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Lynn Taitt

Nerlynn Taitt (22 June 1934 – 20 January 2010) was a guitarist born in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago, who later moved to Jamaica and became a pioneer of rocksteady music.

Biography
Born Nerlynn Taitt, in San Fernando, Trinidad, he got his start as a musician playing in local steelpan bands, before taking up the guitar aged 14. He formed his own band, which was booked by Byron Lee to perform at the 1962 independence celebrations in Jamaica. Taitt decided to stay in Jamaica, living in Kingston, and played in a number of bands including The Sheiks, The Cavaliers, and The Comets, and worked with Baba Brooks, The Skatalites and Tommy McCook and the Supersonics. The most successful of his groups was The Jets, formed in 1966 and which included Hux Brown, Headley Bennett, Hopeton Lewis, Gladstone Anderson, and Winston Wright. Taitt's guitar style was inventive and unconventional, with a sharp percussive sound that accented the rocksteady beat. Lynn Taitt and the Jets played on hundreds of recording sessions for Jamaican producers such as Bunny Lee, Duke Reid, Joe Gibbs, Coxsone Dodd, and Sonia Pottinger, often performing up to five sessions a day. Their recording of "Take It Easy" was one of the first rocksteady singles and it reached number one in the Jamaican singles chart.

Taitt's contribution to Jamaican popular music includes his role as arranger and session leader for many of the recordings that he appeared on. He has been credited as having created the first rocksteady bassline, on the song "Take It Easy" by Hopeton Lewis. Various other Jamaican recordings have been cited as the "first" rocksteady release such as Alton Ellis & the Flames' "Girl I've Got a Date", and the Derrick Morgan rude boy anthem "Tougher Than Tough" with Lynn Taitt playing guitar on all three.

Taitt emigrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada in August 1968, to take up the position of arranger for the house band at the West Indian Federated Club. Although he left Jamaica just before the rise of reggae, his playing was a strong influence on musicians such as Hux Brown who adapted Taitt's approach to the newer reggae style. Taitt's work can be heard on various 60s recordings by Derrick Morgan, Desmond Dekker, Lee Perry, Ken Boothe, Bob Marley and Joe Higgs, among others. He recorded with Johnny Nash on some of the latter's international hits, including "Cupid" and "Hold Me Tight".

Taitt remained active as a musician in Montreal, having recorded with such acts as The Kingpins ("Let's Go To Work" CD 1999) as well as performing live with the Montreal Ska All Stars and at the Montreal International Jazz Festival with The Jets (2002) and the Fabulous LoLo sings Rocksteady (2006).

He was the subject of the 2006 documentary Lynn Taitt: Rocksteady, directed by Generoso Fierro, and another titled Ruff 'n' Tuff.

Taitt died on 20 January 2010 after a long battle with cancer. His death was recorded in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, at the age of 75.

Discography

 * Glad Sounds (1968), Bigshot (Gladdy with Lynn Taitt & the Jets)
 * Rock Steady: Greatest Hits (1968), Merritone (Lynn Taitt & the Jets)
 * Hold Me Tight: Anthology 65-73 (2005), Trojan

title: Lynn Taitt


text:
George Lignac

George Otto Emil Lignac (30 August 1891 – 5 September 1954) was a Dutch pathologist-anatomist.

Lignac was born in Passoeroean, Java, Dutch East Indies, where his father worked as a civil servant. He studied medicine at Leiden and then returned to the Dutch East Indies and was a teacher at the STOVIA (School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen or "school for the training of Indian physicians") in Batavia.

He returned to the Netherlands and was appointed professor of pathology, general diseases, pathological anatomy, and juridical medicine in Leiden in 1934.

He published work on skin pigmentation, cysteine metabolism and the carcinogenic nature of benzol and many more.

The Abderhalden–Kaufmann–Lignac syndrome is named for Emil Abderhalden, Eduard Kaufmann and George Lignac. Renal Fanconi syndrome has sometimes been called Lignac–Fanconi syndrome, as Lignac contributed to the study of it.

Lignac died in a plane crash in the river Shannon (Ireland) in 1954.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Lignac


text:
Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia

The Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia is a twin-turboprop 30-passenger commuter airliner designed and manufactured by the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer.

The EMB 120 began development during 1974. While initially conceived as a modular series of aircraft, the Family 12X and referred to as the Araguaia, intending to achieve a high level of commonality with the EMB 121 Xingu, the aircraft was redesigned and relaunched with the Brasilia name scheme during 1979. The redesign, which drew on operator feedback, reduced the seating capacity somewhat while removing commonality with the EMB 121. Its size, speed, and ceiling enabled faster and more direct services to be flown in comparison to similar aircraft. The EMB 120 features a circular cross-section fuselage, low-mounted straight wings and has a T-tail.

On 27 July 1983, the prototype performed its maiden flight. During October 1985, the first EMB 120 entered service with Atlantic Southeast Airlines; it quickly entered service with numerous regional airlines, particularly those in the lucrative US market. While the majority of sales were made to civilian operators, a few military customers were also garnered for the type; a specialised VIP transport version, the VC-97, was operated by the Brazilian Air Force. Numerous models were developed to fulfil differing roles and requirements; these included the flexible EMB120 Convertible and the extended range EMB120ER. During 2001, production of the EMB 120 was terminated; it was the last turboprop-powered airliner to be produced by Embraer.

Background

Following on from the success of the EMB 110 Bandeirante, Embraer commenced work on developing their first transport category airliner in 1974. At one point, this cumulated in the Family 12X, which comprised three models with modular design concept: EMB 120 Araguaia, EMB 123 Tapajós and EMB 121 Xingu. The original concept for the EMB 120 would have been a relatively straightforward stretch of the EMB 121, facilitating a high degree of commonality between the two types. However, the EMB 121 would be the sole 12X model that was actually produced in its original form; the EMB 120 would be redesigned during 1979, disposing of the Araguaia name at the same time.

At the official launching of the project, held in 1979, the name Brasilia was first applied to the EMB 120. Reportedly, the concept had been heavily revised on the basis of suggestions that had been gathered from prospective operators attending Commuter Airline Association of America (CAAA) convention, and the renaming was to reflect the level of alteration to the EMB 120. Being a completely new aircraft, it was no longer related to the 12X family, and had effectively no parts in common with the EMB 121 Xingu. Furthermore, the capacity was revised downwards from 30 to 24 seats. It had originally been designed to be powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney Canada PW115 turboprop engine, which was capable of 1,500 shp, the aircraft was subsequently redesigned to make use of more powerful PW118 engines, which produced up to 1,892 shp.

In terms of its basic configuration, the EMB 120 features a circular cross-section fuselage, low-mounted straight wings and has a T-tail. The fuselage is of semi-monocoque design, its skin being composed of an aluminium alloy. The wing structure comprises a single three-spar design that is linked to the frames of the lower side of the fuselage, while the nose cone, dorsal fin and leading edges of the wing and tailplane primarily comprise a Kevlar-reinforced glass fibre. The EMB 120 is equipped with retractable tricycle landing gear, which is actuated hydraulically. It is fitted with Goodrich-supplied wheels, oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers, a Hydro Aire anti-skid system, and either carbon or steel brakes.

Into flight
On 27 July 1983, the PW115-powered EMB 120 prototype performed its maiden flight. The type was able to rapidly attract interest from numerous regional airlines, particularly those based in the United States. Its size, speed, and ceiling enable faster and more direct services to be flown around the US and Europe in comparison to similar aircraft. During October 1985, the first aircraft entered service with Atlantic Southeast Airlines.

Numerous models would be developed to suit different operational circumstances; the EMB120RT featured a reduced take off weight, while the EMB120 cargo freighter had an elevated payload capacity of 4,000 kg; the EMB120 Combi and EMB120 Convertible emphasised flexible operations. During 1993, the first deliveries of the EMB120ER, an extended range model, took place; it was thereafter adopted as the standard production model. Furthermore, hot-and-high versions of these models were commonly equipped with PW118A engines that retain their power ratings at a higher altitude. The EMB120ER Advanced incorporates a range of external and interior improvements in comparison to most other models. The EMB 120RT could be upgraded to the EMB 120 ER; older aircraft were retrofitted to this standard via a Service Bulletin.

During 2001, production of the EMB 120 was terminated. As of 2021, Embraer has not manufactured a turboprop-powered successor, although company executives have occasionally hinted at there being interest in doing so at some point.

Operational history
The majority of the EMB 120s were sold in the United States and other countries across the Western Hemisphere. US airlines operating the type have included Great Lakes Airlines, which had six EMB 120s in its fleet, while Ameriflight was flying ten freighter-configured EMB 120s as late as 2022. The largest operator of the type in the United States was SkyWest Airlines, which operated more than 62 at one point in its history (c. 2006). SkyWest retired the fleet in early 2015. Several European airlines, such as Régional in France, Atlant-Soyuz Airlines in Russia, DAT in Belgium, and DLT in Germany, also purchased EMB 120s.

The EMB 120 has also proven itself to be popular amongst African operators. One of the biggest operators in the region was the charter operator Sahara African Aviation, which had flown as many as nine EMB 120ERs. Into the 2020s, numerous airlines have opted to retain a handful of examples in their active fleet. It has been commonly contrasted against the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3, often being used as a more modern substitute for the aging classic and possessing roughly double the speed.

Several military operators also procured the type, such as the Angolan Air Force, which received new-build aircraft during 2007. A specialised VIP transport version, the VC-97, was produced and procured by the Brazilian Air Force.

Variants

 * EMB 120
 * Basic production version.

 * EMB 120ER
 * Extended range and increased capacity version. All EMB 120ER S/Ns may be converted into the EMB 120FC or EMB 120QC models if desired.

