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Konrad Peutinger

Konrad Peutinger (14 October 1465 – 28 December 1547) was a German humanist, jurist, diplomat, politician, economist and archaeologist, serving as Emperor Maximilian I's chief archaeological adviser. A senior official in the municipal government of the Imperial City of Augsburg, he served as a counselor to Emperor Maximilian I and his successor Charles V. Also known as a passionate antiquarian, he collected, with the help of his wife Margareta Welser (1481–1552), one of the largest private libraries north of the Alps.

Life
He was born in Augsburg, the son of a reputable merchant family. He studied law at the universities of Padua in the Venetia and Bologna in Italy, where he obtained his doctorate and came in close touch with the humanism movement. Back in Germany, he was elected syndic of his hometown Augsburg and from 1497 held the office of a town clerk (Stadtschreiber), representing the city in several Imperial diets, notably that of Worms including the hearing of Martin Luther in 1521. Peutinger's accounts were a valuable source for later historians like Theodor Kolde.

He was on close terms with the Habsburg emperor Maximilian I, who appointed him Imperial councilor. Peutinger, an early proponent of economic liberalism, mediated between the Imperial estates and the Augsburg Fugger and Welser families. He was able to assert his position under Maximilian's successor Emperor Charles V, however, his politics aiming at a balance of power were aborted by the advancing Reformation after the 1529 Protestation at Speyer. When in 1534 the citizens of Augsburg turned Protestant, he retired from public offices.

In Augsburg, he established and headed the learned sodality named Sodalitas Augustana (or Sodalitas litteraria Augustana), following the model of the Heidelberg society established by Konrad Celtis. Peutinger built an extensive scholarly and political network that membership was coveted and helped to make humanism a core of Augsburg's political and cultural life.

It was through his influence that Ulrich von Hutten got crowned as a Poet Laureate by Maximilian. Peutinger's daughter Konstantia made the laurel wreath herself.

Work
Peutinger corresponded with notable contemporary humanist scholars like Erasmus of Rotterdam, Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck and Willibald Pirckheimer. During the global spread of the printing press he studied numerous classical philologic and legal works from Italy. In 1520 he was one of the first to publish Roman inscriptions (Inscriptiones Romanæ), a work that has been cited as the most notable of his writings on classical antiquities.

As the author of the  Romanae vetustatis fragmenta (published in 1505), Peutinger was the first German scholarly epigraphist.

Peutinger's name is usually associated with the famous Tabula Peutingeriana, a medieval copy of a late antique world map of Roman roads from the British Isles to India and Central Asia. It was discovered by the Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes, who in 1507 handed it over to Peutinger for publication. Parts of the map were not published until 1591 by the Antwerp-based publishing house of Jan Moretus and in 1598 by Peutinger's relative Marcus Welser and Abraham Ortelius. Rediscovered in 1714, it was archived at the Vienna Imperial Library and first published as a whole by Franz Christoph von Scheyb in 1753.

Peutinger also first printed the Getica of Jordanes and the Historia Langobardorum of Paulus Diaconus.

As an economist and politician, Peutinger played an important role in the monopoly debates of the 16th century. He advised Charles V to allow monopolies on luxury goods, but not on everyday necessities (res viviles) like grain and wine. He also drafted progressive trade laws when working for Maximilian. Crossen calls him "the first great philosophical evangelist of the profit system." During the debate among the Imperial Estates at the 1522–1523 Nuremberg Diet concerning whether the capital stocks of large companies should be limited to 50,000 florin and whether acceptance of external capital should be banned, Peutinger advocated for the large merchants, saying that such methods would only benefit foreigners and that the mining boom created by the activities of large companies had helped to lower prices for the common man.

Peutinger advocated church reform and was an early supporter of Martin Luther. As an official of Augsburg though, he guided the Augsburg Council towards the "middle way" (between wholesale reform and reactionary politics). By 1525, he declared that Luther had presented solid truths from the Scripture, but Luther's posion on some matter should be rejected. He advised the Council not to accept any statement that condemned Luther as seductive and heretical.

title: Konrad Peutinger


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Science and technology in Brazil

Science and technology in Brazil has entered the international arena in recent decades. The central agency for science and technology in Brazil is the Ministry of Science and Technology, which includes the CNPq and Finep. This ministry also has a direct supervision over the National Institute for Space Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais — INPE), the National Institute of Amazonian Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia — INPA), and the National Institute of Technology (Brazil) (Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia — INT). The ministry is also responsible for the Secretariat for Computer and Automation Policy (Secretaria de Política de Informática e Automação — SPIA), which is the successor of the SEI. The Ministry of Science and Technology, which the Sarney government created in March 1985, was headed initially by a person associated with the nationalist ideologies of the past. Although the new minister was able to raise the budget for the science and technology sector, he remained isolated within the government and had no influence on policy making for the economy.

With the new ministry, the science and technology agencies increased in size but lost some of their former independence and flexibility, and they became more susceptible to patronage politics. Most of the resources of the CNPq were channeled to fellowship programs procedures for quality control and no mechanisms to make the fellows active in the country's science and technology institutions. New groups competed for resources and control of the country's agencies of science, technology, and higher education. These groups included political parties, unionized university professors and employees, scientific societies, and special interest groups within the scientific and technological community. The SBPC (Brazilian Society for Scientific Development) shed its image as a semi-autonomous association of scientists to become an active lobbyist for more public resources and the protection of national technology from international competition. Brazil was ranked 49th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 66th in 2019.

History
Brazilian science effectively began in the first decades of the 19th century, when the Portuguese royal family, headed by D. João VI, arrived in Rio de Janeiro, escaping from the Napoleon's army invasion of Portugal in 1807. Like almost all territories and regions of the New World, Brazil was a Portuguese colony, without universities, and a few cultural and scientific organizations. The former American colonies of the Spanish Empire, although having a largely illiterate population like Brazil, Portugal and Spain, had, however, a number of universities since the 16th century. This may have been a deliberate policy of the Portuguese colonial power, because they feared that the appearance of educated Brazilian classes would boost nationalism and aspirations toward political independence, as it had happened in the United States and several Latin American former Spanish colonies. However, throughout the centuries of Portuguese rule, Brazilian students were allowed and even encouraged to enroll at higher education in mainland Portugal. In addition, mainland Portugal's population at the time was also largely illiterate and had for most of those period a single university, the University of Coimbra, which educated Portuguese people from all the Empire, including from the colony of Brazil.

The first firm attempts of having a Brazilian science establishment were made around 1783, with the expedition of Portuguese naturalist Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, who was sent by Portugal's prime minister, the Marquis of Pombal, to explore and identify Brazilian fauna, flora and geology. His collections, however, were lost to the French, when Napoleon invaded Portugal, and were transported to Paris by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1772, even before the establishment of the Science Academy of Lisbon (1779), one of the first learned societies of both Brazil and the Portuguese Empire was founded in Rio de Janeiro - it was the Sociedade Scientifica, but lasted only until 1794. Also, in 1797, the first botanic institute was founded in Salvador, Bahia. During the late 18th century, the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho of Rio de Janeiro was created in 1792 through a decree issued by the Portuguese authorities as a higher education school for the teaching of the sciences and engineering. Both the engineering schools of the Rio de Janeiro Federal University and the Military Institute of Engineering were created and developed from the oldest engineering school of Brazil which is also one of the oldest in Latin America.

D. João VI gave impetus to all these accoutrements of European civilization to Brazil. In a short period (between 1808 and 1810), the government founded the Royal Naval Academy and the Royal Military Academy (both military schools), the Biblioteca Nacional, the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden, the Medico-Chirurgical School of Bahia, currently known as Faculdade de Medicina under harbour of Universidade Federal da Bahia and the Medico-Chirurgical School of Rio de Janeiro (Faculdade de Medicina of Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro).

Notable scientific expeditions organized by Brazilians were rare, the most significant one being that of Martim Francisco de Andrada e Silva and José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, in 1819.

During the Brazilian Empire
After independence from Portugal, declared by the King's son in 1822, D. Pedro I (who became the new country's first Emperor), the policies concerning higher learning, science and technology in Brazil came to a relative standstill. In the first two decades of the century, science in Brazil was mostly carried out by temporary scientific expeditions by European naturalists, such as Charles Darwin, Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied, Carl von Martius, Johann Baptist von Spix, Alexander Humboldt, Augustin Saint-Hilaire, Baron Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff, Friedrich Sellow, Fritz Müller, Hermann von Ihering, Émil Goeldi and others. This science was mostly descriptive of the fantastic Brazilian biodiversity of its flora and fauna, and also its geology, geography and anthropology, and until the creation of the National Museum, the specimens were mostly removed to European institutions.

In the educational area, a number of higher education institutions were founded in the 19th century, but for decades to come, most Brazilian students, still studied at European universities, such as the ancient University of Coimbra, in Portugal.

Things started to change after 1841, when the eldest son of D. Pedro I, Emperor D. Pedro II came to the throne when he was 15 years old. In the next 50 years, Brazil enjoyed a stable constitutional monarchy. D. Pedro II was an enlightened monarch who favored the arts, literature, science and technology and had extensive international contacts in these areas. The mainstay of Brazilian science and the seat of its first research laboratories was the National Museum (Museu Nacional) in Rio de Janeiro, in existence until today. D. Pedro developed a strong personal interest and selected and invited many august European scientific personalities, such as von Ihering and Goeldi, to work in Brazil. He and his ministers, courtesans and senators often attended scientific conferences in the Museum. There, the first laboratory of physiology was founded in 1880, under João Baptista de Lacerda and Louis Couty. Unfortunately, the creation of research universities and institutes would only occur on the beginning of the 20th century - a long delay for the education, science and technology in Brazil.

Oldest scientific journal in Brazil, Archivos do Museu Nacional, was established in 1876.

Organization
Brazil today has a well-developed organization of science and technology. Basic research is largely carried out in public universities and research centers and institutes, and some in private institutions, particularly in non-profit non-governmental organizations. More than 90% of funding for basic research comes from governmental sources. Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility for physics, chemistry, materials science and life sciences.

Applied research, technology and engineering are also largely carried out in the university sector and research centres, contrary to trends in more developed countries such as the United States of America, South Korea, Germany, Japan, etc.

