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Dakota language

The Dakota language (Dakhód'iapi, Dakȟótiyapi), also referred to as Dakhóta, is a Siouan language spoken by the Dakota people of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, commonly known in English as the Sioux. Dakota is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language. It is definitely endangered, with only around 290 fluent speakers left out of an ethnic population of almost 250,000.

Nouns
Dakota, similar to many Native American languages, is a mainly polysynthetic language, meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for example makhá or earth, phéta or fire, and até or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on the other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories, such

Verbs
Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, through agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal, prepositional, and adverbial or modal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, forming participles. Like in English, Dakota verbs also have three persons, the first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the addition (first and second person) or subtraction (third person, the verb is used in its simplest form) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, the aorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, sometimes called the indefinite) and the future. In order to express the future tense, the suffixes kta or kte are placed after the verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said.

Verb types
Source:

Abstract benefactive; (wa- + -kíči-) An action that is for someone else's benefit and is further generalized as a concept.

 * Wíkičihni "to hunt or hustle for someone (on their behalf)"

Abstract causative; (wa- + -yA) An action that causes something to change state or action and is generalized as a concept.

 * WapíȟyA "to boil things"

Abstract intransitive; (wa-) Does not specify an object and is further generalized as a concept.

 * WakáǧA "to make things, create"

Abstract possessive; (wa- + -ki; & wa- + hd-) Specifies that the action is upon one’s own, and is further generalized as a concept.

 * Wíkihni "to hunt or hustle for one’s self or one’s family"
 * Wahdúžaža "to wash one’s own things"

Abstract transitive; (wa-) Requires an object, and is further generalized as a concept.

 * Awámanuŋ "to steal from someone"
 * WíwaŋǧA "to ask someone questions, interrogate or interview somebody"

Auxiliary; Follows an unconjugated verb and modifies it.

 * Ší "to command someone, tell someone what to do (ex. waŋyág ší ’tell someone to look’)"

Benefactive; Dative 2; (-kíči-) An action that is for someone else’s benefit or on their behalf.

 * KíčičaǧA "to make something (specified) in someone’s place"

Causative; (-ye, -ya & -yaŋ) An action that causes something or someone to change state or action.

 * PiȟyÁ "to boil something (specified); to cause something to boil"

Dative 1; (-ki- & -khi-) An action that indicates an object or recipient.

 * KiyútA "to eat someone else’s"
 * DudkhíyA "to dye or paint someone else's red"

Ditransitive; An action that requires two objects, whether the actor and another or two items.

 * Amánuŋ "to steal something (specified) from someone"

Intransitive; An action that doesn’t need an object.

 * InáȟmA / InáȟbA "to be hiding"

Possessive; (-ki-, & -hd-) An action that targets one's own.

 * NakíȟmA / NakíȟbA "to hide one’s own"

Reciprocal; (-kičhi- +/- -pi) An action between two parties that is done in kind to one another.

 * Ókičhiyapi "to help one another"

Reflexive; (-ič’i- & -ihd-) An action done to or for one's self.

 * Óič’iyA "to help one’s self"

Stative; A verb describing a state of being.

 * Tháŋka "to be large, great in size or renown; to be a grown up"

Transitive; An action that requires an object or subject.

 * Yutháŋka "to make something bigger, enlarge, expand"

Affixes
In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes.

Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verb wóyakA means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed "-ki-", the word becomes wókiyakA, which means "to tell someone." On the other hand, by adding the suffix "-pi," the word becomes "wóyakapi," which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories."

Dakota being an agglutinative language, means that affixes are added to the root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota word akáȟpekičičhiyA, means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel." This word is made up of the root word kaȟpÁ (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix -kičičhiyA meaning "to or for, (causative)", and the prefix a- meaning "upon" AkáȟpA + -kiči + -čhiyA = Akáȟpekičičhiye.

Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner.

Infixoids
Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either as infixes, circumfixes, or transfixes depending on the word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word.

For example, the Dakota verb "dá" means "to ask for something." If you want to say "I ask for something from you," you add the affixes ki- to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), and čhi- 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in "čhičída." However, the verb eyÁ "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you," you would add the same affix ki- as an infix instead, with ni- 2sT resulting in "eníčiye" (ni- + ki- + eyÁ).

Similarly, the affix -uŋ- which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with -uŋ-...-pi "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on the verb in use. The verb iyáyA "to leave or pass by" in 1s ibdábde (I leave), while in 1d uŋkíyaye (you and I leave). The same affix in the verb máni "to walk" is infixed as 1d maúŋni.

This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to the specific context and meaning of the word being used.

Pronoun infixoids

 * 1s -wa- "I"
 * 1sT -ma- "I, (target/status)"
 * 1s2T -čhi- "I to you"
 * 1s3pT -wičhawa- "I to them all"
 * 2s -ya- "you"
 * 2T -ni- "you, (target/status)"
 * 2s1sT -maya- "you to me"
 * 2s3pT -wičhaya- "you to them all"
 * 2s/p1pT -uŋya-...-pi "you/you all to us all"
 * 1d -uŋ- "you and I; you and I, (target/status); 1p -uŋ-...+pi "we all (actors); us all, (target/status)"
 * 1p2sT -uŋni- "we all to you"; 1p -uŋni-...+pi "we all to you all"
 * 1d3pT -wičhuŋ- "you and I to them all"; 1p3pT -wičhuŋ-...+pi "we all to them all"
 * 3T -wičha- "they all, plural collective (target/status)"

Grammatical infixoids

 * Reflexive -ič’i- "to one's self"
 * 1s -mič’i-, 2s -nič’i-, 1d/p -uŋkíč’i-.../pi
 * Dative 1 -ki-¹ & -khi- "to someone, or to theirs"
 * 1s -waki-, 2s -yaki-, 1d/p -uŋki-.../pi
 * 1s -wakhi-, 2s -yakhi-, 1d/p -uŋkhi-.../pi
 * Possessive -ki-² "to one’s own"
 * 1s -waki-, 2s -yaki-, 1d/p -uŋki-.../pi
 * Reciprocal -kičhi- "to each other"
 * 1s3s -wečhi-, 2p -yečhi-...-pi, 1d/p -uŋkičhi-.../pi, 3p -kičhi-...-pi
 * Dative 2, Benefactive -kiči- "for someone else, on their behalf"
 * 1s -weči-, 2s -yeči-, 1d/p -uŋkiči-.../pi

Instrumental prefixes

 * Ba- indicates a cutting motion, such as sawing or cutting with a knife or saw
 * 1s bawá-, 2s bayá-, 1d/p baúŋ-.../pi
 * Bo- indicates impact by hitting or poking from a distance; 2. by impact via transportation; 3. by natural forces such as blowing wind, waves, lightning; 4. by blowing via mouth
 * 1s bowá-, 2s boyá-, 1d/p boúŋ-.../pi
 * Ka- indicates an action done by striking or hitting with a tool, such as a hammer or an axe; 2. by natural forces such as wind or water, an outer force, (creates impersonal verbs that refer to natural elements); 3. can diminish adverbs to mean "somewhat, a little"
 * 1s waká-, 2s yaká-, 1d/p uŋká-.../pi
 * Na- indicates an action of the foot or leg, such as kicking out, walking, standing; 2. of its own accord by an inside force, on its own, by itself; 3. automatically, such as by automation
 * 1s nawá-, 2s nayá-, 1d/p uŋná-.../pi
 * Pa- indicates an action done by pushing away from the actor, by pressure with the body or with a tool
 * 1s wapá-, 2s yapá-, 1d/p uŋpá-.../pi
 * Ya- indicates an action done by mouth, both literally and figuratively, such as yaȟtákA "biting," yawášte "blessing," yaónihaŋ "honoring
 * 1s bda-, 2s da-, 1d/p uŋyá-.../pi
 * Yu- indicates an action done by hand, by pulling towards the actor or manually; 2. general causation; 3. indicates use of scissors
 * 1s bdu-, 2s du-, 1d/p uŋyú-.../pi

Possessive instrumental prefixes

 * Hd- indicates the possessive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as hdakčá "to comb one's own hair", hdawášte "to bless one's own", and hduwášte "to improve one's own"
 * Ihd- indicates the reflexive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as ihdáčho "to judge one's self", ihdúžaža "to wash one's self"

Locatives

 * A- on, upon, over; 2. for a purpose; 3. in addition to
 * E- to, at; denotes that the action is done at a place; of some verbs starting with "i," it makes a collective plural form: as, inážiŋ, "to stand", énažiŋ, "they all stand"; iyáyA, "to be gone", éyayA, "they all have gone"
 * I- in regards to, on account of, because of; by, with a tool, changes active verbs into a tool object; makes ordinal numbers of cardinal numbers; prefixed to time nouns it means the following one
 * O- in, into, inside; around, abouts, in a certain area; creates certain kinds of nouns; generalizes certain words

Abstract and indefinite object markers

 * Wa- the main indefinite object marker; can create nouns from verbs, give verbs a more general or abstract meaning such as "people" or "things."
 * Wi- When Wa- comes before the vowel "i" it becomes wi- and forms instrument nouns; also the classifier for human women and terms related to the thípi.
 * Wo- When Wa- comes before the vowel "o" it becomes wó and creates abstract notions such as wóinina "the virtue of stillness"; also when the prefix wa- contracts with the prefix yu- such as wóžaža "to do laundry," (wa- + yužáža).

