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Krummenachher, D., and Noetzlin, J. (1966). Ages isotopiques K/A de roches prelevées dans les possessions françaises du Pacifique, ''Soc. Géol. France Bull.'', ser. 7 8(2), 173-175

Kumon, F., Suzuki, H., Nakazawa, K., Tokuoka, T., Harata, T., Kimura, K., Nakaya, S., Ishigami, T., & Nakamura, K. (1988). Shimanto belt in the Kii peninsula, southwestern Japan, Modern Geology 12, 71-96

Larson, R.L. & Chase, C.G. (1972). Late Mesozoic evolution of the western Pacific Ocean, ''Geol. Soc. America Bull.'' 83, no. 12, 3627-3643

Larson, R.L. & W.C. Pitman III (1972). World-wide correlation of Mesozoic magnetic anomalies and its implications, ''Geol. Soc. America Bull.'' 83(12), 3645-3661

Larson, K.M., Freymueller, J.T., & Philipsen, S. (1997). Global plate velocities from the Global Positioning System, Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 9961-9981

Le Grand, H. E. (1988). Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lerner-Lam, A. L. (1988). Seismological studies of the lithosphere, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Yearbook, 50-55

Lowman, P. D., Jr. (1985). Plate tectonics with fixed continents: a testable hypothesis -- I, Journal of Petroleum Geology 8, 373-388 Lowman, P. D., Jr. (1986). Plate tectonics with fixed continents: a testable hypothesis -- II, Journal of Petroleum Geology 9, 71-87

Lowman, P. D., Jr. (1992a). Plate tectonics and continental drift in geologic education, in Chatterjee, S., & Hotton, N., III (eds.),1992, New Concepts in Global Tectonics, Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University Press, 3-9 Lowman, P. D., Jr. (1992b). Geophysics from orbit: the unexpected surprise. Endeavour, New Series 16, 50-58

Lowman, P. D., Jr. (1995). Plate tectonics and continental drift: a skeptic's view, in Skinner, B.J. and Porter, S.C., The Blue Planet: An Introduction to Earth System Science, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 187-189

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title: User:Duncan.france/PT EA refs1


text:
William Morley Punshon

William Morley Punshon (29 May 1824 – 14 April 1881) was an English Nonconformist minister.

Life
Punshon was born at Doncaster, Yorkshire, was educated there, and, after spending a few years in business, at the Wesleyan College, Richmond. In 1845 he received his first appointment, at Marden, Kent, and soon became known as a preacher. After serving the usual period of probation he was ordained at Manchester in 1849 and for the next nineteen years travelled in several circuits, including some of those in London (1858–1864).

In 1868 he went to Chicago as the representative of the Wesleyan Methodist conference, and settling in Canada did much to advance the cause of his denomination. His preaching and lecturing drew great crowds both in the Dominion and in the United States, and he was five times president of the Canadian conference. In Canada, he often worked with and mentored Manly Benson a Methodist minister who was an eloquent lecturer. While in Canada, he wed his sister-in-law, a marriage which was forbidden by the British Methodists. In his five short years in Canada Dr. Punshon restored the fortunes of the flagging Victoria College in Cobourg, Ontario, (now Victoria University in the University of Toronto), and created the great Metropolitan Methodist Church in downtown Toronto (now Metropolitan United Church, the flagship congregation of the United Church of Canada).

He returned to England in 1873, was elected president of conference 1874, and in 1875 one of the missionary secretaries. A sign of his oratory was the collection after one of his sermons at the City Road chapel in 1873, which raised £2,079. He also raised £10,000 over three years for the 'Watering Places Chapel Fund' which built 24 chapels in resorts in England and Wales.

He published several volumes of sermons, and a book of verse entitled Sabbath Chimes (1867, new edition 1880).

He died, aged 57, at Tranby Lodge, Brixton Hill, on 14 April 1881 and was interred in a miniature Gothic chapel erected at West Norwood Cemetery. A bust of him was installed at the City Road chapel in 1884.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William Morley Punshon


text:
Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva ( FOP), also called Münchmeyer disease or formerly myositis ossificans progressiva, is an extremely rare connective tissue disease in which fibrous connective tissue such as muscle, tendons, and ligaments turn into bone tissue. It is the only known medical condition where one organ system changes into another. It is a severe, disabling disorder with no cure.

FOP is caused by a mutation of the gene ACVR1. The mutation affects the body's repair mechanism, causing fibrous tissue including muscle, tendons, and ligaments to become ossified, either spontaneously or when damaged as the result of trauma. In many cases, otherwise minor injuries can cause joints to become permanently fused as new bone forms, replacing the damaged muscle tissue. This new bone formation (known as "heterotopic ossification") eventually forms a secondary skeleton and progressively restricts the patient's ability to move. Bone formed as a result of this process is identical to "normal" bone, simply in improper locations. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the disease can cause joint degradation separate from its characteristic bone growth.

Surgical removal of the extra bone growth has been shown to cause the body to "repair" the affected area with additional bone. Although the rate of bone growth may differ depending on the patient, the condition ultimately leaves sufferers immobilized as new bone replaces musculature and fuses with the existing skeleton. This has earned FOP the nickname "stone man disease".

Signs and symptoms
For unknown reasons, children born with FOP often have malformed big toes, sometimes missing a joint or, in other cases, simply presenting with a notable lump at the minor joint. The first "flare-up" that leads to the formation of FOP bone usually occurs before the age of 10. The bone growth generally progresses from the top of the body downward, just as bones grow in fetuses. A child with FOP will typically develop additional bones starting at the neck, then at the shoulders, arms, chest area, and finally at the feet.

Specifically, ossification is typically first seen in the dorsal, axial, cranial and proximal regions of the body. Later the disease progresses in the ventral, appendicular, caudal and distal regions. However, it does not necessarily occur in this order due to injury-caused flare-ups. Often, the tumor-like lumps that characterize a flare-up of the disease appear suddenly.

Bone growth occurring during flare-ups may result in the loss of mobility to affected joints, including, if the jaw/mandible is involved, the inability to fully open the mouth, limiting speech and eating. A specific occurrence of a flare-up of this condition in the foot/ankle joints can result in the limited ability to put a foot flat on the ground. Bone growth can also result in the immobilization of the hip or knee, affecting the individual's ability to walk. Extra bone formation around the rib cage restricts the expansion of lungs and diaphragm causing respiratory complications.

Since the disorder only occurs in 1 out of 2 million people and is incredibly rare, the condition may be misdiagnosed as cancer or fibrosis. This leads physicians to order biopsies which can exacerbate the growth of FOP bone. The presence of malformed toes or thumbs in those born with FOP help distinguish this disorder from other skeletal problems.