Sources of funding

Brazilian funding for research, development and innovation comes from six main sources:
 * 1) Government (federal, state and municipal) sources. There are a number of state organizations which were created mostly in the 1950s specifically for directly promoting and funding R&D&I, such as the National Research Council (CNPq), which is now named Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the National Agency for Financing Studies and Researches (FINEP), both a part of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MCT). MCT is a relatively novel ministry, having been created in 1990. Before this, CNPq was the only research granting institution at federal level, working directly under the Presidency of Republic. At state level, almost all states have founded their own public foundations for support of R&D&I, following the pioneering (and highly successful) example of São Paulo state, which created the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) in 1962. Usually these foundations are guaranteed by changes in the state constitutions, along the 1980s and 1990s.
 * 2) Indirect funding through the budgets of public and private universities, institutes and centers. Some universities, such as UNICAMP, have their own internal agencies, foundations and funds set apart and managed with the purpose of supporting R&D&I by their faculties and students.
 * 3) Public companies, such as Embrapa (Brazilian Enterprise for Agricultural Research). Their source of revenue is the government itself (via budgetary allocations by ministries and state secretaries) and investment of a part of products and services sold.
 * 4) Industrial, commercial and services private companies, usually for their own R&D&I centers, or via some fiscal benefit (tax exemption laws), such as the Informatics Law.
 * 5) National private and non-for-profit associations and foundations, via statutory mechanisms or donations by private individuals or companies. An example is the Banco do Brasil Foundation.
 * 6) Funding by other nations, international organizations and multilateral institutions, such as Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, Inter-American Development Bank, World Bank, UNESCO, UNDP, World Health Organization, World Wildlife Foundation, Kellogg Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, US National Science Foundation, Volkswagen Foundation, just to name a few of the more important ones in the history of Brazilian  science and technology.

Creation of social organizations
Brazil's public research institutes and universities follow rigid rules that tend to make them difficult to manage. States may opt to develop their own research institutes and university systems but, as all laws and regulations are adopted at federal level, they all have to follow the same rules and regulations. Thus, they all come up against the same hurdles. These include extensive bureaucratic structures, an obligation to recruit staff, academic or otherwise, from among public servants, analogous career ladders and salary systems, an irregular flow of funds, overly complex procurement procedures and powerful unions in the civil service. A structural alternative was developed in 1998, with the creation of social organizations. These private, non-profit entities manage public research facilities under contract to federal agencies. They have the autonomy to hire (or fire) staff, contract services, buy equipment, choose the topics and objectives of scientific or technological research and sign research contracts with private companies. The flexibility accorded to these social organizations and their management style have made them a success story in Brazilian science. As of 2015, there were six such organizations: Embrapii is the most recent. It was established by the federal government in 2013 to stimulate innovation through a system of calls for proposals; only institutions and enterprises deemed eligible may respond to these calls, thus speeding up the whole process and offering applicants a greater chance of success; Embrapii was due to be assessed in late 2015.
 * Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics (IMPA);
 * Institute for the Sustainable Development of the Amazon Forest (IDSM);
 * National Centre for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM);
 * Centre for Management and Strategic Studies (CGEE);
 * National Teaching and Research Network (RNP); and
 * Brazilian Research and Industrial Innovation Enterprise (Embrapii).

Incentive measures and targets
In the late 1990s, as economic reforms took hold, legislation was adopted to stimulate private R&D. Arguably the most important milestone was the National Law on Innovation. Soon after its approval in 2006, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation published a Plan of Action for Science, Technology and Innovation (MoSTI, 2007) establishing four main targets to be attained by 2010: By 2012, GERD stood at 1.15% of GDP and business expenditure on R&D at 0.52% of GDP. Neither of these targets had thus been reached by this time. Concerning tertiary scholarships, CNPq and Capes easily reached the target for PhDs (31,000 by 2010 and 42,000 by 2013) but fell short of reaching the target for tertiary scholarships as a whole (141,000 by 2010). The target of the National Plan for Graduate Education 2005–2010 was for 16 000 PhDs to be granted by the end of the plan period. Since the actual number of PhDs granted stood at 11 300 in 2010 and less than 14 000 in 2013, this target has not been reached either, despite the fact that almost 42 000 federal PhD scholarships were granted in 2013. On the other hand, the targets related to fostering a popular science culture have been partly reached. For instance, in 2010, over 19 million students took part in the Brazilian Mathematics Olympiad for Public Schools, up from 14 million in 2006. However, since then, the number of participants has tended to stagnate. Up until 2011, it was looking as if the targets for distance learning and vocational education might be reached but, as of 2015, there had been little progress.
 * Raise gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) from 1.02% to 1.50% of GDP;
 * Raise business expenditure on R&D from 0.51% to 0.65% of GDP;
 * Increase the number of scholarships (all levels) granted by the two federal agencies, the National Research Council (CNPq) and the Foundation for Co-ordinating Capacity-building of Personnel in Higher Education (Capes), from 100 000 to 150 000; and
 * Foster science and technology for social development by establishing 400 vocational and 600 new distance-learning centres, by expanding the Mathematics Olympiad to 21 million participants and by granting 10 000 scholarships at the secondary level.

Financial investment
Brazil's economic boom between 2004 and 2012 translated into higher government and business spending on research and development (R&D). Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) almost doubled to PPP$35.5 billion (in 2011 dollars). Most of this growth occurred between 2004 and 2010, when GERD climbed from 0.97% to 1.16% of GDP. In 2012, GERD stood at 1.15% of GDP. Since 2010, the government sector alone has been driving up R&D intensity, since the non-government contribution has actually declined from 0.57% to 0.52% of GDP (2012). Preliminary figures for 2013 indicate slight growth in government spending and a constant contribution from the business sector (relative to GDP). Business research expenditure is likely to contract from 2015 onwards until the economy shows signs of recovery. Even the most optimistic analysts do not expect this to happen before 2016. Fixed capital investment in Brazil is expected to decline further in 2015, especially in the manufacturing sector. This trend will certainly affect industrial research spending. The Petrobrás crisis is expected to have a major impact on investment in R&D, since it alone has accounted for about 10% of the country's annual fixed capital investment in recent years. The cuts to the federal budget announced in 2015 and other austerity measures should also affect government spending on R&D.

Almost all of non-government expenditure on R&D comes from private firms (private universities performing only a fraction of it). Between 2010 and 2013, this expenditure declined from 49% to 42% of domestic expenditure on research, according to preliminary government data. This trend is likely to last for some time. The business sector will, thus, have no chance of devoting 0.90% of GDP to R&D by 2014. Brazil's GERD/GDP ratio remains well below that of both advanced economies and such dynamic emerging market economies as China and, especially, the Republic of Korea. At the same time, it is quite comparable to the more stagnant developed economies such as Italy or Spain and other major emerging markets like the Russian Federation. It is also well ahead of other Latin American countries.

Trends in innovation activity
Between 2001 and 2010, there was a sharp decline in the share of research personnel employed by the business sector, from 40% (2001) to 26% (2010). This is contrary to the trend observed in most developed and major emerging countries. It partly reflects the expansion of research in higher education and partly the anaemic growth of industrial R&D. According to a 2014 survey by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics of innovative manufacturing firms in 65 countries, 85% of Brazilian firms are still at the stage of acquiring machinery, equipment and software to enable them to innovate. Among the other BRICS countries (Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa), the percentage varies between 64% and 71%. Some 17% of Brazilian firms conduct research and development in house, according to the survey, compared to 19% of Russian firms, 35% of Indian firms, 54% of South African firms and 63% of Chinese firms. Brazil is also the BRICS country which outsources research the least (7% of innovative firms), compared to one in ten in India and one in five in the other BRICS. Brazil also trails other Latin American countries. A much higher percentage of firms report in-house research and development in Costa Rica (76%), Argentina (72%), Mexico (43%), El Salvador (42%), Ecuador (35%) and Colombia (22%). Only 6% of Brazilian manufacturing firms collaborate with universities to develop innovative products and processes, a lower ratio than in Mexico (7%), Colombia (11%), Argentina and Cuba (15%) and, above all, Costa Rica (35%).

The tendency for research to flow from the public to the private sector is confirmed by Ruben Sinisterra, a researcher at the Federal University of Minas Gerais who has been developing drugs to alleviate hypertension. Brazilian universities now have the capacity to develop nanoscale materials for drug delivery, he says, but ‘our domestic pharmaceutical companies don’t have internal capabilities in research and development, so we have to work with them to push new products and processes out to market’.

Innovation activity ebbed in Brazil between 2008 and 2013, according to a survey of firms by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). The 2013 survey covered all public and private firms in the extractive and transformative sectors, as well as firms in the services sector involving technology. The drop in innovation was most noticeable in telecommunications, both as regards the production of goods (-18.2%) and services (-16.9%). It is the larger companies which seem to have reduced their innovative activities by the biggest margin between 2008 and 2011. Among companies with 500 or more employees, the share of those involved in developing new products declined from 54.9% to 43.0% over this period. A comparison of IBGE's innovation surveys over the periods 2004–2008 and 2009–2011 reveals that the 2008 crisis has had a negative impact on the innovative activities of most Brazilian firms. ‘Since 2011, the economic situation in Brazil has further deteriorated, especially in the industrial sector. Thus, it can be expected that the next innovation survey [in 2018] will show even lower levels of innovative activity in Brazil.

One reason for the drop in public and private investment in research is the economic slowdown. After peaking at 7.5% annual growth in 2010, the economy slowed before dipping into recession in 2015 (-3.7% growth). The government has been forced to adopt austerity measures and is now less able to collect revenue through the sectorial funds, since company profits are down in many quarters. Industrial output declined by 2.8% between November and December 2014 and by 3.2% over the entire year. The most recent data indicate that 2014–2015 may turn out to be the worst years in decades for industry, especially for the transformation subsector of the manufacturing industry’.

The economic slowdown was triggered by weaker international commodities markets, coupled with the perverse effects of economic policies designed to fuel consumption. For instance, Petrobrás artificially depressed petrol prices to control inflation between 2011 and 2014, under the influence of the government, its major stockholder. This in turn depressed ethanol prices, making ethanol uneconomic to produce. The ethanol industry was forced to close plants and cut back on its investment in research. Petrobrás’ low pricing policy ended up eating into its own revenue, forcing it to cut back its own investment in oil and gas exploration.

