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Operation Frequent Wind

Operation Frequent Wind was the final phase in the evacuation of American civilians and "at-risk" Vietnamese from Saigon, South Vietnam, before the takeover of the city by the North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) in the Fall of Saigon. It was carried out on 29–30 April 1975, during the last days of the Vietnam War. More than 7,000 people were evacuated by helicopter from various points in Saigon. The airlift resulted in a number of enduring images.

Evacuation plans already existed as a standard procedure for American embassies. At the beginning of March, fixed-wing aircraft began evacuating civilians from Tan Son Nhat Airport through neighboring countries. By mid-April, contingency plans were in place and preparations were underway for a possible helicopter evacuation. As the imminent collapse of Saigon became evident, the U.S. Navy assembled Task Force 76 off the coast near Vũng Tàu to support a helicopter evacuation and provide air support if required. In the event, air support was not needed as the North Vietnamese paused for a week at the outskirts of Saigon, possibly waiting for the South Vietnamese government to collapse and avoiding a possible confrontation with the U.S. by allowing the mostly-unopposed evacuation of Americans from Saigon.

On 28 April, Tan Son Nhut Air Base (next to the airport) came under artillery fire and attack from Vietnamese People's Air Force aircraft. The fixed-wing evacuation was terminated and Operation Frequent Wind began. During the fixed-wing evacuation 50,493 people (including 2,678 Vietnamese orphans) were evacuated from Tan Son Nhut. The evacuation took place primarily from the Defense Attaché Office compound, beginning around 14:00 on the afternoon of 29 April, and ending that night with only limited small arms damage to the helicopters. The U.S. Embassy in Saigon was intended to only be a secondary evacuation point for embassy staff, but it was soon overwhelmed with evacuees and desperate South Vietnamese. The evacuation of the embassy was completed at 07:53 on 30 April, but some Americans chose to stay or were left behind and some 400 third-country nationals were left at the embassy.

Tens of thousands of Vietnamese evacuated themselves by sea or air. With the collapse of South Vietnam, numerous boats and ships, Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) helicopters and some fixed-wing aircraft sailed or flew out to the evacuation fleet. Helicopters began to clog ship decks and eventually, some were pushed overboard to allow others to land. Pilots of other helicopters were told to drop off their passengers and then take off and ditch in the sea, from where they would be rescued. In Operation Frequent Wind a total of 1,373 Americans and 5,595 Vietnamese and third-country nationals were evacuated by helicopter. The total number of Vietnamese evacuated by Frequent Wind or self-evacuated and ending up in the custody of the United States for processing as refugees to enter the United States totalled 138,869.

This operation was also the debut combat deployment of the F-14 Tomcat aircraft.

Planning
Planning for the evacuation of the Americans and their South Vietnamese allies from South Vietnam had begun before April 1975. When U.S. President Gerald Ford met with the National Security Council on 9 April 1975 he was told by Henry Kissinger that a maximum of 1.7 million people had been identified as possible evacuees and that these included: American citizens and their relatives, the diplomatic corps, the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS), third-country nationals under contract by the U.S. government and the employees of the U.S. and their dependents (estimated at about 200,000 people). In addition, the Vietnamese relatives of American citizens and senior Government of Vietnam officials and their dependents (about 600,000 people) were also identified as potential evacuees, along with Vietnamese formerly employed by the U.S. and their dependents.

Although American officials at the highest levels of the intelligence community (e.g., CIA Director William Colby) were certain that the South Vietnamese government would collapse, everyone in the U.S. government underestimated the speed of the North Vietnamese advance during the 1975 Spring Offensive and how quickly the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) would collapse.

Evacuation plans are standard for American embassies. The Saigon plan had been developed over a number of years. Originally codenamed "Talon Vise", the operation was renamed "Frequent Wind" when the original codename was compromised.

By 1975, the Frequent Wind plan aimed to evacuate about 8,000 U.S. citizens and third-country nationals, but it was never able to estimate the number of South Vietnamese to include. There were about 17,000 at-risk Vietnamese on embassy rolls, which, using an average of seven dependents per family, meant that the number requiring evacuation was 119,000. Taken with other categories of Vietnamese, the number quickly passed 200,000. The Frequent Wind plan set out four possible evacuation options:
 * Option 1: Evacuation by commercial airlift from Tan Son Nhut and other South Vietnamese airports as required
 * Option 2: Evacuation by military airlift from Tan Son Nhut and other South Vietnamese airports as required
 * Option 3: Evacuation by sea lift from Saigon port
 * Option 4: Evacuation by helicopter to US Navy ships in the South China Sea

With Option 4, the helicopter evacuation would be expected to be similar to Operation Eagle Pull, the American evacuation by air of Phnom Penh, Cambodia, on 12 April 1975.

Preparations on the ground
On 1 April an evacuation control center manned by U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force (USAF) and U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) personnel began operating at the Defense Attaché Office (DAO) compound on 12-hour shifts, increasing to 24-hour shifts the next day. Also on 1 April, Plan Alamo was implemented to defend the DAO compound and its annex so it could serve as a holding area for 1,500 evacuees for five days. By 16 April, Alamo was complete: water, C-rations, petroleum, oil, and lubricants had been stockpiled; backup electricity generators had been installed; sanitary facilities were completed; and concertina wire protected the perimeter. On 7 April Air America pilot Nikki A. Fillipi, with U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Robert Twigger, assigned to the DAO as the U.S. Navy liaison officer, surveyed 37 buildings in Saigon as possible landing zones (LZ), selecting 13 of them as fit for use. Workers from Pacific Architects and Engineers visited each of the 13 LZs to remove obstructions and paint H's the size of a UH-1 Huey helicopter's skids. President Ford, in an address to the American public on 11 April, promised to evacuate Vietnamese civilians of various categories. The 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade (9th MAB), which was to supply helicopters and a security force for the evacuation, sent a delegation to consult with Ambassador Graham Martin on current plans on 12 April. Martin told them that he would not tolerate any outward signs that the United States intended to abandon South Vietnam. All planning would have to be conducted with the utmost discretion. Brigadier General Richard E. Carey, commander of the 9th MAB, flew to Saigon the next day to see Martin; he later said, "The visit was cold, non-productive and appeared to be an irritant to the Ambassador". Thirteen Marines from the Marine Security Guard (MSG) detachment were deployed to the DAO Compound on 13 April to replace eight Marine guards who had been providing security after they were withdrawn from the closed Da Nang and Nha Trang consulates.

By late April, Air America helicopters were flying several daily shuttles from TF76 to the DAO Compound to enable the 9th MAB to conduct evacuation preparations at the DAO without exceeding the Paris Peace Accords' limit of 50 U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam. The U.S. government was continuing to observe its obligations under the Accords, notwithstanding the North Vietnamese invasion. In late April, the MSG Marines were ordered to abandon Marshall Hall/Marine House, their billet at 204 Hong Thap Tu Street (now 204 Nguyen Thi Minh Khai Street), and move into the recreation area in the embassy compound.

The two major evacuation points chosen for Operation Frequent Wind were the DAO Compound next to Tan Son Nhut Airport for American and Vietnamese civilian evacuees, and the U.S. Embassy, Saigon for embassy staff. The plan for the evacuation included stationing buses and American civilian bus drivers at 28 buildings throughout metropolitan Saigon. The buses would follow one of four planned evacuation routes from downtown Saigon to the DAO Compound, each route named after a Western Trail: Santa Fe, Oregon, Texas, etc.

Options 1 and 2: fixed-wing evacuation
By late March, the embassy began to reduce the number of U.S. citizens in Vietnam by encouraging dependents and non-essential personnel to leave the country by commercial flights and on Military Airlift Command (MAC) C-141 and C-5 aircraft, which were still bringing in emergency military supplies. In late March, two or three of these MAC aircraft were arriving each day and were used to evacuate civilians and Vietnamese orphans. On 4 April, a C-5A aircraft carrying 250 Vietnamese orphans and their escorts suffered explosive decompression over the sea near Vũng Tàu and made a crash-landing while attempting to return to Tan Son Nhut; 153 people on board died in the crash.

With the cause of the crash still unknown, the C-5 fleet was grounded and the MAC airlift was reduced to using C-141s and C-130s. Rather than loading as many evacuees as possible, each evacuee was required to have a seat and a seatbelt, reducing the number of passengers that could be carried on each flight to 94 in a C-141 and 75 in a C-130. But these restrictions were relaxed and eventually ignored altogether as the pace of the evacuation quickened. Armed guards were also present on each flight to prevent hijacking. American commercial and contract carriers continued to fly out of Tan Son Nhut, but with decreasing frequency. In addition, military aircraft from Australia, Indonesia, Iran, Poland, the United Kingdom, France, and other countries flew in to evacuate their embassy personnel.

Throughout April, the "thinning out" proceeded slowly, largely because the South Vietnamese government was slow to issue papers allowing Americans to take Vietnamese dependents with them, with the result that MAC aircraft were often departing empty. Finally, on 19 April, a simple procedure was implemented that cleared up the paperwork jam and the number of evacuees dramatically increased. The fall of Xuân Lộc on 21 April and the resignation of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu on 21 April brought greater crowds seeking evacuation to the DAO Compound as it became apparent that South Vietnam's days were numbered. By 22 April, 20 C-141 and 20 C-130s flights a day were flying evacuees out of Tan Son Nhut to Clark Air Base, some 1,000 miles away in the Philippines. On 23 April President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines announced that no more than 2,500 Vietnamese evacuees would be allowed in the Philippines at any one time, further increasing the strain on MAC which now had to move evacuees out of Saigon and move some 5,000 evacuees from Clark Air Base on to Guam, Wake Island and Yokota Air Base. President Thiệu and his family left Tan Son Nhut on 25 April on a USAF C-118 to go into exile in Taiwan. Also on 25 April the Federal Aviation Administration banned commercial flights into South Vietnam. This directive was subsequently reversed; some operators had ignored it anyway. In any case this effectively marked the end of the commercial airlift from Tan Son Nhut.