With proper medical management the median age of survival is 40 years. However, delayed diagnosis, trauma, and infections can decrease life expectancy.

Causes
FOP is caused by an autosomal dominant allele on chromosome 2q23-24. The allele has variable expressivity, but complete penetrance. Most cases are caused by spontaneous mutation in the gametes; most people with FOP cannot or choose not to have children. A similar but less catastrophic disease is fibrous dysplasia, which is caused by a post-zygotic mutation.

A mutation in the gene ACVR1 (also known as activin-like kinase 2 (ALK2)) is responsible for the disease. ACVR1 encodes activin receptor type-1, a BMP type-1 receptor. The mutation causes substitution of codon 206 from arginine to histidine in the ACVR1 protein. This substitution causes abnormal activation of ACVR1, leading to the transformation of connective tissue and muscle tissue into a secondary skeleton. This causes endothelial cells to transform to mesenchymal stem cells and then to bone.

Normally, the ACVR1 gene encodes the activin receptor type-1 transmembrane kinase that bind BMP receptors (Type I BMPR and Type II BMPR) for chondrogenesis signaling. BMPs belong to a superfamily of proteins known as Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) proteins. The binding of ACVR1 protein to BMP receptors start a signaling cascade that is crucial for inducing endochondral bone formation during development, as well as, skeletal and tissue homeostasis.

Genetics
FOP is an autosomal dominant disorder. Thus, a child of an affected heterozygous parent and an unaffected parent has a 50% probability of being affected. Two affected individuals can produce unaffected children. Two unaffected individuals can produce an affected offspring as a result of the mutation of the gene. The homozygous dominant form is more severe than the heterozygous form.

The protein that causes ossification is normally deactivated by an inhibitory protein after a fetus's bones are formed in the womb, but in patients with FOP, the protein keeps working. Aberrant bone formation in patients with FOP occurs when injured connective tissue or muscle cells at the sites of injury or growth incorrectly express an enzyme for bone repair during apoptosis (self-regulated cell death), resulting in lymphocytes containing excess bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) provided during the immune system response. The bone that results occurs independently of the normal skeleton, forming its own discrete skeletal elements. These elements, however, can fuse with normal skeletal bone. The diaphragm, tongue, and extra-ocular muscles are spared in this process, as well as cardiac and smooth muscle. Since the incorrect enzyme remains unresolved within the immune response, the body continues providing the incorrect BMP4-containing lymphocytes. BMP4 is a product that contributes to the development of the skeleton in the normal embryo.

The ACVR1 gene encodes a bone morphogenic protein (BMP) receptor; this gene is mutated in FOP. It is responsible for growth and development of bone and muscles. The typical mutation, R202H, makes the inhibitor FKBP1A bind less tightly to the activation GS-loop. The result is that ACVR1 is not effectively turned off, and an overgrowth of bone and cartilage and fusion of joints occurs. Atypical mutations involving other residues work similarly. In some cases, the receptor can end up signalling that it's active without being bound to its activating ligand.

Most of the cases of FOP were results of a new gene mutation: these people had no history of this particular disorder in their family. There are some cases where the individual has inherited the mutation from one affected parent.

Diagnosis
Generally, FOP can be diagnosed with radiographs. Early diagnosis of this disorder through radiology is very important to avoid unnecessary invasive investigations like biopsies. The smallest or trivial trauma or intramuscular injections can amplify progression of the disease through inflammation hence the favorability of radiology. Clinicians should be aware of this rare entity, as it is frequently misdiagnosed as cancer or other benign entities such as infection, resulting in biopsies that can often hasten disease progression.

Outbreaks may be measurable clinically by elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase. Another telltale sign of FOP is a shortened great toe with a malformed distal first metatarsal and a missing or abnormal first phalanx and/or interphalangeal joint.

Treatment
While FOP remains without a cure, a promising breakthrough lies in the approved treatment, Sohonos (palovarotene). Notably, attempts to surgically remove bone in a FOP patient may result in explosive growth of new bone. While undergoing anesthesia, people with FOP may encounter difficulties with intubation, restrictive pulmonary disease, and changes in the electrical conduction system of the heart. Activities that increase the risk of falling or soft tissue injury should be avoided, as even minor trauma may provoke heterotopic ossification.

Although there are no effective definitive treatments of the disorder, there are intermittent treatments such as anti-inflammatory drugs to suppress inflammation as a result of flare-ups or inflammation from muscle damage. Currently, surgery is not usually recommended for people with FOP as it can incite rapid bone formation at incision sites or where sutures have been applied to muscle or connective tissue. Life-saving surgery may be considered, however developing a surgical plan with input from a FOP specialist may be considered best practice. Surgical release of joint contractures is generally unsuccessful and risks new, trauma-induced heterotopic ossification.

Epidemiology
, approximately 800 cases of FOP have been confirmed worldwide, making FOP one of the rarest diseases known. The estimated incidence of FOP is 0.5 cases per million people and affects all ethnicities.

History
Medical reports describing individuals affected by FOP date back to Dr. Guy Patin in 1692. FOP was originally called myositis ossificans progressiva and was thought to be caused by muscular inflammation (myositis) that caused bone formation. The disease was renamed by Victor A. McKusick in 1970 following the discovery that soft tissue other than muscles (e.g. ligaments) were also affected by the disease process.

The best known FOP case is that of Harry Eastlack (1933–1973). His condition began to develop at the age of ten, and by the time of his death from pneumonia in November 1973, six days before his 40th birthday, his body had completely ossified, leaving him able to move only his lips. Eastlack never met another person with FOP during his lifetime.

Eastlack donated his body to science and his skeleton is now at the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, and has proven to be an invaluable source of information in the study of FOP. Another person with FOP, Carol Orzel (April 20, 1959 – February 2018), also donated her body to the museum and her skeleton was placed on exhibit there, adjacent to Eastlack's, in February 2019.

Research
Clinical trials of isotretinoin, etidronate with oral corticosteroids, and perhexiline maleate have failed to demonstrate effectiveness, though the variable course of the disease and small prevalence induces uncertainty.

A handful of pharmaceutical companies focused on rare diseases are currently in varying stages of investigation into different therapeutic approaches for FOP.

In August 2015, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Office of Orphan Products Development granted La Jolla Pharmaceuticals orphan drug designation for two novel compounds for FOP. The compounds are small-molecule protein kinase inhibitors designed to selectively block ACVR1 (ALK2).