The roots of the problem go deeper, though, than the current recession. Brazil's long-standing import substitution policy has protected locally produced goods from foreign competition, discouraging local businesses from investing heavily in research and development, as they are only competing with similar non-innovative companies operating within the same protectionist system. The consequence of this policy has been a gradual decline in Brazil's share of global trade in recent decades, especially when it comes to exports of industrial goods. The trend has even accelerated in the past few years. Between 2004 and 2013, the share of exports dropped from 14.6% to 10.8% of GDP, despite the commodities boom, a trend that cannot be explained solely by the unfavourable exchange rate’, asserts the report.

Basic commodities make up a growing proportion of Brazilian exports. Commodities peaked at 50.8% of all exports in the first half of 2014, up from 29.3% in 2005. Just one-third of goods (34.5%) were manufactured in 2014, a sharp drop from 55.1% in 2005. Within manufactured exports, only 6.8% could be considered high-tech, compared to 41.0% with a low-tech content (up from 36.8% in 2012).

Another factor in the drop in investment is that modern industrial development in Brazil is constrained by a lack of modern infrastructure, especially in logistics and electric power generation, along with cumbersome regulations relating to business registration, taxation or bankruptcy, all resulting in a high cost of doing business. Dubbed the Brazil Cost (Custo Brasil), this phenomenon is affecting the ability of Brazilian businesses to compete internationally and pursue innovation.

Information technology
Companies such as Motorola, Samsung, Nokia and IBM have established large R&D centres in Brazil, beginning with the IBM Research Center in the 1970s. One incentive has been the Informatics Law, which exempts from certain taxes up to 5% of the gross revenue of high technology manufacturing companies in the fields of telecommunications, computers, digital electronics, etc. The Informatics Law has attracted annually more than $1.5 billion of investment in Brazilian R&D. Multinational companies have also discovered that some products and technologies designed and developed by Brazilians have a nice competitivity and are appreciated by other countries, such as automobiles, aircraft, software, fiber optics, electric appliances, and so on.

During the 1980s, Brazil pursued a policy of protectionism in computing. Companies and administrations were required to use Brazilian software and hardware, with imports subject to governmental authorization. This encouraged the growth of Brazilian companies but, in spite of their development of products like MSX clones and SOX Unix, the Brazilian consumers of computing were suffering from lesser offerings compared to foreign competitors. The government little by little authorized more and more imports until the barriers were removed.

In 2002, Brazil staged the world's first 100% electronic election with over 90% of results in within 2 hours. The system is particularly suited to a country with relatively high illiteracy rates, since it flashes up a photograph of the candidate before a vote is confirmed. Citizens could download a desktop module that relayed the votes to their homes in realtime faster than the news networks could get them out.

In 2005, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva launched a "people's computer" to foster digital inclusion, with government finance available and a fixed minimum configuration. Having rejected the Microsoft operating system (Windows XP Starter Edition), it is being shipped with a Brazilian-configured Linux system offering basic functions such as word processing and internet browsing. Plans to make cheap internet access available have not yet come to fruition. In 2008, the Brazilian Government under Lula da Silva, founded the CEITEC, the first and only semiconductor company in Latin America.

Government research priorities
The lion's share of government expenditure on R&D goes to universities, as in most countries. This level of spending increased slightly from 58% to 61% of total government funding of R&D between 2008 and 2012. Among specific sectors, agriculture comes next, in a reflection of the sector's relevance for Brazil, the second-largest food-producing country in the world after the USA. Brazilian agricultural productivity has risen constantly since the 1970s, due to the greater use of innovative technology and processes. Industrial R&D comes third, followed by health and infrastructure, other sectors having shares of 1% or lower of government expenditure. With some exceptions, the distribution of government spending on R&D in 2012 is similar to that in 2000. After a sharp increase in industrial technology from 1.4% to 6.8% between 2000 and 2008, its share of government expenditure declined to 5.9% in 2012. The share of space science and technology (civilian) has been pursuing a downward spiral from a high of 2.3% in 2000. Defence research spending had been curtailed from 1.6% to 0.6% between 2000 and 2008 but has since rebounded to 1.0%. Research into energy has also declined from 2.1% (2000) to just 0.3% (2012). Overall, though, the allocation of government R&D spending seems to be relatively stable.

In May 2013, the Brazilian administrative body Redetec contracted the Argentine company INVAP to build a multipurpose nuclear reactor in Brazil for research and the production of radioisotopes employed in nuclear medicine, agriculture and environmental management. INVAP has already built a similar reactor for Australia. The multipurpose reactor is expected to be operational by 2018. It will be based at the Marine Technology Centre in São Paulo, with the Brazilian company Intertechne building some of the infrastructure. Brazil's ambitions for biodiesel caught the headlines in the late 2000s when global energy and food prices spiked but energy-related industries have always had a high profile in Brazil. The state-controlled oil giant Petrobrás registers more patents than any other individual company in Brazil. Moreover, electricity-producing companies are directed by law to invest a given percentage of their revenue in R&D. Although energy is a key economic sector, the government cut back its spending on energy research from 2.1% to 1.1% of the total between 2000 and 2008 and again to 0.3% in 2012. Renewable energy sources have been the primary victim of these cuts, as public investment has increasingly turned towards deep-sea oil and gas exploration off Brazil's southeast coast. One area that has been directly affected by this is trend is the ethanol industry, which has had to close plants and cut back its own investment in R&D. Part of the ethanol industry's woes have resulted from Petrobrás’ pricing policies. Under the influence of the government, its major stockholder, Petrobrás artificially depressed petrol prices between 2011 and 2014 to control inflation. This in turn depressed ethanol prices, making ethanol uneconomic to produce. This policy ended up eating into Petrobrás’ own revenue, forcing it to cut back its investment in oil and gas exploration. As Petrobrás alone is responsible for about 10% of all fixed capital investment in Brazil, this trend, along with the corruption scandal shaking the company since 2014, will certainly have ramifications for Brazil's overall investment in R&D.

Brazil generates nearly three-quarters (73%) of its electricity from hydropower. This contribution was as high as four-fifths in 2010 but the share of hydropower has been eroded by a combination of declining rainfall and ageing hydroelectric plants, many of which date back to the 1960s and 1970s. Intensive use of thermoelectric power plants operating on fossil fuels has compensated for much of the loss, since the share of new sources of renewable energy, such as solar and wind, in the energy mix remains small. Moreover, although Brazil has made great strides in the use of bioethanol in transportation, there has been little focus on research and innovation in energy generation, be it in terms of developing new sources of energy or improving energy efficiency. In light of the foregoing, there is little reason to expect public investment in energy R&D to rebound to the levels seen at the turn of the century that would rebuild Brazil's international competitiveness in this field.

Space science and technology have been a government priority for decades. In the late 1980s and 1990s, Brazil invested almost US$1 billion in developing space infrastructure around the National Institute of Space Research (INPE), leading to the launch of the first scientific satellite built entirely in Brazil in 1993 (SCD-1). Between 1999 and 2014, Brazil and China built a series of five remote sensing satellites for environmental monitoring within the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellites (CBERS) programme. Brazil has now achieved the critical mass of skills and infrastructure required to dominate several space technologies. It is determined to master the complete chain of space technologies, from material sciences, engineering design, remote sensing, aperture-synthetic radars, telecommunications and image processing to propulsion technologies. The joint Argentinian–Brazilian SABIA-MAR mission will be studying ocean ecosystems, carbon cycling, marine habitats mapping, coasts and coastal hazards, inland waters and fisheries. Also under development is the new SARE series designed to expand the active remote observation of Earth through the use of microwave and optical radars.

Research output
Scientific publications increased by 308% between 2005 and 2014, primarily as a result of Thomson Reuters' decision to track a much larger number of Brazilian journals in its database between 2006 and 2008. Despite this artificial boost, the pace of growth has slowed since 2011. Moreover, in terms of publications per capita, the country trails both the more dynamic emerging market economies and advanced economies, even if it is ahead of most of its neighbours. When it comes to impact, Brazil has lost a lot of ground in the past decade. One possible cause may be the speed with which enrolment in higher education has expanded since the mid-1990s, especially as concerns students passing through the federal system of universities, some of which have resorted to hiring inexperienced faculty, including candidates without doctorates. Patent applications to the Brazilian Patent Office (INPI) increased from 20,639 in 2000 to 33,395 in 2012, progressing by 62%. Patent applications by residents grew at a rate of 21% over the same period.

International comparisons using the number of patents granted by the US Patent and Trademarks Office (USPTO) provide an indirect measure of the extent to which an economy may be seeking international competitiveness on the basis of technology-driven innovation. Brazil was granted 108 patents by the USPTO between 2004 and 2008 and 189 between 2009 and 2013. Although Brazil has registered strong growth in this field, compared to other emerging economies, it seems to be relatively less focused on international patenting than on publications. Between 2000 and 2013, it counted 10 patents per ten million inhabitants from USPTO, less than Argentina (14), China, India (12) or South Africa (25) and only slightly more than Mexico (9).

Regional disparities
Brazil is a country with highly diverse levels of development across its 27 states. The southern and southeastern regions show a much higher level of industrialization and scientific development than the northern ones, some of which encroach on the Amazonian forest and river basin. The centre-west is Brazil's agricultural and cattle-raising powerhouse and has been developing rapidly recently. The starkest example of this contrast is the southeastern State of São Paulo. Home to 22% (44 million) of the country's 202 million inhabitants, it generates about 32% of GDP and a similar share of the nation's industrial output. It also has a very strong state system of public research universities that is lacking in most other states and hosts the well-established São Paulo Research Foundation. The State of São Paulo is responsible for 46% of GERD (public and private expenditure) and 66% of business R&D. It hosts 10 of the country's 18 research universities.

