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Chakma people

The Chakma people or Changhma people (Chakma:𑄌𑄋𑄴𑄟𑄳𑄦), are an ethnic group from the eastern-most regions of the Indian subcontinent and Western Myanmar. They are the largest ethnic group of the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of southeastern Bangladesh, and the largest in the Chakma Autonomous District Council of Mizoram, India. Significant Chakma populations are found in the northeast Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Assam.

The Chakma possess strong ethnic affinities to Tibeto-Burman groups in Northeast India. Because of a language shift in the past to consolidate power among the tribes, they adopted an Indo-Aryan language Chakma, which is closely related to the Chittagonian language, predominant near the areas in which they live. Most modern Chakma people practice Theravada Buddhism, due to 19th-century reforms and institutionalisation by Queen regnant Rani Kalindi. In Myanmar, Chakma people are known as Daingnet and are one of the 135 officially recognised ethnic groups there.

The Chakmas are divided into 31 clans or gozas. The community is headed by the Chakma Raja, whose status as a tribal head has been historically recognised by the government of British India and the government of Bangladesh.

The relationships between Chakmas and their neighbours are complex. On one hand, many Chakmas are well-integrated in mainstream middle-class Bangladeshi and Indian society and are particularly notable for their service as officers and ambassadors in Bangladesh's military and diplomatic corps. Chakma politicians have served as ministers in the national ministry of Bangladesh and the state ministry of Tripura. However, the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, of which the Chakma are the predominant ethnicity, has been described as genocidal, but since the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord, violence in the area has been greatly reduced.

Etymology
The name Chakma derives from the Sanskrit word śaktimāna, which means powerful and great. The name was given to the Chakmas by one of the Burmese kings during the Bagan Era. Burmese kings hired Chakmas as ministers, advisers, and translators of Buddhist Pali texts. As employees of the king, the Chakmas wielded power in the Burmese court that was disproportionate to their number. The Burmese people still refer to Chakmas as Sak (သက်) or Thet, which are shortened and corrupted forms of śaktimāna. The modern linguistic study suggests that the term "Chakma" originates from two constituent words: "Tsak" and "Ma". In this context, "Tsak" is believed to be derived from "Shak" which is associated with the Shakya clan, and "Ma" signifies "man" in Tibeto-Burmese languages. The Chakma script shows similarities to Brahmi script suggesting Chakmas may descend from the Shakya lineage.

History
Bijak of the Chakmas says that they migrated to Arakan from the ancient kingdom of Magadha in the present Bihar state of India. The Chakma believe they are part of Buddha's Sakya clan of the Himalayan tribes. They gradually migrated to Arakan and extended their territory to the nearby hills of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

The Arakanese people referred to the Chakmas as Saks, Theks, or Thaikhs. In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese king Min Bin was fighting a battle with the Burmese, the Sak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the Northern Arakan Mountains.

Diego de Astor created a map of Bengal, which was published as Descripção do Reino de Bengalla in the book Quarta decada da Asia (Fourth decade of Asia) by João de Barros in 1615. The map shows an area named Chacomas on the eastern bank of the Karnaphuli River in what is now Chittagong Bangladesh, suggesting that the Chakmas inhabited this area during the time.

The Arakan king Min Razagyi (1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as the highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter to Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote. After their defeat by the Arakanese, the Chakmas migrated to the present Chittagong Hill Tracts and founded their capital city Alekyangdong (present-day Alikadam). From Alekyangdong, they continued north and settled in present-day Rangunia, Raozan, and Fatikchari Upazilas of Chittagong District.

In 1666, the Mughal Governor of Bengal, Shaista Khan, defeated the Arakanese, conquered Chittagong, and renamed it Islamabad. Mughal rule, however, was confined to the plain areas of Chittagong early on, leaving the Chakmas largely unaffected. The Mughals eventually demanded tribute from the Chakmas after a trade dispute developed between the two groups.

In 1713, the conflict was resolved, and a stable relationship developed between the Chakmas and the Mughals; the latter never demanded complete subjugation of the former. The Mughals also rewarded the Chakma king Shukdev Roy; he established a new capital in his name in an area still known as Shukbilash. Ruins of the royal palace and other historic buildings still exist. Subsequently, the capital was shifted to Rajanagar, Ranirhat, Rangunia Upazila, Chittagong District.

The Mughals signed a treaty with Jallal Khan, Raja of the Chakma, in 1715. While the Mughals controlled significant amounts of yam and cotton crops in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), the Chakma's independence from the Mughals was recognised.

The East India Company
Three years after the Battle of Plassey, Mir Qasim, the new Nawab of Murshidabad, rewarded the East India Company with Chittagong, Burdwan and Midnapur. On 5 January 1761, company representative Harry Verelst took charge of Chittagong from Subedar Mohammad Reza Khan, but the Chakma king Sher Doulat Khan, who was practically independent though nominally paid tribute to the Mughals, did not accept the hegemony of the company and its demand for increased taxes.

Encroachments on the Chittagong Hill Tracts by the British led to a protracted war between the East India Company and the Chakmas from 1777 to 1787. The East India Company launched four offensives against the Chakmas in 1770, 1780, 1782 and 1785. In 1785, the Company started peace negotiations with the Chakma king Jan Baksh Khan, son of Sher Doulat Khan. In 1787 a peace treaty was signed in Calcutta. Raja Jan Baksh Khan pledged loyalty to the British in exchange for autonomy in administering Chakma territory.

The main provisions of the treaty between Governor-General Lord Cornwallis and the Chakma king were as follows:
 * The East India Company recognised Jan Baksh Khan as the Raja of the Chakmas
 * It was agreed that revenue collection was the responsibility of the Raja
 * The British government would preserve tribal autonomy and migration from the plains would be restricted
 * Jan Baksh Khan was bound by the treaty to maintain peace in his territory
 * British troops would remain in the Chakma territory, not to terrify the Chakmas but to protect the land from hostile tribes

In 1829, Halhed, then Commissioner of Chittagong, reaffirmed that: "The hill tribes were not British subjects but merely tributaries and we recognized no right on our part to interfere with their internal arrangements. The near neighborhood of a powerful and stable government naturally brought the chiefs by degree under control and every leading chief paid to the Chittagong collector a certain tribute or yearly gifts. These sums were at first fluctuating in amount but gradually were brought to a specific and fixed limit, eventually taking the shape not of tribute but of revenue to the state."

Jan Baksh Khan shifted his capital to a new place near present-day Rangunia, naming it Rajanagar. After Jan Baksh's death in 1800, his son Tabbar Khan became king but died shortly after. In 1802, Tabbar Khan's younger brother Jabbar Khan became king and ruled for ten years. After his death, his son Dharam Baksh Khan became king in 1812 and ruled until his death in 1832. Without any male heir, the government appointed Suklal Dewan as manager. Rani Kalindi, the widow of Dharam Baksh Khan, applied to the government to allow her to run state affairs. The government accepted her application and in 1844 issued an order to that effect. In 1846, the annual revenue payable to the company was reset to 11,803.00Rs.

After the great Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the British government assumed direct control of the administration of India, including the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which were not yet formally separated from Chittagong, from the East India Company. The territorial jurisdiction of the Chakma Raja, however, was fixed by a proclamation dated 6th Shraavana 1170M.S (1763 CE) by the company as "All the hills from the Feni River to the Sangoo and from Nizampur Road in Chittagong to the hills of Kooki Raja".

After Rani Kalindi's death in 1873, her grandson Harish Chandra became the Chakma Raja and was vested with the title Roy Bahadur.

British colonial rule
After the war with the British, the Chakmas became very weak militarily. The Lushai used to make frequent raids on British subjects because their hunting ground was converted to tea gardens by the British in Cachar, Noakhali, Comilla, and other neighbouring tracts under Rani Kalindi. They raided the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the neighbouring tracts in 1847, 1848, 1859, and 1860. As a consequence, with a view to paying attention to the areas experiencing repeated raids and to protecting the people from the aggression of the independent tribes living further east but primarily to occupy the Chakma land, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal recommended the removal of the hill tracts from the regulation district and the appointment of a superintendent over the tribes. Both of these recommendations were adopted by Act XXII in 1860, which came into effect on 18 August of that year. The Hill Tracts were separated from Chittagong district, a superintendent was appointed for the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and its headquarters were established at Chandraghona. The hills in his charge were henceforth known as the Hill Tracts of the Chittagong. For the next few years, attention focused on preserving peace on the frontier. In 1869, the headquarters were shifted to Rangamati. The official designation of the post of superintendent was changed to Deputy Commissioner and full control of matters about revenue and justice throughout the Hill Tracts was vested in his office.

The frontier situation put pressure on the Chakma chief to shift his capital, and in 1874, he did so, from Rajanagar to Rangamati. At that time, cotton was grown in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and was important to the British for their mills, so effective control of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was also important for them.

In 1881, the government divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into Chakma Circle, Bohmong Circle, and Mong Circle. Each circle was headed by a chief. Chakma circle was headed by a Chakma, Bohmong circle by a Bohmong and the Burmese circle by a Mong. The Chakma circle was centrally located and inhabited mainly by the Chakmas, the Bohmong circle was under the rule of a Bohmong chief of Arakanese extraction, and the Mong circle was also inhabited by Arakanese speaking clans with some Tripura immigrants and headed by another ruler of Arakanese extraction. The division occurred because the British government was not in favour of the power of the Chakma chief, who controlled the hill tribes. Further, the government was increasingly concerned about the political and administrative affairs of the tracts. Hence, they wished to lay the foundation of administration in a restricted manner with the following objectives:
 * To supervise the rule of the Chakma chief and curtail some of his powers
 * To protect British subjects from the Kuki (the name given to the Lushai by the British)
 * To preserve peace in the frontier areas so cotton could be grown and made available for British mills

After the creation of a separate district and the three circles, the Kuki (Lushai) threat to the Chittagong Hill Tracts and other adjoining areas did not stop. The Shendus made occasional raids in the Hill Tracts between 1865 and 1888 and killed many people, including Lt. Steward and his survey party. In 1872, 1,890 military offensives were launched simultaneously into Lushai Hills (Mizoram) from Chittagong district and Burma in collaboration with the governments of Bengal, Assam and Burma, and the whole of the CHT was brought under British control.

Autonomous police forces were created by the Hill Tract tribes in 1881. Tribals complained to Britain after the Hill Tracts experienced attempts at penetration by lowlander Bengali Muslims.

