09:04, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Agree with Jni. I do not think this type of stuff belongs in an encyclopedia. Is there anywhere worth putting this however? 129.177.61.124 10:17, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * It's a how to, there are lots of other howtos on here... Maybe the title should be changed to howto.
 * The above comment by 24.149.133.223.
 * Howto guides belong in WikiSource, not in WikiPedia (because an encyclopedia is not a so-called primary source). As such, transwiki. Radiant! 15:45, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * I think it belongs in wikibooks, perhaps. They seem to have a big howto section. How do I move it there? - 24.149.133.223
 * Well, you go to Wikibooks.org and take a look there. You can edit it just like Wikipedia. Or ask for further help on that site. Radiant! 20:53, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete from Wikipedia, of course. --Neigel von Teighen 20:59, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. I have already deleted this twice and asked the originator not to recreate it, but I was ignored.  RickK 22:28, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Transwiki, belongs in Wikibooks not here. Megan1967 22:42, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Moved to http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Firewire_Software_RAID_using_Oxford_911_and_Windows_XP Delete away! -24.149.133.223

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Rushville, Iowa

Rushville is a former unincorporated community in Kellogg Township, Jasper County, Iowa, United States.

History
Rushville was platted in 1857 and it had its beginnings as a stage coach shop. The only store to ever exist in the town was operated by the Whitcomb family and contained the post office. Rushville had a church, several homes, and later a school.

Eventually, the railroad was constructed and bypassed Rushville to the south by two miles. This gradually led to the decline of the town. Rushville's population in 1915 was 1.

In 1957, the school was consolidated into nearby Kellogg and the building was later demolished.

There are no longer any buildings in Rushville. Only a few nearby farms exist. A memorial plot containing a plaque, flag, and water pump remains within the city limits. Nearby Rushville Cemetery continues to be maintained.

title: Rushville, Iowa


text:
Stephen Toulmin

Stephen Edelston Toulmin (25 March 1922 – 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues. His works were later found useful in the field of rhetoric for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin model of argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, and published in his 1958 book The Uses of Argument, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in computer science.

Biography
Stephen Toulmin was born in London, UK, on 25 March 1922 to Geoffrey Edelson Toulmin and Doris Holman Toulmin. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from King's College, Cambridge, in 1943, where he was a Cambridge Apostle. Soon after, Toulmin was hired by the Ministry of Aircraft Production as a junior scientific officer, first at the Malvern Radar Research and Development Station and later at the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Germany. At the end of World War II, he returned to England to earn a Master of Arts degree in 1947 and a PhD in philosophy from Cambridge University, subsequently publishing his dissertation as An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1950). While at Cambridge, Toulmin came into contact with the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose examination of the relationship between the uses and the meanings of language shaped much of Toulmin's own work.

After graduating from Cambridge, he was appointed University Lecturer in Philosophy of Science at Oxford University from 1949 to 1954, during which period he wrote a second book, The Philosophy of Science: an Introduction (1953). Soon after, he was appointed to the position of Visiting Professor of History and Philosophy of Science at Melbourne University in Australia from 1954 to 1955, after which he returned to England, and served as Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy at the University of Leeds from 1955 to 1959. While at Leeds, he published one of his most influential books in the field of rhetoric, The Uses of Argument (1958), which investigated the flaws of traditional logic. Although it was poorly received in England and satirized as "Toulmin's anti-logic book" by Toulmin's fellow philosophers at Leeds, the book was applauded by the rhetoricians in the United States, where Toulmin served as a visiting professor at New York, Stanford, and Columbia Universities in 1959. While in the States, Wayne Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger introduced Toulmin's work to communication scholars, as they recognized that his work provided a good structural model useful for the analysis and criticism of rhetorical arguments. In 1960, Toulmin returned to London to hold the position of director of the Unit for History of Ideas of the Nuffield Foundation.

In 1965, Toulmin returned to the United States, where he held positions at various universities. In 1967, Toulmin served as literary executor for close friend N.R. Hanson, helping in the posthumous publication of several volumes. While at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Toulmin published Human Understanding: The Collective Use and Evolution of Concepts (1972), which examines the causes and the processes of conceptual change. In this book, Toulmin uses a novel comparison between conceptual change and Charles Darwin's model of biological evolution to analyse the process of conceptual change as an evolutionary process. The book confronts major philosophical questions as well. In 1973, while a professor in the Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago, he collaborated with Allan Janik, a philosophy professor at La Salle University, on the book Wittgenstein's Vienna, which advanced a thesis that underscores the significance of history to human reasoning: Contrary to philosophers who believe the absolute truth advocated in Plato's idealized formal logic, Toulmin argues that truth can be a relative quality, dependent on historical and cultural contexts (what other authors have termed "conceptual schemata").

From 1975 to 1978, he worked with the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, established by the United States Congress. During this time, he collaborated with Albert R. Jonsen to write The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1988), which demonstrates the procedures for resolving moral cases. One of his most recent works, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (1990), written while Toulmin held the position of the Avalon Foundation Professor of the Humanities at Northwestern University, specifically criticizes the practical use and the thinning morality underlying modern science.

Toulmin held distinguished professorships at numerous universities, including Columbia, Dartmouth College, Michigan State, Northwestern, Stanford, the University of Chicago, and the University of Southern California School of International Relations.