All indicators paint the same picture. Some 41% of Brazilian PhDs were granted by universities in the State of São Paulo in 2012 and 44% of all papers with Brazilian authors have at least one author from an institution based in São Paulo. São Paulo's scientific productivity (390 papers per million inhabitants over 2009–2013) is twice the national average (184), a differential which has been widening in recent years. The relative impact of publications by scientists from the State of São Paulo has also been systematically higher than for Brazil as a whole over the past decade. Two key factors explain São Paulo's success in scientific output: firstly, a well-funded system of state universities, including the University of São Paulo, University of Campinas (Unicamp) and the State University of São Paulo, all of which have been included in international university rankings;10 secondly, the role played by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). Both the university system and FAPESP are allocated a fixed share of the state's sales tax revenue as their annual budgets and have full autonomy as to the use they make of this revenue. Between 2006 and 2014, the share of Brazilian researchers hosted by southeastern institutions dropped steadily from 50% to 44%. Over the same period, the share of northeastern states rose from 16% to 20%. It is still too early to see the effect of these changes on scientific output, or in the number of PhD degrees being awarded but these indicators should logically also progress.

Despite these positive trends, regional inequalities persist in terms of research expenditure, the number of research institutions and scientific productivity. Extending the scope of research projects to other states and beyond Brazil would certainly help scientists from these regions catch up to their southern neighbours.

Timeline

 * 1792: Founding of the Royal Academy of Fortification, Artillery and Design, current Military Institute of Engineering (IME) and Polytechnic School of UFRJ (UFRJ).
 * 1876: Founding of the First School of Mines in Brazil, today Federal University of Ouro Preto (UFOP).
 * 1900: Founding of the Federal Institute Serotherapy, current Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FioCruz).
 * 1916: Founding of the Brazilian Society of Sciences, today Brazilian Academy of Sciences (ABC).
 * 1917: Beginning of the publication of the Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências.
 * 1920: Founding of the University of Brazil, current Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ).
 * 1922: Founding of the Top School of Agriculture and Veterinary, current Federal University of Viçosa (UFV).
 * 1923: Founding of the Brazilian Society of Chemistry (SBCh).
 * 1923: Founding of the Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro, the first radio broadcasting station still working under the name Rádio MEC in Rio de Janeiro.
 * 1924: Founding of the Brazilian Association of Education.
 * 1925: Institution of the Einstein Prize, in reason of his visit to Brazil.
 * 1930: Founding of the National Institute of Weights and Standards, today National Institute of Metrology, Standardization and Industrial Quality (Inmetro).
 * 1934: Founding of the University of São Paulo (USP).
 * 1948: Founding of the Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science (SBPC).
 * 1949: Founding of the Brazilian Center for Physics Research.
 * 1950: Founding of the Aeronautical Institute of Technology (ITA).
 * 1951: Founding of the National Research Council (CNPq).
 * 1951: Founding of the Coordination of Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES).
 * 1952: Founding of the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA).
 * 1952: Founding of the Institute of Pure and Applied Mathematics (IMPA).
 * 1953: Founding of the Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology (CTA).
 * 1956: Founding of the National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN).
 * 1961: Founding of the National Institute for Space Research (INPE).
 * 1962: Founding of the São Paulo State Foundation for Research Support (Fapesp).
 * 1962: Founding of the State University of Campinas (Unicamp).
 * 1967: Founding of the National Agency for Financing Research and Projects (FINEP).
 * 1976: Founding of the São Paulo State University (Unesp).
 * 1980: Founding of the National Laboratory of Scientific Computing (LNCC).
 * 1985: Founding of the National Laboratory of Synchrotron Radiation (LNRS), current National Laboratory of Synchrotron Light (LNLS).
 * 1985: Founding of the National Laboratory of Astrophysics
 * 1993: Institution of the National Order of Scientific Merit.
 * 1994: Founding of the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB).
 * 2006: Founding of the Federal University of ABC (UFABC).
 * 2007: Founding of the National Laboratory of Science and Technology of Bioethanol (CTBE).
 * 2010: Founding of the Federal University of Latin American Integration (UNILA).

Public universities and institutes

 * UFAL - Universidade Federal de Alagoas (Federal University of Alagoas)
 * IME - Instituto Militar de Engenharia (Military Institute of Engineering)
 * ITA - Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (Aeronautics Technological Institute)
 * UECE - Universidade Estadual do Ceará (State University of Ceará)
 * UERJ - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro State University)
 * UNIRIO - Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro)
 * UFABC - Universidade Federal do ABC (Federal University of ABC)
 * UFBA - Universidade Federal da Bahia (Federal University of Bahia)
 * UFS - Universidade Federal de Sergipe (Federal University of Sergipe)
 * UFC - Universidade Federal do Ceará (Federal University of Ceará)
 * UFCG - Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (Federal University of Campina Grande)
 * UFES - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (Federal University of Espírito Santo)
 * UFOP - Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto (Federal University of Ouro Preto)
 * UFF - Universidade Federal Fluminense (Federal University Fluminense)
 * UFG - Universidade Federal de Goiás (Federal University of Goiás)
 * UEG - Universidade Estadual de Goiás (State University of Goiás)
 * UFJF - Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (Federal University of Juiz de Fora)
 * UFMG - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Federal University of Minas Gerais)
 * UFPA - Universidade Federal do Pará (Federal University of Pará)
 * UFPE - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (Federal University of Pernambuco)
 * UFPI- Universidade Federal do Piauí (Federal University of Piauí)
 * UFPR - Universidade Federal do Paraná (Federal University of Paraná)
 * UFRGS - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul)
 * UFRJ - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro)
 * UFRN - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte)
 * UFSCAR - Universidade Federal de São Carlos (Federal University of São Carlos)
 * UFSC - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (Federal University of Santa Catarina)
 * UFSM - Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (Federal University of Santa Maria)
 * UFV - Universidade Federal de Viçosa (Federal University of Viçosa)
 * UnB - Universidade de Brasília (University of Brasília)
 * UNESP - Universidade Estadual Paulista (São Paulo State University)
 * UNICAMP - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (State University of Campinas)
 * UNIFEI - Universidade Federal de Itajubá (Federal University of Itajubá)
 * UNIFESP - Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Federal University of São Paulo)
 * UNITAU - Universidade de Taubaté (University of Taubaté)
 * USP - Universidade de São Paulo (University of São Paulo)
 * UFT - Universidade Federal do Tocantins (Federal University of Tocantins)
 * UTFPR - Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (Federal University of Technology – Paraná)

Private universities

 * PUC-PR - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná)
 * PUC-SP - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo)
 * PUCCamp - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas (Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas)
 * PUC-RJ - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro)
 * UCB - Universidade Católica de Brasília - (Catholic University of Brasília)
 * PUC-GO - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás - (Pontifical Catholic University of Goiás)
 * PUC-MG - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais (Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais)
 * PUC-RS - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul)
 * IESB - Instituto de Educação Superior de Brasília (Brasília's Institute of Higher Education)
 * ULBRA - Universidade Luterana do Brasil (Lutheran University of Brazil)
 * Mack - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie (Mackenzie Presbyterian University)
 * UNIFOR - Universidade de Fortaleza (University of Fortaleza)
 * Centro Universitário da FEI (Industrial Engineering College) www.fei.edu.br
 * FAAP - Fundação Armando Alvares Penteado, São Paulo, São Paulo
 * FAMEC - Faculdade Metropolitana de Curitiba, (Sistema FIEP - www.famec.fiepr.org.br)
 * Universidade Feevale - FEEVALE University, Novo Hamburgo, Rio Grande do Sul

Research institutes

 * Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology (CTA) - São José dos Campos
 * Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicações (CPqD) - Campinas
 * Centro de Pesquisas Renato Archer - Campinas
 * Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base - Antarctica
 * Edumed Institute for Education in Medicine and Health - Campinas
 * Eldorado Institute - Campinas
 * Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária - Brasília
 * Instituto Adolfo Lutz - São Paulo
 * Instituto Agronômico de Campinas - Campinas
 * Instituto Atlântico - Fortaleza
 * Instituto Butantan - São Paulo
 * Instituto de Biotecnologia Aplicada à Agropecuária (BIOAGRO) - Viçosa
 * Instituto de Pesquisas da Amazônia - Manaus
 * Instituto de Pesquisas em Energia Nuclear - São Paulo
 * Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas do Estado de São Paulo (IPT) - São Paulo
 * Instituto Evandro Chagas - Belém
 * Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada - Rio de Janeiro
 * Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) - São José dos Campos
 * Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Rio de Janeiro
 * Laboratório Nacional de Computação Científica (LNCC) - Petrópolis
 * Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron - Campinas
 * Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi - Belém
 * Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory - Rezende
 * São José dos Campos Technology Park - São José dos Campos

Scientific societies

 * Brazilian Academy of Sciences
 * Brazilian Society of Health Informatics
 * Academia Nacional de Medicina
 * Brazilian Computer Society
 * Federação das Sociedades de Biologia Experimental
 * Sociedade Brasileira para o Progresso da Ciência
 * Brazilian Telecommunications Society
 * Brazilian Power Electronics Society - SOBRAEP

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Science and technology in Brazil


text:
Willie Penrose

Willie Penrose (born 1 August 1956) is an Irish former Labour Party politician who served as Chairman of the Labour Parliamentary Party from 2016 to 2020 and a Minister of State from March 2011 to November 2011. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1992 to 2020.

Education and professional career
Penrose was born in Ballynacargy, County Westmeath, in 1956. He was educated at Coláiste Mhuire, Mullingar, Multyfarnham Agricultural College, University College Dublin (UCD), and the King's Inns. At UCD, he studied Agricultural Science, graduating in 1979 with a bachelor's degree; after graduation, with a colleague, he formed an agricultural consultancy firm in Mullingar. In 1986 he took up the position of advisor to the Minister of State at the Department of Fisheries, Forestry and Tourism, Michael Moynihan, resigning from the agricultural consultancy to do so.

He qualified as a barrister in 1990, before entering into national politics. He has published a book on agricultural law.

Westmeath County Council
In 1984, Penrose was co-opted on to Westmeath County Council, and a year later, he ran in the local elections, winning his seat in the Mullingar Lough Owel local electoral area by a margin of just six votes. In the 1991 local elections, he topped the poll in the Mullingar Rural Area.

Dáil Éireann: 1992–2020
At the 1992 general election, in which the Labour Party won a record 33 seats (later surpassed in 2011), he was first elected to the Dáil as a Labour Party TD for the Westmeath constituency.

In 2002, Penrose was a candidate for the deputy leadership of the Labour Party. Although he was part of a joint ticket with Pat Rabbitte, who won the leadership comfortably, he was narrowly defeated for the deputy leadership by Liz McManus, polling 1,636 votes to McManus's 1,728.