In August 2015, Clementia Pharmaceuticals also began the enrollment of children (ages 6 and above) into its Phase II clinical trial investigating palovarotene for the treatment of FOP. Preclinical studies demonstrated that palovarotene, a retinoic acid receptor gamma agonist, blocked abnormal bone formation in animal models by inhibition of secondary messenger systems in the BMP pathway. Clementia licensed palovarotene from Roche Pharmaceuticals, which previously evaluated the compound in more than 800 individuals including healthy volunteers and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Palovarotene received Fast Track designation from the FDA and orphan designations for the treatment of FOP from both the FDA and the European Medicines Agency (EMA).

In September 2015, Regeneron announced new insight into the mechanism of disease involving the activation of the ACVR1 receptor by activin A. In 2016, the company initiated a phase 1 study of its activin antibody, REGN 2477, in healthy volunteers; a phase 2 trial in FOP patients was conducted in 2017.

Another potential therapeutic approach involves allele-specific RNA interference that targets mutated mRNA for degradation while preserving normal ACVR1 gene expression.

Further investigation into the mechanisms of heterotopic bone formation in FOP could aid in the development of treatments for other disorders involving extra-skeletal bone formation.

Fibro/adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) may be the disease-causing cell type responsible for activin A dependent ectopic bone formation in both the muscles and tendons of mice bearing the FOP causing ACVR1(R206H) mutation.

In December 2019, Ipsen issued a partial clinical hold for people under the age of 14, due to reports of early fusion of growth plates.

Recently,, a potential therapeutic candidate, saracatinib, is in phase III clinical trials as a potent heterotopic ossification inhibitor in wild-type and ACVR1 mutant mice.

title: Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva


text: User talk:4.10.138.54

title: User talk:4.10.138.54


text:
Parrhesia

In rhetoric, parrhesia is candid speech, speaking freely. It implies not only freedom of speech, but the obligation to speak the truth for the common good, even at personal risk.

Etymology
The earliest recorded use of the term parrhesia is by Euripides in the fifth century B.C. Parrhesia means literally "to speak everything" and by extension "to speak freely", "to speak boldly", or "boldness".

Usage in ancient Greece
In the Classical period, parrhesia was a fundamental component of the Athenian democracy. In the courts or the Ecclesia, the assembly of citizens, Athenians were free to say almost anything. In the Dionysia, playwrights such as Aristophanes made full use of their right to ridicule whomever they chose.

Outside of the theatre or government however, there were limits to what might be said; freedom to discuss politics, morals, religion, or to criticize people would depend upon the context: by whom it was said, and when, and how, and where. If one was seen as immoral, or held views that went contrary to popular opinion, then there were great risks involved in making use of such an unrestricted freedom of speech, such as being charged with impiety. This was the pretext under which Socrates was executed in, for dishonoring the gods and corrupting the young. Though perhaps Socrates was punished for his close association with many of the participants in the Athenian coup of 411 BCE, because it was believed that Socrates' philosophical teachings had served as an intellectual justification for their seizure of power.

In later Hellenistic philosophy, parrhesia was a defining characteristic of the Cynic philosophers, as epitomized in the shamelessness of Diogenes of Sinope. According to Philodemus, parrhesia is also used by the Epicureans in the form of frank criticism of each other that is intended to help the target of criticism achieve the cessation of pain and reach a state of.

In the Greek New Testament, parrhesia is the ability of Jesus or his followers to hold their own in discourse before political and religious authorities such as the Pharisees.

Usage in rabbinic Jewish writings
Parrhesia appears in Midrashic literature as a condition for the transmission of Torah. Connoting open and public communication, appears in combination with the term δῆμος (, short for ), translated coram publica, in the public eye, i.e. open to the public. As a mode of communication it is repeatedly described in terms analogous to a commons. Parrhesia is closely associated with an ownerless wilderness of primary mytho-geographic import, the Midbar Sinai in which the Torah was initially received. The dissemination of Torah thus depends on its teachers cultivating a nature that is as open, ownerless, and sharing as that wilderness. The term is important to advocates of Open Source Judaism. Here is the text from the Mekhilta where the term appears (see bolded text).

 * Torah was given over ' in a (a place belonging to no one). For had it been given in the Land of Israel, they would have had cause to say to the nations of the world, “you have no share in it.” Thus was it given ', in a place belonging to no one: “Let all who wish to receive it, come and receive it!”

Explanation: Why was the Torah not given in the land of Israel? In order that the peoples of the world should not have the excuse for saying: "Because it was given in Israel's land, therefore we have not accepted it."

 * Another reason: To avoid causing dissension among the tribes [of Israel]. Else one might have said: In my land the Torah was given. And the other might have said: In my land the Torah was given. Therefore, the Torah was given in the (wilderness, desert), , in a place belonging to no one. To three things the Torah is likened: to the, to fire, and to water. This is to tell one that just as these three things are free to all who come into the world, so also are the words of the Torah free to all who come into the world.

The term "parrhesia" is also used in Modern Hebrew (usually spelled ), meaning [in] public.

Modern scholarship
Michel Foucault developed the concept of parrhesia as a mode of discourse in which people express their opinions and ideas candidly and honestly, avoiding the use of manipulation, rhetoric, or broad generalizations. Foucault's interpretation of parrhesia is in contrast to the contemporary Cartesian model of requiring irrefutable evidence for truth. Descartes equated truth with the indubitable, believing that what cannot be doubted must be true. Until speech is examined or criticized to see if it is subject to doubt, its truth cannot be evaluated by this standard.

Foucault asserted that the classical Greek concept of parrhesia rested on several criteria. A person who engages in parrhesia is only recognized as doing so if they possess a credible connection to the truth. This entails acting as a critic of either oneself, popular opinions, or societal norms. The act of revealing this truth exposes the individual to potential risks, yet the critic persists in speaking out due to a moral, social, and/or political responsibility. Additionally, in public contexts, a practitioner of parrhesia should hold a less empowered social position compared to those to whom the truth is being conveyed.

Foucault described the classic Greek as someone who takes a risk by speaking honestly, even when it might lead to negative consequences. This risk isn't always about life-threatening situations. For instance, when you tell a friend they're doing something wrong, knowing it might make them angry and harm your friendship, you're acting as a. Parrhesia is closely tied to having the courage to speak the truth despite potential dangers, including social repercussions, political scandal, or even matters of life and death.

Parrhesia involves speaking openly. This involves a distinct connection to truth via honesty, a link to personal life through facing danger, a certain interaction with oneself or others through critique, and a specific relationship with moral principles through freedom and responsibility. Specifically, it's a form of speaking where the speaker shares their personal truth, even risking their life because they believe truth-telling is a duty to help others and themselves. In parrhesia, the speaker opts for honesty over persuasion, truth over falsehood or silence, the risk of death over safety, criticism over flattery, and moral obligation over self-interest or indifference.