Suffixes

 * -yA, -yAŋ causative suffix
 * 1s -waye, 2s -yaye, 1p -uŋyapi/uŋyaŋpi
 * -khiyA, khiyAŋ dative 1 causative
 * -kiyA, kiyAŋ possessive causative
 * -pi plural suffix, can often make verbs into nouns equivalent to -ing in English
 * 1p -uŋ-...-pi, 2p -ya-...-pi, 3p ...-pi

Enclitic suffixes

 * -phiča to be possible, good for, to be doable, feasible
 * -daŋ, -da, -na diminutive suffix, makes nouns small or beloved
 * 3p -pidaŋ, -pida, -pina; such as hokšípidaŋ "little boys"
 * -ȟčA, -ȟ very much, really, particularly; such as nínaȟče "very much so, it really is..."
 * šni negative suffix, negates any verb it follows, such as wašté šni "not good"

Duplifixes
A duplifix is a morpheme that is a morphological process in which the root or part of a word (or even the whole word) is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Unlike other types of affixes, duplifixes can emphasize or intensify the meaning of the word rather than change its grammatical function, or can be used to indicate plurality or repetition, or to modify adjectives or verbs for emphasis. This is commonly called reduplication. Examples are as such; waštéšte "good things", p’op’ó "it is very foggy", and šigšíčA "bad things, ugly things"

Possessive pronouns and pronominal affixes
In order to show possession in Dakota, a possessive pronoun may be prefixed whichever noun is being possessed. Two forms of possessive nouns occur, the natural class and the artificial or alienable class. Natural class pronouns express possession that cannot be alienated, and when prefixed to a noun, signifies the different parts of one's self. For example, the possessive natural article pronoun mi-, which means "my," can be added to nouns such as "eye," in miíšta, or "words," in mióie; for inalienable objects such as one's body or intellectual property, and in some cases for possessive form of relative terms such as "my little brother," misúŋ, or "my daughter," mičhúŋkši. (However most relative terms are in their base form possessive; or use the causative suffix -yA.) Meanwhile, artificial possessive pronouns are used to signify property and possessions that can be transferred or traded. For example, the artificial pronoun tha-, which may become thi-, and tho-, is equivalent to the verb tháwa, "his or hers," can be prefixed onto nouns such as "bow," in thinázipe, and "friend," in thakhódaku.

Nouns and verbs
Dakota is mainly a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, where nouns, whether they are the subject or object, always come before the verb. And when two nouns are used in the same clause, where one is the subject and the other is the object, the subject is most usually placed first. Verbs are also usually placed after adjectives that are used to qualify either the subject or the object and adverbs that qualify the verb. When additional words are used within a clause that are not either nouns or verbs, the nouns, both subject and object, are always placed at the beginning of the clause.

Dialects
Dakota has two major dialects with two sub-dialects each:

 * 1) Eastern Dakota (a.k.a.  Santee-Sisseton or Dakhóta)
 * 2) * Santee (Isáŋathi: Bdewákhaŋthuŋ, Waȟpékhute, Waȟpéthuŋ)
 * 3) * Sisseton (Sisíthuŋ)
 * 4) Western Dakota (a.k.a. Yankton-Yanktonai or Dakȟóta/Dakhóta, and erroneously classified, for a very long time, as "Nakota" )
 * 5) * Yankton (Iháŋktȟuŋ)
 * 6) * Lower Yanktonai (Húŋkpathi)
 * 7) * Upper Yanktonai (Wičhíyena)

The two dialects differ phonologically, grammatically, and to a large extent, also lexically. They are mutually intelligible to a high extent, although Western Dakota appears lexically closer to the Lakota language with which it has high mutual intelligibility.

Writing systems
For a comparative table of the various writing systems conceived over time for the Dakota languages, cf. the specific section of the article Sioux language.

Vowels
Dakota has five oral vowels,, and three nasal vowels,.

Phonological differences
In respect to phonology, Eastern and Western Dakota differ particularly in consonant clusters. The table below gives the possible consonant clusters and shows the differences between the dialects:

The two dialects also differ in the diminutive suffix (-daŋ, -da in Santee, and -na in Yankton-Yanktonai and in Sisseton) and in a number of other phonetic issues that are harder to categorize. The following table gives examples of words that differ in their phonology.

Lexical differences
There are also numerous lexical differences between the two Dakota dialects as well as between the sub-dialects. Yankton-Yanktonai is in fact lexically closer to the Lakota language than it is to Santee-Sisseton. The following table gives some examples:

Grammatical differences
Yankton-Yanktonai has the same three ablaut grades as Lakota (a, e, iŋ), while in Santee-Sisseton there are only two (a, e). This significantly impacts word forms, especially in fast speech and it is another reason why Yankton-Yanktonai has better mutual intelligibility with Lakota than with Santee-Sisseton.

Some examples:

There are other grammatical differences between the dialects.

Academic and immersion programs
The University of Minnesota was the first American University to establish a Dakota language class in their American Indian studies department. In 1966 a small group petitioned the University’s administration to "establish links between the University and Minnesota’s eleven federally-recognized tribes to develop recruitment and retention efforts for American Indian students, and to create courses on issues of importance to American Indian communities". In 2022, University of Minnesota's American Indian Studies Department and the Dakota Language Program collaborated to develop the Dakota Language House Living Learning Community in hopes of it becoming a full-immersion Dakota program. It is an opportunity for students to live with others who are speaking, or learning to speak, Dakota. Dakota language instructor Šišóka Dúta (Sisithunwan-Wahpethunwan Dakhota) noted, "To speak the language is to literally breathe life into the language because you're using the air to speak language, and so, in a metaphorical but in the literal way. So by speaking the language, we're breathing life into it and that's actually a phrase in our language". The University's classes currently include classes on teaching Dakota, alongside Dakota Linguistics, for years one through four.

In 1979, the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate college was established. They maintain a Dakota studies program, with Dakota language specialist trainings. The college has a dictionary and other materials available on their website, created through grants at their Kaksiza Caŋhdeṡka Center. These books and materials are hand crafted with the hard work and dedication of elder speakers of the Lake Traverse reservation community, with regular weekly meetings to create curriculum or work with learners; President Azure at the time said, "Many of our graduates are now out in the community and k-12 schools teaching what they learned and how they learned it, and are continuing to succeed in language revitalization". They also have an online Dakota/English dictionary. The University of Minnesota and the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate College are working together to create the Dakota Language Audio Journal, which will be the first publicly available language journal, featuring recordings of conversations and stories.

In 2017, the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community funded a Dakota language training program called Voices of Our Ancestors, which provided four tribal communities with the resources to immerse 20 students in 40 hours a week of language. The tribal colleges which participated were Cankdeska Cikana Community College in North Dakota, Fort Peck Community College in Montana, the Nebraska Indian Community College Santee campus and the Sisseton Wahpeton College in South Dakota. The Fort Peck Culture Department create the Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder in the same year.

In 2018, the Lower Sioux Indian Community launched their Dakota immersion Head Start and also maintains online language classes to support the learning of their children and their families. The Dakota Wicohan program on Lower Sioux works with older youth to immerse them in the language and culture. Dakota Wicohan offers curriculum on Dakota values, language and customs through their website.

In North Dakota, there are state and tribal colleges teaching Dakota. The University of North Dakota has an Indigenous Language Education program up through a Bachelor of Science degree. Sitting Bull College, which serves the Standing Rock Indian Reservation maintains a dual Dakota/Lakota program, offering an Associate of Science degree in Dakhótiyapi. The Cankdeska Cikana Community College on the Spirit Lake reservation offers a Dakota Language Certification.

Curriculum, textbooks, and other materials
A Dakota-English Dictionary by Stephen Return Riggs is a historic resource for referencing dialect and historic documents. The accuracy of the work is disputed, as Riggs left provisions in the English copy untranslated in the Dakota version and sometimes revised the meaning of Dakota words to fit a Eurocentric viewpoint. Dakota Prisoner of War Letters is a great historic resource as it highlights fluently written Dakota language letters from the time of the Camp Kearney prison camp located in Davenport, IA, in 1863–1866. These letters are to relatives back home or to their closest representative they could find. It is the work of Dr. Clifford Canku as well as Michael Simon.

The Dakhóta Iápi Okhódakičhiye worked with Dakota language speakers, teachers, and linguists to create their Speak Dakota! textbooks, which are a fully illustrated series that is linguistically and pedagogically consistent. In 2023, the group released a free Dakota language app called, Dakhód Iápi Wičhóie Wówapi, containing more than 28,000 words and 40,000 audio files to aid in pronunciation.

''Remember This! Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives'' takes a unique approach to Indigenous history by centering Dakota language and oral tradition as crucial components of the decolonization framework. This is different from other works in the field, as it solely relies on Indigenous oral tradition as primary sources and gives prominence to Dakota language in the text.

Beginning Dakota - Tokaheya Dakota Iapi Kin by Nicolette Knudson, Jody Snow, and Clifford Canku is an online lesson portal by Minnesota Historical Society. Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has free learning resources for Dakota on their website that are centered around child and family learning, such as holidays and other activities like coloring books. Further, the director of Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has more resources on their personal artist site including Dakota land maps with audio pronunciations. Another mapping project called the Makxoche Washte: The Beautiful Country, is a Dakota and Lakota language map which is arguably the most extensive map in all of Dakota history and utilizes Google Maps.