On 1 April 1900, the South and the North Lushai Hills (then a part of the Chittagong Hill Tracts) were merged to form the district of Assam Province with headquarters at Aizawl. The Lushai hills were now the Mizoram state of India.

Later, the British through the Deputy Commissioner took over absolute control of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (including the Chakma circle) after the implementation of the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual. The Chittagong Hill Tracts (Lushai Hills) were again designated an "Excluded Area" under the Government of India Act 1935.

Local tribes demanded an independent state for the Chittagong Hill Tract because Bengalis and the tribals did not share a religion, language, or ethnicity, and they asked for their own independent area in the 1930s when the Indian national movement was launched. During World War II, to retain Chakma loyalty in the face of Japanese advances, local British officials guaranteed the tribals that the Chittagong Hill Tracts would be split of separately in the event of Indian independence.

After independence
In British India, there was a measure of security and protection afforded to the non-Muslim and non-Bengali Chittagong Hill Tract Chakmas and other tribal people. Bengal and Assam did not govern the CHT during this period. Rather the CHT was a distinct administrative unit that enjoyed a large degree of self-rule.

Despite the CHT being 97.2–98.5% non-Muslim, it was given to Pakistan by the Boundary Commission Chairman Sir Cyril Radcliffe in 1947 upon independence. Native Chakmas made up most of the officials except for some British during British India rule. Pakistan received the CHT from Radcliffe after the issue of Punjab districts and the CHT revised boundaries were pushed onto him by Lord Mountbatten on 17 August 1947. The decision by Radcliffe to draw this boundary paved the way for future war, violence, and conflict. The 1956 Pakistani Constitution, which designated the CHT as an "excluded area," kept things as they were. It was the fact that the CHT was governed under a different set of rules since 1900 in order to prevent mainlanders from acquiring ownership of the tribal land. The CHT underwent a significant change when the Pakistani armed forces overthrew the government in 1958 and renamed the protected area "Tribal Area." Finally, the 1962 Constitution was amended in 1963 to repeal the earlier designation, making the CHT accessible to all non-tribals. As a result, Chakmas' jhum cultivation was hampered, and numerous unauthorised settlers invaded this territory. The Bangladeshi Constitution does not refer to any group (inclusive of Bengalis) as indigenous.

As in India's Tripura State, the Chakmas lived in Bangladesh before it gained its independence. Recent migrations of ethnic Bengalis into traditionally Chakma regions of Bangladesh have raised tensions in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Successive governments have dealt forcefully with Chakma uprisings and finally ended the conflict with the 1997 peace treaty. This force and the construction of Kaptai Dam by the then-Pakistan government in Chakma areas which submerged cultivable lands and displaced thousands resulted in the migration during 1964–1969 of a large population of Chakmas into Diyun, Arunachal Pradesh.

Many Buddhist Chakmas migrated from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to India. Projects for infrastructure development negatively impacted CHT tribals starting in the 1950s. These included the Kaptai Dam hydro-electric project, built-in 1959–1963 by the Pakistan government, with the assistance of the United States Agency for International Development, to provide electricity for much of East Pakistan. The project flooded forty per cent of the farmland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and displaced nearly 100,000 Chakmas. About sixty per cent were resettled, and forty per cent fled to India. Chakmas made up 90% of the 10,000 people whose 54,000 acres of farmland were flooded in 1962 by the Karnafuli power plant and Kaptai Dam. Inept relocation and insufficient compensation were offered to the Chakmas. India used NEFA as a resettlement area for Chakma refugees.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts Chakma population was estimated at 250,000 in 1964. The CHT was described as being hilly, forested, a verdant green landscape filled with fountains of water. A deputy commissioner administered the Chittagong Hill Tracts Division under Pakistani rule.

Manabendra Narayan Larma requested autonomy in 1970. Tripura state had to deal with the issue of Chakma families. Agriculture, employment, and education are dominated by Chakmas compared to Arunachal natives because they are more skilled and have a higher literacy rate. The issue of returning Chakma refugees from India to Bangladesh was raised in 1995. The hill tribes' conflict with Bangladesh caused the exodus of 50,000 Chakmas to India from the Chittagong Hill Tracts. A 1992 deal between India and Bangladesh arranged that Bangladesh would take them back. A March 1997 agreement between Chakma leaders and Bangladesh provided for the repatriation to Bangladesh of Chakma refugees in Tripura. Both East Pakistan's partition and Bangladesh's independence caused an influx into India of Chakma refugees. In the 1960s, hundreds of Muslim families from other parts of East Pakistan were resettled in the Matamuhuri Valley region of Alikadam, Feni Valley regions of Belchari and Tulanchari, and the regions of Lama, Bandarban, and Ramgarh.

Tridev Roy continued to collaborate with Pakistani forces and declined to join the freedom movement of Bangladesh. Pakistani president Yahya Khan assigned a south-east Asian diplomatic post to Tridiv Roy during the war as a reward for his collaboration. Roy chose the Pakistani side, fearing that an independent Bangladesh would likely have democratic rule and he might lose his feudal interests. Pakistan retained his support and allegiance, Roy agreed on 25 March, and in exchange British artillery would refrain from shelling the CHT capital, Rangamati. Roy believed Bangladesh would not award autonomy to CHT and the Chakmas and earned the enmity of the Awami League by rejecting Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's offer to stand as the Awami League candidate. Autonomy was refused to the CHT tribals. CHT hills people were enrolled as Mujahids and Razakars by the Pakistan army during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.

The Bangladesh government provided financial support for thousands of Bengalis to settle in the tracts. By 1981, a third of the population of the tracts were Bengali migrants. Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti (PCJSS; Chittagong Hill Tracts Peoples Solidarity Association), which was founded by Chakmas, demanded a halt to Bengali settlement, settlers returning lands to CHT natives, and autonomy. On 7 January 1973, Shanti Bahini (Peace Force) was founded as the military army of PCJSS. In an effort to win independence for the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the Shanti Bahini launched guerrilla attacks against the government. Jumma guerrillas made up of Shanti Bahini forces. The party heads of PCJSS are mostly Chakma because of their 59% literacy rate, which is more than other CHT tribes, so they control the PCJSS.

During the war, most of the Pahadis remained passive, although the Mukti Bahini enrolled some. In 1971, the Pakistan army enrolled CHT hill men. After the war, Tridev Roy maintained his allegiance to Pakistan, which he supported in the war. In 1970, he served as independent in the Parliament of Pakistan while serving as Raja of the Chakma. The Awami League candidate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman lost the election to Roy. Roy was in Southeast Asia when Bangladesh came under Indian army control in December 1971. Bhutto assigned the position of Minorities Affairs Minister to Roy and he helped lobby the United Nations (UN) for Pakistan after the war. The post of ambassador and tourism was also awarded to Roy. Roy represented Pakistan when it protested at the UN over Bangladesh. Pakistan retained the allegiance of only Nurul Amin and Tridiv Roy among their East Pakistan MPs. Roy refused to join Bangladesh because the hill tracts were not granted autonomy and stayed on Pakistan's side despite Mujib trying to urge Tridiv to quit Pakistan.

Refuge in India
Meghalaya and Tripura were destinations of Buddhist Chakma refugees fleeing from the war started by plains-dwelling Muslim Bangladeshis settling the CHT, as well as the government of Bangladesh implementing a military police force to expel Chittagong Hill Tracts natives. "The Muslim World" complained about alleged immigration from Bangladesh to Arakan by Buddhists of Magh and Chakma background.

In 1974, the Garo people were stripped of their property by the XLVI Vested and Non-President Property Act by Bangladesh and affected by the 1964 Enemy Property Ordinance. Lands in CHT were taken by Bengali colonists; the hill peoples of the CHT were not afforded any cultural or ethnic recognition, and sympathy from successive Bangladesh governments, despite culture and ethnicity being used as an argument against Pakistan by Bengalis during the war. A 1997 peace agreement ended the over the twenty-year-long war on autonomy between Bangladesh and the Chittagong Hill Tracts Jumma inhabitants. The Chittagong Hill Tracts showed that only Bengalis were to be beneficiaries of Bengali nationalism and its "liberalism", which was aimed against the hegemony of Pakistan. Even the "pro-minority" and participant of the CHT peace agreement, the Awami League, refused to grant the status of Adibashi, declaring that according to the constitution, Bengali is the nationality and Bangladeshi is citizenship and refused to acknowledge that Bangladesh had indigenous people. Bengali nationalism is part of the BNP's ideology. Jumma nationalism was spawned from Bengali nationalism due to the hegemony exerted by the Bengalis.

The rights of CHT natives were ignored when the Rangmati Kaptai Dam was built. Because the CHT Jummas were apathetic towards Bangladeshi independence, the Bengali majority regarded them as disloyal. No autonomy was awarded to the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the Bangladesh Constitution of 1972. The Chakma conflict is both a religious and ethnic problem in Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts saw tribal Chakma leave the area due to religious and ethnic strife caused by Bangladesh's Islamisation policy. The Chittagong Hill Tracts was colonised by Northern Burmese and Bangladeshi Muslims. The label "genocidal" has been used to describe actions by the Bangladeshi government upon the non-Islamic Chittagong Hill Tracts Jumma natives.

In February 1972, the Prime Ministers of India and Bangladesh issued a joint statement by virtue of which the government of India decided to confer citizenship on the Chakmas under Section 5(1)(a) of the Citizenship Act, 1955 but the state of Arunachal Pradesh had reservations. Chakmas were thus allowed to be rehabilitated. The Election Commission of India framed guidelines to enable Chakmas to have the right to vote by having their names enrolled in the electoral rolls of the constituency where they have been settled.

Indian representation
The Chakmas now have representation in the Mizoram Legislative Assembly, Tripura Legislative Assembly and Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council. The only seat of political power and identity is the Chakma Autonomous District Council in India, the legitimacy of which is questioned by the Mizo people. There are another 80,000 Chakmas in Rakhine state, Myanmar, who are known as Daingnet people.

In September 2015, the Supreme Court of India passed a judgment directing the government of India and of Arunachal Pradesh to grant Indian citizenship rights to all of the Chakmas, holding that they cannot be discriminated against any other Indian.

Culture
The Chakmas are people with their own culture,folklore,literature and traditions.

Traditional attire
Traditional clothing is a significant part of almost every culture. Chakma women wear Pinon hadi. The pinon (𑄛𑄨𑄚𑄮𑄚𑄴) and the hadi (𑄦𑄘𑄨) are colourfully handwoven with various designs. The design is first embroidered on a piece of cloth known as Alam. Chakma men wear Siluhm (𑄥𑄨𑄣𑄪𑄟𑄴) & Dudi(𑄘𑄪𑄘𑄨) as their traditional outfit.