In 1997 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) selected Toulmin for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. His lecture, "A Dissenter's Story" (alternatively entitled "A Dissenter's Life"), discussed the roots of modernity in rationalism and humanism, the "contrast of the reasonable and the rational", and warned of the "abstractions that may still tempt us back into the dogmatism, chauvinism and sectarianism our needs have outgrown". The NEH report of the speech further quoted Toulmin on the need to "make the technical and the humanistic strands in modern thought work together more effectively than they have in the past".

On 2 March 2006 Toulmin received the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art.

He was married four times, once to June Goodfield and collaborated with her on a series of books on the history of science. His children are Greg, of McLean, Va., Polly Macinnes of Skye, Scotland, Camilla Toulmin in the UK and Matthew Toulmin of Melbourne, Australia.

On 4 December 2009 Toulmin died of a heart failure at the age of 87 in Los Angeles, California.

Objection to absolutism and relativism
Throughout many of his works, Toulmin pointed out that absolutism (represented by theoretical or analytic arguments) has limited practical value. Absolutism is derived from Plato's idealized formal logic, which advocates universal truth; accordingly, absolutists believe that moral issues can be resolved by adhering to a standard set of moral principles, regardless of context. By contrast, Toulmin contends that many of these so-called standard principles are irrelevant to real situations encountered by human beings in daily life.

To develop his contention, Toulmin introduced the concept of argument fields. In The Uses of Argument (1958), Toulmin claims that some aspects of arguments vary from field to field, and are hence called "field-dependent", while other aspects of argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called "field-invariant". The flaw of absolutism, Toulmin believes, lies in its unawareness of the field-dependent aspect of argument; absolutism assumes that all aspects of argument are field invariant.

In Human Understanding (1972), Toulmin suggests that anthropologists have been tempted to side with relativists because they have noticed the influence of cultural variations on rational arguments. In other words, the anthropologist or relativist overemphasizes the importance of the "field-dependent" aspect of arguments, and neglects or is unaware of the "field-invariant" elements. In order to provide solutions to the problems of absolutism and relativism, Toulmin attempts throughout his work to develop standards that are neither absolutist nor relativist for assessing the worth of ideas.

In Cosmopolis (1990), he traces philosophers' "quest for certainty" back to René Descartes and Thomas Hobbes, and lauds John Dewey, Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, and Richard Rorty for abandoning that tradition.

Humanizing modernity
In Cosmopolis Toulmin seeks the origins of the modern emphasis on universality (philosophers' "quest for certainty"), and criticizes both modern science and philosophers for having ignored practical issues in preference for abstract and theoretical issues. The pursuit of absolutism and theoretical arguments lacking practicality, for example, is, in his view, one of the main defects of modern philosophy. Similarly, Toulmin sensed a thinning of morality in the field of sciences, which has diverted its attention from practical issues concerning ecology to the production of the atomic bomb. To solve this problem, Toulmin advocated a return to humanism consisting of four returns: a return to oral communication and discourse, a plea which has been rejected by modern philosophers, whose scholarly focus is on the printed page; a return to the particular or individual cases that deal with practical moral issues occurring in daily life (as opposed to theoretical principles that have limited practicality); a return to the local, or to concrete cultural and historical contexts; and, finally, a return to the timely, from timeless problems to things whose rational significance depends on the time lines of our solutions. He follows up on this critique in Return to Reason (2001), where he seeks to illuminate the ills that, in his view, universalism has caused in the social sphere, discussing, among other things, the discrepancy between mainstream ethical theory and real-life ethical quandaries.

Toulmin model of argument

Arguing that absolutism lacks practical value, Toulmin aimed to develop a different type of argument, called practical arguments (also known as substantial arguments). In contrast to absolutists' theoretical arguments, Toulmin's practical argument is intended to focus on the justificatory function of argumentation, as opposed to the inferential function of theoretical arguments. Whereas theoretical arguments make inferences based on a set of principles to arrive at a claim, practical arguments first find a claim of interest, and then provide justification for it. Toulmin believed that reasoning is less an activity of inference, involving the discovering of new ideas, and more a process of testing and sifting already existing ideas—an act achievable through the process of justification.

Toulmin believed that for a good argument to succeed, it needs to provide good justification for a claim. This, he believed, will ensure it stands up to criticism and earns a favourable verdict. In The Uses of Argument (1958), Toulmin proposed a layout containing six interrelated components for analyzing arguments:

 * Claim (Conclusion): A conclusion whose merit must be established. In argumentative essays, it may be called the thesis. For example, if a person tries to convince a listener that he is a British citizen, the claim would be "I am a British citizen" (1).

 * Ground (Fact, Evidence, Data): A fact one appeals to as a foundation for the claim. For example, the person introduced in 1 can support his claim with the supporting data "I was born in Bermuda" (2).

 * Warrant: A statement authorizing movement from the ground to the claim. In order to move from the ground established in 2, "I was born in Bermuda", to the claim in 1, "I am a British citizen", the person must supply a warrant to bridge the gap between 1 and 2 with the statement "A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen" (3).

 * Backing: Credentials designed to certify the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners. For example, if the listener does not deem the warrant in 3 as credible, the speaker will supply the legal provisions: "I trained as a barrister in London, specialising in citizenship, so I know that a man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen".