Notable first-language speakers

 * Carolyn Schommer (Waȟpéthuŋ Wiŋ) –  Born in 1930, Schommer grew up in Granite Falls, alongside her 10 siblings and were raised by parents who were both Dakota first-language speakers. Her grandfather was Íŋyaŋgmani Hokšída, Running Walker Boy, the son of Chief Running Walker, Íŋyaŋgmani. Her parents taught her only the Dakota language, which meant that she had to learn English and a new way of life when she started school at a white school. She is now 93 years old and is one of the few remaining first-language speakers in Minnesota.  She taught at numerous schools including the University of Minnesota when it first established its Indian Studies department in 1969 and has worked on numerous publications throughout her lifetime.

title: Dakota language


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Sioux language

Sioux is a Siouan language spoken by over 30,000 Sioux in the United States and Canada, making it the fifth most spoken Indigenous language in the United States or Canada, behind Navajo, Cree, Inuit languages, and Ojibwe.

Since 2019, "the language of the Great Sioux Nation, comprisedof [sic] three dialects, Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota" is the official Indigenous language of South Dakota.

Regional variation
Sioux has three major regional varieties, with other sub-varieties:

 * 1) Lakota (a.k.a.  Lakȟóta, Teton, Teton Sioux)
 * 2) Western Dakota (a.k.a. Yankton-Yanktonai or Dakȟóta, and erroneously classified, for a very long time, as "Nakota" )
 * 3) * Yankton (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ)
 * 4) * Yanktonai (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna)
 * 5) Eastern Dakota (a.k.a. Santee-Sisseton or Dakhóta)
 * 6) * Santee (Isáŋyáthi: Bdewákhathuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute)
 * 7) * Sisseton (Sisíthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ)

Yankton-Yanktonai (Western Dakota) stands between Santee-Sisseton (Eastern Dakota) and Lakota within the dialect continuum. It is phonetically closer to Santee-Sisseton but lexically and grammatically, it is much closer to Lakota. For this reason Lakota and Western Dakota are much more mutually intelligible than each is with Eastern Dakota. The assumed extent of mutual intelligibility is usually overestimated by speakers of the language. While Lakota and Yankton-Yanktonai speakers understand each other to a great extent, they each find it difficult to follow Santee-Sisseton speakers.

Closely related to the Sioux language are the Assiniboine and Stoney languages, whose speakers use the self-designation term (autonym) Nakhóta or Nakhóda.

Phonetic differences
The following table shows some of the main phonetic differences between the regional varieties of the Sioux language. The table also provides comparison with the two closely related Nakota languages (Assiniboine and Stoney).

Writing systems
In 1827, John Marsh and his wife, Marguerite (who was half Sioux), wrote the first dictionary of the Sioux language. They also wrote a "Grammar of the Sioux Language."

Life for the Dakota changed significantly in the nineteenth century as the early years brought increased contact with European settlers, particularly Christian missionaries. The goal of the missionaries was to introduce the Dakota to Christian beliefs. To achieve this, the missions began to transcribe the Dakota language. In 1836, brothers Samuel and Gideon Pond, Rev. Stephen Return Riggs, and Dr. Thomas Williamson set out to begin translating hymns and Bible stories into Dakota. By 1852, Riggs and Williamson had completed a Dakota Grammar and Dictionary (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Center). Eventually, the entire Bible was translated.

Today, it is possible to find a variety of texts in Dakota. Traditional stories have been translated, children's books, even games such as Pictionary and Scrabble. Despite such progress, written Dakota is not without its difficulties. The Pond brothers, Rev. Riggs, and Dr. Williamson were not the only missionaries documenting the Dakota language. Around the same time, missionaries in other Dakota bands were developing their own versions of the written language. Since the 1900s, professional linguists have been creating their own versions of the orthography. The Dakota have also been making modifications. "Having so many different writing systems is causing confusion, conflict between our [the Dakota] people, causing inconstancy in what is being taught to students, and making the sharing of instructional and other materials very difficult" (SICC).

Prior to the introduction of the Latin alphabet, the Dakota did have a writing system of their own: one of representational pictographs. In pictographic writing, a drawing represents exactly what it means. For example, a drawing of a dog literally meant a dog. Palmer writes that,

"As a written language, it [pictographs] was practical enough that it allowed the Lakota to keep a record of years in their winter counts which can still be understood today, and it was in such common usage that pictographs were recognized and accepted by census officials in the 1880s, who would receive boards or hides adorned with the head of the household’s name depicted graphically. (pg. 34)"

For the missionaries, however, documenting the Bible through pictographs was impractical and presented significant challenges.

Phonology
See Lakota language – Phonology and Dakota language – Phonology.

Morphology
Dakota is an agglutinating language. It features suffixes, prefixes, and infixes. Each affix has a specific rule in Dakota. For example, the suffix –pi is added to the verb to mark the plurality of an animate subject. "With respect to number agreement for objects, only animate objects are marked, and these by the verbal prefix wicha-." Also, there is no gender agreement in Dakota.

Example of the use of –pi:

ma-khata

I-hot

"I am hot"

khata-pi

-hot-PL

"they are hot"

Example of the use of wicha-

wa-kte

-I-kill

"I kill him"

wicha-wa-kte

them-I-kill

"I kill them"

Infixes are rare in Dakota, but do exist when a statement features predicates requiring two "patients".

Example of infixing:

iye-checa → iye-ni-ma-checa

{to resemble} {} {I resemble you}

"you resemble me"

iskola → i-ni-ma-skola

{be as small as} {} {I am as small as you}

"you are as small as I"

Syntax
Dakota has subject/object/ verb (SOV) word order. Along the same line, the language also has postpositions. Examples of word order:

wichasta-g {wax aksica-g} kte

man-DET bear-DET kill

"the man killed the bear"

{wax aksicas-g} wichasta-g kte

bear-DET man-DET kill

"the bear killed the man"

According to Shaw, word order exemplifies grammatical relations.

In Dakota, the verb is the most important part of the sentence. There are many verb forms in Dakota, although they are "dichotomized into a stative-active classification, with the active verbs being further subcategorized as transitive or intransitive." Some examples of this are:

 * 1) stative:
 * 2) *ma-khata	"I am hot" (I-hot)
 * 3) *ni-khata	"you are hot" (you-hot)
 * 4) *khata		"he/she/it is hot" (0-hot)
 * 5) *u-khata		"we (you and I) are hot" (we-hot)
 * 6) *u-khata-pi	"we (excl. or pl) are hot" (we-hot-pl.)
 * 7) *ni-khata-pi	"you (pl.) are hot" (you-hot-pl.)
 * 8) *khata-pi	"they are hot" (0-hot-pl.)
 * 9) active intransitive
 * 10) *wa-hi		"I arrive (coming)" (I-arrive)
 * 11) *ya-hi		"you arrive" (you-arrive)
 * 12) *hi		"he arrives"
 * 13) *u-hi		"we (you and I) arrive"
 * 14) *u-hi-pi		"we (excl. or pl.) arrive"
 * 15) *ya-hi-pi	"you (pl.) arrive"
 * 16) *hi-pi		they arrive"
 * 17) active transitive
 * 18) *wa-kte		"I kill him" (0-I-kill)
 * 19) *wicha-wa-kte	"I kill them" (them-I-kill)
 * 20) *chi-kte	"I kill you" (I-you (portmanteau)- kill)
 * 21) *ya-kte		"you kill him" (0-you-kill)
 * 22) *wicha-ya-kte	"you kill them" (them- you-kill)
 * 23) *wicha-ya-kte-pi	"you (pl.) kill them"
 * 24) *ma-ya-kte	"you kill me" (me-you-kill)
 * 25) *u-ya-kte-pi	"you kill us" (we-you-kill-pl.)
 * 26) *ma-ktea	"he kills me" (0-me-kill-pl.)
 * 27) *ni-kte-pi	"they kill you" (0-you-kill-pl.)
 * 28) *u-ni-kte-pi	"we kill you" (we-you-kill-pl.)
 * 29) *wicha-u-kte	"we (you and I) kill them" (them-we-kill)

The phonology, morphology, and syntax of Dakota are very complex. There are a number of broad rules that become more and more specific as they are more closely examined. The components of the language become somewhat confusing and more difficult to study as more sources are examined, as each scholar has a somewhat different opinion on the basic characteristics of the language.

title: Sioux language


text:
Adam Hieronim Sieniawski

Adam Hieronim Sieniawski was the name of two Polish–Lithuanian nobles:

 * Adam Hieronim Sieniawski (1576–1616), starost of Jaworów
 * Adam Hieronim Sieniawski (1623/1624–1650), starost of Lwów

title: Adam Hieronim Sieniawski


text:
Talk:Tina Maze

Untitled
I reversed the dates to list Tina's most recent victories first. This is normal practice (in the real world but not too much here on wikipedia, for some odd reason)--and good design--since viewers normally care more about recent events rather than what happened further on in the past. BT

