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Huemul Project

The Huemul Project (Proyecto Huemul) was an early 1950s Argentine effort to develop a fusion power device known as the Thermotron. The concept was invented by Austrian scientist Ronald Richter, who claimed to have a design that would produce effectively unlimited power.

Richter was able to pitch the idea to President of Argentina Juan Perón in 1948, and soon received massive funding to build an experimental site on Huemul Island, on a lake just outside the town of San Carlos de Bariloche in Patagonia, near the Andes mountains. Construction began late in 1949, and by 1951 the site was completed and carrying out tests. On 16 February 1951, Richter measured high temperatures that suggested fusion had been achieved. On 24 March, the day before an important international meeting of the leaders of the Americas, Perón publicly announced that Richter had been successful, adding that in the future energy would be sold in packages the size of a milk bottle.

A worldwide interest followed, along with significant skepticism on the part of other physicists. Little information was forthcoming: no papers were published on the topic, and over the next year a number of reporters visited the site but were denied access to the buildings. After increasing pressure, Perón arranged for a team to investigate Richter's claims and return individual reports, all of which were negative. A review of these reports was equally negative, and the project was ended in 1952. By this time, the optimism of the earlier news had inspired groups around the world to begin their own research in nuclear fusion.

Perón was overthrown in 1955, and in the aftermath, Richter was arrested for fraud. He appears to have spent periods of time abroad, including some time in Libya. Eventually he returned to Argentina, where he died in 1991.

Prior to Huemul
According to Rainer Karlsch's Hitler's Bomb, during World War II German scientists under Walter Gerlach and Kurt Diebner carried out experiments to explore the possibility of inducing thermonuclear reactions in deuterium using high explosive-driven convergent shock waves, following Karl Gottfried Guderley's convergent shock wave solution. At the same time, Richter proposed in a memorandum to German government officials the induction of nuclear fusion through shock waves by high-velocity particles shot into a highly compressed deuterium plasma contained in an ordinary uranium vessel. The proposal was not carried through.

Early Argentine nuclear efforts
Shortly after his election in 1946, Perón began a purge of Argentina's universities that eventually resulted in over 1,000 professors being fired or quitting, causing a serious setback in Argentine science and lasting enmity between Perón and Argentine intelligentsia. In response, the Physical Association of Argentina (AFA) began to organize as a community to retain links between Argentine scientists, who now spread to industry.

In 1946, the director of the AFA, physicist Enrique Gaviola, wrote a proposal to set up the Comisión Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (National Scientific Research Commission), arguing that post-World War II friction (leading to the Cold War) would present the opportunity for various Northern Hemisphere scientists to move south to escape limits on their research. In the same paper, Gaviola argued for the formation of a body to explore the peaceful use of atomic power. In spite of the poor relations between the scientific community and the Argentine government, the proposal was seriously studied and Congress debated the matter on several occasions before Perón decided to place it under military control. Gaviola objected, starting a long and acrimonious debate over the nature and aims of the program.

By 1947, plans to form an atomic study group were progressing slowly when the entire issue was shut down by an article in the U.S. political newsmagazine, New Republic. The 24 February 1947 issue contained an article by William Mizelle on "Peron's Atomic Plans", which claimed:

"With world famous German atom-splitter Werner Heisenberg invited to come to Argentina by Peron's Government and with a major uranium source discovered in Argentina, that Nation is launching a military nuclear research program to crack Pandora's box of atomic energy wide open. Argentina's determined atomic adventure and its frankly military purposes cannot be dismissed as the impractical dream of a small nation."

International pressure on Argentina following the publication was intense, and the plans were soon dropped. This event appears to have made Perón more determined than ever to both develop atomic energy as well as prove its peaceful intentions.

Germans in Argentina
In 1947, a dossier was provided to Argentina by the Spanish embassy in Buenos Aires listing a number of German aeronautical engineers who were looking to sneak out of Germany. Among them was Kurt Tank, designer of the famed Focke-Wulf Fw 190 and many other successful designs. The dossier was passed to the recently formed Argentine Air Force's Commander in Chief, who passed it to Brigadier César Raúl Ojeda, who was in charge of aerodynamics research. Ojeda and Tank communicated and formulated plans to begin building a jet fighter in Argentina, which would eventually emerge as the FMA IAe 33 Pulqui II.

Just before leaving for Argentina, Tank briefly met Richter in London, where Richter told Tank of his ideas for nuclear-powered aircraft. Richter was at that time doing some work in the German chemical industry. Tank had also contacted a number of other engineers and even famed fighter pilot and Luftwaffe general Adolf Galland. Various members of the group made their way to Argentina under false passports during late 1947 and 1948. The Germans were warmly received by Perón, who effectively gave them a blank cheque in an effort to rapidly develop the Argentine economy. Tank set up an aircraft development plant in Córdoba, and continued to contact other German engineers and scientists who might be interested in joining them. A total of 184 German scientists and engineers are known to have moved to Argentina during this period.

Richter was invited to join the group and arrived in Argentina on 16 August 1948, travelling under the name "Dr. Pedro Matthies". Tank personally introduced him to Perón on 24 August, and Richter pitched Perón on the idea of a nuclear fusion device which would provide unlimited power, make Argentina a world scientific leader, and be of purely civilian intent. Perón was intrigued, and clearly impressed, later telling reporters that "in half an hour he explained to me all the secrets of nuclear physics and he did it so well that now I have a pretty good idea of the subject".

Gaviola, still maintaining pressure to form a nuclear research group, saw all interest evaporate. From that point on he offered his services only as a "member of Richter's firing squad." Other German scientists, including Guido Beck, Walter Seelmann-Eggbert, and the now-elderly Richard Gans quickly realized something was amiss in the entire affair, and began to align themselves with the AFA, steering clear of Richter and the government in general. At an AFA meeting in September 1951, Beck publicly resigned from the University of Buenos Aires over the issue.

The project
Richter was soon given a laboratory at Tank's Córdoba site, but in early 1949 a fire destroyed some of the equipment. Richter claimed it was sabotage, and demanded a more protected location free from spies. When support was not immediately forthcoming, Richter went on a tour, visiting Canada and perhaps the U.S. and Europe as well. A year later, Lise Meitner recalled meeting "a strange Austrian with an Argentine visa" in Vienna, where he demonstrated a device he claimed was a thermonuclear system but which Meitner later dismissed as a chemical effect.

Richter's tour was a thinly veiled threat to leave Argentina, which prompted action. Perón handed the problem of selecting a suitable experimental site to Colonel González, a friend from the 1943 Argentine coup d'état. González selected a location deep within the country's interior on Huemul Island, in Nahuel Huapi Lake, where it would be easy to protect from prying eyes. Construction work began in July, causing a nationwide shortage of brick and cement. Richter moved to the site in March 1950 while construction on Laboratory 1, the reactor, was still ongoing.