On 27 April, PAVN rockets hit Saigon and Cholon for the first time since the 1973 ceasefire. U.S. officials decided to stop using the less maneuverable C-141s, which had been loaded with up to 316 evacuees, and use only C-130s, which had been taking off with more than 240.

Task Force 76

With the fall of Saigon imminent, between 18 and 24 April the U.S. Navy assembled ships off Vũng Tàu under Commander Task Force 76:

Task Force 76

USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19) (command ship)

USS Oklahoma City (CLG-5) (Seventh Fleet flagship)

Task Group 76.4 (Movement Transport Group Alpha)
 * USS Okinawa (LPH-3)
 * USS Vancouver (LPD-2)
 * USS Thomaston (LSD-28)
 * USS Peoria (LST-1183)

Task Group 76.5 (Movement Transport Group Bravo)
 * USS Dubuque (LPD-8)
 * USS Durham (LKA-114)
 * USS Frederick (LST-1184)

Task Group 76.9 (Movement Transport Group Charlie)
 * USS Anchorage (LSD-36)
 * USS Denver (LPD-9)
 * USS Duluth (LPD-6)
 * USS Mobile (LKA-115)

The task force was joined by: each carrying Marine, and Air Force (eight 21st Special Operations Squadron CH-53s and two 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron HH-53s ) helicopters.
 * USS Hancock (CVA-19)
 * USS Midway (CVA-41)

Amphibious ships:
 * USS Mount Vernon (LSD-39)
 * USS Barbour County (LST-1195)
 * USS Tuscaloosa (LST-1187)

A guided missile frigate:
 * USS Worden (DLG-18)

and eight destroyer types for naval gunfire, escort, and area defense, including: The USS Enterprise (CVAN-65) and USS Coral Sea (CVA-43) carrier attack groups of Task Force 77 in the South China Sea provided air cover while Task Force 73 ensured logistic support.
 * USS Richard B. Anderson (DD-786)
 * USS Cochrane (DDG-21)
 * USS Kirk (FF-1087)
 * USS Gurke (DD-783)
 * USS Rowan (DD-782)
 * USS Cook (FF-1083)
 * USS Bausell (DD-845)

The Marine evacuation contingent, the 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade (Task Group 79.1), consisted of three Battalion Landing Teams (BLT); 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines (2/4), 1st Battalion 9th Marines (1/9), 3rd Battalion 9th Marines (3/9) and three helicopter squadrons HMH-462, HMH-463, HMM-165 along with other support units from Marine Aircraft Group 39 (MAG-39).

In addition, a flotilla of Military Sealift Command (MSC) ships were assembled and these carried out seaborne evacuations from Saigon Port, this fleet comprised:

Tugboats:
 * Asiatic Stamina
 * Chitose Maru
 * Haruma
 * Osceola
 * Shibaura Maru

and the following large transport ships:
 * SS American Challenger
 * SS Boo Heung Pioneer
 * SS Green Forest
 * SS Green Port
 * USNS Greenville Victory (T-AK-237)
 * SS Pioneer Contender
 * SS Pioneer Commander
 * USNS Sgt. Truman Kimbro (T-AK-254)
 * USNS Sgt. Andrew Miller (T-AK-242)

Tan Son Nhut under attack
On 28 April at 18:06, three A-37 Dragonflies piloted by former RVNAF pilots, who had defected to the Vietnamese People's Air Force at the fall of Da Nang, dropped six Mk81 250 lb bombs on Tan Son Nhut Air Base destroying several aircraft. RVNAF F-5s took off in pursuit, but they were unable to intercept the A-37s. C-130s leaving Tan Son Nhut reported receiving PAVN 12.7 mm and 37 mm anti-aircraft (AAA) fire, while sporadic PAVN rocket and artillery attacks also started to hit the airport and air base. C-130 flights were stopped temporarily after the air attack but resumed at 20:00 on 28 April. At 21:00 on 28 April Major General Homer D. Smith, the Defense Attaché, informed the evacuation control center that 60 C-130 flights would come in on 29 April to evacuate 10,000 people.

At 03:30 on 29 April a PAVN rocket hit Guardpost 1 at the DAO Compound, instantly killing Marine Corporals Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge. They were the last American ground casualties in Vietnam.

At 03:58, C-130E, #72-1297, flown by a crew from the 776th Tactical Airlift Squadron, was destroyed by a 122 mm rocket while taxiing to pick up refugees after offloading a BLU-82 at Tan Son Nhut Air Base. The crew evacuated the burning aircraft on the taxiway and departed the airfield on another C-130 that had previously landed. This was the last USAF fixed-wing aircraft to leave Tan Son Nhut. Between 04:30 and 08:00 up to 40 artillery rounds and rockets hit around the DAO Compound.

At dawn the RVNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A-37s, F-5s, C-7s, C-119s and C-130s departed for Thailand while UH-1s took off in search of the ships of TF-76. Some RVNAF aircraft stayed to continue to fight the advancing PAVN. One AC-119 gunship had spent the night of 28/29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN. At dawn on 29 April two A-1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at 2500 ft until one was shot down, presumably by an SA-7 missile. At 07:00 the AC-119 was firing on PAVN to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it too was hit by an SA-7 and fell in flames to the ground.

At 07:00 on 29 April, Smith advised Ambassador Martin that fixed-wing evacuations should cease and that Operation Frequent Wind, the helicopter evacuation of US personnel and at-risk Vietnamese should commence. Martin refused to accept Smith's recommendation and instead insisted on visiting Tan Son Nhut to survey the situation for himself. At 10:00 Martin confirmed Smith's assessment and at 10:48 he contacted Washington to recommend Option 4, the helicopter evacuation. Finally at 10:51 the order was given by CINCPAC to commence Option 4; due to confusion in the chain of command, Carey did not receive the execute order until 12:15. At 08:00 Lieutenant General Minh, commander of the RVNAF and 30 of his staff arrived at the DAO compound demanding evacuation, signifying the complete loss of RVNAF command and control.

Option 4 – White Christmas in April
In preparation for the evacuation, the American Embassy had distributed a 15-page booklet called SAFE, short for "Standard Instruction and Advice to Civilians in an Emergency." The booklet included a map of Saigon pinpointing "assembly areas where a helicopter will pick you up." There was an insert page which read: "Note evacuational signal. Do not disclose to other personnel. When the evacuation is ordered, the code will be read out on Armed Forces Radio. The code is: The temperature in Saigon is 105 degrees and rising. This will be followed by the playing of I'm Dreaming of a White Christmas." Frank Snepp later recalled the arrival of helicopters at the embassy while the song was playing over the radio as a "bizarre Kafkaesque time". Japanese journalists, concerned that they would not recognize the tune, had to get someone to sing it to them.

After the evacuation signal was given, the buses began to pick up passengers and head to the DAO Compound. The system worked so efficiently that the buses were able to make three return journeys rather than the expected one. The biggest problem occurred when the ARVN unit guarding the main gate at Tan Son Nhut refused to allow the last convoy of buses into the DAO Compound at about 17:45. As this was happening, a firefight between two ARVN units broke out and caught the rearmost buses in the crossfire, disabling two of the vehicles. Eventually the ARVN commander controlling the gates agreed to permit the remaining buses to enter the compound. General Carey's threat to use the AH-1J SeaCobra helicopter gunships flying overhead may have played a role in the ARVN commander's decision.

Security and air support
It was not known whether the PAVN and/or the ARVN would try to disrupt the evacuation and so the planners had to take all possible contingencies into account to ensure the safety and success of the evacuation. The staff of 9th MAB prescribed altitudes, routes, and checkpoints for flight safety for the operation. To avert mid-air collisions, the planners chose altitudes which would provide separation of traffic and also a capability to see and avoid the enemy's AAA, SA-2 and SA-7 missile threat (6500 ft for flights inbound to Saigon and 5500 ft for those outbound from Saigon to the Navy ships). These altitudes were also high enough to avoid small arms and artillery fire.

In the event that the PAVN or ARVN shot down a helicopter or a mechanical malfunction forced one to make an emergency landing in hostile territory, two orbiting CH-46s of MAG-39 each carrying 15-man, quick-reaction "Sparrow Hawk" teams of Marines from 1st Platoon, Company A, 1st Battalion, 9th Marines, from USS Blue Ridge, were ready to land and provide security enabling a search and rescue helicopter to pick up the crew. In addition, two CH-46s would provide medical evacuation capabilities while AH-1J SeaCobras would fly cover for the transport helicopters and for any ground units who requested support. The SeaCobras could also serve as Forward Air Controllers. The air wings of USS Enterprise and USS Coral Sea, were ready to provide close air support and anti-aircraft suppression if required with their A-6 and A-7 attack aircraft, and would provide continuous fighter cover the evacuation route including by VF-1 and VF-2, flying from Enterprise with the first combat deployment of the new F-14A Tomcat. USAF aircraft operating out of Nakhon Phanom Air Base, Korat Air Base and U-Tapao Air Base in Thailand were also overhead for the duration of the helicopter evacuation. A C-130 Airborne Command and Control controlled all US air operations over land. USAF F-4s, F-111s and A-7s provided air cover during daylight, being replaced by AC-130s from the 16th Special Operations Squadron at night. Strategic Air Command KC-135 tankers provided air-to-air refueling.

The evacuation proceeded without interference from the PAVN. Aircraft flying air cover for the evacuation reported being tracked with surface to air radar in the vicinity of Biên Hòa Air Base (which had fallen to the PAVN on 25 April), but there were no missile launches. The Hanoi leadership, reckoning that completion of the evacuation would lessen the risk of American intervention, had apparently instructed General Dũng not to target the airlift itself. Members of the police in Saigon had been promised evacuation in exchange for protecting the American evacuation buses and control of the crowds in the city during the evacuation. Disgruntled ARVN troops repeatedly hit American helicopters with small arms fire throughout the evacuation, without causing serious damage. Despite receiving sporadic PAVN AAA fire, USAF and USN aircraft made no attacks on AAA or SAM sites during the evacuation. However, one USAF report states that an F-4C Wild Weasel and an F-4D of the 388th Fighter Wing, was patrolling between Tan Son Nhut and Bien Hoa about 16:00 when the Wild Weasel detected SAM radar emissions to the north. It immediately turned toward the threatening radar and fifteen to twenty anti-aircraft weapons opened up on it and the F-4D. The four crew members estimated they received more than 500 rounds of 23-mm, 37-mm, and 57-mm fire in the space of one minute. After receiving permission from the airborne commander, the Wild Weasel marked the three 57-mm sites with an AGM-45 Shrike missile and took evasive action to escape the tracers coming in. Then the F-4D was cleared to destroy the 57 mm battery and did so with two CBU-71 and two CBU-58 Cluster bombs, neutralizing the site, 10 mi northeast of Saigon, without damage to either aircraft.