The born in country should be changed to Slovenia, not Yugoslavia. Kebrinho (talk) 12:05, 7 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Not true, the country was Yugoslavia in 1983. Do not change this, as it is correct per WP conventions. --Tone 17:50, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

The country was Slovenia which was part of Yugoslavia. All the Slovenian born before 1991 were born in Slovenia which was part of Yugoslavia and the documents such as passports says born in Slovenia not born in Yugoslavia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kebrinho (talk • contribs) 15:26, 22 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Simply NOT true. 212.23.103.72 (talk) 11:31, 27 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Feel free to read a lengthy discussion at the talkpage of Anže Kopitar. Same issue. --Tone 15:51, 22 March 2011 (UTC)
 * I've taken the liberty to complete the birth place in the same style as in the mentioned article. Regards, --Eleassar my talk 07:59, 19 March 2013 (UTC)

SC title?
In my opinion it is sensible that the sum of points and the place in SC is beiing included in the 'season standings' table, nevertheless that this is unofficial title and no crystal globe has been awarded. Otherwise the table suggest that Maze failed to achieve any points in this discipline. For refference see other racers (for example Janica Kostelić) where (1st) place in SC is included in the table regardless of title beiing officially awarded or not. 94.140.88.36 (talk) 14:15, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20130206235552/http://www.dnevnik.si:80/sport/zimski-sporti/alpsko-smucanje/porocevalec-iz-schladminga-glavna-tema-je-moznost-osvojitve-petih-kolajn-tine-maze- to http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/zimski-sporti/alpsko-smucanje/porocevalec-iz-schladminga-glavna-tema-je-moznost-osvojitve-petih-kolajn-tine-maze-

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Andrea Massi
I can't see any mention that Andrea Massi (who comes from Italy) is a man - something counter-intuitive to English- (and in this case also German-)speakers, who will almost certainly conclude from the name that Tina Maze is in a relationship with a woman. Andrea, Nicola, Michele, Simone, Daniele and one or two other Italian given names are potentially misleading in this way - all of them are in fact male. This could perhaps be clarified by rephrasing (e.g. 'boyfriend' rather than 'partner', which in English is often used specifically to suggest a gay relationship). A link to an article about him, complete with a photograph, might be enough, but unfortunately there isn't a Wikipedia article on him, even in Italian or Slovenian. Of course, it doesn't matter one way or the other, but I feel any sources of confusion should be cleared up.188.230.248.85 (talk) 12:02, 7 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Well, that's his name. And partner can relate to any of the two. Can you propose a good rewording? --Tone 19:12, 7 January 2017 (UTC)
 * The relationship is sourced with a reference. Follow that reference and the web page shows a picture of the two which should clear up any confusion for those that concerned about who she is dating. Sabalon (talk) 22:47, 16 January 2017 (UTC)

Unhelpful link
The direct link from the song title "My Way is My Decision" doesn't - as you would surely expect - take us to a separate article on the song, but simply back to the top of the article on Tina Maze, which we're already reading. In this way we can carry on round and round in circles until we're dizzy. Either there is an article on the song but the link has been incorrectly created, or else there isn't one, in which case the link should be removed. - I've just checked: there is a short article on the song, in Slovenian, but the language link to English in that article again takes us to the article on Tina Maze. None of this is very helpful.188.230.248.85 (talk) 12:12, 7 January 2017 (UTC)
 * At some point, that article was redirected back to Maze's. I have now restored it. I will probably trim the section at some point. --Tone 19:12, 7 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Tina Maze


text:
Rodong Sinmun

Rodong Sinmun is a North Korean newspaper that serves as the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea. It was first published on 1 November 1945, as Chŏngro, serving as a communication channel for the North Korea Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea. It was renamed in September 1946 to its current name upon the steady development of the Workers' Party of Korea. Quoted frequently by the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) and international media, it is regarded as a source of official North Korean viewpoints on many issues.

The English-language version of Rodong Sinmun was launched in January 2012. Although its English name was released as Rodong Sinmun, a more accurate pronunciation is Rodong Shinmoon.

The editor-in-chief is Kim Pyong-ho. The lists of articles of the Rodong Sinmun since 1946 is available online on the websites of the Information Center on North Korea (unibook.unikorea.go.kr) and the North Korea information portal (nkinfo.unikorea.go.kr).

Because of the paper's low wages, many journalists had to use the privilege of being able to travel freely in the country to collect bribes or engage in underground trade in order to make a living.

Contents
Rodong Sinmun is published every day of the year and usually contains six pages. The newspaper has approximately 100 reporters.

Following the purge and execution of Jang Song-thaek, Rodong Sinmun deleted some 20,000 articles from its web archives, while others were edited to omit his name.

Rodong Sinmun content can be accessed over the Mirae WiFi network in North Korea.

New Year editorials
Since 1996, Rodong Sinmun, the Korean Central News Agency, Minju Choson, and Joson Inmingun has published a joint New Year editorial that outlines the country's policies for the year. The editorials usually offer praise for the Songun policy, the government and leadership, and encourage the growth of the nation. They are also critical of the policies of South Korea, Japan, the United States and Western governments towards North Korea. On 1 January 2006, the agency sent out a joint-editorial from North Korea's state newspapers calling for the withdrawal of American forces from South Korea. While annual 1 January editorials are a tradition among the papers, that year's brought attention from Western media outlets, by calling for a "nationwide campaign for driving out the U.S. troops". The editorial made several references to Korean reunification. The 2009 editorial received similar attention, as criticism of United States policy was absent, and the admission of severe economic problems in North Korea. The editorial also made reference to denuclearisation on the Korean Peninsula, in what analysts claimed was a "hopeful" sign. This was echoed again in its 2010 editorial, which called for an end to hostilities with the United States and a nuclear free Korean Peninsula.

The 2011 joint editorial edition, aside from its calls for a denuclearized Korea and for a slowdown of tensions between the two Koreas, has for the first time, mentioned the rising light industries of North Korea, given as a reason for an upcoming upsurge in the national economy in the new year and for the achievement of the Kangsong Taeguk national mission. The practice of a joint New Year editorial ended in 2013 when Kim Jong-un delivered the first New Year speech on television in 19 years. In June 2018, Rodong Sinmun devoted a four-page feature to the North Korea–United States summit, welcoming its results. The article carried the text of the declaration in full. In addition, it mentioned security guarantees and Donald Trump's pledge to cease the joint military exercises with South Korea, and failed to mention the promise Kim had allegedly made to Trump about closing down a test site for missile engines.

title: Rodong Sinmun


text:
User:Happyferret

Name: Sean Lindsay

Age: 16

Location: Boise, ID

title: User:Happyferret


text: File:KylieMinogueIBelieveInYou.ogg

title: File:KylieMinogueIBelieveInYou.ogg


text:
Stevenson Ranch, California

Stevenson Ranch is an unincorporated community in the Santa Clarita Valley of Los Angeles County, California. Stevenson Ranch is set in the foothills of the Santa Susana Mountains and lies west of Interstate 5 and the city of Santa Clarita. Stevenson Ranch encompasses about 6.4 mi2. About 1000 acre are set aside as parks, recreation areas, and open space. A master-planned community, it was approved by the county Board of Supervisors in 1985. The population was 20,178 at the time of the 2020 census. For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau has designated it a census-designated place (CDP).

It is home to Stevenson Ranch, Pico Canyon, and Oak Hills elementary schools (part of the Newhall School District), and Rancho Pico Junior High and West Ranch High School (part of the William S. Hart Union High School District). The Valencia Marketplace and Stevenson Ranch Shopping Center are popular shopping areas in the community. Six Flags Magic Mountain, an amusement park, is located about 3 mi north of Stevenson Ranch. The area backs up to the historic oil-mining town of Mentryville, founded in 1875.

The names of many streets located in Stevenson Ranch are those of authors (e.g., Thackeray, Hemingway, Shakespeare, and Poe).

It is also the filming location of several film and television productions, including the television show Weeds, a Showtime original series, as well as the feature film Pleasantville. Its master-planned nature is at the heart of the suburban commentary of Weeds, such as the "Little Boxes" song and sprawling development portrayed in the opening of the show.

History
In the early 1980s, land in what is now known as Stevenson Ranch was purchased Dale Poe and his real estate agency Dale Poe Development Corp. (DPDC), which was based in Agoura. Born in New Mexico, Poe later moved to San Diego and married his wife Margaret in 1957. In the mid-1970s, he founded DPDC (formerly D&M; Construction), which became one of Southern California's biggest developers of master-planned communities. As explained by the website SCVHistory.com, "In late 1985, the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors approved the first phase of 4,378 single-family homes, condominiums and apartments on 3,057 acres. Envisioned as an eventual 10,000-home community, construction started in 1988." In addition, Poe and his company agreed with the county "to donate 13 acres and $2.4 million for a new school in the fast-growing Newhall School District. The company will [also] donate more money and land as other phases of the project are approved." At the time, "donations ultimately could total $22 million." The timing of Poe's Stevenson Ranch development aligned with the rapid growth of the Santa Clarita Valley in the 1980s and 1990s. Poe broke ground on this subdivision in 1986.

