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Pay toilet

A pay toilet is a public toilet that requires the user to pay. It may be street furniture or be inside a building, e.g. a shopping mall, department store, or railway station. The reason for charging money is usually for the maintenance of the equipment. Paying to use a toilet can be traced back almost 2000 years, to the first century BCE. The charge is often collected by an attendant or by inserting coins into an automatic turnstile; in some freestanding toilets in the street, the fee is inserted into a slot by the door. Mechanical coin operated locks are also used. Some more high tech toilets accept card or contactless payments. Sometimes, a token can be used to enter a pay toilet without paying the charge. Some municipalities offer these tokens to residents with disabilities so these groups aren't discriminated against by the pay toilet. Some establishments such as cafés and restaurants offer tokens to their customers so they can use the toilets for free but other users must pay the relevant charge.

Europe
Pay toilets are especially common in Continental Europe. The Paris Métro operates coin-operated toilets in its underground stations; and even non-mechanized toilets occasionally have attendants who accept tips.

In Germany, many lavatories at service stations on the Autobahn have pay toilets with turnstiles, though as in France, customers typically receive a voucher equal to the toilet fee. Elsewhere, while public toilets may not have a set fee, it is customary to provide change to restroom attendants for their services. Some service stations offer a voucher equal in value to the amount paid for use of a toilet, redeemable for other goods at that station or others in the same chain.

In Eastern Europe, particularly in the former USSR, pay toilets are usually non-automatic and are like usual public toilets except that they have an attendant at the entrance to collect the money from visitors.

In the United Kingdom, pay toilets tend to be common at bus and railway stations, but most public toilets are free to use. Technically, any toilets provided by local government may be subject to a charge by the provider. Pay toilets on the streets may provide men's urinals free of charge to prevent public urination. For example, in London, a few public conveniences are appearing in the form of pop-up toilets. During the daytime, these toilets are hidden beneath the streets, and only appear in the evening. The British English euphemism "to spend a penny" for "to urinate" derives from the use of a pre-decimal penny coin for pay toilet locks.

Latin and South America
In Argentina, pay toilets are not common. Toilets placed in public places are typically free to use but the attendant is seated outside with a dish by his side expecting a tip from the user, often with a sign saying "Su propina es nuestro sueldo" (your tip is our salary). It is customary to give a coin or a $2 bill, especially if the toilets requiring paper are used.

In Mexico, the majority of pay toilets have turnstiles and an attendant at the entrance. The attendant gives out toilet paper and sometimes a paper towel.

Asia
In India, Sulabh International is the major operator of pay toilets (sulabh shauchalaya). These are provided with an attendant, and the fee is 2 rupees. They provide toilet as well as bathroom facilities. They are situated in public places like bus stations and major markets, but several sulabh shauchalayas also act as community toilets in areas with poor sanitation facilities.

In Singapore, pay toilets are still common in "Hawker Centers"; the use of the toilet usually costs 10-20 cents. The fee is usually paid to an attendant behind a counter; however, certain hawker centres have a turnstile into which the coin is inserted. Sometimes toilet paper is also charged for, and given out at the entrance usually by the attendant, though most of the time there is a toilet paper holder in the cubicle (stall) itself.

In some areas of Taiwan, mostly in subways, one must pay for the toilet paper, but the toilet itself is free.

In Turkey pay toilets are common at bus stations and underground cities (but not single-building shopping malls), where a charge of between 5 lira and 10 lira is levied at a turnstile for entrance to the bathroom.

U.S.
In the United States, pay toilets became much less common from the 1970s, when they came under attack from feminists as well as from the plumbing industry. California legislator March Fong Eu argued that they discriminated against females because men and boys could use urinals for free whereas women and girls always had to pay a dime for a toilet "stall" (i.e. cubicle) in places where payment was mandatory. The American Restroom Association was a proponent of an amendment to the National Model Building Code to allow pay toilets only where there were also free toilets. A campaign by the Committee to End Pay Toilets in America (CEPTIA) resulted in laws prohibiting pay toilets in some cities and states. In 1973, Chicago became the first American city to enact a ban, at a time when, according to The Wall Street Journal, there were at least 50,000 units in America, mostly made by the Nik-O-Lok Company. CEPTIA was successful over the next few years in obtaining bans in New York, New Jersey, Minnesota, California, Florida and Ohio. Lobbying was successful in other states as well, and by the end of the decade, pay toilets were greatly reduced in America. However, they are still in use and produced by the Nik-O-Lok company; many of these laws have since been repealed, such as in Ohio. In 2007, legislators rescinded ORC Ordinance 4101:1-29-02.6.2, the ban on pay facilities, paving the way for operators to charge for public restroom use.

Africa
In Africa, pay toilets are particularly common in informal settlements lacking sewage systems. Of all countries, Ghana has the greatest reliance on public toilets. In Accra, lack of space makes private toilets unrealistic in low-income neighbourhoods. In Kumasi, it has been estimated that 36% of residents use pay toilets, and that "once-daily use of a public toilet by a family of four would cost between US$3.60 and $18 per month depending on the fee charged by the operator of the toilet they use."

History
Some of the earliest documented pay toilets were built around 74 AD in Rome. Emperor Titus Flavius Vespasianus created this method to ease the financial hardships resulting from the many wars that had been fought. This was not a popular choice with his people, and he was ridiculed for the decision, to which he reacted with the famous quote, Pecunia non olet, "Money does not stink".

The Greco-Roman city of Ephesus was important in ancient times, becoming the trade centre and commercial hub of the ancient world. The Scholastica Baths were built in the 1st century AD, and contained all of the modern amenities for hygiene, including advanced public toilets with marble seats. One had to pay to enter these luxury conveniences, where one could enjoy the use of a pool, use the toilet or socialize.

John Nevil Maskelyne, an English stage magician, invented the first modern pay toilet in the late 19th century. His door lock for London toilets required the insertion of a penny coin to operate it, hence the euphemism to "spend a penny".

The first pay toilet in the United States was installed in 1910 in Terre Haute, Indiana.

Cultural references
Whether or not public toilets should require payment is a plot point in Noël Coward's 1949 play South Sea Bubble.

Pay toilets are key to the 2001 American musical Urinetown.

In the 1977 movie Smokey and the Bandit Frog says "I have to go 10-100, could I have a dime? To which he replies, "crawl under"

In a 1979 episode of WKRP in Cincinnati, "Fish Story", Herb (dressed as a carp) tries to use a pay toilet at the University of Cincinnati without paying and is caught by a rival station's mascot.

Criticism
People in developing countries or low incomes, for instance in Accra, may choose to defecate in the open rather than pay to use toilets. Or they may limit the number of times per day that they use a pay toilet. Thus pay toilets have possibly undesirable public health consequences.

title: Pay toilet


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Talk:Khorasan wheat

"It is produced and distributed by Kamut International Ltd."
September 14, Wednesday, 2011, Someone had put "It is produced and distributed by Kamut International Ltd." in the first line of the article. This is clearly inappropriate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.220.135.20 (talk) 15:15, 14 September 2011 (UTC)

February 4, Monday, 2019 It is my understanding that the registered name "Kamut" refers to the Khorasan Wheat varietal Q-77 and that there are other varietal forms available. I would refer any interest to https://memim.com/khorasan-wheat.html Please excuse any errors in text or protocol as this is my first attempt at editing a talk page. Thorisbc (talk) 21:20, 4 February 2019 (UTC)

Poor Information
I came here because I saw a reference to Kamut pasta, googled it, and got pointed here. This is nothing more than an ad. Why is it on Wikipedia? It'a precisely the sort of thing that makes a mockery of the wikipedia concept.

Cooking Time
I have cooked kamut hundreds of times, and it doesn't require hours of simmering. It requires about an hour here in Denver, and probably less in lower altitudes. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 71.196.211.74 (talk) 04:41, 7 December 2006 (UTC).

Tree of Life
This page should incorporate a Cultivar infobox, as per the Tree of Life Project. I feel obliged to do so, given that this particular cultivar is grown in my hometown... ~ Ross (ElCharismo) 06:04, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and carefull attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 18:17, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Egyptian origin
I don't have an opinion on kamut's origin, and am not sure what the evidence is, however this statement in the text is a miscarriage of logic: "However, this cannot be the case, as ancient Egyptians grew only emmer wheat,"

If the only wheat we have evidence of ancient Egyptians growing is emmer wheat, this does not by any means prove that they did not also grow (perhaps rather less commonly, leaving less evidence) other wheats. You can state the the lack of evidence for other wheats casts doubt on the tomb idea, however you cannot claim a "cannot". I'm going to revise the text accordingly.--Ericjs (talk) 20:07, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Good catch. Your new wording is better. -kotra (talk) 21:20, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

trying to delete adcopy stuff
Did my best, but still kinda reads like an ad. There are many websites that mention Kamut, but they are all regurgitations from the Kamut Association of North America (KANA) sales lit. As such, since there is apparently only one source of info and I could not find 3rd party (outside of the USDA certification) verification, I think it should be deleted and replaced with a redir to the wheat article. Jerry guru (talk) 04:40, 8 January 2010 (UTC)
 * It's unfortunately a little adverty but I do think there's enough scholarly articles in the references and external links to say it's notable. It's most definitely a likely search term and the information provided in the article is useful if not entirely from a neutral POV. Redirecting to the wheat article would lose this information (too general for someone looking for what Kamut is). However, as Kamut is essentially a trademarked cultivar of Khorasan wheat, the article could be rewritten from the Khorasan wheat perspective (perhaps we can find more sources using that term) with a small section on the Kamut commercial product.--137.122.49.102 (talk) 17:53, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

I agree, I just found this page trying to find out what it was and looked at the talk as the page was v. adverty. Valuable page, could do with more neutral writing 212.219.242.194 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 15:13, 1 September 2010 (UTC).

