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User talk:Dufekin

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Meelar (talk) 05:14, Feb 11, 2005 (UTC)

Chippewa Falls + Eau Claire
A question: what was the source listing Chippewa Falls as a suburb of Eau Claire, Wisconsin? I've never heard it described as such, until seeing it here in WP. -- Cleduc 02:29, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I believe that I got that information from the Census Bureau through this site: (It's down right now, but the EPA just listed all of the communities in each urbanized area determined by the Cenusus Bureau.  They've also got good maps of the Census Bureau's urbanized areas.  By my definition, smaller communities in an urbanized area are suburbs; that makes, for example, Newark, New Jersey a suburb of New York City.  Eau Claire, Wisconsin is a smaller urbanized area, and Chippewa Falls is its only significant suburb (>10,000 population).

http://cfpub1.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/urbanmapresult.cfm?state=WI Dufekin 02:32, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Template:Virginia
I do not agree with the changes in the Template:Virginia. Washington DC is not a major city of Virginia, its not even in Virginia. And, how does one include Roanoke and exclude many larger cities? Please explain, and perhaps we can work out the bugs. Vaoverland 06:23, Feb 16, 2005 (UTC)

Template:New Mexico
Great job reformatting the template. I had been trying to do something similar for a long time now, but just couldn't get it to work right. Keep up the good work. --ABQCat 00:23, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Thanks, but obviously the Powers that Be disagree with me, so I must have erred seriously, I know not how. Dufekin 21:20, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * You know, I think the reversion may have been to bring things in line with standards that some arbitrary self-appointed committee has arbitrarily decided upon. Your layout was more readable, more aesthetic, and generally just more useful.  I'd contact User:Neutrality about the reversion and see why he reverted it.  Typically we give reasons around here for reversions - so I was surprised that Neutrality didn't.  In any event, the layout you made is much nicer in my opinion.  It fixes that darned flag's placement.  --ABQCat 04:28, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Further research - if the reversion was based simply upon standards, it should be noted that there ARE no standards for the state templates. Template:Arizona shares the layout with the original New Mexico template, but Template:Nevada is similar to the layout that you used.  Seriously - ask the reverter what's going on.  I think the newer layout is a lot easier to read.  --ABQCat 04:31, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Airports
Dufekin, I just wanted to point out that WikiProject Airports has a general and consistent style guide for airport articles, and so far the consensus has been to not wikilink destination airports in the airline list. If you'd like to change that, I'd suggest leaving a note on the wikiproject talk page and making your suggestion known. Great work otherwise though! FCYTravis 02:00, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

old hurricanes
Please add inline sources for any new information you add. (I know most information currently there does not have inline sources. This is a major flaw in those articles that, eventually, will be fixed.) — jdorje (talk) 06:53, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

AfD Nomination: 15th century in United States history
I've nominated the article 15th century in United States history for deletion under the Articles for deletion process. We appreciate your contributions, but in this particular case I do not feel that 15th century in United States history satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion. I have explained why in the nomination space (see What Wikipedia is not and Deletion policy). Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/15th century in United States history. Don't forget to add four tildes ( ~ ) at the end of each of your comments to sign them. You are free to edit the content of 15th century in United States history during the discussion, but please do not remove the "Articles for Deletion" template (the box at the top). Doing so will not end the discussion.
 * Wanted to let you know that one of the reasons this article and 14th century in United States history is that there was no such thig as the United States before 1776, and it would be simply inaccurate to say anything happened to/in the United States in the 15-17th Centuries. You might have a stronger case for keeping the articles if they were renamed Xth Century in North American history. Ytny 22:50, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

History pages
Try to add more historical content to those year of U.S history pages as it's currently an borderline A1 in the speedy critiria. Thanks Jaranda wat's sup 03:27, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Also don't create those pages only to tell the life of William Zorach and other people only. Expand the article instead. Thanks Jaranda wat's sup 03:29, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Little context in 1770s in United States history
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Little context in 1695 in the United States
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Sources for Medieval Maritime Culture
You didn't provide any. Could you? I had to delete several of the sentences that appeared rather dubious. More statements that also appear to be dubious will be deleted soon if sources (reliable ones, not secondary sources that don't use notes/references) are not provided by tomorrow. Jonas Poole (talk) 19:39, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

Medieval Maritime Culture
This is a most interesting, indeed fascination article. However, it is seriously compromised, because you have have provided not one source. It may be that this is an area where you are soaked in knowledge, and it is irritating to have to think where you originally got the information from. But, for the rest of us, could you please provide sources. --Geronimo20 (talk) 07:44, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

Question
Is List of United States military bases/Proposed a list of proposed bases, or is it a proposal to reformat the list of active bases? Either way, it needs to be in sandbox space rather than article space until such time as it's complete, so I'm moving it to User:Dufekin/List of United States military bases. Thanks. Bearcat (talk) 19:13, 5 September 2010 (UTC)

Augusta Arsenal
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List of Atlantic hurricanes before 1600
Wow, great additions to this article. Very nice work! Just one comment, though: be careful not to use anachronistic names of the area(s) affected. That 1502 hurricane certainly did not affect the Dominican Republic, for example. I think we should stick with geographic terminology, although I don't think we have finally decided this yet, tho. --bender235 (talk) 20:55, 8 June 2012 (UTC)

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1933 Outer Banks hurricane
Hey there. I noticed your recent edits to the aforementioned article. Do you have sources for what you added to the article? --♫ Hurricanehink ( talk ) 01:35, 27 October 2012 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Early Pacific typhoon seasons

The article Early Pacific typhoon seasons has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * The article describes a very limited set of typhoons in a 3-week period in 1853. It is based entirely on a single primary source, of which it appears to be a close-ish paraphrase. It probably doesn't satisfy WP:GNG. Editors have suggeseted deletion on the talk page.

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August 2013
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Proposed deletion of Medieval maritime culture

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 * Yes. It is an interesting article, but your lack of collaboration and cooperation with the rest of us is disappointing. Your refusal to at least indicate your sources, despite many requests, makes difficult and unnecessary work for others who want to save the article. --Epipelagic (talk) 19:38, 18 August 2014 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Dufekin


text:
Talk:Marginal distribution

Diagram
I find the diagram a little hard to relate to the text at the moment. I think it would be very helpful indeed if someone could add a small description of what the different coloured regions represent, for example.Jimjamjak (talk) 17:06, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

Simple explanation
I guess that most readers are (like me) beginners at probability and statistics. It would be very good if someone could ad an easy pedagogical explanation as a supplement to the formula. Thank you! Aaker (talk) 18:48, 14 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, the explanation should be simpler. Their explanation basically took some very simple rudimentary statistics, and put it in terms that would be way to complex for anyone who didn't already know what Marginal distribution was.--Kodiak42 (talk) 01:06, 29 August 2012 (UTC)

How about this: The marginal distribution of x or g(x) is equal to the indefinite integral of f(x,y) (the probability distribution function) with respect to the y variable or $$ int f_{X,Y}(x,y) \; dy $$=g(x). I'm currently in Probability and stats for engineers and that is the way it was explained to me. --50.84.79.82 (talk) 17:48, 1 April 2014 (UTC)

Incorrect Interpretation?
Surely it should be interpreted as a 28.5% chance of getting hit if you *ignore* the traffic light rather than walk across the road blindfold?!

 * yes, otherwise the new conditions alter the original probability distribution. I've updated the example. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.111.184.8 (talk) 20:09, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

Unfavourable Example values?
Thanks for the "Real World Example". However, the values for the conditional probabilites sum up to one:

P(H=hit|L=red) = 0.01, P(H=hit|L=yellow) = 0.09, P(H=hit|L=green) = 0.9

Although this might be the case, in general I think i won't (e.g. assume very alert drivers, when one is only hit with probability of 0.5 although the lights are green; or Saturday night rushour, when drunk drivers hit any pedestrian crossing). So, for the sake of clarity, should the values in the example be modified? Please correct me if I am wrong. Melwin Quacke (talk) 12:20, 24 November 2009 (UTC)
 * You're correct, only the columns of the conditional probability table should add up to 1. updated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.111.184.8 (talk) 21:03, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

Real-World Example
Thumbs up for the "Real-World Example". I wish every theoretical WP article had such clear examples. Beginners can very easily get lost in jargon. The example really helps readability. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.22.49.29 (talk) 00:40, 11 January 2010 (UTC)

The discussion on the conditional probability of being hit depending on the state of the lights says - "You are, for example, far more likely to be hit by a car if you try to cross while the lights for cross traffic are green than if they are red." Yet the table of probabilities ( second row gives ) G     Y        R H=Hit   0.01 	0.1 	0.8

That's inconsistent. since in the data, the probability of getting hit when the lights are green is 0.01 which is a lot less than 0.8 ( lights are red )..Either the data has to be relabeled, or the text has to invert red and green or the idea of lights for the cross traffic ( that is lights for the orthogonal traffic, which are opposite to you ) made clearer. I'd opt for inverting and drop the phrase "cross traffic" saying instead - and the "lights for the traffic for the road you are trying to cross." or something like that. Skthetwo (talk) 20:26, 27 January 2012 (UTC)

I had the same issue with the inconsistency of the semantics vs. numerical values for the different light colors. Changed the page to make them match but in the opposite way from what Skthetwo described. I kept the interpretation "green light = green cross traffic = pedestrian should NOT cross" and changed the values to reflect that. Still seems like a confusing model since it describes the pedestrian in terms of the cross traffic, but also no pedestrian lights are Red/Yellow/Green, so I didn't want to change it to that. Thus I kept the talk section up in case someone has a more elegant idea. Lily.r.s (talk) 01:19, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

The real world example is a big help at understanding what Marginal Distributions are. However, I am still a bit lost as to how to interpret the numbers at the end of the example. In the current example, 0.572 is the marginal probability on the "hit" row. So, can we say that based on this example, the probability of a pedestrian being hit if they don't pay attention to the condition of the traffic light is 0.572? If a knowledgable person reads this and agrees, can you add an accurate interpretation sentence to the example portion of the article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.154.0.250 (talk) 18:34, 3 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I aggree the real world example is really good and a big help. I think it can be interpreted exactly as 130.154.0.250 said. I certainly do not see any reason why it shouldn't be true. Basically one has the conditional probabilities of what happens when each light is on, plus the probability of each light being on at any given time, and then we do not know when the person, who ignores the light, crosses. Therefore "the probability of a pedestrian being hit if they don't pay attention to the condition of the traffic light is 0.572". I believe this conclusion can be added to the article in that way. Regards, Kmw2700 (talk) 12:07, 29 September 2015 (UTC)

joint distribution and conditional distribution equal?
There is something I don't understand in this explanation: why are the joint distribution and conditional distribution equal here? Nova77 05:14, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * They're not. I've looked at old versions and I can't find what makes you think they are. Michael Hardy 19:57, 7 May 2005 (UTC)

In the example, shouldn't it say that the _conditional_ probability distribution is being weighted by $$P_y(y)$$ instead of the _joint_ probability distribution?
Very nicely explained article, especially as it includes an actual worked example. Regarding this example, I have a comment. In the example, it says: "So in this case the answer for the marginal probability can be found by summing P(H,L) for all possible values of L, with each value of L weighted by its probability of occurring."