Jhum
In the past, most Chakmas practised slash-and-burn cultivation (jhum) as their main occupation. However, many Chakmas today have adopted plow cultivation and some have taken up poultry farming.

Traditional house
Traditional temporary homes of the Chakma are called mawnógawr. A mawnógawr is constructed with bamboo and thatch, and supported on wooden logs.

Chakma cuisine
The Chakma tend to mainly cook over an open fire. They eat many types of food (including meats) with rice being a staple, but they usually avoid beef.

Festival
Chakmas celebrate various Buddhist festivals. The most important is Buddha Purnima or internationally known as Vesak. It is also known as Buddha Birthday worldwide. This is the anniversary of three important events in Buddha's life—his birth, his attainment of enlightenment, and his death. It is observed on the full moon day of the month of Vaisakha (usually in May).

On this and other festival days, Chakmas put on their best clothes and visit the temple. There, they offer flowers to the image of Buddha, light candles, and listen to sermons from the priests. Alms (offerings) are given to the poor, and feasts are held for the priests.

The three-day festival known as Biju/Bizu or Chakma New Year, celebrated with much enthusiasm. This Chakma New Year followed the same Indian calendar that shares the same date of the New Year. This Biju is also celebrated on the same date by various Buddhist countries such as Myanmar Sangrai, Thailand Songkran, Cambodia, Laos, India, Bangladesh, Sinhalese New Year and a few other Asian countries. Houses are decorated with flowers, young children pay special attention to the elderly to win their blessings, visiting Buddhist monasteries, and preparing festive and traditional Chakma dishes for guests are some of the important things.

Bizu
Bizu is the most important socio-religious festival of the Chakma. Bizu is a Buddhist festival and public holiday in Tripura. This festival gave birth to the Bizu dance. The festival lasts for three days and begins one day before the last day of the month of Chaitra, falling in the month of April. The first day is known as Phool Bizu. On this day, household items, clothes are cleaned and washed, food items are collected to give the house a new look with the veil of different flowers.

The second day is known as Mhul Bizu. This day starts with the bath in the river. People wear new clothes and make rounds of the village. Women wear pinon and hadi while men wear silum and dudi. They also enjoy specially made vegetable curry known as "Paa Zawn Tawn", different homemade sweets like Bawraa-pyi-de, Tsaan-yei pyi-de, Khaw Ga Pyi-de, and Beng Pyi-de; and take part in different traditional sports. The day ends with the Bizu dance.

The last day, which is known as Gawz che Pawz che dyin involves the performances of different socio-religious activities. In the context of its nature, some say that Bizu is a festival, which revolves around agricultural activities because it is celebrated in mid-April when the earth is just drenched with the first rain and the zhum sowing is taken up. And it is believed that with the objective of getting a rich harvest, worship of the earth was arranged, which later on took the form of a festival. However, of late it has lost its agricultural character.

Buddha Purnima
It is celebrated on the full moon day in the month of Vaisakha. It encompasses the birth, enlightenment (nirvāna), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Buddha. On the day of the worship, devotees go to the monastery with Shíyong or Qi Yawng (offerings of rice, vegetable and other fruits and confectioneries). The Buddhist monks known as Bhante lead the devotees for the chanting of verses composed in Pali in praise of the holy triple gem: the Buddha, the Dharma (his teachings), and the Sangha (his disciples). Apart from this, other practices such as lighting thousands of lamps and releasing Phanuch Batti (an auspicious lamp made of paper in the form of a balloon) are also done as and when possible.

Food
Bamboo shoots are a traditional dish for the Chakma people, and they call it Bhaz-chuu-ryì. Shrimp paste and fish paste are their traditional ingredients for cooking, these are called sidol.

The staple food of the Chakmas is rice, supplemented by millet, corn (maize), vegetables, and mustard. The vegetables include yams, pumpkins, melons, and cucumbers. Vegetables and fruit gathered from the forest may be added to the diet. Fish, poultry, and meat are eaten, despite the fact that many Buddhists are vegetarians.

Some typical Chakma dishes include fish, vegetables, and spices stuffed into a length of bamboo and cooked in a low fire; foods wrapped in banana leaves and placed beside a fire; and eggs that are aged until they get fermented.

Sports and games
Gudu hara, or Ha-do-do, also known as kabaddi, is a game played throughout the Chakma region. Two teams stand on either side of a central line. They take turns sending a player into opposing territory to touch as many people as they can during the space of one breath, while at the same time saying "Ha-do-do." If the player runs out of breath or is caught by their opponents, they are out. On the other hand, if the player successfully returns to their own territory, the players they have tagged must leave the game.

Gyilhei hara is a game that can be played between two teams or two individuals. A special type of seed called gyi-lhei is used to play the game. Gyilhei seeds are found and grown in wild forests of hills and are similar to bean seeds but bigger in size. When the time comes, the large beans dry out and the seeds known as gyilhei are ready to be collected for use in the game.

Other pastimes include Nadeng Hara, played with a spinning top; and various wrestling games. Pawti hara is a complex traditional game that is played by two teams. Due to how sophisticated its rules are, it is becoming less and less common.

Religion
The vast majority of the Chakma are followers of Theravada Buddhism, a religion that they have practised for centuries. A minority of Chakmas practice Christianity.

According to a 2011 census report, there are 93,411 people who follow Buddhism in Mizoram, India. 7.3% are Christians, or followers of other religious beliefs.

Language
The Chakmas originally spoke a language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family, which belongs to the Jingpo-Luish tree. The language was very similar to present-day Kachin and Burmese languages. But at present days, their language shares many common words or loan words from the Hindi, Pali, Sanskrit, English, Assamese and Bengali languages, due to long years of influence of Bengal sultanate. Many linguists now consider the modern Chakma language (known as Changma Bhaz or Changma Hawdha) part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan language group. Changma Bhaz is written in its own script, the Chakma script, also known as Awzhapath/Awjhapat. Chakma is written in an alphabet that allows for its cursive form, and is almost identical to the Khmer and the Lanna (Chiangmai) characters, which was formerly in use in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and southern parts of Burma.

Genetics
The Chakma are strongly related to Tibeto-Burman groups in Northeast India, Southeast Asia and East Asia. According to a genetic study on the population of Bangladesh in 2019, Chakma carried 52.59% Y Haplogroup L, 13.79% haplogroup Q, 10.34% Haplogroup J, 6.03% haplogroup I, 4.31% Haplogroup R1a, 4.31% Haplogroup H, 3.45% Haplogroup G, 1.72% Haplogroup E and 1.72% Haplogroup N.

Bangladeshi

 * Amit Chakma, vice-chancellor of the University of Western Australia, Canadian-Bangladeshi
 * Champa Chakma, former Bangladeshi cricketer
 * Charu Bikash Chakma, Bangladeshi politician
 * Kalparanjan Chakma, Bangladeshi politician
 * Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Bangladeshi artist
 * Ritu Porna Chakma, Bangladeshi footballer
 * Monika Chakma, Bangladeshi footballer
 * Rupna Chakma, Bangladeshi footballer
 * Chandra Kalindi Roy Henriksen, American-Bangladeshi scholar
 * Manabendra Narayan Larma, Bangladeshi politician
 * Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma, Bangladeshi politician
 * Prajnananda Mahathera, Bangladeshi Buddhist monk
 * Benita Roy, Bangladeshi aristocrat, litterateur, diplomat and minister
 * Devasish Roy, Bangladeshi politician and lawyer
 * Suro Krishna Chakma, Bangladeshi professional boxer

Indian

 * Buddha Dhan Chakma, Indian politician
 * Kristo Mohan Chakma, Indian politician
 * Nihar Kanti Chakma, Indian politician,
 * Nirupam Chakma, Indian politician, (member, National commission of Schedule Tribe)
 * Rasik Mohan Chakma, Indian politician
 * Amit Kumar Chakma, Indian politician
 * Mohan Lal Chakma, Indian politician
 * Sambhu Lal Chakma, Indian singer and politician
 * Santana Chakma, Indian politician, minister in government of Tripura
 * Prova Chakma, Indian politician

Pakistani

 * Tridev Roy, Pakistani politician, diplomat, writer and 50th raja of Chakma Circle

title: Chakma people


text:
Scream of the Wolf

Scream of the Wolf is a 1974 American made-for-television horror-thriller film starring Peter Graves and Clint Walker and directed by Dan Curtis. It originally aired as the ABC Movie of the Week on January 16, 1974.

Plot
Following a series of brutal murders committed by what appears to be an animal, Sheriff Vernon Bell asks local adventure writer and former hunter John Weatherby to investigate. Weatherby agrees and finds that the footprints left at the murder site appear to be that of a wolf, but that changed into a bipedal animal while leaving, and the animal has left no scent. Weatherby asks his friend, reclusive big game hunter Byron Douglas, for help, but he declines, stating that he feels the atmosphere of fear the killings create has made the townsfolk "alive" for the first time. Byron and Weatherby had previously gone on a hunt where they battled a vicious wolf that had bitten Byron.

Weatherby's girlfriend Sandy is attacked in her home by the animal. She survives, but begins to believe the murders were committed by a werewolf, a belief that spreads to the rest of the townsfolk. Sandy also believes that Byron could be the killer, as does Sheriff Bell, who posts a police officer to stakeout Byron's house. The officer is mauled to death, and his body is found in a clearing far away from the house. After the town is put into a state of national emergency, Weatherby demands Byron's help once more, and he reluctantly agrees. The two hunt for the animal in the woods, splitting up. Byron is seemingly killed by the animal, which John tracks to Byron's house. John is held at gunpoint by Byron, who faked his own death by killing his assistant Grant.

Byron reveals that he was the killer, having faked the tracks with pieces of the animals he has killed over the years and covered his scent, and used an attack dog to kill the victims. Byron wants to hunt Weatherby and help him regain his killer instincts, and sends him out into the woods with a five-minute head start to find ammo for his rifle. Weatherby succeeds but is attacked by the dog, which he shoots. Byron then attacks him, only for Weatherby to reveal he had hidden a pistol, having known Byron was the killer and baited him into revealing himself. Byron walks away, only to be shot and wounded by Weatherby. Enraged, Byron rushes after him, only to be shot again and killed. Weatherby stands over his friend's body, contemplating what he has done, and then walks off into the night.