Despite all the concern over these military threats, the weather presented the gravest danger. At the beginning of the operation, pilots in the first wave reported the weather as 2000 ft scattered, 20000 ft overcast with 15 mi visibility, except in haze over Saigon, where visibility decreased to one mile. This meant that scattered clouds existed below their flight path while a solid layer of clouds more than two miles above their heads obscured the sun. The curtain of haze over Saigon so altered the diminished daylight that line of sight visibility was only a mile. The weather conditions deteriorated as the operation continued.

Air America

As part of the evacuation plan agreed with the DAO, Air America committed 24 of its 28 available helicopters to support the evacuation and 31 pilots agreed to stay in Saigon to support the evacuation; this meant that most helicopters would have only one pilot rather than the usual two. At 08:30 on 29 April, with the shelling of Tan Son Nhut Airport subsiding, Air America began ferrying its helicopter and fixed-wing pilots from their homes in Saigon to the Air America compound at Tan Son Nhut, across the road from the DAO Compound. Air America helicopters started flying to the rooftop LZs in Saigon and either shuttled the evacuees back to the DAO Compound or flew out to the ships of TF76. By 10:30 all of Air America's fixed-wing aircraft had departed Tan Son Nhut, evacuating all non-essential personnel and as many Vietnamese evacuees as they could carry and headed for Thailand. At some point during the morning RVNAF personnel took five ICCS UH-1H Hueys and one Air America Bell 204 from the Air America ramp.

At 11:00 the security situation at the Air America compound was deteriorating as General Carey did not wish to risk his Marines by extending his perimeter to cover the Air America compound (LZ 40), so all Air America helicopters from this time operated out of the tennis courts in the DAO Annex (LZ 35). This move created fuel problems for Air America as they no longer had access to the fuel supplies in their compound and at least initially they were refused fuel by the ships of TF76. According to US Naval Archives, at 12:30 an Air America Bell 205 landed Air Vice Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ, Madame Kỳ, Dorothy Martin (wife of Ambassador Martin) and others on USS Denver; however, contemporary reports state and photos show that Marshal Kỳ piloted his own UH-1H Huey to USS Midway.

At approximately 14:30, Air America Bell 205 serial number "N47004" landed on the roof of the Pittman Apartment Building at 22 Gia Long Street to collect a senior Vietnamese intelligence source and his family. The Pittman Building was not an approved LZ, but when the agreed pickup point at the Lee Hotel at 6 Chien Si Circle was declared unusable, CIA Station Chief Tom Polgar asked Oren B. Harnage, Deputy Chief of the Embassy's Air Branch to change the pickup to the Pittman Building, which was the home of the Assistant Station Chief and had an elevator shaft believed capable of supporting the weight of a Huey. Harnage boarded an Air America Huey from the Embassy's rooftop heliport and flew the short distance to the Pittman Building. Harnage leaned out of the Huey and helped approximately 15 evacuees board the Huey from the narrow helipad. The scene was famously captured on film by Hubert van Es.

Air America helicopters continued to make rooftop pickups until after nightfall by which time navigation became increasingly difficult. Helicopters overflew the designated LZs to check no Americans had been left behind and then the last helicopters (many low on fuel) headed out to TF76, located USS Midway or USS Hancock and shut down. All Air America flights had ceased by 21:00. With its available fleet of only 20 Hueys (3 of which were impounded, ditched or damaged at TF76), Air America had moved over 1,000 evacuees to the DAO Compound, the Embassy or out to the ships of TF76.

The DAO compound
At 14:06 two UH-1E Huey helicopters carrying Carey and Colonel Alfred M. Gray Jr. (commander of Regimental Landing Team 4 (RLT4)) landed at the DAO Compound. During their approach to the compound, Carey and Gray got a firsthand view of the PAVN's firepower as they shelled nearby Tan Son Nhut Airport with ground, rocket, and artillery fire. They quickly established an austere command post in preparation for the arrival of the Marine CH-53s and the ground security force.

The first wave of 12 CH-53s from HMH-462 loaded with BLT 2/4's command groups "Alpha" and "Bravo", and Company F and reinforced Company H arrived in the DAO Compound at 15:06 and the marines quickly moved to reinforce the perimeter defenses. As they approached the helicopters had taken rifle and M-79 grenade fire from ARVN troops but without causing any apparent damage. The second wave of 12 CH-53s from HMH-463 landed in the DAO Compound at 15:15 bringing in the rest of the BLT. A third wave of two CH-53s from HMH-463 and eight USAF CH-53Cs and two USAF HH-53s of the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron (all operating from USS Midway) arrived shortly afterwards.

"Alpha" command group, two rifle companies, and the 81 mm mortar platoon were deployed around the DAO headquarters building (the Alamo) and its adjacent landing zones. Companies E and F respectively occupied the northern and southern sections between the DAO headquarters and the DAO Annex. "Bravo" command group, consisting of two rifle companies and the 106 mm recoilless rifle platoon, assumed responsibility for security of the DAO Annex and its adjoining landing zones. Company G occupied the eastern section of the Annex, while Company H assumed control of the western section.

The HMH-462 CH-53s loaded with evacuees and left the compound, they unloaded the first evacuees delivered by Operation Frequent Wind at 15:40. At about 17:30 Carey ordered the extraction of 3rd Platoon, Company C of BLT 1/9, which had been landed at the DAO Compound on 25 April to assist the Marine Security Guard. Between 19:00 and 21:00 Carey transferred 3 platoons (130 men) of BLT 2/4 into the embassy compound to provide additional security and assistance for the embassy.

At 19:30 Carey directed that the remaining elements guarding the Annex be withdrawn to DAO headquarters (the Alamo) where the last of the evacuees would await their flight. Once completed, the new defensive perimeter encompassed only LZ 36 and the Alamo. By 20:30 the last evacuees had been loaded onto helicopters. With the evacuation of the landing control teams from the Annex and Alamo completed, Carey ordered the withdrawal of the ground security forces from the DAO Compound around 22:50. At 23:40 Marines destroyed the satellite terminal, the DAO Compound's last means of direct communication with the outside world. At 00:30 on 30 April, thermite grenades, having been previously placed in selected buildings, ignited as two CH-53s left the DAO parking lot carrying the last elements of BLT 2/4.

The embassy

On 25 April, 40 Marines from the 9th MAB on USS Hancock were flown in by Air America helicopters in civilian clothes to the DAO compound to augment the 18 Marine Security Guards assigned to defend the embassy; an additional six Marines were assigned to protect Ambassador Martin. Martin had remained optimistic that a negotiated settlement could be reached whereby the US would not have to pull out of South Vietnam and, in an effort to avert defeatism and panic he instructed Major James Kean, commanding officer of the Marine Security Guard Battalion and Ground Support Force Commander United States Embassy Compound, that he could not begin to remove the tamarind tree and other trees and shrubbery which prevented the use of the embassy parking lot as a helicopter landing zone.

By the morning of 29 April, it was estimated that approximately 10,000 people had gathered around the embassy, while some 2,500 evacuees were in the embassy and consular compounds. The crowds prevented the use of buses for transporting evacuees from the embassy to the DAO Compound for evacuation, and the embassy gates were closed to prevent the crowd from surging through. Eligible evacuees now had to make themselves known to the Marine guards or embassy staff manning the walls and were then lifted over the walls and into the embassy compound. Among those arriving at the embassy were Phan Quang Đán, former Deputy Prime Minister and Minister responsible for social welfare and refugee resettlement, and Lieutenant-General Đặng Văn Quang.

From 10:00 to 12:00 Kean and his Marines cut down the tamarind and other trees and moved vehicles to create an LZ in the embassy parking lot behind the chancery building. Two LZs were now available in the embassy compound, the rooftop for UH-1s and CH-46s and the new parking lot LZ for the heavier CH-53s. Air America UH-1s began ferrying evacuees from other smaller assembly points throughout the city and dropping them on the Embassy's rooftop LZ. At 15:00 the first CH-53s were sighted heading towards the DAO Compound at Tan Son Nhut. Kean contacted the Seventh Fleet to advise them of his airlift requirements; until that time the fleet believed that all evacuees had been bussed from the embassy to the DAO Compound and that only two helicopters would be required to evacuate Martin and the Marines from the embassy.

Inside the embassy, the evacuees had found whatever space was available inside the embassy compound and evacuees and some staff proceeded to take alcohol from the embassy's stores. From the billowing incinerator on the embassy roof floated intelligence documents and US currency, most charred; some not. An embassy official said that more than five million dollars were being burned.

At 17:00 the first CH-46 landed at the embassy. Between 19:00 and 21:00 on 29 April approximately 130 additional Marines from 2nd Battalion 4th Marines were lifted from the DAO Compound to reinforce perimeter security at the embassy, bringing the total number of Marines at the embassy to 175. The evacuation from the DAO Compound was completed by about 19:00 after which all helicopters would be routed to the embassy; Kean was informed that operations would cease at dark. Kean advised that the LZ would be well lit and had vehicles moved around the parking lot LZ with their engines running and headlights on to illuminate the LZ. At 21:30 a CH-53 pilot informed Kean that Admiral Whitmire, Commander of Task Force 76 had ordered that operations would cease at 23:00. Kean saw Martin to request that he contact the Oval Office to ensure that the airlift continued. Martin soon sent word back to Kean that sorties would continue to be flown. At the same time, General Carey met Admiral Whitmire to convince him to resume flights to the embassy despite pilot fatigue and poor visibility caused by darkness, fires and bad weather.