As development began, the Stevenson Ranch complex saw controversies. Poe's company was sued by homeowners, "alleging faulty construction and failure to complete roads and build a promised swimming pool." In 1990, the city of Santa Clarita filed a lawsuit against DPDC by challenging "the adequacy of the environmental impact report prepared for the Stevenson Ranch expansion." There were concerns brought up by the Santa Clarita City Council over the amount of traffic, noise, and air pollution brought in by the new developments. In April 1991, DPDC agreed to pay Santa Clarita $675,000 for traffic improvements to settle the lawsuit.

Along with disputes over development, there was political disagreements between Santa Clarita and Poe. In the Fall of 1989, the city attempted to place Stevenson Ranch in its "sphere of influence" in order to make the area eligible for annexation, but was rejected by the Local Agency Formation Commission (LAFCO). At the same time, vice president of DPDC, Jeff Stevenson, led a drive to incorporate Stevenson Ranch and other neighborhoods into a city called Sunset Hills, which was also rejected by the LAFCO due to a small tax base. As reported by the Los Angeles Times, "Santa Clarita council members bitterly dubbed the proposed city “Poe-dunk” and said the incorporation drive was launched only to keep Stevenson Ranch out of Santa Clarita."

On May 17th, 1993, Poe and his wife were killed in a car accident near Delano, California in Kern County. Three years later, "Poe's heirs sold their interest in Stevenson Ranch to Florida-based home builder Lennar Corp. — which gained a controlling interest in Newhall Land a few years later." By 1996, 1,500 homes were built in the community and it continued to grow until the mid-2000s.

On August 31, 2001, a shootout occurred in Stevenson Ranch. After an attempt to serve a warrant to James Allen Beck, a convicted felon, he started firing upon ATF agents and police officer. During the gunfight, a sheriff's deputy, Hagop "Jake" Kuredjian, was shot by Beck and was killed instantly. Four hours into the standoff, a hot tear-gas canister was shot into Beck's home, probably starting a fire. The house eventually collapsed, which killed Beck in the process.

Geography
The Stevenson Ranch census-designated place includes two major subdivisions: Westridge and Stevenson Ranch proper.

Stevenson Ranch proper occupies the central and southern parts of the census-designated place. It includes the Valencia Marketplace and two elementary schools (Stevenson Ranch and Pico Canyon). Major thoroughfares in the community include Poe Parkway, Hemingway Avenue, Pico Canyon Road, and Stevenson Ranch Parkway. Pico Canyon Road and Stevenson Ranch Parkway continue east into the city of Santa Clarita as Lyons Avenue and McBean Parkway, respectively.

Westridge occupies the northern part of the CDP. It includes Oak Hills Elementary School, Rancho Pico Junior High, and West Ranch High School. The Oaks Club at Valencia, a country club and golf course, is located in Westridge. The major east-to-west thoroughfare is Valencia Boulevard. It is a wealthy community, with some of the Santa Clarita Valley's most expensive real estate. Although Westridge lies in the Stevenson Ranch CDP and zip code 91381, it was developed as part of Valencia.

The two subdivisions are connected by The Old Road. Both subdivisions are located west of Interstate 5. The Valencia neighborhood of the city of Santa Clarita lies to the east and northeast, Newhall lies to the southeast, and unincorporated Valencia lies to the north.

Government and infrastructure
The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department (LASD) operates the Santa Clarita Valley Station in Santa Clarita, serving Stevenson Ranch for law enforcement. Traffic enforcement is handled by the California Highway Patrol (CHP). The city of Santa Clarita has tried unsuccessfully to annex Stevenson Ranch.

Demographics
The 2010 United States Census reported that Stevenson Ranch had a population of 17,557. The population density was 2,759.6 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of Stevenson Ranch was 11,271 (64.2%) White (53.9% Non-Hispanic White), 606 (3.5%) African American, 65 (0.4%) Native American, 4,028 (22.9%) Asian, 34 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 765 (4.4%) from other races, and 788 (4.5%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,827 persons (16.1%).

The Census reported that 17,557 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.

There were 5,663 households, out of which 3,006 (53.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 3,761 (66.4%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 533 (9.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 231 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 251 (4.4%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 42 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. Of the households, 828 (14.6%) were made up of individuals, and 227 (4.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.10. There were 4,525 families (79.9% of all households); the average family size was 3.48.

The population was spread out, with 5,659 people (32.2%) under the age of 18, 1,261 people (7.2%) aged 18 to 24, 4,871 people (27.7%) aged 25 to 44, 4,668 people (26.6%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,098 people (6.3%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males.

There were 5,842 housing units at an average density of 918.2 /mi2, of which 4,171 (73.7%) were owner-occupied, and 1,492 (26.3%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.1%. Of the population, 13,819 (78.7%) lived in owner-occupied housing units, and 3,738 people (21.3%) lived in rental housing units.

Notable people

 * Ryan Newman, actor
 * El Hefe (Aaron Abeyta), guitarist
 * Hunter Greene, professional baseball player

title: Stevenson Ranch, California


text:
User:Baricom

Welcome. There's currently not much to see here.

My current interests on Wikipedia:
 * Issues related to Hawai`i, including Native Hawaiian issues;
 * Information technology
 * General copy-editing, re-linking, and style (my first major project was re-organizing a disambiguation page...)

Thank you. That is all.

title: User:Baricom


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject History of Scandinavia

=Archive=
 * The following discussion is closed. Please do not modify it. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Comments
Why is this called WikiProject Scandinavia, when it really should have been called WikiProject History of Scandinavia? -- Egil 08:05, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I've moved it to address that point and make it easier to find if anyone should wish to re-activate it. Hiding 12:43, July 15, 2005 (UTC)

Not dead but close
Anyone want to propose a project? Williamborg (Bill) 04:19, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Project directory
Hello. The WikiProject Council has recently updated the WikiProject Council/Directory. This new directory includes a variety of categories and subcategories which will, with luck, potentially draw new members to the projects who are interested in those specific subjects. Please review the directory and make any changes to the entries for your project that you see fit. There is also a directory of portals, at User:B2T2/Portal, listing all the existing portals. Feel free to add any of them to the portals or comments section of your entries in the directory. The three columns regarding assessment, peer review, and collaboration are included in the directory for both the use of the projects themselves and for that of others. Having such departments will allow a project to more quickly and easily identify its most important articles and its articles in greatest need of improvement. If you have not already done so, please consider whether your project would benefit from having departments which deal in these matters. It is my hope that all the changes to the directory can be finished by the first of next month. Please feel free to make any changes you see fit to the entries for your project before then. If you should have any questions regarding this matter, please do not hesitate to contact me. Thank you. B2T2 17:21, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

Link to Ting
Hello. I repaired the link to Ting to point to Thing (assembly) instead (it's still piped to "Ting," though) in the Articles section on this page. It might be preferable to simply list Thing (assembly) instead rather than piping the link, though, but please do not restore the link to Ting, which is a disambiguation page and should not be linked to. Thanks. --Tkynerd 20:12, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

Wikipedia Day Awards
Hello, all. It was initially my hope to try to have this done as part of Esperanza's proposal for an appreciation week to end on Wikipedia Day, January 15. However, several people have once again proposed the entirety of Esperanza for deletion, so that might not work. It was the intention of the Appreciation Week proposal to set aside a given time when the various individuals who have made significant, valuable contributions to the encyclopedia would be recognized and honored. I believe that, with some effort, this could still be done. My proposal is to, with luck, try to organize the various WikiProjects and other entities of wikipedia to take part in a larger celebrartion of its contributors to take place in January, probably beginning January 15, 2007. I have created yet another new subpage for myself (a weakness of mine, I'm afraid) at User talk:Badbilltucker/Appreciation Week where I would greatly appreciate any indications from the members of this project as to whether and how they might be willing and/or able to assist in recognizing the contributions of our editors. Thank you for your attention. Badbilltucker 21:01, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

Proposed merger

 * The following discussion is closed. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section. A summary of the conclusions reached follows.
 * Merged per discussion

For the purposes of centralized discussion, please see Wikipedia talk:WikiProject European history John Carter (talk) 00:21, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it.  No further edits should be made to this discussion.

=Talk=


text:
Cornelis van Vollenhoven

Cornelis van Vollenhoven (8 May 1874, Dordrecht – 29 April 1933, Leiden) was a Dutch law professor and legal scholar, best known for his work on the legal systems of the East Indies.

Cornelis van Vollenhoven began his university studies at Leiden at the age of 17, where he would earn many degrees, including a master's in law (1895), a bachelor's degree in Semitic languages (1896), a master's in political science (1897), and finally his Ph.D. in law and political science (1898). He received a cum laude for his thesis, “Scope and content of international law” (Omtrek en inhoud van het internationale recht), which foreshadows his later focus on the laws of Southeast Asia.

After finishing his studies, Van Vollenhoven became the private secretary of J.Th. Cremer, a colonial captain of industry and minister of Colonial Affairs. In 1901 Van Vollenhoven became a professor of the Adat Law of the Dutch East Indies at Leiden University. As a legal scholar, he had an enormous influence on his students and colleagues. Several of his students would go on to become prominent scholars in the field of Adat law, including Frederik David Holleman, whose doctorate was supervised by Van Vollenhoven. The University of Amsterdam granted him an honorary doctorate in 1932.