Cast

 * Peter Graves - John Weatherby
 * Clint Walker - Byron Douglas
 * Jo Ann Pflug - Sandy Miller
 * Philip Carey - Sheriff Vernon Bell
 * Don Megowan - Grant
 * Dean Smith as Lake

Release
The film originally aired on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on January 16, 1974.

The film is available on DVD via several public domain companies.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Scream of the Wolf


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Henry Cole (inventor)

Sir Henry Cole FRSA (15 July 1808 – 15 April 1882) was a British civil servant and inventor who facilitated many innovations in commerce and education in the 19th century in the United Kingdom. Cole is credited with devising the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time, introducing the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843.

Biography
Henry Cole was born in Bath the son of Captain Henry Robert Cole, then of the 1st Dragoon Guards, and his wife Lætitia Dormer. He was sent in 1817 to Christ's Hospital, and upon leaving school in 1823 became clerk to Francis Palgrave, and then a sub-commissioner under the Record Commission. Cole was employed in transcribing records, but found time to study watercolour painting under David Cox, and exhibited sketches at the Royal Academy. He lived with his father in a house belonging to the novelist Thomas Love Peacock, who retained two rooms in it, and became a friend of young Cole. Cole drew for him, helped him in writing critiques of musical performances, and was introduced by him to John Stuart Mill, Charles Buller, and George Grote. The friends used to meet at Grote's house in Threadneedle Street for discussions twice a week. A new Record Commission was issued in 1831, and in 1833 Cole was appointed a sub-commissioner. The secretary, Charles Purton Cooper, quarrelled with the commission, and with Cole, who applied to Charles Buller for protection. A committee of the House of Commons was appointed upon Buller's motion in 1836, which reported against the existing system, and the commission lapsed on the death of William IV on 20 June 1837. Cole wrote many articles in support of Buller. He was appointed by Lord Langdale, who, as Master of the Rolls, administered the affairs of the commission, to take charge of the records of the exchequer of pleas.

The record office was constituted in 1838 under the Public Record Office Act 1838, and Cole became one of the four senior assistant-keepers. He ranged a large mass of records in the Carlton House Riding School, where he was placed for the purpose 2 November 1841. His reports upon the unsuitability of this place contributed to bring about the erection of the building in Fetter Lane (begun in 1851). Cole's duties at the record office did not absorb his whole energy. In 1838, with the leave of his superiors, he became secretary to a committee for promoting postal reform. He edited their organ, the Post Circular, suggested by himself, of which the first number appeared 14 March 1838. He got up petitions and meetings with such energy that Cobden offered to him in 1839 the secretaryship of the Anti-Cornlaw League. Parliament granted power to carry out the new postal scheme in August 1839, and the treasury offered premiums for the best proposals as to stamps. Cole gained one of the premiums; he attended the treasury to discuss details, and was employed there till the beginning of 1842 in working out the scheme.

From 1837 to 1840, he worked as an assistant to Rowland Hill and played a key role in the introduction of the Penny Post. He is sometimes credited with the design of the world's first postage stamp, the Penny Black.

In 1843, Cole introduced the world's first commercial Christmas card, commissioning artist John Callcott Horsley to make the artwork.

Felix Summerly pseudonym
Cole was personally interested in industrial design, and under the pseudonym Felix Summerly designed a number of items which went into production, including a prize-winning teapot manufactured by Minton. As Felix Summerly, he also wrote a series of children's books, including The home treasury (1843–1855); A hand-book for the architecture, sculpture, tombs, and decorations of Westminster Abbey (1859); Beauty and the beast: an entirely new edition (1843); An Alphabet of Quadrupeds (1844); and The pleasant history of Reynard the Fox, told by the pictures by Albert van Everdingen (1843).

Cole and the exhibitions
Through his membership of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, Cole lobbied government for support for his campaign to improve standards in industrial design. The backing of Prince Albert was secured, and in 1847 a royal charter was granted to the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA). Under the patronage of Prince Albert, Cole organised a successful Exhibition of Art Manufactures in 1847, with enlarged exhibitions following in 1848 and 1849.

Cole visited the 1849 11th Quinquennial Paris Exhibition and noticed the lack of an exhibition open to international participants. He saw that the RSA's planned exhibitions for 1850 and 1851 could be adapted into a larger international exhibition, and he secured the backing of Queen Victoria to establish in 1850 the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 to manage the new exhibition, under the Presidency of Prince Albert.

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations was held in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851, and was an enormous popular and financial success, partially due to the astute management of Henry Cole.

Museums
As one of the Commissioners, Cole was instrumental in the decision that the £186,000 surplus from the Great Exhibition would be used for improving science and art education in the United Kingdom. Land was purchased in the South Kensington area and developed as the centre for a number of educational and cultural institutions, known half-jokingly as "Albertopolis". Henry Cole was appointed the first General Superintendent of the Department of Practical Art, set up by the government to improve standards of art and design education in Britain with reference to their applicability to industry. In this capacity he was instrumental in the development of the Victoria and Albert Museum which had begun as the Museum of Ornamental Art in Marlborough House. Cole oversaw its move to its current site, and became first director of what was called South Kensington Museum from 1857 to 1873. In 1974 a part of the museum that was once known as the Huxley Building was renamed the Henry Cole Building; today it forms the Henry Cole Wing of the V&A.

Honours and legacy
Cole was instrumental in the development of the National Art Training School (renamed the Royal College of Art in 1896) and played a part in the establishment of many other South Kensington institutions, such as the Royal College of Music and Imperial College London. In fact, the Imperial College Mathematics Department was formerly based in the Henry Cole Wing on Exhibition Road, before the premises were donated to the Victoria & Albert Museum.

Cole was awarded the CB for his work on the Great Exhibition and was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1875. Often referred to in the press as "Old King" Cole, he was known to have the closest personal backing of the Queen and especially of the Prince Consort, who when he needed a facilitator for one of his pet projects, was heard to remark: "We must have steam, get Cole".

An English heritage blue plaque commemorates where Cole lived and worked at 33 Thurloe Square, South Kensington, London, opposite the Victoria and Albert Museum.

In 2001, one of Cole's first Christmas cards, which was sent to his grandmother in 1843, sold at auction for £22,500.

title: Henry Cole (inventor)


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Eleazer McComb

Eleazer McComb (August 11, 1740 – December 1798) was an American merchant from Dover, Delaware. He was a delegate from Delaware to the Continental Congress from March 1783 until January 1784. He moved to Wilmington, Delaware, in 1792 and died there in December 1798.

Eleazer was one of five children of James McComb and a mother whose name is unknown. His parents came to America about 1732 from Ireland, although the family was originally from Scotland. His siblings were: Helena born about 1732 who married Robert Stockton of Princeton; John born 1734 in Princeton who married Mary Davis; Mary born 1736 in Princeton never married; James born 1739 in Princeton who married Brigitha Mott. Eleazer married Lydia Irons. He and his wife died in a yellow fever epidemic in 1798 in Wilmington. Their children were Thomas Irons McComb born 1766, Jennett McComb born 1780 who married Thomas Clayton, Elizabeth McComb, and James Bellach McComb.

Eleazer is pictured as Figure #6 in the John Trumbull painting General George Washington Resigning His Commission.

title: Eleazer McComb


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Martone

Martone (Calabrian: Màrtuni) is a town and comune in the province of Reggio Calabria, Calabria, in southern Italy. Its origins date back to between the 7th and 8th centuries.

The founders were Greek monks from the Byzantine Orient who made a deep impression on the social-economic fabric of the region. The monks travelled from Cappadocia, Syria, Palestine, Libya, Egypt, and Greece proper, chased by Syrian persecution, to find refuge in Sicily and Calabria. For the monks the locality must have been the ideal ambience, being an isolated place far from worldly passions, suitable for the ascetic life of prayer, study, meditation and work.

It is likely that the area has been inhabited since prehistoric times when cave-dwellers lived there.

Martone, like all the Locride area, was part of Greek monasticism; it is known for certain that "the monks were living solitarily in grottos or in convents bound by the oath of chastity in the communal bond of prayer and work. The emaciated Christ which the Byzantine iconography was perpetuating for centuries, the suave darkish face of the Mother of God in the icons and frescos and the vast series of Saints, did make their solitude quite serene, did alleviate the heavy toils, and were reawakening the sign of the Orient in the peace of the ascetic dwellings and in the squalor of the grottos".

Also in the Grotto Territory, which included the municipalities of Mammola, Martone and St. Giovanni di Gerace, there existed "small monastic churches, which though not competing in historic artefacts with those of Stilo and of the Paterion di Rossano, nevertheless they still preserve traces of Byzantine art".

"These monasteries were not only intended to preserve the relicts of antiquity, as in Vico's expressions, but also a school of agriculture and trades, reforesting, land-reclaiming, cultivating, ploughing, sowing, intensifying the cultivation of olive trees, of vines and of chestnuts, building aqueducts and mills, opening the way to the first artisan activities and representing, therefore, the heralds of the protection of the rural population, in a calamitous and decentralized age which was the Byzantine".

9th–15th century
Many scholars identify Martone with the village of Santa Maria di Bucito, of which there are traces in numerous documents beginning in the 12th century. Santa Maria del Bucito is recorded in a notary act of 19 October 1106 (Theotokou ton boukéton), in which Leonzio, bishop of Gerace, gave away the monastery of the Santissima Madre di Dio di Bucito and the revenues of S. Anania "due to the Santissima Chiesa cattolica Locrese", "venerabili templo (monastery) gloriosissime dominǽ nostre Deiparǽ et semper virginis Mariǽ".

"In that year the Church became aggregated to Santa Maria dei Buceti and entrusted to the Carthusian monks of Serra San Bruno". (Barillaro).

The name Bucito is recorded, also, in a document from 1119 signed by Nicola, son of Leone, presbyter and protopope from Bucito (Cod. Vat. Lat. 10606, page 14, with Latin translation on page 15 and page 17; in an act from 1139 [tès yperaghias Theotokou] and in a document of sale by Teodata, daughter of Giovanni Konges and of his family (originating from the region of Bucita) to the monastery of S. Michele and Nicodemo del Kellerana, dated 27 October 1181 in which appears a certain Ruggero, son of Giovanni Oto, lecturer and notary in Buceto.

A very ancient village of Basilian origin was at first named S. Maria di Bùcita (Vùcita or Bucìto), as Ottaviano Pasqua (1574–1591) writes in the life of Nicola II, bishop of Gerace from 1219 to 1229, who claimed the rights of the Mensa vescovile on the Cerchietto's property, "quod circum locos, quibus a S. Johannis oppido, et S. Maria di Bucita, Martonem hodie vacant, continetur" (Rossi, Sinodo, page 258).