But shouldn't it be "$$P(H | L)$$", i.e. the conditional probability distribution? At least in the formula for $$P_X(x)$$ only the conditional probability distribution is weighted by the probability of $$P_Y(y)$$. The joint probability distributions is simply summarized, without any weights.

Thank you very much for clarifying this. 158.64.77.254 (talk) 07:07, 18 September 2014 (UTC)

Real world example doesn't make sense
When we say "someone was crossing the road on red light" we mean the light that was flashed for the person crossing the street and not for the traffic. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.252.73.65 (talk) 00:21, 30 March 2017 (UTC)

How to use a marginal distribution to determine marginal independence?
I have a Markov network is: $$X_1$$ is connected to $$X_2$$ and $$X_3$$, $$X_2$$ is connected to $$X_4$$, $$X_3$$ is connected to $$X_4$$ Given the marginal distribution: $$P(X_2, X_3) = \sum_{X_1, X_4} (X_1, X_2, X_3, X_4)$$, what is the set of marginal independent statements? Inlin (talk) 20:42, 2 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Marginal distribution


text:
Yang You

Yang You, also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝) (605 – 14 September 619 ), was an emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He was installed as a puppet emperor by Li Yuan. After Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty, he had Yang You executed.

Following Yang You's death, his brother Yang Tong claimed the Sui throne until 619.

Li Yuan had rebelled against the rule of Yang You's grandfather Emperor Yang of Sui in 617 and captured the Sui capital Chang'an later that year, seizing Yang You and installing him as a puppet emperor. However, only the commanderies under Li Yuan's control recognized Yang You as emperor. The rest of the commanderies continued to recognize Emperor Yang of Sui as emperor. In 618, after news arrived that Emperor Yang had been killed by the general Yuwen Huaji, Li Yuan had the young emperor yield the throne to him. Li Yuan then murdered Yang You a year later.

During Emperor Yang's reign
Yang You was born in 605, as a son of Yang Zhao, the son and crown prince of Emperor Yang. His mother was Yang Zhao's wife, Crown Princess Wei. He was probably the youngest of Yang Zhao's three sons—he was clearly younger than Yang Tan (楊倓), born in 603, and probably younger than Yang Tong, whose birth year is unknown, based the order in which they were eventually created imperial princes. However, under Confucian principles of succession, he would have been considered Yang Zhao's proper heir, as his mother was Yang Zhao's wife, while Yang Tan's and Yang Tong's mothers were concubines.

Yang Zhao died in 606. However, Emperor Yang did not make Yang You or either of his brothers crown prince to replace Yang Zhao, leaving matters ambiguous as to whether one of them, or Yang Zhao's younger brother Yang Jian the Prince of Qi, would inherit the throne eventually. He made the three sons of Yang Zhao imperial princes, and Yang You received the title of Prince of Dai. As Emperor Yang did not often stay in the capital Chang'an, starting 613, he made the eight-year-old Yang You nominally in charge of Chang'an, although he left the official Wei Wensheng (衛文昇) in actual charge of the city. Later that year, when the general Yang Xuangan rebelled and attacked the eastern capital Luoyang, it was Wei who led troops from Chang'an to aid Luoyang's defenses.

In 617, the general Li Yuan, fearful of Emperor Yang because Emperor Yang had become displeased with him over his inability to defend against Tujue attacks and suspicious of him after there had been prophecies that the next emperor would be named Li, rebelled at his headquarters at Taiyuan (太原, in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). Li, wanting to both distance himself from Emperor Yang while declaring to the Sui forces that he was still loyal to Sui, claimed that his goal was to support Yang You as emperor and to persuade Yang Guang to return from Jiangdu (江都, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu) as Taishang Huang (retired emperor). Li proceeded quickly to Chang'an, and during Li's campaign, Wei died. Wei's lieutenants Yin Shishi (陰世師) and Gu Yi (骨儀) were left in charge of the city and guardianship over Yang You.

In winter 617, Li's forces breached Chang'an's defenses. Li took Yang You and declared him emperor (as Emperor Gong), remotely offering Emperor Yang the title of Taishang Huang, but only territory under Li's control recognized Yang You as emperor.

Reign
While Emperor Gong was emperor, the real power was in Li Yuan's hands, and Li had Yang You make him the Prince of Tang. Quickly, the surrounding commanderies, including most of modern Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Chongqing, submitted to Li.

With Luoyang under attack by the rebel leader Li Mi, in spring 618, Li sent troops commanded by his sons Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin there, claiming to be aiding the defense. The Sui forces at Luoyang refused to recognize Li's authority and made no contact with Li Jiancheng's and Li Shimin's forces, which withdrew after brief engagement with Li Mi's forces.

In summer 618, just six months after Yang took imperial title, Li had Yang pass the throne to him, establishing Tang dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu.

After reign
The new emperor created the former emperor the Duke of Xi. The duke died in fall 619, and while traditional histories did not directly state so, they implied that he was killed on the Tang emperor's orders. He had no sons, and his title was inherited by a distant nephew, Yang Xingji (楊行基).

title: Yang You


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User talk:Jas~enwiki

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Request for usurpation
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Thank you for your time. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jaspercrowe (talk • contribs) 17:22, 12 June 2014 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:48, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 14:16, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jas~enwiki


text:
Khenchela

Khenchela ancient Mascula (خنشلة) is the capital city of the administrative Khenchela Province (Wilaya), number 40, in the north east of Algeria. Situated in the Aures Mountains, 1200 m above sea level. The city is mainly populated by Berber Chaouis.

Climate
Located in the Aurès Mountains (part of the Atlas Mountains), at 1,200 m above sea level, Khenchela has warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb), with an average annual precipitation of 446 mm. Summers are warm and dry and winters are chilly and wetter, with the possibility of snowfall.

This is one of the coldest cities in Algeria.

History
Queen Kahina led a decades long war against the Islamic conquest in the 7th century, and she built a castle here. During the Barbary period there were many inter town conflict over water resources.

The French army reached Khenchela in 1850 after heavy fighting and more strenuous resistance and set up a military administration. Organization of work of the city were undertaken. The first French settlers were allowed from 1878. Farms were built and they made plantations. In doing so, the farmers cleared a path for vegetation at the valley of Wadi Boughegal which in turn gave birth to natural grasslands, allowing cattle breeding and feeding the population with fresh dairy products (i.e. milk, butter, cheese).

In October 1905, the inauguration of the line of Railway Ain Beida in Khenchela meter gauge will provide a daily service with the North. Military administration lasted until 1912.

In 1982, a mass grave containing more than 1200 corpses from the war of Algeria is discovered. It would be the largest ever discovered in Algeria. The authorities and the Algerian press attribute it to the French army although this is disputed (these victims may have been French harkis).

Since then, the population has grown particularly fast: 12 000 inhabitants in 1954, 28,000 in 1962, 70,000 in 1987 and 87,196 in 2002. This increase is partly explained by population displacement during the war in Algeria, the area being a refuge for resistance fighters. This has posed and continues to pose planning problems (housing, water, sewer, electricity).

Education

 * Abbes Laghrour University

title: Khenchela


text: User talk:4.253.75.71

title: User talk:4.253.75.71


text:
Talk:Manchester Community College (Connecticut)

Manchester Community Technical College
Might be worth mentioning that the college was at one point was called Manchester Community Technical College (MCTC). I would amend myself but being an alumni, it might be a Conflict of interest. Jake-jakubowski (talk) 16:06, 25 December 2022 (UTC)


text:
User:Jason.Schwartz

Experimental Particle Physics is my main area of research. I am mostly concerned with understanding QCD in the context of Deep Inelastic Electron-Proton scattering. I have spent 5 years working with the ZEUS Experiment and hope to expand the existing body of knowledge on that topic.

I am also interested in Judaism and hope to do my part to contribute wherever possible.

Contributions

 * Canadian Association of Physicists
 * ZEUS
 * Calorimeter
 * Bagg Street Shul

title: User:Jason.Schwartz


text:
Kenneth Pomeranz

Kenneth Pomeranz, FBA (born November 4, 1958) is University Professor of History at the University of Chicago. He received his B.A. from Cornell University in 1980, where he was a Telluride Scholar, and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1988, where he was a student of Jonathan Spence. He then taught at the University of California, Irvine, for more than 20 years. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences in 2006. In 2013–2014 he was the president of the American Historical Association. Pomeranz has been described as a major figure in the California School of economic history.