Minister of State: 2011
On 9 March 2011, he was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of Environment, Community and Local Government with special responsibility for Housing and Planning, attending meetings of the cabinet.

On 15 November 2011, he resigned as Minister of State due to his opposition to the government's decision to close Columb Barracks in Mullingar. Penrose said: "I understand and appreciate that significant efforts were made by my Labour colleagues in government, who fully understood the depths of my feelings in this regard, to resolve this matter, but to no avail." He also resigned the Labour parliamentary party whip.

2012–2020
In February 2012, The Phoenix magazine contrasted Penrose who "eats at the PLP tables in the Dáil restaurant and is often seen chatting to Gilmore on the corridors" with two other backbenchers who lost the party whip, Tommy Broughan and Patrick Nulty, both of whom had been "banished" from the Labour parliamentary offices. Penrose rejoined the parliamentary Labour Party in October 2013.

He was narrowly re-elected to the Dáil at the 2016 general election, one of just seven Labour TDs to secure election. On 5 July 2018, he announced that he would not contest the next general election. Alan Mangan was selected as his replacement for the 2020 general election, but Mangan was not elected.

title: Willie Penrose


text:
User talk:Vinit Ratna

(you can sign your name on talk pages with 4 tildes, like this ~ )
 * Aaa gaye saale tum bhi ! Sahi hai - have fun, this is a great place. Check out the Community Portal, be bold in editing, and keep writing. Cheers. Amar 14:56, Feb 19, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vinit Ratna


text:
Air Malawi

'''Air Malawi Limited was the state-owned national airline of Malawi, based in Blantyre, which operated regional passenger services. Because of its financial situation, the airline was placed in voluntary liquidation, the Malawi Government announced in November 2012, and flights have been suspended since February 2013.

The airline began operations in 1964 as a subsidiary of Central African Airways, and later became independent and the national airline of Malawi. With the exception of short-lived long-haul flights to London in the 1970s, the airline has always concentrated on domestic and regional flights, from its main base at Chileka International Airport, Blantyre.

Air Malawi frequently had financial difficulties, and the Malawian government attempted to privatise the airline on two occasions without success. The first attempt in 2003 failed because the successful bidder, in partnership with South African Airways, was unable to post a security bond. The second attempt in 2007 failed after disagreements over the terms with the bidder, Comair of South Africa. The government, through its agent the Privatisation Commission, announced in September 2012 that it had embarked on another search to identify a strategic equity partner for Air Malawi, and in July 2013 Ethiopian Airlines was confirmed as the partner in a new airline to be called Malawi Airlines.

Formative years (1964–1967)
Air Malawi began operations in 1964 as a wholly owned subsidiary of Central African Airways (CAA), which had also set up Air Rhodesia and Zambia Airways. CAA supplied Air Malawi with two Douglas DC-3s and three de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beavers to begin services, and also provided technical assistant, equipment and personnel. On 1 August 1964, the airline began flights between Blantyre-Salima-Ndola, and to Beira in Mozambique. The Beira service was operated in conjunction with DETA. The airline began services to Mzuzu with the DC-3s, and on 18 February 1965 a Salisbury-Mauritius service was inaugurated and operated via Blantyre, Nampula and Antananarivo.

1967 saw CAA being wound down, and Air Malawi became independent, giving Malawi a national airline. The airline introduced two ex-CAA Vickers Viscounts, and a Beech C55 Baron joined the fleet. By the end of 1967, the DC-3 was operating on all Air Malawi domestic services. Central African Airways was officially dissolved on 31 December 1967, and responsibility for all flights passed onto the three now independent airlines (Zambia Airways, Air Malawi and Air Rhodesia), of which Air Malawi was officially established by an Act of Parliament in 1967. Membership in the International Air Transport Association was attained on 1 January 1968.

Independent operations (1968–1999)
The Viscount entered revenue service on 2 April 1968 on the Blantyre to Johannesburg route, and later routes included Blantyre-Salisbury, and Salisbury-Mauritius via Blantyre and Nampula. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the fleet being modernised and standardised. Two HS-748s were ordered in May 1969, and the airline ordered two Britten-Norman BN-2A Islanders in July 1969. The HS-748s were delivered in December 1969 and January 1970, and the Islanders were delivered in November 1969 and September 1970, allowing for the sale of the Beech Barons. The airline disposed of the last of the DC-3s in March 1970, and in November 1970 it leased a BAC One-Eleven from Zambia Airways on a two-year term. With the addition of the BAC One-Eleven, Nairobi and Johannesburg were added to the fleet network.

In February 1972, the airline leased a Vickers VC-10 from British Caledonian, and it entered service on a route from Blantyre to London. British Caledonian sold the aircraft to Air Malawi in November 1974, and the service to Gatwick Airport in London, via Nairobi, began on 3 December 1974. In 1974, the airline began flights from Blantyre to Manzini in Swaziland with the HS-748, and operated the route until October 1975. By the end of 1975, the airline operated one VC-10, two One-Elevens, two HS-748s and two Islanders, on a route network which included Amsterdam, Beira, Harare, Johannesburg, Lusaka, Manzini, Ndola, Nairobi, Salisbury and Seychelles. In September 1978, the VC-10 was withdrawn from service, because of increasing operational costs which were a burden on the airline's financial stability, and the two Viscounts were sold to Air Zimbabwe in 1979 and 1980. Three Shorts Skyvans and a Beechcraft King Air were purchased in 1980. The airline moved its international flights in 1983 from Blantyre to Lilongwe with the inauguration of Kamuzu International Airport, however its maintenance bases remained at Blantyre.

In April 1985, the airline wet leased a Boeing 747SP from South African Airways and painted the aircraft in Air Malawi livery. The aircraft was used only for the trip of President Hastings Banda to London, and remained on the civil aircraft register for only 40 days. On 6 November 1987, a Shorts Skyvan was shot down by Mozambican armed forces killing all 10 people (8 passengers and 2 crew) on board. The aircraft was on an internal flight, although Mozambican military claimed that the aircraft had violated Mozambique's airspace. In June 1989, the airline ordered two Boeing 737-500s, but before delivery the order was reduced to one Boeing 737-300, the first of which arrived in May 1991. In April 1991, the airline ordered two Boeing 737-300s in a deal valued at US$65 million. The HS-748 was also replaced in 1991 with an ATR 42, and a Dornier 228 was introduced into the fleet in December 1993.

Financial and ownership difficulties (2000–2011)
In April 2000, it was reported that Air Malawi was in financial difficulty, and that it may have had to sell assets in order to stay afloat, however the airline public relations department refused to comment on the situation. The government decided to privatise Air Malawi in 2000. 110 employees were laid off in March 2002 in order to help keep costs under control, with Mathews Chikaonda, the former Malawian Finance Minister noting that the airline was overstaffed and was a drain on the coffers of the government.

After the Malawian government approved a bid by South African Airways (SAA) and Crown Aviation to take a stake in Air Malawi, in April 2003, the deal with SAA to support the airline fell through. The Malawi Privatisation Committee stated that the bidders would not pay a US$250,000 security bond, and the government wanted SAA to take an equity stake in the airline, whilst an SAA executive said that the airline had an interest in supporting Air Malawi, but it was more important for the airline to make its investment in Air Tanzania work.

In November 2007, it was announced that the Malawian government was in talks with Comair of South Africa over a partnership deal with Air Malawi. The deal would have seen Comair acquiring the air traffic rights of Air Malawi, some of the assets including a Boeing 737-300, and the launching of a new airline to be called Comair Malawi. It was alleged that Comair was only interested in acquiring the 737-300 In the 2007 financial year, Air Malawi posted a profit of K135 million, an improvement on the K854 million loss it posted in 2006. In early 2008, negotiations with Comair broke down in dispute over the terms of the arranged deal; the Malawian government preferring a strategic partnership, whilst Comair wished to take an 80% stake in the airline.

In September 2008, it was announced that the Malawian government had agreed to sell a 49% stake in Air Malawi to Comair, with Roy Commsy, Malawian Deputy Transport Minister stating that the government insisted on a 49% stake as being in the best interests of the nation. It was revealed that Comair would purchase the 49% shareholding in Air Malawi for K490,000 (approximately US$3,500), with an option to increase the stake to its desired 80%.

In August 2009, it was announced that Air Malawi was in negotiations with Zambezi Airlines for a strategic partnership.

In October 2009, Air Malawi started an e-commerce project to cut down costs and provide realtime access to reservations for online customers and travel agents.

Liquidation of Air Malawi and creation of Malawi Airlines (2012–2013)
Ethiopian Airlines was reported as moving closer to acquiring a 49pc share in Air Malawi, after the Private Public Partnership (PPP) commission of Malawi declared it the "preferred bidder" to be a strategic equity partner in the soon-to-be restructured Malawi Airlines, intending it to be part of its strategy to form a Southern African hub, according to a senior management member at Ethiopian Airlines.

In July 2013 Ethiopian Airlines was confirmed as the new partner; it would own 49% of the new airline, while the Malawian government would own 51%. The new airline would be called Malawi Airlines in order to shake-off the negative reputation of the airline, as well as prevent "predatory creditors who would seek to embarrass the airline", bringing an end to the 46-year-old airline.

Ownership and subsidiaries
Air Malawi was wholly owned by the Government of Malawi.

Because the airline was in voluntary liquidation, through the Privatisation Commission (PC), the government restructured Air Malawi; it created a new company, Air Malawi (2012) Limited, as a step towards selection of a competent strategic equity partner (SEP) to acquire new shares in Air Malawi through a recapitalisation scheme, said PC chief executive officer Jimmy Lipunga. He said to sustain the country's Bilateral Air Services Agreements, the level of participation within the SEP should bring the participation of Malawian nationals, both with the SEP and government shareholding, to 51 per cent.

For this purpose, the new company would exclude its existing wholly owned subsidiaries, Air Cargo Limited and Lilongwe Handling Company Limited, which are thought to be profitable, and which will subsequently be delinked from Air Malawi Limited.

Business trends
Air Malawi was consistently loss-making. The figures that had been made available for recent years, mainly in Malawi Government Economic Reports or in statements by government officials, are shown below (for fiscal years ending 30 June):

Destinations
Air Malawi operated to the following destinations,.