In the bios of San Nicodemo, Codex Messanensis XXX, folio 247 r-v, it states: "There is, therefore, in the area of Bucito a temple dedicated to the Mather of God, very famous, and the site is very suitable for us." The day the monks arrived, however, they were met with great confusion because the local inhabitants were celebrating the feast of the Ascension of Saint Mary. Deluded by their aspirations for peace and serenity, the humble hermits went back to Kellerano. The Codex Messanensis XXX was drawn up in 1308.

Another finding which could confirm the presence of Greek monks in the proximity of Martone is, perhaps, a small church dedicated to Saint Nicholas where excavations have revealed a Byzantine necropolis. Furthermore, in the locality of Gujune the remains of the Basilian monastery of S. Anania are still visible, which have a cell isolated from the rest of the grotto by a wall that most certainly was used as a dormitory for the monks.

Proof of the presence of Greek monks in Martone is the Signum Pacis which is now in the church of Maria SS. Assunta. It consists of a metallic tablet with a handle depicting Christ Resurrected and the Virgin Mary, and was offered to the newly wedded to be kissed at the end of the nuptial ceremony. This is a very ancient Byzantine rite still in use today in the Oriental churches that could very well have come to Martone through the Greek monks.

Giovanni Fiore of Cropani (1622–1683) defined Martone as a very ancient town in his treaty on "Grotteria with two thousand inhabitants, with jurisdiction of two very ancient villages, Martoni and S. Giovanni". In his contribution, the Abbot Orazio Lupis thus writes: "Martone, one the lands of the Area (of  Grotteria) called in the past S. Maria di Bucita; the other is named S. Giovanni."

Nevertheless, there is disagreement as to the meaning of the name: some say it descends from a Greek family named Martis; others, instead, think it derives from Marte (Mars), the God of war in Roman mythology. If so, Martone could have been originally a soldier's encampment during the Sicilian Wars between Augustus and Sextus Pompeus. Others yet say that Martone takes its name from an ancient family from Normandy, which landed in Calabria in the retinue of Robert the Guiscard.

According to certain testimonies, the history of Martone was related in a 12-volume opus, unfortunately lost in the transfer from the old to the new municipal building. Not even the author is remembered. Parlà and Cutrone must have written something about Martone but their manuscripts have also been lost.

The origin of Martone is lost in the darkness of time, but, in the same way as the adjacent centres, Martone also must have undergone notable development at the time of the Saracen invasions in Calabria. Fiore, on page 174 of his Calabria illustrate, calls it a "'very ancient village' together with S. Giovanni" (Enzo Dilena, 'Martone', in his "Storia e cultura della Locride" "History and culture of the Locride land", Messina, 1964, pp 519–520).

Aragon domination period (1442–1503)
Already in the 1400s, Martone, although continuing to belong administratively to Grotteria and part of the diocese of Gerace, became a feudal domain of various families. The first known family is the Spanish Aragona de Ajerbis, in whose possession it remained from 1431 to 1450. At that time, Martone was one of the four "castles of the Baronage of Grotteria" together with S. Giovanni, Mammola and Gioiosa.

From 1450 to 1458 it belonged to Tommaso Caracciolo with the title of First Marquis. The usurpation perpetrated by the Caracciolo to the detriment of the Episcopal Curia provoked the intervention of the royal authority, which stopped many abuses of power and fighting. The Marquis Caracciolo accused of: 'offender of the person of the King', by order of King Alfonso himself was deposed and imprisoned in 1445. After a long trial, in 1457 he was condemned to death. He was able, nevertheless, to escape and find refuge in Rome.

On 1 January 1458, King Alfonso I invested his Councilor Marino Correale as Master of Arms for the Baronage of Grotteria, "cum Terris and Casalibus infrascriptis Moctǽ Jojosǽ,Mammulǽ, Sancti Johannis a Giraci, Salvi, Sideroni, Oiccoloni, Martoni, et Baptipedoni…" (Quinternione V, folio 173) so that Martone was administered on behalf of the Royal House, first by Marino Correale, and subsequently by his brother Raimondo, nobles of Sorrento, with the title of Governor.

Being part of the territory of Grotteria, it followed its feudal events, passing from a possession of the Correale family (1458–1501) to the Carafas (1501–1558) and, then, to the Loffresos (1558–1573, to the Ruffos (1573–1576) to Elias (1576–1577) to the Aragonas (1577–1631) and again to the Carafas until the abolition of feudalism.

In 1501 Martone passed, together with Grotteria of which it was part, to the Neapolitan family Carafa, a branch of the Caracciolos, and in 1503 obtained the Principality of Roccella.

An exponent of this family, namely Don Carlo Maria Carafa, gave some laws to his lands; one was prompted by "an iniquity" committed very often in Martone, where trees were being cut and burnt. For this crime, innocent persons were prosecuted. To prevent such an occurrence, Don Antonio ordered that before being able to request compensation for the damages, it was necessary to bring a certain number of witnesses in front of the judge.

During this period Martone underwent three severe earthquakes: one in 1659, another in 1663 in which the chapel of SS. Salvatore was destroyed, and one more in 1668 which destroyed the Church of San Nicola.

The Habsburgs of Austria (1707–1738)
From 1707, after Spanish rule ended, the South of Italy passed under the rule of the Habsburgs of Austria who remained until 1738. During this period, internal fighting continued, causing unrest in the country.

In 1723 a territorial boundary was drawn between the municipalities of Martone and Gioiosa Jonica, and a slab of local granite was placed at the entrance of the town as a border marker. It has the date inscribed and the borders mapped, which no longer apply due to the continuous expansion of the residential area towards Goiosa Jonica.

Period under the Bourbons (1738–1806)
Following the 1738 Treaty of Vienna the Bourbons ruled the Kingdom of Naples. Under them, there was a half-century of peace. This period was not altogether tranquil, however, because of both internal fighting and natural disasters.

In the administrative ordinance set up at the time of the Partenopean (Neapolitan) Republic in 1799, Martone was a municipality in the canton of Roccella. The Bourbons enacted the law on 1 May 1816 by which it was transferred into the domain of Giosa Jonica.

From 1767 onwards, in Martone, jurisdiction of Grotteria, the following Lord-Mayors had taken office: Francesco Parlà, Giuseppe Antonio Belcastro, Saverio Infusini, Giuseppe Antonio Fuda, Giuseppe Sorbara, Giacomo Calvi and Felice Oppedisano (Sectione Archivio di Stato di Locri.Fondo notarile, notaio (notary) Tommasa Vumbaca di Grotteria, envelope 269, vol. 3010, year 1770). The relative document is inscribed, in appendix, in the vol. of D. Romeo, Il Comune Feudale in Calabria, AGE, Ardore M., 2002, pp. 152–153.

1783 earthquake
The disastrous earthquake of 5 February 1783, which lasted about a quarter of an hour, destroyed the majority of Calabrian villages and caused around 30,000 casualties, produced quite a significant amount of damage in Martone as well.

The residential centre located in the low zone (Basia) which was completely destroyed was relocated to the high zone on the hill where it still exists. A Calabrese writer of that time described the violent earthquake, stating: "Around midday, a dense fog enveloped the entire region; the clouds remained stationary for lack of wind. The animals, restless, were running from place to place. Suddenly we heard a confused noise in the air; then, came a strong wind, and the earth began to tremble; at first, it produced light shakes, then a very violent one. The houses were torn from their foundations, and stones and bricks were catapulted into enormous distances. Another most potent wave uprooted secular trees which splintered and shuttered as they fell. Deep crevices opened up in which men and things were swallowed. Several chasms opened and quickly closed, like monstrous jaws, that later on, when digging, persons and houses were found almost bonded into terrifying mush. The sea also precipitated onto the shore with furious waves, overthrowing hundreds of people that had gathered there to seek safety".

French domination (1806–1815)
At the beginning of the French occupation, with an edict by Joseph Napoleone Bonaparte dated 2 August 1806, the feudal system was abolished, after which the territory was subdivided into 13 provinces, and each one into districts and municipalities.

Return of the Bourbons (1815)
In 1815 following the downfall of Joachim Murat, Bourbon rule was re-established. They maintained, in general lines, the stable administrative structure of the Drench, and Gerace was confirmed as the capital of the district. The profound civil and social transformation of the brief innovative French period had prepared an atmosphere not altogether ready to accept the Bourbons' absolutism, from which was to follow the beginning of the 1847 insurrection, which in the District of Gerace had a quick and unfortunate conclusion in the execution of the Five Martyrs in the Piana di Gerace who had fought for liberty. For as much as Vittorio Visalli writes in Lotta e Martirio del popolo Calabrese ('Fight and martyrdom of the Calabrese people') – Ruffo and Pier Domenico Mazzone, two of the Five Martyrs of Gerace, in their flight in order to avoid being caught, sought refuge in the territory of Martone, in one of Mazzone's properties, but soon departed as they realized that both the local and S. Giovanni's di Gerace's Civic Guards were searching for them.

End of Bourbon rule (1860–1861)
The Bourbons' rule ended with the arrival of Garibaldi's troupes which were welcomed with jubilation in the whole of the South of the Peninsula. The pro-Bourbons were trembling with fear displaying the tricolour cockade and Italian-styled-beards. Many citizens of Martone formed part of Giuseppe Garibaldi's army.

30 August 1860: Thanksgiving festivity in honour of Saint George
Every year on 30 August it is customary to celebrate in honour of Saint George a feast of thanksgiving for having miraculously averted the incumbent danger of General Lamarmora's artillery. On 1 July 1860, a gang of young men from Gioiosa led by a Sicilian attempted in the heart of the night to abduct some young girls from Martone. The people were not indifferent to such a deed and responded with weapons. But the Sicilian adventurer, having distinguished himself for valour and courage in the ranks of General Lamarmora's army, found the opportune moment to ask for the general's help and demanded the total destruction of Martone. All was to take place as planned, but on the dawn of 30 August the decree was revoked and the town was saved. The inhabitants of Martone, pious and devoted, attributed their freedom from that nightmare to the divine intercession of Saint George. Up to today 30 August is regarded as the day of the miracle.

From 1861
Calabria was in a state of neglect because after the annexation of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the few existing industries were all transferred to the north. It was lacking in roads, aqueducts and a sewer network and taxes were very high. Hard times had not ended for Martone because two more earthquakes were to take place in 1905 and 1908, destroying the majority of the township including the church of the Assumption which was rebuilt on the same site in 1932. The same year, a revolt by the people against the government took place due to high taxation. During this insurrection, many casualties were recorded and a number of citizens were unjustly arrested and prosecuted.