 * EMB 120FC
 * Full cargo version.

 * EMB 120QC
 * Quick change cargo version.

 * EMB 120RT
 * Transport version. All EMB-120RT S/Ns may be converted into the model EMB-120ER.

 * VC-97
 * VIP transport version for the Brazilian Air Force.

Civil operators
As of July 2018, 105 Brasilias were in airline service: 45 in North/South America, 26 in Africa, 14 in Europe and 20 in Asia-Pacific, with major operators:

 * As Salaam Air (2 passenger)
 * Ameriflight (16 freighters)
 * Swiftair Hellas (4 freighters)
 * Freight Runners Express (9 passenger and freighters)
 * Airnorth (7)
 * InterCaribbean Airways (7)
 * Skippers Aviation, Freedom Airlines Express (6)
 * Berry Aviation (9)(freighters, on demand cargo)
 * Budapest Aircraft Service (4)
 * Allegiance Air (2)
 * Sahara African Aviation (18)
 * Flight West Airlines Australia (9)

Military operators

 * Brazilian Air Force - 20 transports
 * Uruguayan Air Force - 1 transport
 * Uruguayan Air Force - 1 transport
 * Uruguayan Air Force - 1 transport

Accidents and incidents

 * On 19 September 1986, an Atlantic Southeast Airlines EMB 120RT (N219AS) struck a mountain near Mantiqueira, Brazil while being delivered to Atlantic Southeast, killing all five on board.
 * On 21 December 1987, an EMB 120 Brazilia operated by Air Littoral for Air France (flight AF 1919 Brussels-Bordeaux) crashed in a forest during a wrong approach of Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport (South-West of France). All 16 occupants died.
 * On 8 July 1988, Brazilian Air Force EMB 120RT Brasília FAB-2001 crashed during an engine-out landing at São José dos Campos. Five of the nine occupants died.
 * On 5 April 1991, Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2311, operating for Delta Connection, crashed on approach to Glynco Jetport in Brunswick, Georgia. The crash claimed the lives of all twenty-three people on board, including former U.S. Senator John Tower of Texas and astronaut Sonny Carter. This was due to propeller control failure which led to incorrect propeller blade angles.
 * On 11 September 1991, Continental Express Flight 2574 broke up in flight and crashed at Eagle Lake, Texas, killing all 14 passengers and crew members onboard. The NTSB determined that missing screws on the horizontal stabilizer led to part of it detaching from the aircraft.
 * On 21 August 1995, one of the blades on Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 529's number-one propeller sheared off, partly tearing the left engine from its mount and increasing drag on the left side. It crashed in a field near Carrollton, Georgia. Of the twenty-nine people on board, ten died (one casualty was from a heart attack nearly eight weeks after the accident).
 * On 9 January 1997, Comair Flight 3272 crashed in Monroe, Michigan. All of the 29 passengers and crew died. The probable cause was in-flight icing.
 * On 21 May 1997, SkyWest Airlines Flight 724, an EMB 120 (N198SW), experienced a total loss of engine power to the right engine and associated engine fire, followed by a total loss of all airplane hydraulic systems, after takeoff from San Diego International-Lindbergh Field, San Diego, California. The airplane sustained substantial damage. The two pilots, one flight attendant, and 14 passengers were not injured. The flight was destined for Los Angeles, California. It diverted to NAS Miramar, San Diego, where it landed at 14:27 hrs.
 * On 21 October 1998, a Capital Táxi Aéreo EMB 120RT Brasilia registration PT-WKH crashed due to pilot error during final approach to Pinto Martins International Airport. The two-man crew and one passenger on board were killed, along with one person on the ground. Seven more people were injured.
 * On 30 August 2002, Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4823 operated by an EMB 120ER Brasília (registration PT-WRQ), en route from Cruzeiro do Sul and Tarauacá to Rio Branco crashed on approach to Rio Branco during a rainstorm, 1,5 km short of the runway. Of the 31 passengers and crew aboard, 23 died.
 * On 14 May 2004, Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4815 operated by an EMB 120ER Brasília (registration PT-WRO), en route from São Paulo de Olivença and Tefé to Manaus, crashed in the forest about 18 nmi from Manaus. All 33 passengers and crew died in the deadliest accident involving the EMB 120.
 * On 22 March 2010, an Airnorth EMB 120 (VH-ANB) took off approximately 10.10am (ACST) from Darwin International Airport on a routine simulated engine-failure training exercise known as a V1 cut when it apparently banked sharply to the left and crashed into the nearby bushland at RAAF Base Darwin. The two pilots on board were killed instantly.
 * On 14 September 2011, Angolan Air Force EMB 120ER T-500 crashed while attempting to take off from Huambo Airport, killing 17 of 23 people on board.
 * On 12 October 2011, a Nationale Regionale Transport EMB 120, registration ZS-PYO (MSN: 120245) performing a charter flight from Libreville to Port Gentil (Gabon) overran runway 21 and came to a stop with the nose gear intact, both main gear struts bent backwards causing the engines to "pitch down" together with the wings. A few passengers sustained minor injuries, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and was written off.
 * On 27 November 2012, an Inter Îles Air EMB 120ER Brasilia (registration number D6-HUA) was underway from Moroni to Anjouan (both in Comoros Islands) on a charter flight with 25 passengers and 4 crew, when after taking off from Moroni's Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport it lost height, and while attempting to return to the airport, waterlanded 200 m off the coast, about 5 km north of the airport. Local fishermen rescued everybody on board. There were only minor injuries, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and was written off.
 * On 3 October 2013, Associated Aviation Flight 361, an EMB 120RT (5N-BJY), was involved in a crash on takeoff from Lagos Airport bound for Akure. The aircraft was on a charter flight taking the body of the former Governor of Ondo State, Dr. Olusegun Agagu, for burial. There were at least 16 reported fatalities amongst passengers travelling in the burial party. Two people who survived the crash died later in hospital.
 * On 12 October 2017, an Air Guicango EMB-120 (D2-FDO) crashed en route from Dundo to Luanda (both in Angola). Crew declared engine failure and fire prior to losing radio contact. The wreckage was located the following day with no survivors.
 * On 4 May 2020, an African Express Airways EMB 120 (5Y-AXO), operating a flight to Baidoa from Mogadishu, was reportedly shot down by a rocket in Somalia. This aircraft was carrying medical aids to fight COVID-19. A total of six people on board died after crash landing near Bardale.
 * On 11 July 2023, Halla Airlines EMB-120 (6O-AAD), operating a domestic flight from Garowe to Mogadishu, veered off runway 05 on landing at Aden Adde International Airport and crashed into a fence. All 34 people onboard survived.
 * On 28 November 2023, Unity Air Zanzibar EMB-120 (5H-MJH), operating a domestic flight from Zanzibar to Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, veered off runway on landing at Kikoboga Airstrip, sustaining substential damage. All 33 occupants survived unharmed.
 * On 28 November 2023, Sindbar Air EMB-120 (5H-FLM) operating a domestic flight from Mikumi National Park, Tanzania to Zanzibar, veered off runway on take off at Kikoboga Airstrip and crashed into a building, sustaining substential damage. All 34 occupants survived unharmed.

Preserved aircraft

 * PT-ZBA 120001 - Brasília's first prototype, preserved at the Brazilian Airspace Memorial at the entrance of São José dos Campos airport and Embraer plant.

title: Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia


text:
Bahishti Zewar

Bahishti Zewar (Heavenly Ornaments) is a volume of Deobandi beliefs and practices written by Ashraf Ali Thanwi and Ahmed Ali Fatehpuri. The book is comprehensive handbook of fiqh, Islamic rituals and morals, it is especially aimed at the education of girls and women. The volume describes the Five Pillars of Islam and also highlights more obscure principles. For years it has remained a favorite with the people of the Indian subcontinent as well as the Indian Muslim diaspora all over the world. It was originally written in the Urdu language but has been translated into a host of other languages including English.

Sections
The book is divided into ten sections:
 * 1) "True Stories"
 * 2) "Beliefs"
 * 3) "Incorrect Beliefs and Actions"
 * 4) "Salat and its Virtues"
 * 5) "Fasting, Zakat, Qurbâni, Hajj, Vows, Apostasy, Halâl and Harâm, etc."
 * 6) "Marriage, Divorce, 'Iddah, Maintenance, Custody, the Rights of Living and Reciting the Qurân"
 * 7) "Principles of Business and Pursuit of Wealth"
 * 8) "Etiquette, Manners Reformation of the Heart Deeds and their Retribution, and the Signs of Qiyâmah"
 * 9) "The Lives of Pious Women"
 * 10) "Health Matters and Etiquette

Legacy
Barbara Daly Metcalf's 1992 book Perfecting Women is a commentary and history of the Bahishti Zewar.

title: Bahishti Zewar


text:
Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante

The Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (English: pioneer ) is a Brazilian twin-turboprop light transport aircraft designed by Embraer for military and civil use.

The EMB 110 was designed by the French engineer Max Holste; it had been designed in line with specifications issued by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965. The goal was to create a general purpose aircraft, suitable for both civilian and military roles with a low operational cost and high reliability. On 26 October 1968, the YV-95 prototype performed its maiden flight; an additional two EMB 110 development aircraft would follow along with an initial order for 80 transport aircraft for the Brazilian Air Force in the following year. Type certification was received from the Brazilian aviation authorities in late 1972, permitting its entry to service in April 1973 with the Brazilian airline company Transbrasil.

Various customers in both the military and civilian sectors opted to procure the EMB 110 during its 22-year production run. Over one hundred examples would serve with the Brazilian Air Force, who would modernise numerous examples during the twenty-first century to permit their continued operation. The EMB 110, being customisable to suit various roles and operator requirements, was adapted for various specialist roles, including aerial observation, maritime patrol, and search and rescue missions. During the 1970s, Embraer opted to design an enlarged derivative of the EMB 110, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; being faster, outfitted with a pressurized cabin, and able to accommodate up to 30 passengers, Embraer opted to concentrate its resources on the new aircraft. As a result, production of the EMB 110 was terminated during 1990.

