text:
Irrational exuberance

"Irrational exuberance" is the phrase used by the then-Federal Reserve Board chairman, Alan Greenspan, in a speech given at the American Enterprise Institute during the dot-com bubble of the 1990s. The phrase was interpreted as a warning that the stock market might be overvalued.

Origin
Greenspan's comment was made during a televised speech on December 5, 1996 (emphasis added in excerpt):

The Tokyo market was open during the speech and immediately moved down sharply after this comment, closing off 3%. Markets around the world followed.

Greenspan wrote in his 2008 book that the phrase occurred to him in the bathtub while he was writing a speech.

The irony of the phrase and its aftermath lies in Greenspan's widely held reputation as the most artful practitioner of Fedspeak, often known as Greenspeak, in the modern televised era. The speech coincided with the rise of dedicated financial TV channels around the world that would broadcast his comments live, such as CNBC. Greenspan's idea was to obfuscate his true opinion in long complex sentences with obscure words so as to intentionally mute any strong market response.

The phrase was also used by Yale professor Robert J. Shiller, who was reportedly Greenspan's source for the phrase. Shiller used it as the title of his book, Irrational Exuberance, first published in 2000, where Shiller states:

"Irrational exuberance is the psychological basis of a speculative bubble. I define a speculative bubble as a situation in which news of price increases spurs investor enthusiasm, which spreads by psychological contagion from person to person, in the process amplifying stories that might justify the price increases, and bringing in a larger and larger class of investors who, despite doubts about the real value of an investment, are drawn to it partly by envy of others' successes and partly through a gamblers' excitement."

Shiller is associated with the CAPE ratio and the Case–Shiller Home Price Index popularized during the housing bubble of 2004–2007. He is frequently asked during interviews whether markets are irrationally exuberant as asset prices rise. There was some speculation for many years whether Greenspan borrowed the phrase from Shiller without attribution, although Shiller later wrote that he contributed "irrational" at a lunch with Greenspan before the speech but "exuberant" was a previous Greenspan term and it was Greenspan who coined the phrase and not a speech writer.

Continued use
By the mid-to-late 2000s the dot-com losses were recouped and eclipsed by a combination of events, including the 2000s commodities boom and the United States housing bubble. However, the recession of 2007 onward wiped out these gains. The second market slump brought the phrase back into the public eye, where it was much used in hindsight, to characterize the excesses of the bygone era. In 2006, upon Greenspan's retirement from the Federal Reserve Board, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart held a full-length farewell show in his honor, named An Irrationally Exuberant Tribute to Alan Greenspan.

This combination of events caused the phrase at present to be most often associated with the 1990s dot-com bubble and the 2000s US housing bubble although it can be linked to any financial asset bubble or social frenzy phenomena, such as the tulip mania of 17th century Holland.

The phrase is often cited in conjunction with criticism of Greenspan's policies and debate whether he did enough to contain the two major bubbles of those two decades. It is also used in arguments about whether capitalist free markets are rational.

Robert J. Shiller, Nobel Prize Laureate and author of the seminal book Irrational Exuberance, called Bitcoin the best current example of a speculative bubble.

title: Irrational exuberance


text:
Meanings of minor planet names: 73001–74000

73001–73100

 * -id=046
 * 73046 Davidmann || || David Mann (born 1941) is a sample-preparation expert who produced high-quality thin sections of Apollo Moon rocks at NASA Johnson Space Center. He has prepared numerous thin sections of rare meteorites for planetary science research, as well as samples for other fields of study including paleontology and petroleum exploration. || ·
 * -id=059
 * 73059 Kaunas || || Kaunas, the second largest city in Lithuania with 400,000 inhabitants. It is situated at the confluence of the two largest Lithuanian rivers—the Neris and the Nemunas. Kaunas was first mentioned in written sources in 1361. It was fated to become the temporary capital of Lithuania during 1919–1940. || ·
 * -id=073
 * 73073 Jannaleuty || || Janna Leuty (born 1976) is the wife of astronomer Guy Wells. || ·
 * -id=079
 * 73079 Davidbaltimore || || David Baltimore (born 1938), an American biologist renowned for his Nobel Prize-winning research and for his vision and leadership as the seventh president of the California Institute of Technology (1997–2006). || ·
 * }

73101–73200

 * -id=199
 * 73199 Orlece || || The Orthopedic Learning Centre of the Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology at the Chinese University of Hong Kong was established in 1999. With the mission statement "Learn and Practice to Serve Better", it provides comprehensive medical education to the orthopaedic community locally and internationally. || ·
 * }

