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Virginius Dabney

Virginius Dabney (February 8, 1901 – December 28, 1995) was an American teacher, journalist, and writer, who edited the Richmond Times-Dispatch from 1936 to 1969 and wrote several historical books. Dabney won the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing in 1948 due in part to his opposition to the poll tax. In his later years, he was criticized for not standing against Virginia's massive resistance to school integration.

Youth, education
Virginius Dabney was born on February 8, 1901, at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia, where his father, Richard Heath Dabney, was a professor of history. His mother was a descendant of Thomas Jefferson. His paternal grandfather (also Virginius Dabney, 1835-1894) was a Confederate veteran and author of collections of tales about the Commonwealth.

Dabney graduated from Episcopal High School in Alexandria, Virginia. He then studied at the University of Virginia, where he was a brother in the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Eta chapter). He lived at the Dabney–Thompson House until his father sold that home in 1907.

Teacher, journalist, editor
After teaching for a year at Episcopal High School in Alexandria, in 1922, Dabney went to work in Richmond, Virginia, as a journalist at The Richmond News Leader, which was then edited by Douglas S. Freeman. During this period he was also Virginia correspondent for the Baltimore Evening Sun, where he came to the attention of H. L. Mencken. In 1928, he left The News Leader for the Richmond Times-Dispatch, where he became Chief Editorial Writer in 1934, and editor in 1936. During his time with the Richmond Times-Dispatch Dabney also served as the Upper South correspondent for the New York Times.

As editor, Dabney was responsible for the editorial page. He editorialized against Adolf Hitler and in favor of wage and hour laws for women. He was, for his time, a progressive, and at times a liberal voice, opposing the Ku Klux Klan and the poll tax. He was not afraid to take on the Byrd Organization, a political machine of Governor (and later Senator) Harry F. Byrd that dominated Virginia's politics from the late 1920s until 1969. He was also known for opining on less-serious topics, such as the death of Ellen Glasgow's dog, and on the qualities of grits and mint juleps. He served on the Southern Policy Committee and the Southern Conference for Human Welfare. In 1948, he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing. He served as president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors in 1957–58. He was also a member of the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors from 1940 to 1942.

On March 1, 1952, Dabney guest starred on the CBS live variety show, Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town, in which hostess Faye Emerson visited Richmond to accent the kinds of music popular in the city.

In the 1950s, Dabney's editorials took on a more conservative tone. Although he was personally opposed to massive resistance against desegregation of Virginia's public schools, the owners of the Times-Dispatch did not allow him to editorialize against it. Offended by the student activists of the 1960s, Dabney was ambivalent about Martin Luther King Jr., whom he admired for his courage regarding the civil rights movement, but disdained for his "trouble-making" and what Dabney termed "unfair" attacks on the Vietnam War.

Later years
Dabney retired from the Times-Dispatch in 1969, having agreed the previous year to become the first rector of Virginia Commonwealth University (created after the merger of the Medical College of Virginia and the Richmond Professional Institute), but he resigned after less than a year, in part because of protests from Afro-American students, although he remained on the governing board for many years and also wrote its history, Virginia Commonwealth University: A Sesquicentennial History (1987). Active in the Virginia Historical Society, Dabney served on its executive committee for three decades and as president from 1969 to 1972.

Dabney continued writing during his retirement. Receiving a Guggenheim Fellowship, he wrote Virginia: The New Dominion (1971, which became the state history textbook for years). His other books written during this time included Richmond: The Story of a City (1976), Across the Years: Memories of a Virginian (1978, his autobiography), Mr. Jefferson's University: A History (1981) and Pistols and Pointed Pens: The Dueling Editors of Old Virginia (1987). His most criticized book may have been The Jefferson Scandals, a Rebuttal (1981), which concerned the Sally Hemings allegations. Compilations of his newspaper columns were also published as The Last Review: The Confederate Reunion, Richmond, 1932 (1984) and Virginius Dabney's Virginia: Writings about the Old Dominion (1986).

Personal life
Dabney married Douglas Harrison Chelf in 1923. They had two daughters. Dabney and his wife had been married for 69 years, when she died in 1994. Dabney died the following year, in his sleep at his Richmond home on December 28, 1995, aged 94.

title: Virginius Dabney


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Talk:Doe v. Bolton

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Untitled
The two-judge district court panel in this case was convened under a law, since repealed, which mandated this procedure when the constitutionality of a state statute was challeged and the complainants sought injunctive relief against its enforcement. That law was repealed, in the 80s, IIRC. Anyone know? Ellsworth 14:48, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Has it ever been revealed who "Mary Doe" really is?24.60.124.8 21:40, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

Her name is Sandra Cano. She is currently suing to have Doe v Bolton overturned on the grounds that her ACLU attorney committed fraud in the case and pressured her to have an abortion.[ http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=52210 ] TMLutas 21:45, 2 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Or more accurately, Cano claims she was Mary Doe. 75.76.213.106 (talk) 19:43, 31 January 2009 (UTC)

Controversial Quote
Under "Broad Definition of Health", the reference for the quote "at least as controversial as its holding respecting the period prior to viability" is to a blog that no longer exists. Can someone find a better reference for the controversial nature of this definition of health? Aardvark92 (talk) 16:41, 2 June 2009 (UTC)

Bad Link Loops Back to This Same Article
The anonymous plaintiff has since been identified as Sandra Cano, a 22-year-old mother of three. ..

The name Sandra Cano is a link that links right back to this article. The link should be removed or directed to an actual article about Sandra Cano. 76.0.11.74 (talk) 00:43, 6 April 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Doe v. Bolton


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Cliff Bastin

Clifford Sydney Bastin (14 March 1912 – 4 December 1991) was an English footballer who played as a winger for Exeter City and Arsenal. He also played for the England national team. Bastin is Arsenal's third-highest goalscorer of all time.

Club career
Born in Exeter, Bastin started his career at Exeter City, making his début for the club in 1928, at the age of 16. Despite only playing 17 games and scoring 6 goals in his time at Exeter, he was spotted by Arsenal manager Herbert Chapman in a match against Watford. Chapman was at the game to keep tabs on a Watford player but the 17-year-old Bastin's ability became so evident to him that he decided to sign him at the end of the 1928–29 season. Bastin made his début against Everton on 5 October 1929 and was immediately a first-team regular, making 21 appearances that season. He went on to be a near ever-present in the side over the next decade, playing over 35 matches in every season up to and including 1937–38. His youthful appearance earned him the nickname "Boy Bastin", but despite such, Bastin's play was characterised by a remarkable coolness, and deadly precision in front of goal; he also became Arsenal's regular penalty-taker. Bastin's scoring feats are all the more remarkable considering he played on the left wing rather than as forward. At the time, Arsenal's strategy depended heavily on their wingers cutting into the penalty box with a supply of passes from playmaker Alex James being the source of many goals as well.

With Arsenal, Bastin won the FA Cup twice, in 1929–30 and 1935–36, and the First Division title five times, in 1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35 and 1937–38. By the age of nineteen Bastin had won a League title, FA Cup and been capped for England, making him the youngest player ever to achieve all three. He played in Arsenal's 2–1 victory over Sheffield Wednesday in the Charity Shield at Stamford Bridge in October 1930. Bastin also finished as Arsenal top scorer in 1932–33 and 1933–34, with 33 and 15 goals respectively. After centre-forward Ted Drake arrived in March 1934, Bastin was no longer Arsenal's primary winger.

With Drake scoring the majority of the goals and Alex James increasingly unavailable due to injury and age, Bastin was moved to inside-forward to replace James for much of the 1935–36 season, which saw Arsenal drop to sixth. Bastin still scored 17 goals, including six in Arsenal's run to the 1936 FA Cup Final, which they won 1–0. After a stint at right half to cover for Jack Crayston, Bastin was eventually restored to the left wing to score 17 goals in the 1937–38 title-winning season. An injury to his right leg ruled him out of much of the 1938–39 season, the last one played before the outbreak of the Second World War.