 * Rebuttal (Reservation): Statements recognizing the restrictions which may legitimately be applied to the claim. It is exemplified as follows: "A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen, unless he has betrayed Britain and has become a spy for another country".

 * Qualifier: Words or phrases expressing the speaker's degree of force or certainty concerning the claim. Such words or phrases include "probably", "possible", "impossible", "certainly", "presumably", "as far as the evidence goes", and "necessarily". The claim "I am definitely a British citizen" has a greater degree of force than the claim "I am a British citizen, presumably". (See also: Defeasible reasoning.)

The first three elements, claim, ground, and warrant, are considered as the essential components of practical arguments, while the second triad, qualifier, backing, and rebuttal, may not be needed in some arguments.

When Toulmin first proposed it, this layout of argumentation was based on legal arguments and intended to be used to analyze the rationality of arguments typically found in the courtroom. Toulmin did not realize that this layout could be applicable to the field of rhetoric and communication until his works were introduced to rhetoricians by Wayne Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger. Their Decision by Debate (1963) streamlined Toulmin's terminology and broadly introduced his model to the field of debate. Only after Toulmin published Introduction to Reasoning (1979) were the rhetorical applications of this layout mentioned in his works.

One criticism of the Toulmin model is that it does not fully consider the use of questions in argumentation. The Toulmin model assumes that an argument starts with a fact or claim and ends with a conclusion, but ignores an argument's underlying questions. In the example "Harry was born in Bermuda, so Harry must be a British subject", the question "Is Harry a British subject?" is ignored, which also neglects to analyze why particular questions are asked and others are not. (See Issue mapping for an example of an argument-mapping method that emphasizes questions.)

Toulmin's argument model has inspired research on, for example, goal structuring notation (GSN), widely used for developing safety cases, and argument maps and associated software.

Good reasons approach
In Reason in Ethics (1950), his doctoral dissertation, Toulmin sets out a Good Reasons approach of ethics, and criticizes what he considers to be the subjectivism and emotivism of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer because, in his view, they fail to do justice to ethical reasoning.

Revival of casuistry
By reviving casuistry (also known as case ethics), Toulmin sought to find the middle ground between the extremes of absolutism and relativism. Casuistry was practiced widely during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance to resolve moral issues. Although casuistry largely fell silent during the modern period, in The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1988), Toulmin collaborated with Albert R. Jonsen to demonstrate the effectiveness of casuistry in practical argumentation during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, effectively reviving it as a permissible method of argument.

Casuistry employs absolutist principles, called "type cases" or "paradigm cases", without resorting to absolutism. It uses the standard principles (for example, sanctity of life) as referential markers in moral arguments. An individual case is then compared and contrasted with the type case. Given an individual case that is completely identical to the type case, moral judgments can be made immediately using the standard moral principles advocated in the type case. If the individual case differs from the type case, the differences will be critically assessed in order to arrive at a rational claim.

Through the procedure of casuistry, Toulmin and Jonsen identified three problematic situations in moral reasoning: first, the type case fits the individual case only ambiguously; second, two type cases apply to the same individual case in conflicting ways; third, an unprecedented individual case occurs, which cannot be compared or contrasted to any type case. Through the use of casuistry, Toulmin demonstrated and reinforced his previous emphasis on the significance of comparison to moral arguments, a significance not addressed in theories of absolutism or relativism.

Evolutionary model
In 1972, Toulmin published Human Understanding, in which he asserts that conceptual change is an evolutionary process. In this book, Toulmin attacks Thomas Kuhn's account of conceptual change in his seminal work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). Kuhn believed that conceptual change is a revolutionary process (as opposed to an evolutionary process), during which mutually exclusive paradigms compete to replace one another. Toulmin criticized the relativist elements in Kuhn's thesis, arguing that mutually exclusive paradigms provide no ground for comparison, and that Kuhn made the relativists' error of overemphasizing the "field variant" while ignoring the "field invariant" or commonality shared by all argumentation or scientific paradigms.

In contrast to Kuhn's revolutionary model, Toulmin proposed an evolutionary model of conceptual change comparable to Darwin's model of biological evolution. Toulmin states that conceptual change involves the process of innovation and selection. Innovation accounts for the appearance of conceptual variations, while selection accounts for the survival and perpetuation of the soundest conceptions. Innovation occurs when the professionals of a particular discipline come to view things differently from their predecessors; selection subjects the innovative concepts to a process of debate and inquiry in what Toulmin considers as a "forum of competitions". The soundest concepts will survive the forum of competition as replacements or revisions of the traditional conceptions.

From the absolutists' point of view, concepts are either valid or invalid regardless of contexts. From the relativists' perspective, one concept is neither better nor worse than a rival concept from a different cultural context. From Toulmin's perspective, the evaluation depends on a process of comparison, which determines whether or not one concept will improve explanatory power more than its rival concepts.