Books

 * The great divergence: China, Europe, and the making of the modern world economy. Princeton University Press, 2000. John K. Fairbank Prize 2001. Joint winner, World History Association Best book of 2000.
 * The world that trade created: society, culture and the world economy, 1400 to the present. M. E. Sharpe: 1999.
 * The making of a hinterland: state, society and economy in inland north China, 1853-1937. University of California Press, 1993. John K. Fairbank Prize 1994.

Edited volumes

 * The Pacific in the Age of Early Industrialization. Farnham England: Ashgate/Variorum, 2009.
 * with McNeill, J. R., (2015). The Cambridge world history: Production, destruction, and connection, 1750 to the present. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * with Barker, G., Benjamin, C., Bentley, J. H., Christian, D., Goucher, C., Kedar, B. Z., Mcneill, J. R., Yoffee, N. (2015). The Cambridge world history: Structures, spaces, and boundary making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * China in 2008: A year of great significance. (co-ed.). Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009.

Articles and chapters in edited volumes

 * The environment and world history. (co-ed.) Berkeley : University of California Press, 2009.
 * “Orthopraxy, orthodoxy, and the goddess(es) of Taishan [examination of the Bixia yuanjun cult].” Modern China 33.1 (2007) 22–46.
 * “Region and world in economic history: the early modern / modern divide” Transactions of the International Conference of Eastern Studies 52 (2007) 41–55.
 * “Standards of living in eighteenth-century China: regional differences, temporal trends, and incomplete evidence” In: Allen, Robert C.; Bengtsson, Tommy; Dribe, Martin, eds. Living standards in the past: new perspectives on well-being in Asia and Europe. (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005): 23–54.
 * “Women's work and the economics of respectability [boundaries]” In: Goodman, Bryna; Larson, Wendy, eds. Gender in motion: divisions of labor and cultural change in late imperial and modern China (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005): 239–263.
 * “Women's work, family, and economic development in Europe and East Asia: long-term trajectories and contemporary comparisons” In: Arrighi, Giovanni; Hamashita, Takeshi; Selden, Mark, eds. The resurgence of East Asia: 500, 150 and 50 year perspectives (London; New York: Routledge, 2003): 124–172.
 * “Facts are stubborn things: a response to Philip Huang” Journal of Asian Studies 62.1 (February 2003): 167–181.
 * “Political economy and ecology on the eve of industrialization: Europe, China, and the global conjuncture” American Historical Review 107.2 (April 2002) 425–446.
 * “Beyond the East-West binary: resituating development paths in the eighteenth-century world” Journal of Asian Studies 61.2 (May 2002) 539–590.
 * “Is there an East Asian development path? Long-term comparisons, constraints, and continuities” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 44, pt.3 (Aug 2001) 322–362.
 * “Re-thinking the late imperial Chinese economy: development, disaggregation and decline, circa 1730-1930” Itinerario 24.3-4 (2000) 29–74.
 * "Ritual Imitation and Political Identity in North China: The late Imperial Legacy and the Chinese National State Revisited," Twentieth Century China 23:1 Fall, 1997.
 * "Power, Gender and Pluralism in the cult of the Goddess of Taishan," in R. Bin Wong, Theodore Huters, and Pauline Yu, eds., Culture and State in Chinese History (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997).
 * “"Traditional' Chinese business forms revisited: family, firm, and financing in the history of the Yutang Company of Jining, 1779-1956.” Late Imperial China 18.1 (June 1997): 1-38.
 * “Local interest story: political power and regional differences in the Shandong capital market, 1900-1937” In: Rawski, Thomas G.; Li, Lillian M., eds. Chinese history in economic perspective(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992) 295–318.
 * "Water to Iron, Widows to Warlords: the Handam Rain Shrine in Modern Chinese History," Late Imperial China 12.1 (June 1991) 62–99.

Awards and honors

 * 1994 John K. Fairbank Prize for best book in East Asian history
 * 1997 John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship
 * 2001 World History Association Book Prize
 * 2001 John K. Fairbank Prize for best book in East Asian history
 * 2011-12 Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey
 * 2017, Elected Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences.
 * 2019 Dan David Prize
 * 2021 Toynbee Prize

title: Kenneth Pomeranz


text:
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang

Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (26 November 656 – 3 July 710), personal name Li Xian, and at other times Li Zhe or Wu Xian, was the fourth and seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710. During the first period, he did not have actual power, which was in the hands of his mother, Empress Wu Zetian and he was overthrown on her orders after opposing his mother. During his second reign, most of the power was in the hands of his consort Empress Wei.

Emperor Zhongzong was the son of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian), and during the reign of his father, Emperor Zhongzong's mother Empress Wu, not Emperor Gaozong, was in actual control of power as empress consort and power behind the emperor. He succeeded his father in 684, But as emperor, he had no true power, and all authorities remained in the firmly hands of his mother, Empress Dowager Wu. His mother, however, deposed him less than two months later in favor of his younger brother Emperor Ruizong. The former emperor, demoted to a princely rank, was sent in exile in the provinces and placed under house arrest. Six years later, Emperor Ruizong in relinquished the throne to his mother and Empress Dowager Wu officially proclaimed herself empress regnant, while Emperor Ruizong was made crown prince.

By 698 the court was caught in the middle of a bitter power struggle. In an attempt to secure her prominence, Empress Wu liberated the former emperor from his 14 years of seclusion and recalled him to the capital in April 698. He was reinstated as crown prince in October 698, taking the place of his brother. On 20 February 705, a palace coup deposed Wu Zetian and Emperor Zhongzong was restored as emperor three days later. Emperor Zhongzong reigned for five years but was a totally weak, carefree, cowardly, shy, henpecked weakling and easily influenced ruler. Thus, real power was in the hands of his empress consort, Empress Wei and her lover Wu Sansi (Wu Zetian's nephew) and his daughter Li Guo'er, the Princess Anle. He was relatively similar to his father. Of course, Emperor Gaozong was able to make decisions, although he did it slowly in government affairs, but various debilitating diseases until his death became the main reason for handing over power to his wife Empress Wu, but in fact Emperor Zhongzong due to depression due to house arrest, who suffered in the past, this encouraged him to hand over power to his wife and daughter.

In 710, Emperor Zhongzong died, allegedly poisoned by Empress Wei, who then installed his son, Li Chongmao, as Emperor Shang. Empress Wei, who had failed to install her daughter Li Guo'er, the Princess Anle, as heir to Emperor Zhongzong, thought that Li Chongmao, born of Zhongzong and a concubine and who was only 16 years old, would be easy to control and allow her to preserve her power. The scheme failed, however, when Princess Taiping, the sister of Emperor Zhongzong, launched a coup two weeks later with her nephew Li Longji (later Emperor Xuanzong), son of the abdicated Emperor Ruizong, and overthrew Empress Wei and the young emperor. Emperor Ruizong, the father of Li Longji and the older brother of Princess Taiping, was restored as emperor.

Background
Li Xiǎn was born in 656, as the seventh son of his father Emperor Gaozong and the third son of his mother, Emperor Gaozong's second wife Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian). In 657, he was created the Prince of Zhou and nominally made the prefect of the eastern capital prefecture Luo Prefecture (洛州, roughly modern Luoyang, Henan). In 661, when his older brother Li Xián the Prince of Pei had the literarily-talented official Wang Bo on staff, the princes were apparently often engaged in cockfighting. Wang Bo wrote a playful piece entitled the Declaration Against the Prince of Zhou's Cock (檄周王雞文), which, however, when Emperor Gaozong read it, caused Emperor Gaozong to be angry, as he believed this would cause discord between his sons, and therefore expelled Wang from the Pei mansion. However, in 674, a similar incident happened by Emperor Gaozong's own instigation—as, at an imperial feast, he divided the imperial musicians into two teams and had Li Xián and Li Xiǎn lead the two teams in competition—although he stopped when the chancellor Hao Chujun pointed out the potential for rivalry.

Meanwhile, during the years that Li Xiǎn was the Prince of Zhou, he had married a daughter of his grandaunt the Princess Changle and her husband, the general Zhao Gui (趙瓌), as his wife and princess. Emperor Gaozong had often shown favors to Princess Changle, and this displeased Empress Wu. In 675, on account of this, she had Princess Zhao accused of crimes and put into solitary confinement at the bureau of eunuchs. She was given raw vegetables and raw meat for her to cook them herself. However, sometime later, the kitchen stopped to have smoke and steam come out of it, and when Empress Wu had her confinement house opened, Princess Zhao was seen dead inside, having starved to death. Empress Wu also demoted Zhao Gui to be the prefect of Kuo Prefecture (括州, roughly modern Lishui, Zhejiang) and ordered Princess Changle to accompany her husband to Kuo Prefecture, and further ordered that neither Zhao Gui nor Princess Changle would be allowed to enter the palace.

In 676, when the Tibetan Empire attacked Tang's western prefectures, Li Xiǎn and his younger brother Li Lun, the Prince of Xiang, were nominally put in charge of the two armies that were actually commanded by the generals Liu Shenli (劉審禮) and Qibi Heli (契苾何力), but neither Li Xiǎn nor Li Lun actually set out with the troops.

In 677, Li Xiǎn had his title changed to Prince of Ying. His name was also changed to Li Zhe. He was also made the prefect of the capital prefecture Yong Prefecture (雍州, roughly modern Xi'an, Shaanxi).

By 680, Li Xián, who was then crown prince, had lost Empress Wu's favor. After she suspected him of having had her trusted sorcerer Ming Chongyan (明崇儼) assassinated, she had him investigated for treason, and subsequently, he was found guilty. He was reduced to commoner rank and exiled, and Li Zhe was created crown prince to replace him. Hao Chujun and another chancellor, Liu Rengui, were made his senior advisors. Emperor Gaozong also recruited the famed hermit scholar Tian Youyan (田遊巖) to serve as an advisor, although Tian would later draw criticism from others for not having any actual good advice for the crown prince.