Bastin's tally of 178 goals made him Arsenal's all-time top goalscorer from 1939 until 1997, when his total was surpassed by Ian Wright. In 2005 Thierry Henry passed each player's totals, and so Bastin is Arsenal's third-top goalscorer of all time. His record of 150 league goals for Arsenal stood for slightly longer, being equalled by Henry on 14 January 2006 and surpassed by him in February of the same year.

International career
Bastin made his debut at senior level for England against Wales. This game was played at Anfield on 18 November 1931, which England won by a 3–1 margin. A most noteworthy highlight of his England career was the famous "Battle of Highbury", where England defeated 1934 World Cup winners Italy 3–2. Bastin also featured in a notorious match against Germany in Berlin in 1938, when the England team was ordered to give the Nazi salute before the match. Bastin may have won more caps but at the time faced competition from Eric Brook.

The Second World War intervened when Bastin was 27, thus cutting short what should have been the peak of his career, although his leg injury would probably have done this in any case. Bastin was excused military service as he failed the army hearing test owing to his increasing deafness. Thus, during the war, he served as an ARP Warden, being stationed on top of Highbury stadium with Tom Whittaker. He also played matches in the war-time league to boost civilian morale. In 1941, Fascist Italy's propaganda broadcast on Rome Radio, contained a bizarre claim that Bastin had been captured in the Battle of Crete, and was being detained in Italy. The Italians were unaware that Bastin was deaf and had been excused service.

Bastin's injured leg had hampered his performances in wartime matches, and would ultimately curtail his career. After the war, Bastin, by now in his thirties, would only play seven more times, without scoring, before retiring in January 1947.

After retirement, Bastin returned to his native Exeter and ran a pub. He died in 1991 at the age of 79. A stand at St James Park, Exeter's home ground, is named in his honour and in 2009 he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Bastin married Joan L. Shaul at Hendon, North London, in 1939. She outlived him by just over 20 years, dying in April 2012 at the age of 96. They had two daughters, Patricia and Barbara.

Honours
Arsenal
 * First Division: 1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38
 * FA Cup: 1929–30, 1935–36
 * FA Charity Shield: 1930, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1938

Individual
 * English Football Hall of Fame Inductee
 * Exeter City Hall of fame Inductee

title: Cliff Bastin


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National Human Genome Research Institute

The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) is an institute of the National Institutes of Health, located in Bethesda, Maryland.

NHGRI began as the Office of Human Genome Research in The Office of the Director in 1988. This Office transitioned to the National Center for Human Genome Research (NCHGR), in 1989 to carry out the role of the NIH in the International Human Genome Project (HGP). The HGP was developed in collaboration with the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and began in 1990 to sequence the human genome. In 1993, NCHGR expanded its role on the NIH campus by establishing the Division of Intramural Research (DIR) to apply genome technologies to the study of specific diseases. In 1996, the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) was also established (co-funded by eight NIH institutes and centers) to study the genetic components of complex disorders.

In 1997 the United States Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) renamed NCHGR the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), officially elevating it to the status of research institute – one of 27 institutes and centers that make up the NIH.

The institute announced the successful sequencing of the human genome in April 2003, but there were still gaps remaining until the release of T2T-CHM13 by the Telomere-to-Telomere Consortium.

Organizational structure
NHGRI is organized into seven divisions and the Office of the Director. Four of these divisions support extramural research (the grant-giving side), one coordinates the intramural (on-campus) research arm of the institute, one deals with administration, management, and budget, and one serves as the public-facing side of the institute housing the communications, policy, and education teams.

History

 * October 1, 1988 – The Office for Human Genome Research is created within the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health (NIH). Also, NIH and the Department of Energy (DOE) sign a memorandum of understanding to "coordinate research and technical activities related to the human genome."
 * April 11, 1996 – Human DNA sequencing begins with pilot studies at six universities in the United States.
 * March 1999 – Large-scale sequencing of the human genome begins.
 * April 2003 – The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) celebrates the completion of the human genome sequence, the 50th anniversary of the description of the DNA double helix and the publication of the vision document for the future of genomics research.
 * May 4, 2007 – The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) and the National Cancer Institute (NCI), have teamed with Group Health Cooperative in Seattle and Henry Ford Health System in Detroit to launch the Multiplex Initiative, a study to investigate the interest level of healthy, young adults in receiving genetic testing for eight common conditions.
 * May 28, 2008 – Francis S. Collins steps down as director of the institute after serving for fifteen of the nineteen years of its operation. Alan Edward Guttmacher has been appointed acting director while a new permanent director is sought.
 * November 17, 2009 – NIH Appoints Eric D. Green, M.D., Ph.D. to be director of The National Human Genome Research Institute. It is the first time an institute director has risen to lead the entire NIH and subsequently picked his own successor.

Past directors
Past directors from 1989 - present

CEER centers
In 1990 as part of the Human Genome Project, the NHGRI dedicated 5% of its annual budget to explore the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomic research. This program's current priorities focus on the ethical applications of genomics to as it applies to communities, families, and individuals in areas such as healthcare, research, defense, intellectual property, regulation, policy, and larger social issues. In 2004 the ELSI program established several Centers for Excellence in ELSI research (CEER). It was funded with substantial contributions from the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. CEER centers have a common focus on the ethical, social, and legal implications resulting from the advances in genomic research.

The initial centers were This center is focused on equitable distribution and use of translational genome research in underserved and marginalized communities. CGHE has several cores working to address different lenses of health disparities, genomic research, and outreach education. These cores include the Partnership core, the Genome Sciences core, the Healthcare Decision-making core and the Indigenous Genomics Alliance.
 * Case Western Reserve University's Center for Genetic Research Ethics and Law (CGREAL); Eric Juengst, Ph.D., $5.3 million
 * The Duke Center for the Study of Public Genomics; Robert Cook-Deegan, M.D., $4.8 million
 * Stanford University School of Medicine's Center for Integration of Research on Genetics and Ethics; Mildred Cho, Ph.D., $3.8 million
 * University of Washington's Center for Genomics and Healthcare Equality; Wylie Burke, M.D., Ph.D., $4.7 million

Funding
The NHGRI is publicly funded. In support of moving to a translational model, the NHGRI published their funding mechanisms for ELSI research. FY 2020 NIH funding was $650.6 million.


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Afrofuturism

Afrofuturism is a cultural aesthetic, philosophy of science, and history that explores the intersection of the African diaspora culture with science and technology. It addresses themes and concerns of the African diaspora through technoculture and speculative fiction, encompassing a range of media and artists with a shared interest in envisioning black futures that stem from Afro-diasporic experiences. While Afrofuturism is most commonly associated with science fiction, it can also encompass other speculative genres such as fantasy, alternate history and magic realism. The term was coined by American cultural critic Mark Dery in 1993 and explored in the late 1990s through conversations led by Alondra Nelson.

Ytasha L. Womack, writer of Afrofuturism: The World of Black Sci-Fi and Fantasy Culture, defines it as "an intersection of imagination, technology, the future and liberation". She also follows up with a quote by the curator Ingrid LaFleur who defines it as "a way of imagining possible futures through a black cultural lens". Kathy Brown paraphrases Bennett Capers' 2019 work in stating that Afrofuturism is about "forward thinking as well as backward thinking, while having a distressing past, a distressing present, but still looking forward to thriving in the future". Others have said that the genre is "fluid and malleable", bringing together technology, African culture, and "other influences".