Background
The origins of the EMB 110 Bandeirante can be traced back to the issuing of a directive by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965; this called for the production of a transport aircraft for both civilian and military operations that would be reliable and possess low operating costs. It was to be equipped with turboprop engines, a low-mounted wing, and have sufficient capacity to accommodate eight personnel; these stipulations had been drawn from a study of Brazilian commercial air traffic, and aimed to produce an aircraft that would be well suited to the existing airport infrastructure of the country at that time. The resulting specification that had been generated under the IPD-6504 programme would greatly shape the future aircraft.

Early work on what would become the EMB 110 actually predates the establishment of its manufacturer, Embraer, which was founded in August 1969. The lead designer was the French engineer Max Holste. Construction of the prototype was supervised by the Brazilian aeronautical engineer Ozires Silva, who would also play a key role in founding and running of Embraer. The company was created to undertake the aircraft's commercialisation and serial production.

On 26 October 1968, the first prototype, carrying the military designation YC-95, performed its maiden flight from São José dos Campos Airport. Piloted by José Mariotto Ferreira and accompanied by flight engineer Michel Cury, it landed after roughly 50 minutes. Prior to this point, a total of 110,000 project hours had been worked, producing 12,000 manufacturing drawings, supported by 22,000 hours of structural and aerodynamic calculations; an estimated 282,000 hours of aircraft manufacturing and tooling has also been expended. The prototype was officially presented before various civil and military officials along with members of the press at an event held four days later, during which its maiden flight was repeated. The positive performance of the prototype led to production of the aircraft, and thus the establishment of Embraer, being approved in mid-1969; the newly created company would assume responsibility for its production on 2 January 1970.

Redesign and quantity production
An additional pair of prototypes were constructed, which were designated EMB 100. On 19 October 1969, the second prototype performed its first flight, while the third prototype followed on 29 June 1970. While these prototypes yielded positive test results, it was recognised that market conditions had shifted to the point where an eight-seat aircraft appeared to be less viable than it had previously appeared; thus, it was decided to quickly redesign the EMB 100 into the EMB 110 Bandeirante, which featured several technological advances along with greater capacity.

In May 1970, the programme was bolstered by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) deciding to issue Embraer with an initial order for 80 production aircraft. Near the end of 1972, the Bandeirante received its Brazilian airworthiness certificate. On 9 February 1973, the first delivery was made to FAB.

In a typical configuration, the EMB 110 seated between 15 and 21 passengers, and was flown by a pair of pilots. Various configurations and customisations were possible in order to suit customers' diverse requirements and operating conditions. The EMB 110P1A/41 model, which was furnished with 18 seats, had a length of 15.1 meters, a height of 4.92 meters, and a wingspan of 15.33 meters. It has a maximum cruising speed of 411 km/h (222 knots), while its more economical cruising speed was 341 km/h (184 knots), at which speed an effective range of 1,964 km (1,060 NM) can be achieved even while retaining reserve fuels for another 45 minutes of flight. The EMB 110 has a service ceiling of 21,490 feet.

During the 1970s, Embraer opted to build on the success of the EMB 110 by designing an enlarged derivative of the aircraft, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; beyond being large enough to accommodate up to 30 passengers, it was also faster and furnished with a pressurized cabin. All further development of the EMB 110 was halted by Embraer during the 1980s in order to concentrate its resources on the further development and production of the newer EMB 120 instead.

Operational history
Between 1968 and 1990, Embraer constructed a total of 494 aircraft in numerous configurations for a variety of roles. The passenger model first flew on 9 August 1972 and entered commercial service on 16 April 1973 with the now defunct Brazilian airline company Transbrasil. On 8 July 1985, the first aircraft to be operated by the Irish budget airline Ryanair in 1985 was 15-seat EMB 110; the airline continued to operate the type up until 1989. 2021"/> By October 2018, 50 years after its first flight and 498 deliveries, about 150 EMB 110s were still operating at airlines, air taxis, government entities, and air forces around the world. Production of the type came to an end in 1990, the EMB 110 having been superseded by the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, a derived successor.

During February 1973, deliveries of the type commenced to the Brazilian Air Force. A pair of EMB 111A Patrulha maritime patrol aircraft were leased to the Argentine Navy during the Falklands War, acting as a stop-gap measure between the retirement of the service's last Lockheed SP-2H Neptune and the introduction of modified Lockheed L-188 Electras. On 15 December 2010, the Brazilian Air Force flew its first upgraded EMB 110, which had been equipped with modern avionics equipment. Designated as C/P-95, the aircraft has had several new systems installed by Israeli firm Elbit Systems' Brazilian subsidiary, Aeroeletronica. At the time, the Brazilian Air Force had an active fleet of 96 EMB 110s. In 2017, the Brazilian Air Force was reportedly operating 48 EMB 110s.

Variants

 * YC-95 or EMB 100 – Prototype, powered by two 550 shp (410 kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-20 turboprop engines. Three built.
 * EMB 110 Initial production version, powered by 680 shp (507 kW) PT6A-27 engines – Twelve seat military transport for the Brazilian Air Force, who designate it the C-95. 60 built.
 * EMB 110A – Radio calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force (EC-95). Three built.
 * EC-95B – Calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force.
 * EMB 110B – Aerial survey, aerial photography version. Seven built, six as R-95 for the Brazilian Air Force.
 * EMB 110C – The first commercial model, similar to C-95, a 15-seat passenger version.
 * EMB 110C(N) – Three navalised EMB 110Cs sold to the Chilean Navy.
 * EMB 110E Executive version of EMB 110C. Six to eight seats.
 * EMB 110E(J) Modified version of EMB 110E.
 * EMB 110K Stretched version with 0.85 m (2 ft 9½ in) fuselage plug and 750 shp (560 kW) PT6A-34 engines and fitted with ventral fin.
 * EMB 110K1 – Cargo transport version for the Brazilian Air Force, with cargo door in rear fuselage. 20 built, designated C-95A.
 * EMB 110P Dedicated commuter version of EMB 110C for Brazilian airlines, powered by PT6A-27 or -34 engines.
 * EMB 110P1 – Quick change civil cargo/passenger transport version based on EMB 110K1, with same rear cargo door.
 * EMB 110P2 – Dedicated civil passenger version of EMB 110P1, without cargo door.
 * EMB 111A Patrulha – Maritime patrol version for the Brazilian Air Force. The aircraft also has the Brazilian Air Force designation P-95 Bandeirulha.
 * P-95B – Improved EMB 111, with more advanced avionics and strengthened structure. Ten built for Brazilian Air Force.
 * EMB 111AN – Six maritime patrol aircraft sold to the Chilean Navy.
 * C-95B – Quick change cargo/passenger version for the Brazilian Air Force.
 * EMB 110P1 SAR – Search and rescue version.
 * EMB 110P/A – 18 seat passenger version, intended for export.
 * EMB 110P1/A – Mixed passenger/freight version with enlarged cargo door.
 * EMB 110P1/41 – Cargo/passenger transport aircraft.
 * EMB 110P1K/110K – Military version.
 * C-95C – The Brazilian Air Force version of the EMB 110P2.
 * EMB 110P2
 * EMB 110P2/A – Modifications for airline commuter role, seating up to 21 passengers.
 * EMB 110P2/41 – 21-seat pressurised commuter airliner.
 * EMB 110S1 – Geophysical survey version.
 * SC-95 – Search and rescue version for the Brazilian Air Force.
 * XC-95 – Rain research version for the Brazilian Air Force.
 * C/P-95 – Updated version with modernised avionics.

Operators
In 2020, 39 Bandeirantes were still in airline service with 15 operators, 31 in North/South America, 1 in Africa and 7 in Asia Pacific & Middle East. The main operators are:
 * 7: Wiggins Airways
 * 5: Royal Air Freight
 * 4: Transportes Aereos Guatemaltecos