In May 1950, Perón formed the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA), bypassing Gaviola's earlier efforts and placing himself in the position of president, with Richter and the minister of technical affairs as the other chairs. A year later, he formed the National Atomic Energy Directorate (DNEA), under González, to provide project assistance and logistics support.

When the reactor was finally completed in May, Richter noticed there was no way to access the interior of the 12 m wide concrete cylinder, requiring a series of holes to be drilled through the 4 m thick walls. But before this could be completed, Richter declared that a crack on the outside rendered the entire reactor useless, and had it torn down.

While this was taking place, Richter began experiments in the much smaller 2 m reactor in Laboratory 2. The experiments injected lithium and hydrogen into the cylinder and discharged a spark through it. The cylinder was supposed to reflect the energy created by these reactions back into the chamber to keep the reaction going. Diagnostic measurements were provided by taking photographs of the spectrum and using Doppler widening to measure the temperature of the resulting reactions.

Announcement
On 16 February 1951, Richter claimed he had successfully demonstrated fusion. He re-ran the experiment for members of the CNEA, later claiming that they had witnessed the world's first thermonuclear reaction.

On 23 February, a technician working for the project expressed his concerns about the claims, suggesting that the measurement was likely due to the accidental tilting of the spectrograph's photographic plate while the experimental run was being set up. Richter refused to re-run the experiment. Instead, a week later he ordered the reactor to be disassembled so a new one could be built that included a magnetic confinement system. Meanwhile, plans for a new Laboratory 1 were started with this new design, this time to be buried underground. A 14 m deep hole in hard rock was constructed, but Richter changed the design and had the hole filled in with concrete.

On 2 March, Edward Miller, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of Station for Inter-American Affairs, visited Argentina. This was ostensibly to visit the Pan American Games, but in reality was in advance of calling a meeting of American leaders later that month to discuss China's entry into the Korean War. Perón gave Miller an introduction to Richter's work, and Miller filed a memo on it on 6 March. During this period, Perón seized the Argentine newspaper La Prensa, whose editor fled to the U.S. This led to harsh criticism in the U.S. Miller suggested a policy of "masterful inaction", not actively denying support for the project, but simply never providing any.

The leadership meeting was to take place between 26 March and 7 April, by which time the Chinese "emergency" had passed and the war was entering a new phase. Perón then took the opportunity to announce Richter's results to the world. On 24 March, Perón held a press conference at Casa Rosada and stated that:

On February 16, 1951, in the atomic energy pilot plant on Huemul Island... thermonuclear experiments were carried out under conditions of control on a technical scale.

Perón justified the project by noting that Argentina's enormous energy shortage would be addressed by building nuclear plants across the country, and that the energy would be bought and sold in containers the size of a milk bottle. He went on to note that the country was simply unable to afford the cost of developing a uranium-based energy program, or that of a system using tritium, normally generated in special fission plants. Richter's fuel meant the reaction could only take place in a reactor, not a bomb, and he then recommitted the country to exploring only peaceful uses of atomic energy. Richter added that he understood the secret of the hydrogen bomb, but that Perón had forbidden any work on it.

The next day Richter held another press conference on the topic, a meeting that became known as the "10,000 word interview". He explained that a hydrogen bomb required a fission trigger, and that the country was unable and unwilling to build such a device. Very little explanation of the Thermotron was mentioned, beyond the announcement that he used the Doppler effect to measure speeds of 3,300 km/s and that the fuel was either lithium hydride or deuterium which was introduced into pre-heated hydrogen. He was careful to explain that these were small-scale experimental results, and refused to state whether it would work well at the industrial scale. On 7 April, Perón awarded Richter the gold Peronista Party Medal in a highly publicized event.

With the U.S. refusing any support for the program, Richter turned to other countries for equipment. In April, Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands visited Perón, and offered technical help to the project from Philips. A visit by Cornelis Bakker, later the director of CERN, was arranged and a synchrotron and Cockcroft–Walton generator were suggested as possible products of interest. Perón wrote to Richter to arrange the visit, during which Richter refused to show Bakker any of the reactors. In spite of this, Perón offered to fund the purchase of a Cockcroft–Walton generator and a synchrotron from the company.

Public reaction
Shortly after Richter's conference, the matter was discussed in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, where it was noted that Richter's announcement had revealed no details of the system of operation. They also noted that Richter claimed three key advances during experimentation, but failed to mention any of them during the conference. Finally, although the method for measuring temperature was announced, the temperature itself was not. The United States Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC) comment on the announcement was simply that "the Argentine Government announced more than a year ago that it was planning to engage in nuclear research."

American physicists were universally dismissive of the announcement. Among the more famous responses was that of George Gamow, who said "It seemed to be 95% pure propaganda, 4¾% thermonuclear reactions on a very small scale, and the remaining ¼% probably something better." Edward Lawrence was not so dismissive, noting that, "There is a tendency to laugh it off as being a lot of hot air or something. Well it may be, but we don't know all, and we should make every effort to find out." Edward Teller put it succinctly, "Reading one line one has to think he's a genius. Reading the next line, one realizes he's crazy."

British scientists, at that time working secretly on the z-pinch fusion concept, did not rule out the possibility of small-scale reactions. George Thomson, at that time leading the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (AEA), suggested it was simply exaggerated. This opinion was mirrored by Mark Oliphant in Australia, and Werner Heisenberg and Otto Hahn in Germany. Perhaps the most biting criticism came from Manfred von Ardenne, a German physicist now working in the Soviet Union. He advised that people should ignore Richter's claims, noting that he had worked with Richter during the war and said he confused fantasy with reality.

In May, the United Nations World magazine carried a short article by Hans Thirring, the director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Vienna and a well known author on nuclear matters. He stated that "the chances are 99 to 1 that the explosion in Argentina occurred only in the imagination of a crank or a fraud." When Thirring heard the announcement, he had gone searching for anyone that knew Richter from before he arrived in Argentina. He found that Richter had studied under Heinrich Rausch von Traubenberg in the 1930s, who described him as a peculiar eccentric, but von Traubenberg had died in 1944 so there was no way to follow up on the story. Richter's dissertation was never published, and the university in Prague burned during the war. Richter was invited to prepare a rebuttal, which appeared in the July issue. He simply dismissed Thirring as "a typical textbook professor with a strong scientific inferiority complex, probably supported by political hatred."

Private reaction
Although essentially dismissed by the scientific community, the Richter announcement nevertheless had a major effect on the history of controlled fusion experiments.