Seminal Afrofuturistic works include the novels of Samuel R. Delany and Octavia Butler; the canvases of Jean-Michel Basquiat and Angelbert Metoyer, and the photography of Renée Cox; the explicitly extraterrestrial mythoi of Parliament-Funkadelic, Earth, Wind and Fire with their overt Afrocentric symbolism bold performance attire and hopeful visions of Black sovereignty, Herbie Hancock's partnership with Robert Springett and other visual artists, while developing the use of synthesizers, the Jonzun Crew, Warp 9, Deltron 3030, Kool Keith, Sun Ra and the Marvel Comics superhero Black Panther.

Mid- to late 20th-century development In Music
Afrofuturism within music represents a diaspora of music that is non-traditional, focusing on the topic of blackness, space, and technology..

It heavily features the artificial sounds of synthesizers and drum machines while incorporating lyrical themes of black pride & history, progress, spirituality, and science fiction.

Studies on Afrofuturistic music highlight the genre's challenging of sonic norms by blending elements found in Hip-Hop, Jazz, R&B, Funk, and Electronic music. Melting together different sounds and cultures with Afrofuturist music emphasizes the otherworldly, alternative nature that defines most Afrofuturist works. When performed live, the genre has been observed to combine distinct sounds and sound cultures across the African Diaspora. Jamaican-American party host, DJ Kool Herc, was a well-renowned DJ in the 1970s. He was one of the many disc jockeys on the 70s New York music scene responsible for mixing Jamaica's signature hefty, booming sound systems with R&B and Rap, bass-heavy African American genres. This combination maximized audience immersion and storytelling capabilities. Present-day Afrofuturistic musicians, such as Hip-Hop duo, Outkast, and Jazz composer, Nicole Mitchell, have traces of DJ Kool Herc's multi-cultural influences in their song arrangements and performances, utilizing his signature beat isolation and sound systems  decades later. Afrofuturism was a label also retroactively applied to George Clinton and his bands Parliament and Funkadelic with his magnum opus Mothership Connection and the subsequent The Clones of Dr. Funkenstein, P-Funk Earth Tour, Funkentelechy Vs. the Placebo Syndrome, and Motor Booty Affair. George Clinton's work and appearance embody Afrofuturistic themes, sporting shiny, futuristic clothing both on and off stage, using sci-fi and cosmic album theming, and addressing Black history in his lyrics. Parliament's Mothership Connection was recognized for its themes of Black liberation and space in song arrangement, lyricism, and album visual aesthetics. The album cover art depicts a Black person, dressed head-to-toe in chrome, hanging out of a UFO in space. The album also introduces two of Clinton's alter egos, the Lollipop Man and Star Child. Parliament Funkadelic's strong worldbuilding and establishment of individualism and escapism in their work have been partly attributed to their inclusion of characters and alter egos in their music. Alter egos remain a staple in Afrofuturistic music, with Janelle Monáe, a notable contemporary musical artist, incorporating characters and sci-fi storylines into their Afrofuturistic music and album visuals.

This also applies to Jimi Hendrix's work such as Electric Ladyland and "Third Stone from the Sun".

Provoked by Miles Davis to use electric keyboards, Herbie Hancock quickly developed his taste for gadgets into an appreciation for electric and synthesized sounds. He did this in his solo career throughout the 1970s and 1980s, at the same time adopting tribal names for his group and increasingly using electronics in his music, in a techno-primitive direction. His record covers were a very important element in this aesthetic, involving artists such as Robert Springett, Victor Moscoso and Nobuyuki Nakanishi.

In 1975, Japanese artist Tadanori Yokoo used elements of science fiction, along with Eastern subterranean myths, to depict an advanced civilization in his design of the cover art for African-American jazz musician Miles Davis's live album Agharta.

Other musicians typically regarded as working in or greatly influenced by the Afrofuturist tradition include reggae producers Lee "Scratch" Perry and Scientist, hip-hop artists Afrika Bambaataa and Tricky, electronic musicians Larry Heard, A Guy Called Gerald, Juan Atkins, Jeff Mills, Newcleus and Lotti Golden & Richard Scher, writers of "Light Years Away", described as a "cornerstone of early 80's beatbox afrofuturism".

During the 1980s, the burgeoning Detroit techno scene also developed a futurist vision specific to Detroit's suburban black community.

A newer generation of artists are creating mainstream Afrofuturist music – for example, Janelle Monáe, Outkast, Missy Elliott, Solange, jazz composer Nicole Mitchell and Erykah Badu.

Cultural criticism in the 1990s
In the early 1990s, Mark Dery, in his 1993 essay "Black to the Future", began to write about the features he saw as common in African-American science fiction. Dery dubbed this phenomenon Afrofuturism. Afrofuturist art has been written about by scholars like Alondra Nelson, Greg Tate, Tricia Rose, Kodwo Eshun, and others. In an interview, Alondra Nelson explained Afrofuturism as a way of looking at the subject position of black people which covers themes of alienation and aspirations for a utopic future. The idea of "alien" or "other" is a theme often explored.

Additionally, Nelson says that discussions around race, access, and technology often bolster uncritical claims about a so-called "digital divide". Nelson is of the opinion that the digital divide overemphasizes the association of racial and economic inequality with limited access to technology, and that this association then begins to construct blackness "as always oppositional to technologically driven chronicles of progress".

21st century
Contemporary Afrofuturism often explores metaphysical areas such as "cosmogony, cosmology, and speculative philosophy". A new generation of recording artists has embraced Afrofuturism through their music and fashion, including Solange Knowles, Rihanna, and Beyoncé. Other artists such as Erykah Badu, Missy Elliott and Janelle Monáe have expanded on these themes incorporating the use of cyborg and metallic visuals into their style. Other 21st century musicians who have been characterized as Afrofuturist include singer FKA Twigs, musical duo Ibeyi, musical artist Spoek Mathambo, DJ/producer Ras G, and musician and filmmaker Flying Lotus.

Janelle Monáe's work emphasizes Afofuturist themes in urban contemporary music. Her notable works include the music videos "Prime Time" and "Many Moons", which explore the realms of slavery and freedom through the world of cyborgs and the fashion industry. She is credited with proliferating Afrofuturist funk into a new neo-Afrofuturism by use of her Metropolis-inspired alter-ego, Cindi Mayweather, who incites a rebellion against the Great Divide, a secret society, in order to liberate citizens who have fallen under their oppression. This ArchAndroid role reflects earlier Afrofuturistic figures Sun Ra and George Clinton, who created their own visuals as extraterrestrial beings rescuing African-Americans from the oppressive natures of Earth. Other influences include Blade Runner and Star Wars. Additionally, Monae expanded contemporary Afrofuturist explorations to literary media. In 2022, Monae released a companion to her 2018 album, Dirty Computer, called The Memory Librarian: And Other Stories of Dirty Computer.

Janelle Monae uses technology to shed light on current social and political issues which is a key factor of Afrofuturism. This is evident in The Memory Librarian: and Other Stories by Dirty Computer. The first example of technology being used as a warning of what is to come if we do not proceed with caution and change our current socio-political climate, as well as a symbol for future and current ways of oppression. In this story, technology is used to wipe memories. Hence, its victims are reborn without knowing their past selves, only what they have been conditioned to believe according to the “Standards.” Those who are in minority groups, such as BIPOC and the LGBTQ+, are seen as “Dirty” and must be wiped clean. Monae expands on this on page fourteen when Seshet goes out with Alethia, “With New Dawn, any gender nonconformity is enough to get you a deviant code appended to your number-dirty computer, recommended for urgent cleaning- and she doesn’t want to flag anyone tonight”. The “urgent cleaning” that Seshet contemplates is wiping out one’s memory. This is shown visually in her short film “Dirty Computer.” Monae highlights how oppressors can easily use technology to control the oppressed.