Geological and archaeological remains
In the late 20th century the territory of Martone revealed a number of geological and archaeological findings. In 1954, during excavation for roads connecting to Croceferrata, an ancient necropolis was brought to light in the area called La Vigna. It has not yet been sufficiently studied, but featured a titulus with an uncertain style of writing and interpretation. At the same site, several skeletons were also found, one of about 1.9 m in height, laying at random in tombs which were rudimentarily covered with large terracotta tiles, very much like the ones uncovered at the excavations in Locri.

In the suburbia area of San Nicola on 5 and 6 April 1973, during road construction, a necropolis emerged that can be dated to around the year 1000. Three items on small tablets of soft stone and redingote were discovered: three Greek-Byzantine epigraphs, which have become part of the corpus of Byzantine inscriptions from South Italy and Sicily. The three inscriptions have not yet been interpreted, although it is agreed that their significance is entirely of a religious nature (considering the signs and the site where they were found.

The inscriptions on the tombs have been set down by Mons. Vincenzo Nadile in his essay "S. Maria di Bucito", Chiar.lle C.le, 1973, and interpreted by prof. Mosino: 1) Mouui(ou), ('my son'); 2) M(eter) X(ristou) I(ésous) X(ristòs) Kù(rios) Th(eòs) ('mother of Christ, Jesus Christ, Lord God'); 3) Th(eòs) K(aì)  U(ios) Th(eou) ('God son of God') (XENIA, semestral of Antiquity, 5, 1983, De Luce, editor. pp. 60–62)

The possibility of other interpretations has not been excluded.

Church of S. Anania or Grotto of the Saracens
The church of S. Anania is situated in the locality of Gullune or Gujune, a short distance from the bed of the Livadio stream, in the hollow of a huge rock of slalattic origin, also called "Grotto of the Saracens", where the remains of the Basilian monastic oratorio of St Anania can be observed, mentioned in the act of Leonzio, bishop of Gerace, of 19 October 1106, written in n. LXXI of the Syllabus grǽcarum membranarum, of the Trinchera, Naples, 1865, parchment n.12, page 91.

In certain circumstances, the grotto of S. Anania is called "Grotto of the Saracens" in consideration that the Basilian monastic complex was plundered by Saracen raids on the Ionic foreshores of Calabria between the 7th and 10th centuries.

The most severe destruction by the Saracens in the Locride area took place between 952 when under the walls of Gerace a bloody battle was fought between the Byzantine troops commanded by Milacron, and the Saracen ones led by Abu-l-Kasem, who renounced its occupation, and 986, the year in which Gerace – after being conquered and destroyed in 982 – was again captured and put to the sac.

Between these two dates, the monasteries of S.Maria di Bucita and the nearby monastery of S. Anania were also destroyed.

N. Spatari, in his treatise L'enigma delle arti asittite nella Calabria ultramediterranea writes, "Chiesa-Grotta sul fiume Livadio, that laps Martone, a town on the rising slopes above the Chiesa-Grotto, was used as a refuge by the first local Christians escaping the Roman centuries. Later on, around 600–700, at the entrance of the grotto an external structure was added, to better accommodate the faithful; in it, we can see some frescos which express, with a variety of colours, the technique and the style of the Church-Rocca of Göreme, particularly in the figures followed by symbolic decorations in red. One of my detailed reconstructing surveys allows to realize its originating architectonic structure, whose stereo-metric elements are typical of the architecture developed in Anatolia-Cappadocia and in the Christian Orient of Mesopotamia, Syria, Iraq, Sudan and along the Nile."

In the inside of the large grotto, the monks had found other spaces and a small cell that was likely used as a dormitory.

Nearby is the Pietra di S. Anania, a gigantic mass of calcareous rock with an irregular form.

Mazzone's Tower
Almost certainly, Martone, together with the neighbouring S. Giovanni di Gerace, was part of a highly defensive system of watchtowers. Still today, in the suburb of Solleria (Sujeria) the remains of a tower which may be dated to the 16th century still stand. During the kingdom of the Bourbons, an optic telegraph was installed, intended for conventional signals to be sent across long distances.

The construction is a quadrangular tower dominating the beneath extending Vallata del Torbido, of which remains the ruins of the basement containing four buttresses. On the ground floor, on the left side of the access door, the evidence of the 'barrel-volt' ceiling that must have covered the inside rooms can still be seen.

The tower was made of stone consisting of one only square-shaped room, in which were billeted the guard corps and the horses. On the higher level, it was divided horizontally by wooden scaffolding interconnected by wooden ladders.

In the past, the Valle del Torbido had a system of defensive watchtowers. The first was erected in the vicinity of the train station of Gioiosa Ionica (Torre Vecchia, 'Old Tower'); the other, closer, was Torre Galea or Cavalleria. Torre Elisabetta, instead, appears to have risen on the road leading to Gioiosa Ionica in the suburb of the same name, whilst, higher on the rock the castle which formed part of the defensive system dominates imposingly.

From the tower, it was possible to communicate with the one in S. Giovanni di Gerace, situated in the locality of Torre or Licone, and with the Grotteria castle which closed the system of watching and transmissions.

Two of the five martyrs of Gerace, Pietro Mazzone of Roccella Jonica and Gaetano Ruffo of Bovalino, during the revolutionary upsurge of 1847 found refuge in a property of Mazzone to avoid Spanish troops. There was a bounty placed on them of 1,000 ducats each for whoever captured them alive and 300 ducats for whoever found them dead. Several days later, however, the Civic Guard of General Nunziante was able to capture them and they were executed on 2 October 1847 in the Plane of Gerace together with the other leaders of the revolt: Michele Bello of Siderno, Domenico Salvadori of Caraffa del Bianco and Rocco Verducci of Bianco.

The Episcopate (Bishop's Palace)
The bishop's palace, built in a vast olive plantation, is situated to the north of the shire at 200 m above sea level in a position dominating the valley of the Levadio stream with views of the residences in Martone and S. Giovanni di Gerace. It was owned by the baron Macri and subsequently the Lucà family. It seems that during the summer periods the palace gave hospitality to the bishops of the Locri–Gerace dioceses, who preferred the more temperate climate of Martone to that of the seaside enclaves. In the past it must have belonged to the domain of Cerchietto as well as the region of Licone or Torre or Cavalleria di S. Giovanni di Gerace, then was the property of the episcopal curia.

Even now, around the palace can be noted the remains of a large garden with a circular pool and palm trees. It is not known when the edifice was built, but it is said to date back to the 18th century, conjectured from the style of the principal façade and architectonic elements that characterize it such as doors, windows, and balconies.

The palace consists of three buildings built in different periods; the construction plan is in the form of an "L" in two stories. The ground floor of the southeast zone embodied a colonnade that was used as a summer lounge and had another room annexed. The central zone was employed as a depository, whilst the northeast zone was used as premises for the pressing of olives with a mill powered by animals. On the first level were the bed chambers. The walls were made of stone and mortar and plastered with sand and lime; in some portions, they show the use of bricks and of carusi (cylindrical elements of clay). The attic is made of wooden beams (chestnut and oak) on which is laid a flooring of the same woods. The palace today is in a state of neglect; therefore, a project has been approved for its restoration, the construction of other structures and the utilization of the surrounding area.

When work is completed the complex should be used to house a Museo della civiltà contadina ('Rural society museum') with the aim of maintaining local traditions which have disappeared in some areas.

Country residential structure: Villa of the Baron
In the Pilligori locality, one can still visit what used to be the villa belonging to the baron Ilario Asciutti of High Caulonia. He resided with his family there in the summer, whilst in the winter months, he would only visit occasionally to supervise the work of his dependents engaged in land cultivation. The villa had two stories and the access was a stone-paved driveway about 100 m long, flanked by evergreen trees and bushes interspersed by grey columns, with an oil lantern hanging from each tree. The lanterns were lit at sunset and extinguished a few hours later.

In front of the edifice was a large clearing with three stone benches and seesaws.

On the side of the building were two columns, one of which is still in place. On the northeast side of the villa is a large area with a pergola providing shade on hot sunny days. A set of semicircular stairs led inside.

On the ground floor was a large room where the horses were kept during the night, with adjacent stables. On the ground floor was a cellar with storage for oil, which was kept in four large terracotta jars. In fear that one of the jars could crack and the oil be lost, they cemented another very large vat underneath the flooring, still in place today, which is connected to the four above by means of a small drainage channel. Other rooms were used for wood storage and the breeding of domestic animals.

On the floor above (piano nobile) were the bedrooms, the kitchen and dining room, and the living room in which the baron would receive his peasants and friends and hold parties.

On these occasions, a modern horn-gramophone would entertain his guests. The walls and ceiling were decorated with frescos depicting romantic scenes. A wooden staircase (ncsasciata) connected this floor with the attic where there was an oven and where seasonal fruit was preserved.

The house did not have a water supply, and the laundry, washed with water and ashes, had to be rinsed in the nearby Livadio stream because the baroness, for hygienic reasons, did not wish to make use of the public laundries.

Church matrix and the cult of the Madonna of the Assumption
Traces of the cult of Saint Mary of the Assumption have been recorded in numerous documents since the 12th century.

The veneration of the Madonna is of Greek origin and was perhaps introduced to Italy by monks who took refuge at the time of the iconoclastic wars. The first church dedicated to her was situated in the lower part of the town in the suburb Fontana Vecchia, not far from the Basìa or Batìa, a low area, and the water spring, from which water was drawn for all necessities until the water from Crini eventually reached all the houses. Crini in Greek means 'spring, source'.

The first nucleus of Màrtone's residential centre must have developed around that church and the monastic Basilian community originally called Bùcita, Bucito or S. Maria di Bùcita ('of the Buceti', meaning the inhabitants of Vùcita). The dedicated name was "of the Assumption", so, it must be identified with the church matrix.

The ancient writings speak of the edifice as a monastery, but it appears to be confirmed that it was only a church with an annexe. On another hand, the Canon A. Oppedisano, (Chronohistory, page 372) writes: "Monastery of S Maria di Bucita, it was situated on the high part of the town (Martone). Today some remains can be seen". And E. D'Agostino in his Buletttino Badia Greca Grottaferrata writes: "Monastery of S.Maria di Bucita, near Martone. Founded in Byzantine times. On 19 October 1106 it was entrusted to the Tempio della Deipara e sempre Vergine Maria". There is also a mention of the monastery by Salvatore Gemelli: "Monastero di S. Maria di Bucita. Described as very old in the 1106 by the Bishop Leonzio from Gerace, near Martone". Furthermore, Mons. Vincenzo Nadile has dedicated an erudite and precise monograph to the topic

It was a high priest church in the Greek protopapal rite, suppressed on 29 March 1480 by the Bishop of Gerace, Anastasio Chalchèolulos.