Is this article about the company, or about the brand of wheat? The Interior (Talk) 00:51, 29 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree, this article reads like an ad. The first thing that should be done is to move it to "Khorasan wheat" and stick the Kamut trademark somewhere low down in the text; otherwise the "rich and nutty" etc. just looks like a Wikipedia-sponsored "Buy KAMUT!" page. Languagehat (talk) 22:04, 17 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes that seems best, will do this now. Justinc (talk) 09:51, 9 May 2011 (UTC)
 * OK, first attempt at kicking the article into shape. Justinc (talk) 10:13, 9 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Having read a mention of kamut on a recipe page, and never having heard of it, I naturally turned ot Wikipedia. The page as it now is is useful, and didn't read (to me) like ad copy. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 134.225.2.22 (talk) 13:49, 28 May 2012 (UTC)

Needs rewrite, Original Research as well as Ad style Writing
Considering that there are no citations for it's health claims, and that it says that it provides more "healthy" energy because of Complex Carbohydrates (according to the much better Carbohydrate article, studies indicate no difference in the "healthiness" or length of time energy can be provided by Simple vs Complex Carbs), the Health section should be ignored when reading, it's likely incorrect or exaggerated. This article really needs a rewrite, with some sources independent of the producer of Kamut grain. LiamSP (talk) 12:41, 17 February 2011 (UTC)

Delete Vote
I would vote for deletion and rewrite based on non-commercial sources. At most this article should state that it is a trademarked name for a wheat variety. This is pretty sad. 75.72.127.125 (talk) 23:28, 19 March 2011 (UTC)

I think you can find kamut almost anywhere in north america. It's a specialty but it's very well established, definitely notable. I see more kamut in stores than millet at this point. 67.193.252.166 (talk) 15:09, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

Wrong link
This page linked to the wrong page on Russian Wikipedia. Can you change that? It is linked to the article about Spelt, not Khorasan wheat. 76.102.94.129 (talk) 19:23, 14 August 2012 (UTC)Luba

Info that needs sources
– Temporal User (Talk) 07:59, 24 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Some people who have wheat allergy, and thus avoid wheat, are able to eat some forms of khorasan wheat.

the problem is the Kamut brand appears to be the sole distributor
I don't think there's any way around this, Kamut is basically the sole provider of this grain commercially. I think trying to avoid sources that mention it or 'promote' it just isn't practical, but as long as those sources are backed up by another research source, they are probably ok.HammerFilmFan (talk) 23:22, 6 March 2013 (UTC)

Extended and changed article about Khorasan wheat
November 20, Wednesday, 2013:

We are two students attending a course about "alternative crops". One of the aims of the course is to create/extend/change a Wikipedia-article about a chosen alternative crop in groups. Me and my colleague have chosen Khorasan wheat. Therefore we did some research to find more information about the nutritional and especially the agronomic aspects of the crop (the latter was quite a challenge, because of lacking literature on that). In the end our goal is to have the whole article more complete. A first part (the agronomic one) is now already uploaded. We'd like to here your feedback about it. Please just tell if something is still missing or any added information is false or just inappropriate. Thanks a lot.

November 21, Thursday, 2013:

I am going to upload a new version of the systematic, the history, the yield, the distribution and the nutritional aspects. This version includes what was already on the page. In order to have a more inclusive article, it has been included in the different new sections. Please let us know if you have some comments or remarks!
 * Some comments: About talk-page contributions: we add these at the end, and there should be a "new section" tab that you can click to do that easily. If you type four tildes at the end of your comments on the talk page, a signature and date will be inserted that's quite helpful for others reading the material (one doesn't sign changes on the page itself, of course).
 * About the changes to the page: I haven't looked at it very much yet. The taxonomy section is now hard to understand. One problem is the use of a species name and a subspecies name interchangeably, which is real biology, not something to expunge from the page (see the first paragraph of Durum, for an example of how that is made clear). There needs to be a citation for the tetraploid statement (whether it is a species or subspecies is not necessary in that statement, you can just say that it is tetraploid).
 * "The taxonomic classification of Khorasan wheat has long been controversial. The correct subspecies has been disputed" That's not (usually) how biologists work. Rather, subsequent work refines earlier work, and biologists can decide for themselves whether it is best to consider this type of wheat as a subspecies or a full species, it is just a slight difference of opinion. It is therefore not reasonable to say that controversy exists and pit a 1959 article against one from 2012. Sminthopsis84 (talk) 17:41, 22 November 2013 (UTC)

 * The "aspects of breeding" section has problems. The polyploid wheat species originated spontaneously (probably in cultivation) thousands of years ago. (Bread wheat is a polyploid derivative of durum wheat and a goat grass. As such it contains only a portion of the genetic variability of the parent species, and "synthetic wheats" have been produced by inducing polyploidy in modern crosses with a view to introducing useful traits into the bread wheat gene pool. If I recall correctly, this is not possible for durum wheats, as one of the parents is extinct, so introducing traits from other species into durum wheats requires more time consuming techniques such as repeated backcrossing.) Lavateraguy (talk) 23:08, 6 December 2013 (UTC)

German not in the Languages sidebar
The top section says it can be fixed by translations from http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorasan-Weizen which doesn't appear in the Languages sidebar, and when I tried to add it there, I got an error about it already being on http://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15646801. I'm lost, could someone who knows how fix this? --71.204.167.229 (talk) 17:40, 10 December 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified one external link on Khorasan wheat. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131115112629/http://grainplacefoods.com/products-and-services/whole-grains-and-seeds/kamut/ to http://grainplacefoods.com/products-and-services/whole-grains-and-seeds/kamut/

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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 11:41, 5 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Archive link is ok but the source is a commercial site, spam, so I will remove it. --Zefr (talk) 15:42, 5 May 2017 (UTC)

Brand vs. common name
This revert of the brand name is justified because there is no evidence that "kamut" is always used in science as a registered name (brand), but rather is a common name not needing to be capitalized or shown with the registration mark, Kamut®. As for many plant foods, it is reasonable to identify common names in the article, but brand names are commercially-motivated, and so are WP:PROMO. Also see MOS:TMRULES which indicates a registration mark should not be used. Zefr (talk) 20:38, 10 December 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Khorasan wheat


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Vic Richardson

Victor York Richardson (7 September 1894 – 30 October 1969) was a leading Australian sportsman of the 1920s and 1930s, captaining the Australia cricket team and the South Australia Australian rules football team, representing Australia in baseball and South Australia in golf, winning the South Australian state tennis title and also being a leading local player in lacrosse, basketball and swimming.

Richardson won the South Australian National Football League's highest individual honour, the Magarey Medal, while captain-coach of Sturt in 1920.

Early life
Richardson was born in Parkside, South Australia and grew up in the Unley area. He attended Kyre (later Scotch) College. Naturally athletic, he played many sports, including gymnastics, basketball, cricket, baseball, lacrosse, and Australian Rules football. He worked in the South Australian public service.

Cricket career
Richardson is most famous for his contribution to cricket, representing Australia in 19 Test matches between 1924 and 1936, including five as captain in the 1935–36 tour of South Africa.

A talented right-handed batsman and rated the best fielder in the world, Richardson made his first-class debut for South Australia in the 1918–19 season. In a career that lasted twenty years, he played 184 matches for Australia and South Australia, scoring 10,724 runs, including 27 centuries and averaging 37.63. He took 211 catches (at an average of 1.15 catches per match) and even completed four stumpings as a stand-in wicketkeeper.

Richardson was Australian vice-captain for the 1932–33 English tour of Australia, known as the Bodyline series for England's tactics of bowling fast short-pitched deliveries at the batsmen's bodies. During the Adelaide Test, English manager Pelham Warner came to the Australian dressing seeking an apology from the player who called Harold Larwood a bastard. Richardson, who had answered the knock on the dressing room door turned to his teammates and asked "Which one of you bastards called Larwood a bastard instead of that bastard [Douglas] Jardine?"

Richardson played his final Test against South Africa at Durban on 28 February 1936, aged 41 years 178 days. Only ten Australians have played Test cricket at an older age. He took five catches in the second innings, setting a Test record that has never been beaten and was not equalled until Yajurvindra Singh took five in 1976–77.

Following his retirement from cricket, Richardson was appointed South Australian coach in September 1949, replacing Arthur Richardson (no relation).

To honour his memory and the impact he made for his state, the South Australian Cricket Association dedicated the "Victor Richardson Gates" at the Adelaide Oval and the road leading to them in his honour.

Australian rules football career
Richardson made his senior Australian rules football debut for Sturt Football Club in the South Australian National Football League in 1915 and in a career interrupted by World War I, played 114 games for Sturt, kicking 23 goals.

 * 114 games and 23 goals for Sturt 1915, 1919–1920, 1922–1924, 1926–1927
 * Captain of Sturt 1920, 1922–1924
 * Member of premiership teams for Sturt 1915, 1919 and 1926
 * 10 games for South Australia
 * State Captain 1923
 * Magarey Medal 1920
 * Best and Fairest for Sturt 1922, 1923
 * Coach of Sturt 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924

Other sports
Richardson was a gifted sportsman and excelled in other sports besides cricket and Australian rules football, including baseball (national and state representative), golf (state representative), tennis (state title winner), lacrosse, basketball and swimming.

Media career
After retiring from first-class cricket he went on to become a respected radio commentator, forging a partnership with renowned former English Test captain Arthur Gilligan.

Political aspirations
In March 1949 Richardson announced that he would seek Liberal and Country League (LCL) pre-selection for the new federal Division of Kingston, situated in Adelaide's south. At the time Richardson lived on Richmond Road, Westbourne Park, which was located in the electorate.

Family
On 29 January 1919 Victor Richardson married Vida Yvonne Knapman, daughter of hotelier Alf Knapman (1867–1918). She died on 25 September 1940; they had one son and three daughters.

He was a grandfather to three future Australian Test cricketers Ian Chappell, Greg Chappell (who both also captained Australia at Test level) and Trevor Chappell.

Awards and honours
Richardson was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) on 10 June 1954 for his services to cricket, including his presidency of the Country Carnival Cricket Association.

title: Vic Richardson


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Synagogue architecture

Synagogue architecture often follows styles in vogue at the place and time of construction. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. According to tradition, the Shekhinah or divine presence can be found wherever there is a minyan, a quorum, of ten. A synagogue always contains an Torah ark where the Torah scrolls are kept, called the aron qodesh (אָרוֹן קׄדֶש) by Ashkenazi Jews and the hekhal (היכל) by Sephardic Jews.