Works

 * An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1950) ISBN 0-226-80843-2
 * The Philosophy of Science: An Introduction (1953)
 * The Uses of Argument (1958) 2nd edition 2003: ISBN 0-521-53483-6
 * Metaphysical Beliefs, Three Essays (1957) with Ronald W. Hepburn and Alasdair MacIntyre
 * The Riviera (1961)
 * Seventeenth century science and the arts (1961)
 * Foresight and Understanding: An Enquiry into the Aims of Science (1961) ISBN 0-313-23345-4
 * The Fabric of the Heavens (The Ancestry of Science, volume 1) (1961) with June Goodfield ISBN 0-226-80848-3
 * The Architecture of Matter (The Ancestry of Science, volume 2) (1962) with June Goodfield ISBN 0-226-80840-8
 * Night Sky at Rhodes (1963)
 * The Discovery of Time (The Ancestry of Science, volume 3) (1965) with June Goodfield ISBN 0-226-80842-4
 * Physical Reality (1970)
 * Human Understanding: The Collective Use and Evolution of Concepts (1972) ISBN 0-691-01996-7
 * Wittgenstein's Vienna (1973) with Allan Janik
 * On the Nature of the Physician's Understanding (1976)
 * Knowing and Acting: An Invitation to Philosophy (1976) ISBN 0-02-421020-X
 * An Introduction to Reasoning with Allan Janik and Richard D. Rieke (1979), 2nd ed. 1984; 3rd edition 1997: ISBN 0-02-421160-5
 * The Return to Cosmology: Postmodern Science and the Theology of Nature (1985) ISBN 0-520-05465-2
 * The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1988) with Albert R. Jonsen ISBN 0-520-06960-9
 * Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (1990) ISBN 0-226-80838-6
 * Social Impact of AIDS in the United States (1993) with Albert R. Jonsen
 * Beyond theory – changing organizations through participation (1996) with Björn Gustavsen (editors)
 * Return to Reason (2001) ISBN 0-674-01235-6

Pantheon of skeptics
At a meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) in Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Toulmin was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.

title: Stephen Toulmin


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jim Geraghty

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was KEEP. —Korath (Talk) 12:55, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)

Jim Geraghty
Once again, delete this on the basis of non-notability. -- Riffsyphon1024 09:10, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Main discussion: Votes for deletion/Jim geraghty If that article survives VfD, it would be turned into a redirect to the correctly capitalized article. Carrp | Talk 14:16, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * If there are wikipedia entries for other contributors to NRO, why not Geraghty too? Especially since he did have some involvement in other note worthy wikipedia matters (i.e., the Killian Documents/CBS-Rather controversy).  The entry is factually correct.  25 Feb. 2005
 * The above remark by 63.225.174.87. And, as Carrp says, please refer to the discussion on Jim geraghty for details. Oh and btw, merely being factually correct does not necessarily merit inclusion in an encyclopedia. It also has to be informative. Radiant! 20:53, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Well, no, it has to be verifiable - David Gerard 13:52, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Oops, wrong link, I meant Informative. I agree that an article needs Verifiability. Btw, the latter links to the former as another part of policy, the third part being Neutral. Radiant! 10:53, Feb 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, vote unchanged on this as before. Megan1967 23:14, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Borderline keep - needs better verifiability, but probably an article worthy person - David Gerard 13:52, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. If you are going to delete this entry then thousands of other entries should be deleted too.  As for verifiability, there are hyperlinks to other wikipedia entries, to NRO and to Geraghty's archives. (Posted by anon 24.18.59.229)
 * Keep, barely also - The information is verifiable, and the guy is not entirely non-notable. – ClockworkSoul 15:39, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - I read the Kerry Spot frequently and I understand it won a prize in the Washington Post blog competition held last year. Capitalistroadster 08:10, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Just another blogger.  This guy was about as involved in the Killian memos issue as the editors who worked on Killian documents.  Gamaliel 04:35, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

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text:
United States Senate Agriculture Subcommittee on Livestock, Dairy, Poultry, Local Food Systems, and Food Safety and Security

The U.S. Senate Agriculture Subcommittee on Livestock, Dairy, Poultry, Local Food Systems, and Food Safety and Security is one of five subcommittees of the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry.

This subcommittee has jurisdiction over legislation on foreign agricultural trade, foreign market development, as well as agriculture product promotion and domestic marketing programs. It oversees international commodity agreements and export controls on agricultural commodities, foreign assistance programs and Food for Peace, marketing orders, inspection and certification of meat, flowers, fruit, vegetables and livestock.

Name changes
The subcommittee was renamed for the 117th United States Congress (2021). It was previously:
 * 115th–116th Congresses: Subcommittee on Livestock, Marketing and Agriculture Security
 * 112th–114th Congresses: Subcommittee on Livestock, Dairy, Poultry, Marketing and Agriculture Security
 * Prior to 112th Congress: Subcommittee on Domestic and Foreign Marketing, Inspection, and Plant and Animal Health.


text:
Softbox

A softbox is a type of photographic lighting modifier, one of a number of photographic soft light devices. All the various soft light types create even and diffused light by transmitting light through some scattering material, or by reflecting light off a second surface to diffuse the light. The best known form of reflective source is the umbrella light, where the light from the bulb is "bounced" off the inside of a metalized umbrella to create an indirect "soft" light.

A softbox is an enclosure around a bulb comprising reflective side and back walls and a diffusing material at the front of the light.

The sides and back of the box are lined with a bright surface – an aluminized fabric surface or an aluminum foil, to act as an efficient reflector. In some commercially available models the diffuser is removable to allow the light to be used alone as a floodlight or with an umbrella reflector.