For most of his life, Van Vollenhoven focused on the traditional legal system of Indonesia, the Adat. He campaigned for its preservation and dispelled myths of its being quackery and inefficient. He wrote numerous pamphlets on the subject, including "The Adat-law of the Netherlands-Indies” (Het adatrecht van Nederlandsch-Indië), which documented the adat traditions of 19 different regions, plus the adat traditions of the Foreign Orientals (vreemde oosterlingen, i.e. Arabs, Chinese, Indians, and the like). Most remarkably, all of his work was done in Leiden, as Van Vollenhoven visited the East Indies only twice—once in 1907 and again in 1923. During his life, he was Adat's greatest champion and is still revered by many of the older generations in Indonesia. “The Man for Adat Law”, as he was called, died in Leiden in 1933.

The Van Vollenhoven Institute for Law, Governance, and Society, part of the Leiden Law School, is named after Cornelis van Vollenhoven.

title: Cornelis van Vollenhoven


text: Category:Politics of Singapore

title: Category:Politics of Singapore


text:
Rikitea

Rikitea is a small town on Mangareva, which is part of the Gambier Islands in French Polynesia. A majority of the islanders live in Rikitea. The island was a protectorate of France in 1871 and was annexed in 1881.

History
The town's history dates to the era when the island was first settled with people from the Marquesas Islands in 1100 AD. Captain James Wilson of the London Missionary Society arrived in 1797 on Duff, naming the islands after the English Admiral James Gambier who had facilitated his expedition.

Before the Catholic missionaries' arrival, cannibalism was practiced under the rule of the local kings. French Picpus priests Father François Caret and Father Honoré Laval, of the Congregation for the Sacred Hearts, landed here in 1834. They arrived from Chile. Father Hippolyte Roussel, who had arrived at Rikitea with more than 100 Rapa Nui people on 4 July 1871, assumed charge of Laval's Rikitea mission, and served there till he died in 1898. The figure of 9,000, mentioned by some, when Laval arrived is regarded as being hugely exaggerated. In 1825, the population was estimated at 1500. When the missionaries arrived in 1834 they counted 2,124 souls. Increasing contact with the outside world brought contagious diseases to Mangareva savagely decimating the population. There had already been several major epidemics before 1863, including one which is said have killed half the population. The story about Laval driving the population to their deaths was spread by a French judge, Louis Jacolliot, who dabbled in the occult and had a grudge against Laval and wanted to discredit him. For 9,000 people to have lived on the islands, many would have to live on the hillsides due to the small amount of flat ground, but there is no evidence of houses ever being built there. Also, if 8,500 people died because of Laval, there would be that number of graves, or at least mass graves, but there is not.

Geography
Rikitea is a port town and tourist center situated on Mangareva Lagoon, which contains a number of motu. It is about 1650 km southeast of Tahiti, to the North of the Tropic of Capricorn. The average elevation of the town is 8 m.

The total population of the island was 1100 and most of them lived in Rikitea.

Two mountains, Mt. Duff (482 m) and Mt. Mokoto (426 m), which are approachable by trails, are north of the town. The climb to Duff's peak takes about 90 minutes. The stones found on the hill were used by the ethnic Mangarevans to predict weather and to look for boats headed for the island. The mountain is covered with tall aeho grass.

Economy
Black pearls are cultured on numerous platforms on both sides of the Mangareva lagoon. The lagoon is full of corals and black-lipped oysters are harvested by the people. The inhabitants are also involved in agriculture and fishing to the minimum level. The church is involved in technical school (CED, "Center for Educational Development) to train people in skill trades such as carpentry, mechanics, electricity, and mother-of-pearl shell engraving.

Landmarks
Father Honoré Laval built 116 stone buildings and arches, and roads were laid. Buildings included a fortified palace with follies as well as St. Michael's Cathedral which has also been characterized as a folly. The structures were built with shaped coral stone blocks. Several of the structures dating to Laval's time still remain, such as the watch towers on the coast and a turret, the remains of the palace built for Maputeoa, the last king of the island. King Maputeoa's crypt is in the St. Pierre's Chapel behind the neo-Gothic St. Michael's Cathedral.

The Couvent Rouru (Rouru Convent), near the southern end of the cemetery, is now in ruins, but housed 60 nuns at one time. There is a carving school near the cathedral at Camika CED which features mother of pearl carvings. Here training is provided in the art of shell engraving. Pendants and barrettes created here can be purchased at the centre's sales outlet. Riktea has a large nuclear fall-out shelter which was built at the time of the French atmospheric testing at Moruroa.

The town also has post office, a few shops, a military establishment, a medical room, and schools. Accommodation of note includes Chez Pierre et Mariette near the wharf, with three rooms, and Pension Bianca et Benoit, in the southern part of the town.

Transportation
The town is accessed by air and by ship. The airport is located on Mou Totegegie, 9 km NorthEast. From the airport, boats provide the only access to Rikitea. Flights operate from Pape'ete and take four and half hours. Travel by ship originates only from Pape'ete, a journey of 21 days, with stops at four other islands before arriving at the Rikitea. A 28 km road circles the entire island.

title: Rikitea


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Lords of Chaos and Order

The Lords of Chaos and Order are a fictional group of supernatural entities featured in American comic books published by DC Comics. Although alluded to in 1st Issue Special #9 (December 1975), their physical appearance was first showcased in DC Special Series #10 (1978). While the group is commonly associated with Doctor Fate titles, they also hold prominent roles in various other comic book series.

Depicted as formidable beings of magic embodying the concepts of order and chaos, these groups engage in an eternal struggle for supremacy. The Lords of Chaos are known for their machinations to invoke kali yuga, a period characterized by the dominance of chaos in existence. Conversely, the Lords of Order strive to prevent this invocation and maintain balance. To achieve their goals, both respective groups empower various agents to carry out their will and influence in accordance to their agenda. To prevent the destruction of one another, both groups are occasionally balanced by entities referred to as the Lords of Balance (or Lords of Eternal Balance). These entities ensure that neither side overwhelms the other. Similarly, they can empower agents to carry out their will and influence events according to their respective agenda.

The Lords of Chaos and Order have been adapted in various media, including the Young Justice animated series and the Injustice 2 video game. They play significant roles in these adaptations, with the Young Justice series featuring several characters affiliated with the group, and Injustice 2 heavily referencing their influence in the game's narrative.

Publication history
The Lords of Chaos and Order would first be alluded to in 1st Issue Special #9 (December 1975). Later, the group would make a physical appearance in DC Special Series #10 (1978).

Creation
Both elemental forces were born during the creation of the universe; those who affiliated with serving "order" are known as the Lord of Order and Light (or simply the Lords of Order) and those who affiliated with serving "chaos" being known as the Lords of Chaos and Darkness (or simply Lords of Chaos). Some respective early agents and lords originate from a myriad of places, including Darkworld and Cilia, the former being home to those who would later identify with the pantheon of ancient Atlantean deities.

According to Hindu philosophy, the age of the universe and mankind is divided into four different cycles of ages in which the first age marks order ruling with perfection. In the second age, chaos begins to spread its subtle influence so that in the third age, chaos can go to war with order. In the final era, chaos triumphs and ushers in an age known as the "Kali Yuga". After this age, the cycle restarts when the age ends and the universe itself also ends, resulting in a rebirth of a new universe in which Order rules once more.

Pre-history
In 500,000 BC, long after the agents and Lords of Chaos and Order from Darkworld established themselves as a pantheon existing within Atlantis, demigods Arion and Garn Daanuth were born to Calculha and Dark Majistra, agents of order and chaos respectively. The pair would later create the Zodiac Crystals, powerful objects patterned after the zodiac signs in which directed and amplified the magic on Earth. With the pair suffering martial problems due to their conflicting divine natures and their children prophesied to eternally battle for the fate of Atlantis and end the Ice Age (caused by their family feud). Arion and Garn would eventually fulfill the prophecy thousands of years later around 45,000BC with Arion recognized as Atlantis's savior when he ended the Ice Age with his magic. Despite this, Arion was unable to ultimately save his iteration of Atlantis as its king in his later years, his city eventually suffering a decline due to a combination of events: the waning magic on Earth, Garn's alliance with the immortal Vandal Savage creating the proto-Illuminati, and its actual destruction by the Lord of Chaos and God of Evil, Chaon. Although the homo magi kingdom in which Arion ruled was destroyed, contrary to his belief, other remnants of Atlantis survived.

Later, the Gemworld dimension was once among the domains controlled and owned by the Lords of Chaos until a deal was struck with sorceress Citrina when magic began to fade due to an alignment of the stars. Intending to find and populate a land where homo magi, faerie, and other magical creatures alike can live and thrive in a magical rich environment, the deal was made and the arrangement was kept secret from the history of Gemworld.

Modern age
In the 2005 Day of Vengeance crossover, Eclipso seduces the Spectre into slaughtering most of Earth's magic users after she claimed that magic was the source of all of Earth's evil. Nabu organizes a team of magical beings to stop the Spectre and seal the Seven Deadly Sins. Nabu confronts the Spectre, and the Presence (a Lord of Chaos) uses Spectre as a new host. Although Nabu dies, his helmet is left with its significant powers. The deaths of the Lords of Order and Chaos caused magic to break down into its basic raw state, which marks the end of the Ninth Age of Magic within the DC Universe, and the beginning of the Tenth. Amethyst and Mordru are the only known Lords to have survived into the Tenth Age.