The speaks without reservation. For instance, Demosthenes, in his discourses "On the Embassy" and "First Philippic," emphasizes the importance of speaking with parrhesia, without holding back or hiding anything.

title: Parrhesia


title: User:Jag123/Articles


text:
Florin Georgian Mironcic

Florin Georgian Mironcic (born 4 May 1981 in Brăila) is an athlete from Romania sprint canoer who has competed since 2003. He won three medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with a silver (C-4 1000 m: 2005) and two bronzes (C-4 500 m: 2006, 2007).

Mironcic also competed in two Summer Olympics, earning his best finish of sixth in the C-1 1000 m event at Beijing in 2008.

Dubbed Uriaşul Blond (Romanian for "The Blond Giant"), he is a member of the Dinamo Bucharest club. Mironcic is 1.92 m (6'4") tall and weighs 95 kg (209 lbs).

title: Florin Georgian Mironcic


text: Category:Ice hockey trophies and awards

title: Category:Ice hockey trophies and awards


text:
Coreboot

coreboot, formerly known as LinuxBIOS, is a software project aimed at replacing proprietary firmware (BIOS or UEFI) found in most computers with a lightweight firmware designed to perform only the minimum number of tasks necessary to load and run a modern 32-bit or 64-bit operating system.

Since coreboot initializes the bare hardware, it must be ported to every chipset and motherboard that it supports. As a result, coreboot is available only for a limited number of hardware platforms and motherboard models.

One of the coreboot variants is Libreboot, a software distribution partly free of proprietary blobs, aimed at end users.

History
The coreboot project began with the goal of creating a BIOS that would start fast and handle errors intelligently. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 (GPLv2). Main contributors include LANL, SiS, AMD, Coresystems and Linux Networx, Inc, as well as motherboard vendors MSI, Gigabyte and Tyan, which offer coreboot alongside their standard BIOS or provide specifications of the hardware interfaces for some of their motherboards. Google partly sponsors the coreboot project. CME Group, a cluster of futures exchanges, began supporting the coreboot project in 2009.

Other than the first three models, all Chromebooks run coreboot. Code from Das U-Boot has been assimilated to enable support for processors based on the ARM instruction set.

In June 2019, coreboot began to use the NSA software Ghidra for its reverse engineering efforts on firmware-specific problems following the release of the suite as free and open source software.

Supported platforms
CPU architectures supported by coreboot include IA-32, x86-64, ARM, ARM64, MIPS and RISC-V. Supported system-on-a-chip (SOC) platforms include AMD Geode, starting with the Geode GX processor developed for the OLPC. Artec Group added Geode LX support for its ThinCan model DBE61; that code was adopted by AMD and further improved for the OLPC after it was upgraded to the Geode LX platform, and is further developed by the coreboot community to support other Geode variants. coreboot can be flashed onto a Geode platform using Flashrom.

From that initial development on AMD Geode based platforms, coreboot support has been extended onto many AMD processors and chipsets. The processor list includes Family 0Fh and 10h (K8 core), and recently Family 14h (Bobcat core, Fusion APU). coreboot support also extends to AMD chipsets: RS690, RS7xx, SB600, and SB8xx.

In AMD Generic Encapsulated Software Architecture (AGESA)—a bootstrap protocol by which system devices on AMD64 mainboards are initialized—was open sourced in early 2011, aiming to provide required functionality for coreboot system initialization on AMD64 hardware. However, as of 2014 such releases never became the basis for future development by AMD, and were subsequently halted.

Devices that could be preloaded with coreboot or one of its derivatives include:

 * Lenovo/IBM:The Libreboot T400 and X200 (rebranded ThinkPad T400 and X200, respectively, available from Minifree, previously known as Gluglug).

 * Artec Group: ThinCan models DBE61, DBE62 and DBE63, and fanless server/router hardware manufactured by PC Engines.
 * Purism: Librem laptops come with coreboot.
 * Others
 * Some System76 PCs use coreboot TianoCore firmware, including open source Embedded Controller firmware.
 * Dasharo offers an alternative coreboot-based firmware distribution for computers from MSI, NovaCustom and Nitrokey, among others.
 * StarLabs Systems use coreboot firmware, as an alternative.

Design
coreboot typically loads a Linux kernel, but it can load any other stand-alone ELF executable, such as iPXE, gPXE or Etherboot that can boot a Linux kernel over a network, or SeaBIOS that can load a Linux kernel, Windows 2000 and later, and BSDs; Windows 2000/XP and OpenBSD support was previously provided by ADLO. coreboot can also load a kernel from any supported device, such as Myrinet, Quadrics, or SCI cluster interconnects. Booting other kernels directly is also possible, such as a Plan 9 kernel. Instead of loading a kernel directly, coreboot can pass control to a dedicated boot loader, such as a coreboot-capable version of GNU GRUB 2.

coreboot is written primarily in C, with a small amount of assembly code. Choosing C as the primary programming language enables easier code audits when compared to contemporary PC BIOS that was generally written in assembly, which results in improved security. There is build and runtime support to write parts of coreboot in Ada to further raise the security bar, but it is currently only sporadically used. The source code is released under the GNU GPL version 2 license.

coreboot performs the absolute minimal amount of hardware initialization and then passes control to the operating system. As a result, there is no coreboot code running once the operating system has taken control. A feature of coreboot is that the x86 version runs in 32-bit mode after executing only ten instructions (almost all other x86 BIOSes run exclusively in 16-bit mode). This is similar to the modern UEFI firmware, which is used on newer PC hardware.

Initializing DRAM
The most difficult hardware that coreboot initializes is the DRAM controllers and DRAM. In some cases, technical documentation on this subject is NDA restricted or unavailable. RAM initialization is particularly difficult because before the RAM is initialized it cannot be used. Therefore, to initialize DRAM controllers and DRAM, the initialization code may have only the CPU's general purpose registers or Cache-as-RAM as temporary storage.

romcc, a C compiler that uses registers instead of RAM, eases the task. Using romcc, it is relatively easy to make SMBus accesses to the SPD ROMs of the DRAM DIMMs, that allows the RAM to be used.

With newer x86 processors, the processor cache can be used as RAM until DRAM is initialized. The processor cache has to be initialized into Cache-as-RAM mode as well, but this needs fewer instructions than initializing DRAM. Also, the Cache-as-RAM mode initialization is specific to CPU architectures, thus more generic than DRAM initialization, which is specific to each chipset and mainboard.

For most modern x86 platforms, closed source binary-only components provided by the vendor are used for DRAM setup. For Intel systems, FSP-M is required, while AMD has no current support. Binary AGESA is currently used for proprietary UEFI firmware on AMD systems, and this model is expected to carry over to any future AMD-related coreboot support.