A softbox can be used with either flash or continuous light sources such as fluorescent lamps or "hot lights" such as quartz halogen bulbs or tungsten bulbs. If softbox lights are used with "hot" light sources, the photographer must be sure the softbox is heat rated for the wattage of the light to which it is attached in order to avoid fire hazard.

title: Softbox


text:
Willie Park

Willie Park may refer to:
 * Willie Park Sr., first winner of The Open Championship in golf
 * Willie Park Jr., his son, also winner of The Open Championship

title: Willie Park


text:
User talk:Pangguanzhe

• Philosopy is to the real world as masturbation is to sex.

• Ah, yes, divorce, from the Latin word meaning to rip out a man's genitals through his wallet. -Robbin Williams

• Love is the answer, but while you are waiting for the answer sex raises some pretty good questions.

• See, the problem is that God gives men a brain and a penis, and only enough blood to run one at a time."

• Sex appeal is fifty percent what you've got and fifty percent what people think you've got.

• Don't knock masturbation - it's sex with someone I love

• Give a jackass an education and you get a smartass.

• They call it "pms" because "mad cow disease" was already taken.

• Homosexuality is god's way of insuring that the truly gifted aren't burdened with children.

• Sex is hereditary. If your parents never had it, chances are you won't either. __________________

http://residence.educities.edu.tw/feima/minzu.htm

中國各民族名稱的羅馬字母拼寫法及其字母代碼和數字代碼列表如下﹕

表1 民族名稱	羅馬字母拼寫法	字母代碼	數字代碼 土家族	Tujia	TJ	15 土族	Tu	TU	30 門巴族	Monba	MB	54 水族	Sui	SU	25 毛南族	Maonan	MN	36 烏孜別克族	Uzbek	UZ	43 布依族	Buyei	BY	09 布朗族	Blang	BL	34 東鄉族	Dongxiang	DX	26 仡佬族	Gelao	GL	37 麼佬族	Mulao	ML	32 白族	Bai	BA	14 漢族	Han	HA	01 達斡爾族	Daur	DU	31 回族	Hui	HU	03 佤族	Va	VA	21 壯族	Zhuang	ZH	08 羌族	Qiang	QI	33 阿昌族	Achang	AC	39 納西族	Naxi	NX	27 拉祜族	Lahu	LH	24 苗族	Miao	MH	06 侗族	Dong	DO	12 京族	Gin	GI	49 柯爾克孜族	Kirgiz	KG	29 哈尼族	Hani	HN	16 哈薩克族	Kazak	KZ	17 保安族	Bonan	BN	47 俄羅斯族	Russ	RS	44 獨龍族	Derung	DR	51 怒族	Nu	NU	42 珞巴族	Lhoba	LB	55 高山族	Gaoshan	GS	23 基諾族	Jino	JN	56 鄂倫春族	Oroqen	OR	52 鄂溫克族	Ewenki	EW	45 維吾爾族	Uygur	UG	05 塔吉克族	Tajik	TA	41 塔塔爾族	Tatar	TT	50 朝鮮族(1)	Chosen	CS	10 景頗族	Jingpo	JP	28 傣族	Dai	DA	18 栗僳族	Lisu	LS	20 畬族	She	SH	22 普米族	Pumi	PM	40 裕固族	Yugur	YG	48 蒙古族	Mongol	MG	02 錫伯族	Xibe	XB	38 滿族	Man	MA	11 瑤族	Yao	YA	13 赫哲族	Hezhen	HZ	53 撒拉族	Salar	SL	35 德昂族	Deang	DE	46 黎族	Li	LI	19 藏族(2)	Zang	ZA	04 彝族	Yi	YI	07

表2 羅馬字母拼寫法	字母代碼	民族名稱	數字代碼 Achang	AC	阿昌族	39 Bai	BA	白族	14 Blang	BL	布朗族	34 Bonan	BN	保安族	47 Buyei	BY	布依族	09 Chosen	CS	朝鮮族(1)	10 Dai	DA	傣族	18 Daur	DU	達斡爾族	31 Deang	DE	德昂族	46 Derung	DR	獨龍族	51 Dong	DO	侗族	12 Dongxiang	DX	東鄉族	26 Ewenki	EW	鄂溫克族	45 Gaoshan	GS	高山族	23 Gelao	GL	仡佬族	37 Gin	GI	京族	49 Han	HA	漢族	01 Hani	HN	哈尼族	16 Hezhen	HZ	赫哲族	53 Hui	HU	回族	03 Jingpo	JP	景頗族	28 Jino	JN	基諾族	56 Kazak	KZ	哈薩克族	17 Kirgiz	KG	柯爾克孜族	29 Lahu	LH	拉祜族	24 Lhoba	LB	珞巴族	55 Li	LI	黎族	19 Lisu	LS	栗僳族	20 Man	MA	滿族	11 Maonan	MN	毛南族	36 Miao	MH	苗族	06 Monba	MB	門巴族	54 Mongol	MG	蒙古族	02 Mulao	ML	麼佬族	32 Naxi	NX	納西族	27 Nu	NU	怒族	42 Oroqen	OR	鄂倫春族	52 Pumi	PM	普米族	40 Qiang	QI	羌族	33 Russ	RS	俄羅斯族	44 Salar	SL	撒拉族	35 She	SH	畬族	22 Sui	SU	水族	25 Tajik	TA	塔吉克族	41 Tatar	TT	塔塔爾族	50 Tu	TU	土族	30 Tujia	TJ	土家族	15 Uygur	UG	維吾爾族	05 Uzbek	UZ	烏孜別克族	43 Va	VA	佤族	21 Xibe	XB	錫伯族	38 Yao	YA	瑤族	13 Yi	YI	彝族	07 Yugur	YG	裕固族	48 Zang	ZA	藏族(2)	04 Zhuang	ZH	壯族	08