By 02:15 on 30 April one CH-46 and one CH-53 were landing at the embassy every 10 minutes. At this time, the embassy indicated that another 19 lifts would complete the evacuation. At that time Kean estimated that there were still some 850 non-American evacuees and 225 Americans (including the Marines), and Martin told Kean to do the best he could. At 03:00 Martin ordered Kean to move all the remaining evacuees into the parking lot LZ which was the Marines' final perimeter. At 03:27 President Gerald Ford ordered that no more than 19 additional lifts would be allowed to complete the evacuation. At 04:30 with the 19 lift limit already exceeded, Kean went to the rooftop LZ and spoke over a helicopter radio with Carey who advised that President Ford had ordered that the airlift be limited to US personnel. Kean was then ordered to withdraw his men into the chancery building and withdraw to the rooftop LZ for evacuation.

Kean returned to the ground floor of the chancery and ordered his men to withdraw into a large semicircle at the main entrance to the chancery. Most of the Marines were inside the chancery when the crowds outside the embassy broke through the gates into the compound. The Marines closed and bolted the chancery door, the elevators were locked by Seabees on the sixth floor and the Marines withdrew up the stairwells locking grill gates behind them. On the ground floor a water tanker was driven through the chancery door and the crowd began to surge up through the building toward the rooftop. The Marines on the rooftop had sealed the doors and were using Mace to discourage the crowd from trying to break through. Sporadic gunfire from around the embassy passed over the rooftop.

At 04:58 Martin boarded a USMC CH-46 Sea Knight, call-sign Lady Ace 09 of HMM-165 and was flown to USS Blue Ridge. When Lady Ace 09 transmitted "Tiger is out", those helicopter crews still flying thought the mission was complete, and delayed evacuating the Marines from the embassy rooftop. CH-46s evacuated the Battalion Landing Team by 07:00 and after an anxious wait a lone CH-46 Swift 2-2 of HMM-164 arrived to evacuate Kean and the ten remaining men of the Marine Security Guards, this last helicopter took off at 07:53 on 30 April and landed on USS Okinawa at 08:30.

At 11:30 PAVN tanks smashed through the gates of the Presidential Palace less than 1 km from the embassy and raised the flag of the Viet Cong over the building; the Vietnam War was over.

Chaos at sea
During the course of the operation an unknown number of RVNAF helicopters flew out of what remained of South Vietnam to the fleet. Around 12:00 five or six RVNAF UH-1Hs and one of the stolen ICCS UH-1Hs, were circling around Blue Ridge. The RVNAF pilots had been instructed after dropping off their passengers to ditch their helicopters and they would then be picked up by one of the ship's tenders. The pilot of the stolen ICCS Huey had been told to ditch off the port quarter of the ship, but seemed reluctant to do so, flying around the ship to the starboard bow he jumped from his helicopter at a height of 40 ft. His helicopter turned and hit the side of Blue Ridge before hitting the sea. The tail rotor sheared off and embedded itself in the engine of an Air America Bell 205 that was doing a hot refueling on the helipad at the rear of the ship. The Air America pilot shut down his helicopter and left it. Moments later a RVNAF UH-1H attempted to land on the helipad, locked rotors with the Air America Bell, almost pushing it overboard. A stolen Air America Bell 204 landed on Kirk, from where US Navy pilots flew it to Okinawa.

So many RVNAF helicopters landed on the TF76 ships that some 45 UH-1 Hueys and at least one CH-47 Chinook were pushed overboard to make room for more helicopters to land. Other helicopters dropped off their passengers and were then ditched into the sea by their pilots, close to the ships, their pilots bailing out at the last moment to be picked up by rescue boats.

At the same time as the aerial evacuation, tens of thousands of South Vietnamese fled towards TF-76 aboard junks, sampans, and small craft. MSC tugs pulled barges filled with people from Saigon Port out to TF-76. A flotilla of 26 Republic of Vietnam Navy and other vessels concentrated off Long Sơn Island southwest of Vũng Tàu with 30,000 sailors, their families, and other civilians on board. On the afternoon of 30 April, TF-76 moved away from the coast, picking up more refugees as they went. On 2 May, Task Force 76, carrying the Operation Frequent Wind evacuees and 44,000 seaborne evacuees and the RVN Navy group set sail for reception centers in the Philippines and Guam.

Results of the evacuation
During the fixed-wing evacuation 50,493 people (including 2,678 Vietnamese orphans) were evacuated from Tan Son Nhut. Marine pilots accumulated 1,054 flight hours and flew 682 sorties throughout Operation Frequent Wind. The evacuation of personnel from the DAO compound had lasted nine hours and involved over 50 Marine Corps and Air Force helicopters. In the helicopter evacuation a total of 395 Americans and 4,475 Vietnamese and third-country nationals were evacuated from the DAO compound and a further 978 U.S. and 1,120 Vietnamese and third-country nationals from the embassy,  giving a total of 1,373 Americans and 5,595 Vietnamese and third country nationals. In addition, Air America helicopters and RVNAF aircraft brought additional evacuees to the TF76 ships. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act.

Some 400 evacuees were left behind at the embassy including over 100 South Korean citizens; among them was Brigadier General Dai Yong Rhee, the intelligence chief at the South Korean Embassy in Saigon. The South Korean civilians were evacuated in 1976, while General Rhee and two other diplomats were held captive until April 1980. Forty-nine Americans, including dependents, were also left behind or chose to remain in Saigon. They were evacuated to Bangkok on 1 August 1976.

While the operation itself was a success, the images of the evacuation symbolized the wastefulness and ultimate futility of American involvement in Vietnam. President Ford later called it "a sad and tragic period in America's history" but argued that "you couldn't help but be very proud of those pilots and others who were conducting the evacuation". Nixon's pledge of Peace with Honor in Vietnam had become a humiliating defeat, which together with Watergate contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected America throughout the 1970s.

Casualties
For an operation of the size and complexity of Frequent Wind, casualties were relatively light. Marine corporals Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge, killed at the DAO compound, were the only members of US forces killed in action during the operation and they were the last US ground casualties in Vietnam. A Marine AH-1J SeaCobra ran out of fuel while searching for USS Okinawa and ditched at sea, the two crew members were rescued by a boat from USS Kirk. CH-46F Swift 1–4 of HMM-164 from USS Hancock flown by Captain William C. Nystul and First Lieutenant Michael J. Shea crashed into the sea on its approach to the ship after having flown a night sea and air rescue mission. The two enlisted crewmen survived, but the bodies of the pilots were not recovered. The cause of the crash was never determined.

Memorials
During the demolition of the embassy, the metal staircase leading from the rooftop to the helipad was removed and sent back to the United States, where it is now on display at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum.

The Cessna O-1 Bird Dog that Major Buang landed on USS Midway is now on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. The USS Midway is a museum ship in San Diego. Lady Ace 09, CH-46 serial number 154803, is now on display at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum in San Diego, California.

In popular culture
On the afternoon of 29 April 1975, Hubert van Es, a Saigon-based photographer for United Press International, took the iconic photo of Operation Frequent Wind of an Air America UH-1 on a rooftop picking up Vietnamese evacuees. The building in the photo was the Pittman Apartment building at 22 Gia Long Street (now 22 Lý Tự Trọng Street), which was used as a residence by various embassy, CIA, and USAID employees. It has often been misidentified as the US Embassy. Hubert van Es' photo is frequently used in political cartoons commenting on US foreign policy.

The second act of the stage musical Miss Saigon depicts events leading up to, and during Operation Frequent Wind, with the main protagonists (Chris and Kim) becoming separated as a result of the evacuation. Writer Claude-Michel Schönberg has acknowledged that the musical was inspired by pictures of the evacuation. Hugh van Es believed that Miss Saigon misappropriated his photo and considered legal action against the show but decided against it.

In The Simpsons at the end of Episode 16 of Season 6, "Bart vs. Australia", the Simpsons are evacuated from the American Embassy as angry Australians gather outside in a scene reminiscent of Hubert van Es's famous photo. Homer asks the helicopter pilot if they are being taken to an aircraft carrier and is told that "the closest vessel is the USS Walter Mondale. It's a laundry ship".

The 2007 PBS documentary Oh, Saigon by DAO Compound evacuee, film director Doan Hoang, tells the story of her family's escape and resettlement.

The operation was the subject of the 2014 PBS documentary Last Days in Vietnam.

Archival collections

 * Guide to the Khanh Van Thi Nguyen Narrative on Operation Frequent Wind. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

title: Operation Frequent Wind


text:
Sempringham

Sempringham is a village in the civil parish of Pointon and Sempringham, in the South Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England. It is situated 2 mi south from the A52 road, 12 mi east from Grantham and 8 mi north from Bourne. The hamlet is on the western edge of the Lincolnshire Fens, the closest village being Billingborough, 0.5 mi to the north on the B1177 road. Sempringham is noted as the home of Gilbert of Sempringham, the son of the lord of the manor. Gilbert is the only English Saint to have founded a monastic order, the Gilbertines. In 1921 the parish had a population of 112. On 1 April 1931 the parish was abolished to form "Pointon and Sempringham".

Sempringham consists of a church and a holy well, with other houses east from the church scattered along the B1177 between Pointon and Billingborough. The church stands at an altitude of about 52 ft, on land rising out of flat fenland. Pointon is the chief township of the civil parish, which includes Millthorpe and the fens of Pointon, Neslam and Aslackby, and a part of Hundred Fen at Gosberton Clough. Formerly, Birthorpe, now part of Billingborough, was included in the parish.

The parish church is a Grade I listed building, dedicated to Saint Andrew and dating from 1170. It was restored and the chancel rebuilt in 1868-69 by Edward Browning.

Sempringham is noted in the Domesday account as "Stepingeham" in the Aveland Hundred of Kesteven. In 1086 the manor consisted of 35 households, 8 villagers, 2 smallholders and 14 freemen, with 4.3 ploughlands, a meadow of 11 acre  and woodland of 7 acre. In 1066 Earl Morcar was Lord of the Manor, which was transferred to Jocelyn, son of Lambert in 1086, with Tenant-in-chief as Alfred of Lincoln.