The most direct outcome of the announcement was its effect on Lyman Spitzer, an astrophysicist at Princeton University. Just prior to leaving for a ski trip to Aspen, Spitzer's father called and mentioned the announcement in The New York Times. Spitzer read the articles and dismissed them, noting the system could not deliver enough energy to heat the gases to fusion temperatures. This led him to begin considering ways to confine a hot plasma for longer periods of time, giving the system enough time to be heated to 10 to 100 million degrees Celsius. Considering the problem of confining a plasma in a toroid pointed out by Enrico Fermi, he hit upon the solution now known as the stellarator. Spitzer was able to use the notoriety surrounding Richter's announcement to gain the attention of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission with the suggestion that the basic idea of controlled fusion was feasible. He eventually managed to arrange a meeting with the director of the AEC to pitch the stellarator concept.

Researchers in the UK had been experimenting with fusion since 1947 using a system known today as z-pinch. Small experimental devices had been built at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE, "Harwell") and Imperial College London, but requests for funding of a larger system were repeatedly refused. Jim Tuck had seen the work while in the UK, and introduced z-pinch to his coworkers at Los Alamos in 1950. When Tuck heard of Spitzer's efforts to gain funding, he immediately applied as well, presenting his concept as the Perhapsatron. He felt that Spitzer's claims to have a fast track to fusion were "incredibly ambitious". Both Spitzer and Tuck met with AEC officials in May 1951; Spitzer was granted $50,000 to build an experimental device, while Tuck was turned away empty-handed. Not to be outdone, Tuck soon arranged to receive $50,000 from the director of Los Alamos instead.

When news of the U.S. efforts reached the UK, the researchers there started pushing for funding of a much larger machine. This time they found a much more favorable reaction from the AERE, and both teams soon began construction of larger devices. This work, through fits and starts, led to the ZETA system, the first truly large-scale fusion reactor. Compared to the small tabletop devices built in the U.S., ZETA filled a hangar and operated at energy levels far beyond any other machine. When news of ZETA was made public, the U.S. and Soviet Union were soon demanding funding to build devices of similar scale in order to catch up with the UK.

The announcement had a direct effect on research in the USSR as well. Previously, several researchers, notably Igor Kurchatov and I. N. Golovin had put together a development plan similar to the ones being developed in the UK. They too were facing disinterest on the part of the funding groups, which was immediately swept away when Huemul hit the newspapers.

Cancellation
Argentine physicists were also critical of the announcement, but found little interest on the part of Perón, who was still at odds with the academic mainstream. González was growing increasingly frustrated with Richter, and in February 1952 told Perón that either Richter left the project, or he did. Perón accepted González's resignation and replaced him with his aide, Navy Captain Pedro Iraolagoitía. Iraolagoitía soon began to protest as well, finally convincing Perón to have the project investigated.

Instead of calling upon the local physics community, Perón put together a team consisting of Iraolagoitía, a priest, two engineers including Mario Báncora, and young physicist José Antonio Balseiro, who was at that time studying in England and was asked to return with all haste. The team visited the site for a series of demonstrations between 5 and 8 September 1952.

The committee analyzed Richter's work and published separate reports on the topic on 15 September. Balseiro, in particular, was convinced nothing nuclear was taking place. His report critiqued Richter's claims about how the system was supposed to work, especially the claims that the system was reaching the temperatures needed to demonstrate fusion; he stated that fusion reactions would require something on the order of 40 million kelvin, while the center of the electric arc would be perhaps 4,000 to 100,000 kelvin at most. He then pointed out that Richter's radiation detectors showed large activity whenever the arc was discharged, even if there was no fuel present. Meanwhile, the team's own detectors showed low activity throughout. They reported their findings to Perón on 15 February.

Richter was allowed to officially respond to the report. The government appointed physicists Richard Gans and Antonio Rodríguez to review the first report as well as Richter's response to it. This second group endorsed the findings of the first review panel and found Richter's response inadequate. On 22 November, while Richter was in Buenos Aires, a military team occupied the site. They found that many of the instruments were not even connected, and the project was pronounced a fraud. Argentines jokingly referred to the affair as the Huele a mula, or "it smells like a con".

After the project
In the period immediately after the military takeover, Balseiro wrote a proposal to create a nuclear physics institute on the mainland in nearby Bariloche using the equipment on the island. Originally known as the Instituto de Física de Bariloche, it was renamed the Instituto Balseiro in his honour in 1962.

Between 1952 and 1955, Richter was effectively under house arrest in Buenos Aires, with an offer from Perón to "facilitate any travel he might have to make". After Perón was deposed in September 1955, the new government arrested Richter on the night of 4 October 1955. He was accused of fraud, and spent a short time in jail. At the time, it was estimated that 62.5 million Pesos had been spent on the project, about $15 million USD ($ million in 2024). A more recent estimate places the value closer to $300 million in 2003 dollars ($ million in 2024).

Richter remained in Argentina for a time, but began to travel, eventually landing in Libya. He returned to Argentina and was extensively interviewed by Mario Mariscotti for his book on Huemul, which remains the most detailed account of the project. Mariscotti blames the affair primarily on Richter, who Mariscotti states was capable of great self-delusion, adding an autocratic and paranoid management style, and lack of oversight to the ills.

Perón remains a controversial figure to this day, and opinions of Richter tend to be colored by how closely the author associates him with Perón. Argentine accounts often refer to Richter as an outright con man, while accounts written outside Argentina generally describe him as a deluded amateur.

Huemul today
The island remained closed and under military control until the 1970s, when the Army began using it for artillery target practice. In 1995 a tourist company took control of the island, and began to offer tours by boat from docks in Bariloche. The ruins of the historic facilities (at -41.10639°N, -71.395°W), can be visited by tourists by boat from the port of Bariloche.

title: Huemul Project


text:
Ed Ayres (environmentalist)

Edward H. Ayres (born October 1941) is an American writer, editor, environmentalist and ultramarathon runner. He is the founding editor and publisher of Running Times magazine, and he served as editorial director of the Worldwatch Institute and editor of Worldwatch, a bimonthly global-trends magazine. David M. Shribman states that Ayres has "inspired athletes worldwide and reshaped our ideas about endurance and sustainability".

Ayres grew up in the New Jersey towns of Berkeley Heights and Westfield. He graduated from Swarthmore College in 1963 and briefly was a teacher at George School. He enjoys making furniture and sculptures out of geodes, petrified wood, and glass bottles.

He placed third in the first New York Marathon in 1970, and won the 1977 JFK 50 Mile.