The other two examples of how Monae uses technology to showcase the relationship between humans is how AI is utilized in a more technologically advanced way as well as Seshet, the Director Memory Librarian, amongst others in an authoritative position able to access people's dreams and memories as a way to ensure they follow the “Standards” and are not classified as a “Dirty Computer.”

Janelle Monae's artistic vision extends beyond mere entertainment, serving as a reflection of present realities and a cautionary tale for the future. By embracing Afrofuturist themes and leveraging technology as a narrative device, Monae invites audiences to confront uncomfortable truths and contemplate the potential consequences of unchecked power and systemic injustice. Through her music and storytelling, Monae continues to use artistic expression to challenge societal norms for a more equitable and inclusive future.

Additional musical artists to emerge since the turn of the millennium regarded as Afrofuturist include dBridge, SBTRKT, Shabazz Palaces, Heavyweight Dub Champion, and Drexciya (with Gerald Donald).

Other artists include visual artists Hebru Brantley as well as contemporary artist Rashid Johnson, a Chicago native currently based in New York. In 2013, Chicago resident Ytasha L. Womack wrote the study Afrofuturism: The World of Black Science Fiction and Fantasy, and William Hayashi has published all three volumes of his Darkside Trilogy which tells the story of what happens in America when the country discovers African Americans secretly living on the backside of the moon since before the arrival of Neil Armstrong, an extreme vision of segregation imposed by technologically advanced blacks.

Krista Franklin, a member of University of Chicago's Arts Incubator, is currently exploring the relation between Afrofuturism and the grotesque through her visual and written work with weaves and collected hair. Recently, she also created an audio narrative in collaboration with another Afrofuturist, Perpetual Rebel, called The Two Thousand and Thirteen Narrative(s) of Naima Brown, which explores the ideas of identity and transformation within the context of hair and African-American culture.

The movement has grown globally in the arts. Afrofuturist Society was founded by curator Gia Hamilton in New Orleans. Artists like Demetrius Oliver from New York, Cyrus Kabiru from Nairobi, Lina Iris Viktor from Liberia, famed Nigerian-American solar muralist, Shala., and Wanuri Kahiu of Kenya have all steeped their work in the cosmos or sci-fi.

Today, Afrofuturism has been portrayed in popular movies like the feature film Black Panther. American costume designer Ruth E. Carter brought her vision to life. To best represent her work, she borrowed ideas from true African designs. "To imagine the fictional African nation of Wakanda, without the influence of [European colonizers], Ms. Carter borrowed from indigenous people across the continent." In early February 2021, it was announced that the companies of Idris Elba and his wife, Sabrina Dhowre, would be developing an Afrofuturist adult animated, sci-fi, series, tentatively titled Dantai, for Crunchyroll, which would be about a time when biotech has "created an ever-widening gap between the haves and have-nots". The series was also described as an "afropunk sci-fi series". In an April 2021 interview with Den of Geek, Idris Elba he said the series is "mainly the brainchild" of his wife, who he described as a "super geek when it comes to anime." Russell Contreras, in Axios, noted that Afrofuturism is growing in popularity, even as some worry it will be co-opted, and black writers announced in 2021, "Afrofuturist projects around gaming and virtual reality".

In February 2021, the Center for Afrofuturist Studies, located at Public Space One in Iowa City, celebrated its fifth anniversary, flourishing as a black artist space, and occupied by four artists (Antoine Williams, Donté Hayes, Deborah Goffe, and André M. Zachery), embodying Afrofuturism, flexibly defining the term, as envisioning black people in the future and how that "connects with science and technology and new discoveries" and how parts of black history shape "the future, community, self-determination, [and] working towards a goal" according to the center's coordinator, Dellyssa Edinboro.

In February 2023, Megan Jordan of Rolling Stone argued that the series My Dad the Bounty Hunter is an "Afrofuturist marvel" which tells a futuristic and relatable story that "center[s] Black characters while expanding the audience’s imagination", provides thoughts of what the world could be "in true Black sci-fi fashion", and normalizes "Black heroism for future generations". The series premiered the same month. It was later renewed for a second season, as stated in May 2023.

Literature and comics
The creation of the term Afrofuturism, in the 1990s, was often primarily used to categorize "speculative fiction that treats African-American themes and addresses African-American concerns in the context of 20th-century technoculture," but was soon expanded to include artistic, scientific, and spiritual practices throughout the African diaspora. Contemporary practice retroactively identifies and documents historical instances of Afrofuturist practice and integrates them into the canon. For example, the Dark Matter anthologies edited by Sheree Thomas feature contemporary black science fiction, discuss Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man in her introduction, "Looking for the Invisible", and also include older works by W. E. B. Du Bois, Charles W. Chesnutt, and George S. Schuyler.

Lisa Yazsek argues that Ralph Ellison's 1952 novel, Invisible Man, should be thought of as a predecessor to Afrofuturist literature. Yaszek believes that Ellison does not offer any other futures so that the next generation of authors can.

A number of contemporary science fiction and speculative fiction authors have also been characterized as Afrofuturist or as employing Afrofuturist themes by one person or another. Nancy Farmer won a Newbery Honor for her afrofuturist young adult novel The Ear, the Eye, and the Arm. Steven Barnes has been called an Afrofuturist author for his alternate-history novels Lion's Blood and Zulu Heart. N.K. Jemisin, Nalo Hopkinson, and Colson Whitehead have also been referred to as Afrofuturist authors. Butler inspired a movement with vision amongst the black speculative fiction writers. Octavia Butler's novels are often associated with Afrofuturism; this association has been somewhat controversial, since Butler incorporates multi-ethnic and multi-species communities that insist on "hybridity beyond the point of discomfort". In Samuel R. Delany's "The Mirror of Afrofuturism," in which he claims Afrofuturism as a genre does not exist, he explains how Butler, specifically her 2003 short story "Amnesty", contains "something more powerful than any local notion of what creates racial distinctions." However, the fourth book of the science fiction Patternist series, Wild Seed, particularly fits ideas of Afrofuturist thematic concerns, as the narrative of two immortal Africans Doro and Anyanwu features science fiction technologies and an alternate anti-colonialist history of seventeenth century America. At the most straightforward sci-fi stories (likewise alluded to in this book as Sci-Fi and SF) is a social classification worried about parts of futurism, envisioned advances as well as between planetarism. Those focuses or direction take into consideration a wide scope of enunciations and theories regarding the dystopian or utopian parts of future (or potentially elective) lives or real factors, including, in numerous examples, contact with outsider others. In other words, good fiction writing should not be judged by a person's color or race.

Tim Fielder's 2021 graphic novel Infinitum: An Afrofuturist Tale features the partially historical narrative of an immortal African king.

In February 2021, the New York Times reported that in the coming year, fans would see a number of graphic novels and comics with Afrofuturist themes, including some devoted to the fictional gene, and "reissues of Afrofuturist titles from comic-book houses like DC and Dark Horse." This includes the new novels After the Rain, Hardears, Black Star, and Infinitum, the latter by Tim Fielder, a new installment of N.K. Jemisin's Far Sector, The Black Panther by Ta-Nehisi Coates and many other re-issued comics like E.X.O., along with an upcoming animated series named Iwájú. Around the same time, Kenyan artist Kevo Abbra, inspired by Afrofuturism in the 1990s, was interviewed, explaining how artistic expression has developed over time and his current artistic style. The first issue of the new Black Panther series was released on 16 February.