In the early 17th century, Sempringham was a centre of the Puritan movement in Lincolnshire. Samuel Skelton, curate of Sempringham, sailed to Massachusetts Bay in 1628 with the first group of Puritan settlers, who landed in Salem. Another member of the Sempringham congregation at the time was the young Anne Dudley, later Anne Bradstreet, the colony's first published poet.

Sempringham Priory
Sempringham is the site of St Mary's Priory, a priory that was founded by Saint Gilbert (also known as Gilbert of Sempringham).

The priory was built by Gilbert of Sempringham, the only English Saint to have founded a monastic order. St Gilbert established the Gilbertine Order in 1131 by inducting ‘seven maidens’ who were his pupils when young. Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, helped in establishing the religious buildings to the north of the parish church. Gilbert died at Sempringham in 1189 and was buried in the priory church. He was canonized on 13 October 1202 for the many miracles noted at his tomb in the priory and Sempringham became a site of pilgrimage. It became the enforced residence of Gwenllian of Wales, the daughter of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales, and the granddaughter of Simon de Montfort. In 1283 Gwenllian had been captured by King Edward I's troops. Edward sent Gwenllian 'in her cradle', to be held there in security. In 1327, Edward III stayed at the Priory and granted Gwenllian a lifelong yearly pension of £20, necessary to pay her board and lodgings as she never became a nun, but was regarded as a 'paying guest' who was not permitted to leave. Gwenllian died at the Priory after being held there for 54 years, on 7 June 1337. A memorial stone has been erected in her honour.

At the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Sempringham Priory came to the Clintons, who demolished it and reused the stone to build their residence on the site. Today little remains of priory or residence.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sempringham


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The Brood (professional wrestling)

The Brood was a stable known for its time in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) during the Attitude Era from 1998 to 1999. The Brood was composed of Gangrel, Christian and Edge. Their gimmick was that of a clan of vampires, although they were often merely described by announcers as living a "gothic lifestyle".

Formation
All three of the original Brood members debuted in 1998. Edge made his debut in the WWF on the June 22 episode of Raw Is War as a loner who entered the ring through the crowd. Gangrel, known previously as the Vampire Warrior, made his WWF debut on the August 16 episode of Sunday Night Heat. He was given a new vampire gimmick based on the White Wolf roleplaying game Vampire: The Masquerade. Christian debuted on September 27 at In Your House: Breakdown 1998 where he distracted Edge, who subsequently lost his match to Owen Hart. The storyline introduced Christian as Edge's (kayfabe) brother. In reality, the two had been best friends since childhood.

Christian continued at the side of Gangrel to help him in his feud with Edge, and he won the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship in his first match in the WWF. Eventually, the duo convinced Edge to join them, forming the stable known as The Brood. On the October 26 episode of Raw during a match between Kane and Gangrel, it ended when Edge ran in and attacked Kane and called Christian and Gangrel together. In their first match as a group they defeated The Oddities on the November 1 episode of Heat. On the November 2 edition of Raw, The Brood faced Degeneration X (New Age Outlaws & X Pac) which ended in a No Contest. On the November 9 episode of Raw, Edge lost to Kane by disqualification when Kane attempted to set The Brood on fire. At Rock Bottom: In Your House, The Brood defeated J.O.B. Squad (Al Snow, Scorpio, and Bob Holly) in a six man tag team match.

Gimmick
They often entered arenas by rising through a ring of fire onto the (elevated) stage floor, with Gangrel carrying a chalice of "blood". Usually, Gangrel took a drink from the chalice (and sometimes he would pass it to Edge or Christian to drink from) and then spit it towards the crowd. One of the group's trademarks was giving their opponents a "blood bath", before or after a wrestling match. A "blood bath" consisted of the lights in the arena turning off, the flashing red lights of Gangrel's entrance coming on, and then the arena lights turning on again to reveal the target bathed in "blood". The trio had similar looking long blond hair. Gangrel and Christian both wore white shirts and dark pants, while Edge wore the long leather coat he wore before joining The Brood. According to Edge, he was uncomfortable with his prior gimmick, saying he lacked the confidence at the time to be a singles star, and welcomed his inclusion into The Brood.

Story with Ministry of Darkness
In February 1999, The Brood feuded with The Undertaker's Ministry of Darkness stable. The end of the feud saw The Brood merge with The Ministry. In March, after Undertaker's Hell in a Cell match with the Big Boss Man at WrestleMania XV, Edge, Christian, and Gangrel were lowered onto the cage from the ceiling. They lowered a noose into the cell, and the Undertaker proceeded to hang The Big Boss Man from the top of the cage. The Brood were often victims of beatings at the hands of the Ministry to both prove their loyalty to the Undertaker and to punish them. On one occasion, Christian was sentenced to a flogging at the hands of his fellow Brood members, and from the Undertaker himself after he was forced to reveal to Ken Shamrock the location of Stephanie McMahon when Shamrock held Christian in an ankle lock. When it came to the point Undertaker tried to force the Brood to sacrifice Christian alongside Shamrock, Edge and Gangrel refused, as they were more loyal to Christian than the Ministry. Instead attacking the Acolytes, the Brood split from the Undertaker's loyalty, thus becoming the only members of the Ministry to defect from the stable before the Corporate Ministry merger. This led to a feud with the Ministry of Darkness, specifically The Acolytes at Backlash: In Your House, The Acolytes and Mideon defeated The Brood in a six man tag team match. on the April 26 episode of Raw, The Brood (Gangrel & Edge) lost to Kane and X-Pac and afterwards Kane got a bloodbath.

Feud with Hardy Boyz and split
On the May 17 episode of Raw, The Brood took on Hardy Boyz and Michael Hayes with all battling outside of the ring and the match getting thrown out, sparking the beginning of the rivalry between Edge and Christian and The Hardy Boyz. On the May 24 episode of Raw, Edge and Gangrel lost a WWF Tag Team Championship match to Kane and X-Pac. On the June 13 episode of Sunday Night Heat, The Brood defeated The Hardy Boyz & Michael Hayes in a six-man tag team elimination match. On the July 11 episode of Sunday Night Heat, The Brood lost to The Corporate Ministry (Big Boss Man, Mideon and Viscera) when Gangrel turned on Edge. Gangrel subsequently tried to convince Christian to do the same, but Edge and Christian instead split from Gangrel, who in turn aligned himself with Matt and Jeff Hardy.

Legacy
On the October 30, 2018 episode of SmackDown Live, The New Day dressed up as The Brood during its Halloween episode during Big E's Trick or Street Fight against Cesaro.

During Edge's 2021 rivalry with Seth Rollins on SmackDown building up to SummerSlam, the latter suggested Edge would not prevail because he was unable to tap into the darkness with which he once surrounded himself. This prompted Edge to unleash his inner "Brood" persona, thus giving Rollins a bloodbath during the August 20, 2021 episode of SmackDown, and at that year's SummerSlam he would make this entrance to the Brood's music, including emerging from a ring of fire on the stage. Edge then defeated Rollins at the event, On the December 27, 2021 episode of Raw during a segment wherein The Miz and Maryse renewed their vows, they were also given a bloodbath from The Brood upon the interruption from Edge. Following his expulsion from The Judgment Day stable, in which Edge was a member of the Ministry of Darkness for one night, in June 2022, Edge returned in his Brood gimmick assisting the Mysterios in the following month's SummerSlam event.

The New Brood
The New Brood was formed after the Hardy Boyz dumped Hayes as their manager in August 1999, turned heel and became briefly associated with Gangrel. After winning a series of matches against the team of Edge and Christian, dubbed the "Terri Invitational Tournament", they won the services of Terri Runnels as their manager by winning the first ever tag team ladder match at No Mercy by defeating Edge and Christian. The fans gave both teams a standing ovation the next night on Raw Is War. On that same night, The Hardy Boyz announced that they were not the New Brood – they were The Hardy Boyz. They called a truce with Edge and Christian, and the quartet attacked Gangrel after he bragged that he got to use the "services" of Terri while Matt and Jeff were recovering from last night. Gangrel ended his association with both teams. The Hardys would continue to use the darker and more gothic-oriented appearance they utilized when allied with Gangrel throughout both their tag team and successive solo runs.

Reunions (2022, 2024)
On the May 27, 2022 episode of AEW Rampage, during a feud with The Hardys, Gangrel appeared with The Young Bucks during a tag team match with Jon Cruz and Taylor Rust. Following the match, Gangrel was attacked by The Young Bucks until The Hardys appeared.

In WWE, Edge once again presented his solo variation of The Brood's gimmick to fight against Finn Bálor inside Hell in a Cell at WrestleMania 39. According to Edge, he pushed for a reunion with Gangrel during the match; however, WWE declined the idea, stating that "nobody remembers (him)". They would reunite on May 26, 2024, at the Double or Nothing pay-per-view, where Edge (working under his real name Adam Copeland) wrestled Malakai Black in a barbed wire steel cage match. Copeland entered with 'The Brood' logo on the titantron, and during the match Gangrel entered through the canvas to assist Copeland, offsetting interference from The House of Black.

Championships and accomplishments

 * Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 * PWI ranked Jeff Hardy #76 of the 500 best wrestlers in 1999
 * PWI ranked Edge #83 of the 500 best wrestlers in 1999
 * PWI ranked Christian #90 of the 500 best wrestlers in 1999
 * PWI ranked Matt Hardy #100 of the 500 best wrestlers in 1999
 * PWI ranked Gangrel #102 of the 500 best wrestlers in 1999
 * World Wrestling Federation
 * WWF Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) – Christian

title: The Brood (professional wrestling)


text:
Reciprocal innervation

René Descartes (1596–1650) was one of the first to conceive a model of reciprocal innervation (in 1626) as the principle that provides for the control of agonist and antagonist muscles. Reciprocal innervation describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic pairs, with contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the other. For example, in the human arm, the triceps acts to extend the lower arm outward while the biceps acts to flex the lower arm inward. To reach optimum efficiency, contraction of opposing muscles must be inhibited while muscles with the desired action are excited. This reciprocal innervation occurs so that the contraction of a muscle results in the simultaneous relaxation of its corresponding antagonist.