Developing and debugging coreboot

There are also CPU emulators that either replace the CPU or connect via a JTAG port, with the Sage SmartProbe being an example. Code can be built on, or downloaded to, BIOS emulators rather than flashing the BIOS device.

Payloads

coreboot can load a payload, which may be written using the libpayload helper library. Existing payloads include the following:
 * Depthcharge is used by Google for ChromeOS
 * A branch of Das U-Boot was used by Google for ChromiumOS in the past

European Coreboot Conference
One physical meeting is the European Coreboot Conference which was organized in October 2017 and lasted for three days.

Variants
coreboot has a number of variants from its original code base each with slightly different objectives:.
 * Libreboot - A variant with a primary focus to remove some binary blobs.
 * osboot - A variant similar to Libreboot that scrapped its only some blobs policy to increase hardware support and stability. As of November 2022 merged with libreboot.
 * MrChromebox has developed a modified version of coreboot for ChromeOS based devices.
 * GNU Boot - A variant with a primary focus to remove all binary blobs.
 * Canoeboot
 * Dasharo - A distribution based on coreboot developed by 3mdeb. They aim to make it easy for manufacturers to ship products with coreboot.
 * Skulls - A variant aimed at ease of installation.
 * Heads - A variant aimed at physical security and usage of free software, recommended for use with QubesOS.

title: Coreboot


text:
Wang Bing (canoeist)

Wang Bing (born January 2, 1978, in Liaoning) is a Chinese sprint canoeist who competed in the mid-2000s. He finished ninth in the C-1 500 m event at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.

He also participated at the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea and won two gold medals alongside Yang Wenjun at C2 500 and 1000 metres. Wang later participated with Yang Wenjun at the 2006 Asian Games in Doha and won a silver medal.

title: Wang Bing (canoeist)


text:
Purlieu

Purlieu is a term used of the outlying parts of a place or district. It was a term of the old Forest law, and meant, as defined by John Manwood, Treatise of the Lawes of the Forest (1598, 4th ed. 1717),"a certain territory of ground adjoining unto the forest [which] was once forest-land and afterwards disafforested by the perambulations made for the severing of the new forests from the old" The owner of freelands in the purlieu to the yearly value of forty shillings was known as a purlieu-man or purley-man. The benefits of disafforestation accrued only to the owner of the lands. There seems no doubt that purlieu or purley represents the Anglo-French pourallé lieu (old French pouraler, puraler, to go through Latin perambulare), a legal term meaning properly a perambulation to determine the boundaries of a manor, parish, or similar region.

The word survives in placenames. Examples include Dibden Purlieu in Hampshire, on the border of the New Forest and Bedford Purlieus, once part of Rockingham Forest; also as Purley, in London, and Purley on Thames, in Berkshire. It also survives in the surname, Purley.

title: Purlieu


text:
U of L

U of L may refer to:

 * Austria
 * University of Leoben
 * University of Linz

 * Canada
 * University of Lethbridge in Lethbridge, Alberta

 * Ireland
 * University of Limerick in Castletroy, Limerick

 * Latvia
 * University of Latvia

 * Portugal
 * University of Lisbon

 * South Africa
 * University of Limpopo

 * United Kingdom
 * University of Leeds
 * University of Leicester
 * University of Lincoln
 * University of Liverpool
 * University of London

 * United States
 * University of Louisiana at Lafayette
 * University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky

title: U of L


text:
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Colley Cibber

Colley Cibber
A concise, scholarly, and comprehensive biography and explanation of a figure of both fame and infamy who stands at the bottom of the page of many of the great poems of the 18th century (in the footnotes). I wrote quite a bit, but the article is 90% Bishonen's work, and it is meticulously documented. Geogre 02:46, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC) Past nomination is at Featured article candidates/Colley Cibber/Past

 * Support. Fascinating.  — mark ✎ 02:58, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. I have never heard of Cibber before, but I found this quite interesting.  Good job.  Edeans 05:42, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. Another top-class article on 18th century English cultural history. Filiocht 09:10, Mar 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support: Yet another amazing article, very detailed and well illustrated and interesting - standards on Wikipedia are rocketing upwards. Giano 09:42, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. This is what Wikipedia is all about. Great work. I know nothing about the subject so I can't vouch for it that way, but it looks great. Keep them coming. - Taxman 13:48, Mar 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support very well detailed, could use slightly better images, but hey its 18th century its not exactly easy. Give it a go Raul!  ALKIVAR ™[[Image:Radioactive.svg|18px|]] 16:11, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Enthusiastically support. Hydriotaphia 06:41, Mar 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * Want to support but
 * "hapless Shakespeare, and crucify'd Molière" needs attribution (Pope, I presume).
 * "herostratic fame" is clever but obscure, and deserves an explanatory phrase. -- Jmabel | Talk 18:50, Mar 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * Right. Thank you. These are both from the Lead section. 1. "Hapless Shakespeare and crucify'd Molière" is quoted again under "Cibber as manager", and there attributed (to Pope, yes). I thought it could be more of a foretaste in the introduction, to keep the Lead as lightfooted as possible, but maybe not. I'll fix it. 2. Explaining herostratic fame at this point isn't an option IMHO, but of course I don't need to use the word at all, I'll rephrase. (If you don't think it's enough that it's linked to the stub Herostratos, that explains the concept?) Pity, in a way... it's not there for being clever, but for saying much in little compass. For those who've heard of Cibber (= the Alexander Pope buffs), Cibber is an icon of herostratic fame, and in the article we try to lay out, for those who hadn't heard of him, how he came to be that. But never mind, I don't want anything obscure in the Lead, any more than you do. Thanks for pointing it out.--Bishonen | Talk 10:56, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I'd say that the link is enough. Filiocht 11:49, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * In any case, support, it's a great article, although I still find "herostratic fame" to be obscurantist. -- Jmabel | Talk 21:27, Mar 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. Social history and the history of ideas are the most difficult to write, and this entry sets a standard where Wikipedia is weak. (Herostratic fame is blue-linked for the curious.) --Wetman 09:31, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support, of course. -- ALoan (Talk) 11:38, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support A wonderful article and a joy to read. One thing I'm wondering about, though, is his later life and death. The story of his professional career ends with his appointment as Laureate in 1730. The date of William Whitehead's appointment seems to suggest that Cibber retained his position until his death in 1757. Is that correct? Also, apart from being the object of progressive scorn, little is said about the last 10–15 years of his life. Maybe a small coda is in order to give proper closure to both the life of Cibber and to the article (provided information on this matter is available, of course). --Plek 15:25, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Thank you very much, Plek (more! more! please say the bit about "a joy to read" again, I couldn't quite hear you!). It makes sense, what you say, and I'll try to find the time to read up a bit more in Barker's biography and flesh out the last 20 years of Cibber's life a little, though my impression is that his life just got progressively less interesting. He seems to have thought so, too—in his autobiography, published in 1740, his focus is overwhelmingly on the 1690—1715 period. The actors' profiles and the theatrical warfare and chicanery of the 1690s, when Colley was a struggling young actor, get far more space than later events at Drury Lane over the whole 25 years that he was head of it, 1710—1735. Another problem is that his autobiography is far and away the best source for his life, and is the basis of later accounts such as that of Barker, and consequently the 17 years he lived on after its publication are in a kind of shade, or information dearth. Samuel Johnson refers to the aging Cibber as a kind of fixture of the London social scene, a hale old man but an unrepentant trifler and posturer, a gambling addict (this had been a life-long problem of Cibber's) and increasingly a parody of himself, that the young stared at with surprise and censure. Ach, though, again, I need to find chapter and verse and exactly what Johnson said. Bishonen | Talk 17:08, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC) P. S. A Poet Laureate appointment is indeed supposed to be for life, sort of like kingship, regardless of whether the duties are fulfilled or not. Bish.
 * Support Interesting, well written, and well referenced. It shines through that the authors care about this article. SlimVirgin 16:52, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Support. Wow. Accolades to Bishonen. Fawcett5 16:08, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. JuntungWu 06:41, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Support--ZayZayEM 03:13, 7 Mar 2005 (UTC)