First stint as crown prince
In 681, after Emperor Gaozong had become ill after consuming pills made by alchemists, Empress Wu rarely allowed anyone to meet with Emperor Gaozong, and all important matters were resolved in the Central Palace (the residence of the empresses), he had Li Zhe briefly exercise imperial powers, also, the chancellors aligned with Empress Wu were also responsible for helping him.

In 682, Li Zhe's second wife, Crown Princess Wei, gave birth to a son, Li Chongzhao. Emperor Gaozong was pleased, and he created Li Chongzhao the unprecedented title of "Deputy Crown Prince" (皇太孫, Huang Taisun). Later that year, due to a famine in the Guanzhong region (i.e., the region around the capital Chang'an), Emperor Gaozong took up residence at the eastern capital Luoyang, leaving Li Zhe in charge of Chang'an, assisted by the chancellors Liu Rengui, Pei Yan, and Xue Yuanchao. it was said that while Li Zhe was in charge of Chang'an, he often spent his time on games and hunting, and Xue often advised him against spending time in this manner. When Emperor Gaozong heard this, he rewarded Xue and summoned Xue to Luoyang.

In 683, Emperor Gaozong became ill at Luoyang, and he summoned Li Zhe to Luoyang, leaving Li Chongrun nominally in charge of Chang'an, assisted by Liu. After Li Zhe arrived at Luoyang, Emperor Gaozong transferred imperial powers to him (probably on the advice of Empress Wu), and soon died. Li Zhe took the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong), but actual powers were entire in the hands of Empress Wu, now empress dowager and regent.

First reign: under Empress Dowager Wu's regency and dethronement
After the death of Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Zhongzong ascended the throne, leaving a will on his deathbed which stated: "After 7 days, the Crown Prince will sit on the throne in front of my coffin. In the case of the tomb regime, austerity policies must be maintained, and the chancellors Pei Yan, Liu Rengui, Liu Jingxian, and Guo Zhengyi are in charge of assisting the emperor, every important issue should be discussed with the Empress of Heaven, and done by arbitration her. If there is something in the army and government that can't be decided quickly, then the decision is the responsibility of the Empress of Heaven, and the emperor stops !"

During the mourning period, Pei Yan proposed that the throne be temporarily entrusted to Empress Wu, who was now the empress dowager, until the new emperor's reign and their responsibilities began, as provided for in Emperor Gaozong's will. After the end of mourning, Empress Dowager Wu handed over the throne to Emperor Zhongzong, but she did not hand over the real power, "the great and small affairs of the state depended on the Empress Dowager's decision, not the Emperor's". Emperor Zhongzong, in spring 684, made his wife, Crown Princess Wei, empress consort, and he was very impressed by Empress Wei, and she told him: "You are the Son of Heaven. Why do you have to listen to the Empress Dowager in everything? Do you want to be a puppet emperor?" Emperor Zhongzong felt that what the empress said was reasonable, but there was nothing he could do about it, Empress Wei went on to say: "For now, only by vigorously promoting your own people and cultivating your own power can you compete with the Empress Dowager and formally her government." He was impressed by her words, and wanted to make his father-in-law, Wei Xuanzhen (韋玄貞) Shizhong – the head of the examination bureau of government and a post considered one for a chancellor. He also wanted to make the son of his wet nurse an official of the fifth rank. Pei Yan resisted both commissions, and Pei told him: "Although Wei Xuanzhen is your wife's father, he has been promoted too fast, and I'm afraid it will be difficult to convince the public.". As they argued, Emperor Zhongzong, in anger, remarked, "What would be wrong even if I gave the empire to Wei Xuanzhen? Why would I begrudge the title of Shizhong?

Pei, in fear, informed Empress Dowager Wu, and she was angry to hear this and said, "This apostate boy treats the Tang Dynasty like a childish game, and it forces me to erase a disaster from the world." Just less than two months after Emperor Zhongzong had taken the throne, Empress Dowager Wu summoned the officials and generals and issued an edict deposing Emperor Zhongzong and reducing to the title of Prince of Luling. As generals loyal to her physically removed Emperor Zhongzong from the throne, he struggled and asked, "What crime have I committed?" Empress Dowager Wu responded, "You wanted to give the empire to Wei Xuanzhen. How can that not be a crime?" She had him put under arrest, and she made Li Lun (now named Li Dan), Prince of Yu, the new emperor (as Emperor Ruizong) on 27 February. Li Chongzhao was reduced to commoner rank.

In exile
Empress Dowager Wu soon ordered that Li Zhe and his family first be delivered to Fang Prefecture (房州, in modern Shiyan, Hubei), and then Jun Prefecture (均州, also in modern Shiyan), to be held under house arrest at the house that his uncle Li Tai had been placed after Li Tai was deposed in 643. (Subsequently, in 685, he was moved back to Fang Prefecture.) On the way to exile, Princess Wei gave birth to a daughter. There was nothing to wrap the baby with, so Li Zhe took off his own shirt and wrapped the baby in it. To commemorate this, the daughter was subsequently named Li Guo'er (Guo'er meaning "the child that was wrapped"). Li Zhe and Princess Wei both greatly favored this child born in distress.

Li Zhe was constantly in fear in exile, as Empress Dowager Wu had previously shown willingness to kill her own children—having forced Li Xián to commit suicide in 684 and having been rumored to have poisoned another son, Li Hong, in 675—and whenever there would be imperial messengers arriving from then-capital Luoyang, he would consider committing suicide, fearing that they brought orders for even worse fates. Princess Wei would repeatedly tell him:

"There is no set pattern to bad and good fortune. Since we will all die one day anyway, why hasten death?"

At this point, they were deeply in love with each other, and at another point, he told her:

"If we will see the light of day again, I will not stop you from doing anything."

While Li Zhe was in exile, people who rebelled against or plotted against Empress Dowager Wu often used him as a symbol of their resistance. For example, when Li Jingye the Duke of Ying rose against Empress Dowager Wu later in 684, he declared that his goal was to restore Li Zhe. Other examples included Yang Chucheng (楊初成) in 687 and Li Yin (李諲) the Duke of Poyang (Emperor Gaozong's cousin) in 689.

In 690, Empress Dowager Wu had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her, and she took the throne as "empress regnant" of a new Zhou Dynasty, interrupting Tang. She created Emperor Ruizong crown prince with the unusual title Huangsi (皇嗣), and initially, Li Zhe's status was not changed.

Second stint as crown prince in the reign of his mother Wu Zetian
In 697, during a major Khitan incursion, led by the khan Sun Wanrong, Sun issued a declaration questioning why Wu Zetian was keeping Li Zhe in exile. Thereafter, the chancellor Di Renjie often counseled Wu Zetian to recall Li Zhe, which fellow chancellors Wang Fangqing and Wang Jishan also agreed with. Further, Wu Zetian's close associate Ji Xu also advocated it and further persuaded her lovers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong to advocate the same. Wu Zetian finally agreed, and in 698 recalled Li Zhe and his family back to Luoyang, then the capital. Shortly thereafter, Li Dan offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu Zetian agreed, creating Li Zhe crown prince on 24 October, demoting Li Dan to the rank of Prince of Xiang. She also changed his name back to Li Xiǎn, and subsequently changed his surname to Wu. Subsequently, when she named him the nominal commander of the forces defending against a major Göktürk incursion on 26 October, it was said that as soon as he was named the commander, men swarmed to enlist. Before, less than 1000 men joined after more than a month of recruitment; the numbers swelled to more than 50000 after the announcement.

In 699, fearing that after her death the Li and Wu clans would not be able to keep peace with each other, Wu Zetian had Li Xiǎn, Li Dan, Princess Taiping, and her husband Wu Youji (Wu Zetian's nephew) swear an oath to each other.

In 701, Li Chongzhao (now named Li Chongrun to observe naming taboo for Wu Zetian (whose personal name was Wu Zhao) and now carrying the title of Prince of Shao), Li Zhe's daughter Li Xianhui the Princess Yongtai, and Li Xianhui's husband Wu Yanji (武延基) the Prince of Wei (Wu Zetian's grandnephew), were accused of secretly disparaging Wu Zetian's relationships with Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong. In anger, Wu Zetian ordered the three of them to commit suicide.

In spring 705, Wu Zetian was seriously ill, and Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were attending to her and, at her direction, handling the major affairs of state, and there were rumors that they were seeking to displace Li Xiǎn. The chancellors Zhang Jianzhi and Cui Xuanwei, along with other officials Jing Hui, Huan Yanfan, and Yuan Shuji plotted to overthrow her and the Zhang brothers. They persuaded the generals Li Duozuo and Li Dan (李湛, note different character than the Prince of Xiang) to join the plot. With agreement from Li Xiǎn as well, the coup leaders acted on 20 February, killing Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, and then surrounding Wu Zetian. She, in fear, asked, "Who is disturbing me?" Zhang Jianzhi responded, in a formalistic manner:

"Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong committed treason. Following the orders of the Crown Prince, we have executed them. Because we were afraid that the secret would be leaked, we did not dare to first report to Your Imperial Majesty.  We are guilty of the great disrespect of moving troops within the palace, and should be executed 10,000 times."

Wu Zetian subsequently tried to have Li Xiǎn returned to the palace of the Crown Prince, but the coup leaders ignored her. While the coup leaders allowed Wu Zetian to retain the title of "emperor," they had her put under house arrest at the secondary palace Shangyang Palace (上陽宮) and forced her to yield the throne to Li Xiǎn, who was formerly emperor, and he was restored to the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong).