In a papal bull of 26 December 1525 (Russo, Regesto n. 16553), the spelling S. Johannis de Castro Martone appears. It reads: "Casertam et Terracinem, episcopis ac Vicario generali Episcopi Hieracen. Bernardino Brazano, cleric Napoletano. Familiari suo, providetur de una in S. Johannis de Castro Martone, et alia in S. Johannis de Pidoga {?} et reliquia in S. De Cofrano {?} ecclesiis Hieracem Archiep.i Tarentin..., "Dat. Rome, apud Sanctum Petrum, an. MCXXV, VII, Kl. Ianuary, an.III" "Grata familiaritatis obsequia".

In the beginning, it was self-managed, then governed until 19 March 1540 by Antonio Sirleto with the qualification of the parish priest (Russo, Regesto n. 18210). Also D. Nicola Augurace, in a bull from 30 August 1583, is called rector of the parish church of the area of Martone, followed by D. Angelo Theotino in October 1608. At his death, January 1619, the church passed on to Francesco Mercurio (Russo, o.c., n. 28135). On 23 February 1730, the reverend medical doctor Francesco Catanaci, a local, was authorised to erect and endow the a chapel to the church dedicated to S. Maria del Monte Carmelo, S. Francesco di Paulo, and S.Caterina of Alessandra V.M., though retaining the patronage of the Casata Catanaci family. The first in charge was D. Giuseppe Panetta, parish priest from 1699 who died in 1737, and who was succeeded by priest D. Antonio Panetta from Grotteria on 28 February 1737.

After the earthquake of 5 February 1783, the residential centre started to move towards the high area, where the new parochial church dedicated to the Assumption was erected through the donations of the parishioners; later on, it was damaged by the 1905 and 1908 earthquakes. In 1923 it was restored and opened to the cult through the interest taken by the head priest Oliva. It consists of three naves divided by pylons. The central nave culminates with the semi-circular apse painted with large figures of the Trinity by painter Corrado Armocida. The main altar, in precious marble, features polychrome decorations. Behind the altar, a tall column of pink marble sustains the precious tabernacle of chiselled silver in which the sacrament is held. The church is enriched with holy statues derived from the now-destroyed churches of Carmine and San Nicola and from the little church of S. Giuseppe.

Of interest are the "Madonna del Carmine" (with saints), two paintings from the 600s from the church of the Carmine, and San Giuseppe, a wooden statue sculptured in full size from a southern workshop of the XVII century.

A 7th-century canvas painted in oil depicting Saint Mary of the Assumption, the work of a southern painter, completes the apse.

In the central nave, the pulpit protrudes in baroque style, supported by a shelf in the form of a shell. The ceiling is decorated to caissons with stuccos and frames in white and gold, the same as the choir loft located above the main entrance. The ceiling is finished with two lateral paintings depicting Saint George the Martyr and the Annunciation. The paintings and the restoration are the works of the painter Carrado Armocida.

Among the treasures of the church must be listed a large silver pyx originating from a 17th-century Dominican convent and a silver chalice from the 5th century worked in filigree.

Church of St. George
The Church of Saint George the Martyr has been situated in the lower part of the town since 1500. It appears it was assigned to the Canon Simone Gentile. The same year it was entrusted to don Giovannello Pittari, rector of the parish church of S. Giovanni of Gerace, who died on 9 September 1582. On 30 August the following year, the church of Saint George, seat of the confraternity (accommodated in the ’Chapel of the Purgatory souls’), then abolished, was entrusted to don Nicola Augurace, rector of the parish church of the circumscription of Martone.

In 1783 the church was destroyed by an earthquake, but three years later it was rebuilt.

Today the access to the church is via two doors, a main door and a secondary door. The main door is in wood with sculptured panels. The central ones depict on the left Saint George mounted on a horse and on the right a heraldic coat-of-arms. The entrance door is flanked by Ionic pillars surmounted by a timpano.

Above the edifice rises the bell tower with its pointed arched windows. The inside consists of three naves divided by pylons. The main altar is of inlaid polychrome marble. Behind the altar is a monumental pavilion to the patron saint, the work of Raffaele Pata, in which is kept the wooden statuary group of Saint George with the queen and the dragon. In the lateral naves are two altars: the right altar is dedicated to Saint Anthony of Padua and the left to Saint James, the ancient protector of the town. The change happened before 1683, according to the writings of P. Giovanni Fiore da Cropani, who in Della Calabria Illustrata, speaks of solemn festivities held in Martoni, village of Grotteria.

title: Martone


text:
Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851

The Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 is an institution founded in 1850 to administer the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, which was held in The Crystal Palace, London.

The founding President of the Commission was Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and its chief administrator was Henry Cole. The current President is Anne, Princess Royal.

The exhibition was a popular and financial success, with a surplus of. An unusual decision was made to maintain the Royal Commission as a permanent administrative body and to use the profits for charitable purposes. Its revised charter charged the commission with "increasing the means of industrial education, and extending the influence of science and art upon productive industry".

South Kensington
The commission invested the profits from the 1851 Exhibition in the purchase of 86 acre of land in South Kensington. The area was then developed as a centre for educational and cultural institutions, often known as "Albertopolis". These include:

 * Imperial College
 * the Natural History Museum
 * the Royal Albert Hall
 * the Royal College of Art
 * the Royal College of Music
 * the Science Museum
 * the Victoria and Albert Museum

The commission's headquarters are in Imperial College.

Since 1891 the role of the commission has been to provide postgraduate scholarships for students to study in Britain and abroad. Former recipients of scholarships include 13 Nobel Prize laureates.

The commission currently has capital assets of more than £76 million and makes charitable disbursement of more than £2 million a year.


text:
Talk:Raymond A. Spruance

Untitled
I moved it back to the middle initial version, not because I think it's better, but to unbreak all the redirs. Future moves should take care to fix redirs as well. Stan 14:23, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't understand: if there are pages that redirect to Raymond A. Spruance, why can't they be edited after a move to point to Raymond Spruance? --Saforrest 00:50, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

I edited out the reference to Spruance's son being married to Halsey'sdaughter; this is in Evan Thomas's 2006 book about the Battle for (not "of") Leyte Gulf, but it's not true. Margaret Halsey was married to a man named Spruance (Preston Lea Spruance), but he was only a distant cousin of the Admiral. Spruance's ambassadorial appointment was from Truman (1952), not Eisenhower.

such great admirals failed to stop dec 7
why is this not mentioned? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.130.142.29 (talk) 13:21, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

Destruction of IJN carriers by submarines credited to him?
"Although he broke the back of the Japanese naval airforce by sinking 3 carriers, 2 oilers and destroying about 600 enemy airplanes" ... I believe this is misleading as an analysis of why there was criticism at him for not going after the Combined Fleet. Only 1 Japanese carrier was sunk by air attack. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Statalyzer (talk • contribs) 20:07, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

Reference to the Battle of Leyte Gulf
Raymond Spruance never commanded the Fifth Fleet in the forementioned engagement. The Third Fleet under Admiral Bull Halsey fought and pursued the Japanese decoy force, consisting of their remaining carriers. This needs to be cleared up.

Halsey's Incapacitation before the Battle of Midway
Halsey's incapacitation was due to shingles, not psoriasis -- but I don't have time to get a good source on this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.54.95.125 (talk) 03:37, 3 October 2007 (UTC)
 * shattered sword, p.95. 46.138.77.215 (talk) 11:00, 15 January 2012 (UTC)

Oh boy
Folks this needs to be cleaned up and the idea that most of this article should be about his decision when to launch is exceedingly strange. Tirronan (talk) 01:38, 21 February 2008 (UTC)

In Fiction
Should we make a section in the article about his appearance as a character in novels (Weapons of Choice springs to mind) especially since he is important in that story Series premiere (remake) (talk) 08:10, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Cites re not agressive - Marianas Turkey Shoot
"Spruance himself expressed disappointment that he had not attacked the Mobile Fleet on the 19th. "As a matter of tactics," he wrote, "I think that going after the Japanese and knocking their carriers out would have been much better and more satisfactory than waiting for them to attack us; but we were at the start of a very important and large amphibious operation and we could not afford to gamble and place it in jeopordy." E.B. Potter, "Nimitz" (Naval Inst. Press 1976), p 303

"If Task Force 58 had advanced westward to bring its planes within range of the Mobile fleet, it might have sunk some Japanese carriers, but the Japanese would have had a better chance of sinking some American Carriers, for Mitscher would have had to divide his air strength, using some planes for defense and some for attack." E.B. Potter, "Nimitz" (Naval Inst. Press 1976), p 304

"Although Admiral Spruance was criticized - bitterly so, by self-styled air strategists - for not taking the offensive on 18 June or pursing more vigoroulsy on the 20th, there can no longer be any doubt that his strategy was correct." Samuel Eliot Morison, "The Two-Ocean War" (Little, Brown & Co. 1963), p 345 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.217.224.2 (talk) 01:36, 2 September 2009 (UTC)

Whereas at the Battle of Midway - my understanding was that there Spruance was the opposite of not aggressive enough. The key to the whole battle was his remarkable decision to clear the decks of his carrier and send almost every plane on attack, hoping to catch the Japanese carriers with their planes refueling. He needed some luck too, but it was that nervy decision that prepared for the luck. MikeR613 (talk) 17:35, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

 * I was looking for a source where Nimitz had made an aside comment to a friend that Spruance was his most trustworthy/useful subordinate in the Pacific. I think I read this first in an issue of Our Navy magazine. HammerFilmFan (talk) 22:53, 9 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Regarding Midway I agree its nonsense to say Spruance wasn't aggressive but its a sad fact of history that some people said that. It wasn't about his decision to attack but rather his decision to pull back in the night rather than pusue. IMO its obvious that was the right decision. The Japanese still had a huge superiority in surface ships. The fact that the US had destroyed their carriers would be irrelevant in a night action since at that time planes couldn't attack at night. In addition to retaining a surface fleet advantage the Japanese at that time were also much, much better in night fighting than the US as they demonstrated a few months later when they decimmated a US and Australian fleet in a night engagement in the Battl of Savo Island off Guadacanal. Still many navy fliers resented Spruance commanding the carriers and they did criticize him for not pursuing the Japanese after Midway. Mdebellis (talk) 23:23, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