In 1999, Ayres wrote God's Last Offer: Negotiating for a Sustainable Future in which he discusses four trends which he says threaten society: global warming caused by carbon dioxide, mass extinctions, a surge of consumption, and a population explosion. Publishers Weekly stated that "Ayres dismantles the perceptual obstructions that block our awareness of a crisis" but that he "comes up short in offering specific solutions" while Goodreads said that the book "presents a blueprint for a radical shift of policies and priorities to avoid a cataclysm".

In 2010, he was co-author of Crossing the Energy Divide: Moving from Fossil-Fuel Dependence to a Clean Energy Future (Prentice Hall).

Goodreads called his book The Longest Race (2012), an autobiography covering his attempt to run a 50-mile ultramarathon at age 60, an "urgent exploration of the connection between individual endurance and a sustainable society". Kirkus Reviews said that his " broad-ranging interests and accumulated wisdom will appeal to a wide readership, not just runners and environmentalists".

Ayres is a paleo-vegetarian who shopped at, and invested in, Whole Foods Market when the stock was still trading for well under $15/share. Ayres is married and has a daughter.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ed Ayres (environmentalist)


text: Category:1042 births

title: Category:1042 births


text:
User talk:Yacob

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome!
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Thank you, especially, for your fix on Ge'ez language. We need people with knowledge of this language, and with specialist knowledge in many other fields, to help as contributors to Wikipedia. If there is anything you need help with, please write a message on my talk page. Enjoy, Gareth Hughes 19:46, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Your submission at Articles for creation: The Don't Need It's (May 12)
 Your recent article submission to Articles for Creation has been reviewed! Unfortunately, it has not been accepted at this time. Please read the comments left by the reviewer on your submission. You are encouraged to edit the submission to address the issues raised and resubmit when they have been resolved. ''' Thank you for your contributions to Wikipedia! '''
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Your draft article, Wikipedia talk:Articles for creation/The Don't Need It's

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title: User talk:Yacob


text:
Talk:Megasthenes

error message
The link to Indika returns an error message.
 * Fixed. --Clay Collier 00:54, 19 May 2005 (UTC)

'''Neither does the Rigveda, Ramayana or Mahabharta refer to Hercules, etc. thus this is planted data. Hindus have their own Aryan gods. These have nothing to do with the Greeks'''  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.88.88.202 (talk) 22:37, 11 July 2011 (UTC)

Added a little detail in Legacy
I just added a little bit of detail to the Legacy section of this page, discussing some of Strabo's specific objections rather than simply saying that he did or did not treat Megasthenes's Indica with respect. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:7:9F01:7BF7:E6CE:8FFF:FE27:64F6 (talk) 14:44, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified (January 2018)
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Separate article for the book
I've undone recent undiscussed split by User:Kazvorpal for following reasons:

 * It was done without content attribution: see Copying within Wikipedia
 * Nearly all the content left in this article after the split was still about the book (except a couple of sentences about Megasthenes' occupation, region of birth, and period). There was a lot of duplication of information: the content left in this article should have been much shorter, per Summary style.

I've no problem with the content about the book being split into a separate article, if the above-mentioned problems are addressed. utcursch | talk 16:20, 17 February 2019 (UTC)

 * If no one has an objection, I'll perform a proper split. This article can be shortened to bits about Megasthenes's personal life / career. utcursch | talk 01:11, 3 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Megasthenes


text:
Andrea Allan

Andrea Allan (born 18 November 1946) is a Scottish-born actress who appeared in many British films of the 1960s and '70s. She also appeared in magazine spreads for both Playboy and Penthouse.

Her films included Carry On Cowboy, The Wrong Box with Dudley Moore, Vampira with David Niven, Spanish Fly with Leslie Phillips and The Office Party. She had the leading role in The House That Vanished and appeared in several television series including Gideon's Way, UFO (episodes "A Question of Priorities", "The Sound of Silence" and "The Man Who Came Back"), Space: 1999, Thriller and Jason King.

In the mid-1970s she changed her name to Ellie Reece-Knight and appeared in a few more films and an episode of The Benny Hill Show before apparently retiring from acting on screen.

Selected filmography

 * Carry On Cowboy (1965)
 * The Wrong Box (1966)
 * Assignment K (1968)
 * She'll Follow You Anywhere (1971)
 * The House That Vanished (aka Scream – and Die!) (1973)
 * Vampira (1974)
 * Spanish Fly (1975)
 * The Office Party (1976) (credited as Ellie Reece-Knight)

title: Andrea Allan


text:
Nathan Bangs

Nathan Bangs (2 May 1778 – 3 May 1862) was an American Christian theologian in the Methodist tradition and influential leader in the Methodist Episcopal Church prior to the 1860s.

Born in Stratford, Connecticut, he received a limited education, taught school, and in 1799 went to Upper Canada in search of work as either a teacher or a land-surveyor. He was converted to Methodism in 1800 and worked for eight years as an itinerant preacher in the wilderness of the Canadian provinces, serving communities in the areas of Kingston, York, London, Niagara, and Montreal. Of particular note is his responsibility for organizing the first camp meeting in Upper Canada in the fall of 1805. That same year, he married Canadian Mary Bolton and, after a brief stint in Lower Canada, was transferred back to the United States in 1808, first in Albany and then New York in 1810. In 1812, Bangs was made the Presiding Elder of the Lower Canada District, also riding the Montreal Circuit. Bangs was esteemed within the church, and could have requested and received a much more pleasant assignment. However, with war brewing between Britain and America, few riders would volunteer for assignment to Canada, and Bishop Asbury would not assign non-volunteers. Bangs volunteered to be assigned to Canada, as there was a desperate need for volunteers. The war prevented Bangs from reaching his assignment, however, and Bangs instead was made Presiding Elder of the Croton Circuit in Delaware, while Thomas Burch went to the Montreal Circuit instead. In subsequent years, he took a prominent part in the councils of the church.

In 1820, he was transferred from a pastorate in New York to become the Senior Book Agent of the Methodist Book Concern. Although the Concern was first founded in 1798 under John Dickins, it was under Bangs's tenure that the establishment was provided with its first press, bindery, official premises, and weekly newspaper. All of this helped Bangs to pay off the Concern's debts while he also served as the first editor of the Methodist Magazine. In 1828 he was appointed editor of the Christian Advocate (though he had been functioning as its unofficial editor since its inception in 1826). When the Methodist Quarterly Review replaced the Methodist Magazine in 1832, the General Conference continued Bangs in the editorship.

Bangs was the principal founder and secretary of the Methodist missionary society. When appointed secretary of the missionary society in 1836, he devoted his chief energies to its service, until appointed president of the Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1841. Surprisingly, that proved to be a disappointment to everyone and in 1842 Bangs resumed pastoral work in New York, and in 1852 retired and employed himself during his remaining years chiefly in literary labors. Although his career was an illustrious one, Bangs's reputation suffered badly when he failed to support Methodist abolitionists at the General Conference of 1844. Abel Stevens published a lengthy biography of Bangs one year after his death in 1862.