A common example of reciprocal innervation, is the effect of the nociceptive (or nocifensive) reflex, or defensive response to pain, otherwise commonly known as the withdrawal reflex; a type of involuntary action of the body to remove the body part from the vicinity of an offending object by contracting the appropriate muscles (usually flexor muscles), while relaxing the extensor muscles, allowing smooth movement.

The concept of reciprocal innervation as applicable to the eye is also known as Sherrington's law (after Charles Scott Sherrington), wherein increased innervation to an extraocular muscle is accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in innervation to its specific antagonist, such as the medial rectus and the lateral rectus in the case of an eye looking to one side of the midline. When looking outward or laterally, the lateral rectus of one eye must contract via increased innervation, while its antagonist, the medial rectus of the same eye - shall relax. The converse would occur in the other eye, both eyes demonstrating the law of reciprocal innervation.

The significance of Descartes’ Law of Reciprocal Innervation has been additionally highlighted by recent research and applications of bioengineering concepts, such as optimal control and quantitative models of the motor impulses sent by the brain to control eye motion.

title: Reciprocal innervation


text:
Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise

Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise (RBBS) was an American band from Detroit, Michigan. The group was a collaboration between Robert Bradley and three other rock musicians.

History
The band was formed in 1994 when former members of the band Second Self met Bradley, a blind street performer. Bradley was born in Alabama, and gained musical experience by singing as a child at The Alabama School for the Blind. He had been in Detroit for several years by 1994, occasionally playing music on the streets, and playing on Saturdays in Detroit's Eastern Market, when guitarist Michael Nehra, his brother and bassist Andrew Nehra, and drummer Jeff Fowlkes overheard Bradley through an open window while rehearsing for a new project. After listening to Bradley sing for an hour, they invited him up to Nehra's studio, The White Room, to record several acoustic songs, and then asked him to become their vocalist.

On September 17, 1996, RBBS released their 11-track debut. The result was marked as "an effective collaboration between a blind blues musician and a sympathetic Detroit rock trio." The album was produced by Michael and Andrew Nehra, and engineered and mixed by Michael Nehra. It was followed by a live EP in 1999 and a follow-up studio album, Time to Discover, in 2000. This album featured guest vocals by Kid Rock. Allmusic reviewer Mark Morgenstein praised Time to Discover as "the first modern blues classic of the new millennium." The album was produced by both Michael and Andrew Nehra, and engineered and mixed by Michael Nehra. Their next album, 2002's New Ground, was noted as "earnest... exuding a hard-won optimism and working-man's head-down forbearance." It peaked at #38 on Billboard ' s Top Independent Albums chart. It was quickly followed by Still Lovin' You in 2003, also released on Vanguard Records and produced, engineered, and mixed by Cherokee Studios co-founder Bruce Robb.

The group's next release was What About That: New Year's Eve in Bloomington (2006), a two-disc live album documenting the singer's once-annual New Year's stops at the Bluebird nightclub in Bloomington, Indiana. Produced by filmmaker/photographer/journalist Wes Orshoski, it features 22 songs, including four acoustic tracks recorded at soundcheck, an acoustic version of "Once Upon a Time," then-new songs "New Orleans" and "What About the Man," and an a cappella rendition of "Will the Circle Be Unbroken". Five years after their previous studio record, Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise released Out of the Wilderness in 2008. The songs "Love You in the Daytime," "Cryin’ My Eyes Out," and "Everybody Wanna Party" are featured in the motion picture Love N’ Dancing, starring Amy Smart and Billy Zane. Bruce Robb returned as producer, engineer, and mixer.

Post-breakup
After the release of Out of the Wilderness, Robert Bradley moved back to Alabama, where he quit performing professionally, though he still sang and played in church services. He ran a vending machine supply business until a back injury made the work too difficult to continue. In 2016, he returned to Detroit and started busking again, which helped him reinvigorate his songwriting; as a result, he released a solo album, Down in the Bend, on Funky D Records in 2017. Jeff Fowlkes joined Too Slim and the Taildraggers in the mid-2010s. Mike and Andrew Nehra had founded audio equipment company Vintage King Engineering in 1993, and both continued their involvement with the company into the 2010s.

Film and TV work

 * Love N' Dancing (2009) - This romantic comedy starring Amy Smart and Billy Zane features six original new Robert Bradley songs, including Smart's grand finale dance number, "You're My Lady." The film and soundtrack were released in May 2009.
 * Playing for Change (2006) - Bradley appears as himself in this 2006 music documentary. The soundtrack was recorded live on the streets and in the subways of the three cities: Los Angeles, New Orleans and New York.
 * Lackawanna Blues (2005) - Bradley appears in this HBO movie starring S. Epatha Merkerson and Terrence Howard about Lackawanna, New York in 1956, at the dawn of integration. He performs on-screen, and has three songs featured on the soundtrack (including a duet with Macy Gray).

Discography

 * Albums
 * Blackwater Surprise (RCA, 1996)
 * Authorized Bootleg: Live (RCA, 1997) - limited edition CD featuring four live tracks
 * Live (RCA, 1999)
 * Time to Discover (RCA, 2000)
 * New Ground (Vanguard, 2002)
 * Still Lovin' You (Vanguard, 2003)
 * What About That: New Year's Eve in Bloomington (Kufala, 2006)
 * Out of the Wilderness (2008)

 * Compilation appearances
 * Believing in Detroit: A Tribute to Vladdy and Sergei (JFW, 1998) - a limited-edition compilation, original recording, featuring "Shake It Off"
 * KBCO Studio C Volume 12 Compilation Live In KBCO (KBCO, 2000) - recorded at a Boulder, Colorado radio studio, featuring "Baby", recorded live
 * KFOG Live from the Archives 8 (KFOG, 2001) - live, limited-edition compilation, featuring "Baby", recorded live in studio
 * Wish You a Merry Christmas (2001) - limited collector's edition, rare three-track CD single
 * Monitor This February/March 2002 (2002) - compilation featuring "Train"
 * It'll Come to You - The Songs of John Hiatt (Vanguard, 2003) - compilation featuring "It'll Come to You"
 * Relix Magazine Music Sampler July 2006 (Relix, 2006) - an import compilation featuring "Once Upon a Time"
 * Lackawanna Blues Soundtrack (HBO Films/Vanguard, 2004) - produced by Bruce Robb, featuring Robert Bradley's "Dark Road," "Something Inside Me," and "Down on Me", a duet with Macy Gray

title: Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise


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Inculturation

In Christianity, inculturation is the adaptation of Christian teachings and practices to cultures. This is a term that is generally used by Catholics and the Orthodox, whereas Protestants (such as Anglicans and Lutherans), especially associated with the World Council of Churches, prefer to use the term "contextual theology".

Background
The coexistence of Christianity and other cultures dates back to the apostolic age. Before his Ascension, Jesus instructed his disciples to spread his teachings to the ends of the earth (Mt 28,18; Mk 16,15), Saint Paul's speech to the Greeks at the Areopagus of Athens (Acts 17:22-33) could be considered as the first inculturation attempt. The speech was not well received by all, according to verse 32: "Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some mocked". Around the year 50, the apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, to decide whether to include Gentiles and inculturate Gentile culture. The Council confirmed that Gentiles could be accepted as Christians without first converting to Judaism.

Cultural conflicts continued until Christianity incorporated the Greco-Roman culture. Similar inculturation occurred when the Roman Empire ceased and the Germanic and Medieval cultures became dominant, a process taking centuries. Early practitioners of inculturation in the history of missions include St. Patrick in Ireland and Sts. Cyril and Methodius for the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe. After the schism of 1054, the Catholic Church was largely restricted to the Western parts of Europe. Attempts failed to return the sphere of influence to the cultures of the Middle East with the crusades and the Latin Empire in Constantinople (1204–1261). The Protestant Reformation generated a division in the Western Church. However, at the same time, Spanish and Portuguese discoveries of the Americas, Asia and Africa broadened contact with other cultures and civilizations.

Inculturation after the discoveries
After the discoveries of new territories and the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the inculturation movement became more systematic and was particularly associated with the Jesuits. The Catholic Church had to ponder how and to evaluate elements of ancient non-Christian cultures. Notable figures were, among others, the Jesuits José de Anchieta for the indigenous people of Brazil, Thomas Stephens in Goa, Roberto de Nobili in Southern India, and Alexandre de Rhodes in Vietnam.

China

The Jesuits Matteo Ricci (from Portugal), Adam Schall von Bell and others were missionaries appointed to introduce Christianity to China. They learned Chinese and more about the culture, seeking to find ways to help the people understand elements of the Gospel. Ricci and Schall were appointed by the Chinese Emperor in Peking to be court mathematicians, court astronomers and Mandarins. The first Catholic Church was built in Peking in 1650. The emperor granted freedom of religion to Catholics.

Ricci had adapted the Catholic faith to Chinese thinking, permitting, among other things, the cultic veneration of ancestors, which he described as cultural practice. The Holy See disagreed, deeming the veneration an act of worship and hence idolatry. It forbade any adaptation of Christianity in the so-called Chinese Rites controversy in 1692 and 1742. The Chinese emperor felt duped and refused to permit any alteration of existing Christian practices. The Church suffered setbacks in 1721 when the Kangxi Emperor outlawed Christian missions. According to Franzen, "The Vatican policy was the death of the missions in China."

Leo XIII
In the late nineteenth century, Pope Leo XIII fostered inter-cultural diversity, leading to the reintegration of the Armenian Catholic Church into the Catholic Church in 1879. He opposed efforts to Latinize the Eastern Rite Churches, saying that they constitute a most valuable ancient tradition and symbol of the divine unity of the Catholic Church. His 1894 encyclical Praeclara gratulationis praised the cultural and liturgical diversity of expressions of faith within the Church. In Orientalium Dignitas he repeated the need to preserve and cultivate diversity and declared different cultures to be a treasure. He opposed the latinization policies of the Vatican and decreed a number of measures that preserved the integrity and distinctiveness of other cultural expressions.