Incidents and accidents

 * 27 February 1975: a VASP EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PP-SBE operating flight 640 from São Paulo-Congonhas to Bauru crashed after take-off from Congonhas. All 2 crew members and 13 passengers died.
 * 22 January 1976: a Transbrasil Embraer EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PT-TBD operating flight 107 from Chapecó to Erechim, crashed upon take-off from Chapecó. Seven of the nine passengers and crew on board died.
 * 23 April 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2169 crashed upon landing at Natal Air Force Base.
 * 3 June 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2157 crashed after take-off from Natal Air Force Base. All 18 occupants died.
 * 20 June 1977: a Transporte Aéreo Militar Uruguayo EMB110C Bandeirante registration CX-BJE/T584 flying from Montevideo to Salto crashed after striking trees in an orange grove during approach to Salto. The crew of two, as well as three of the 13 passengers died.
 * 31 January 1978: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GKW crashed upon take-off from Eirunepé. The crew of two died but all 14 passengers survived.
 * 8 February 1979: a TAM Airlines EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-SBB operating a flight from Bauru to São Paulo-Congonhas, while on initial climb from Bauru, struck trees and crashed into flames. All two crew and 16 passengers died.
 * 24 February 1981: a VOTEC EMB110P Bandeirante registration PT-GLB flying from Tucuruí to Belém-Val de Cans collided with a ship in dry dock while approaching Belém in rain and high winds. The aircraft subsequently struck two barges and broke in two. The front part crashed onto a tug, and the tail section sank. Only 3 passengers of a total of 14 passengers and crew survived.
 * 6 November 1982: an Air Ecosse EMB110PI Bandeirante registration G-OAIR flying from Prestwick to Aberdeen lost left engine and shortly thereafter right generator. The pilot and sole occupant made a landing in a field north east of Hatton, Scotland. Aircraft sustained substantial damage.
 * 7 October 1983: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBH flying from Campo Grande and Urubupungá to Araçatuba struck the ground just short of the runway threshold after missing the approach at Araçatuba Airport twice. Seven crew and passengers died.
 * 18 April 1984: two VOTEC EMB 110 Bandeirante registrations PT-GJZ and PT-GKL collided on air, while on approach to land at Imperatriz. PT-GJZ was flying from São Luís to Imperatriz and crashed on ground killing all its 18 passengers and crew. PT-GKL was flying from Belém-Val de Cans to Imperatriz and its pilot was able to make an emergency landing on Tocantins river. One passenger of its 17-passenger and crew died.
 * 28 June 1984: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBC operating a chartered flight by Petrobras from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão to Macaé flew into São João Hill while descending through rain and clouds over the Municipality of São Pedro da Aldeia. All 16 passengers and 2 crew died. The passengers were journalists of well-known Brazilian networks who were preparing a special report about the Campos Basin oil fields.
 * 19 November 1984: EuroAir EMB 110 Bandeirante G-HGGS crashed into the side of a hill 6.5 mi (10.5 km) south of Inverness Airport shortly after take-off. The pilot was killed in the crash and the aircraft damaged beyond repair.
 * 6 December 1984: PBA Flight 1039, using an EMB 110 Bandeirante (registration N96PB) crashed shortly after taking off from Jacksonville International Airport in Jacksonville, Florida, United States. All 11 passengers and both pilots died.
 * 23 June 1985: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GJN flying from Juara to Cuiabá, while on approach to land at Cuiabá, had technical problems on engine number 1. An emergency landing was attempted but the aircraft stalled and crashed 1 km short of the runway. All 17 occupants died.
 * 9 October 1985: a Nordeste EMB110C Bandeirante registration PT-GKA operating a cargo flight from Vitória da Conquista to Salvador da Bahia crashed during initial climb from Vitória da Conquista after flying unusually low. The two crew members died.
 * 6 February 1987: A Talair MB 110P2 registration P2-RDM ditched into the sea in poor weather short of Hoskins Airport en route from Rabaul on the Island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. Three of the 17 on board survived.
 * 1 March 1988: Comair Flight 206, using an EMB 110, crashed in Johannesburg, killing all 17 occupants. One source suggests that this incident was caused by an explosive device, carried by a passenger employed as a mineworker who had recently taken out a substantial insurance policy.
 * 24 May 1988: Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2366, an Embraer 110 departing Lawton–Fort Sill Regional Airport, Oklahoma, crashed during takeoff from runway 35 due to failure of no. 1 engine. After climbing to 50–100 feet the aircraft lost altitude, struck the ground, and part of the aircraft caught fire. It appeared that the compressor turbine blade of no. 1 engine had separated. No fatalities.
 * 14 November 1988: Oy Wasawings Ab flight to Seinäjoki crashed during landing in Ilmajoki, Finland. Resulted in six deaths and six injuries.
 * 20 September 1990: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-FAW belonging to the Government of Pernambuco, flying from Fernando de Noronha to Recife, crashed into the sea shortly after take-off. All 12 crew and passengers died.
 * 8 October 1991: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante, registration N731A, being ferried from Springfield, Missouri, to Southend, England, descended due to icing conditions and struck an ice sheet at a height of 5125 feet near Narsarsuaq, Greenland. All three crew members survived and were rescued by a helicopter of the Danish Navy.
 * 11 November 1991: a Nordeste EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-SCU operating flight 115 from Recife to Maceió, during on initial climb had an engine failure followed by fire. The aircraft crashed on populated area. All 13 occupants of the aircraft and 2 persons on the ground died.
 * 3 February 1992: a Nordeste EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-TBB en route from Salvador da Bahia to Guanambi descended below minimum levels in bad weather and crashed on a hill hidden by clouds near Caetité. All 12 passengers and crew aboard died.
 * 13 January 1993: A Titan Airways cargo flight crashed into a hill near Sellafield, en route from London Southend Airport to Glasgow International Airport. The flight used G-ZAPE, a 110P, and both pilots were killed in the crash.
 * 26 October 1993: A Brazilian Air Force patrol P-95 (EMB 111 Bandeirante Patrulha) registration FAB-2290 that departed from Canoas Air Force Base crashed into the ocean near Angra dos Reis while flying in bad weather conditions. All crew of 3 died.
 * 19 July 1994: Alas Chiricanas Flight 901 Panamanian domestic airline ALAS, registration HP-1202AC using an EMB 110P1, crashed after a bomb exploded in the cabin killing 21, twelve Jewish businessmen were among the passengers.
 * 24 May 1995: G-OEAA, an EMB-110-P1 operated by UK domestic airline Knight Air Flight 816 between Leeds and Aberdeen entered a steeply descending spiral dive, broke up in flight and crashed into farmland at Dunkeswick Moor near Leeds. All 12 occupants were killed. The probable cause of the accident was the failure of one or both artificial horizon instruments. There was no standby artificial horizon installed (as there was no airworthiness requirement for one on this aircraft) and the accident report concluded that this left the crew without a single instrument available for assured attitude reference or simple means of determining which flight instruments had failed. The aircraft entered a spiral dive from which the pilot, who was likely to have become spatially disoriented, was unable to recover.
 * 13 September 1996: a Helisul EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-WAV operating a cargo flight from Porto Alegre to Joinville collided with a hill and crashed during final approach to land at Joinville. The crew of two died.
 * 17 November 1996: Brazilian Air Force, a P-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-7102 flying from Salvador da Bahia Air Force Base to Natal Air Force Base had an accident in the vicinity of Caruaru. Four Brazilian Air Force Bandeirantes were flying on formation from Salvador to Natal when the tail of FAB-7102 was struck by the propeller of another aircraft. It crashed after control of the aircraft was lost. All nine occupants died.
 * 24 July 1999: an Air Fiji EMB 110 Bandeirante registration DQ-AFN on a domestic flight from Nausori to Nadi in the Fiji Islands crashed on a slope of a ridge. The aircraft had apparently descended below the 5400 feet safety altitude until the right wing struck a tree on a ridgeline at 1300 feet altitude. The Bandeirante then broke up and impacted the slope of a ridge 1,3 km further on. The tail section and right wing were found 150m from the main wreckage. Weather at 05:00 was good: nil wind, 40 km visibility, scattered clouds at 2200 feet and an insignificant small shower band. Investigation revealed a.o. that the captain had insufficient rest prior to the flight and that he had consumed an above-therapeutic level of antihistamine prior to the flight, which would have degraded his ability to safely pilot the aircraft. Also Air Fiji's published standard operating procedures were inadequate for the Bandeirante aircraft.
 * 26 December 2002: Brazilian Air Force, an EMB 110 Bandeirante registration FAB-2292 en route from São Paulo-Campo de Marte to Florianópolis Air Force Base, crashed while trying to carry out an emergency landing at Curitiba-Afonso Pena. Reportedly, both engines had quit. The airplane had taken off with insufficient fuel on board to complete the flight to Florianópolis. Three passengers and crew of the 16 aboard died.
 * 8 November 2005: an EMB 110, operated by Wiggins Airways, registration N7801Q, flying a cargo route from Manchester-Boston Regional Airport to Bangor International Airport suffered an engine failure shortly after takeoff, causing the aircraft to bank and fall to the ground, landing inside of a Walmart garden center 1.4 km away from Runway 17/35. The pilot was the only occupant and survived the crash, and the aircraft was written off.
 * 7 February 2009: an EMB 110, operated by Manaus Aerotáxi, registration PT-SEA, flying a domestic route in Brazil from Coari to Manaus (Amazonas) struggled in bad weather conditions and crashed 80 km from Manaus killing 24 passengers. 4 survivors were reported.
 * 3 July 2013: An EMB 110, operated by Batair Cargo, registration ZS-NVB, en route from Lanseria Airport in Johannesburg for Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, crashed while attempting to land in Francistown, Botswana. The pilots had planned to land and refuel but thick mist on the ground caused them to miss the landing strip on their first pass. They called in to the control tower to notify that they would make a second pass because they could see the landing strip, but never did. The wreckage was found two hours later about 10 km from the airport. The plane crashed with no survivors.
 * 17 November 2022: An EMB 110, registration C6-CAB, operated by LeAir Charter Services, flying from Cap-Haïtien International Airport, Haiti, to Lynden Pindling International Airport, Nassau, Bahamas, was substantially damaged when the nosewheel collapsed and it skidded off of the runway when landing at Nassau. During the landing approach, the crew observed problems with the landing gear. After performing a low pass so that the landing gear could be observed by the control tower, the flight circled for several minutes to burn off fuel before another approach to landing, during which the nosewheel collapsed. No injuries were reported.
 * On September 16, 2023, an Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante carrying 12 passengers and 2 crew from Eduardo Gomes International Airport veered off of the runway at Barcelos Airport. All 14 occupants were killed. The aircraft was registered as PT-SOG.

title: Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante


text:
Wellington's Victory

Wellington's Victory, or the Battle of Vitoria (also called the Battle Symphony; in German: Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria), Op. 91, is a 15-minute-long orchestral work composed by Ludwig van Beethoven to commemorate the Marquess (later Duke) of Wellington's victory over Joseph Bonaparte at the Battle of Vitoria in Spain on 21 June 1813 and the German campaign of 1813 in Germany thus ending the rule of Bonaparte's Confederation of the Rhine and the birth of the German Confederation. It is known sometimes as "The Battle Symphony" or "The Battle of Vitoria", and was dedicated to the Prince Regent, later King George IV. Composition stretched from August to first week of October 1813, and the piece proved to be a substantial moneymaker for Beethoven.