Second reign: under Empress Wei's shadow
Emperor Zhongzong once again ascended to the throne, which is different from the first time he was a puppet. This time he truly mastered the power and quickly used it handily. Once restored, Emperor Zhongzong initially put the five coup leaders in prominent positions. However, Empress Wei, once restored, became the most major, powerful and dominant figure at court, along with her daughter Li Guo'er, who now carried the title of Princess Anle and formed a faction that wielded strong control over the court and consolidated her power. The only mother-daughter rival for dominate the emperor's grace and power was the Emperor Zhongzong's sister, Princess Taiping, who also had great favor with Emperor Zhongzong and was one of the most powerful women in the court. Also powerful was Wu Zetian's secretary Shangguan Wan'er, whom Emperor Zhongzong took as a concubine, who was also having an affair with Wu Zetian's nephew Wu Sansi the Prince of Liang. Under her introduction, Empress Wei and Wu Sansi also soon started having an affair. With Consort Shangguan's and Empress Wei's influence, Wu Sansi became a powerful and trusted advisor to Emperor Zhongzong. Meanwhile, Empress Wei, disliking Emperor Zhongzong's oldest surviving son Li Chongfu the Prince of Qiao (born of a concubine), falsely accused Li Chongfu of being complicit in Li Chongrun's death. Emperor Zhongzong demoted Li Chongfu out of the capital to serve as a prefectural prefect, under heavy guard. Emperor Zhongzong initially offered the crown prince position to Li Dan, but after Li Dan declined, created another son by a concubine, Li Chongjun, crown prince.

The coup leaders, meanwhile, were trying to curb Wu Sansi's rise, but in turn, Wu Sansi and Empress Wei repeatedly warned Emperor Zhongzong that the coup leaders were overly powerful and dangerous. In fall 705, Emperor Zhongzong agreed, and created the coup leaders princes under guise of honoring them, but removed them from their chancellor positions.

In winter 705, Wu Zetian died. Her "emperor" title was subsequently removed and empress title restored, and Emperor Zhongzong buried her at Qianling, with his father Emperor Gaozong. (Also buried there were Emperor Zhongzong's brother Li Xián, Li Chongrun, and Li Xianhui.)

In spring 706, after Emperor Zhongzong's son-in-law Wang Tongjiao (王同皎, husband of Princess Ding'an), who despised Empress Wei and Wu Sansi, was accused of plotting to kill Wu Sansi and depose Empress Wei, Wang and his alleged coconspirators were executed, and subsequently, Wu Sansi and his associates accused Jing Hui, Huan Yanfan, Zhang Jianzhi, Yuan Shuji, and Cui Xuanwei of being complicit in Wang's plot. The five princes were exiled and subsequently died or were killed in exile.

In 707, Li Chongjun, angry that Li Guo'er and her husband Wu Chongxun (武崇訓, Wu Sansi's son) had repeatedly humiliated him and tried to get Li Guo'er created crown princess to displace him, rose in rebellion with Li Duozuo and the generals Li Sichong (李思沖), Li Chengkuang (李承況), Dugu Yizhi (獨孤禕之), and Shazha Zhongyi (沙吒忠義), along with Emperor Zhongzong's cousin Li Qianli (李千里) the Prince of Cheng and Li Qianli's son LI Xi (李禧) the Prince of Tianshui. They attacked Wu Sansi's mansion and killed Wu Sansi and Wu Chongxun, and then marched on to the palace, trying to seize Consort Shangguan, Empress Wei, and Li Guo'er. The rebels hesitated at attacking the palace, and the imperial guards fought back. After the eunuch Yang Sixu (楊思勗) killed Li Duozuo's son-in-law Ye Huli (野呼利), and Emperor Zhongzong made a personal appeal to the coup forces, the coup forces turned against Li Chongjun, killing the generals commanding them. Li Chongjun fled but was killed in exile. Subsequently, the senior chancellor Wei Yuanzhong, whose son Wei Sheng (魏升) had been forced to join the rebellion, was exiled and killed in exile at the instigation of two chancellors aligned with Empress Wei and Li Guo'er, Zong Chuke and Ji Chuna. However, attempts by Empress Wei's party to implicate Li Dan and Princess Taiping were unsuccessful.

Meanwhile, the court was dominated by a number of powerful women, including Li Guo'er, Princess Changning (Emperor Zhongzong's and Empress Wei's older daughter), Empress Wei's sister Lady of Cheng, Consort Shangguan, Consort Shangguan's mother Lady Zheng of Pei, senior ladies in waiting Chai and Helou, the sorceress Diwu Ying'er (第五英兒), and Lady Zhao of Longxi. These women were openly accepting bribes, and were able to recommend a number of people to be officials, directly commissioned by Emperor Zhongzong without approval from the legislative (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng) and examination (門下省, Menxia Sheng) bureaus. The civil service system was said to be overrun with corruption and running into near collapse.

In winter 708, after the Turgesh (突騎施) chieftain Suoge (娑葛), who had just succeeded his father Wuzhile (烏質勒), was challenged by Wuzhile's subordinate Kül Čor (Quechuo 闕啜) Ashina Zhongjie (阿史那忠節), Zhongjie, who was unable to prevail over Suoge, bribed Zong and Ji to persuade Emperor Zhongzong to prepare a joint attack against the Turgesh with the Tibetan Empire, despite counsel by the general Guo Yuanzhen against it. When Suoge heard this, he launched an attack preemptively, attacking several key Tang garrisons, capturing Zhongjie, and killing the Tang general Feng Jiabin (馮嘉賓), who had been sent to assist Zhongjie. Subsequently, after Emperor Zhongzong recognized Suoge's authority over the Turgesh tribes, hostility ceased, and Suoge again became a Tang vassal.

In spring 710, Emperor Zhongzong sent Princess Jincheng, the daughter of his nephew Li Shouli the Prince of Yong (Li Xián's son), to the Tibetan Empire to be married to its emperor, Me Agtsom, cementing peace between the two states.

Death
Meanwhile, there had been accusations made by individuals such as Lang Ji (郎岌) and Yan Qinrong (燕欽融) that Empress Wei was committing adultery, and that her partisans, including Li Guo'er, her new husband Wu Yanxiu (武延秀, a grandnephew of Wu Zetian), and Zong Chuke, were planning to overthrow the Tang dynasty. Emperor Zhongzong ordered Lang executed, but became displeased when Zong had Yan killed without Emperor Zhongzong having decided to do so. This caused Empress Wei and her partisans to begin to become apprehensive. Empress Wei was, meanwhile, having affairs with the officials Ma Qinke (馬秦客) and Yang Jun (楊均). She wanted to be Empress Regnant like Wu Zetian, and Li Guo'er wanted to be crown princess—a request that Emperor Zhongzong had repeatedly rebuffed. According to traditional historians, they thus decided to have Emperor Zhongzong killed. They accomplished this by putting poison in a cake, and after Emperor Zhongzong ate the cake, he died on 3 July, 710.

Initially, Emperor Zhongzong's son by a concubine, Li Chongmao the Prince of Wen, was named emperor, with Empress Wei retaining power as empress dowager and regent. Less than a month later, Princess Taiping and Li Dan's son Li Longji the Prince of Linzi rose in rebellion and killed Empress Wei and Li Guo'er. Subsequently, Li Dan took the throne again, displacing Emperor Shang. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Zhongzong was buried in an imperial burial. As Empress Wei was considered unsuitable to be buried with him, Emperor Ruizong was set to bury Emperor Zhongzong's first wife Princess Zhao, whom Emperor Zhongzong had posthumously honored an empress, with him, but Princess Zhao's body could no longer be located. Therefore, a ceremony was held in which her spirit was summoned to accompany Emperor Zhongzong in death.

In fiction and popular culture

 * Portrayed by Raymond Cho in The Greatness of a Hero (2009).

First reign

 * Sisheng (嗣聖 sì shèng) 684

Second reign

 * Shenlong (神龍 shén lóng) 705–707 (inherited from Wu Zetian)
 * Jinglong (景龍 jǐng lóng) 707–710

First reign

 * Liu Rengui (683–684)
 * Pei Yan (683–684)
 * Guo Daiju (683–684)
 * Cen Changqian (683–684)
 * Guo Zhengyi (683–684)
 * Wei Xuantong (683–684)
 * Liu Jingxian (683–684)
 * Wei Hongmin (684)

Second reign

 * Wei Anshi (705, 705–706, 709–710)
 * Cui Xuanwei (705)
 * Yao Yuanzhi (705)
 * Yang Zaisi (705–709)
 * Tang Xiujing (705–706, 709–710)
 * Zhang Jianzhi (705)
 * Fang Rong (705)
 * Wei Chengqing (705)
 * Yuan Shuji (705)
 * Li Dan (705)
 * Jing Hui (705)
 * Huan Yanfan (705)
 * Wu Sansi (705)
 * Zhu Qinming (705–706)
 * Wei Yuanzhong (705–707)
 * Li Huaiyuan (705–706, 706)
 * Doulu Qinwang (705–709)
 * Wei Juyuan (705, 706–710)
 * Li Jiao (706–710)
 * Yu Weiqian (706–707)
 * Su Gui (706–707, 709–710)
 * Zong Chuke (707–710)
 * Ji Chuna (707–710)
 * Xiao Zhizhong (707–710)
 * Zhang Renyuan (708–710)
 * Wei Sili (709–710)
 * Cui Shi (709)
 * Zhao Yanzhao (709–710)
 * Wei Wen (709–710)
 * Zheng Yin (709)