DC Rebirth
In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth" which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". The Lords of Chaos and Order are presented with a new origin; they were among the first mages on Earth and stole magic from the goddess Hecate. Unlike the classical Greek mythology stories, Hecate was a primordial spirit of magic and predates most, if not, all other godly pantheons and once settled to be affiliated with the Greek pantheon. As their power rose, they ascended to a higher plane of existence and became the Lords of Chaos and Order and began controlling the magic in the known universe. However, conflicting origins have risen within DC's canonical universe; while some stories utilize the newly revised origin, other stories utilize an origin similar to the previous one. In this origin, the Lords of Chaos and Order were created from the Source as one of the first cosmic forces in the universe before the likes of both Old Gods (gods of both fantasy and real-world inspired pantheons) and New Gods. The Darkworld also exists in this revised universe, the entity and its body that makes up the dimension having been explained to be a piece of the Great Darkness, the true embodiment and source of evil and darkness in the universe.

Several Lords of Order appear in the Blue Beetle storyline "Hard Choices". Insane Arion battled Nabu thousands of years ago, having sought Khaji-Da to save Atlantis after receiving a vision from the future where he learns of the eventual destruction of Atlantis and the scarab falsely promised him the ability to save it. Nabu succeeds in sealing away Arion and sets him in a tomb located in a dimension parallel to what would be El Paso, Texas. Arion later frees himself through his lackey, Mordecai Cull, and he is initially successful in defeating Doctor Fate and overpowering Khaji-Da's will. Jaime Reyes narrowly defeats Arion by using his connection to the scarab against him, draining him of most of his magical power before Doctor Fate arrives and seals him away. Although the initial story claimed that Arion was driven insane by exposure to Khaji-Da centuries ago, a later story clarified Arion was driven mad from being exposed to his Tear of Extinction and the Death Force as a side effect of using it against alien sea gods on Poseidon's behest.

Both the Lords of Order and Chaos would make an appearance in the "Trials of Harley Quinn" storyline, seeking a new agent to act as a galactic angel of retribution, a title bestowed to a being to act as one of the balancing agents between order and chaos and tasked Mirand'r (the spirit of a dead Tamaranean from seventy years ago) to fill the position. She recommends the former supervillain, Harley Quinn, as she possesses traits associated with both order and chaos. While Harley eventually passes through all the trials, she betrays the Lords of Chaos and Order moments after receiving their power after mistakenly concluding her mother's death was among the trials they orchestrated. The Lord of Order and Chaos representatives explain that their trials are woven into events naturally occurring and thus her mother was destined to die. While Harley ultimate rejects the position, she appeals to the Lords of Chaos and Order by recommending Mirand'r, who understood the role. The Lords of Chaos and Order accepted her proposition and revived Mirand'r, making her an agent of balance.

In the Justice League Dark storyline "Lords of Order", when the Source Wall cracked, the law and forces surrounding magic began to change. Nabu sensed the risks it would bring: a race of magical beings known the Otherkind would be unleashed. Nabu alongside the other Lords of Order plot to destroy the Sphere of the Gods, the source of magic. While this act would kill all magical beings, this radical plan would ensure the Multiverse's continual survival with many Lords of Order content with this plan. In doing so, they forced upon mystical objects to notable wizards and sorceresses including Madame Xanadu, Mark Merlin and Prince Ra-Man, and Extraño. Controlling Kent Nelson himself, Nabu would imprison both Kent's apprentice and nephew, Khalid Nassour, and later the Phantom Stranger. Coming into conflict with the Justice League Dark, the team sought out Mordru, who revealed more of their origin and his role as the one who tortured Hecate personally. Using an artifact known as the Ruby of Life, he would temporarily turn the members of Justice League Dark into Lords of Chaos to enable them to battle the Lords of Order. Eventually, both Nabu and the other Lords of Order are defeated and the team reverts to their original form.

Membership
There's several notably sects within the Lords of Chaos and Order:

Atlantean Pantheon sect
The godly Atlantean pantheon played significant roles as both villains and supporting characters in the comic series "Arion, Lord of Atlantis" and "Arion the Immortal." The first series initially existed in a separate world connected to the "Warlord" comic title, but the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths merged the history of "Arion, Lord of Atlantis" with the mainstream DC Comics continuity. It was clarified by editor James Owsley in 1991 that while there were similarities in concept and titles, many of the gods featured in both series were not considered the same as those prominently featured in "Doctor Fate" and "Sandman," as explained in a proposal for the "Arion the Immortal" series. However, more recent reference books and storylines, such as the "Princes of Darkness" JSA storyline and the "Encyclopedia: All-New Edition," directly reference Lords and Agents of Order and Chaos originating from the "Arion" series.

Nabu's group
In "Justice League Dark" (volume 2), a group of new Lord of Order characters makes their debut, presenting a fresh origin for the group. These individuals are depicted as among the earliest mages on Earth who achieved their positions by subjecting Hecate, the primordial spirit of magic, to cruel acts of torture. In response, Hecate granted them the power they sought from the Dark Multiverse, a realm of darkness and evil. To counteract the corrosive effects of the magic they wielded, the Lords transferred their consciousnesses into enchanted objects reminiscent of the Helmet of Fate. This group, alongside Nabu, served as the primary antagonists in the "Justice League Dark: Lords of Order" storyline in 2016. They embarked on a plan to destroy the Sphere of the Gods, a source of magic, and sacrifice all magic and magical beings. Their objective was to starve off the Otherkind, a race of supernatural creatures who feed on magic and prey upon magical beings, draining them of their power for sustenance. The Lords sought to enforce order and balance in a world devoid of magic, viewing magic as a catalyst for chaos. Their actions were driven by a desire for stability and control in a new world without magic.

Lords of Order

 * Amethyst, Princess of Gemworld: A Lord of Order born from a union between a human host possessed by a Lord of Order (Pantagones) and a human being, she inherited the powers and potential associated with it and is one of the few to have a physical body. She is a protector of Gemworld.
 * Amon-Ra: Based upon the ancient Egyptian deity of the same name; he is among the deities Doctor Fate invokes who has membership within the Lords of Order.
 * Anu: A fictionalized version of the ancient Mesopotamian deity of the same name. While not a frequent presence, Ani is one of the entities invoked by Doctor Fate and is among the Lords of Order.
 * Arion: An ancient Atlantean demigod, he is regarded as the greatest hero in Atlantis's history and is considered the cultural progenitor of the homo magi. Arion's lineage connects him to notable characters such as Aquaman, Ocean Master, and Zatanna in different continuities.
 * Cyra: Manifested through the arcane object of lore called the "Cloak of Cyra", those who act as her host become "Sister Symmetry". Cyra took Madame Xanadu as her host by force.
 * Dalphi: Manifested through the arcane object "Boots of Dalphi", he took to using Extraño as his host by force.
 * Dominus: Dominus: A priest from a planet and Lord of Order, he was once the lover of Ahti when he was known as Tuoni. He became fiercely jealous when Ahti was chosen for the role of Kismet, spurring him to eventually become Dominus and a renegade among the ranks of the Lord of Order.
 * Gemimn: A divine being hailing from Darkworld and the sibling of Tynan and Chaon. She holds the title of the Atlantean Goddess of Order and serves as a Lord of Order. While typically depicted as a female entity, Gemimn assumes the mortal form of an elderly African American male.
 * Hoku: Manifested through the arcane object of lore called the "Breastplate of Hoku", those who act as his host turn into one of the Agents of Order, "Master Pattern". Cyra took Ibis the Invincible as his host by force.
 * Kilderkin: A manifestation of order, Kilderkin was dispatched in order to negotiate with Dream and secure Hell after Lucifer's unexpected abdicating of the throne. Kilderkin's manifestation in the mortal plane is in the form of a cardboard box and speaks through printed messages. He also has a servant that acts as his means of mobility.
 * Kismet: A cosmic entity, Kismet protects the known galaxy from evil. Originally known as Ahti, she was once a peer and love interest for the eventual renegade Lord of Order, Tuoni (also known as Dominus) before ascending to the role of Kismet, an act that angered a jealous Dominus.
 * Myrath: Manifesting through the arcane object known as the "Gauntlets of Myrath", those who act as his host become "Lord Structure", an Agent of Order. He forcibly once took Mark Merlin (or Prince Ra-Man) as his host.
 * Nabu: A fictionalized version of the Mesopotamian god of the same name. Chief among the Lords of Order, he is a cosmic being hailing from Cilia who acts as the patron of the Doctor Fate sorcerous line, manifesting often through the Helmet of Fate.
 * Ohrmazd: A fictional depiction of Ahura Mazda, among the deities invoked by Doctor Fate who has membership in the Lords of Order.
 * Osiris: A fictional depiction based on the ancient Egyptian deity of the same name. He is among the characters Doctor Fate invokes who has membership of the Lords of Order.
 * Pantagones: He was initially designated as the guardian of Gemworld, despite being considered the weakest among the Lords of Order. Despite his limited power, Pantagones developed strong feelings of love towards Lady Amethyst, the wife of Lord Amethyst. In a complex turn of events, Pantagones and Lady Amethyst consummated their relationship while Pantagones inhabited Lord Amethyst's body. As a consequence of their union, the child Amethyst inherited Pantagones' formidable powers and is considered her true father.
 * Shat-Ru: A Lord of Order who initially sought vengeance against Doctor Fate but was subsequently trapped in the body of Kent Nelson. Over time, Shat-Ru becomes an unwilling ally of Doctor Fate and eventually undergoes a rebirth. Notably, he is among the rare Lords of Order to have an intimate relationship with a human.
 * Terataya: A cosmic entity that takes the form of a medallion when procuring for hosts. Unusual among her brethren, both Tertaya and T'Charr come to form a truce with one another, having fallen in love. To prove chaos and order can co-exist with one another, the pair secretly created Hawk and Dove, with Terataya empowering the latter.