Museum and gallery exhibitions
As a part of the MOMA's PS1 festival, King Britt curated Moondance: A Night in the Afro Future in 2014. From noon to six p.m. on 13 April, people could attend Moondance and listen to lectures, live music or watch dance performances in celebration of Afrofuturism in contemporary culture. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture held a seminal group show of Visual Afrofuturists focusing on unambiguous science fiction and fantasy based art. The show, titled 'Unveiling Visions: The Alchemy of the Black Imagination' ran from 1 October 2015 – 16 January 2016. The closing night coincided with the Schomburg Black Comic Book Day. Unveiling Visions was curated by artist John Jennings (co-founder of artist duo, Black Kirby w/Professor Stacey Robinson) and Afrofuturist Scholar, Reynaldo Anderson (founder of The Black Speculative Arts Movement). The show featured artists such as Tony Puryear, Sheeba Maya, Mshindo Kuumba, Eric Wilkerson, Manzel Bowman, Grey Williamson, Tim Fielder, Stacey Robinson, and Shawn Alleyne. Unveiling Visions liner notes state: "exhibition includes artifacts from the Schomburg collections that are connected to Afrofuturism, black speculative imagination and Diasporan cultural production. Offering a fresh perspective on the power of speculative imagination and the struggle for various freedoms of expression in popular culture, Unveiling Visions showcases illustrations and other graphics that highlight those popularly found in science fiction, magical realism and fantasy. Items on display include film posters, comics, T-shirts, magazines, CD covers, playbills, religious literature, and more."

In April 2016, Niama Safia Sandy curated an exhibit entitled "Black Magic: AfroPasts / Afrofutures" at the Corridor Gallery in Brooklyn, New York. The multidisciplinary art exhibit looks at the relationship between magical realism and afrofuturism through the black diaspora. In a description of the collection, Sandy stated: "There's a lot of looking back and looking forward happening in this work... [and there's a lot of] celebrating those journeys whether they are intentional or forced journeys."

The exhibition Afro-Tech and the Future of Re-Invention ran from 21 October 2017 until 22 April 2018 at Dortmunder U in Dortmund, Germany and looked at "speculative visions of the future and current developments in the field of digital technology by artists and inventors from Africa and the African diaspora...."

These Afrofuturist artists used their art as revolution in that they saw its purpose as inspiring black people to imagine new possibilities and futures.

"Black Metropolis: 30 Years of Afrofuturism, Comics, Music, Animation, Decapitated Chickens, Heroes, Villains and Negroes" was a one-man show focusing on the career of cartoonist and visual afrofuturist, Tim Fielder. The show, designed to travel over multiple gallery spaces, opened at New York Gallatin Galleries from 23 to 30 May 2016. Curated by Boston Fielder, the exhibit featured both published and unpublished work ranging from independent comics art for alternative magazine, Between C & D and mainstream comics work done for Marvel Comics. Black Metropolis was revived at The Hammonds House Museum in Atlanta, Georgia for the museum's 30th Anniversary, from 12 October–25 November 2018.

Afrofuturism Art coincides with Afrofuturism Literature occasionally, such as in science fiction comic books. Just as Afrofuturism explores possibilities, so do the art in Afrofuturism comic books. For example, Black Panther, the movie and comic book is a form of Afrofuturism Literature.

In 2021, the Metropolitan Museum of Art opened Before Yesterday We Could Fly: An Afrofuturist Period Room, an art exhibition engaging themes of Afrofuturism in a "period room" format of installation, envisioning the past, present, and future home of someone who lived in Seneca Village, a largely African American settlement destroyed to make way for the construction of Central Park in the mid-1800s.

In 2022, the Hayward Gallery organised an exhibition of 11 contemporary artists from the African diaspora, who draw on science fiction, myth and Afrofuturism to question our knowledge of the world, curated by Ekow Eshun. Some of the artists included in the exhibition were Nick Cave, Rashad Newsome, Kara Walker, Hew Locke, Wangechi Mutu, Lina Iris Viktor and Ellen Gallagher.

Starting on March 24, 2023, and lasting a year, the NMAAHC opened an exhibit titled Afrofuturism: A History of Black Futures. The museum also released an accompanying book called with the same name.

Feminism
Jared Richardson's Attack of the Boogeywoman: Visualizing Black Women's Grotesquerie in Afrofuturism assesses how the aesthetic functions as a space for black women to engage with the intersection of topics such as race, gender, and sexuality. The representation and treatment of black female bodies is deconstructed by Afrofuturist contemporaries and amplified to alien and gruesome dimensions by artists such as Wangechi Mutu and Shoshanna Weinberger.

Beyoncé's 2016 short film Lemonade included feminist afrofuturism in its concept. The film featured music duo Ibeyi, artist Laolu Senbanjo, actresses Amandla Stenberg, Quvenzhané Wallis, and Zendaya, as well as YouTube singing stars Chloe x Halle, ballet dancer Michaela DePrince, and 2015 Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year Serena Williams, and the sophisticated womanist poetry of Somali-British writer Warsan Shire. The mothers of Trayvon Martin (Sybrina Fulton), Michael Brown (Lesley McFadden), Eric Garner (Gwen Carr) are featured holding pictures of their deceased sons in homage to the importance of their lives.

The grotesque
In D. Scot Miller's Afro-Surreal Manifesto, Afro-Surrealism is juxtaposed with European surrealism, with European surrealism being empirical. It is consistent with Trey Ellis' essay, "The New Black Aesthetic" in that the art seeks to disturb. Afro-Futuristic art samples from old art pieces updating them with current images. This technique calls to the forefront those past images and the sentiments, memories, or ideas around them and combines them with new images in a way that those of the current generation can still identify. Afro-Futuristic artists seek to propose a deviant beauty, a beauty in which disembodiment is both inhumane, yet distinct; Afro-Futuristic artists speculate on the future, where Afro-Surrealism is about the present.

Alienation
Afrofuturism takes representations of the lived realities of black people in the past and present, and reexamines the narratives to attempt to build new truths outside of the dominant cultural narrative. By analyzing the ways in which alienation has occurred, Afrofuturism works to connect the African diaspora with its histories and knowledge of racialized bodies. Space and aliens function as key products of the science fiction elements; black people are envisioned to have been the first aliens by way of the Middle Passage. Their alien status connotes being in a foreign land with no history, but as also being disconnected from the past via the traditions of slavery where slaves were made to renounce their ties to Africa in service of their slave master.

Kodwo Eshun locates the first alienation within the context of the Middle Passage. He writes that Afrofuturist texts work to reimagine slavery and alienation by using "extraterritoriality as a hyperbolic trope to explore the historical terms, the everyday implications of forcibly imposed dislocation, and the constitution of Black Atlantic subjectivities". This location of dystopian futures and present realities places science fiction and novels built around dystopian societies directly in the tradition of black realities.

Water
In many different Afrofuturist works, water and black women are symbolically linked in their connection to both the erasure and emergence of black life. These meanings, while seemingly contradictory, actually play off and inform each other. Examples of Afrofuturist work dealing with the theme of water include the 2009 Kenyan film Pumzi, various songs in Beyonce's Lemonade, the work of Detroit Techno group Drexciya, and Kara Walker's 2019 sculpture Fons Americanus.

Reclamation
Afrofuturism has to do with reclaiming those identities or perspectives that have been lost. When Mark Dery coined the term, he saw Afrofuturism as giving rise to "a troubling antinomy: Can a community whose past has been deliberately rubbed out, and whose energies have subsequently been consumed by the search for legible traces of its history, imagine possible futures?" Furthermore, Afrofuturism is not restricted to any single medium; there are Afrofuturist novels and musical works. But whatever the medium, Afrofuturism involves reclaiming some type of agency over one's story, a story that has been told, throughout much of history, by official culture in the name of white power. It is for this reason that Dery says, "African-American culture is Afrofuturist at its heart."