Synagogues are buildings for congregational worship, and thus require a large central space (as do churches and mosques). They are generally designed with the Torah ark at one end, typically opposite the main entrance, and a bimah either in front of that, or more centrally placed. Raised galleries, usually for female worshipers, have been common. Beyond these points, there is little that dictates the design. Historically, synagogues were normally built in a version of the prevailing architectural style of their time and place. Thus, the synagogue in Kaifeng, China looked very like Chinese temples of that region and era, with its outer wall and open garden in which several buildings were arranged.

Considerations

The ark may be more or less elaborate, even a cabinet not structurally integral to the building or a portable arrangement whereby a Torah is brought into a space temporarily used for worship. There must also be a table, often on a raised platform, from which the Torah is read. The table/platform, called bimah by eastern Ashkenazim, almemmar (or balemmer) by Central and Western Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim, where the Torah is read (and from where the services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues) can range from an elaborate platform integral to the building (many early modern synagogues of central Europe featured bimahs with pillars that rose to support the ceiling), to elaborate free-standing raised platforms, to simple tables. A ner tamid, a constantly lit light as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem. Many synagogues, mainly in Ashkenazi communities, feature a pulpit facing the congregation from which to address the assembled. All synagogues require an amud (Hebrew for "post" or "column"), a desk facing the Ark from which the Hazzan (reader, or prayer leader) leads the prayers.

A synagogue may or may not have artwork; synagogues range from simple, unadorned prayer rooms to elaborately decorated buildings in every architectural style.

The synagogue, or if it is a multi-purpose building, prayer sanctuaries within the synagogue, are typically designed to have their congregation face towards Jerusalem. Thus sanctuaries in the Western world generally have their congregation face east, while those east of Israel have their congregation face west. Congregations of sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem. But this orientation need not be exact, and occasionally synagogues face other directions for structural reasons, in which case the community may face Jerusalem when standing for prayers.

History
The styles of the earliest synagogues resembled the temples of other sects of the eastern Roman Empire. The synagogues of Morocco are embellished with the colored tilework characteristic of Moroccan architecture. The surviving medieval synagogues in Budapest, Prague and the German lands are typical Gothic structures.

For much of history, the constraints of antisemitism and the laws of host countries restricting the building of synagogues visible from the street, or forbidding their construction altogether, meant that synagogues were often built within existing buildings, or opening from interior courtyards. In both Europe and in the Muslim world, old synagogues with elaborate interior architecture can be found hidden within nondescript buildings.

Where the building of synagogues was permitted, they were built in the prevailing architectural style of the time and place. Many European cities had elaborate Renaissance synagogues, of which a few survive. In Italy, there were many synagogues in the style of the Italian Renaissance (see Leghorn; Padua; and Venice). With the coming of the Baroque era, Baroque synagogues appeared across Europe.

The emancipation of Jews in European countries and of Jews in Muslim countries colonized by European countries gave Jews the right to build large, elaborate synagogues visible from the public street. Synagogue architecture blossomed. Large Jewish communities wished to show not only their wealth but also their newly acquired status as citizens by constructing magnificent synagogues. Handsome nineteenth synagogues form the period of Jewish imagination stand in virtually every country where there were Jewish communities. Most were built in revival styles then in fashion, such as Neoclassical, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival. There are Egyptian Revival synagogues and even one Mayan Revival synagogue. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century heyday of historicist architecture, however, most historicist synagogues, even the most magnificent ones, did not attempt a pure style, or even any particular style, and are best described as eclectic.

Chabad Lubavitch has made a practice of designing some of its Chabad Houses and centers as replicas of or homages to the architecture of 770 Eastern Parkway.

Central Europe: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The great exceptions to the rule that synagogues are built in the prevailing style of their time and place are the Wooden synagogues in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and two forms of masonry synagogues: synagogues  with bimah-support and nine-field synagogues (the latter not totally confined to synagogues).

Wooden synagogues

The wooden synagogues were a unique Jewish artistic and architectural form. > Characteristic features include the independence of the pitched roof from the design of the interior domed ceiling. They had elaborately carved, painted, domed, balconied and vaulted interiors. The architectural interest of the exterior lay in the large scale of the buildings, the multiple, horizontal lines of the tiered roofs, and the carved corbels that supported them. Wooden synagogues featured a single, large hall. In contrast to contemporary churches, there was no apse. Moreover, while contemporary churches featured imposing vestibules, the entry porches of the wooden synagogues was a low annex, usually with a simple lean-to roof. In these synagogues, the emphasis was on constructing a single, large, high-domed worship space.

According to art historian Stephen S. Kayser, the wooden synagogues of Poland with their painted and carved interiors were "a truly original and organic manifestation of artistic expression—the only real Jewish folk art in history."

According to Louis Lozowick, writing in 1947, the wooden synagogues were unique because, unlike all previous synagogues, they were not built in the architectural style of their region and era, but in a newly evolved and uniquely Jewish style, making them "a truly original folk expression," whose "originality does not lie alone in the exterior architecture, it lies equally in the beautiful and intricate wood carving of the interior."

Moreover, while in many parts of the world Jews were proscribed from entering the building trades and even from practicing the decorative arts of painting and woodcarving, the wooden synagogues were actually built by Jewish craftsmen.

Art historian Ori Z. Soltes points out that the wooden synagogues, unusual for that period in being large, identifiably Jewish buildings not hidden in courtyards or behind walls, were built not only during a Jewish "intellectual golden age" but in a time and place where "the local Jewish population was equal to or even greater than the Christian population.

Synagogues with bimah-support

In the second half of the 16th century masonry synagogues whose interiors present an original structural solution, found in no other kind of building, were constructed in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. These were synagogue halls whose bimah was surrounded by four pillars. Placed upon a podium, connected above by arcading, in one powerful pier, the pillars constituted the bimah-support (or bimah-tower) supporting the vault, consisting of four barrels with lunettes intersecting at the corners. The bases of the vault-rips rested on the podium or were transmitted through a balustrade, solid or pierced. A small cupola covered the field above the bimah. These cupolas were occasionally significantly lowered in comparison with the remaining fields of vaulting. Thus a kind of inner chapel, built inside the bimah-tower, was created.

One of the first synagogues with a bimah-support was the Old Synagogue (Przemyśl), which was destroyed during World War II. Synagogues with a bimah-tower were built up to the 19th century and the concept was adopted in various Central European countries.

Nine-field synagogues
Around the beginning of the 1630s the first synagogues with nine-field vaulting were constructed. This design has a set of four large columns or piers placed squarely in a rectangular central space, supporting three rows of three vaults on the ceiling. They allowed for much greater halls than hitherto and were also called nine-bay synagogues. The Great Suburb Synagogue in Lviv and the synagogue in Ostroh were erected virtually at the same time (1625 and 1627). In these halls the vaulting rested on four tall pillars and on corresponding wall pilasters. The columns and the pilasters were situated in equal spacing and dividing the roof-area into nine equal fields. In these synagogues the bimah was a free-standing podium or a bower situated within the central field between the pillars.

Egyptian Revival

Egyptian Revival style synagogues were popular in the early nineteenth century. Rachel Wischnitzer argues that they were part of the fashion for Egyptian style inspired by Napoleon's invasion of Europe. According to Carol Herselle Krinsky, they were meant as imitations of the Temple of Solomon and intended by architects and governments to insult Jews by portraying Judaism as a primitive faith. According to Diana Muir Appelbaum, they were expressions of Jewish identity intended to advertise Jewish origins in ancient Israel.

Moorish influence

In medieval Spain (both Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms), a host of synagogues were built, and it was usual to commission them from Moorish and later Mudéjar architects. Very few of these medieval synagogues, built with Moorish techniques and style, are conserved. The two best known Spanish synagogues are in Toledo, one known as El Tránsito, the other as Santa María la Blanca, and are now preserved as national monuments. The former is a small building containing very rich decorations; the latter is especially noteworthy. It is based upon Almohad style and contains long rows of octagonal columns with curiously carved capitals, from which spring Moorish arches supporting the roof.

Another significant Mudéjar synagogue is the one at Córdoba built in 1315. As in El Tránsito, the vegetal and geometrical stucco decorations are purely Moorish, but unlike the former, the epigraphic texts are in Hebrew.

After the expulsion from Spain there was a general feeling among wealthy Sephardim that Moorish architecture was appropriate in synagogues. By the mid-19th century, the style was adopted by the Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern Europe, who associated Moorish and Mudéjar architectural forms with the golden age of Jewry in Al-Andalus. As a consequence, Moorish Revival spread around the globe as a preferred style of synagogue architecture, although Moorish architecture is by no means Jewish, either in fact or in feeling. The Alhambra has furnished inspiration for innumerable synagogues, but seldom have its graceful proportions or its delicate modeling and elaborate ornamentation been successfully copied.

Moorish style, when adapted by the Ashkenazi was believed to have been a reference to the Golden Age of Spanish Jewry, it was not the primary intention of the Jews and architects who chose to build in the Moorish style. Rather, the choice to use the Moorish style was reflective of pride in their Semitic or oriental heritage. This pride in their heritage and understanding of Jews as "semitic" or "oriental" led architects like Gottfried Semper (Semper Synagogue Dresden, Germany) and Ludwig Förster (Tempelgasse or Leopoldstädter Tempel, Vienna, Austria and Dohány Street Synagogue, Budapest, Hungary) to build their synagogues in the Moorish style. Moorish Style remained a popular choice for synagogues throughout the rest of the 19th and early 20th century.

Modern synagogue architecture

In the modern period, synagogues have continued to be built in every popular architectural style, including Art Nouveau, Art Deco, International style, and all contemporary styles. In the post-World War II period "a period of post-war modernism," came to the fore, "characterized by assertive architectural gestures that had the strength and integrity to stand alone, without applied artwork or Jewish iconography." A notable work of Art Nouveau, pre–World War I Hungarian synagogue architecture is Budapest's Kazinczy Street Synagogue. In the UK, synagogues built in the early 1960s, such as a Carmel College (Oxfordshire) in the UK, designed by the British architect,Thomas Hancock, were decorated with the stained glass of windows of Israeli artist, Nehemia Azaz. The stained glass windows were praised by art and architecture scholar Nikolaus Pevsner as using "extraordinary technique with rough pieces of coloured glass like crystals" and by Historic England as "brilliant and innovative artistic glass".