The autograph manuscript of the work is preserved in the Berlin State Library.

Composition, premiere and reception
After the Battle of Vitoria, Beethoven's friend Johann Nepomuk Maelzel talked him into writing a composition commemorating this battle that he could notate on his 'mechanical orchestra', the panharmonicon, a contraption that was able to play many of the military band instruments of the day. However, Beethoven wrote a composition for large band (100 musicians), so large that Maelzel could not build a machine large enough to perform the music. As an alternative, Beethoven rewrote the Siegessinfonie for orchestra, added a first part and renamed the work Wellington's Victory.

The piece was first performed in Vienna on 8 December 1813 at a concert to benefit Austrian and Bavarian soldiers wounded at the Battle of Hanau, with Beethoven conducting. It was immediately popular with concertgoers. Also on the programme were the premiere of his Symphony No. 7 and a work performed by Maelzel's mechanical trumpeter.

This performance, which featured 100 musicians, has been noted as being particularly loud. Corinna da Fonseca-Wollheim described it as a "sonic assault on the listener" and the "beginning of a musical arms race for ever louder... symphonic performance", quoting an unnamed attendee as remarking that the performance was "seemingly designed to make the listener as deaf as its composer". Musicologist Frédéric Döhl described performances of this work as "not like an evening at the Berlin Philharmonie, but rather like a modern-day rock concert".

Orchestration
Wellington's Victory is something of a musical novelty. The full orchestration calls for two flutes, a piccolo, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, six trumpets, three trombones, timpani, a large percussion battery (including muskets and other artillery sound effects), and a usual string section of violins I and II, violas, cellos, and double basses.

In the orchestral percussion section one player plays the timpani, the other three play the cymbals, bass drum and triangle. On stage there are two 'sides', British and French, both playing the same instruments: two side drums (englisches/französisches Trommeln in the score), two bass drums (Kanone in the score), two (four) ratchets, played by eight to ten instrumentalists.

Structure
The work has two parts: the Battle (Schlacht) and the Victory Symphony (Sieges Sinfonie). The first part is programme music describing two approaching opposing armies and contains extended passages depicting scenes of battle. It uses "Rule Britannia" for the British side and "Malbrough s'en va-t-en guerre" ("Marlborough has left for the war", also popularized today as "For He's a Jolly Good Fellow") for the French side. Beethoven may have elected to not use "La Marseillaise" to represent the French forces, as Tchaikovsky later did in the 1812 Overture, perhaps because playing "La Marseillaise" was considered treasonous in Vienna at the time.

If this first part is pictorial music, the second is far from vulgar and exhibits some typical Beethoven composing techniques. It can be considered as a sonata form that, stripped of the development section, features an extended coda. The first theme is a fanfare in D major, which switches to the distant key of B-flat major for the second theme. This is "God Save the King", the British national anthem: However, the final cadence (bars marked E in the score above) is not played. Instead, motif D is repeated so as to switch back to D major and to the re-exposition of the fanfare theme. This is followed by the re-exposition of "God Save the King", now in the main key (D major) and adopting the pace of a "Tempo di menuetto moderato". Again the final cadence (E) is avoided and replaced by successive repetition of motif D, this time leading to a coda in imitative style. This fugal section ("Allegro") starts as a string octet (later joined by the full orchestra) with the phrase stemming from phrase A of the "God Save the King" tune. Later a second phrase joins in, still in imitative style, derived from the anthem's phrase B, thus building up a little double fugue. It all ends with a section based on motif (which reworks motifs C+D of the original theme) and at last by a final derivative of phrase A:

The panharmonicon
The first version of "Wellington's Victory" was not written for an orchestra. Mälzel, known today primarily for patenting the metronome, convinced Beethoven to write a short piece commemorating Wellington's victory for his invention, the panharmonicon. It never caught on as anything more than a curiosity. Nonetheless, Mälzel toured Europe showing off Beethoven's work on the mechanical trumpeter and the enthusiasm for the music convinced Beethoven to turn it into a full-blown "victory overture".

The manuscript of the second part of this version was discovered by Willy Hess in a revised copy by the author (Hess 108).

The composition today
The novelty of the work has waned, and "Wellington's Victory" is not performed often today. Many critics lump it into a category of so-called "battle pieces", along with Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture and Liszt's Hunnenschlacht (Battle of the Huns): Charles Rosen wrote that "Beethoven's contribution lacks the serious pretentiousness or the incorporation of ideology of Felix Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony, or of Hector Berlioz's Symphonie funèbre et triomphale, but it is only the less interesting for its modesty."

In their book Men of Music, Wallace Brockway and Herbert Weinstock termed the piece an "atrocious potboiler".

Beethoven was well aware of the triviality of the work and responded to similar criticism in his own time: "What I shit is better than anything you could ever think up!"

title: Wellington's Victory


text:
Henri Schwery

Henri Schwery (14 June 1932 – 7 January 2021) was a Swiss prelate of the Catholic Church who was Bishop of Sion from 1977 to 1995. He was raised to the rank of cardinal in 1991.

Early life and ordination
Born in St-Léonard, Valais, Schwery studied mathematics, theoretical physics, Catholic theology, and philosophy in Sion, Rome, and Fribourg. On 7 July 1957 he was ordained a priest.

Professor and bishop
From 1961 to 1977, Schwery was part of the theological faculty of Sion, which he headed from 1972 to 1977.

Pope Paul VI appointed Schwery the Bishop of Sion on 22 July 1977. On 17 September 1977, he was consecrated a bishop by his predecessor as Bishop of Sion, François-Nestor Adam. He was president of the Swiss Bishops Conference from 1983 to 1988.

In his diocese in June 1988, Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre consecrated four bishops without papal approval. Schwery called for church unity in the face of that schism.

Cardinal
On 28 June 1991, Pope John Paul II named Schwery a member of the College of Cardinals, assigning him as a cardinal-priest to Santi Protomartiri a Via Aurelia Antica. On 25 July 1991, Pope John Paul made him a member of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Congregation for the Clergy.

During March of that year, he paid his respects when Lefebvre died, making a quiet visit to pray over his body alongside the Apostolic Nuncio to Switzerland Edoardo Rovida.

Pope John Paul accepted his resignation as Bishop of Sion on 1 April 1995 when he was 62. He had submitted his resignation citing health problems. Schwery was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI.

He died at a retirement home in St-Léonard on 7 January 2021.

title: Henri Schwery


text:
Achard–Thiers syndrome

Achard–Thiers syndrome (also known as diabetic-bearded woman syndrome) is a rare disorder mainly occurring in postmenopausal women. It is characterized by type II diabetes mellitus and signs related to the overproduction of androgens.

The disease is named for Emile Achard and Joseph Thiers.

Presentation
Achard–Thiers syndrome affects mostly postmenopausal women and comprises diabetes mellitus, deep voice, hirsutism, clitoral hypertrophy and adrenal cortical hyperplasia or adenoma. Patients often also have amenorrhoea, hypertension and osteoporosis.

Diagnosis
Based on the clinical findings, an Achard-Thiers syndrome diagnosis should be considered. A two-hour oral glucose tolerance test reveals abnormally elevated blood glucose levels in affected women because they are hyperinsulinemic.

Treatment
Diabetes can be controlled with food, insulin, and other medications as needed. To make hair removal easier, cosmetic procedures like electrolysis and waxing can be employed. Oral contraceptive therapy is the most common treatment for younger women with PCOS, while hormone replacement therapy is typically advised for postmenopausal women with Achard-Thiers syndrome. There has also been use of antiandrogens.

title: Achard–Thiers syndrome


text: Category:University of York

title: Category:University of York


text:
Peace and conflict studies

Peace and conflict studies or conflict analysis and resolution is a social science field that identifies and analyzes violent and nonviolent behaviors as well as the structural mechanisms attending conflicts (including social conflicts), with a view towards understanding those processes which lead to a more desirable human condition. A variation on this, peace studies (irenology), is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention, de-escalation, and solution of conflicts by peaceful means, thereby seeking "victory" for all parties involved in the conflict.

This social science is in contrast to military studies, which has as its aim the efficient attainment of victory in conflicts, primarily by violent means to the satisfaction of one or more, but not all, parties involved.

Disciplines involved may include philosophy, political science, geography, economics, psychology, communication studies, sociology, international relations, history, anthropology, religious studies, gender studies, law, and development studies as well as a variety of others. Relevant sub-disciplines of such fields, such as peace economics, may be regarded as belonging to peace and conflict studies also.

Historical background
Peace and conflict studies is both a pedagogical activity, in which teachers transmit knowledge to students; and a research activity, in which researchers create new knowledge about the sources of conflict. Peace and conflict studies entails understanding the concept of peace which is defined as political condition that ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal institutions, practices, and norms.

As pedagogical activity
Academics and students in the world's oldest universities have long been motivated by an interest in peace. American student interest in what we today think of as peace studies first appeared in the form of campus clubs at United States colleges in the years immediately following the American Civil War. Similar movements appeared in Sweden in the last years of the 19th century, as elsewhere soon after. These were student-originated discussion groups, not formal courses included in college curricula. The first known peace studies course in higher education was offered in 1888 at Swarthmore College, a Quaker school.

The First World War was a turning point in Western attitudes to war. At the 1919 Peace of Paris—where the leaders of France, Britain, and the United States, led by Georges Clemenceau, David Lloyd George, and Woodrow Wilson respectively, met to decide the future of Europe—Wilson proposed his famous Fourteen Points for peacemaking. These included breaking up European empires into nation states and the establishment of the League of Nations. These moves, intended to ensure a peaceful future, were the background to a number of developments in the emergence of Peace and Conflict Studies as an academic discipline. The founding of the first chair in International Relations at Aberystwyth University, Wales, whose remit was partly to further the cause of peace, occurred in 1919.