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Empress Hesi, of the Zhao clan (和思皇后 趙氏/和思皇后 赵氏; d. 675), first cousin once removed
 * Empress, of the Wei clan of Jingzhao (皇后 京兆韋氏／京兆韦氏; d. 710)
 * Li Chongrun, Crown Prince Yide (懿德皇太子 李重潤／懿德皇太子 李重润; 682–701), second son
 * Princess Changning (長寧公主／长宁公主), fourth daughter
 * Married Yang Shenjiao of Hongnong, Duke Guan (弘農 楊慎交／弘弄 杨慎交; 675–724), and had issue (two sons, one daughter)
 * Married Su Yanbo (蘇彥伯／苏彦伯) in 728
 * Princess Yongshou (永壽公主／永寿公主), fifth daughter
 * Married Wei Hui of Jingzhao, Duke Pengcheng (京兆 韋鐬／京兆 韦钺)
 * Princess Yongtai (永泰公主; 685–701), personal name Xianhui (仙蕙), seventh daughter
 * Married Wu Yanji (武延基; 679–701), the first son of Wu Chengsi, in 700
 * Princess Anle (安樂公主／安乐公主; 685–710), personal name Guo'er (裹兒／裹儿), eighth daughter
 * Married Wu Chongxun (武崇訓／武崇训; 683–707), a son of Wu Sansi, and had issue (one son)
 * Married Wu Yanxiu (武延秀; 685–710), the sixth son of Wu Chengsi, and had issue (one son)
 * Noble Consort Zheng, of the Zheng clan (郑贵妃 郑氏), personal name Pusi (普思)
 * Second Imperial Concubine, of the Shangguan clan (惠文昭容 上官氏; 664–710), personal name Wan'er (婉兒／婉儿)
 * Lady, of a certain clan (姓不详)
 * Li Chongfu, Prince Qiao (譙王 李重福／谯王 李重福; 680–710), first son
 * Lady, of a certain clan (姓不详)
 * Li Chongjun, Crown Prince Jiemin (節愍皇太子 李重俊／节愍皇太子李重俊; d. 707), third son
 * Lady, of a certain clan (姓不详)
 * Li Chongmao, Emperor Shang (殇皇帝 李重茂; 695–714), fourth son
 * Unknown
 * Princess Xindu (新都公主), first daughter
 * Married Wu Yanhui, Duke Chen (武延暉／武延晖), and had issue (one son)
 * Princess Yicheng (宜城公主), second daughter
 * Married Pei Xun of Hedong, Duke Wei (河東 裴巽/河东 裴巽; 672–726) in 698
 * Princess Ding'an (定安公主; d. 733), third daughter
 * Married Wang Tongjiao of Langya, Duke Langya (瑯琊 王同皎; 671–706), and had issue (one son)
 * Married Wei Zhuo of Jingzhao (京兆 韋濯／京兆 韦濯; d. 710), and had issue (one son)
 * Married Cui Xian of Boling (博陵 崔銑／博陵 崔铣) in 710
 * Princess Cheng'an (成安公主), sixth daughter
 * Married Wei Jie of Jingzhao (京兆 韋捷／京兆 韦捷; d. 710), and had issue (one daughter)

title: Emperor Zhongzong of Tang


text:
Mila Province

Mila (ولاية ميلة, wilāya mīla) is a province (wilayah) of Algeria, whose capital is Mila. Other localities include Teleghma, Grarem Gouga, Hamala and Rouached.

History
The province was created from parts of Constantine Province, Jijel Province, Oum el Bouaghi Province and Sétif Province in 1984.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 13 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 32 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn Beida Harriche
 * 2) Bouhatem
 * 3) Chelghoum Laïd
 * 4) Ferdjioua
 * 5) Grarem Gouga
 * 6) Mila
 * 7) Oued Endja
 * 8) Rouached
 * 9) Sidi Merouane
 * 10) Tadjenanet
 * 11) Tassadane Haddada
 * 12) Teleghma
 * 13) Terrai Bainen

Communes

 * 1) Ahmed Rachedi
 * 2) Aïn Beida Harriche
 * 3) Aïn Mellouk
 * 4) Aïn Tine
 * 5) Amira Arras
 * 6) Benyahia Abderrahmane
 * 7) Bouhatem
 * 8) Chelghoum Laïd
 * 9) Chigara
 * 10) Derradji Bousselah
 * 11) El Mechira
 * 12) Elayadi Barbes
 * 13) Ferdjioua
 * 14) Grarem Gouga
 * 15) Hamala
 * 16) Mila
 * 17) Minar Zarza
 * 18) Oued Athmania
 * 19) Oued Endja
 * 20) Oued Seguen
 * 21) Ouled Khalouf
 * 22) Rouached
 * 23) Sidi Khelifa
 * 24) Sidi Merouane
 * 25) Tadjenanet
 * 26) Tassadane Haddada
 * 27) Teleghma
 * 28) Terrai Bainen
 * 29) Tessala Ldematai
 * 30) Tiberguent
 * 31) Yahia Beniguecha
 * 32) Zeghaia

title: Mila Province


text:
Médéa Province

Médéa (ولاية المدية) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria. The capital is Médéa.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 19 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 64 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn Boucif
 * 2) Aziz
 * 3) Béni Slimane
 * 4) Berrouaghia
 * 5) Chahbounia
 * 6) Chellalat El Adhaoura
 * 7) El Azizia
 * 8) El Omaria
 * 9) Guelb El Kébir
 * 10) Ksar El Boukhari
 * 11) Médéa
 * 12) Ouamri
 * 13) Ouled Antar
 * 14) Ouzera
 * 15) Seghouane
 * 16) Si Mahdjoub
 * 17) Sidi Naâmane
 * 18) Souaghi
 * 19) Tablat

Communes

 * 1) Aïn Boucif
 * 2) Aïn Ou Ksir
 * 3) Aissaouia
 * 4) Aziz
 * 5) Baata
 * 6) Benchicao
 * 7) Beni Slimane
 * 8) Berrouaghia
 * 9) Bir Ben Laabed
 * 10) Boghar
 * 11) Bou Aiche
 * 12) Bouaichoune
 * 13) Bouchrahil
 * 14) Boughezoui
 * 15) Bouskene
 * 16) Chahbounia
 * 17) Chellalat El Adhaoura
 * 18) Cheniguel
 * 19) Damiat
 * 20) Derrag
 * 21) Deux Bassins
 * 22) Djouab
 * 23) Draa Essamar
 * 24) El Azizia
 * 25) El Guelbelkebir
 * 26) El Hamdania
 * 27) El Omaria
 * 28) El Ouinet
 * 29) Hannacha
 * 30) Kef Lakhdar
 * 31) Khams Djouamaa
 * 32) Ksar Boukhari
 * 33) Meghraoua
 * 34) Médéa
 * 35) Medjebar
 * 36) Meftaha
 * 37) Mezerana
 * 38) Mihoub
 * 39) Ouamri
 * 40) Oued Harbil
 * 41) Ouled
 * 42) Ouled Antar
 * 43) Ouled Brahim
 * 44) Ouled Deide
 * 45) Ouled Hellal
 * 46) Ouled Maaref
 * 47) Oum El Djalil
 * 48) Ouzera
 * 49) Rebaia
 * 50) Saneg
 * 51) Sedraia
 * 52) Seghouane
 * 53) Sidi Mahdjoub
 * 54) Sidi Damed
 * 55) Sidi Errabia
 * 56) Sidi Naamane
 * 57) Sidi Zahar
 * 58) Sidi Ziane
 * 59) Souagui
 * 60) Tablat
 * 61) Tafraout
 * 62) Tamesguida
 * 63) Tizi Mahdi
 * 64) Tlatet Eddouair
 * 65) Zoubiria

Notable people

 * Mohamed Belhocine (born 1951), Algerian medical scientist, professor of internal medicine and epidemiology.

title: Médéa Province


text:
M'Sila, Algeria

M'sila (also spelled Msila) (المسيلة); is the capital of M'Sila Province, Algeria, and is co-extensive with M'sila District. It has a population of 132,975 as per the 2008 census. M'sila University is also located in this city.

History
The city was founded c. 924 under the name al-Muhammadiya, named after the second Fatimid caliph, al-Qa'im, during the latter's campaign against the rebellious Berber tribes of central Algeria. Meant to cement Fatimid control over the Hodna plain, the construction of the city was entrusted to Ali ibn Hamdun al-Andalusi, who became its first governor. Much building material for the new city was taken from a nearby ruined Roman city (likely Lambaesis or Timgad).

M'sila was the location of the first village constructed as part of a government-run program to transition nomadic Algerians to sedentary life using local materials. The village, now complete, was dubbed Maader and consists of houses, public and trading areas, and a mosque. Today it is much more developed with many companies, business offices, religious centers and schools.

Climate
M'sila has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk). Rainfall is higher in winter than in summer. The average annual temperature in M'Sila is 15.8 °C. About 229 mm of precipitation falls annually.

Economy
M'sila is primarily known for its farming and small business.

title: M'Sila, Algeria


text:
Naâma Province

Naâma Province (ولاية النعامة) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria named after its provincial seat, the town of Naâma. The region is dominated by a large sabkha. There is an airport in Mécheria.

History
The province was created from Saïda Province in 1984.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 7 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 12 communes or municipalities.

Communes

 * 1) Naâma
 * 2) Mécheria
 * 3) Aïn Séfra
 * 4) Tiout
 * 5) Sfissifa
 * 6) Moghrar
 * 7) Asla
 * 8) Djéniane Bourzeg
 * 9) Aïn Ben Khelil
 * 10) Mekmen Ben Amar
 * 11) Kasdir
 * 12) El Biod

title: Naâma Province


text: Category:Battle of France

title: Category:Battle of France


text:
Oum El Bouaghi Province

Oum El Bouaghi or Oum el-Bouaghi (ولاية أم البواقي) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria in the Aures region. The capital is Oum el-Bouaghi, which was named Can Robert (during French occupation), Sidi R'Ghis a few years later, and Oum El Bouaghi before independence.

History
The province was created from Constantine (department) in 1974.