The interior
The most common general plan for the interior of the synagogue is an Ark at the eastern end opposite the entrance, and with an almemar or pulpit. In older or Orthodox synagogues with separate seating, there may be benches for the men on either side, and a women's gallery reached by staircases from the outer vestibule. Variations of this simple plan abound: the vestibule became larger, and the staircases to the women's gallery were separated from the vestibule and given more importance. As the buildings became larger, rows of columns were required to support the roof, but in every case the basilican form was retained. The Ark, formerly allowed a mere niche in the wall, was developed into the main architectural feature of the interior, and was flanked with columns, covered with a canopy and richly decorated. The almemar in many cases was joined to the platform in front of the Ark, and elaborate arrangements of steps were provided.

The Ark
The Torah Ark (usually called Aron Hakodesh or Hekhál) is the most important feature of the interior, and is generally dignified by proper decoration and raised upon a suitable platform, reached by at least three steps, but often by more. It is usually crowned by the Ten Commandments and the Torah. The position of the pulpit varies; it may be placed on either side of the Ark and is occasionally found in the center of the steps.

Other interior arrangements
The modern synagogue, besides containing the minister's study, trustees' rooms, choir-rooms, and organ-loft devote much space to school purposes; generally, the entire lower floor is used for classrooms. The interior treatment of the synagogue allows great latitude in design.

For the thirty-three synagogues of India, American architect and professor of architecture Jay A. Waronker has learned that these buildings tend to follow the Sephardic traditions of the tevah (or bimah, the raised platform where the service is led and Torah read) being freestanding and roughly in the middle of the sanctuary and the ark (called the hekhal by Sephardim and the aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim) engaged along the wall that is closest to Jerusalem. The hekhals are essentially cabinets or armoires storing the sefer Torahs. Seating, in the form of long wooden benches, is grouped around and facing the tevah. Men sit together on the main level of the sanctuary while women sit in a dedicated zone on the same level in the smaller synagogues or upstairs in a women's gallery.

Interesting architectural and planning exceptions to this common Sephardic formula are the Cochin synagogues in Kerala of far southwestern India. Here, on the gallery level and adjacent to the space provided for women and overlooking the sanctuary below, is a second tevah. This tevah was used for holidays and unique occasions. It is therefore interesting that on more special events, the women are closest to the point where the religious service is being led.

In Baghdadi synagogues of India, the hekhals appear to be standard-sized cabinets from the outside (the side facing the sanctuary), but when opened a very large space is revealed. They are essentially walk-in rooms with a perimeter shelf holding up to one hundred sefer Torahs.

Interior decoration
There are but few emblems that may be used that are characteristically Jewish; the Star of David, the lion of Judah, and flower and fruit forms alone are generally allowable in Orthodox synagogues. The ner tamid hangs in front of the Ark; the tables of the Law surmount it. The seven-branched candlestick, or menorah, may be placed at the sides. Occasionally the shofar, and even the lulav, may be utilized in the design. Hebrew inscriptions are sparingly or seldom-used; stained-glass windows, at one time considered the special property of the Church, are now employed but figured subjects are not used.

title: Synagogue architecture


text:
Money flow index

The money flow index (MFI) is an oscillator that ranges from 0 to 100. It is used to show the money flow (an approximation of the dollar value of a day's trading) over several days.

Step 1: Calculate the typical price
The typical price for each day is the average of high price, the low price and the closing price.

 * $$typical\ price = {high + low + close \over 3}$$

Step 2: Calculate the positive and negative money flow
The money flow for a certain day is typical price multiplied by volume on that day.

 * $$money\ flow = typical\ price \times volume$$

The money flow is divided into positive and negative money flow.

 * Positive money flow is calculated by adding the money flow of all the days where the typical price is higher than the previous day's typical price.
 * Negative money flow is calculated by adding the money flow of all the days where the typical price is lower than the previous day's typical price.
 * If typical price is unchanged then that day is discarded.

Step 3: Calculate the money ratio
The money ratio is the ratio of positive money flow to negative money flow.

 * $$money\ ratio = { positive\ money\ flow \over negative\ money\ flow }$$

Step 4: Calculate the money flow index

 * $$MFI = 100 - {100 \over 1 + money\ ratio}$$

The money flow index can be expressed equivalently as follows.

 * $$MFI = 100 \times { positive\ money\ flow \over positive\ money flow + negative\ money\ flow }$$

This form more clearly shows what the MFI is a percentage of positive money flow to total money flow.

Uses
MFI is used to measure the "enthusiasm" of the market. In other words, the money flow index shows how much a stock was traded.

A value of 80 or more is generally considered overbought, a value of 20 or less oversold. Divergences between MFI and price action are also considered significant; for instance, if price makes a new rally high but the MFI high is less than its previous high then that may indicate a weak advance that is likely to reverse.

MFI is constructed in a similar fashion to the relative strength index (RSI). Both look at up days against total up and down days, but the scale, i.e. what is accumulated on those days, is volume (or dollar volume approximation rather) for the MFI, as opposed to price change amounts for the RSI.

Marek and Čadková (2020) studied different settings of MFI parameters. The testing was randomised in time and companies (e.g., Apple, ExxonMobil, IBM, Microsoft) and showed that MFI can beat simple buy-and-hold strategy; therefore, it can be useful for trading. They showed that settings of MFI which are usually recommended in the literature offers no advantage for trading and it is necessary to optimize settings for each single stock.

Similar indicators
Other price × volume indicators:

 * On-balance volume
 * Price and volume trend
 * Accumulation/distribution index

title: Money flow index


text:
Port Carling

Port Carling is an unincorporated community in the Township of Muskoka Lakes in the Canadian province of Ontario. It has been the municipal seat of the township since 1971. It has several hundred year-round residents and is a service centre for thousands of other seasonal residents in the area.

Attractions and venues
Besides the town, which maintains much of its older architecture, there are several tourist and cultural sites:
 * Muskoka Lakes Museum
 * Muskoka Lakes Association Antique Boat Show (every other year)
 * Muskoka Lakes Library
 * Port Carling Memorial Community Hall
 * CrossFit Muskoka Fitness Community

Geography and transportation
Port Carling is located on the Indian River and owes its importance to its key position on the water routes of the area. A set of locks joins Lake Muskoka and Lake Rosseau, so much boat and ship traffic in the township passes through, hence its nickname Hub of the Lakes.

The community is directly located on the two-lane Muskoka Road 118, and improvements to Highway 69 now link it to the controlled-access freeway Highway 400 and the sometimes divided Highway 11. This has greatly facilitated its increasing role as a tourist destination from the Toronto area.

History and economy
The Ojibway settled in the area in the 1850s. They called their settlement Obajewanung or Obogawanung, while Europeans called it Indian Gardens. Before white settlers moved into the newly surveyed Medora Township starting in the 1860s, the Ojibway moved to Parry Sound but continued to summer in Port Carling.

In 1869, Benjamin Hardcastle Johnston established a post office here and called it Port Carling. John Carling, the Ontario Minister of Public Works, was a booster of the locks between the lakes which were completed in 1871. This led to an economic boom fuelled by tourism and logging, resulting in the building of four resorts, two sawmills and three Protestant churches of the 1870s. The Orange Order was active in the area, and few Catholics settled here.

The Port Carling Boat Works Ltd. traces its origins to an enterprise started in 1868 by William J. Johnston. It captured a niche market after his relatives developed the disappearing propeller boat and operated the company under that name for a while.

Port Carling became independent of Medora Township and was incorporated as a village in 1896 (a status it would keep until 1971). As it grew, the locks were widened in 1903 to permit steamship traffic and in 1922 smaller pleasure boat locks were installed. The Port Carling Volunteer Fire Department began in 1912 and got its biggest workout in 1931 when a series of fires ravaged the boat works and much of the downtown.

James Bartleman has been Port Carling's most prominent government official outside the community. The part-Ojibway man was a diplomat and lieutenant governor of Ontario. He wrote Out of Muskoka, a personal reminiscence of his upbringing and some of the less savoury aspects of local history.

Notable people

 * Will White, born in Caton, Major League Baseball pitcher, brother of Baseball Hall of fame player Deacon White.

title: Port Carling


text:
1967 Progressive Conservative leadership election

The 1967 Progressive Conservative leadership election was held to choose a leader for the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. The convention was held at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between September 4 and 9, 1967. Robert Stanfield was elected the new leader.

Background
The leader was elected by the approximately 2,200 delegates to the convention who voted. Most of the delegates were elected from the party's associations in each riding (electoral district), as well as from the party's women's and youth associations.

However, many delegates were ex officio delegates, i.e., they received delegate status as a result of their positions on the national executive committee of the party, the executives of its affiliated provincial parties, and the party's national women's and youth organizations. Former and current Progressive Conservative (PC) Members of Parliament and Senators were also ex officio delegates.

Traditionally, once elected, leaders of the party remained in the position until they resigned or died. In this case, however, the convention was called after the party membership passed a resolution to force a leadership convention even though party leader John Diefenbaker was unwilling to resign. Many in the party believed that his mercurial leadership when the party was in government from 1957 to 1963, and his failure to win the support of Canadian voters the 1963 and 1965 federal elections meant that he would be unable to lead the party back to government. Party president Dalton Camp organized the successful campaign within the party to force a leadership convention.

Issues
The campaign for the leadership hinged on two main issues:
 * 1) where the candidates stood on the question of Diefenbaker's leadership, and
 * 2) where the candidates stood on the controversial Deux Nations policy.

Diefenbaker had engendered considerable loyalty amongst Conservatives during his time as leader because of his passionate speaking style, and his fierce commitment to Canada. Diefenbaker had led the party to the biggest victory in a Canadian federal election (to that time) in the 1958 election, winning 208 of the 265 seats available in the House of Commons. On the other hand, divisions and infighting in his Cabinet had led to the party's defeat in the 1963 election, with the following election two years later failing to improve the party's position.