Historic fleet
The Air Malawi fleet had previously included the following aircraft:

title: Air Malawi


text:
Mary Upton

Mary Upton (born 30 May 1946) is an Irish former Labour Party politician. She served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Dublin South-Central constituency from 1999 to 2011.

Upton was born in Kilrush, County Clare and was educated at Coláiste Mhuire, Ennis; University College Galway and University College Dublin. She worked as a university lecturer before entering into full-time politics.

Upton was first elected to Dáil Éireann at the Dublin South-Central by-election on 28 October 1999, caused by the death of her brother, Pat Upton. She was re-elected at the 2002 and 2007 general elections. She served as party spokesperson on Agriculture and Food; and Arts, Sport and Tourism.

She retired from politics at the 2011 general election.

title: Mary Upton


text:
Henrik Hertz

Henrik Hertz (25 August 1797 – 25 February 1870) was a Danish poet.

Biography
He was born of Jewish parents in Copenhagen. In 1817 he was sent to the university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was destroyed in the bombardment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his relative M.L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor.

Young Hertz passed his examination in law in 1825. He lived in the South of France. But his taste was all for literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, Hr. Burchardt og hans Familie (Mr. Burchardt and his Family) and Kjærlighed og Politi (Love and Policy); in 1828 followed the comedy of Flyttedagen (Moving Day). In 1830 he brought out what was a complete novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse,  Amors Genistreger (Cupid's Strokes of Genius).

In the same year Hertz published anonymously Gjengangerbrevene (Letters from a Ghost), which he pretended were written by Jens Immanuel Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in defence of Johan Ludvig Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later.

In 1832, he published a didactic poem, Naturen og Kunsten (Nature and Art), and Four Poetical Epistles. En Dag paa Øen Als (A Day on the Island of Als) was his next comedy, followed in 1835 by Den eneste Fejl (The Only Fault). Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the following autumn through France to Denmark.

In 1836 his comedy Sparekassen (The Savings Bank) enjoyed a great success. But it was not until 1837 that he gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of Svend Dyrings Huus (Svend Dyring's House), a beautiful and original piece. His historical tragedy Valdemar Atterdag (Valdemar IV) was not so well received in 1839; but in 1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama Kong Renés Datter (King René's Daughter), which has been translated into almost every European language, and was adapted by Tchaikovsky into his opera Iolanta. This was a highly romanticized account of the life of Yolande, Duchess of Lorraine. To this succeeded the tragedy of Ninon in 1848, the romantic comedy of Tonietta in 1849, Et Offer (A Sacrifice) in 1853, and Den yngste (The Youngest) in 1854.

His lyrical poems appeared in successive collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a literary journal entitled Ugentlige Blader (Weekly Pages). His last drama, Tre Dage i Padua (Three Days in Padua), was produced in 1869, and he died on 25 February of the next year.

Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of colour and passion, his versification has more witch-craft in it than any other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique.

As a romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to the Danish theatre, in Svend Dyrings Huus and King René's Datter, two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south.

His Dramatic Works (18 vols) were published at Copenhagen in 1854-1873; and his Poems (4 vols) in 1851–1862.

title: Henrik Hertz


text:
Paddington, New South Wales

Paddington is an upscale Eastern Suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Located 3 km east of the Sydney central business district, Paddington lies across two local government areas. The portion south of Oxford Street lies within the City of Sydney, while the portion north of Oxford Street lies within the Municipality of Woollahra. It is often colloquially referred to as "Paddo".

Paddington is bordered to the west by Darlinghurst, to the east by Centennial Park and Woollahra, to the north by Edgecliff and Rushcutters Bay and to the south by Moore Park.

Aboriginal people
The suburb of Paddington is considered to be part of the region associated with the stories of the Cadigal people. These people belonged to the Dharug (or Eora) language group, which includes what is now known as the Sydney central business district. It is known that the ridge, being the most efficient route, on which Oxford Street was built was also a walking track used by Aboriginal people. Much of the Aboriginal population (estimated at the time to be ca. 1000 people) of Sydney died due to the smallpox outbreak of 1789, one year after the First Fleet arrived in Sydney. Some Anthropologists maintain that the tribe moved to other areas of the shared Eora language group. At the time when Robert Cooper began to build his first house in Paddington, approximately 200 Koori people were living in Woolloomooloo in housing which Governor Macquarie had built for them.

Post European settlement, Paddington has generally not been a suburb with a dense Indigenous population. In the 1930s, when parts of Sydney such as Redfern and Glebe became hubs for Aboriginal people entering the labour force, Paddington continued to be a suburb mostly inhabited by European working-class people.

European settlement

In 1788 the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Harbour and established a settlement in Sydney Cove. Three kilometres to the east lay the land that would become Paddington. With a high sandstone ridge, eroded by streams leading to a marshy rush-filled cove too shallow for ships, the area was ignored by the newcomers, except for collecting rushes for thatch.
 * 1788–1800

On a path used by local Aboriginal people, a road of some form was built by Governor Hunter to South Head as early as 1803. Governor Macquarie upgraded the road in 1811 for strategic purposes to accommodate wheeled vehicles. The road was improved by Major Druitt in 1820 to give faster access to the signal station at South Head. It was also to give access to the salubrious villas built by the colony's emerging plutocracy. The road was renamed the Old South Head Road after construction of New South Head Road along the Harbour foreshore was begun in 1831.
 * 1801–1840

The first land grant in the Paddington area, of 100 acres (40.4 hectares), was made to Robert Cooper, James Underwood, and Francis Ewen Forbes by Governor Brisbane in 1823, allowing them to commence work on the Sydney distillery at the eastern end of Glenmore Road. A mill was located at the end of Gordon Street and run by the Gordon family grinding wheat from the early 1830s. It remained a prominent feature of the local landscape as houses were built, and as wind power was replaced by steam.

Cooper built his mansion, Juniper Hall, on the South Head Road ridge while Underwood built his house on Glenmore Road, between today's Soudan Lane and the former distillery. The suburb's name came about when in October 1839 James Underwood subdivided 50 of his 97 acres. He called his subdivision the Paddington Estate after the London Borough of that name. It extended from Oxford Street down to present day Paddington Street.

1841–1900 After the commencement in 1841 of Victoria Barracks the village of Paddington soon emerged, much of it around the cottages of the many artisans –stonemasons, quarrymen, carpenters and labourers – who were working on the construction of the Barracks. What emerged was a clear class distinction; the working-class located largely on or near the South Head Road and the emerging gentry living in villas facing the harbour in 'Rushcutters Valley'.

Rapid growth followed, with large estates being subdivided for speculative terrace style housing. In 1862 there were 535 houses with 2,800 residents. By 1883 the number of houses increased to 2,347. In 1871 Paddington's population density was 10.2 people per acre. By 1891 it had jumped 44.1.

In the first decade of the twentieth century Paddington was in its prime, with the population reaching 26,000 living in 4,800 houses. General health improved with the area being sewered.
 * 1901–2000

The World War I left a legacy of social problems, tensions and alcohol abuse. Paddington suffered death rates of 5 per 1000 residents in the influenza epidemic of 1919. Developers were disparaging about densely populated areas like Paddington, describing them as unhealthy, and promoting sanitised garden suburbs such as Haberfield. In Paddington the unskilled, those with a trade and those renting were hit hard during the Depression, with 30% unemployment. The post-war County of Cumberland planning scheme for metropolitan Sydney slated Paddington as a slum ripe for total redevelopment. A 1947 map titled 'Paddington Replanning' proposed demolition of virtually all existing housing to be replaced by blocks of flats. However, with the newly arrived migrants from Europe finding Paddington affordable and a convenient place to live, slum clearance faded from the political agenda. In the 1960s, a middle class 'Bohemian' invasion began and Paddington became very 'multi-cultural'.

From 1960 many professional people, many who may have returned from living abroad, recognised Paddington's potential, particularly the suburb's close proximity to the CBD. With the restoration of often derelict houses there developed a new awareness and interest in the historical and aesthetic qualities of the area. In 1968 in a complete reversal of planning and housing orthodoxy at the time, four hundred acres of terrace housing was rezoned as the first conservation area in Australia. The resident action group, the Paddington Society, founded in 1964, was a catalyst in this development.

"Heritage Conservation Status of Paddington

Paddington is a rare and largely intact example of an early Victorian residential suburb. Its unique qualities may be attributed to its close proximity to the city, the topography of its harbour location, the process of development and subdivision of early land grants, and the short period in the late 19thC in which it was largely built out.

The distinctly Australian 'terrace' evolved from earlier Georgian and Regency models to form an exceptionally cohesive dormitory suburb. The heritage conservation status of Paddington, its streets and houses, its rooms and details is recognised as being of National and State significance.

With this conservation status comes an obligation for all generations to look after the place, in all its detail, so as to retain its cultural and heritage significance for future generations. We are but custodians of our heritage. Source: The Paddington Society"

The aforementioned preservation of prominent Victorian architecture has drawn comparisons to London. In 1996, one travel journalist visiting Sydney for The New York Times noted, "in a city often said to look Californian–indeed, the 1920s California bungalow is a common type of suburban home–Paddington, also known as Paddo, more closely resembles parts of London, particularly given the predominance of the London terrace".

Commercial areas
Commercial activity in Paddington is diverse and can be divided into a number of precincts:

Oxford Street
Oxford Street is a one kilometre long shopping strip extending unbroken the length of Paddington, at least on the north side of the street. While there is a range of speciality shops and cafes, it is the plethora of clothing boutiques that has put Oxford Street on the tourist map. Bookstores and cinema are located at the Darlinghurst end, while pop-up shops and personal services, hair, nails and massage, are becoming more prevalent closer to Woollahra. With AM and PM bus lanes in operation on week days along Oxford Street, lack of parking is an issue for retailers, as are the high rents. Since around 2000, low-rise retail/office developments, such on the former site of the Royal Hospital for Women, have complemented the 19th century scale of Oxford Street, unlike the bulky multi-storey Telstra overseas communications building that opened in 1960.

Paddington Markets
The Paddington Markets has been held every Saturday in the grounds of the heritage-listed Paddington Uniting Church on Oxford Street since 1973. The market was established to persuade local craftspeople, designers of fashion, artists and jewellery makers to display and sell their wares.