After World War II, the founding of the UN system provided a further stimulus for more rigorous approaches to peace and conflict studies to emerge. Many university courses in schools of higher learning around the world began to develop which touched upon questions of peace, often in relation to war, during this period. The first undergraduate academic program in peace studies in the United States was developed in 1948 by Gladdys Muir, at Manchester University a liberal arts college associated with the Church of the Brethren. It was not until the late 1960s in the United States that student concerns about the Vietnam War forced ever more universities to offer courses about peace, whether in a designated peace studies course or as a course within a traditional major. Work by academics such as Johan Galtung and John Burton, and debates in fora such as the Journal of Peace Research in the 1960s reflected the growing interest and academic stature of the field. Growth in the number of peace studies programs around the world was to accelerate during the 1980s, as students became more concerned about the prospects of nuclear war. As the Cold War ended, peace and conflict studies courses shifted their focus from international conflict and towards complex issues related to political violence, human security, democratisation, human rights, social justice, welfare, development, and producing sustainable forms of peace. A proliferation of international organisations, agencies and international NGOs, from the UN, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, European Union, and World Bank to International Crisis Group, International Alert, and others, began to draw on such research.

Critical theory agendas relating to positive peace in European academic contexts were already widely debated in the 1960s. By the mid-1990s peace studies curricula in the United States had shifted "...from research and teaching about negative peace, the cessation of violence, to positive peace, the conditions that eliminate the causes of violence." As a result, the topics had broadened enormously. By 1994, a review of course offerings in peace studies included topics such as: "north-south relations"; "development, debt, and global poverty"; "the environment, population growth, and resource scarcity"; and "feminist perspectives on peace, militarism, and political violence".

There is now a general consensus on the importance of peace and conflict studies among scholars from a range of disciplines in and around the social sciences, as well as from many influential policymakers around the world. Peace and conflict studies today is widely researched and taught in a large and growing number of institutions and locations. The number of universities offering peace and conflict studies courses is hard to estimate, mostly because courses may be taught out of different departments and have very different names. The International Peace Research Association website gives one of the most authoritative listings available. A 2008 report in the International Herald Tribune mentions over 400 programs of teaching and research in peace and conflict studies, noting in particular those at the United World Colleges, Peace Research Institute Oslo, Universitat Jaume I in Castellón de la Plana/Spain, the Malmö University of Sweden, the American University, University of Bradford, the UN mandated Peace University UPEACE in Ciudad Colón/Costa Rica, George Mason University, Lund, Michigan, Notre Dame, Queensland, Uppsala, Innsbruck School of Peace Studies/Austria, Virginia, and Wisconsin. The Rotary Foundation and the UN University supports several international academic teaching and research programs.

A 1995 survey found 136 United States colleges with peace studies programs: "Forty-six percent of these are in church-related schools, another 32% are in large public universities, 21% are in non-church related private colleges, and 1% are in community colleges. Fifty-five percent of the church-related schools that have peace studies programs are Roman Catholic. Other denominations with more than one college or university with a peace studies program are the Quakers, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, and United Church of Christ. One hundred fifteen of these programs are at the undergraduate level and 21 at the graduate level. Fifteen of these colleges and universities had both undergraduate and graduate programs."

Other notable programs can be found at the University of Manitoba, Lancaster University, Hiroshima University, University of Innsbruck, Universitat Jaume I, University of Sydney, University of Queensland, King's College (London), Sault College, London Metropolitan, Sabanci, Marburg, Sciences Po, Université Paris Dauphine University of Amsterdam, Otago, St Andrews, Brandeis University's Heller School and York. Perhaps most importantly, such programs and research agendas have now become common in institutions located in conflict, post-conflict, and developing countries and regions such as (e.g., National Peace Council), Centre for Human Rights, University of Sarajevo, Chulalongkorn University, National University of East Timor, University of Kabul, on September 11, 2014 University of peshawar, the provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan established an Institute with prime objective of offering peace education to the youth who suffered it most since 1979 Afghan war. It is called Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS).

As research activity
Although individual thinkers such as Immanuel Kant had long recognised the centrality of peace (see Perpetual Peace), it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that peace studies began to emerge as an academic discipline with its own research tools, a specialized set of concepts, and forums for discussion such as journals and conferences. Beginning in 1959, with the founding of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), associated with Johan Galtung, a number of research institutes began to appear.

In 1963, Walter Isard, the principal founder of regional science, assembled a group of scholars in Malmö, Sweden, for the purpose of establishing the Peace Research Society. The group of initial members included Kenneth Boulding and Anatol Rapoport. In 1973, this group became the Peace Science Society. Peace science was viewed as an interdisciplinary and international effort to develop a special set of concepts, techniques and data to better understand and mitigate conflict. Peace science attempts to use the quantitative techniques developed in economics and political science, especially game theory and econometrics, techniques otherwise seldom used by researchers in peace studies. The Peace Science Society website hosts the second edition of the Correlates of War, one of the most well-known collections of data on international conflict. The society holds an annual conference, attended by scholars from throughout the world, and publishes two scholarly journals: Journal of Conflict Resolution and Conflict Management and Peace Science.

In 1964, the International Peace Research Association was formed at a conference organized by Quakers in Clarens, Switzerland. Among the original executive committee was Johan Galtung. The IPRA holds a biennial conference. Research presented at its conferences and in its publications typically focuses on institutional and historical approaches, seldom employing quantitative techniques. In 2001, the Peace and Justice Studies Association (PJSA) was formed as a result of a merger of two precursor organisations. The PJSA is the North American affiliate of IPRA and includes members from around the world with a predominance from the United States and Canada. The PJSA publishes a regular newsletter (The Peace Chronicle), and holds annual conferences on themes related to the organization's mission "to create a just and peaceful world" through research, scholarship, pedagogy, and activism.

In 2008, Strategic Foresight Group presented its report on an innovative mechanism to find sustainable solution to conflicts in the Middle East. It also developed a new Water Cooperation Quotient, which is a measure of active cooperation by riparian countries in the management of water resources using 10 parameters including legal, political, technical, environmental, economic and institutional aspects.

Institutions like Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) are advancing the understanding of peace and development by analyzing the complex drivers of conflict and insecurity. Their approach acknowledges that conflicts are rarely caused by a single factor. Instead, a constellation of economic, social, political, and environmental factors, often reinforcing and exacerbating each other in ways that can lead to sustained violence or, conversely, pave pathways to peace.

Description
Peace and conflict studies along with its concepts of conflict analysis and conflict resolution   can be classified as:
 * Multidisciplinary, encompassing elements of Politics and International Relations, Sociology, Geography, Psychology, Anthropology and Economics.
 * Multilevel. Peace studies examines intrapersonal peace, peace between individuals, neighbours, ethnic groups, marriages, states and civilisations.
 * Multicultural. Gandhi is often cited as a paradigm of Peace Studies.
 * Both analytic and normative. As a normative discipline, Peace Studies involves value judgements, such as "better" and "bad".
 * Both theoretical and applied.

There has been a long-standing debate on disarmament issues, as well as attempts to investigate, catalogue, and analyse issues relating to arms production, trade, and their political impacts. There have also been attempt to map the economic costs of war, or of relapses into violence, as opposed to those of peace.

Peace and conflict studies is now well established within the social sciences: it comprises many scholarly journals, college and university departments, peace research institutes, conferences, as well as outside recognition of the utility of peace and conflict studies as a method.

Peace Studies allows one to examine the causes and prevention of war, as well as the nature of violence, including social oppression, discrimination and marginalization. Through peace studies one can also learn peace-making strategies to overcome persecution and transform society to attain a more just and equitable international community.

Feminist scholars have developed a speciality within conflict studies, specifically examining the role of gender and interlocking systems of inequality in armed and other conflicts. The importance of considering the role of gender in post-conflict work was recognised by the United Nations Security Council resolution 1325. Examples of feminist scholarship include the work of Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson.

Conceptions of peace
Negative peace refers to the absence of direct violence. Positive peace refers to the critical theory of conflict resolution and the absence of indirect and structural violence, and is the concept that most peace and conflict researchers adopt. This is often credited to Galtung but these terms were previously used by Martin Luther King Jr. in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" in 1963, in which he wrote about "negative peace which is the absence of tension" and "positive peace which is the presence of justice." These terms were perhaps first used by Jane Addams in a series of lectures about 'positive ideals of peace' begun in 1899 that took form in her book Newer Ideals of Peace where she switched to the term "newer ideals", but continued to contrast them to the term "negative peace"; she described them as we think of them today, as peace with "a sense of justice no longer outraged." The idea was further popularized by then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in his 1992 report An Agenda for Peace, published in the aftermath of the Cold War.

Several conceptions, models, or modes of peace have been suggested in which peace research might prosper.

 * The crux of the matter is that peace is a natural social condition, whereas war is not. The premise is simple for peace researchers: to present enough information so that a rational group of decision makers will seek to avoid war and conflict.
 * Second, the view that violence is sinful or unskillful, and that non-violence is skillful or virtuous and should be cultivated. This view is held by a variety of religious traditions worldwide: Quakers, Mennonites and other Peace churches within Christianity; Baháʼís, Jains, the Satyagraha tradition in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other portions of Indian religion and philosophy; as well as certain schools of Islam.
 * Third is pacifism: the view that peace is a prime force in human behaviour.
 * A further approach is that there are multiple modes of peace.