表3 數字代碼	民族名稱	羅馬字母拼寫法	字母代碼 01	漢族	Han	HA 02	蒙古族	Mongol	MG 03	回族	Hui	HU 04	藏族(2)	Zang	ZA 05	維吾爾族	Uygur	UG 06	苗族	Miao	MH 07	彝族	Yi	YI 08	壯族	Zhuang	ZH 09	布依族	Buyei	BY 10	朝鮮族(1)	Chosen	CS 11	滿族	Man	MA 12	侗族	Dong	DO 13	瑤族	Yao	YA 14	白族	Bai	BA 15	土家族	Tujia	TJ 16	哈尼族	Hani	HN 17	哈薩克族	Kazak	KZ 18	傣族	Dai	DA 19	黎族	Li	LI 20	栗僳族	Lisu	LS 21	佤族	Va	VA 22	畬族	She	SH 23	高山族	Gaoshan	GS 24	拉祜族	Lahu	LH 25	水族	Sui	SU 26	東鄉族	Dongxiang	DX 27	納西族	Naxi	NX 28	景頗族	Jingpo	JP 29	柯爾克孜族	Kirgiz	KG 30	土族	Tu	TU 31	達斡爾族	Daur	DU 32	麼佬族	Mulao	ML 33	羌族	Qiang	QI 34	布朗族	Blang	BL 35	撒拉族	Salar	SL 36	毛南族	Maonan	MN 37	仡佬族	Gelao	GL 38	錫伯族	Xibe	XB 39	阿昌族	Achang	AC 40	普米族	Pumi	PM 41	塔吉克族	Tajik	TA 42	怒族	Nu	NU 43	烏孜別克族	Uzbek	UZ 44	俄羅斯族	Russ	RS 45	鄂溫克族	Ewenki	EW 46	德昂族	Deang	DE 47	保安族	Bonan	BN 48	裕固族	Yugur	YG 49	京族	Gin	GI 50	塔塔爾族	Tatar	TT 51	獨龍族	Derung	DR 52	鄂倫春族	Oroqen	OR 53	赫哲族	Hezhen	HZ 54	門巴族	Monba	MB 55	珞巴族	Lhoba	LB 56	基諾族	Jino	JN

註﹕	(1)	朝鮮族的羅馬字母拼寫法﹐對外使用時為Korean。 　　	(2)	藏族的羅馬字母拼寫法﹐對外使用時為Tibetan。

http://residence.educities.edu.tw/feima/zhengcif.htm 1.5	非漢語人名﹑地名本著“名從主人”的原則﹐按照羅馬字母（拉丁字母）原文書寫﹔非羅馬字母文字的人名﹑地名﹐按照該文字的羅馬字母轉寫法拼寫。為了便於閱讀﹐可以在原文後面註上漢字或漢字的拼音﹐在一定的場合也可以先用或僅用漢字的拼音。 　Ulanhu（烏蘭夫）	　Seypidin（賽福鼎） 　Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme 　（阿沛‧阿旺晉美） 　Marx（馬克思）	　Darwin（達爾文） 　Newton（牛頓）	　Einstein（愛因斯坦） 　Akutagawa Ryunosuke 　（芥川龍之介） 　rmqi（烏魯木齊）	　Hohhot（呼和浩特） 　Lhasa（拉薩）	　London（倫敦） 　Paris（巴黎）	　Washington（華盛頓） 　Tokyo（東京） 　漢語化的音譯名詞﹐按漢字譯音拼寫。 　Feizhou（非洲）	　Nanmei（南美） 　Deguo（德國）	　Dongnanya（東南亞）

584¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡我发誓(\ wo fa shi) 5682177778¡¡ 我要把爱一起轻轻拥抱 (wo yao ba ai yi qi qing qing yong bao) 12234¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡与你爱相随 (yu ni ai xiang sui) 1798¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡ 一起走吧 (yi qi zou ba) 76868¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡去溜达溜达(qu liu da liu da) 587129955¡¡¡¡我不介意你久久吻我 (wo bu jie yi ni jiu jiu wen wo) 829475 ¡¡¡¡¡¡被爱就是幸福 (bei ai jiu shi xing fu)

Image:BrianNichols.jpg
Hey - I was just wondering if you could record where you got Image:BrianNichols.jpg from and tag it. Thanks! Nrbelex (talk) 23:04, 11 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Reuters via the Times article I suspect? Thanks - Nrbelex (talk)[[Image:Sleuthicon.jpg|45px|]] 23:07, 11 Mar 2005 (UTC)

That's right. Local TV also uses the same picture.

--

Hawhow

 * 1) ．	Fantsow jawhay money!
 * 2) ．	Fugon 3 nin, heongsaw jonksank!
 * 3) ．	Joyhaw ge conkci jaw howci yatjonk sport gamp.
 * 4) ．	Hauyin yatbun dow joi beydo ney yatgo geywui, waijeu henksonk ge sampcenk hoy yenkfu la!
 * 5) ．	M taygow dow 85fant yiseong, ney jaw bagbag gamp longfay jo niyat nin tonk ni 5000 mant osap la!