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Bessie Thomashefsky

Bessie Thomashefsky (1873 – July 6, 1962), born Briche Baumfeld-Kaufman, was a Russian-born Jewish American singer, actress and comedian, a star in Yiddish theater beginning in the 1890s. She was the wife and stage partner of Boris Thomashefsky, the most popular Yiddish leading man of his era. Probably her most famous role was the title role of Oscar Wilde's Salomé at the People’s Theater in 1908.

Biography
She was born Briche Baumfeld-Kaufman in 1873 in Tarashcha, Kiev province, Ukraine. Her family emigrated to America in 1879 and finally settled in 1883 near Baltimore. She attended school until she was 12 and then went to work in a stocking factory and a sweatshop.

In 1887, 14-year-old Bessie met her future husband when she went backstage at a Baltimore production of Aliles Dam ("Blood Libel") by a Yiddish touring company to meet the beautiful young "actress" she had seen on stage, only to discover that "she" was the 19-year-old Boris Thomashefsky, and that he was also the manager of the company. In 1888, Bessie ran away from home to join the Thomashefsky Players, and was given an ingenue role starring in Abraham Goldfaden’s Shulamith, which was performed at the Boston Music Hall. Boris moved to romantic male leads.

In 1889, 16-year-old Bessie had a daughter, Esther, with Boris and in 1891 they were married. Esther died at the age of 6 of diphtheria. They also had 3 sons. Their first son, Harry, started acting at the age of 13 in the play The Pintele Yid (A Little Spark of Jewishness, 1909), became a director of the Federal Theater's Yiddish Theater Project and directed his father in films The Jewish King Lear (1934) and The Bar Mitzvah Boy (1935). Their second son, known as Mickey, took after his father's romancing ways and romanced two women at the same time which led to a dramatic murder-attempt/suicide in 1931, reminiscent of his paternal aunt Emma Thomashefsky Finkel's notorious 1904 affair. Both Mickey and his aunt Emma were left paralyzed by the attempted murders by jealous mates and both later died of complications related to their wounds; Emma, many years later, in 1929, and Mickey in 1936. Their third son, Theodore, changed his name to Ted Thomas and became a stage manager. Ted Thomas's son is the noted conductor Michael Tilson Thomas.

It was the success of Boris' Greenhorn scripts and Bessie's feature acting in them that led to Bessie being overworked and Boris taking the money and philandering. Bessie wanted an accounting of the money and couldn't find it. Boris Thomashefsky began and carried on a long-term affair with Yiddish actress Regina Zuckerberg (1888-1964). Regina began her artistic career at the Jewish Theatre of Lemberg, Galicia (Austro-Hungarian Empire, now Lviv, Ukraine) and had in September 1911 immigrated to the United States with her husband, actor Sigmund Zuckerberg. She was the leading actress in a number of theaters by Boris Thomashefsky and was a member of the Hebrew Actors' Union, which was the union of Jewish actors in the United States. Regina modeled herself on Bessie in dress, speech, style and acting—except that she was 15 years younger. Boris's affair with Regina and financial mismanagement led Boris and Bessie to separate in 1911.

Both Boris and Bessie went on to successful but separate careers. Bessie went on to found her own theatre troupe. She took over the management of the People’s Theater in 1915 and the following season the theater was renamed Bessie Thomashefsky’s People’s Theater. She focused on serious social issues of the day, particularly those affecting women, like suffrage and birth-control. Her memoir, Mayn lebens geshikhte (My life’s history: The joys and tribulations of a Yiddish star actress), as told to A. Tennenholz, was published in 1915.

Regina was Boris's common-law wife into the mid-1910s. Boris filed for bankruptcy in 1915. In the 1930s Boris was a pauper and died in 1939. Bessie had never divorced Boris.

Death and legacy
Both Thomashefskys did much to shape the world of modern theatre from the follies to Broadway and gave a start to many actors, composers and producers who went on to start and own theaters and movie studios. Even the Gershwin brothers had their start with the Thomashefkys. They were also prominent in addressing controversial social issues of the day and in teaching the Greenhorns how to be Americans. They founded theaters and production companies, as well as publishing houses and many other successful business ventures.

After Boris's death, Harry moved with his mother to California. Bessie lived in California until her death in 1962, aged 89, and was buried with her husband in the Yiddish theater section of the Mount Hebron Cemetery, New York. Ted Thomas died in 1992, aged 88. Harry died in Los Angeles in 1993, aged 97.