The controversial Deux Nations policy had been proposed by the party's "Thinkers’ Conference", held in August 1967 at Montmorency Falls, Quebec, as a way of reconciling the role of the Province of Quebec within Canadian confederation. The Thinkers’ Conference described the policy as a statement that "English Canadians and French Canadians form two distinct societies with differing backgrounds, personalities and aspirations." The phrase "distinct society" returned in the 1980s to be a key component of proposals to amend the Canadian constitution during the debate over the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord.

The policy proposal was endorsed at the convention by the party's Policy Committee by a vote of approximately 150 to 12.

Opponents of the policy were concerned that the French deux nations would be interpreted in English as "two nations", i.e., the end of a united Canada. The proponents argued that deux nations meant "two founding peoples".

In their final speeches to the convention, all of the candidates addressed the issue, but the issue did not "ignite" the delegates:

 * Stanfield tried to distance himself from the issue by arguing that the Policy Committee resolution was not clear enough, and the French Canadians wanted more than just the right to enjoy linguistic distinctiveness.
 * Roblin supported deux nations, explaining that two European cultures had decided to live as one nation.
 * Fulton also tried to avoid the argument saying that it was about semantics, and that the real point was that Canada was founded by "two races, two cultures, two peoples".
 * Fleming tried to straddle the fence, saying that the meaning was unclear, and would oppose it if Diefenbaker's "two nations" interpretation were correct, but accepted that it meant "two founding peoples".
 * Hees supported the resolution as meaning "two founding peoples".
 * McCutcheon said that he was "not afraid to say" deux nations because it meant "two cultures", not "two sovereign entities".
 * Starr argued that the policies would be unfair to other cultures in Canada, that all provinces should be equal, and that the party should not adopt a policy on the issue because Quebecers themselves were not clear on what they wanted.
 * MacLean supported the policy.

Candidates
Robert Stanfield, the 53-year-old PC Premier of Nova Scotia, was a late entrant to the campaign, and was the eventual victor. He had disclaimed any interest in running for the federal leadership having won a healthy mandate in the spring 1967 Nova Scotia election. He finally bowed to pressure from Dalton Camp and other Ontario opponents of Diefenbaker, and joined the race. According to reportage in the Toronto Star, it was his "honesty, forthrightness, and quiet demeanour" that set him apart from other candidates. Stanfield was supported by many party members from the Maritime provinces, but had little support from Quebec or the Western provinces. Running as a "right-of-centre" candidate, his successful convention presence, and especially his very well received speech at the Tuesday night policy session, attracted many of the anti-Diefenbaker delegates, and made him "the man to beat".

Dufferin Roblin, the 50-year-old PC Premier of Manitoba, was another late entrant to the campaign. He was the youngest serious contender, and was reported to have the behind-the-scenes support of the conservative Union Nationale party in Quebec. He portrayed himself as having been outside of the fighting over Diefenbaker's leadership, and independent of the Diefenbaker and Camp bloc. He would therefore be able to bring the party together. Roblin was seen to be on the left of the party, i.e., supported by Red Tories. He delivered an emotional appeal at the policy session for harmony between English-speaking Canadians and French-speaking Canadians. His call for party unity struck a chord with delegates, and it appeared as though he might lead on the first ballot. His Quebec delegates, however, were very critical of Diefenbaker at the convention, and undermined Roblin's image as a compromise candidate.

E. Davie Fulton, a 51-year-old lawyer from British Columbia had been defeated in the 1956 leadership convention by Diefenbaker. He had served as Minister of Justice and then Minister of Public Works in the Diefenbaker government, and left federal politics in 1963 to take over the leadership of the British Columbia PC Party. His attempt to revive that party's fortunes failed, and he returned to federal politics in the 1965 election. His campaign was run by Lowell Murray, later to be an important figure in the next PC government under Joe Clark. To support from his home province, he added considerable support from Quebec because of his ability to speak French. He was plagued with the reputation of being a bad politician, but he dispelled that notion during the campaign. He campaigned under the slogan, "It's Fulton - All across Canada!"

George Hees, the 57-year-old former Minister of Transport and then Minister of International Trade and Commerce in the Diefenbaker government, was described as a "millionaire bon vivant". Hees had been successful as trade minister, aggressively promoting Canadian trade in other countries, but left politics before the 1963 election. As head of the Montreal Stock Exchange, however, he had done nothing innovative, and returned to politics in the 1965 election. Hees did not come across as an intellectual, but injected glamour into the campaign, spending the most of any of the candidates, an estimated $200,000. The Globe and Mail newspaper noted that, surrounded by chanting young supporters, the "arrival of Hees was like something from Hollywood". Hees descended from one of two red London double-decker buses that he had hired to transport his campaign workers between his headquarters at the Royal York Hotel and the convention centre at Maple Leaf Gardens. Hees's speech, delivered in carnival-barker style, at the Tuesday night policy session, however, was not well received by delegates, and his support began to drift off to other candidates.

John Diefenbaker, the 72-year-old party leader and former prime minister, kept the other candidates, the delegates, observers and pundits waiting for his decision on whether or not he would run to succeed himself until the very last minute. He filed his nomination papers for the convention very close to the closing of nominations. Although he could not reasonably have expected to win, putting his name into the race allowed him one more opportunity to address the convention, and to appeal to the party to reject the ‘’Deux Nations’’ policy. By letting his name stand, however, he was pledging his support for the winner under the rules of the convention.

Wallace McCutcheon, a 61-year-old Senator joined the campaign to be the voice of the party's right-wing. He had served as Minister without Portfolio in Diefenbaker's government, and then as Minister of Trade and Commerce. He campaigned aggressively against "big government" and "creeping socialism". McCutcheon was seen as the candidate of Bay Street (Toronto's financial district). He used dozens of attractive young women in his demonstration at the convention (dubbed "blonde goddesses" by the Toronto Star). He advocated a guaranteed annual income of $10,000 per adult as an alternative to the various social programs offered by different levels of government. He proposed a "made-in-Canada" constitution to replace the British North America Acts and to guarantee the rights of Canadians, including language and cultural rights.

Alvin Hamilton, the 55-year-old former Minister of Northern Affairs and National Resources and Minister of Agriculture in the Diefenbaker government, had stayed out of the leadership campaign while Diefenbaker dithered about running. He appealed to Diefenbaker loyalists, but remained in the race even when Diefenbaker decided at the last moment to seek the leadership again, and continued to call himself a Diefenbaker loyalist. Hamilton warned the party that the delegates to the convention were out of touch with the grassroots of the party, and presented himself as the main alternative to the "reactionary conservative" candidates, and was opposed to the "continentalism" of the Liberal Party. His campaign used signed that portrayed a red-yellow-green traffic light with the slogan "Stop - Think - Go Hamilton".

Donald Fleming had run for and lost the PC leadership twice already. Having served as Minister of Finance and then Minister of Justice in Diefenbaker's government, he had left Parliament in 1963, and had only reluctantly agreed to run for the leadership this time. His campaign had a promising start, attracting many Diefenbaker loyalists, but had fizzled when Roblin and then Stanfield joined the campaign. Over the two months leading up to the campaign, Fleming's supporters steadily left his campaign to join those of the two provincial premiers, and then to Diefenbaker when he finally joined the campaign. Fleming was seen as an old man who had little to offer but sound fiscal policy. He had been promised a large bloc of Quebec votes by Jean-Paul Cardinal, an organizer for Quebec premier Daniel Johnson, Sr, but these votes failed to materialize. Fleming's campaign slogan was "Unite with Fleming". He had the support of many Diefenbaker loyalists, and was rumoured before the convention to have the support of Diefenbaker himself.

Michael Starr, former Minister of Labour in Diefenbaker's government, MP for Oshawa, Ontario, and PC House Leader in the House of Commons, was considered to be the most loyal of the Diefenbaker supporters, and declared that he was running only because Diefenbaker was not. Many believed that he was just a “stalking horse” for Diefenbaker, i.e., trying to hold delegates’ support until Diefenbaker himself joined the campaign. Starr did not, however, withdraw when Diefenbaker joined the campaign, and even stayed for the second ballot even though he had won only a few votes. Starr did little campaigning prior to the convention because he said that he did not have the resources of the other candidates. He focused on meeting delegates at the convention, but by then, most of his campaign team, headed by future Deputy Prime Minister Erik Nielsen, had quit in frustration over the lack of organization, and joined other campaigns. Starr proposed a “wage and price freeze” to fight inflation – a policy that ended up as the centrepiece of the 1974 PC campaign, and replacing personal income taxation by a “trading tax” on goods and services – a policy that was implemented by the PC government of Brian Mulroney in 1990. He also proposed that the British North America Acts be brought back to Canada without amendments. During the campaign he suggested that Canada withdraw from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a comment that he later regretted and withdrew.

John MacLean was an unsuccessful PC candidate in the 1965 election who was the first to declare his candidacy for the leadership. The 40-year-old was the operator of a Hertz car rental agency and British Petroleum gas station in Brockville, Ontario. MacLean had worked as a journalist for the Toronto Telegram, Quebec Chronicle, Ottawa Journal, Financial Post and Toronto Star newspapers. In the 1965 election, he was narrowly defeated, receiving 10,066 votes (47.1% of the total vote), compared to Liberal candidate Ross Matheson's 10,365. Maclean set himself up as the spokesperson for youth in the party, and ran largely in order to create a larger role for himself in the party. He was not successful in doing this: he failed to win a delegateship from his home riding of Leeds, and was also defeated for the PC nomination in the riding during the campaign by Desmond Code, who was the sitting MP for neighbouring Lanark riding. He said that the party should declare a moratorium on tax increases, and aim to “squeeze” government spending in order to reduce taxes, and train a corps of military specialists for civilian emergencies in Canada and abroad. His speech at the convention also did not increase the party's respect for him: he spoke without a prepared text for only 12 of the 19 minutes allotted to him.