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 * Your information will have some use in Chinese wikipedia. But have limited usefulness here because the name is rarely used. The coin with Chinese name was to celebrate king's 60th birthday. More as a souvenir than for general use. --Lerdsuwa (talk) 06:55, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Pangguanzhe


text: User talk:161.139.100.194

title: User talk:161.139.100.194


text:
Willie Park Sr.

William Park Sr. (30 June 1833 – 25 July 1903) was a Scottish professional golfer. He was a 4-time winner of the Open Championship.

Early life
Park was born in Wallyford, East Lothian, Scotland. Like some of the other early professional golfers, Park started out as a caddie. He later ran a golf equipment manufacturing business. On the course, he made his money from "challenge matches" against rivals such as Old Tom Morris, Willie Dunn and Allan Robertson, which were the most popular form of spectator golf in his era.

Playing style
Park, a tall, strong man, was a very long hitter and an excellent putter, but sometimes got into trouble through overly aggressive play. He had surpassed the older Willie Dunn by age 20, and travelled to St Andrews Links to play and learn that course. He issued a public challenge in 1853 to Robertson, generally recognised as the best player, which was, however, not taken up. Custom of the time allowed the best player to refuse a challenge of this sort without damage to his reputation. Park further fuelled controversy through his aggressive self-promotion, but this did lead to increased interest in golf rivalries, more press coverage, and more matches and tournaments being set up, developing the professional game and increasing the incomes of players such as Park, Morris, and Robertson.

Family
He married Susanna Law in Inveresk, Scotland, on 29 March 1860. The couple would have ten children.

Park's brother Mungo and his son Willie Jr. both also won the Open Championship. Mungo's victory came in 1874 and Willie Jr. had two wins, in 1887 and 1889.

Death and legacy
Park died on 25 July 1903. He is primarily best remembered as the winner of four Open Championships, including the inaugural event in 1860, when the field was just eight strong. His other victories came in 1863, 1866 and 1875. Park was the co-holder of the record for most wins in the tournament until James Braid picked up his fifth win in 1910.

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} NT = No tournament
 * Note: Park played only in The Open Championship.

"T" indicates a tie for a place

title: Willie Park Sr.


text:
United States Senate Agriculture Subcommittee on Conservation, Climate, Forestry, and Natural Resources

The U.S. Senate Agriculture Subcommittee on Conservation, Climate, Forestry, and Natural Resources is one of five subcommittees of the U.S. Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry. Prior to the 117th Congress, it was named the Subcommittee on Conservation, Forestry and Natural Resources.

This subcommittee oversees programs regarding conservation and protection of natural resources, regulation of pesticides and agriculture biotechnology, and forestry.

Related Agencies: Natural Resources Conservation Service, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and the Forest Service at USDA, as well as EPA's Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention.


text:
Gilbert John Arrow

Gilbert John Arrow (20 December 1873 London - 5 October 1948) was an English entomologist.

Gilbert was the son of John Garner Arrow of Streatham, London. He initially trained as an architect but took an interest in insects from 1896 during which time he was a Deputy Keeper on the staff of the Natural History Museum in London from 1896 until 1938. He worked mainly on the Coleoptera and noted stridulation in the larvae and adults of Lamellicorn beetles.

Works
In The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma, published by the British government in India, he contributed:

 * Lamellicornia 1. Cetoniinae and Dynastinae (1910)
 * Lamellicornia 2. Rutelinae, Desmonycinae, Euchirinae (1917)
 * Clavicornia : Erotylidae, Languriidae & Endomychidae (1925)
 * Lamellicornia 3. Coprinae (1931)

Other (partial list)

 * Sound-production in the lamellicorn beetles. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London (1904)
 * On the characters and relationships of the less-known groups of Lamellicorn Coleoptera, with descriptions of new species of Hybosorinae, etc. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 57: 479-507.(1909)
 * Scarabaeidae: Pachypodinae, Pleocominae, Aclopinae, Glaphyrinae, Ochodaeinae, Orphninae, Idiostominae, Hybosorinae, Dynamopinae, Acanthocerinae, Troginae. Coleopterorum Catalogus pars 43, W. Junk, Berlin. 66 pp.(1912)
 * A nomenclatural note (Coleopt.) Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London (B) 9(1): 16. (1940).

title: Gilbert John Arrow


text:
Ernst Gustav Kraatz

Ernst Gustav Kraatz (13 March 1831 – 2 November 1909) was a German entomologist. He collected and described numerous beetles including Staphylinidae. Kraatz was a founding member of the Berlin Entomological Club (Berliner Entomologischer Verein) and the German entomological society (Deutsche Entomologische Gesellschaft) and the first editor of its journal, the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift. Kraatz was involved in improving the standards of taxonomic description in German entomology and he was a proponent of a national collection that allowed public access to specimens.