In 1984 Khenchela Province and Mila Province were carved out of its territory.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 12 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 29 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn Babouche
 * 2) Aïn Beïda
 * 3) Aïn Fakroun
 * 4) Aïn Kechra
 * 5) Aïn M'Lila
 * 6) Dhalaâ
 * 7) F'Kirina
 * 8) Ksar Sbahi
 * 9) Meskiana
 * 10) Oum El Bouaghi
 * 11) Sigus
 * 12) Souk Naâmane

Communes

 * 1) Aïn Babouche
 * 2) Aïn Beïda
 * 3) Aïn Diss
 * 4) Aïn Fakroun
 * 5) Aïn Kercha
 * 6) Aïn M'lila
 * 7) Aïn Zitoun
 * 8) Behir Chergui
 * 9) Berriche
 * 10) Bir Chouhada
 * 11) D'hala (Dhalaâ)
 * 12) El Amiria
 * 13) El Belala
 * 14) El Djazia
 * 15) El Fedjouz Boughrara Saoudi
 * 16) El Harmilia
 * 17) Fkirina (F'Kirina)
 * 18) Hanchir Toumghani
 * 19) Ksar Sbahi
 * 20) Meskiana
 * 21) Oued Nini
 * 22) Ouled Gacem
 * 23) Ouled Hamla
 * 24) Ouled Zouaï
 * 25) Oum El Bouaghi
 * 26) Rahia
 * 27) Sigus
 * 28) Souk Naâmane
 * 29) Zorg

title: Oum El Bouaghi Province


text:
Relizane Province

Relizane (ولاية غليزان) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria. Relizane is the capital. Other localities include Bendaoud, Bouzegza, Hamri, Kalaa, Mazouna and Zemmoura. The Wilaya of Relizane massacres of 4 January 1998 happened in Relizane.

History
The province was created from Mostaganem Province in 1984.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 13 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 38 communes or municipalities.

Districts (daïras)

 * 1) Ain Tarik
 * 2) Ammi Moussa
 * 3) Djidiouia
 * 4) El H'Madna
 * 5) El Matmar
 * 6) Mazouna
 * 7) Mendes
 * 8) Oued Rhiou
 * 9) Ramka
 * 10) Relizane
 * 11) Sidi M'Hamed Ben Ali
 * 12) Yellel
 * 13) Zemmoura

Communes

 * 1) Aïn Rahma
 * 2) Ain Tarik
 * 3) Ammi Moussa
 * 4) Belassel Bouzegza
 * 5) Bendaoud
 * 6) Beni Dergoun
 * 7) Beni Zentis
 * 8) Dar Ben Abdellah
 * 9) Djidioua
 * 10) El Guettar
 * 11) El H'Madna
 * 12) El Hamri
 * 13) El Hassi
 * 14) El Matmar
 * 15) El Ouldja
 * 16) Had Echkalla
 * 17) Kalaa
 * 18) Lahlef
 * 19) Mazouna
 * 20) Mediouna
 * 21) Mendes
 * 22) Merdja Sidi Abed
 * 23) Ouarizane
 * 24) Oued Essalem
 * 25) Oued Rhiou
 * 26) Ouled Aiche
 * 27) Ouled El Djemaa
 * 28) Ouled Sidi Mihoub
 * 29) Ramka
 * 30) Relizane
 * 31) Sidi Khettab
 * 32) Sidi Lazreg
 * 33) Sidi M'Hamed Ben Ali
 * 34) Sidi M'Hamed Benaouda
 * 35) Sidi Saada
 * 36) Souk El Had
 * 37) Yellel
 * 38) Zemmoura

title: Relizane Province


text:
Terminal 1–Lindbergh station

Terminal 1–Lindbergh station is a light rail station on the Metro Blue Line. It is the only underground station on the Blue Line and is located 69 ft below ground level at Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport. It is a center-platform station that is accessed by escalator or elevator. Service began at the site when the second phase of the Blue Line opened on December 4, 2004.

Design
The location of this station directly below a major airport caused challenges for its designers. The tunnel and the station both had to be carefully designed to meet Federal Aviation Administration safety requirements. Passengers can access this station from the transit center in the "Hub Building", which is reached by taking the Minneapolis–St. Paul Airport Trams, a people mover from the main terminal.

Due to concerns about terrorism, the tunnels were designed to be highly blast-resistant. The underground portion was the costliest section of the entire rail project.

This station was excavated after the two main tunnel tubes were constructed with a tunnel boring machine (though cut and cover was used near the ends of the tunnels). The station box is 40 ft high, 63 ft wide, and approximately 300 ft long. The station is the largest subterranean public space in Minnesota. During the excavation of the tunnels, a buried river valley was encountered a few hundred feet south of the station.

Lindbergh Station is unheated, but maintains a temperature of roughly 50–60 °F (10–15 °C) year-round because of its underground location.

Airport shuttle operation
Service between this station and Terminal 2–Humphrey station is free to passengers and operates 24-hours a day. The Blue Line is the main way for travelers to transfer between terminals. Along with Terminal 2-Humphrey station, the station is owned and maintained by the Metropolitan Airports Commission rather than Metro Transit.

Connections
From the station, there is a direct bus connection to Route 54 to Downtown Saint Paul and the Mall of America.

Public art
The station contains the artwork Dragonfly by Andrea Myklebust and Stanton Sears. The artwork consists of a 30 ft by 45 ft terrazzo floor pattern of a dragonfly wing on platform complemented by an airfoil wing suspended from the ceiling. The artwork is owned and maintained by the Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport. Myklebust and Sears have several other terrazzo floor artworks at the airport. The walls of the station are fabricated to look like an outcrop of Saint Peter Sandstone through which the tunnels have been bored.

title: Terminal 1–Lindbergh station


text:
Skikda

Skikda (سكيكدة; formerly Philippeville from 1838 to 1962 and Rusicade in ancient times) is a city in northeastern Algeria and a port on the Mediterranean. It is the capital of Skikda Province and Skikda District.

History

The Phoenicians and Carthaginians established a trading post and fort named (𐤓𐤔𐤊𐤃, "Jug Cape") after Skikda's nearby cape. Falling under Roman hegemony after the Punic Wars, the name was Latinized as Rusicade or Rusiccade. Rusicade contained the largest Roman theatre in Algeria, dating to the reign of Hadrian.

In late antiquity, the port was destroyed during the Vandals' invasion of 530. The Byzantines reconquered the region in 533 and 534, but left large areas under Berber control. The town was overrun by the Umayyad Caliphate at the end of the 7th century.

Present-day Skikda was founded by Sylvain Charles Valée in 1838 under the name Philippeville, honoring the French king at the time. The French were in the process of annexing Algeria and developed Philippeville as a port for Constantine, Algeria's third-largest city. The two cities were connected by rail. The harbour works, with every vessel in port, was destroyed by a storm in 1878; a larger harbour was then built. On 10 October 1883, there was an earthquake in Philippeville.

Towards the end of World War II, a UNRRA refugee camp name Camp Jeanne d'Arc was established near the city. On 25 January 1945, 200 Jews holding citizenship from countries in North and South America were sent from the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp to Switzerland as part of a prisoner exchange group. They were later sent to the UNRRA camp in Skikda.

Battle of Philippeville
An attack by the FLN in 1955 during the war of Independence left around 123 civilians dead, mainly French and those suspected of collaboration. Angered over the massacre of civilians, including women, seniors, and babies, the French escalated their offensive against the FLN. Reprisals by French forces may have killed between 1,200 (according to French sources,) and 12,000 civilians (according to the FLN.)

1989 shipping disaster
The city has a commercial harbour with a gas and oil terminal. On 15 February 1989 the Dutch tanker the MV Maassluis was anchored just outside the port, waiting to dock the next day at the terminal, when extreme weather broke out. The ship's anchors did not hold and the ship smashed on the pier-head of the port. The disaster killed 27 of the 29 people on board.

Modern Skikda
The city has a population of 250,000. Natural gas, oil refining, and petrochemical industries were developed in the 1970s and pipelines have been built for their transportation. The city hall (a neo-moorish style palace) and the railroad station were designed by Le Corbusier.

The official city flag colours are blue and white, the colours of the Mediterranean. The current postal code is 21000. Skikda has the third largest commercial port in Algeria after Algiers and Oran. It has also a petrochemical terminal port and a smaller fishing port in Stora, and there are many beaches along the natural Mediterranean coastline. There is also a closed airport near the petrochemical complex.

Geography
Skikda lies on the coast of the Gulf of Stora, part of the Mediterranean Sea. The landscape is hilly and forested, with high ridges on both the western and eastern sides of the city.

Climate
Skikda has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), with cool, wet winters and very warm, dry summers.

Economy
Historically, Skikda is known for its seaport. It was described, in 1911, by Baedeker as having "the youngest Algerian seaport." On 19 January 2004, a fire and explosion at the Skikda LNG facility killed 29 people and caused $940,000,000 worth of damage. The accident incapacitated three LNG trains and impacted approximately 2% of the world's liquefaction capacity. The explosion was preceded by the ingestion of a sizable leak of cold hydrocarbon into the boiler of the westernmost LNG line. This caused the boiler to explode. According to the 2014 Marsh report into the world's largest industrial disaster, the Skikda explosion is ranked No. 3 in the hydrocarbon industry.

Transportation
The main road from Skikda is the N3 to El Arrouch, Constantine, Batna, Biskra and Touggourt. Smaller local roads lead to the towns of Stora (to the northwest along the coast), Beni Bechir (to the south), Bissy and Azzaba (to the southeast), and El Mersa and Chetaibi (to the east).

Skikda is the terminus of the Algiers-Skikda line – one of the SNTF mainline railroads, although most passenger and cargo services branch off in nearby Ramdane Djamel (towards the Ramdane Djamel-Annaba or Ramdane Djamel-Jijel lines before reaching Skikda). The city is served by Skikda Airport, although this airport is currently unused.

Notable people

 * Fadéla M'rabet (born 1935), writer and feminist
 * Rose Celli (1895–1982), novelist, playwright, translator and poet

title: Skikda


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Souk Ahras Province

Souk Ahras (ولاية سوق أهراس) is a province (wilaya) in the Aures region in Algeria, named after its capital, Souk Ahras. It stands on the border between Algeria and Tunisia. In 2008, Souk Ahras had a population of 440,299 people.