Mary Walker-Sawka, a 51-year-old movie producer and freelance writer, was a surprise last-minute candidate. She was the first woman ever to seek the leadership of a major political party in Canada. She said that she was a Diefenbaker supporter, but was running because she felt she could “add a few things” to Diefenbaker's program. She gave a short speech setting out her ideas for PC party policy: When she was nominated at the convention, she had no seconder. Some time passed before a female Hees supporter seconded Walker-Sawka's nomination in order to save her the embarrassment. Walker-Sawka called upon the women of the party to stand with her. She won only two votes on the first ballot, and was dropped from the ballot.
 * Canada should withdraw from NATO and North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD);
 * Canada should closely supervise its foreign aid programs to ensure that aid does not end up on the black market;
 * all houses more than 20 or 30 years old should be torn down and re-built;
 * Old Age Security payments should be increased to $100 per month;
 * the education system should be modernized, and at least six languages should be taught in schools;
 * the 11% federal sales tax should be eliminated.

The campaign
John MacLean was the first candidate to enter the race in January 1967. As an unknown, he was not taken seriously, and the campaign did not begin in earnest until George Hees and Davie Fulton joined the campaign. For most of the campaign, Hees and Fulton appeared to be the most likely winners. Stanfield's entry on July 19 changed the situation dramatically. Duff Roblin's entry on August 3 – a little more than a month before the vote—changed the campaign again as the campaign began to focus more on the two popular premiers. Support for Donald Fleming's campaign, in particular, began to decline as his supporters left to join the Stanfield and Roblin campaigns.

There was considerable pressure on Ontario premier John Robarts to join the race until he announced on September 5 that the province would be holding an election on October 17.

Going into the convention, it appeared that any one of four candidates could win: Roblin, Fulton, Stanfield and Hees. There were many uncommitted delegates, especially from Quebec.

The convention
Stanfield arrived at the convention with considerable momentum, but it was his speech to the Policy Session of the convention on the Tuesday night that made him the candidate to beat. Hees, on the other hand, delivered his speech to the Policy Session like a carnival barker, and made Hees victory unlikely.

Among the many rumours circulating during the convention was one of a deal between Stanfield and Fulton that whichever candidate won fewer votes would withdraw and support the other. Speculation mounted further about whether or not John Diefenbaker would let his name stand. There were rumours that he would step aside if the party agreed to drop its ‘’Deux Nations’’ policy. He also told Roblin that he would lead a walkout from the convention if it were adopted. In the end, this policy was confirmed by the party’s Policy Committee, and Diefenbaker stayed at the convention. Several of the candidates went to Diefenbaker’s hotel suite to try to secure his support, but in the end he joined the race at the last minute.

Diefenbaker spoke to the convention as out-going leader, and only decided to make a speech as a candidate -- a few minutes before he scheduled to on stage -- at the urging of Erik Nielsen (Michael Starr’s campaign manager) and Joel Aldred. He spoke for only 8 of the 19 minutes he was allocated because he said that he did not want to gain an unfair advantage over other candidates by speaking to the convention twice in two days. He appealed to the party once more to reject deux nations. Half of the crowd rose to applaud his speech vigorously. This was the warmest reception received by any candidate.

Stanfield’s speech was well-crafted, but lacked the spark that had made his Tuesday evening speech so effective. Hees and Hamilton provided the best speeches of the evening, but by this point, the die was cast.

The voting
Stanfield led on the first ballot, holding a solid, but far from decisive lead. Roblin was just barely ahead of Fulton in second place, with a clutch of other candidates following. Most significantly, Diefenbaker finished well off the pace in fifth place, effectively ending his chances of holding onto his position. Walker-Sawka was the first to be eliminated after getting just two votes, with MacLean faring little better and withdrawing through what he claimed to be a desire to keep the convention from "going too long." Neither of them endorsed any of the other candidates, though given the minuscule number of delegates they got, it would have made little difference if they did.

On the second ballot, Stanfield and Roblin were the only candidates to significantly increase their number of delegates, with the remaining candidates either holding steady or losing delegates, and most at the convention concluding that it was now essentially a two-horse race between the top two. What little support Diefenbaker still had collapsed on this ballot, with more than a third of his delegates deserting him, leaving it unlikely that he would even be able to act as kingmaker. Starr polled the fewest votes and was eliminated, with McCutcheon withdrawing and throwing his support behind Stanfield.

The gap between the top two, still Stanfield and Roblin, did not change on the third ballot. However, their support again increased noticeably, whereas Fulton's delegate count remained stagnant, ending any realistic hope of him winning the competition, as even if all the candidates who finished below were to endorse him, he could at best only hope to draw level with Roblin in the next round. Fleming finished last and was eliminated, and Diefenbaker experienced another collapse in support that left him with less half the number of delegates he started out with; knowing that he would likely be the next to be eliminated, and wanting to leave the contest on his own terms, Diefenbaker withdrew, bringing an end to what would ultimately prove the longest tenure of any Progressive Conservative leader. Hees also withdrew after his own delegate count slumped, and he and Fleming both endorsed Stanfield, with Diefenbaker instead endorsing Roblin (and in doing so, breaking the unofficial tradition that outgoing Tory leaders did not publicly endorse any of the contenders to succeed them, albeit none of the leaders prior to Diefenbaker had run to succeed themselves).

Though the fourth ballot still had Stanfield leading, Roblin was able to narrow the gap to the closest it had been percentage-wise throughout the contest. Hamilton, having hovered around near the bottom of the vote for the duration of the contest, was finally eliminated on this round, and did not endorse any of the other candidates. Fulton, whose vote had again remained static, knew that Hamilton's delegates would likely break evenly in favour of the two frontrunners, and that given he was certain to be eliminated in the next round and the gap between the remaining two was still narrow, he was now the kingmaker. He withdrew before the next ballot and ultimately chose to endorse Stanfield, effectively handing victory to the Nova Scotian, which was confirmed on the fifth and final ballot.

Aftermath
After the fifth ballot, although he had been abandoned by his party, and his preferred candidate, Roblin, had been defeated, Diefenbaker returned to the convention, introduced by the convention chairperson as “the greatest Canadian of our century”. Diefenbaker welcomed his successor, Stanfield, and appealed to the party to give Stanfield their “undivided and unconditional loyalty”. Diefenbaker continued to sit as a Progressive Conservative Member of Parliament until his death in 1979.

Because Stanfield was not a Member of Parliament, Michael Starr, who was House Leader for the PC Party in the house of Commons, served as Leader of the Opposition until the 1968 election.

The election saw Fulton, Hamilton, and Starr all fail to be re-elected, while Roblin's attempt to move into federal politics also ended in failure. Diefenbaker successfully defended his Prince Albert seat, however, while Stanfield and Hees saw their previous ridings abolished, but succeeded in being elected in replacement ridings. Hamilton would later re-enter parliament at the 1972 election, while Roblin, after spending a decade focusing on his business interests, was appointed to the senate in 1978.

Stanfield became a well-respected figure in Canadian politics, but never became prime minister. He led the PC Party through three unsuccessful election campaigns against the Liberal Party of Pierre Trudeau in 1968, 1972, and 1974. He is often referred to as "the greatest Prime Minister Canada never had".

Sources: Toronto Star and The Globe and Mail newspapers, August–September 1967.


text: Wikipedia:Picture of the day/February 27, 2005


text:
Talk:Jury nullification

Comment
Camden 28. Go to www.camden28.org. US 1973 Antiwar trial. Defendants found not guilty by jury despite being caught in act of the distruction of draft files. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pbcouming  (talk • contribs) 14:10, 13 July 2007

UK Section - Colston 4/Bristol 4

 * https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jan/04/jury-in-colston-statue-trial-urged-to-be-on-the-right-side-of-history
 * https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-bristol-59892211
 * https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/colston-bristol-verdict-city-history-b1988937.html
 * https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/colston-4-cleared-bristol-city-6447349
 * https://thebristolactivist.com/2022/01/06/not-guilty-colston-4-acquitted-by-jury-majority/

213.249.161.145 (talk) 18:28, 8 January 2022 (UTC)

 * See also
 * - http://insulatebritain.com/2023/05/15/breaking-high-noon-at-crown-court/
 * - https://juststopoil.org/2023/07/17/breaking-dozens-more-people-risk-prison-for-literally-upholding-the-law/
 * - https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/activists-jailed-for-seven-weeks-for-defying-ban-on-mentioning-climate-crisis/
 * - https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/climate-activists-risk-contempt-charges-over-placards-outside-court-mkxqk5rtx Chorl (talk) 14:44, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
 * I've added a paragraph to the UK section for this; one might want to add one for the Bristol verdict Chorl (talk) 11:40, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

Explain what is being nullified
For a reader unfamiliar with the common law system, the term "jury nullification" may intuitively mean that either the jury or its verdict is nullified, which (as I understand it now) is not the case: the term apparently means that the jury nullifies the law for this case. It would be good if this was explained early in the intro. – gpvos (talk) 16:20, 17 October 2023 (UTC) – gpvos (talk) 16:20, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jury nullification


text:
Samuel Le Bihan

Samuel Le Bihan (born 2 November 1965) is a French actor, known for his role in Brotherhood of the Wolf.