There have been many offerings on these various forms of peace. These range from the well known works of Kant, Locke, Rousseau, Paine, on various liberal international and constitutional and plans for peace. Variations and additions have been developed more recently by scholars such as Raymond Aron, Edward Azar, John Burton, Martin Ceadal, Wolfgang Dietrich, Kevin Dooley, Johan Galtung, Robert L. Holmes,   Michael Howard, Vivienne Jabri, John-Paul Lederach, Roger Mac Ginty, Pamina Firchow, Hugh Miall, David Mitrany, Oliver Ramsbotham, Anatol Rapoport, Mikkel Vedby Rasmussen, Oliver Richmond, S.P. Udayakumar, Tom Woodhouse, others mentioned above and many more. Democratic peace, liberal peace, sustainable peace, civil peace, hybrid peace, post-liberal peace, everyday peace, trans-rational peace(s) and other concepts are regularly used in such work.

Sustainable peace
Under the conceptions of peace, sustainable peace must be regarded as an important factor for the future of prosperity. Sustainable peace must be the priority of global society where state actors and non-state actors do not only seek for the profits in a near future that might violate the stable state of peace. For a sustainable peace, nurturing, empowerment, and communications are considered to be the crucial factors throughout the world. Firstly, nurturing is necessary to encourage psychological stability and emotional maturity. The significance of social value in adequate nurturing is important for sustainable peace. Secondly, in order to achieve real security, inner security must be secured along with arranged social systems and protection based on firm foundation. Lastly, communications are necessary to overcome ignorance and establish a community based on reliable and useful information. It will prevents isolation to take place which is critical to bring sustainable peace.

Conflict triangle
Johan Galtung's conflict triangle works on the assumption that the best way to define peace is to define violence, its opposite. It reflects the normative aim of preventing, managing, limiting and overcoming violence.

Each corner of Galtung's triangle can relate to the other two. Ethnic cleansing can be an example of all three.
 * Direct (overt) violence: for example, direct attacks and massacres.
 * Structural violence: Death by avoidable reasons such as malnutrition. Structural violence is indirect violence caused by an unjust structure and is not to be equated with an act of God.
 * Cultural violence: Cultural violence occurs as a result of the cultural assumptions that blind one to direct or structural violence. For example, one may be indifferent toward the homeless, or even consider their expulsion or extermination a good thing.

A simplification of these can be phrased as:

 * Direct violence: harming or hurting the body and mind.
 * Structural violence: economic exploitation and political repression.
 * Cultural violence: underlying values and epistemic models that legitimize direct and structural violence.

Appeasement and deterrence
Appeasement in a strategy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict. Deterrence is a strategy to use threats or limited force to dissuade an actor from escalating conflict, typically because the prospective attacker believes that the probability of success is low and the costs of attack are high.

Cost of conflict and price of unjust peace
Cost of conflict is a approach which attempts to calculate the price of conflicts. The idea is to examine this cost, not only in terms of the deaths and casualties and the economic costs borne by the people involved, but also the social, developmental, environmental and strategic costs of conflict. The approach considers direct costs of conflict, for instance human deaths, expenditure, destruction of land and physical infrastructure; as well as indirect costs that impact a society, for instance migration, humiliation, growth of extremism and lack of civil society. The price of unjust peace can be higher than the cost of conflict.

Causality
The democratic peace theory claims that democracy causes peace, while the territorial peace theory disagrees and claims that peace causes democracy. The capitalist peace theory claims economic interdependence contributes to peace. Other explanations for peace include institutional liberalism, alliances, Pax Americana and political stability. Realism and liberal internationalism are claimed by some to lead in some cases to more wars and in other cases to fewer wars.

Critical theory
Critical theory argues for a shift from "negative peace" described as absence of violence against individuals to "positive peace" described as the absence of structural violence. This emerged rapidly at the end of the Cold War, and was encapsulated in the report of then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace. Indeed, it might be said that much of the machinery of what has been called "liberal peacebuilding" by a number of scholars and "statebuilding" by another is based largely on the work that has been carried out in this area. Many scholars in the area have advocated a more "emancipatory" form of peacebuilding, however, based upon a "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P), human security, local ownership and participation in such processes, especially after the limited success of liberal peacebuilding/ statebuilding in places as diverse as Cambodia, the Balkans, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Iraq. This approach includes the normatively oriented work that emerged in the peace studies and conflict research schools of the 1960s (e.g. Oslo Peace Research Institute on "Liberal Peace and the Ethics of Peacebuilding") and more critical ideas about peacebuilding that have recently developed in many European and non-western academic and policy circles.

Prediction and forecasting
Conflict forecasts and early warnings can be sufficiently precise to be relevant for policy and evaluation of theories. Conflict escalation can be rational for one side of the conflict in some cases of asymmetric conflicts, appeasement or for Fait accompli, causing challenges to de-escalation.

Normative aims
The normative aims of peace studies are conflict transformation and conflict resolution through mechanisms such as peacekeeping, peacebuilding (e.g., tackling disparities in rights, institutions and the distribution of world wealth) and peacemaking (e.g., mediation and conflict resolution). Peacekeeping falls under the aegis of negative peace, whereas efforts toward positive peace involve elements of critical theory, peace building and peacemaking.

Peace and conflict studies in military
Peace and conflict are widely studied by militaries. One approach by military to prevent conflict and conflict escalation is deterrence. Critical theory argues that military is overtly committed to combat in the article "Teaching Peace to the Military", published in the journal Peace Review, James Page argues for five principles that ought to undergird this undertaking, namely, respect but do not privilege military experience, teach the just war theory, encourage students to be aware of the tradition and techniques of nonviolence, encourage students to deconstruct and demythologize, and recognize the importance of military virtue.

Criticism of Critical theory in Peace and conflict studies
A serious number of well established criticisms have been aimed at critical theory in peace and conflict studies, often but not necessarily from outside the realms of university system, including that peace studies:

 * does not produce practical prescriptions for managing or resolving global conflicts because "ideology always trumps objectivity and pragmatism";
 * are focused on putting a "respectable face on Western self-loathing";
 * are hypocritical because they "tacitly or openly support terrorism as a permissible strategy for the 'disempowered' to redress real or perceived grievances against the powerful" (i.e. ideological anti-Western concepts developed by social scientists such as Johan Galtung which arguably add a sense of unjustified acceptability which is used in support of radicalism);
 * have curricula that are (according to human rights activist Caroline Cox and philosopher Roger Scruton) "intellectually incoherent, riddled with bias and unworthy of academic status...";
 * have policies proposed to "eliminate the causes of violence" that are uniformly leftist policies, and not necessarily policies which would find broad agreement among social scientists.

In 1980, political scientist J. David Singer criticized peace research on three fronts:

 * 1) Peace research contributed to creating a schism in research into the causes of war, thus making it harder to develop systematic research into war
 * 2) "many peace researchers had the intellectual innocence of most bright amateurs; they underestimated the rate at which their research findings would become applicable and would be applied to major policy problems of the day."
 * 3) many peace researchers failed to distinguish between objective research into the conditions of war and peace on one hand, and political action and propaganda in favor of specific policies

Barbara Kay, a columnist for the National Post, specifically criticized the views of Norwegian professor Johan Galtung, who is considered to be a leader in modern peace research. Kay wrote that Galtung has written on the "structural fascism" of "rich, Western, Christian" democracies, admires Fidel Castro, opposed resistance to the Soviet Invasion of Hungary in 1956, and has described Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov as "persecuted elite personages". Galtung has also praised Mao Zedong for "endlessly liberating" China. Galtung has also stated that the United States is a "killer country" that is guilty of "neo-fascist state terrorism" and has reportedly stated that the destruction of Washington, D.C., could be justified by America's foreign policy. He has also compared the United States to Nazi Germany for bombing Kosovo during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.

In the Summer 2007 edition of City Journal, Bruce Bawer sharply criticized Peace Studies. He noted that many Peace Studies programs in American Universities are run by Marxist or far-left Professors. More broadly, he argued that Peace Studies are dominated by the belief that "America ... is the wellspring of the world's problems" and that while Professors of Peace Studies argue "that terrorist positions deserve respect at the negotiating table," they "seldom tolerate alternative views" and that "(p)eace studies, as a rule, rejects questioning of its own guiding ideology."

Regarding his claim that Peace Studies supports violence in the pursuit of leftist ideology, Bawer cited a quote from Peace and Conflict Studies, a widely used 2002 textbook written by Charles P. Webel and David P. Barash which praised Vladimir Lenin because he "maintained that only revolution—not reform—could undo capitalism's tendency toward imperialism and thence to war."

David Horowitz has argued that Webel and Barash's book implicitly supports violence for socialist causes, noting that the book states "the case of Cuba indicates that violent revolutions can sometimes result in generally improved living conditions for many people." Horowitz also argued that the book "treats the Soviet Union as a sponsor of peace movements, and the United States as the militaristic, imperialist power that peace movements try to keep in check" and that "the authors justify Communist policies and actions while casting those of America and Western democracies in a negative light." Horowitz also claimed that the authors discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis without mentioning its cause (i.e. the placement of the Soviet missiles in Cuba) and blame John F. Kennedy while praising Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev for "be[ing] willing to back down". Finally, Horowitz criticized the author's use of Marxist writers, such as Andre Gunder Frank and Frances Moore Lappe, as the sole basis on which to study "poverty and hunger as causes of human conflict."

Kay and Bawer also specifically criticized Professor Gordon Fellman, the Chairman of Brandeis University's Peace, Conflict, and Coexistence Studies Program, who they claimed has justified Palestinian suicide-bombings against Israelis as "ways of inflicting revenge on an enemy that seems unable or unwilling to respond to rational pleas for discussion and justice."