Electric Brain?
I question the reliability of the "he was known as electric brain" at the beginning of the article. My recollection is that this was something put in a magazine article by a journalist but wasn't really true, no one in the navy really called him that. The current reference is incomplete, I'm assuming its a book but there is no ISBN or page number. I'm currently travelling so don't have access to my bio of Spruance but when I get home in a couple of weeks I'm going to check it and if it confirms my memory revise or delete that statement unless someone can provide a better reference. Mdebellis (talk) 23:14, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

Why I Undid two edits
Someone inserted a claim about a relative of Spruance: "COSTAS WAS HE GRANDSON" It wasn't justified with a refrerence and in any case didn't meet the Wikipedia standards for writing or for information worth being in the article so I undid the two edits. Mdebellis (talk) 03:09, 16 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Looks like garden-variety vandalism to me. There's been quite a lot from that IP recently. --Yaush (talk) 14:57, 16 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, I hadn't notice before but they seem to have also vandalized pages on Nimitz and a TV show. I'm a new editor so still learning the process, should I report the user somewhere? Mdebellis (talk) 16:21, 16 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Depends. The WP:VANDALISM page has a lot of good information on handling vandals. Normally you use a template to warn the vandal. If he has already been warned recently (within the last month or so) you bump up the warning level. There comes a point where an administrator can be asked to block a repeatedly-warned vandal. --Yaush (talk) 16:37, 16 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I looked at the Vandalism guidelines and used the Uw-disruptive1 template to leave a message on the Talk page for that IP address. I noticed there were several other recent warnings as well. Mdebellis (talk) 18:58, 16 August 2012 (UTC)

Bit of a nit, but ...
William Halsey was always known as "Bill" to his friends, who included Spruance. "Bull" was the invention of a press hungry for heroes. This makes the reference in this article to William "Bull" Halsey a bit problematic, and I've removed the nickname, which has oscillated back and forth between "Bill" and "Bull" between various editors, in order to avoid the issue. --Yaush (talk) 16:05, 18 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I reverted your change. "Bull" was a nickname that lots of people used for Halsey. That Spruance didn't seems irrelevant to me, the point is we are introducing Halsey in that section and it was a common way to refer to him and that is what matters. That section isn't about the friendship between Halsey and Spruance, it's about Halsey not being able to command at Midway due to illness and Spruance getting the nod as a result, it makes sense to refer to Halsey by the nickname that he is so well known for when introducing that topic. MadScientistX11 (talk) 16:57, 18 December 2013 (UTC)
 * No, it wasn't. The nickname didn't exist until the press invented it early in the war. Those who knew the man and worked with him invariably called him "Bill". I suggest we simply avoid the controversy by avoiding the use of the nickname -- which strikes me as unencyclopedic in any case. --Yaush (talk) 17:30, 18 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't agree that there is any controversy. Your point is that those who knew him didn't use the nickname. I don't disagree with that and it's common for famous people with nicknames. The point is was he known widely and is he referred widely in history books by that name? And the answer is absolutely yes. At least that is what it says at the very beginning of the Wikipedia page on him: "Fleet Admiral William Frederick Halsey, Jr., GBE (October 30, 1882 – August 16, 1959)[2] (commonly referred to as "Bill" or "Bull" Halsey)" and I've read several books on Spruance, Midway, Leyte Gulf, etc. They all, at least as far as I can recall, start out introducing Halsey with the common nickname "Bull" so it makes sense to have that nickname in the article here. MadScientistX11 (talk) 18:20, 18 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Except Wikipedia is not a reliable source, the more scholarly books on Halsey I've read take pains to point out that the name was a press invention and a slight embarrassment to Halsey, and there's just no reason to include the nickname on a passing reference to Halsey in an article not primarily about Halsey. It would be like insisting on Bernard "Monty" Montgomery or George "Blood and Guts" Patton in every article on the war against the western Axis. The fact that the nickname has gone back and forth as various editors have wandered past suggests that it's not only unncecessary and unencyclopedia, but a continuing nuisance. --Yaush (talk) 18:43, 18 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Easy fix. I took "Bull" out, and broke the wikilink, as there are too many.  Nota bene its "Bill Halsey" at the top.  Halsey's nickname is not pertinent to this article, but here's what Halsey said:  "some drunken correspondent changed 'Bill' Halsey to 'Bull'"  user:JMOprof ©¿©¬  21:59, 18 December 2013 (UTC)

Copyright violation
The following paragraphs:

 * In 1924, as William F. Halsey, Jr. was preparing to turn over command of destroyer Osborne to Spruance, he advised the bridge crew that they should not let Spruance's quiet manner deceive them into thinking they were getting anything but an outstandingly competent commander. The crew soon learned that Spruance liked a quiet bridge, without extraneous chit-chat or the use of first names, and with orders given concisely and clearly. In an incident in the harbor of Bizerte in French Tunisia, Osborne was anchored in 6 fathoms, or 36 feet, of water. A distraught torpedo officer rushed to the bridge and reported, "Captain, we've just dropped a depth charge over the stern!"

 * "Well, pick it up and put it back," was Spruance's measured response.[5]

 * Notwithstanding their different personalities, Spruance and Halsey were close friends. In fact, Spruance had a knack for getting along with difficult people, including his friend Kelly Turner, the hotheaded commander of 5th Fleet's amphibious force. One exception was John Towers, a constant critic of Spruance, whom Spruance came to despise for his naked ambition.

are taken word for word from my copyrighted Web site: http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/S/p/Spruance_Raymond_A.htm

I don't mind be quoted in Wikipedia as long as the fact that it is a direct quote of my work is made clear, but if this section is not either promptly reformatted to show it is a direct quote or reworded to become a paraphrase, I will edit this material out. --Kent G Budge  --75.173.87.191 (talk) 03:07, 16 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Rjensen, thank you for Wikifying the first paragraph. I have no objection to it now. However, the second paragraph ("Notwithstanding their different ...") is still a word-for-word quote of my site.
 * Not meaning to be obnoxious. As I said, I have no problem with Wikipedia paraphrasing me or even quoting me so long as which it is is kept clear. -- kent G. budge — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.0.234.231 (talk) 19:56, 16 March 2014 (UTC)

CruDes 5
Before Midway In the first months of World War II in the Pacific, Spruance commanded the four heavy cruisers and support ships of Cruiser Division Five from his flagship, the heavy cruiser USS Northampton. Composition of Cruiser Division Five was three heavy cruisers (Salt Lake City, Northampton, Vincennes), one light cruiser (Nashville)- as these were the 4 cruisers to participate in the Doolittle Raid - listed on that page. Wfoj3 (talk) 22:00, 21 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Raymond A. Spruance


text:
Angra dos Reis

Angra dos Reis (Portuguese for cove or bay of the Kings) is a municipality located in the southern part of the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro. The city is located by the sea and includes in its territory many offshore islands, the largest being Ilha Grande.

The area was first documented by Europeans on January 6, 1502, and has been under continual settlement since 1556. Its population was estimated, on 2021 by IBGE, to be 210,171 inhabitants.

History
The port municipality fell into decline after 1872, having been bypassed by the advent of railways. It came back into prominence in the 1920s, when a railway extension connected it to the states of Minas Gerais and Goias, as a terminus for the transportation of agriculture production from these same two states. The railway extension, in metre gauge, still exists and is currently operated by the Ferrovia Centro-Atlântica company.

In the mid-twentieth century, the municipality was an essential part of the implementation of Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional – CSN, Volta Redonda, and the endpoint for coking coal supplied from Santa Catarina. Today, the same company also uses the port for some of its steel exports.

Its current importance is due, in part, to having a ferry terminal facility in the Bay of Ilha Grande and its harbour, used by TEBIG Petrobras, which transports large quantities of crude oil, and thus positions the port of Angra dos Reis as one of the busiest in the country.

Today, because of its beaches and nearby points of interest, the place has become a focal point for tourism. Within the municipality are over three hundred islands, many of them owned by celebrities, with the largest island being Ilha Grande (Big Island). The Brazilian plastic surgeon and philanthropist Ivo Pitanguy was a noted resident.

Most of the region consists of hilly terrain, which helped generate the landslides that occurred at the beginning of 2010, when numerous homes and hotels were severely damaged or destroyed, mainly on Ilha Grande.

Economy
The most important economic activities are commerce, fishing, industry, services, and tourism. The port has an oil terminal as well as shipbuilding (Keppel Fels, former Verolme) facilities. Brazil's nuclear power stations, Angra I and Angra II are located nearby. They employ 3,000 people, and generate another 10,000 indirect jobs in Rio de Janeiro State. Tourism is highly developed, with beaches, islands and clean waters for swimming or scuba diving. The nuclear power stations also warm the area's waters with their thermal discharges, a form of thermal pollution.

There is a small amount of cattle raising, with approximately 4,200 head. The main agricultural products cultivated are: Data are from IBGE
 * bananas: 1,460 hectares / 3,600 tons
 * coconut: 10 hectares / 130,000 units
 * oranges: 4 hectares / 25 tons
 * hearts of palm (palmito): 50 hectares / 75 tons
 * sugarcane: 20 hectares / 390 tons

Etymology
Gaspar de Lemos, a navigator and commander of the Portuguese naval fleet landed at Ilha Grande on 6 January 1502, a “Kings’ day” – that is, “Dia de Reis”. Accordingly, the place was named “Angra dos Reis”, which means “Creek of the Kings” or loosely – “Anchorage of the Kings”.

Transportation
The city is served by Angra dos Reis Airport.

Location
Angra dos Reis has an area of 816.3 km2. The neighboring municipalities are Paraty, Rio Claro and Mangaratiba in Rio de Janeiro state, and Bananal and São José do Barreiro, which are adjacent in São Paulo state.

The municipality contains the 12072 ha Ilha Grande State Park, created in 1971 on the Ilha Grande off the southern coast. It contains the 3502 ha Praia do Sul Biological Reserve, a strictly protected conservation unit created in 1981 on the Ilha Grande. It contains the 1312 ha Aventureiro Sustainable Development Reserve, formerly the Aventureiro Marine State Park, also on Ilha Grande. The municipality also contains part of the Tamoios Ecological Station. The conservation units are contained within the 12400 ha Tamoios Environmental Protection Area, created in 1982.

Climate
According to Köppen climate classification, Angra dos Reis has a tropical rainforest climate (Af).

title: Angra dos Reis


text: User talk:61.95.234.114

title: User talk:61.95.234.114