In 2011, Michael Tilson Thomas hosted a concert stage show celebrating his grandparents and the music of American Yiddish theatre which aired in 2012 on the PBS series Great Performances. Bessie Thomashefsky was portrayed by Judy Blazer.

title: Bessie Thomashefsky


text:
Talk:Earthsuit

Major Overhaul
This article needs some serious reworking. eh? I'd love to just go at it, but I'm afraid people will yell at me, because believe me, I would do quite a bit. I'm just a poor little newbie, but I can't seem to verify the discography info in this article. See the Earthsuit discography on MusicBrainz for more info. I'll go ahead and do some of the stuff that doesn't involve changing the layout of the entire article. I'd love to hear what anyone else thinks about anything beyond that. If someone could direct me to info on how to do a discography on Wikipedia properly, that would be much appreciated as well. Thanks. Aidje 02:42, 2005 Mar 1 (UTC)
 * Please cleanup to your heart's desire. And Wikiproject Albums may help you. Rmhermen 05:50, Mar 1, 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I'm doing some research and hopefully I'll be able to fix this article soon. By the way, does that link mean that album info should go on separate pages? Aidje 22:54, 2005 Mar 3 (UTC)
 * I've been going over Earthsuit, MACROSICK and Mute Math trying to get them up to scratch. I think it's going well so far! Souldier77 10:08, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

Trying to get earthsuit.awardspace.com whitelisted
I just put in a request to have Earthsuit's legacy forum at awardspace whitelisted. Apparently we can't put the link on write now because awardspace.com is a free webhost that's often used for spamming. But I've plead my case, so hopefully we can get this done! :-) earthsuit.awardspace.com Proposed Whitelisting Link Souldier77 10:08, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

Files for discussion
Tagged both of the audio files in Earthsuit for deletion discussions at Files for discussion/2023 April 9. QuietHere (talk | contributions) 04:51, 9 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Earthsuit


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The Aliens (Scottish band)

The Aliens are a Scottish band consisting of former Beta Band members Gordon Anderson (aka Lone Pigeon, lead vocals, guitar), John Maclean (keyboards, backing vocals) and Robin Jones (drums, backing vocals). They have two albums, two EP's and a number of singles. Their debut album, Astronomy for Dogs charted at #46 in the UK Album Chart in 2007.

History
They formed in 2005 after Maclean and Jones had left The Beta Band the previous year and asked Anderson to join their new project. Anderson had been part of an early incarnation of the Beta Band and had been friends with Maclean since their school-going days in St Andrews. He described the friendship as "Gordon keeps you on your toes with his misbehaviour. Fifty percent of the time we’re like two fighting siblings. The other fifty percent of the time it’s like I’m a dad and he’s a child".

Their first release, the EP Alienoid Starmonica, recorded by John Williamson, was released to the UK iTunes Music Store on 20 March 2006, and on CD and 12" on 8 May 2006 on their own EMI imprint, Pet Rock. The majority of the material was originally written by Anderson. The band made their touring debut in November of that year.

The Aliens released their first album, Astronomy for Dogs recorded by John Williamson, on 19 March 2007. The album was recorded in The Cave, the small recording space beneath the Forest Cafe in Edinburgh before being put onto disc at Olympic Studios in London. The band produced it themselves. The release was timed to coincide with a ten-date UK tour but this had to be canceled due to Gordon Anderson breaking his clavicle climbing up a tree. The tour was rescheduled to May/June of that same year. In October 2007 they toured North America.

In spring of 2008, the band cancelled all shows except their festival appearances due to the increasing ill health of Gordon Anderson during the recording of the second album; however, on his recovery the band completed a string of UK festival dates in July. The new album, Luna was released on 29 September 2008 and was preceded by the single "Magic Man", released on 22 September.

On 4 July 2019 The Aliens once again became active on social media. The live album 'Live on the Moon' was released on CD on 29 November 2019, a limited run vinyl edition followed in February 2020. On 20/02/2020 The Aliens released their first new material since their initial split in 2008, publishing 'BB, WDYLM' on Youtube.

Albums

 * Astronomy for Dogs (19 March 2007)
 * Luna (29 September 2008)
 * Electronville (2 October 2020)
 * Back to Beyond (5 March 2021)
 * Doorway Amnesia (30 July, 2021)

Live Album

 * Live on the Moon (29 November 2019)

EPs

 * Alienoid Starmonica (8 May 2006)
 * The Sunlamp Show EP (18 May 2009)

Singles

 * "The Happy Song" (18 September 2006)
 * "Setting Sun" (5 March 2007)
 * "Robot Man" (25 June 2007)
 * "Magic Man" (22 September 2008)

title: The Aliens (Scottish band)


text: User talk:64.109.12.100

title: User talk:64.109.12.100


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User:Eddideigel/Fantasticum

  '''This is a test page for Template:Element (or User:Eddideigel/Element-template). The actual article must be edited under Hydrogen. Sorry for any inconvenience.'''

Hydrogen (Latin: hydrogenium, from Greek: hydro: water, genes: forming) is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol H and atomic number 1. At standard temperature and pressure it is a colorless, odorless, non-metallic, univalent, highly flammable diatomic gas. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is present in water and in all organic compounds and living organisms. Hydrogen is able to react chemically with most other elements. Stars in their main sequence are overwhelmingly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. This element is used in ammonia production, as a lifting gas, as an alternative fuel, and more recently as a power-source of fuel cells.

In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by reaction of acids on metals such as zinc. For production in large scale commercial bulk hydrogen is usually manufactured by decomposing natural gas. Electrolysis of water is a simple although inefficient method. Scientists are now researching new methods for hydrogen production. One of them involves use of green algae. Another promising method involves the conversion of biomass derivatives such as glucose or sorbitol, which can be done at low temperatures through the use of a new catalyst.

Notable characteristics
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element with its most common isotope consisting of just a single proton and electron. At standard temperature and pressure conditions, hydrogen forms a diatomic gas, H2, with a boiling point of only 20.27 K and a melting point of 14.02 K. Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of gas giants, the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal (see metallic hydrogen). Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H2 form and are associated with star formation.

This element plays a vital role in powering the Universe through the proton-proton reaction and carbon-nitrogen cycle. (These are nuclear fusion processes that release huge amounts of energy through combining two hydrogen atoms into one helium atom.)

The hydrogen atom
Main article: Hydrogen atom.

A hydrogen atom is an atom of the element hydrogen. It is composed of a single negatively charged electron, distributed around the positively charged proton which is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The electron is bound to the proton by the Coulomb force.

Applications
Large quantities of hydrogen are needed industrially, notably in the Haber process for the production of ammonia, the hydrogenation of fats and oils, and the production of methanol. Hydrogen is used in hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. Other uses:

 * The element is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, welding, and the reduction of metallic ores.
 * It is used in rocket fuels.
 * Liquid hydrogen is used to perform cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.
 * Since hydrogen is fourteen and a half times lighter than air, it was once widely used as a lifting agent in balloons and airships. However this use was curtailed when the Hindenburg disaster convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
 * Deuterium, an isotope (hydrogen-2) of hydrogen, is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow down neutrons, and is also used in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects.
 * Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used to construct hydrogen bombs. It is also used as an isotopic label in the biosciences and as a radiation source in luminous paints.

Hydrogen can be burned in internal combustion engines, and a fleet of hydrogen-burning cars is maintained by Chrysler-BMW (see Hydrogen car). Hydrogen fuel cells are being looked into as a way to provide power with lower emissions than hydrogen burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and fuel cells is offset by the pollution created by hydrogen production.