Life and work
Kraatz was born in Berlin on 13 March 1831. He studied law in the University of Heidelberg and at the University of Bonn but found no interest in it. When he was just fifteen years old he had sent 250 staphylinids to Ernst August Hellmuth von Kiesenwetter (1820–1880). Through the influence of his father's friend Carl August Dohrn he shifted to study entomology at the University of Berlin. He published his first paper on myrmecophily in the Stettiner Entomologische Zeitung in 1849. He attended courses in law from 1850 to 1853 at Berlin, Bonn and Heidelberg. While at Heidelberg he had a duel with a Spanish aristocrat named Da Silva. In 1854 he returned to Berlin and studied under H. M. Lichtenstein (1780––1857), C. G. Ehrenberg (1795––1876), W. Peters (1815––1883), and J. P. Müller (1801––1858). His PhD was on "Genera Aleocharionorum" (Staphylinidae) and his defense was in Jena in 1856. He travelled and networked extensively with entomologists across Europe. He also collected entomological works from antiquarians. He was a key founder of the Berliner Entomologischer Verein in 1856 and served as its first chairman. He had already been a member of the Stettiner Entomologischer Verein, Société entomologique de France and the Wiener zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft. Kraatz took on the editorship of the journal of the club, the Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift (later renamed to the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift). In the 1870s there was a plan to create a new national entomological collection. Kraatz was critical of the Kustodenherrlichkeit or the high-handedness of curators who made access to collections difficult. When the collections of F.H. Loew (d. 1878) were incorporated into the zoological museum, Kraatz argued for its separation and this split the Berlin Entomological Club and Kraatz then founded the Deutsche Entomologische Gesellschaft (DEG) and many of the coleopterists shifted their camp. It was only after Kraatz's death that the two societies were able to reunite. Kraatz was also critical of evolutionary theory as well as taxonomic vanity. Writing on the work of Viktor Ivanovitch Motschulsky (with whom he had a running feud) he made use of the term "Mihisucht" ' in 1862 which was later translated as the  mihi  itch. Kraatz worked on the beetle fauna of the whole world using the vast collections in the Natural History Museum of Berlin and described numerous species. The German entomological collection that he dreamt of was finally achieved in 1904. In 1905 the Prussian government gave him the title of professor. Loss of eyesight led to stoppage of work and he died in Berlin. His collection is held by Deutsches Entomologisches Institut. His last years were lonely and he wished that his ashes were kept among his collections of staphylinids.

Kraatz's major publications include:
 * Kraatz, G. (1856-1857) Naturgeschichte der Insecten Deutschlands. Abt. 1. Coleoptera. Zweiter Band. Berlin: Verlag der Nicolaischen Buchhandlung, viii+1080 pp.
 * Kraatz, G. (1859) Die Staphylinen-Fauna von Ostindien, inbesondere der Insel Ceylan. Archiv für Naturgeschichte, 25(1):1-193.
 * Kraatz, G. (1879) Neue Käfer vom Amur. Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 23:121-144.

title: Ernst Gustav Kraatz


text:
Code of conduct

A code of conduct is a set of rules outlining the norms, rules, and responsibilities or proper practices of an individual party or an organization.

Companies' codes of conduct
A company code of conduct is a set of rules which is commonly written for employees of a company, which protects the business and informs the employees of the company's expectations. It is appropriate for even the smallest of companies to create a document containing important information on expectations for employees. The document does not need to be complex or have elaborate policies.

Failure of an employee to follow a company's code of conduct can have negative consequences. In Morgan Stanley v. Skowron, 989 F. Supp. 2d 356 (S.D.N.Y. 2013), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a hedge fund's employee engaging in insider trading in violation of his company's code of conduct, which also required him to report his misconduct, must repay his employer the full $31 million his employer paid him as compensation during his period of faithlessness.

Accountants' code of conduct
In its 2007 International Good Practice Guidance, "Defining and Developing an Effective Code of Conduct for Organizations", provided the following working definition: "Principles, values, standards, or rules of behaviour that guide the decisions, procedures, and systems of an organization in a way that (a) contributes to the welfare of its key stakeholders, and (b) respects the rights of all constituents affected by its operations."

Codes of conduct in practice
A code of conduct can be an important part in establishing an inclusive culture, but it is not a comprehensive solution on its own. An ethical culture is created by the organization's leaders who manifest their ethics in their attitudes and behaviour. Studies of codes of conduct in the private sector show that their effective implementation must be part of a learning process that requires training, consistent enforcement, and continuous measurement/improvement: simply requiring members to read the code is not enough to ensure that they understand it and will remember its contents. Castellano et al. describe Tom Morris' book If Aristotle Ran General Motors as "compelling" and "persuasive" in arguing that in addition to codes of conduct and ethical guidelines, the creation of an ethical workplace climate requires "socially harmonious relationships" to be embedded in practice. The proof of effectiveness is when employees/members feel comfortable enough to voice concerns and believe that the organization will respond with appropriate action.

Examples

 * Banking Code
 * Bushido
 * Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief
 * Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
 * Code of Hammurabi
 * Code of the United States Fighting Force
 * Code of Service Discipline
 * Declaration of Geneva
 * Declaration of Helsinki
 * Don't be evil
 * Eight precepts
 * Election Commission of India's Model Code of Conduct
 * Five Pillars of Islam
 * Golden Rule
 * Geneva Conventions
 * Hippocratic Oath
 * ICC Cricket Code of Conduct
 * International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC or Hague Code of Conduct)
 * Izzat
 * Journalist's Creed
 * Kapu
 * Moral Code of the Builder of Communism
 * Pāṭimokkha
 * Pirate code
 * Rule of Saint Benedict
 * Ten Commandments
 * Ten precepts (Taoism)
 * Uniform Code of Military Justice
 * Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations

title: Code of conduct