William Street
William Street off Oxford Street, is where an eclectic bunch of designers and traders sell their wares from the tiny shops and terrace houses. The William Street Festival has been held every September since 2009.

Five Ways
Five Ways is an intersection with a village atmosphere located in the northern, harbour facing part of Paddington. As well as providing for the day-to-day needs for residents, Five Ways offers a wide range of eateries with al fresco dining.

Back streets
In the leafy back streets the numerous hotels are matched by the proliferation of galleries, interior design, antique dealers and restaurants. Despite the advent of shopping malls at Bondi Junction and Edgecliff, corner shops can still be found in many streets including: Albion, Boundary, Cascade, Elizabeth, Flinders, Gordon, Hargrave, Hopetoun, McDonald, Sutherland, Regent and Underwood Streets.

Tram
As part of Sydney's tramway network, two tram lines ran through Paddington, one along Oxford Street, the other through Five Ways. The Oxford Street line opened in 1884 as a steam tramway to Bondi. Electric services commenced on the same line in 1902. Both lines closed in 1960.

Bus
Paddington is serviced by Transdev John Holland and Transit Systems buses, either along Oxford Street or through Five Ways. Oxford Street services:
 * 333 Circular Quay to North Bondi
 * 352 Bondi Junction station to Marrickville Metro via Surry Hills and Newtown
 * 440 Bondi Junction station to Rozelle

Five Ways services:
 * 389 Bondi Junction station to Pyrmont

Bus services are also on New South Head Road between the city, Woolloomooloo, Kings Cross, Rushcutters Bay, Double Bay, Rose Bay, Vaucluse and Watsons Bay.

Rail
Paddington's closest railway station is Edgecliff, an underground railway station on the Eastern Suburbs line of the Sydney Trains network.

Paddington Town Hall
Sir Henry Parkes laid the foundation stone for the Paddington Town Hall in 1890 when Paddington was a separate municipality. It opened in 1891 and remains a distinctive example of Victorian architecture in Sydney. The clock tower is 32 metres high and being on the ridge of Oxford Street, dominates the skyline.

Whilst the eastern, southern, and western faces of the clock display the conventional Roman clock-face numerals, the Roman numerals on the northern (Oxford Street) side of the clock have been replaced as follows: 1:D, 2:U, 3:S, 4:T, 5:H, 6:E, 7:VII, 8:E, 9:D, 10:V, 11:A, 12:R. This was done to celebrate the coronation of King Edward VII; and, commencing at where the VIII ought to be, the northern clock-face reads E.D.V.A.R.D.U.S T.H.E VII.

"The clock was officially set in motion on Wednesday, 30 August 1905, by Mr. J.H. Carruthers, the Premier of New South Wales, who mentioned in passing that 'he thought that the day on which peace had been declared between Russia and Japan was a fitting time to set it in motion' and that 'he hoped there would be peace and goodwill on earth as long as the clock continued to go'."

The building now houses radio studios, a cinema, Paddington Library, and is a venue for private functions. Paddington Town Hall was the site of a meeting of Rugby League players in 1908, at which the Eastern Suburbs Rugby League club, now the Sydney Roosters, was officially formed.

Victoria Barracks

Victoria Barracks, constructed between 1841 and 1849, is one of the best-known examples of military architecture in Australia. The sandstone buildings were designed by Lieutenant-Colonel George Barney, who also built Fort Denison and reconstructed Circular Quay. Victoria Barracks, including the museum, is open to visitors on Thursdays from 10:00 a.m. to 1.00 p.m.

Sydney Cricket Ground

The Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) can be accessed from Moore Park Road on Paddington's southern border. The first test match to be played at the SCG was in February 1882. The SCG is the home ground of the Sydney Swans Australian Rules Football club. Public tours are available every day except Sundays.

Sydney Football Stadium
The Sydney Football Stadium (SFS or Allianz Stadium) is on Moore Park Road on Paddington's southern border. It is the home ground of the Sydney Roosters, NSW Waratahs and Sydney FC, and can be seen best from the top of Oatley Road, just outside the Paddington Town Hall. The original stadium was demolished in 2019 and a replacvement is under reconstruction, to be opened in September 2022.

Juniper Hall

Juniper Hall was built by Robert Cooper, an ex-convict, in the 1820s and is the oldest house in Paddington. It is a large, dominating structure located diagonally opposite the Paddington Town Hall. It underwent significant restoration when owned by the National Trust of Australia. In 2013 the building was sold to the Moran family for the Moran Arts Foundation for exhibitions and events.

Oxford Street
Oxford Street was originally used as an Aboriginal walking track, then as a faster route to South Head. Trams once ran along Oxford Street to Bondi and other beaches. Once serving the needs of the local residents, the street has changed to now serve the many visitors to Paddington who come to promenade and window shop.

Paddington Reservoir

The Paddington Reservoir in Oxford Street provided water to parts of Sydney between 1866 and 1899. In 2006 the remnants of the reservoir's vaulted construction were preserved with a sunken garden known as the Paddington Reservoir Gardens or Walter Read Reserve.

Trumper Park Oval
Trumper Park Oval, located at the corner of Glenmore Road & Hampden Street, is named in honour of Victor Trumper, a famous Australian test cricketer. The oval has a long history with the Australian Football East Sydney club, as well as with cricket and local athletics. A series of walking trails through a dense bushland gully connect to surrounding streets and lead to the Paddington Bowling Club and Trumper Park Tennis Centre.

White City Tennis Centre
The White City Tennis Centre has been a big part of Australian Tennis since its opening in 1922. The venue has played host to many events including the New South Wales Open, the Australian Open and the Davis Cup. In 1954 a crowd of 25,000 watched the Davis Cup final, a record that still stands for any outdoor Davis Cup match played in Australia.

Heritage listings
Paddington has a number of heritage-listed sites, including the following sites listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register:
 * 1 Ormond Street: Juniper Hall, Paddington
 * 56a Ormond Street: Engehurst
 * 246 Oxford Street: Paddington Post Office
 * 1 Young Street: Paddington Substation
 * 249 Oxford Street: Paddington Town Hall
 * 255a Oxford Street: Paddington Reservoir
 * 302–304 South Dowling Street: Saint Sophia's Cathedral, Sydney

The following sites are listed on other heritage registers:
 * Victoria Barracks, 1841–1848, Oxford Street
 * Paddington Court House, Jersey Road
 * Paddington Public School, 1870 and 1892 buildings, Oxford Street
 * Uniting Church and Parsonage, 1877, Oxford Street
 * St Matthias Church Group, 1859–1861, Oxford Street
 * St Matthias Former Rectory, 1873, 495 Oxford Street
 * St Matthias Church Hall, 1882, Oxford Street
 * Royal Hotel, 1885, Glenmore Road
 * Tabor Cottage, Jersey Road (formerly Paddington Watch House)

Places of worship
Places of worship in Paddington include:

 * Paddington Church of Christ, Paddington Street
 * Paddington Uniting Church, Oxford Street
 * St Francis of Assisi Catholic Church, Oxford Street
 * St Georges Anglican Church, Five Ways
 * St Matthias Anglican Church, Oxford Street
 * St Sophia's Greek Orthodox Cathedral, Cnr of South Dowling Street and Napier Street

Education
Preschool;
 * KU Peter Pan Paddington Preschool, Union Street
 * KU Kira Child Care Centre, Cnr Moore Park Road and Oatley Road
 * Paddington Church of Christ Kindergarten, Paddington Street
 * Paddington Children's Centre, Paddington Uniting Church, Oxford Street
 * SDN Paddington, Heeley Street

Primary;
 * Glenmore Road Public School, Glenmore Road and Cambridge Street
 * Paddington Public School, Oxford Street
 * St Francis of Assisi School, Oxford Street
 * Sydney Grammar School (Edgecliff Preparatory School), Alma Street

Secondary;
 * Nil. Sydney Technical High School, opened in Albion Street in 1925 was relocated to Bexley in 1956.

Tertiary;
 * UNSW Art & Design, Napier Street
 * Academy of Makeup, Victoria Street

Community and recreation
Community Groups
 * Paddington-Darlinghurst Community Working Group
 * The Paddington Society, a community action group
 * Paddington Woollahra RSL Club, 220–232 Oxford Street
 * Paddington Woollahra Youth Service (1975–1990)

Sport
 * Maccabi Tennis White City, Alma Street
 * Paddington Lawn Bowls Club, Quarry Road
 * The Palms Tennis Centre, Quarry Road
 * UTS Australian Football Club play home games at Trumper Park Oval

Libraries
 * Paddington Library, a sub branch of Woollahra Library, is located at 249 Oxford Street, on the ground floor of Paddington Town Hall

Cinemas
 * Chauvel Cinema, Oatley Road next to Paddington Town Hall (named after filmmaker Charles Chauvel)
 * Palace Verona Cinema, 17 Oxford Street

Art galleries
Numerous private art galleries are a feature of Paddington. They include:

 * Art House Gallery, 66 Mclachlan Avenue.
 * Australian Galleries, 15 Roylston Street.
 * Blender Gallery, 16 Elizabeth Street.
 * Christopher Day Galleries, Cnr Elizabeth & Windsor Streets.
 * Martin Browne Contemporary, 15 Hampton Street.
 * Maunsell Wickes at Barry Stern Galleries, Glenmore Road.
 * Moran Arts Foundation, Juniper Hall 250 Oxford Street.
 * Roslyn Oxley 9 Gallery, 8 Soudan Lane.
 * Sabbia Gallery, 120 Glenmore Road.
 * Savill Galleries, 156 Hargrave Street.
 * Sherman Contemporary Art Foundation, 16 Goodhope Street.
 * Wagner Art Gallery, 39 Gurner Street.

Non private galleries:

 * Australian Centre for Photography, 257 Oxford Street (since moved to 72 Oxford Street, Darlinghurst).
 * Galleries UNSW, COFA, corner of Oxford Street and Greens Road.
 * Kudos Gallery, 6 Napier Street.