Film

 * 1993: Promenades d'été, directed by René Féret
 * 1993: La place d'un autre, directed by René Féret
 * 1993: Trois Couleurs: Rouge (Three Colours: Red), directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski
 * 1994: Une femme française, directed by Régis Wargnier
 * 1996: Capitaine Conan, directed by Bertrand Tavernier
 * 1997: Le Cousin, directed by Alain Corneau
 * 1997: À vendre, directed by Laetitia Masson
 * 1997: Restons groupés, directed by Jean-Paul Salomé
 * 1998: Les années volées, directed by Fernando Colomo
 * 1998: Vénus beauté (institut) (Venus Beauty Institute), directed by Tonie Marshall
 * 1999: Peau neuve, directed by Émilie Deleuze
 * 1999: TotalWestern, directed by Éric Rochant
 * 2000: Jet Set, directed by Fabien Onteniente
 * 2001: Le Pacte des loups (Brotherhood of the Wolf), directed by Christophe Gans
 * 2001: À la folie... pas du tout (He Loves Me... He Loves Me Not), directed by Laetitia Colombani
 * 2001: Trois Zéros, directed by Fabien Onteniente
 * 2001: The Code, directed by Manuel Boursinhac
 * 2002: A Private Affair, directed by Guillaume Nicloux
 * 2002: Fureur, directed by Karim Dridi
 * 2003: Les clés de bagnole, directed by Laurent Baffie
 * 2004: Pour le plaisir (film), directed by Dominique Dureddere
 * 2004: The bridge of San Luis Rey, directed by Mary Mac Guckian
 * 2005: The Last Sign, directed by Douglas Law
 * 2006: Le passager de l'été, directed by Florence Moncorgé-Gabin
 * 2006: Cars, Studio Pixar / Disney
 * 2006: Frontière(s) (Frontier(s)), directed by Xavier Gens
 * 2006: L’homme de sable, directed by Jose-Manuel Gonzalez
 * 2008: Disco, directed by Fabien Onteniente
 * 2008: Des poupées et des anges, directed by Nora Hamdi
 * 2008: L’ennemi public N°1, directed by Jean-François Richet
 * 2011: Cornouaille (2012 film), directed by Anne Le Ny
 * 2014: Les Yeux jaunes des crocodiles, directed by Cécile Telerman

Television

 * 1988: La Chaîne, directed by Claude Faraldo
 * 1988: Tempête sur la manche directed by Edouard Logereau
 * 1993: L'Homme du banc, directed by Etienne Périer
 * 1997: L'Amour à vif, directed by Jean-Pierre Ameris
 * 2004: 93, Rue Lauriston, directed by Denys Granier-Deferre
 * 2014 - : Alex Hugo TV series

Theatre

 * 1993	La mégère apprivoisée, Mise en scène : Jérôme Savary de William Shakespeare
 * 1999	Un tramway nommé Désir,	Mise en scène: Philippe Adriende Tennessee Williams
 * 2005	Brooklyn boy, Mise en scène : Michel Fagadau de Donald Margulies
 * 2009 Paroles et Guerison, Mise en scene: Didier Long
 * 2011 Hollywood, Mise en scene: Daniel Colas

Music videos

 * 2004: "Qui suis-je?" Kool Shen (actor: Jo Prestia) Directed by J.G Biggs.

Additional activities
Samuel was the main sponsor of the French charity organization called "November in Childhood." He is also a supporter of the international humanitarian organization Action Against Hunger.

title: Samuel Le Bihan


text:
Ammonium sulfate

Ammonium sulfate (American English and international scientific usage; ammonium sulphate in British English); (NH4)2SO4, is an inorganic salt with a number of commercial uses. The most common use is as a soil fertilizer. It contains 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfur.

Uses
The primary use of ammonium sulfate is as a fertilizer for alkaline soils. In the soil, the ammonium ion is released and forms a small amount of acid, lowering the pH balance of the soil, while contributing essential nitrogen for plant growth. The main disadvantage to the use of ammonium sulfate is its low nitrogen content relative to ammonium nitrate, which elevates transportation costs.

It is also used as an agricultural spray adjuvant for water-soluble insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. There, it functions to bind iron and calcium cations that are present in both well water and plant cells. It is particularly effective as an adjuvant for 2,4-D (amine), glyphosate, and glufosinate herbicides.

Laboratory use
Ammonium sulfate precipitation is a common method for protein purification by precipitation. As the ionic strength of a solution increases, the solubility of proteins in that solution decreases. Ammonium sulfate is extremely soluble in water due to its ionic nature, therefore it can "salt out" proteins by precipitation. Due to the high dielectric constant of water, the dissociated salt ions being cationic ammonium and anionic sulfate are readily solvated within hydration shells of water molecules. The significance of this substance in the purification of compounds stems from its ability to become more so hydrated compared to relatively more nonpolar molecules and so the desirable nonpolar molecules coalesce and precipitate out of the solution in a concentrated form. This method is called salting out and necessitates the use of high salt concentrations that can reliably dissolve in the aqueous mixture. The percentage of the salt used is in comparison to the maximal concentration of the salt in the mixture can dissolve. As such, although high concentrations are needed for the method to work adding an abundance of the salt, over 100%, can also oversaturate the solution, therefore, contaminating the nonpolar precipitate with salt precipitate. A high salt concentration, which can be achieved by adding or increasing the concentration of ammonium sulfate in a solution, enables protein separation based on a decrease in protein solubility; this separation may be achieved by centrifugation. Precipitation by ammonium sulfate is a result of a reduction in solubility rather than protein denaturation, thus the precipitated protein can be solubilized through the use of standard buffers. Ammonium sulfate precipitation provides a convenient and simple means to fractionate complex protein mixtures.

In the analysis of rubber lattices, volatile fatty acids are analyzed by precipitating rubber with a 35% ammonium sulfate solution, which leaves a clear liquid from which volatile fatty acids are regenerated with sulfuric acid and then distilled with steam. Selective precipitation with ammonium sulfate, opposite to the usual precipitation technique which uses acetic acid, does not interfere with the determination of volatile fatty acids.

Food additive
As a food additive, ammonium sulfate is considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and in the European Union it is designated by the E number E517. It is used as an acidity regulator in flours and breads.

Other uses
In the treatment of drinking water, ammonium sulfate is used in combination with chlorine to generate monochloramine for disinfection.

Ammonium sulfate is used on a small scale in the preparation of other ammonium salts, especially ammonium persulfate.

Ammonium sulfate is listed as an ingredient for many United States vaccines per the Centers for Disease Control.

A saturated solution of ammonium sulfate in heavy water (D2O) is used as an external standard in sulfur (33S) NMR spectroscopy with shift value of δ = 0 ppm.

Ammonium sulfate has also been used in flame retardant compositions acting much like diammonium phosphate. As a flame retardant, it increases the combustion temperature of the material, decreases maximum weight loss rates, and causes an increase in the production of residue or char. Its flame retardant efficacy can be enhanced by blending it with ammonium sulfamate. It has been used in aerial firefighting.

Ammonium sulfate has been used as a wood preservative, but due to its hygroscopic nature, this use has been largely discontinued because of associated problems with metal fastener corrosion, dimensional instability, and finish failures.

Preparation
Ammonium sulfate is made by treating ammonia with sulfuric acid:
 * 2 NH3 + H2SO4 -> (NH4)2SO4

A mixture of ammonia gas and water vapor is introduced into a reactor that contains a saturated solution of ammonium sulfate and about 2% to 4% of free sulfuric acid at 60 °C. Concentrated sulfuric acid is added to keep the solution acidic, and to retain its level of free acid. The heat of reaction keeps reactor temperature at 60 °C. Dry, powdered ammonium sulfate may be formed by spraying sulfuric acid into a reaction chamber filled with ammonia gas. The heat of reaction evaporates all water present in the system, forming a powdery salt. Approximately 6,000 million tons were produced in 1981.

Ammonium sulfate also is manufactured from gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O). Finely divided gypsum is added to an ammonium carbonate solution. Calcium carbonate precipitates as a solid, leaving ammonium sulfate in the solution.
 * (NH4)2CO3 + CaSO4 -> (NH4)2SO4 + CaCO3

Ammonium sulfate occurs naturally as the rare mineral mascagnite in volcanic fumaroles and due to coal fires on some dumps.

Properties
Ammonium sulfate becomes ferroelectric at temperatures below –49.5 °C. At room temperature it crystallises in the orthorhombic system, with cell sizes of a = 7.729 Å, b = 10.560 Å, c = 5.951 Å. When chilled into the ferrorelectric state, the symmetry of the crystal changes to space group Pna21.

Reactions
Ammonium sulfate decomposes upon heating above 250 °C, first forming ammonium bisulfate. Heating at higher temperatures results in decomposition into ammonia, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and water.

As a salt of a strong acid (H2SO4) and weak base (NH3), its solution is acidic; the pH of 0.1 M solution is 5.5. In aqueous solution the reactions are those of and  ions. For example, addition of barium chloride, precipitates out barium sulfate. The filtrate on evaporation yields ammonium chloride.

Ammonium sulfate forms many double salts (ammonium metal sulfates) when its solution is mixed with equimolar solutions of metal sulfates and the solution is slowly evaporated. With trivalent metal ions, alums such as ferric ammonium sulfate are formed. Double metal sulfates include ammonium cobaltous sulfate, ferrous diammonium sulfate, ammonium nickel sulfate which are known as Tutton's salts and ammonium ceric sulfate. Anhydrous double sulfates of ammonium also occur in the Langbeinites family. The ammonia produced has a pungent smell and is toxic.

Airborne particles of evaporated ammonium sulfate comprise approximately 30% of fine particulate pollution worldwide.

Legislation and control
In November 2009, a ban on ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and calcium ammonium nitrate fertilizers was imposed in the former Malakand Division—comprising the Upper Dir, Lower Dir, Swat, Chitral and Malakand districts of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan, by the NWFP government, following reports that they were used by militants to make explosives. In January 2010, these substances were also banned in Afghanistan for the same reason.

title: Ammonium sulfate


text:
Siegfried Marcus

Siegfried Samuel Marcus (18 September 1831 – 1 July 1898) was a German inventor. Marcus was born in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He made the first petrol-powered vehicle in 1864, while living in Vienna, Austria.

Life
Marcus was born in Malchin, in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin into a Jewish family. Today Malchin is part of Germany. He began work at age 12 as an apprentice mechanic. At 17 he joined Siemens and Halske, an engineering company that built telegraph lines. He moved to Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire, in 1852, working first as a technician in the Physical Institute of the Medical School. He then worked as an assistant to Professor Carl Ludwig, a physiologist. In 1860 Marcus opened his own workshop which made mechanical and electrical equipment. The first was located at Mariahilferstrasse 107 and the second at Mondscheingasse 4.

His chief improvements include telegraph relay system and ignition devices such as the "Wiener Zünder", a blasting machine. Marcus was buried at the Protestant Cemetery at Hütteldorf, Vienna. Later, his remains were transferred to an "Honorary Tomb" of Vienna's Central Cemetery. During his lifetime he was awarded the Golden Cross of Merit by the then Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph for his scientific achievements.

Nazi rewrite
Because of Marcus' Jewish ancestry, his name and all memorabilia, particularly in Austria, vanished under the Nazis. In 1937 the Austrian Harand Movement Against Racial Hatred had issued a series of stamps featuring prominent Jews, including Marcus, who had contributed to mankind in response to the Ewiger Jude (eternal Jew) exhibition by Julius Streicher in Munich. Marcus was credited as having invented the petrol driven motor car. With the German occupation of Austria in March 1938, the memorial in front of the Vienna Technical University was removed. After World War II, the monument was rebuilt and his car, which had been hidden, was returned to display.