Bangs defended Arminianism against the Calvinism of his day. He was a strong believer of prevenient grace but not at the expense of total depravity. He argued that because of grace, humankind does have the ability to respond to God. He also opposed the antinomianism practiced by some rival members of the New Light Baptist community.

His most important work was a History of the Methodist Episcopal Church from its Origin in 1776 to the General Conference of 1840 (4 volumes, New York, 1839–42). His other published works were a volume directed against Christianism, a new sect in New England (1809); Errors of Hopkinsianism (1815); Predestination Examined (1817); Reformer Reformed (1818); Methodist Episcopacy (1820); Letters to Young Ministers of the Gospel (1826); Life of the Rev. Freeborn Garrettson (1829); Authentic History of the Missions Under the Care of the Methodist Episcopal Church (1832); The Original Church of Christ (1836); Essay on Emancipation (1848); State and Responsibilities of the Methodist Episcopal Church (1850); Letters on Sanctification (1851); a Life of Arminius; Scriptural Vindication of the Orders and Powers of the Ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church; and numerous sermons.

Resources
Biography Sources Bibliography
 * Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 * Online works of Nathan Bangs
 * Journals of Nathan Bangs 1805-6, 1817
 * Journals of Nathan Bangs 1805-6, 1817
 * Practical Divinity: Theology in tho Wesleyan Tradition (1982) by Thomas A. Langford, chapter 4: "The Americanization of Wesleyan Theology", (ISBN 0-687-07382-0)
 * Rawlyk, George. The Canada Fire: Radical Evangelicalism in British North America, 1775-1812. McGill-Queen's UP, 1994.

title: Nathan Bangs


text:
Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi

Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi born Ahmad Shah Awan  (20 November 1916 – 10 July 2006) was an Urdu language Pakistani poet, journalist, literary critic, dramatist and short story author.

He wrote 50 books on poetry, fiction, criticism, journalism and art. He was a major figure in contemporary Urdu literature. His poetry was distinguished by its humanism, and his Urdu afsana (short story) work is considered by some second only to Munshi Premchand in its depiction of rural culture. He was also the editor and publisher of the literary magazine Funoon for almost half a century. He received awards such as the Pride of Performance in 1968 and Sitara-e-Imtiaz in 1980 for his literary work.

Gulzar, one of the most influential writers in modern India, called him his mentor and guru.

Background
Qasmi was born on November 20, 1916, in the village of Anga in Khushab District, British India, into an Awan family. He graduated from a high school in Campbellpur in 1931, (now renamed Attock city in Pakistan), around the time when he wrote his first poem He studied at government college Attock. Later he studied at Sadiq Egerton College in Bahawalpur. He graduated from the University of Punjab, Lahore in 1935. He had a brother, Peerzada Mohammad Bakhsh Qasmi, and a sister. He became an active member of the Progressive Writers' Movement as a secretary and was arrested many times during the 1950s and 1970s.

Death
Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi died on 10 July 2006 of complications from asthma at Punjab Institute of Cardiology in Lahore.

Literary career
Qasmi edited several prominent literary journals, including Phool, Tehzeeb-i-Niswaan, Adab-i-Lateef, Savera, Naqoosh, and his own journal, Funoon. He also worked as the editor of the Urdu daily Daily Imroze. Qasimi contributed weekly columns to national newspapers like Rawan Dawan and Daily Jang for several decades. His poetry has included both traditional ghazals and modern nazms. Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi was also committed to mentoring and grooming others.

In 1948, he was selected as the secretary-general of the Anjuman-e-Taraqqi Pasand Musannifeen (Progressive Writers' Movement) for Punjab. In 1949, he was elected the secretary-general of the organisation for Pakistan.

In 1962, Qasmi published his own literary magazine Fanoon, with the support of writers and poets including Khadija Mastoor, Hajra Masroor, Ahmed Faraz, Amjad Islam Amjad, Ata ul Haq Qasmi, and Munnu Bhai. Together they did a lot of creative publishing. Qasmi was the mentor of the poet Parveen Shakir. In 1974, he was appointed secretary-general of Majlis-Taraqee-Adab, a literary body established by the government of West Pakistan in 1958.

In December 2011, Professor Fateh Muhammad Malik and noted columnist Ata ul Haq Qasmi arranged a seminar on the life and achievements of Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi at the International Islamic University, Islamabad. Urdu writers, poets, and critics have appreciated and admired his literary work, although there is also criticism of his literary work and his personality. Fateh Muhammad Malik is a long-time friend of Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi. In his book about the life and personality of Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi called 'Nadeem Shanasi', he gives the impression that it is evident from Qasmi's letters to him that Qasmi had a buried dislike for Faiz Ahmed Faiz and perhaps considered himself a poet greater than Faiz. "The letters also reveal that Qasmi had a narcissistic personality and an inflated ego when it came to his contemporaries. He consciously or unconsciously tried to belittle Faiz, though without much effect."

Some people in literary circles of Pakistan also think that there were some envy and rivalry among Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi, Wazir Agha and Munir Niazi.

An example of his poetry, with translation
"Dawar-e hashr! mujhe teri qasam

Umr bhar mein ne ibadat ki hay

Tu mera namaa-e-amaal tau dekh

Mein ne insaan se mohabbat ki hay"

"O Lord of the Day of Judgment I swear by you I have worshipped all my life Look at my balance sheet I have loved mankind"

Awards and recognition

 * Pride of Performance Award by the President of Pakistan in 1968
 * Sitara-i-Imtiaz (Star of Excellence) Award by the President of Pakistan in 1980
 * Lifetime Achievement Award by the Pakistan Academy of Letters
 * Islamabad's 7th Avenue named after Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi.

title: Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi


text:
User talk:RockinRobin8862

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. - Lucky 6.9 19:52, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:RockinRobin8862


text:
Johann Peter Alexander Wagner

Johann Peter Alexander Wagner (c.26 February 1730 – 7 January 1809) was a German rococo sculptor.

Life
Wagner was born in Theres, Unterfranken, Bavaria, Germany and was initially trained by his father, Johann Thomas Wagner. In 1747 he took up studies in Vienna under several another Johann Wagner and Balthasar Ferdinand Moll. He then moved to Mannheim and worked under Paul or Augustin Egell. After a visit to France in 1756, he went to Würzburg to work under Johann Wolfgang van der Auwera, court sculptor to Adam Friedrich von Seinsheim, Prince–Bishop of Würzburg. Auwera died that same year and Wagner married the widow, Maria Cordula Curé. He also assumed the workshop of his master along with Johann Wolfgang's brother, Lukas von der Auwera.