Agents for the Lords of Order

 * Calculha: Also known as the "Ancient One" ,he is an esteemed figure in the Atlantean pantheon who assumes the roles of father to both Arion and Garn Daanuth and the spouse of Dark Majistra, his cosmic counterpart and equal. Despite his designation as an Agent of Order, Calculha predates the creation of many other Lords of Order and Chaos, making him significantly older and powerful. He holds the prestigious positions of the Sorcerer Supreme of Earth and the chief deity of his pantheon, surpassing all others in power. As a wise and influential figure, Calculha serves as a mentor and guide to Arion on his path as a Lord of Order (originally an agent prior to subsequent revisions). However, in his old age, Calculha meets his demise at the hands of his eldest, Garn.
 * Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson, Eric and Linda Strauss, Khalid Nassour): The heroic sorcerer lineage of Doctor Fate consists of various incarnations who primarily act under the authority of the Lords of Order. They are widely acknowledged as some of the most formidable agents within the ranks of the Lords of Order.
 * Lord Amethyst: The biological father of Amethyst, he had a crucial role as the conduit through which Pantagones possesses his body to safeguard the realm and combat the forces of evil. Although he harbors suspicions about his wife's close interactions with Pantagones, the influence of the Lord's power renders him unaware of the fact that Pantagones utilized his body to engage in an intimate relationship with Lady Amethyst.

Lords of Balance

 * Tynan: Known as the "Cosmic Balancer," he is a powerful deity and sibling to the Lords of Order and Chaos, Gemimn and Chaon, respectively. Hailing from Darkworld, Tynan's role is to maintain balance by preventing the destructive forces of Order and Chaos from causing harm to the universe through physical contact. As a prominent god within the Atlantean pantheon, Tynan engaged in a conflict with Arion as part of a test orchestrated by the latter.

Agents for the Lords of Balance

 * Doctor Fate / Fate (Jared Stevens, Hector Hall): Some iterations of the Doctor Fate lineage served primarily acted as agents of balance, their role being to prevent the conflict between these factions and their members from causing irreparable damage to the universe.

Lords of Chaos

 * Chaon: A divine entity from Darkworld, Chaon is the sibling of Tynan and Gemimn. Serving as the chief Lord of Chaos and an Atlantean God of Evil and Madness, he posed a significant threat to Arion and was considered one of his most formidable adversaries. However, over time, their relationship evolved, and Chaon transformed into a reluctant confidante of Arion.
 * Chaos: Served as Inza Nelson's patron during her time as Doctor Fate. Despite his association with chaos, Chaos held the belief that the Lords of Chaos are often misunderstood as purely evil entities. He advocated for certain approaches that he believed could impede the Lords of Chaos from achieving their goals when influenced by evil forces.
 * Child: A ruthless magic wielder, Child's appearance as a young boy hides his sadistic and malevolent nature. He is an enemy of Amethyst, sent to claim Gemworld in the aftermath of Dark Opal's failure to secure control for the Lords of Chaos. He is served by Flaw, a crystal golem allegedly created by a being known as the Cutter.
 * Klarion the Witch Boy: A talented and mischievous interdimensional warlock originating from Limbo Town who acts as both a hero and villain. During the Dark Crisis event, it is revealed that Klarion became a Lord of Chaos.
 * Malferraze: A fictional depiction based on the Aztec deity Xipe Totec. "Totec" is the name given to Malferrazae by the Aztecs who were unaware of his true name and affiliation, making him their God of War. After losing his power derived from the Aztec's worship upon their decimation at the hands of the Conquistadors, he existed as a statue within his shrine, using his limited powers to compel others to sacrifice in his name until he gained enough power to free himself. Malferrazae would come into conflict with the Kent Nelson incarnation of Doctor Fate.
 * Shivering Jemmy: A childlike Lord of Chaos, she instead prefers to be called a "Princess of Chaos" and was "sent" to secure Hell for the Lords of Chaos and is willing to threaten the Dream to achieve this. However, this was revealed to be a ruse with her intent to ensure the Lords of Order did not secure Hell.
 * T'Charr: A cosmic entity that often takes the form of a dragon. He eventually came to have a truce with Terataya and eventually fell in love with her. The pair would work secretly to prove that order and chaos are able to peacefully co-exist and created the Hawk and Dove pair, empowering Hawk, and use as an experiment to eventually appeal to the Lords of Chaos and Order.
 * Vandaemon: The Lord of Chaos who watched over the realm years before Child and Amethyst would take over the respective duties. He was responsible for killing Pantagones, depriving the realm of its chief protector for years. He later appears as an enemy of both Amethyst and Doctor Fate.
 * Weaver: A Lord of Chaos hailing from the dimension of Darkworld, he is renowned as a trickster deity and an ancient Atlantean patron of madness. Notably, the Weaver has emerged as a formidable adversary of both Arion and Powergirl, engaging in conflicts with these heroic characters.
 * Xanadoth: Similar to Mordru, Xanadoth is considered among the most powerful of the Lords of Chaos and a being that inhabits physical hosts, once being a ruler among them until her hunger for power and direction were held in disagreement with both the Lords of Chaos and Order, both groups fearing her and combining their might to seal her away.

Agents for the Lords of Chaos

 * Dark Majistra: The cosmic counterpart and wife of Calculha in the Atlantean pantheon, she stands apart from the other deities as the only one not originating from Darkworld. Within the ancient sect of gods, she played a pivotal role in raising Garn as a Lord (originally an agent prior to subsequent revisions) of Chaos. Majistra harbored ambitions to seize control of Atlantis and the Earth's magical energies from Arion and Calculha. However, her plans were thwarted when Arion ultimately killed her, intensifying Garn's deep-seated animosity towards Arion.
 * Dark Opal: A devoted agent of the Lords of Chaos, he received assistance from Vandaemon in his rise to the throne years ago. This affiliation with the Lords of Chaos played a crucial role in facilitating Dark Opal's ascension. However, when Dark Opal ultimately fails in his attempt to secure the realm from Amethyst, he faces swift retribution from Child, a powerful entity aligned with the forces of Chaos.
 * Doctor Chaos: A malevolent counterpart of the Doctor Fate sorcerous lineage. The original incarnation of Doctor Chaos engaged in conflicts with Superboy (Clark Kent). However, in the current continuity, the character has undergone a revamp, now portrayed as one of the guardians of the Chaos Realm, which serves as the central hub for the activities of the Lords of Chaos.
 * Doctor Fate (Inza Cramer): Inza, the fourth individual to assume the mantle of Doctor Fate, was unwittingly an agent of chaos. She possessed a unique power set primarily rooted in chaos magic, which remained unknown to both her and Kent for much of their tenure. However, despite this unconventional aspect, she valiantly took on the role of a heroic figure and dedicated her efforts to nurturing a small community within New York City.
 * Doctor Hate - The demonic half of Raven who became its own being.

Television

 * The Lords of Chaos and Order appear in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "The Fate of Equinox!", with Typhon voiced by John DiMaggio and Nabu by James Arnold Taylor. Series original character Equinox (voiced by Oded Fehr) also appears, being a balancer between the two.
 * The Lords of Chaos and Order are both featured in the Young Justice television series:
 * Nabu (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) was originally the mortal son of Vandal Savage from ancient Babylon who was killed by Klarion the Witch Boy via Starro. Seeking a means to combat the Lords of Chaos following their sinking of Atlantis, the Lords of Order elevate Nabu's soul to their plane of existence and bind him to the Helmet of Fate.
 * Klarion the Witch Boy (voiced by Thom Adcox-Hernandez) is a prominent member of the Light and has a history with Vandal Savage.
 * Child (voiced by Erika Ishii) is female and created Flaw herself using an Atlantean gemstone. After Klarion falls out of favor with the other Lords of Chaos, Child is sent to dispose of him.
 * Arion (voiced by David Kaye) was the grandson of Vandal Savage, the first king of Atlantis, and ancestor of the Atlanteans and Homo Magi whose magic was derived from his crown. After learning Vandal's intention to sink Atlantis and further the Atlantean and Homo Magi, Arion died opposing him while Klarion fulfilled Vandal's plot. In the present, Vandal creates a clone of Arion inhabited by Ocean Master's mind to retrieve his crown, who is ultimately killed by the Lords of Order.

Film

 * Nabu makes non-speaking appearances in flashbacks in Suicide Squad: Hell to Pay.

Video games

 * The Lords of Order appear in Injustice 2. Having decided that humanity is only capable of chaos, they aid Brainiac in his campaign to conquer Earth, forcing Doctor Fate to do their bidding. Eventually, Superman frees Fate by destroying his helmet before the latter is killed by Brainiac.

title: Lords of Chaos and Order