Marcus was removed from German encyclopedias as the inventor of the modern car, under a directive from the German Ministry for Propaganda during World War II. His name was replaced with the names of Daimler and Benz. The directive (in German) read as follows:

In English this would be

Current Austrian thinking is that Marcus' first car ran in the late 1880s. However, early publications suggest that he may have had a petrol powered vehicle running earlier than 1870. The deliberate destruction of evidence of Marcus' inventions by the Nazi regime has left these dates open to debate and speculation. Britannica cites 1864 for Marcus' first car with a 10-year gap to the second, which is consistent with other sources. However, some sources call it the "Marcus myth", stating that early chroniclers confused an automobile he had built in 1888 (also called the "Second Marcus Car") with a construction he had built in 1870.

In an article titled, "The End of the Marcus Legend", evidence is presented that the "1875” automobile was actually built much later, in 1888. The originator of the 1875 date, Lugwig Czischek-Christen, was asked by patent lawyers to produce any evidence to support the 1875 date, and during the course of his investigation, he uncovered "decisive" evidence that the automobile was actually built in 1888, and not in 1875 as he had originally published for the 1898 Austrian exhibits at the Paris exposition.

Marcus' cars

Based on the information from existing sources, Marcus' first machine was built on a simple handcart in 1870. but had to be started by lifting the drive wheels off the ground and spinning them. The internal combustion engine was designed for liquid combustibles and made him the first to propel a vehicle by means of petrol. Marcus was not satisfied with this cart and dismantled it. However, his first automobile model was displayed at the Vienna Exhibition in 1864 (more likely the 1873 Vienna Internation Exhibition according to earliest sources) and his second model was made and driven in 1875.

In 1883 a patent for a low-voltage ignition magneto was given to Marcus in Germany and a new petrol engine built.

This design was used for all further engines, including that of the only existing Marcus car from 1888 to 1889. It was this ignition, in conjunction with the "rotating brush carburettor", that made the engine's design very innovative. By 1886 the German navy was using the engine in its torpedo boats.

In 1887, Marcus started a co-operation with the Moravian company Märky, Bromovsky & Schulz. They offered two stroke and — after the fall of the Otto-Patent in 1886 — four stroke engines of the Marcus type.

In 1875 Märky, Bromovsky & Schulz built the car which can still be seen in Vienna's Technical Museum. This car made Marcus well-known all over the world. The car was named a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

In a 1904 book, "The Motor," it states: ''Who was the Inventor? Siegfried Marcus is widely credited with having invented the benzine motor''.

John Nixon of the London Times in 1938 considered Marcus' development of the motor car to have been experimental, as opposed to Benz who took the concept from experimental to production. Nixon described Marcus' cars as impractical. 12 years later, in 1950, the Times described the car at the Vienna Technical Museum as being built in 1875 and the first petrol-powered road vehicle. A description of its first journey of 7.5 miles from Vienna to Klosterneuberg was included in the article. Since the car was moved to the Museum in 1918, it has only twice been driven, once when sent for display in Sweden.

Patents
Marcus was the holder of 131 patents in 16 countries. He never applied for a patent for the motorcar and, of course, he never held one. Nevertheless, he was the first to use petrol to propel a vehicle, in the simple handcart of 1864, but it is uncertain whether the extant Marcus car ran before 1890.

Some examples of his patents:
 * 33258, 10 September 1861, Improvements to relay magnets
 * 2058, 6 July 1872, Device for mixing of fuel with air
 * 286030, 2 October 1883, Improved gas engine
 * 306339, 7 October 1884, Electrical igniting device for gas engines

In conjunction with Captain E von Wohlgemuth of the Imperial German Navy, Marcus invented an electrical ignition of ships cannons. The advantages of the system were that it allowed for the simultaneous firing of the cannons, or selection of a particular firing pattern, and the ability to fire them from the ship's bridge.

title: Siegfried Marcus


text: Wikipedia:Picture of the day/February 28, 2005


text: Wikipedia:POTD/February 28, 2005

title: Wikipedia:POTD/February 28, 2005


text:
Military Message Handling System

Military Message Handling System (MMHS) is a profile and set of extensions to X.400 for messaging in military environments. It is NATO standard STANAG 4406 and CCEB standard ACP 123. It adds to standard X.400 email support for military requirements such as mandatory access control (i.e. Classified/Secret/Top Secret messages and users, etc.). In particular it defines a new message format, P772 that is used in place of X.400's interpersonal message formats P2 (1984 standard) and P22 (1988 standard).

MMHS specifications are implemented by several X.400 vendors, particularly those located in Europe, such as Raytheon UK, Boldon James, Deep-Secure, Thales Group, Nexor, Cassidian and Isode.

Several RFC are supported:

title: Military Message Handling System


text:
Frasch process

The Frasch process is a method to extract sulfur from underground deposits by taking advantage of the low melting point of sulfur. It is the only industrial method of recovering sulfur from elemental deposits. Most of the world's sulfur was obtained this way until the late 20th century, when sulfur recovered from petroleum and gas sources became more commonplace (see Claus process).

In the Frasch process, superheated water is pumped into the sulfur deposit; the sulfur melts and is extracted. The Frasch process is able to produce high-purity sulfur of about 99.5%.

History
The Frasch sulfur process works best on either salt domes or bedded evaporite deposits, where sulfur is found in permeable rock layers trapped in between impermeable layers. Bacterial alteration of anhydrite or gypsum, in the presence of hydrocarbons, produces limestone and hydrogen sulfide in the sulfur cycle. The hydrogen sulfide then oxidizes into sulfur, from percolating water, or through the action of anaerobic, sulfur-reducing bacteria

In 1867, miners discovered sulfur in the caprock of a salt dome in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, but it was beneath quicksand, which prevented mining. In 1894 the German-born American chemist, Herman Frasch (1852–1914), devised his Frasch method of sulfur removal using pipes to bypass the quicksand. This replaced the inefficient and polluting Sicilian method. The process proved successful, on December 24, 1894, when the first molten sulfur was brought to the surface. The Union Sulphur Company was incorporated in 1896 to utilize the process. However, the high cost of fuel needed to heat the water made the process uneconomic until the 1901 discovery of the Spindletop oil field in Texas provided cheap fuel oil to the region. The Frasch process began economic production at Sulphur Mines, Louisiana in 1903.

When Frasch's patent expired, the process was widely applied to similar salt-dome sulfur deposits along the Gulf Coast of the United States. The second Frasch-process mine opened in 1912 in Brazoria County, Texas. The Gulf Coast came to dominate world sulfur production in the early and middle 20th century. However, starting in the 1970s, byproduct sulfur recovery from oil and natural gas lowered the price of sulfur and drove many Frasch-process mines out of business. The last United States Frasch sulfur mine closed in 2000. A Frasch mine in Iraq closed in 2003 due to the U.S. invasion of Iraq.

The Frasch process is still used to work sulfur deposits in Mexico, Ukraine and Poland.

Process
In the Frasch process, three concentric tubes are introduced into the sulfur deposit. Superheated water (165 °C, 2.5-3 MPa) is injected into the deposit via the outermost tube. Sulfur (m.p. 115 °C) melts and flows into the middle tube. Water pressure alone is unable to force the sulfur into the surface due to the molten sulfur's greater density, so hot air is introduced via the innermost tube to froth the sulfur, making it less dense, and pushing it to the surface.

The sulfur obtained can be very pure (99.7 - 99.8%). In this form, it is light yellow in color. If contaminated by organic compounds, it can be dark-colored; further purification is not economic, and usually unnecessary. Using this method, the United States produced 3.89 million tons of sulfur in 1989, and Mexico produced 1.02 million tons of sulfur in 1991.

The Frasch process can be used for deposits 50–800 meters deep. 3-38 cubic meters of superheated water are required to produce every tonne of sulfur, and the associated energy cost is significant. A working demonstration model of the Frasch process suitable for the classroom has been described.

title: Frasch process


text:
User:NPOW

South-Eastern European.

title: User:NPOW


text:
Senior Players Championship

The Senior Players Championship, stylised by the PGA Tour as The SENIOR PLAYERS Championship, is one of the five major championships on golf's PGA Tour Champions. The inaugural event was played 41.60558009975901 years ago in 1983 and the age minimum is 50,  the standard for men's senior professional golf tournaments.

The winner gains entry into the following season's Players Championship on the PGA Tour (although Retief Goosen, the 2019 winner, was not allowed to play in the official subsequent Players Championship). For sponsorship reasons in 2023, the tournament was titled as the Kaulig Companies Championship.

Unlike the U.S. Senior Open, the Senior PGA Championship, and the Senior Open Championship, it is not recognized as a major by the European Senior Tour, and is not part of that tour's schedule.

Since 2019, the Senior Players championship has been held at the South course of the Firestone Country Club in Akron, Ohio; it replaced the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational that had been held there before moving to Memphis, Tennessee.

Early years
The first four editions were at Canterbury Golf Club near Cleveland; the inaugural in 1983 had fifty players, no cut, and a purse of $250,000; Miller Barber won the title and $40,000, sinking a 10 ft birdie putt on the final hole to finish one stroke ahead of runner-up Gene Littler. Arnold Palmer was seven strokes back, in a tie for fifth.

Palmer won the next year by three strokes, and successfully defended the title in 1985, winning by eleven strokes. Heavy rains on Thursday afternoon reduced the tournament to 54 holes in 1986, and Chi-Chi Rodríguez gained the first of his 22 wins on the senior tour, two strokes ahead of Bruce Crampton.

Multiple winners
Through 2023, six players had multiple wins in the Senior Players Championship:
 * 3 wins: Bernhard Langer (2014, 2015, 2016)
 * 2 wins: Arnold Palmer (1984, 1985), Dave Stockton (1992, 1994), Raymond Floyd (1996, 2000), Jerry Kelly (2020, 2022), Steve Stricker (2021, 2023)

Winners of both The Players and the Senior Players
Three have won both The Players Championship and the Senior Players Championship:

title: Senior Players Championship