Katherine Kersten, who is a senior fellow at the Minneapolis-based conservative think tank Center of the American Experiment, believes that Peace Studies programs are "dominated by people of a certain ideological bent, and [are] thus hard to take seriously." Robert Kennedy, a professor of Catholic studies and management at the University of St. Thomas, criticized his university's Peace Studies Program in an interview with Minneapolis Star Tribune in 2002, stating that the program employs several adjunct professors "whose academic qualifications are not as strong as we would ordinarily look for" and that "The combination of the ideological bite and the maybe less-than-full academic credentials of the faculty would probably raise some questions about how scholarly the program is."

Responses
Such views have been strongly opposed by scholars who claim that these criticisms underestimate the development of detailed interdisciplinary, theoretical, methodological, and empirical research into the causes of violence and dynamics of peace that has occurred via academic and policy networks around the world.

In reply to Barbara Kay's article, a group of Peace Studies experts in Canada responded that "Kay's...argument that the field of peace studies endorses terrorism is nonsense" and that "(d)edicated peace theorists and researchers are distinguished by their commitment to reduce the use of violence whether committed by enemy nations, friendly governments or warlords of any stripe." They also argued that:

...Ms. Kay attempts to portray advocates for peace as naive and idealistic, but the data shows that the large majority of armed conflicts in recent decades have been ended through negotiations, not military solutions. In the contemporary world, violence is less effective than diplomacy in ending armed conflict. Nothing is 100% effective to reduce tyranny and violence, but domestic and foreign strategy needs to be based on evidence, rather than assumptions and misconceptions from a bygone era.

Most academics in the area argue that the accusations that peace studies approaches are not objective, and derived from mainly leftist or inexpert sources, are not practical, support violence rather than reject it, or have not led to policy developments, are clearly incorrect. They note that the development of UN and major donor policies (including the EU, US, and UK, as well as many others including those of Japan, Canada, Norway, etc.) towards and in conflict and post-conflict countries have been heavily influenced by such debates. A range of key policy documents and responses have been developed by these governments in the last decade and more, and in UN (or related) documentation such as "Agenda for Peace", "Agenda for Development", "Agenda for Democratization", the Millennium Development Goals, Responsibility to Protect, and the "High Level Panel Report". They have also been significant for the work of the World Bank, international development agencies, and a wide range of nongovernmental organisations. It has been influential in the work of, among others, the UN, UNDP, UN Peacebuilding Commission, UNHCR, World Bank, EU, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, for national donors including USAID, DFID, CIDA, NORAD, DANIDA, Japan Aid, GTZ, and international NGOs such as International Alert or International Crisis Group, as well as many local NGOs. Major databases have been generated by the work of scholars in these areas.

Finally, peace and conflict studies debates have generally confirmed, not undermined, a broad consensus (western and beyond) on the importance of human security, human rights, development, democracy, and a rule of law (though there is a vibrant debate ongoing about the contextual variations and applications of these frameworks). At the same time, the research field is characterized by a number of challenges including the tension between "the objective of doing critical research and being of practical relevance".

Journals

 * International Peacekeeping
 * Journal of Conflict Resolution
 * Journal of Peace Research
 * Journal for Peace and Justice Studies
 * Peace Review
 * The Acorn: Journal of the Gandhi-King Society

People

 * Jane Addams
 * Camillo Mac Bica
 * Elise M. Boulding
 * Stanley A. Deetz
 * Johan Galtung
 * John Maynard Keynes
 * Michael Murphy Andregg
 * Glenn D. Paige

Sources and further reading

 * Aron, Raymond, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations, London: Transaction, 2003 [1966].
 * Avruch, Kevin, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, London: Greenwood Press, 1991.
 * Azar, Edward E., The Management of Protracted Social Conflict, Hampshire, UK: Dartmouth Publishing, 1990.
 * Beer, Francis A., Meanings of War and Peace, College Station: Texas A & M University Press 2001.
 * Beer, Francis, Peace Against War, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1981.
 * Bawer, Bruce, "The Peace Racket", City Journal, Summer 2007 link
 * Burton, John W., and Edward E. Azar, International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, Sussex: Wheatsheaf Books, 1986.
 * Caplan, Richard, International Governance of War-Torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
 * Ceadal, M, Thinking about Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
 * Chandler, D. Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-Building. Pluto Press, 2006.
 * Churchman, D. The Origins, Nature, and Management of Human Conflict. University Press of America, 2013.
 * Cooper, Neil, "What's the Point of Arms Transfer Controls?", Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 27, No. 1, April 2006 pp. 118–137.
 * Jarat Chopra, and Tanja Hohe, "Participatory Intervention", Global Governance, Vol. 10, 2004.
 * Darby, John, and Roger MacGinty, Contemporary Peacemaking, London: Palgrave, 2003.
 * Wolfgang Dietrich, Josefina Eachavarría Alvarez, Norbert Koppensteiner eds.: Key Texts of Peace Studies; LIT Münster, Vienna, 2006.
 * Wolfgang Dietrich, Daniela Ingruber, Josefina Echavarría, Gustavo Esteva and Norbert Koppensteiner (eds.): The Palgrave International Handbook of Peace Studies: A Cultural Perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
 * Dooley, Kevin L., and S.P. Udayakumar, "Reconceptualizing Global Conflicts: From Us Versus Them to Us Versus Then," Journal of Global Change and Governance, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2009.
 * Duffield, Mark, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security, London: Zed Books, 2001.
 * Dugan, M. 1989. "Peace Studies at the Graduate Level." The Annals of the American Academy of Political Science: Peace Studies: Past and Future, 504, 72–79.
 * Dunn, DJ, The First Fifty Years of Peace Research, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.
 * Fukuyama, Francis, State Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
 * Galtung, J., "A Structural Theory of Imperialism", Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1971.
 * Galtung, Johan, and Carl G. Jacobsen, Searching for Peace: The Road to TRANSCEND, Pluto Press: London, 2000.
 * Harris, Ian, Larry J. Fisk, and Carol Rank. (1998). "A Portrait of University Peace Studies in North America and Western Europe at the End of the Millennium." International Journal of Peace Studies. Volume 3, Number 1. ISSN 1085-7494 link
 * Howard, M. The Invention of Peace and the Re-Invention of War, London: Profile, 2002.
 * Jabri, Vivienne, Discourses on Violence, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996.
 * Jabri, Vivienne, War and the Transformation of Global Politics, London: Palgrave, 2007.
 * Keynes, John Maynard, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, London: Macmillan, 1920.
 * Koppensteiner, Norbert: The Art of the Transpersonal Self. Transformation as Aesthetic and Energetic Practice; [ATROPOS] New York, Dresden, 2009.
 * Kosaka, Masataka, International Politics and the Search for Peace, Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2023 [1966]. link
 * Kumar, Samrat Schmiem, Bhakti - the yoga of love: Trans-rational approaches to Peace Studies; Münster: LIT Verlag, 2010.
 * Lederach, J., Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1997.
 * López-Martínez, Mario (dir) Enciclopedia de paz y conflictos. Granada, 2004. ISBN 84-338-3095-3, 2 tomos.
 * Lund, Michael S., "What Kind of Peace Is being Built: Taking Stock of Post-Conflict Peacebuilding and Charting Future Directions", Paper presented on the 10th Anniversary of Agenda for Peace, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, January 2003.
 * Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham, and Tom Woodhouse, Contemporary Conflict Resolution, Polity Press, 2005.
 * Mitrany, D.A., The Functional Theory of Politics, London: Martin Robertson, 1975.
 * Richmond, OP, Maintaining Order, Making Peace, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
 * Richmond, OP, A Post-Liberal Peace, London: Routledge, 2011.
 * Richmond, OP, The Transformation of Peace, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ————
 * Richmond, OP, and Jason Franks, Liberal Peace Transitions: Between Statebuilding and Peacebuilding, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
 * Routledge Contemporary Security Studies series: Women, Peace and Security: Translating Policy into Practice First published 2010. Introduction by 'Funmi Olonisakin, Director of Conflict, Security & Development Group, King's College London, and Karen Barnes. Chapter by Lesley Abdela 'Nepal and the implementation of UNSCR1325'. ISBN 978-0-415-58797-6 (hbk)
 * Rummel, RJ, The Just Peace, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981.
 * Tadjbakhsh, Shahrbanou, and Anuradha M. Chenoy, Human Security: Concepts and Implications, London: Routledge, 2006
 * Taylor, Paul, and A.J.R. Groom (eds.), The UN at the Millennium, London: Continuum, 2000.
 * Tidwell, Alan C., Conflict Resolved, London: Pinter, 1998.
 * Trinn, Christoph, and Thomas Wencker, "Integrating the Quantitative Research on the Onset and Incidence of Violent Intrastate Conflicts" International Studies Review, 2020. (doi.org/10.1093/isr/viaa023)
 * Vayrynen, R., New Directions in Conflict Theory: Conflict Resolution and Conflict Transformation, London: Sage, 1991.
 * Vedby Rasmussen, Mikkel, The West, Civil Society, and the Construction of Peace, London: Palgrave, 2003.
 * Wallensteen, Peter (ed.), Peace Research: Achievements and Challenges, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988.
 * Young, Nigel J. (ed.), The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace (4 vols. 2010) 3:449–498.
 * Zartman, William, and Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.
 * Vayrynen, R., New Directions in Conflict Theory: Conflict Resolution and Conflict Transformation, London: Sage, 1991.
 * Vedby Rasmussen, Mikkel, The West, Civil Society, and the Construction of Peace, London: Palgrave, 2003.
 * Wallensteen, Peter (ed.), Peace Research: Achievements and Challenges, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988.
 * Young, Nigel J. (ed.), The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace (4 vols. 2010) 3:449–498.
 * Zartman, William, and Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.

Library guides to peace studies

 * Cornell University, New York, USA
 * Michigan State University, USA
 * University of Missouri, USA
 * New York University, USA

title: Peace and conflict studies