Queerness
In her article “Race and Sexuality in Nalo Hopkinson’s Oeuvre; or, Queer Afrofuturism,” Amandine H. Faucheux coins the term "queer Afrofuturism" to describe a certain sub-genre of Afrofuturist works that include themes of queerness, sexuality, and the social and personal meaning of the body. She defines queer Afrofuturism as “an intersectional approach to Afrofuturism that examines the complex and intricate relationships between race and sexuality”. Her article includes an exploration of the history of both Afrofuturism and black queer theory, as well as an in-depth exploration of some of author Nalo Hopkinson's works as prime examples of existing queer Afrofuturist literature. For Faucheux, the presence of queerness in Afrofuturism “illuminates the functions of racial and sexual metaphors in speculative contexts in general”.

In film
In film, Afrofuturism is the incorporation of black people's history and culture in science fiction film and related genres. The Guardian's Ashley Clark said the term Afrofuturism has "an amorphous nature" but that Afrofuturist films are "united by one key theme: the centring of the international black experience in alternate and imagined realities, whether fiction or documentary; past or present; science fiction or straight drama". The New York Times's Glenn Kenny said, "Afrofuturism is more prominent in music and the graphic arts than it is in cinema, but there are movies out there that illuminate the notion in different ways."

With the release of Marvel's Black Panther in 2018, Afrofuturism was ushered into the cultural spotlight across the world cinematic stage. In North America alone, it made history as the third highest-grossing film in history, reviving mainstream interest in Afrofuturism. It defied stereotypes of Africa as disease- and war-stricken and fueled feelings of black pride in viewers.

In series
In 2023, Disney+ 's sci-fi animation series Kizazi Moto: Generation Fire revolved around afro-futuristic tales citing diverse culture themes as well as tales from Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Nigeria and Uganda. Spiderman's executive producer Peter Ramsey supported the release of the series and stipulated "I really want people to come away with the idea that Africa really is as much part of pop culture as America or Europe or anywhere else." to CNN.

Difference from Africanfuturism
In 2019, Nnedi Okorafor, a Nigerian-American writer of fantasy and science fiction, began strongly rejecting the term "afrofuturism" as a label for her work and coined the terms "Africanfuturism" and "Africanjujuism" to describe her works and works like hers. In October 2019, she published an essay titled "Defining Africanfuturism" that defines both terms in detail. In that essay, she defined Africanfuturism as a sub-category of science fiction that is "directly rooted in African culture, history, mythology and point-of-view and does not privilege or center the West", is centered with optimistic "visions in the future", and is written (and centered on) "people of African descent" while rooted in the African continent. As such, its center is African, often does extend upon the continent of Africa, and includes the black diaspora, including fantasy that is set in the future, making a narrative "more science fiction than fantasy" and typically has mystical elements. She differentiated this from Afrofuturism, which she said "positioned African American themes and concerns" at the center of its definition. She also described Africanjujuism as a subcategory of fantasy that "acknowledges the seamless blend of true existing African spiritualities and cosmologies with the imaginative."

In August 2020, Hope Wabuke, a writer and assistant professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln of English and creative writing, noted that Afrofuturism, coined by Mark Dery, a white critic, in 1993, treats African-American themes and concerns in the "context of twentieth-century technoculture", which was later expanded by Alondra Nelson, arguing that Dery's conception of blackness began in 1619 and "is marked solely by the ensuing 400 years of violation by whiteness" that he portrayed as "potentially irreparable". Critical of this definition, saying it lacks the qualities of the "Black American diasporic imagination" and ability to conceive of "Blackness outside of the Black American diaspora" or independent from whiteness, Wabuke further explains how Africanfuturism is more specific and rids itself of the "othering of the white gaze and the de facto colonial Western mindset", free from what she calls the "white Western gaze" and saying this is the main difference "between Afrofuturism and Africanfuturism". She adds that, in her view, Africanfuturism has a different outlook and perspective than "mainstream Western and American science fiction and fantasy" and even Afrofuturism which is "married to the white Western gaze". Wabuke goes on to explain Africanfuturist and Africanjujuist themes in Okorafor's Who Fears Death and Zahrah the Windseeker, Akwaeke Emezi's Pet, and Buchi Emecheta's The Rape of Shavi.

In February 2021, Aigner Loren Wilson of Tor.com explained the difficulty of finding books in the subgenre because many institutions "treat Africanfuturism and Afrofuturism like the same thing" even though the distinction between them is plain. She said that Africanfuturism is "centered in and about Africa and their people" while Afrofuturism is a sci-fi subcategory which is about "Black people within the diaspora", often including stories of those outside Africa, including in "colonized Western societies". Wilson further outlined a list of stories and books from the genre, highlighting Africanfuturism: An Anthology (edited by Wole Talabi), Namwali Serpell's The Old Drift, Nnedi Okorafor's Lagoon, Nicky Drayden's The Prey of Gods, Oghenechovwen Donald Ekpeki's Ife-Iyoku, the Tale of Imadeyunuagbon, and Tochi Onyebuchi's War Girls. Another reviewer called Okorafor's Lagoon, which "recounts the story of the arrival of aliens in Nigeria", as an Africanfuturist work which requires a reader who is "actively engaged in co-creating the alternative future that the novel is constructing", meaning that the reader becomes part of the "creative conversation".

Gary K. Wolfe reviewed Africanfuturism: An Anthology, which was edited by Wole Talabi, in February 2021. He credits Nnedi Okorafor for coining "Africanfuturism", noting its describes "more Africa-centered SF", although saying he is not sure whether her term "Africanjujuism", a parallel term for fantasy, will catch on. While saying that both are useful, he says that he does not like how they have to "do with the root, not the prefix", with "futurism" only describing a bit of science fiction and fantasy. He still calls the book a "solid anthology", saying it challenges the idea of viewing African science fiction as monolithic. Stories in the book include "Egoli" by T. L. Huchu, "Yat Madit" by Dilman Dila, "Behind Our Irises" by Tlotlo Tsamaase, "Fort Kwame" by Derek Lubangakene, "Rainmaker" by Mazi Nwonwu, "Fruit of the Calabash" by Rafeeat Aliyu, "Lekki Lekki" by Mame Bougouma Diene, and "Sunrise" by Nnedi Okorafor.

Financial Times writer David Pilling wrote that Africancentrism "draws on the past, both real and imagined, to depict a liberated version of the future" which is planted in the African, rather than African-American, experience. He also notes criticism of Black Panther from some like Patrick Gathara, who says its depiction of Africa "differs little from the colonial view", and that one of Okorafor's books, Binti, is being "adapted for television by Hulu", arguing that its success is part of a wave of Africanfuturism.

Academic

 * (Afrofuturist Film)
 * Nelson, Alondra (Spring 2000). "Afrofuturism: Past-Future Visions." Color Lines: 34–37.
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Nelson, Alondra (Spring 2000). "Afrofuturism: Past-Future Visions." Color Lines: 34–37.
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Nelson, Alondra (Spring 2000). "Afrofuturism: Past-Future Visions." Color Lines: 34–37.
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Nelson, Alondra (Spring 2000). "Afrofuturism: Past-Future Visions." Color Lines: 34–37.
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Nelson, Alondra (Spring 2000). "Afrofuturism: Past-Future Visions." Color Lines: 34–37.
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Dark Matter
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones
 * Dark Matter: Reading the Bones