Benedict XV and Pius XI
While Pope Pius IX and Pope Pius X tended to be slightly more Latin oriented, Benedict XV was especially concerned with the development of missionary activities, which had suffered so much during World War I. He believed that inculturation was based on development of a domestic clergy in lands where Christianity was new. On November 20, 1919, he appealed to the Catholics of the world, to support missions and especially the development of local clergy, favouring a de-Europeanization of the Catholic missions. Pope Pius XI promoted local clergy in order to better recognize local cultures. He held a mission congress in Rome in 1922. Each year he personally consecrated newly appointed bishops from Asia, Africa and Latin America. At his death 240 dioceses and administrations were led by bishops who were natives of the countries where they served.

Pius XII
In 1939 Pope Pius XII, within weeks of his coronation, radically reverted the 250-year-old Vatican policy and permitted the veneration of dead family members in China. The December 8, 1939 issuance from the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, issued at the request of Pius XII, stated that  Chinese customs were no longer considered superstitious but rather an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives, and therefore permitted to Catholics. The Church established twenty new arch-dioceses, seventy-nine dioceses, and thirty-eight apostolic prefect over the next decade. But in 1949, the Communist revolution took over the country and repressed Christianity. The introduction of the Gospel means inculturation and not the destruction of local cultures. Pius emphasized this; he wrote in Summi Pontificatus that a deeper appreciation of various civilizations and their good qualities is necessary to the preaching of the Gospel of Christ. And in his 1944 speech to the directors of the Pontifical Missionary Society, he said: "'The herald of the Gospel and messenger of Christ is an apostle. His office does not demand that he transplant European civilization and culture, and no other, to foreign soil, there to take root and propagate itself. His task in dealing with these peoples, who sometimes boast of a very old and highly developed culture of their own, is to teach and form them so that they are ready to accept willingly and in a practical manner the principles of Christian life and morality; principles, I might add, that fit into any culture, provided it be good and sound, and which give that culture greater force in safeguarding human dignity and in gaining human happiness.'"Inculturation was addressed in his encyclicals Evangelii praecones and Fidei donum, issued on June 2, 1951 and April 21, 1957, respectively. Pius increased the local decision-making of Catholic missions, many of which became independent dioceses. Pius XII demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European culture. Continuing the line of his predecessors, Pius XII supported the establishment of local administration in Church affairs: in 1950, the hierarchy of Western Africa became independent; in 1951, Southern Africa; and in 1953, British Eastern Africa. Finland, Burma, and French Africa became independent dioceses in 1955.

Paul VI
In the Second Vatican Council, Paul VI promulgated the decree Ad gentes, teaching that inculturation imitates the "economy of Incarnation".

John Paul II
John Paul II addressed the issue in several encyclicals and public appearances. The term was used again by the encyclical Redemptoris Missio of John Paul II in 1990.

 * "The incarnation of the Gospel in native cultures and also the introduction of these cultures into the life of the Church."
 * "The intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures."
 * "It is now acknowledged that inculturation is a theological term which has been defined in Redemptoris Missio 52 as the on-going dialogue between faith and culture."

Benedict XVI
Benedict XVI, like his predecessor, placed a high regard on the dialogue between cultures and religions. Though he at one point attempted to move from the notion of "inculturation" to "inter-culturality", he would later state that the inculturation of the faith is necessary, as long as the specificity and the integrity of the "culture of faith" are not compromised.

Challenges and criticisms
Christian approaches of inculturation have not always been positively received by the context being inculturation. In Francis Xavier's missionary work in 16th-century Japan, Xavier asked the convert Anjiro for a Japanese word that would be the equivalent of Deus and was offered the word Dainichi. While first accepting it, Xavier later realized Anjiro's Dainichi derived from the central divinity of Shingon Buddhism. To avoid invoking the god of a competing religion, Xavier transliterated Deus into the phonetic equivalent Deusu. But this was phonetically similar to the term dai uso, meaning "great lie." Avoiding Xavier's difficulties, Matteo Ricci in China and Roberto de Nobili in India did not attempt the same phonetic transliteration in inculturation.

title: Inculturation


text:
Mike Del Grande

Michael Anthony Del Grande (born c. 1953) is a Canadian politician. Elected in 2003, he is a former Toronto city councillor, representing Scarborough—Agincourt. He announced in February 2014 that he would not run for re-election, and instead ran for election in 2014 to the Toronto Catholic District School Board.

Background
Mike Del Grande was born and raised in Toronto, Ontario in the Danforth neighbourhood. He is the eldest child of Italian immigrants. He is married and has three children most notably John Del Grande. His early education was completed at Holy Cross and St. Aloysius Catholic Schools and has attended Neil McNeil High School and East York Collegiate Institute.

Del Grande became a member of the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants when he graduated from the University of Toronto in 1979. Since that time, he also received a Bachelor of Commerce and Finance degree in 1976 and a Bachelor of Education degree in 2002, both from the University of Toronto, as well as a Master's degree in Theological Studies from St. Augustine in 2000.

City councillor
In 2003, Del Grande ran for city council and defeated longtime incumbent Sherene Shaw. He was an active participant in the "Keep the Chief" campaign in 2004, when Julian Fantino, then Toronto's Chief of Police, did not have his contract renewed by the Toronto Police Services Board.

In December 2004, during a two-hour tour of his ward with Scarborough Mirror reporter David Nickle, Del Grande used the opportunity to highlight the nature of his ward; namely the difficulties of establishing a deep sense of community and trust with local services when longtime residents of the ward are moving out and are replaced by a transient and newly landed immigrant population. Del Grande said, "What's happening here is a lot of the white people are moving out."

During his 2006 re-election campaign, Del Grande was charged criminally for assault following an incident in which he allegedly held captive a female volunteer working for rival candidate John Wong; Del Grande accused the woman of removing his campaign flyers from an apartment building and prevented her from leaving until police arrived to arrest her. The charge against Del Grande was withdrawn in February, 2007.

In January 2012, Del Grande opposed breakfast programs for poor children, stating that parents who have children should take responsibility for them. Pundit Michael Shapcott stated that this was a perfect example of "blaming the victim" for their adverse situation.

School trustee
1994 - 1998, Ward 18

Del Grande was first elected as a school trustee 1994. He was re-elected in 1997 and 2000. Throughout his nine years as a school trustee, he served as the chair of school board for one year, from 2000 to 2001.

In 1996, Del Grande was charged under Ontario labour law by the Ontario English Catholic Teachers' Association for "bargaining in bad faith" when it was alleged that he used the local media to manipulate public opinion at a time when the school board was in contract negotiations with its teachers. The charge was subsequently dropped by the association after he agreed to cease and desist.

2014–Present, Ward 7

Del Grande was later re-elected as a school trustee after his son John, who was trustee for almost eleven years opted not to seek re-election. In 2014, he became the chairman of the school board once more, until 2015.

On November 7, 2019, during discussions to update the TCDSB Code of Conduct to match the Ontario Human Rights Code and be more inclusive and protective of LGBTQ2S+ students by adding specific terms gender identity, gender expression, family status and marital status, Del Grande stood up to move an amendment asking for several other terms to added including bestiality, pedophilia and terms related to rape, cannibalism and vampirism to be added to the list. Facing severe backlash, including a public petition made with over 2,100 signatures as of December 2019, his proposed amendment was eventually ruled out of order and was withdrawn. Del Grande claimed he was trying to illustrate just how slippery a slope the original concept was. On an interview he said “My point was that we do not accept or view that which is not compatible with our faith ... Eight trustees deemed otherwise and I wanted to point out to them that if they want to use those same arguments … then what about all these other people that you say Jesus loves, etc? Why stop there, then? Why not continue your inclusion, if you will, on all these other terms?”. He has received calls from other trustees and members of the Toronto LGBTQ2S+ advocates to publicly apologize. Following formal public complaints, an investigation could be launched into Del Grande's actions and potential “sanctions” could be put into place if it's found that he breached the Board's code of conduct.

On March 21, 2024, Del Grande introduced a motion to fly the International Pro-Life flag at all TCDSB schools during the month of May. The motion also proposed that TCDSB staff and students should be encouraged to attend the annual National March for Life, as well as that staff and students who cannot attend the march must be taught about the Catholic Church's teachings on abortion while the march takes place. The motion was supported by the Campaign Life Coalition. It was defeated by a vote of 8 to 2.

School Board
Unofficial results as of October 27, 2014 11:51 PM

City Council
2010 City Clerk's Official Declaration of Results

2006 City Clerk's Official Declaration of Results

2003 City Clerk's Official Declaration of Results

title: Mike Del Grande


text:
Talk:Zymology

The Carlsberg scientists
"The Carlsberg scientists are generally acknowledged[by whom?] as having jump-started the entire field of molecular biology."

Should this really be here? It is unsourced and seems to be the opinion of an individual. — Preceding unsigned comment added by SpiralSource (talk • contribs) 12:23, 7 August 2021 (UTC)

Fermentation not caused by "a secretion of yeast cells"
According to WP:Zymase, "Buchner hypothesized that yeast cells secrete proteins into their environment in order to ferment sugars. It was later shown that fermentation occurs inside the yeast cells."

Shouldn't the claim that fermentation is caused by a secretion of yeast cells be amended? --- Henri Laurie (not logged in) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 102.22.196.236 (talk) 13:07, 6 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Zymology


text:
South Asian Free Trade Area

The South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is a 2004 agreement that created a free-trade area of 1.6 billion people in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka with the vision of increasing economic cooperation and integration.

One of the major goals was to reduce customs duties of all traded goods to zero by 2016. SAFTA required the developing countries in South Asia (India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) to bring their duties down to 20 percent in the first phase of the two-year period ending in 2007. In the final five-year phase ending in 2012, the 20-percent duty was reduced to zero in a series of annual cuts. The least developed countries in the region had an additional three years to reduce tariffs to zero. India and Pakistan ratified the treaty in 2009, whereas Afghanistan, as the eighth member state of the SAARC, ratified the SAFTA protocol on 4 May 2011.

SAPTA
The establishment of an Inter-Governmental Group (IGG) to formulate an agreement to establish a South Asian Preferential Trade Arrangement (SAPTA) by 1997 was approved at the sixth summit of the SAARC, held in Colombo in December 1993.