He created several utilitant items over the next several years including a console table (1759), the altar to the Augustinerkirche, Würzburg (1760), the altar and baptismal font to the Stadtpfarrkirche of St Maria and St Regiswindis, Gerolzhofen, Schweinfurt. He collaborated with Lukas von der Auwera between 1763 and 1766 on the Vierröhren Fountain, Würzburg carving the figures. In 1766 he moved on to a purely aesthetic work depicting the Crucifixion for a church in Kürnach. He continued the trend composing 14 groups of figures for the Wallfahrtskirche Mariae Heimsuchung between 1767 and 1775; the Stations of the Cross begun by Lukas von der Auwera.

In December 1771 he became the court sculptor to Prince von Seinsheim, for whom he created several works over the next decade. These works include decorative carvings for the building (primarily staircases) of Würzburg Residence and exterior statues of Pluto and Proserpina for the park of that palace. He also created statues of the Rape of Europa for a park at the bishop's summer palace,Schloss Veitshöchheim. He became particularly popular during this time and had much continued demand for ecclesiastical work. His work at the Klosterkirche of Ebrach Abbey, Oberfranken was emulated by those who worked under him for an Augustine monastery.

His style changed during his career from rococo to classical upon his assumption of the position of court sculptor, and finally back to rococo. 1790 saw him at his most classical in a life-size statue of the Virgin. He worked by first making a sketch, a detailed drawing, and conceptual clay bozzetti. He worked primarily in clay, wood and marble. His work may be seen in several museums in Würzburg, particularly the Mainfränkisches Museum. He was the father of Johann Martin von Wagner (born 24 June 1777) who trained as a sculptor under him. Johann Peter Alexander Wagner died in Würzburg on 7 January 1809.

title: Johann Peter Alexander Wagner


text:
User talk:Deborah-jl

Robin McKinley
Deborah - see [Comments re McKinley] Brookie 20:04, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Ha ha!
Now I know why you asked. Silly me, not to recognize you. Nice to bump into you here. You made valid points up on Talk:Children's literature about the two different purposes for the list, and perhaps you're right, perhaps there should be two different lists linked to from the article. Though they'd be a pain to maintain, people are forever adding their personal favorites and are bound to be upset if someone argues for their removal (been there). --Woggly 15:08, 15 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Grin. I've finally made the two lists; honestly, I'd just as soon neither list existed, but people keep adding them back whenever they're deleted. Deborah-jl 00:38, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

Wow
Your knowledge of children's lit dwarfs mine, I can assure you. I hope very much you're volunteering to write the article you described on Talk:CL, as I think it would be fantastic (I'm happy to help as much as I can....which I expect would amount to copyediting, minor edits for style, and the addition of perhaps one or two minor points of data). Let me know if you get started on it somewhere. :-) Jwrosenzweig 10:27, 10 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Finally started this page; please add! Deborah-jl 00:43, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

DWJ list
It just occured to me to write you here, after a couple of emails I tried sending to you and the list have bounced back. I think I've somehow been booted off the DWJ mailing list. I've had no new mail since September 17... sorry to contact you here, hope you don't mind. --Woggly 11:09, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Globe political position
I see you filled out the infobox on the Boston Globe article for me, I completely forgot I added it, but anyways I noticed you put **. I went to the talk page and it was blank, I looked in the history but I don't get it. --Saint-Paddy 04:40, 1 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Actually, I think someone else did that, and I just left it there. I wasn;t sure what they meant, either.  Deborah-jl 05:28, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

Fictional octopi and squids
Your comments are requested at Category talk:Fictional octopi and squids regarding whether it would be best to move this to Category:Fictional octopuses and squids or Category:Fictional cephalopods. (I'm telling you this because you voted on the category's cfd.) All the best, – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:17, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Hello!
I'm glad to find someone else with an interest in children's literature: it's such a weak area here. My current goal is to fill in all the redlinks at Newbery Medal. I'm currently reading Up a Road Slowly, and wishing that I'd found it when I was a kid. I would have loved it then. Joyous | Talk 03:39, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject Children's Literature
I wish you the best with your prospective WikiProject, but I don't think I can get involved in any usefully organised way.

Incidentally, did you know that the link in your autosignature goes to User:Example's user page instead of yours? --Paul A 07:37, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

The Westing Game
Good change to that article. I didn't like how much it gave away, either. I remembered reading it in 4th or 5th grade and I just wanted to see if adults found it interesting, too (so I could re-read it) and the article really ruined the whole story for me. It's much better now. Kafziel 14:43, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

A Day No Pigs Would Die
Deborah- I honor you for editing my article on Wikipedia, A Day No Pigs Would Die, but I created that article on SparkNotes, hence, I am the copyright owner. Would you please be kind enough to reverse that edit, I tried really hard to write that chapter by chapter outline. Pkazazes 14:20, 17 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Thank you for doing that, Deborah, I am sorry I brought you into this controversy in the first place.  Pkazazes 15:33, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

A Day No Pigs Would Die
Hi Deborah. No, you're not going insane. :) We can't keep material that violates copyright even in the history of an article, so I've deleted all the revisions of the article that contained such material to leave only untainted edits. This means that, except to administrators, it will look as if the deleted edits never happened. Cheers, --Nick Boalch?!? 22:51, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Ghanaian children's writers
Is Category:Ghanaian children's writers necessary when the parent category Category:Ghanaian writers is barely populated? It seems to be a case of over-categorization. PS: I am not criticising you, and I dont intend to quarrell. I am just asking. --Ezeu 06:52, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Trina_Schart_Hyman_selfport.png
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subst:Biography
Thanks. Following that direction does leave any article up for deletion since it contains no content. I may leave a comment on the project page to suggest that this be done a user page since that would be less of a problem. The other option would be to include the major edit template, sorry I forget the exact name, could be included and would probably give any editor time to work. Vegaswikian 03:15, 3 March 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, I just left a comment on the project talk page. Vegaswikian 03:20, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

that was stueped
that was stueped! i spwent my time doin that and i was usin it, ur kinda makin me think ur retarded..................... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.150.51.212 (talk • contribs) 10 March 2006

hi
hi i was just wondering, since i havent worked on a wikiproject before, when do we start for the Children's Literature project?

BengaliWikiGeek 16:47, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

Metadata
"Metadata" is only plural in British English. WP guidelines discourage changing the dialect of an article. 121a0012 01:52, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

Adrian Mole categories
Just to let you know I've changed this back to the "Series of books" category, as these books are certainly not children's books now, and it's questionable whether they were ever intended to be. Note that Penguin books publishes them under its adult Penguin imprint, not its children's Puffin one. Vashti 16:01, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

 * That sounds appropriate. Thank you. :) Vashti 19:51, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

Michael Dorris
Hi Deborah-jl.