Geography
Souk Ahras is situated in the extreme north east of Algeria. Its area is 4360 km2. Its border to the north is the province of El Taref; in the east is Tunisia; westward is the province of Guelma and the province of Oum el Bouaghi; in the south the province of Tebessa. Its geography is composed of three distinct areas, with a mountainous north, the central region being lowlands, and the south being fertile.

Climate
The city of Souk Ahras has a semi continental and humid climate, heavy rains in the north in winter and very hot and dry in the south during summer. The rains are 350–750 mm/year and the temperatures vary from 1 °C to 14 °C in winter and from 25 °C to 38 °C in summer.

The fauna is very rich in Souk Ahras, where species such as the hare, partridge, fox, sparrow, ferret, porcupine and barbarian hart can be found. The flora as well is very rich, with species such as:
 * Cork oak: 12,000 hectares
 * Zeen oak: 4,600 hectares
 * Ash-tree
 * Flowering ash
 * Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis)
 * Cypress tree
 * Mastic-tree
 * Lavender
 * Heather

Trading activities
Trading activities are widespread in Sedrata and Zaarouria were many public and private companies have been set up:
 * National company of painting
 * National company of textile
 * Brick-making company
 * Sedrata metallic company
 * Mansouri paper factory
 * Hamada dairy
 * ALKALAM factory

Agriculture
The most important activities in this region are: agriculture, breeding and com cultivation. The total area is about 436,000 hectares. 235,000 hectares are consecrated to agriculture.

Infrastructure
Basic under structures and the railway system:

Main roads: 600 km Secondary roads: 1600 km. The railway from Souk Ahras to Annaba is 138.8 km, among which 100 km are electrified.

History
The province was created from Guelma Province in 1984.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 10 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 26 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Bir Bouhouche
 * 2) Haddada
 * 3) M'Daourouch
 * 4) Mechroha
 * 5) Merahna
 * 6) Ouled Driss
 * 7) Oum El Adhaïm
 * 8) Sedrata
 * 9) Souk Ahras
 * 10) Taoura

Communes

 * 1) Ain Zana
 * 2) Ain Soltane
 * 3) Bir Bouhouche
 * 4) Drea
 * 5) Haddada
 * 6) Hanancha
 * 7) Khedara
 * 8) Khemissa
 * 9) M'Daourouch
 * 10) Mechroha
 * 11) Merahna
 * 12) Oued Keberit
 * 13) Ouillen
 * 14) Ouled Driss
 * 15) Ouled Moumem
 * 16) Oum El Adhaim
 * 17) Ragouba
 * 18) Safel El Ouiden
 * 19) Sedrata
 * 20) Sid Fredj
 * 21) Souk Ahras
 * 22) Taoura
 * 23) Terraguelt
 * 24) Tiffech (Tifash)
 * 25) Zaarouria
 * 26) Zouabi

title: Souk Ahras Province


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Saïda Province

Saïda (ولاية سعيدة) is a province (wilaya) of Algeria, named after its capital.

History
The province was created from parts of Oran department, Saïda province and Saoura province in 1974.

In 1984 El Bayadh Province and Naama Province were carved out of its territory.

Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 6 districts (daïras), which are further divided into 16 communes or municipalities.

Districts

 * 1) Aïn El Hadjar
 * 2) El Hassasna
 * 3) Ouled Brahim
 * 4) Saïda
 * 5) Sidi Boubekeur
 * 6) Youb

Communes

 * 1) Aïn El Hadjar
 * 2) Aïn Sekhouna
 * 3) Aïn Soltane
 * 4) Doui Thabet
 * 5) El Hassasna
 * 6) Hounet
 * 7) Maamora
 * 8) Moulay Larbi
 * 9) Ouled Brahim
 * 10) Ouled Khaled
 * 11) Saïda
 * 12) Sidi Ahmed
 * 13) Sidi Amar
 * 14) Sidi Boubekeur
 * 15) Tircine
 * 16) Youb

title: Saïda Province


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Toubon

Toubon may refer to:

 * Jacques Toubon (born 1941), French politician
 * Toubon Law, relating to the use of the French language

title: Toubon


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Sandhills (Carolina)

The Sandhills or Carolina Sandhills is a 10-35 mi wide physiographic region within the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain province, along the updip (inland) margin of this province in the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The extent of the Carolina Sandhills is shown in maps of the ecoregions of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

Geology
The unconsolidated sand of the Carolina Sandhills is mapped as the Quaternary Pinehurst Formation, and is interpreted as eolian (wind-blown) sand sheets and dunes that were mobilized episodically from approximately 75,000 to 6,000 years ago. Most of the published luminescence ages from the sand are coincident with the last glaciation, a time when the southeastern United States was characterized by colder air temperatures, stronger winds, and less vegetation.

The Carolina Sandhills region also contains outcrops of Cretaceous-age (~100 million years old) strata of sand, sandstone, and clay that are interpreted as fluvial (river) deposits. These Cretaceous strata are thought to be the source of the sand of the Pinehurst Formation. In South Carolina and North Carolina, these Cretaceous strata are mapped as the Middendorf Formation. A notable hill of these Cretaceous strata is Sugarloaf Mountain in the Sand Hills State Forest in Chesterfield County, South Carolina.

Soils
The soils of the Carolina Sandhills are very sandy. According to soil surveys of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, many soils of the Carolina Sandhills are mapped as the Alpin sand or Candor sand.

Vegetation
The Carolina Sandhills region is characterized by xeric sand community vegetation dominated by pine trees,  which caused it to formerly be known as Carolina and Georgia's Piney Woods.

Much of the Carolina Sandhills is known for an ecosystem of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and wiregrass (Aristida stricta). This ecosystem is maintained by frequent low-intensity fires that facilitate the reproduction of the trees, wiregrass, and associated plants. This ecosystem once formed one of the more extensive ecosystems in North America, and longleaf pine was once the dominant tree that covered ~60% of the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain. Today, however, only about 1% of this region supports longleaf pine.

Wildlife
More than 30 plant and animal species associated with the longleaf pine ecosystem are listed as threatened or endangered, and many of these species require interactions with the longleaf pine and with frequent low-intensity fires. The most famous endangered species of the Carolina Sandhills is probably the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis), which prefers to excavate nesting and roosting cavities in living trees of longleaf pine that are 80–120 years old.

Another rare species that can be found is the Pine Barrens tree frog, which are tolerant of low pH levels and often lay eggs in shallow, acidic ponds. The species can only be found in the Carolina Sandhills, Southern Alabama/Florida panhandle and the closely related ecosystem New Jersey Pine Barrens. Dryophytes andersonii is also the state amphibian of North Carolina.

Human history
Sand Hills cottage architecture is a style that developed in this area in the early to mid-1800s; it is a modified form of Greek Revival architecture. The people of the 'Piney Woods' that once covered the Sandhills and Inner Banks were known as "Goobers" around the time of the Civil War.

Preservation
The Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge in northeastern South Carolina attempts to preserve a fraction of the original Sandhills longleaf pine ecosystem. The refuge is located in Chesterfield County near McBee.

title: Sandhills (Carolina)


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John Barclay (poet)

John Barclay (28 January 1582 – 15 August 1621) was a Scottish writer, satirist and Neo-Latin poet.

Life
He was born in Pont-à-Mousson, Lorraine, France, where his Scottish-born father, William Barclay, held the chair of civil law. His mother was a Frenchwoman. His early education was obtained at the Jesuit College at Pont-a-Mousson. While there, at the age of nineteen, he wrote a commentary on the Thebaid of Statius.

The Jesuits endeavored to induce him to join their order; but his father refused to give his consent and took him to England in 1603. Barclay had persistently maintained his Scottish nationality in his French surroundings, and probably found in James VI and I's accession an opportunity which he would not let slip. In early 1604 John Barclay presented James with a Latin poem, "Kalendae Januariae", and afterward dedicated to him the first part of his Euphormionis Satyricon (Euphormionis Lusinini Satyricon) against the Jesuits. He returned to France by 1605, when a second edition of that book appeared in Paris, having spent some time in Angers. He was the husband of a Frenchwoman, Louise Debonaire. Barclay and his wife returned to London in 1606, and there published his Sylvae, a collection of Latin poems. In 1607 the second part of the Satyricon appeared in Paris. In 1616 he went to Rome and resided there until his death on 15 August 1621, aged 39. His departure from England may have been prompted by the threat that his children would be brought up as Protestants, since they had been born in England. To the Catholic Barclay, this was unacceptable. In addition he may have been seeking a more generous patron than the somewhat parsimonious King James. In fact Barclay received a pension of some 150 pounds from the Pope. He wrote his major novel, Argenis, in Rome and, according to his contemporaries, indulged in gardening. He was a member of several learned and literary societies in Rome, including the Accademia dei Lincei. His wife outlived him and died in 1652. One son became bishop of Toul in France and survived until 1673.

Works
In 1609 Barclay edited the De Potestate Papae, an anti-papal treatise by his father, who had died in the preceding year. In 1611 he issued an Apologia or "third part" of the Satyricon, in answer to the attacks of the Jesuits. A so-called "fourth part," with the title of Icon Animorum, describing the character and manners of the European nations, appeared in 1614.

He appears to have been on better terms with the Church and notably with Robert Bellarmine, for in 1617 he issued, from a press at Rome, a Paraenesis ad Sectarios, an attack on the position of Protestantism. Later editions were published in Cologne. The literary effort of his closing years was his best-known work the Argenis, a political romance, resembling in certain respects the Arcadia of Philip Sidney, and the Utopia of Thomas More. The book was completed about a fortnight before his death, which has been said to have been hastened by poison.

Richard Crashaw's poem, "Description of a Religious House and Condition of Life", beginning, "No roofs of gold o'er riotous tables shining,/Whole days and suns devour'd with endless dining;" was translated "Out of Barclay."

title: John Barclay (poet)