Hotels
Paddington has a notoriously high number of hotels (only a few offer accommodation)

 * Arts Hotel, 21 Oxford Street
 * Bellevue Hotel, 159 Hargrave Street
 * Captain Cook Hotel, 162 Flinders Street
 * Four in Hand Hotel, 105 Sutherland Street
 * Grand National, 161 Underwood Street
 * Imperial Hotel, 252 Oxford Street
 * London Hotel, 85 Underwood Street
 * Lord Dudley, 236 Jersey Road
 * Olympic Hotel, 308 Moore Park Road
 * Paddington Arms Hotel 384 Oxford Stree
 * Paddington Inn Hotel, 338 Oxford Street.
 * Rose, Shamrock and Thistle, 27–30 Oxford Street
 * Royal Hotel, 237 Glenmore Road, Five Ways
 * The Light Brigade Hotel, 2A Oxford Street (Woollahra)
 * The Village Inn, 9–11 Glenmore Road
 * Unicorn Hotel, 106 Oxford Street

Hospitals and aged care

Royal Hospital for Women (RHW) The Benevolent Society of NSW officially opened the Royal Hospital for Women in Glenmore Road on 3 May 1905. The hospital remained at the site for almost 100 years, providing health care for thousands of women and their babies. In 1997 the hospital moved to Randwick, and the Paddington site was sold and developed for housing, known as Paddington Green.

Scottish Hospital The Scottish Hospital in Cooper Street includes the gardens and original house 'The Terraces', one of the ten Gentry Villa subdivisions granted by Governor Bourke in the 1830s. In 2010 Presbyterian Aged Care NSW & ACT (PAC) advanced plans for the rejuvenation and expansion of aged care services available from the Scottish Hospital Site, Paddington.

Pre-1945
The 'Victorian' suburb of Paddington grew into its present form largely during a 30-year boom that began in the mid-1870s, particularly with developments in public transport, initially with horse-drawn buses which travelled to the city and back from a terminus at Glenmore Road, and then with the introduction of steam trams, going through to Bondi in 1884.

While the suburb's growth slowed during the economic depression of the 1890s, it was completed within the first decade of the twentieth century. Also during the first half of the twentieth century, and reflecting a concern with healthy urban living, terraced housing in Australia fell into disfavour, and the inner-city areas came to be considered 'slums'. Paddington, a mainly working-class area, was affected by this change in attitude.

1945–2000
After World War II, while Paddington still remained home to the many working-class families who had lived there for generations, it also became home to migrant workers and their families, who were used to living in close proximity with their neighbours. These residents were joined from the early 1960s by artists and students, attracted by the cheap rents.

Gentrification also began in that decade, speeding up in the following years. With it came an interest in the unique historical and aesthetic qualities of the area, and an awareness that the suburb needed to be protected.

Demographics
At the 2021 census, there were 12,701 people living in Paddington.

Paddington continues to maintain its high-wealth status, reflecting its attractive location and vibrant local culture. The suburb's median weekly household income remains considerably higher than the national average, sitting at $2,792.

Despite this, the area maintains a high degree of cultural diversity, with residents from various backgrounds including England (8.0%), New Zealand (3.5%), the US (2.1%), South Africa (1.2%), and France (0.9%).

The majority of the population, 78.1%, speak only English at home, while other languages such as French, Spanish, Italian, and Greek are also spoken.

Housing primarily consists of semi-detached, row or terrace houses, or townhouses, making up 65.1% of the residences, and apartments constitute 32.3%.

The real estate market remains robust with a median house price of $2,215,000, showcasing the desirability of the suburb. The high level of education is also noteworthy, with 41.8% of the residents holding a Bachelor's degree or higher, underscoring Paddington's status as a hub for highly educated professionals.

Notable residents

 * Phillip Adams, broadcaster
 * Andrew Andersons, architect
 * Chris Bosse, architect
 * David Boyd, artist
 * Ita Buttrose, journalist and TV personality
 * Hugh Connell, politician
 * Noel Ferrier, actor
 * Marea Gazzard, sculptor and ceramicist
 * Peggy Glanville-Hicks, composer
 * Alan Kippax, cricketer
 * Jeanie Little, TV personality
 * George Metcalfe, educationalist
 * Margaret Olley, artist
 * Jesse Baird, TV personality and goal umpire
 * Jeff Orford, rugby league player
 * Gordon Parsons, singer, songwriter
 * Brian Staunton, rugby league player
 * Pat Sullivan, film producer
 * Victor Trumper, cricketer
 * David Warner, cricketer
 * Jacki Weaver, actress

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Emmet Stagg

Emmet Stagg (1 October 1944 – 17 March 2024) was an Irish Labour Party politician who served as Labour Party Chief Whip from 2007 to 2016, and as a Minister of State from January 1993 to November 1994 and from December 1994 to June 1997. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1987 to 2016.

Early life
Stagg was born at Hollymount, County Mayo, and was one of thirteen siblings raised by parents, including his brother Frank Stagg. Stagg described his childhood in Mayo as being gripped by poverty and by the rule of the Catholic Church. He was educated at Ballinrobe CBS school and Kevin Street College of Technology. He worked as a medical technologist at Trinity College Dublin before entering full-time politics.

Political career
Stagg was elected in 1979 to represent the Celbridge area on Kildare County Council for the Labour Party, serving until 1993. He was elected again in 1999, serving until 2003. Stagg was first elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1987 general election for the Kildare constituency. He then served as Labour front bench spokesperson in various portfolios, including Agriculture (1987–1989) and Social Welfare (1989–1992).

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Stagg was a prominent figure within the internal politics of the Labour Party, being viewed along with Michael D. Higgins and Joe Higgins as one of the leaders of the left-wing faction within the party opposed to coalition with Fine Gael, and as a prominent opponent of the then party leader Dick Spring. He opposed the expulsion of Joe Higgins and Militant Tendency at the 1989 conference, and in the early 1990s he considered leaving the party and joining the newly formed Democratic Left, though he ultimately chose to stay with the party. In January 1993, in the Fianna Fáil–Labour Party coalition government formed after the 1992 general election, he was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of the Environment, with special responsibility for Housing and Urban Renewal. Labour left this government in November 1994. In December 1994, in the Rainbow coalition government, Stagg was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of Transport, Energy and Communications, serving until June 1997.

Stagg lost his seat at the 2016 general election, having served as a TD for 29 consecutive years.

Stagg was the Labour Party candidate for Kildare North at the 2020 general election. At age 75, he was the oldest candidate in the entire general election, but was not elected.

Phoenix Park scandal
In 1994, while Minister of State, Stagg became the subject of a major press scandal after gardaí had found him the previous November loitering in an area of Dublin's Phoenix Park used by male prostitutes. He was questioned by the gardaí but no charges were filed against him. According to The Independent, public anger was largely focused on the member of the gardaí who leaked details to the media despite no crime being committed.

Personal life and death
Emmet Stagg's brother Frank Stagg was a Provisional Irish Republican Army member, who died in a British prison in 1976 while on hunger strike. Emmett and his brothers quarrelled over whether Frank should be buried with his family, or in a dedicated "Republican" plot. The resulting dispute, into which the Irish government directly intervened, escalated into mayhem that resulted in the body of Frank Stagg being buried three separate times.

Stagg died on 17 March 2024, at the age of 79.

title: Emmet Stagg


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User:Munster

Arrived December 2005, still figuring things out. I sometimes forget to log in when editing pages... sorry if that seems irresponsible.(I show as 219.97.139.15 when wasting time on my office PC)

Trying to fill out all the dead links relating to Japanese politics.

Let me know if something seems too POV...

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Seán Ryan (Irish politician)

Seán Ryan (born 27 January 1943) is an Irish former Labour Party politician. He was a Teachta Dála (TD) for Dublin North from 1989 to 1997 and 1998 to 2007.

Ryan was born in Dublin and educated at North Strand Vocational School, the College of Technology, Bolton Street, the College of Industrial Relations, and the School of Management, Rathmines College of Commerce. Ryan was formerly Production Controller and Work Study Supervisor with CIÉ and Iarnród Éireann before entering into full-time politics.

In 1985 he was elected to Fingal County Council. Ryan was first elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1989 general election, serving until the 1997 general election when he lost his seat. He was subsequently elected to Seanad Éireann, but was re-elected to the 28th Dáil at the Dublin North by-election on 11 March 1998, following the resignation of Fianna Fáil TD Ray Burke. The by-election for his Seanad seat was won by Fianna Fáil's John Cregan.

Ryan was re-elected to the Dáil at the 2002 election and was the Labour Party Spokesperson on Older People's Issues from 2002 to 2007.

In 2005 he stated that he did not intend to stand at the following general election. His brother Brendan Ryan was selected to stand as the Labour Party candidate in Dublin North for the next election, but was not elected.

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Paddington (disambiguation)

Paddington is an area of the City of Westminster, London.

Paddington may also refer to:

Places

 * Metropolitan Borough of Paddington, a historic sub-division of the County of London
 * London Paddington station, a major railway station in London
 * Paddington tube station (Circle and Hammersmith & City lines), a London Underground station serving the mainline station
 * Paddington tube station (Bakerloo, Circle and District lines), a London Underground station serving the mainline station
 * Paddington Bridge or Bishop's Bridge, a road bridge in London
 * Paddington, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney, Australia
 * Electoral district of Paddington (New South Wales)
 * Paddington, Queensland, a suburb of Brisbane, Australia
 * Electoral district of Paddington (Queensland)
 * Paddington, Western Australia, an abandoned Goldfields town, now called Gudarra
 * Souk-el-Khemis Airfield, an abandoned airfield in Tunisia known by the codename "Paddington"
 * Paddington, Cheshire, a settlement now part of the civil parish of Woolston within the township of Warrington

Arts and entertainment

 * Paddington Bear, a fictional character in children's literature
 * Paddington (TV series), the first TV series to feature Paddington Bear
 * Paddington Bear (TV series), a 1989 TV series
 * The Adventures of Paddington Bear, a 1997 TV series
 * The Adventures of Paddington (2019 TV series)
 * Paddington (film series)
 * Paddington (film), a 2014 film based on the fictional character Paddington Bear
 * Paddington 2, the 2017 sequel

People

 * Bert Paddington (1881–1932), English footballer with Southampton and Brighton & Hove Albion
 * Paddington Mhondoro (1986–2015), Zimbabwean cricketer

Other uses

 * Paddington Gold Mine, a gold mine in Western Australia
 * Paddington (horse), Thoroughbred racehorse

title: Paddington (disambiguation)