Thanks for the improvements you made on my edits to the Michael Dorris article. I think you were right to put the criticisms by Vizenor and Cook-Lynn into one section, however I think there's a problem with the title that you chose for it. Vizenor's critique is of Dorris' political campaigning on an issue. Cook-Lynn is openly (and characteristically) calling Dorris an outright fraud, and talking about his race. Neither of these points is a criticism of his scholarship, native or otherwise. Any ideas for a better title? I'm stumped. Vizjim 14:27, 30 March 2006 (UTC) (PS I wish that that page was a bit more focused on his books, but I haven't read them so I only know the tabloid bits about his wife and children etc. Can you fill the career part in any more?)

 * I've changed the heading along the lines you suggested, to "Criticisms of Michael Dorris", which I hope tackles the question you raised. Feel free to alter it further, of course!  Vizjim 08:15, 31 March 2006 (UTC)

Re:Inheriance Trilogy
I'm sorry I havn't been answering you, I've been too busy. The reason I didn't put it in the list of proposed wikiprojects was because it said if you were pretty sure others would join, then you need not put it on there. Got to go, I'll finish the other questions later. Icelandic Hurricane #12 20:38, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

WPIT
Before I go to school in a couple of minutes, I'd just like to say thanx for joining the WPIT! I think that with you in the project, things will be a lot better. Thanx again!

L'Engle Bio
Hi. This is just to say that I replied to your question on the Madeleine L'Engle talk page. Please let me know whether I need to do anything further. Thanks! Karen 16:54, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

organization
This WikiProject would probably be too extensive if we went far enough. How about separating this WikiProject into different WikiProjects, like the Wikipedia:WikiProject Tree of Life. Bibliomaniac15 03:12, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

barnstar
Hi, hope I'm posting in the right place. I've just joined-- wikipedia and the children's literature wikiproject-- and I'm really looking forward to helping with the latter. Is there any work in particular that you or others in the project are focusing on right now? I don't want to duplicate anyone else's work, and you've got any particular priorities or goals I'd like to help out with those. Elizabeth Lund 20:11, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Children's Literature Project
Hi, hope I'm posting in the right place. I've just joined-- wikipedia and the children's literature wikiproject-- and I'm really looking forward to helping with the latter. Is there any work in particular that you or others in the project are focusing on right now? I don't want to duplicate anyone else's work, and you've got any particular priorities or goals I'd like to help out with those. Elizabeth Lund 20:12, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I hope that you like the changes I made to your WikiProject's homepage. See WP page

Anonymous _anonymous_  Have a Nice Day  11:05, 8 June 2006 (UTC)

Category:Shared universe
Hi! You created Category:Shared universe and while your contribs indicate you seem to 'have gone missing' lately, I was wondering if I could get you to add a clear purpose statement to the cat clearly deliniating it's scope.

I'd guess it's to indicate milieu's which are shared by the creating author with or without permission, but I thought I'd ask so we can all avoid the mind-reading bit. I'd use technological means, but my crystal ball doesn't seem to work in this shared universe either. ;-(

Thanks for your time and attention, I hope all is well for you and yours. // Fra nkB 14:28, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

Image:Struwwelpeter-40px.gif
Please see Fair use criteria: "Fair use images may be used only in the article namespace." I'm sure you can find a free image for Template:Children'sLiteratureWikiProject, since much children's literature is out of copyright. Would Image:Alice par John Tenniel 30.png be acceptable? --NE2 20:12, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

Caldecott Medals
Hi Deborah! I had started my own project a few weeks ago, cleaning up all the Caldecott Medal winners. I have added succession boxes and info boxes with pictures to all of them. My next step was to go through and fix publishers and expand the very short stubs, etc. I do have some ISBN questions, etc. When you have a moment, please stop by. --Knulclunk 02:06, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

children's literature
May I suggest adding information about how English, Library and Information Science and Education/Reading/English Education and Childhood Studies approach the study and use children's and young adult literature? The American Library Association/Young Adult Library Services Association/Association for Library Services for Children/American Association of School Librarians, International Reading Association/Graphic novels/Children's Literature and Reading/Adolescent Literature and Reading, National Council for Teachers of English/Children's Literature Association/Assembly for Literature for Adolescents, National Council for the Social Studies, Modern Literature Association/Children's Literature Division Mythopoeic Society Children's Literature Association Society of History of Children and Youth Boyhood Studies Girls' Studies Childhood Studies and apparently other groups have periodicals and awards about literature for young people

The IRA has Alternate Realities, Dragon Lode and Signal as journals about children's and young adult literature A new Girls' Studies journal comes out next year. The Journal of History of Children and Youth starts next year. Thymos, about Boyhood Studies, started this year. There is also one called Children's Geographies.

Just wanted to FYI Mluetkem 19:52, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

Sarah Trimmer & Young Adulthood
Hello, I'm looking for a little more information on the article about young adulthood and was hoping you could help me out! It says that this period of life was first noted by Sarah Trimmer in 1802 but I can't seem to find the exact reference for this anywhere (I'm a bit new to the whole wikipedia thing!) Anyways, I'm writing my thesis on young adult literature and would be really interested in finding out a bit more about this! Do you know where it came from or have any idea how I would find out? My email address is charlene.okane@gmail.com and I'd really appreciate any information you can give me.

Many thanks, --Charlene87 (talk) 19:55, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Brundibar-Euan-Morton.jpg
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Image copyright problem with Image:Brundibar-cover.jpg
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Alphabetization and collation
I am inviting you to comment, in your capacity as a librarian, at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style. -- Wavelength (talk) 15:58, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Deborah-jl! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:49, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Deborah-jl


text:
Polyol

In organic chemistry, a polyol is an organic compound containing multiple hydroxyl groups (\sOH). The term "polyol" can have slightly different meanings depending on whether it is used in food science or polymer chemistry. Polyols containing two, three and four hydroxyl groups are diols, triols, and tetrols, respectively.

Classification
Polyols may be classified according to their chemistry. Some of these chemistries are polyether, polyester, polycarbonate and also acrylic polyols. Polyether polyols may be further subdivided and classified as polyethylene oxide or polyethylene glycol (PEG), polypropylene glycol (PPG) and Polytetrahydrofuran or PTMEG. These have 2, 3 and 4 carbons respectively per oxygen atom in the repeat unit. Polycaprolactone polyols are also commercially available. There is also an increasing trend to use biobased (and hence renewable) polyols.