SAFTA
The agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006, with the desire of the member states of the SAARC (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) to promote and sustain mutual trade and economic cooperation within the SAARC region through the exchange of concessions.

The agreement was reached on 6 January 2004, at the 12th SAARC summit. The SAFTA agreement came into force on 1 January 2006, and is operational following the ratification of the agreement by the eight governments.

The basic principles underlying the SAFTA are as follows:

 * 1) overall reciprocity and mutuality of advantages so as to benefit equitably all Contracting States, taking into account their respective level of economic and industrial development, the pattern of their external trade, and trade and tariff policies and systems;
 * 2) negotiation of tariff reform step by step, improved and extended in successive stages through periodic reviews;
 * 3) recognition of the special needs of the Least Developed Contracting States and agreement on concrete preferential measures in their favour;
 * 4) inclusion of all products, manufactures and commodities in their raw, semi-processed and processed forms.

In 2011, Afghanistan joined the SAFTA.

The purpose of the SAFTA is to encourage and elevate common contract among the countries such as medium and long-term contracts. Contracts involving trade operated by states, supply and import assurance in respect of specific products etc. It involves agreement on tariff concession like national duties concession and non-tariff concession.

The main objective of the agreement is to promote competition in the area and to provide equitable benefits to the countries involved. It aims to benefit the people of the countries by bringing transparency and integrity among the nations. The SAFTA was also formed in order to increase the level of trade and economic cooperation among the SAARC nations by reducing the tariff and barriers and also to provide special preference to the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) among the SAARC nations. to establish a framework for further regional cooperation. SAARC also maintain free trade agreement among member nations.

Instruments
The following are the instruments involved in the SAFTA:

 * Trade liberalisation programme
 * Rules of origin
 * Institutional arrangements
 * Consultation
 * Safeguard measures
 * Any other instrument that may be agreed upon.

Trade liberalisation programme
According to the trade liberalisation programme, contracting countries must follow the tariff reduction schedule. There should be a fall to 20% tariff from the existing tariff by the non-Least Developing Countries and 30% reduction from the existing tariff by the Least Developing Countries. But trade liberalisation scheme is not to be applied for the sensitive list because this list is to be negotiated among the contracting countries and then to be traded. Sensitive list will involve common agreement among the contracting countries favouring the least developed contracting countries. The SAFTA Ministerial Council (SMC) will be participating to review the sensitive list in every four years with a view of reducing the list.

Sensitive list
A sensitive list is a list with every country which does not include tariff concession. Bangladesh has 1,233 products on the sensitive list for the Least Developing countries and 1,241 for the non-Least developing countries under the SAFTA. Bangladesh will reduce the sensitive list by 246 items for the least developed countries (LDCs) and 248 for the non-LDCs. India has 25 items on the sensitive list for the LDCs and 695 for the non-LDCs. Manmohan Singh, then Indian Prime Minister, announced in September in Dhaka that he will reduce the Sensitive List by 46. Bhutan has 150 items for both the LDCs and non-LDCs and has no plan of shortening its list. Nepal has 1,257 for the LDCs and 1,295 for the non-LDCs. Nepal has reduced its list by 259 from its previous list of 1295. Now it's 1036, said joint secretary at Ministry of Commerce and Supplies. The Maldives has 681 for all seven SAFTA nations. Pakistan had 1,169 in its sensitive list but has cut its sensitive list by 20% to 936. Sri Lanka has 1,042 and Afghanistan has 1,072 items on the negative list.

Misuse of the SAFTA
Traders use the SAFTA to reroute palm oil through Nepal into India. The Solvent Extractors’ Association of India (SEA), the apex body of the vegetable oil trade, has called upon the government to look for ways to end indirect sourcing of palm oil and soyoil from Nepal under cover of the South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA). This indirect route helps Malaysia reroute palm oil through Nepal to offset Indian government's move to stop imports of Malaysian palm oil after Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad's stand against the abrogation of special status to Kashmir. Palm oil accounts for nearly two-thirds of India's total edible oil imports. India buys palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia, while soyoil is imported mainly from Argentina and Brazil. The country sources sunflower oil from Ukraine.

title: South Asian Free Trade Area


text:
Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 435 U.S. 519 (1978), is a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that a court cannot impose rulemaking procedures on a federal government agency. The federal Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 and an agency's statutory mandate from Congress establish the maximum requirements for an agency's rulemaking (and adjudicative) process. An agency may grant additional procedural rights in the regulatory process (within constitutional and statutory limits). However, a reviewing court cannot "impose upon the agency its own notion of which procedures are 'best' or most likely to further some vague, undefined public good"; to do so would exceed the limits of judicial review of agency action.

Background
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit became the preeminent administrative law court in the United States. This was in large part due to the creation of new federal statutes such as the Clean Air Act that designated the D.C. Circuit as the center for challenges of regulations issued under said statutes. The D.C. Circuit subsequently expanded administrative law jurisprudence significantly, particularly jurisprudence on informal rulemaking that enhanced judicial review of agency procedures. Underlying most of this jurisprudence was a distrust of federal agencies that came to fruition during this time due to concerns about agency capture.

Aftermath
In its decision, the Supreme Court "could not have made plainer its view that the D.C. Circuit had overstepped its proper role and illegitimately used its judicial review function to advance its judges' own policy preferences." While the holding in Vermont Yankee was "certainly broad enough to suggest that courts should stick to the original understanding of the APA with respect to [the APA's requirements that agencies issue a notice of proposed rulemaking and a statement of basis and purpose]," courts have not applied it in that way.

The case was remanded for the circuit court to determine whether the Table S-3 rule was adequately supported by the administrative record. After the Nuclear Regulatory Commission revised the rule, the Natural Resources Defense Council filed for judicial review of the new regulation. That led to a second Supreme Court case, Baltimore Gas & Elec. Co. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc..

Vermont Yankee signaled a change in administrative law jurisprudence towards legal formalism and textualism. Despite the signaled change, the DC Circuit continued to read additional requirements into the APA for other steps in the rulemaking process. Professor Kenneth Davis wrote that "the Vermont Yankee opinion is largely one of those rare opinions in which the unanimous Supreme Court speaks with little or no authority." While courts have continued to embrace hybrid rulemaking to some degree, the Vermont Yankee opinion did tip the scales back to formalism.


text:
File change log

A file change log tracks changes to the namespace (files and directories) of a file system. Depending on the implementation, a file change log will record changes such as creates, links, unlinks (deletions), renamed files, data changes, and metadata changes (for example, ACLs and permissions). A file change log can be accessed as a file in the file system, or hidden and accessed only programmatically.

A file change log differs from a file system's journal.

Such a log can serve at least two purposes.

First, some applications must scan an entire file system to discover changes since their last scan. By reading a file change log, they can avoid this scan. Scanning applications include backup utilities, web crawler, search engines, and replication programs.

Second, the log can serve as an audit record for activity in a file system.

Symantec provides thisexplanation.

title: File change log


text:
User talk:Emilgouliev

Please don't post articles without any content—at a minimum write a couple sentences about the subject. A template linking to other articles and an external link are too little content or context for a start, which is why those were deleted. Postdlf 19:25, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Emilgouliev


text:
RBBS

RBBS may refer to:

 * Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise
 * Republic Bashkir Boarding School
 * RBBS-PC, a bulletin board system

title: RBBS


text:
UTV Ignition Games

Ignition Entertainment Limited, doing business as UTV Ignition Games, was a video game publisher of Indian media conglomerate UTV Software Communications. After The Walt Disney Company acquired UTV Software Communications as a wholly owned subsidiary for The Walt Disney Company India, UTV Ignition Games assets were liquidated.

History
UTV Ignition Games originated as a British video game publisher in September 2001 called Valecombe Limited and was located in Waltham Abbey. The company was renamed Ignition Entertainment on 30 March 2002. It was created from a selection of smaller developers and publishers, such as Archer Maclean's Awesome Studios (also known as Awesome Developments and Awesome Games). In 2007, the company was acquired by UTV Software Communications and opened two new branches: Ignition Tokyo in Japan and Ignition Florida in the United States.

Focused on the production of games for the PlayStation Portable and Nintendo DS, the company has produced a selection of budget titles for the Game Boy Advance: Pool Paradise from Awesome Studios as well as the Nintendo DS game Zoo Keeper. The company also published SNK's full lineup in Europe which includes the Metal Slug series, Samurai Shodown series as well as The King of Fighters series. In 2005, the company had several games planned, including Mercury, The King of Fighters Neowave and Pool Paradise International. The company had acquired the rights to the tactical role-playing game Spectral Force Genesis. The game was released later that year in North America and Europe.

On 20 April 2007, the company announced the completion of their acquisition by UTV Software Communications, a media conglomerate based in India. On 17 December 2007, they announced the opening of two development studios – Ignition Florida, and Ignition Tokyo. Both studios were said to be working on proprietary intellectual property for next-generation platforms. The Tokyo studio was composed of former members of Clover Studio and Capcom, worked on the game El Shaddai: Ascension of the Metatron. On 21 April 2009, Ignition announced that they would be publishing Muramasa: The Demon Blade for the Wii in North America. On 22 October, they announced they would be publishing Arc Rise Fantasia. Ignition Entertainment also published The King of Fighters XII in North America and Europe for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 during Summer 2009.

On 2 November 2010, sources at UTV confirmed the closing of the Florida-based studio. Staff were given opportunities to relocate to Texas or find other work. This announcement followed the widespread allegations of sexual harassment by former boss Paul Steed and mismanagement of company funds. The title they were producing, Reich, had completed 2 of 9 major levels' costing roughly US$23 million. Despite major setbacks, the London office continued on in a more limited scope. Leaked footage of Reich was uploaded to YouTube in November 2010 by an unknown source.

Cancelled

 * Reich
 * WarDevil / Project Kane

title: UTV Ignition Games


text:
Talk:Dale Mabry

from Vfd
On 21 Feb 2005, this article was nominated for deletion. The result was keep. See Votes for deletion/Dale Mabry for a record of the discussion.

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