Other

 * Afrofuturism: A History of Black Futures Exhibitions.
 * Afrofuturism Has Always Looked Forward Taylor Crumpton, Clever (August 24, 2020)
 * Afrofuturism The Criterion Channel
 * How Black Women Are Reshaping Afrofuturism Yes! (April 24, 2020)
 * How Black Women Are Reshaping Afrofuturism Yes! (April 24, 2020)

title: Afrofuturism


text:
IIC

IIC may refer to
 * Itahari International College, IT and Business college in Morang, Nepal.
 * Apple IIc, a personal computer introduced by Apple Computer in April 1984
 * Institute of Informatics and Communication, University of Delhi South Campus
 * I²C, Inter-Integrated Circuit, a serial computer bus
 * Impact insulation class, a method of determining how effective a floor structure is to footfall noise
 * Independent Inquiry Committee, a UN committee commissioned with investigating alleged corruption and fraud in the Oil-for-Food Programme
 * India International Centre, New Delhi, India
 * Industrial Internet Consortium, founded in 2014 to further development, adoption and widespread use of interconnected machines, intelligent analytics and people at work.
 * Instituto de Ingeniería del Conocimiento The Knowledge Engineering Institute (CII) is a Spanish research, development and innovation center located on the campus of Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (UAM)
 * International Institute for Conservation, the global membership organisation for conservation professionals
 * International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law, a publication in intellectual property law
 * Israeli Intelligence Community
 * Istituto Italiano di Cultura, an Italian Cultural Institute of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

title: IIC


text: User talk:209.56.48.3

title: User talk:209.56.48.3


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting/Criteria/Current

This is a tree of all categories under Category:Stub_categories as of the 9 Feb, 2005 database dump. Let me know if you need articles included or need an update. -- Beland 15:07, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

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Pollok House

Pollok House, formerly the family seat of the Stirling-Maxwell family, is located at Pollok Country Park in Glasgow, Scotland (which also houses the Burrell Collection).

Overview
The house, built in 1752 and originally thought to be designed by William Adam (but who may only have been consulted on the design), was subsequently extended by Rowand Anderson in the early 20th century. It was given to the City of Glasgow in 1966 by Dame Anne Maxwell Macdonald, whose family had owned the estate for almost 700 years. It is now managed by the National Trust for Scotland (NTS) and is open to the public. The house was modernised internally in 1899 by Alexander Hunter Crawford.

Displayed within Pollok House is a large, private collection of Spanish paintings, including works by El Greco, Francisco Goya, Alonso Sánchez Coello and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. There are also paintings by Rubens and William Blake, as well as glass, silverware, porcelain and antique furniture. The house features servants' quarters downstairs (accessible free of charge), which include two shops and a restaurant.

The house has an extensive garden, boasting a collection of over 1,000 species of rhododendrons. The gardens behind the main house contain the Pollok Park Beech (Fagus sylvatical), which is thought to be 250 years old. This tree has an unusual form, with a swollen trunk (7 m girth at grade and 10 m girth at 10 m height) and a gnarled mass of branches.

There is also a complex of offices, stables and a sawmill, part of which dates from the 18th century. The stone arch bridge leading to the house over the White Cart Water was constructed in 1757. The heraldic lions on the gate piers were carved by John Marshall to a design by Huw Lorimer in 1950.

In September 2023, the NTS announced that the house would close from the following November for approximately two years to allow for the second phase of a £4 million renovation project.

title: Pollok House


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Auditing (Scientology)

Auditing, also known as processing, is the core practice of Scientology. Scientologists believe that the role of auditing is to improve a person's abilities and to reduce or eliminate their neuroses. The Scientologist is asked questions about past events while holding two metal cylinders attached to an electrical resistance meter (galvanometer) with a dial. The term "auditing" was coined by L. Ron Hubbard in his 1950 book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, which describes the process. Auditing uses techniques from hypnosis that are intended to create dependency and obedience in the subject.

The auditing process involves repeated questioning forming an extended series. It may take several questions to complete a process, several processes together are a rundown, several rundowns completed and the Scientologist is deemed to have advanced another level on the Bridge to Total Freedom. The Scientologist believes that completing all the levels on the Bridge will return him to his native spiritual state, free of the encumbrances of the physical universe.

The electrical device, termed an E-meter, is an integral part of auditing procedure, and Hubbard made numerous unsupported claims of health benefits. The Food and Drug Administration prosecuted Hubbard for practicing medicine without a license. Since 1971, Scientology now publishes disclaimers in its books and publications declaring that the E-Meter "by itself does nothing", and that it is used specifically for spiritual purposes, not for mental or physical health.

Terminology
L. Ron Hubbard assigned special meanings to many ordinary English words when he wrote about Scientology, and Scientologese has become a language in itself. These are some very basic meanings of words Scientology uses when describing this subject.

 * Auditing : The procedures where two individuals work together to improve one of the person's abilities and to reduce or eliminate their neuroses.

 * Auditor : A trained Scientologist who is helping another individual through the use of auditing techniques. An auditor is only allowed to audit processes (on others) up to the level of training they have completed (their 'class').

 * Preclear : The person being helped by an auditor. Also called a "PC".

 * Case : The collection of all the preclear's upsets and emotional baggage which auditing is trying to relieve. A preclear's case level is how far a preclear has advanced on the Bridge to Total Freedom.

 * Session : A single time when an auditor and preclear sit down to do some auditing. It might be for a few minutes or a few hours.

 * Process : A specific step in auditing. It may consist of repeatedly asking the preclear the same question (an auditing command) until there is no more upset on that question. Many processes are run during a single session.

 * Rundown : A series of processes designed to handle a specific aspect of a case, such as communication, problems, or happiness. It may take many sessions to complete a rundown.

 * End phenomenon : Abbreviated "EP", it is what an auditor is looking for that indicates a process, session or rundown has been completed. The EP of a process might be that the preclear realizes something, is happy about it, and the e-meter is showing certain needle movements. The EP of a session might be that several processes have been performed, and the preclear is very happy about it so it is a good point to stop for the day. A rundown would have a specific EP, such as all auditing questions for the rundown have been asked, and the preclear has experienced some sort of realization such as saying they feel they could now communicate freely with anyone on any subject.

 * Intensive : An "intensive" is a block of 12 1/2 hours purchased in advance by the preclear for auditing services. Auditing is to occur intensively so that the 12 1/2 hours is performed within one week. At the end of each session, the hours and minutes used are written down on a form in the preclear's folder, deducted from the amount on account, and the balance is calculated.

Description
Auditing in Scientology is an activity where a trained Scientologist, known as an auditor, listens and asks the subject, who is referred to as a "preclear", or more often as a "PC", various questions. L. Ron Hubbard incorporated several hypnotic techniques into auditing practice. It is designed to induce a light hypnotic state and create dependency and obedience in the auditing subject.

Auditing involves the use of "processes", which are sets of questions asked or directions given by an auditor. Based on a prior interview looking for "charged" subjects—"charge" being that which prevents the PC from thinking on a subject or getting rid of a subject or approaching a subject—on the E-meter, found by asking questions to the PC in regard to them and their fancied case. When the specific objective of any one "process" is achieved, the process is ended, and another can then be started. Through auditing, the subjects are said to free themselves from barriers that inhibit their natural abilities. Charged areas can be viewed as areas of misinformation or lies. Once uncovered, they dissipate as their truth becomes apparent and the charge is eliminated once viewed for what it really is, an untruth.

The code outlines a series of 29 promises, which include pledges such as:
 * Not to evaluate for the preclear or tell him what he should think about his case in session
 * Not to invalidate the preclear's case or gains in or out of session
 * Never to use the secrets of a preclear divulged in session for punishment or personal gain

The main intention of an auditing session is to remove "charged incidents" that have caused trauma, which are believed in Scientology to be stored in the "reactive mind". These incidents must then be eliminated for proper functioning.

In 1952, auditing techniques "began to focus on the goal of exteriorizing the thetan" with the goal of providing complete spiritual awareness.

Preclear
The "preclear" or "PC" is the person who is being audited—the client, formerly called the "patient". At most levels of auditing, there are two people present: the auditor is the one asking questions, and the preclear is the one answering them. In some of the upper levels, a person audits oneself, being both auditor and preclear at the same time. The term was created back when the ultimate goal of auditing was to create a person who had been cleared, ergo the person being audited was pre-Clear. However, even after Hubbard created the upper levels, the term preclear was still used even if the person had surpassed the state of Clear. The term has continued to represent the role in auditing rather than the level the person has attained.