Uses
Polyether polyols have numerous uses. As an example, polyurethane foam is a big user of polyether polyols.

Polyester polyols can be used to produce rigid foam. They are available in both aromatic and aliphatic versions. They are also available in mixed aliphatic-aromatic versions often made from recycled raw materials, typically polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Acrylic polyols are generally used in higher performance applications where stability to ultraviolet light is required and also lower VOC coatings. Other uses include direct to metal coatings. As they are used where good UV resistance is required, such as automotive coatings, the isocyanate component also tends to be UV resistant and hence isocyanate oligomers or prepolymers based on Isophorone diisocyanate are generally used.

Caprolactone-based polyols produce polyurethanes with enhanced hydrolysis resistance.

Polycarbonate polyols are more expensive than other polyols and are thus used in more demanding applications. They have been used to make an isophorone diisocyanate based prepolymer which is then used in glass coatings. They may be used in reactive hotmelt adhesives.

All polyols may be used to produce polyurethane prepolymers. These then find use in coatings, adhesives, sealants and elastomers.

Low molecular weight polyols
Low molecular weight polyols are widely used in polymer chemistry where they function as crosslinking agents and chain extenders. Alkyd resins for example, use polyols in their synthesis and are used in paints and in molds for casting. They are the dominant resin or "binder" in most commercial "oil-based" coatings. Approximately 200,000 tons of alkyd resins are produced each year. They are based on linking reactive monomers through ester formation. Polyols used in the production of commercial alkyd resins are glycerol, trimethylolpropane, and pentaerythritol. In polyurethane prepolymer production, a low molecular weight polyol-diol such as 1,4-butanediol may be used as a chain extender to further increase molecular weight though it does increase viscosity because more hydrogen bonding is introduced.

Sugar alcohols
Sugar alcohols, a class of low molecular weight polyols, are commonly obtained by hydrogenation of sugars. They have the formula (CHOH)nH2, where n = 4–6.

Sugar alcohols are added to foods because of their lower caloric content than sugars; however, they are also, in general, less sweet, and are often combined with high-intensity sweeteners. They are also added to chewing gum because they are not broken down by bacteria in the mouth or metabolized to acids, and thus do not contribute to tooth decay. Maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol, and isomalt are common sugar alcohols.

Polymeric polyols
The term polyol is used for various chemistries of the molecular backbone. Polyols may be reacted with diisocyanates or polyisocyanates to produce polyurethanes. MDI finds considerable use in PU foam production. Polyurethanes are used to make flexible foam for mattresses and seating, rigid foam insulation for refrigerators and freezers, elastomeric shoe soles, fibers (e.g. Spandex), coatings, sealants and adhesives.

The term polyol is also attributed to other molecules containing hydroxyl groups. For instance, polyvinyl alcohol is (CH2CHOH)n with n hydroxyl groups where n can be in the thousands. Cellulose is a polymer with many hydroxyl groups, but it is not referred to as a polyol.

Polyols from recycled or renewable sources
There are polyols based on renewable sources such as plant-based materials including castor oil and cottonseed oil. Vegetable oils and biomass are also potential renewable polyol raw materials. Seed oil can even be used to produce polyester polyols.

Properties
Since the generic term polyol is only derived from chemical nomenclature and just indicates the presence of several hydroxyl groups, no common properties can be assigned to all polyols. However, polyols are usually viscous at room temperature due to hydrogen bonding.

title: Polyol


text:
Talk:James Alan McPherson

The Des Moines Register ran an article about author James Alan McPherson on February 27, 2005:

BLP status change
Due to the death of this person, the BLP status of this article has changed. "This does not mean that unsourced material that would contravene the Biography of Living Persons rules can be added to this article. Capitalistroadster (talk) 03:04, 28 July 2016 (UTC)

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Racist Pulitzer Prize
I couldn't believe it, but he really was the first African American to win the Pulitzer for prose writing- Gwendolyn Brooks won her's for poetry. No Claude McKay, Jean Toomer, Richard Wright, James Baldwin, Ralph Ellison, Ishmael Reed (also no Pynchon in his great time (?)). But Hemingway won his only in the 1950s, and I think F. S. Fitzgerald never won it (?). Still, the racism is obvious.--Ralfdetlef (talk) 07:36, 13 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:James Alan McPherson


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Rhode Island Route 24

Route 24 is a freeway in the U.S. state of Rhode Island. It runs approximately 8 mi from Route 114 in Portsmouth to Massachusetts Route 24 in Fall River, Massachusetts. Route 24 is the primary freeway access for the two towns in the southeastern corner of the state, Tiverton and Little Compton. Though on the mainland, they are isolated from the rest of the state by an arm of the Narragansett Bay. Because of this, the main freeway connection to Providence involves using Rhode Island Route 24, Massachusetts Route 24, and Interstate 195.

Route description
Route 24 starts at Route 114 in Portsmouth. It heads northeast and has a short concurrency with Route 138 over the Sakonnet River Bridge to Tiverton. It continues northeast until the border with Fall River, Massachusetts, where it continues as Massachusetts Route 24.

Exit list
Exits were formerly numbered only on gore signs until 2014, when a project put numbers on all signs except for at Fish Road. All interchanges in Rhode Island, including Route 24, will be renumbered to mileage-based numbers by 2020 under a plan announced by RIDOT in the fall of 2017. In November 2019, RIDOT announced that Route 24 will be renumbering the exits in spring 2020.

title: Rhode Island Route 24


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User talk:Jemichel

Jemichel... you might want to check out the Richmond, Virginia page I have been working on MPS 20:04, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jemichel


text: Category:Campaniles

title: Category:Campaniles


text: User talk:82.131.23.219

title: User talk:82.131.23.219


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Cathy Gauthier

Cathy Gauthier ( Tardi; June 5, 1961 in Winnipeg, Manitoba) is a Canadian curler and broadcaster.

Gauthier began curling in grade 9. She played juniors for one season with Connie Laliberte, losing in the Manitoba final one year.

Gauthier joined back up with Laliberte in women's play, and was on her team for much of her career. Gauthier won two championships with Laliberte, in 1992 and 1995, and won the 2005 Scott Tournament of Hearts with Jennifer Jones, playing lead. Although she is one of the few women to win three championships on the national level, she has not won a world championship. She left the Jones team in May 2005 due to family commitments.

Gauthier, who is regularly employed with the Canadian Government, also works as a curling broadcaster, having called games for TSN and Global TV in Winnipeg and Rogers Sportsnet nationally.

Gauthier is the mother of 2020 Canadian Junior Men's curling champion skip Jacques Gauthier and aunt of three-time Canadian junior champion Tyler Tardi.

title: Cathy Gauthier