History
Hydrogen (French for water-maker, from Greek hudôr, "water" and gennen, "generate") was first recognized as a distinct substance in 1776 by Henry Cavendish. Cavendish stumbled upon it when experimenting with acids and mercury. Although he wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a compound of mercury (and not of the acid), he was still able to describe many of hydrogen's properties quite accurately. Antoine Lavoisier gave the element its name and proved that water was made of hydrogen and oxygen. One of its first uses was for balloons. The hydrogen was obtained by mixing sulfuric acid and iron. Deuterium, one isotope of hydrogen, was discovered by Harold C. Urey by distilling a sample of water multiple times. Urey received a Nobel prize for his discovery in 1934. In the same year, the third isotope, tritium, was discovered.

Occurrence
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms. This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Relative to its great abundance elsewhere, hydrogen is very rare in the earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume). The most common source for this element on earth is water which is composed two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen (H2O). Other sources include most forms of organic matter (currently all known life forms), coal, fossil fuels and natural gas. Methane (CH4) is an increasingly important source of hydrogen.

Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways: steam on heated carbon, hydrocarbon decomposition with heat, reaction of a strong base in an aqueous solution with aluminium, water electrolysis, or displacement from acids with certain metals.

Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperatures (700-1100 °C), steam reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

 * CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the carbon monoxide through the water-gas shift reaction:

 * CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

Compounds
The lightest of all gases, hydrogen combines with most other elements to form compounds. Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.2, so it forms compounds where it is the more non-metallic and where it is the more metallic element. The former are called hydrides, where hydrogen either exists as H- ions or just as a solute within the other element (as in palladium hydride). The latter tend to be covalent, since the H+ ion would be a bare nucleus and so has a strong tendency to pull electrons to itself. These both form acids. Thus even in an acidic solution one sees ions like hydronium (H3O+) as the protons latch on to something.

Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water, H2O, and releases a lot of energy in doing so, burning explosively in air. Deuterium oxide, or D2O, is commonly referred to as heavy water. Hydrogen also forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because of their association with living things, these compounds are called organic compounds, and the study of the properties of these compounds is called organic chemistry.

Forms
Under normal conditions hydrogen gas is a mix of two different kinds of molecules which differ from one another by the relative spin of the nuclei. These two forms are known as ortho- and para-hydrogen (this is different from isotopes, see below). In ortho-hydrogen the nuclear spins are parallel (form a triplet), while in para they are antiparallel (form a singlet). At standard conditions hydrogen is composed of about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form (the so-called "normal" form). The equilibrium ratio of these two forms depend on temperature but since the ortho form has higher energy (is an excited state), it cannot be stable in its pure form. In low temperatures (around boiling point), the equilibrium state is comprised of almost only para form.

The conversion process between the forms is slow and if hydrogen is cooled down and condensed rapidly, it contains large quantities of the ortho form. It is important in preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen since the ortho-para conversion produces more heat than the heat of its evaporation and a lot of hydrogen can be lost by evaporation in this way during several days after liquifying. Therefore, some catalysts of the ortho-para conversion process are used during hydrogen cooling. The two forms have also slightly different physical properties. For example, the melting and boiling points of parahydrogen are about 0.1 K lower than of the "normal" form.

Isotopes
Hydrogen is the only element (other than radon) that has different names for its isotopes. The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, although this is not officially sanctioned. (The symbol P is already in use for phosphorus and is not available for protium.) The most common isotope of hydrogen, this stable isotope has a nucleus consisting of a single proton; hence the descriptive, although rarely used, name protium. The other stable isotope is deuterium, with an extra neutron in the nucleus. Deuterium comprises 0.0184-0.0082% of all hydrogen (IUPAC); ratios of deuterium to protium are reported relative to the VSMOW standard reference water. The third naturally-occurring hydrogen isotope is the radioactive tritium. The tritium nucleus contains two neutrons in addition to the proton. It decays through beta decay and has a half-life of 12.32 years. Hydrogen-4 was synthesised by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei. It decays through neutron emission and has a half-life of 9.93696x10-23 seconds. In 2001 scientists detected hydrogen-5 by bombarding a hydrogen target with heavy ions. It decays through neutron emission and has a half-life of 8.01930x10-23 seconds. Hydrogen-6 decays through triple neutron emission and has a half-life of 3.26500-22 seconds. In 2003 hydrogen-7 was created (article) at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan by colliding a high-energy beam of helium-8 atoms with a cryogenic hydrogen target and detecting tritons—the nuclei of tritium atoms—and neutrons from the break up of Hydrogen-7, the same method used to produce and detect Hydrogen-5.
 * 1H
 * 2H
 * 3H
 * 4H
 * 5H
 * 6H
 * 7H

Precautions
Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas burning at concentrations as low as 4%. It also reacts violently with chlorine and fluorine, forming hydrohalic acids that can cause damage to the lungs and other biological tissues. When mixed with oxygen, hydrogen explodes on ignition.

title: User:Eddideigel/Fantasticum


text:
Seesaw (disambiguation)

Seesaw typically refers to a playground piece of equipment.

Seesaw or See-Saw may also refer to:

Music

 * Seesaw (album), 2013 album by Beth Hart and Joe Bonamassa
 * See-Saw (group), a Japanese pop group
 * See-Saw, a 1919 Broadway musical with music by Louis Hirsch
 * Seesaw (musical), a 1973 Broadway musical

 * "See Saw" (Don Covay song), a 1965 song by Don Covay, covered by Aretha Franklin in 1968
 * "See-Saw" (song), a 1968 song by Pink Floyd
 * "See Saw", a 2018 song by Loona from Go Won

Television and film

 * SeeSaw (Internet television), a former Internet television venture by Arqiva
 * See-Saw (TV programme), a strand of programmes shown in the UK during the 1980s
 * "See-Saw", a 1997 episode of the series Teletubbies
 * See-Saw Films, a British-Australian film and television production company
 * Seesaw (TV series), an adaptation of the Moggach novel

Other media

 * Seesaw (Moggach novel) a 1996 novel by Deborah Moggach (also its 1998 television adaptation)
 * Seesaw (Ogene novel), a 2021 novel by Timothy Ogene
 * See saw, an uncommon contra dance move, similar to a dosido

Science

 * Seesaw mechanism, a theoretical mechanism in particle physics
 * Seesaw molecular geometry in chemistry
 * Seesaw theorem in mathematics

Other

 * Seesaw (chess), a tactic in chess

title: Seesaw (disambiguation)


text: User talk:152.163.100.65

title: User talk:152.163.100.65