During an auditing session, the auditor writes down the questions and the preclear's answers, and the papers are stored in the client's PC folder (preclear folder).

E-meter
Most auditing sessions employ a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer or E-Meter. It consists of two tin cans connected to a galvanometer. It gives a crude measure of skin resistance.

According to L. Ron Hubbard, the development of the E-Meter enabled auditing techniques and made it more precise. Later, the E-Meter was used to identify which processes should (and could) be run and equally crucially, to determine when to stop running a particular action. As a repair tool, the E-Meter reacts to a list of possible difficulties and relevant phrases, called out by the auditor, helping to guide the auditor to the difficulty. Hubbard clarified how the E-Meter should be used in conjunction with auditing:

Hubbard claimed that the device also has such sensitivity that it can measure whether or not fruits can experience pain, claiming in 1968 that tomatoes "scream when sliced".

Scientology teaches that individuals are immortal souls or spirits (called thetans by Scientology) and are not limited to a single lifetime. Scientologists state that the E-Meter aids the auditor in locating subliminal memories ("engrams", "incidents", and "implants") of past events in a thetan's current life and in previous ones. In such Scientology publications as Have You Lived Before This Life, Hubbard wrote about past life experiences dating back billions and even trillions of years.

When various foundations of Dianetics were formed in the 1950s, auditing sessions were a hybrid of confession, counseling and psychotherapy. According to Passas and Castillo, the E-Meter was used to "disclose truth to the individual who is being processed and thus free him spiritually".

Bridge to Total Freedom
The Bridge to Total Freedom (Bridge), also known as the Classification, Gradation and Awareness Chart (grade chart), is Scientology's primary road map to guide a person through the sequential steps to attain Scientology's concept of spiritual freedom. In Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard used the analogy of a bridge: "We are here at a bridge between one state of Man and a next. We are above the chasm which divides a lower from a higher plateau and this chasm marks an artificial evolutionary step in the progress of Man.[...] In this handbook we have the basic axioms and a therapy which works. For God's sake, get busy and build a better bridge!" The current Classification, Gradation and Awareness Chart is printed with red ink on white paper and hangs as a poster in every Scientology organization. A newcomer to Scientology starts the Bridge at the bottom of the chart and rises through the levels, perhaps reaching the level of Clear, then continuing upward through the OT Levels to higher states of awareness and ability. Ultimately, the Scientologist hopes to become, as the sociologist David G. Bromley puts it, "an immortal, godlike expression of the life force".

Procedure
Each Grade on the Bridge has a list of processes that auditors should run. Some auditing actions use commands, for example "Recall a time you knew you understood someone," and some auditing actions use questions such as, "What are you willing for me to talk to others about?" Below are sample commands from processes run in each Grade.

 * ARC Straightwire: "Recall a communication."
 * Grade 0: "Recall a place from which you have communicated to another."
 * Grade I: "Recall a problem you have had with another."
 * Grade II: "Recall a secret."
 * Grade III: "Can you recall a time of change?"
 * Grade IV: "What about a victim you could be responsible for?"

Each Grade is targeted at a specific area of potential difficulty a person might have. The working hypothesis is that if the subject matter is not "charged"; in other words, if it is not causing any difficulty, then it will not read on the E-meter, and therefore will not be run.

John H. Wolfe differentiates auditing from interrogation, prayer, meditation, confession or hypnosis, instead likening it to nondirective therapy: "In its general philosophy and approach, auditing is closest to the nondirective therapy of Carl Rogers (1961), who stressed the importance of having the client find the client's own answers, while the counselor refrains from interpretation, but listens with empathic understanding. Auditing differs from Roger's approach by having the auditor direct the preclear's attention using auditing questions, and by breaking up the session into discrete cycles of action."

Rundowns
Hubbard defines a rundown as "a series of steps which are auditing actions and processes designed to handle a specific aspect of a case and which have a known end phenomena". Hubbard devised dozens of rundowns. The main rundowns are the levels of the Bridge to Total Freedom, which are the codified sequential steps to attain Scientology's concept of spiritual freedom.

One of the earliest rundowns on the Bridge, which most Scientologists are expected to do, is the Purification Rundown. The "purif" is a sauna-and-sweat detoxification program requiring a high intake of vitamins, allegedly designed to remove toxins from the body that would inhibit one's recall needed for future auditing. Some of the basic levels of the Bridge include rundowns said to alleviate issues with communication, problems, and upsets. The Clear Certainty Rundown is the step where the Church of Scientology verifies that the preclear has correctly attained the State of Clear.

There are specialty rundowns such as the three very high-priced "L's Rundowns" available only at Flag which are promoted as executive boosters and promise the ability to be stably exterior—outside of your body. The Super Power Rundown is intended to increase one's perceptions; Hubbard said we have 57 senses which he calls "perceptics".

One of the most controversial rundowns is the Introspection Rundown, which is alleged to handle a psychotic episode or complete mental breakdown but was a key factor in the death of Lisa McPherson and has been widely written about.

Numerous other rundowns are listed on the right margin of the Bridge to Total Freedom.

Preclear folders
The Scientology auditing process has raised concerns from a number of quarters, as auditing sessions are permanently recorded in the form of handwritten notes in preclear folders, which are supposed to be kept private. Judge Paul Breckenridge, in Church of Scientology of California v. Armstrong, noted that Mary Sue Hubbard (the plaintiff in that case) "authored the infamous order 'GO 121669', which directed culling of supposedly confidential P.C. files/folder for the purposes of internal security". This directive was later canceled because it was not part of Scientology as written by L. Ron Hubbard. Bruce Hines has noted in an interview with Hoda Kotb that Scientology's collecting of personal and private information through auditing can possibly leave an adherent vulnerable to potential "blackmail" should they ever consider disaffecting from the cult. A number of sources have claimed that information gleaned from preclear folders have indeed been used for intimidation and harassment.

Anderson Report
In 1965 the Anderson Report, an official inquiry conducted for the state of Victoria, Australia, found that auditing involved a form of "authoritative" or "command" hypnosis, in which the hypnotist assumes "positive authoritative control" over the subject. "It is the firm conclusion of this Board that most scientology and dianetic techniques are those of authoritative hypnosis and as such are dangerous.[...] the scientific evidence which the Board heard from several expert witnesses of the highest repute[...] which was virtually unchallenged—leads to the inescapable conclusion that it is only in name that there is any difference between authoritative hypnosis and most of the techniques of scientology."

Claims
L. Ron Hubbard claimed benefits from auditing including improved IQ, improved ability to communicate, enhanced memory and alleviation of issues such as psychosis, dyslexia and attention deficit disorder. Some people have alleged that auditing amounts to medical treatment without a license, and in the 1950s, some auditors were arrested on the charge. The Church disputes that it is practicing medicine, and it has successfully established in United States courts of law that auditing addresses only spiritual relief. According to the Church, the psychotherapist treats mental health and the Church treats the spiritual being. Hubbard clarified the difference between the two:

In 1971, a ruling of the United States District Court, District of Columbia (333 F. Supp. 357), specifically stated that the E-meter "has no proven usefulness in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease, nor is it medically or scientifically capable of improving any bodily function." As a result of this ruling, Scientology now publishes disclaimers in its books and publications declaring that the E-meter "by itself does nothing" and that it is used specifically for spiritual purposes.

Child auditors
Dutch investigative reporter Rinke Verkerk reported that she was given an auditing session by an 11-year-old in the Netherlands. This has been criticized by clinical psychologists and child psychologists, on the grounds that secondary stress can affect children more strongly than adults. The fact that the child was working full days for a whole weekend was also considered to be problematic.

title: Auditing (Scientology)