73201–73300

 * -bgcolor=#f2f2f2
 * colspan=4 align=center | There are no named minor planets in this number range
 * }

73301–73400

 * -id=342
 * 73342 Guyunusa || || Michella Jougousa Gununusa (1806–1834) was a native Indian sold by Uruguay for exhibition in France. She was 27 years old when she died in Lyons only a year after her arrival. She and fellow captive Vaimaca had a daughter, born in France. Another of the "last charrás", Tacuabé, took care of the baby and escaped with her to an unknown place. || ·
 * -id=358
 * 73358 Kitwhitten || || Kit Whitten (born 1986) is the archivist at the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution for Science. She has tracked down requested archived plates within their plate library in search of precovery NEO observations. || ·
 * }

73401–73500

 * -id=442
 * 73442 Feruglio || || Chiara Feruglio (born 1978), an Italian astronomer who obtained her degree in astronomy at the University of Padua in 2003, with a thesis on spectroscopy of Seyfert galaxies. Currently a Ph.D. student at the University of Tor Vergata in Rome, she is studying the properties of accretion onto super massive black holes. || ·
 * -id=453
 * 73453 Ninomanfredi || || Nino Manfredi (1921–2004), Italian actor born in Castro dei Volsci, Frosinone. His successes as a stage and film actor include L'impiegato (1959), La ballata del boia (1963) and Nell'anno del Signore (1969). He also directed the films L'avventura di un soldato (1962), Per grazia ricevuta (1971) and Nudo di donna (1981). || ·
 * -id=465
 * 73465 Buonanno || || Roberto Buonanno (born 1947), an Italian astronomer who is an expert in stellar evolution and the director of the Rome Observatory. He created the Planetary Sciences team at the OAR and supported research programs devoted to near-Earth objects and to the study of the physical properties of the small bodies of the Solar System. || ·
 * -id=491
 * 73491 Robmatson || || Robert D. Matson (born 1962) is an American amateur astronomer and software developer with special interests in planetary science. Besides being a successful meteorite hunter, Matson is internationally recognized for his satellite-tracking software SkyMap. He also found 15 SOHO comets and is credited with more than 200 discoveries of minor planets. || ·
 * }

73501–73600

 * -id=511
 * 73511 Lovas || || Miklós Lovas (born 1931), a Hungarian astronomer successful discoverer of astronomical objects. He has discovered 42 supernovae, 5 comets and 2 minor planets in the course of the supernova search program at the Konkoly Observatory between 1964 and 1995. || ·
 * -id=517
 * 73517 Cranbrook || || Cranbrook Institute of Science in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, is an educational institution that was a formative influence for a number of space scientists, astronomers and educators. || ·
 * -id=520
 * 73520 Boslough || || Mark Boslough (born 1955) is an American physicist at Sandia National Laboratories. He has computed the most detailed models to date of atmospheric impact phenomena, especially the Tunguska event and the much older impact that produced the Libyan desert glass found in Egypt. || ·
 * -id=529
 * 73529 Giorgiopalumbo || || Giorgio G.C. Palumbo (1939–2018) was an astrophysicist and a professor at the University of Bologna. He advised dozens of students, contributed to the birth of high energy astronomy, and fostered the growth of cosmic ray physics, thus laying the seeds of modern high energy astrophysics and astroparticle projects. || ·
 * -id=533
 * 73533 Alonso || || Fernando Alonso (born 1981) is the Spain's most successful Formula One racing driver. With his victory at the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix he became the youngest winner in the history of Formula One, at just 22 years and 16 days old. His success has spawned "Alonsomania" in Spain. || ·
 * -id=534
 * 73534 Liviasavioli || || Livia Savioli (born 1986) is an Italian aerospace engineer. She performed research studies on space debris to preserve the orbital environment for future space missions. She is currently looking further in space, working on an exploration mission towards Mars. || ·
 * -id=539
 * 73539 Carmenperrella || || Carmen Perrella (born 1970) is an Italian amateur astronomer devoted to astronomy public outreach and cometary photometry. She lives in the town of Benevento and in 2015 she founded the first astronomical amateur group in her town. Name proposed by A. Boattini and M. Tombelli. || ·
 * -id=551
 * 73551 Dariocastellano || 2003 QV || Dario Castellano (born 1983) holds a master's degree in Astrophysics and Space Science and a PhD with a thesis related to gravitational waves. He has also been devoted to astronomy public outreach in the town of Benevento, Italy. He is manly interested in comets, variable stars and exoplanets. || ·
 * }

73601–73700

 * -id=610
 * 73610 Klyuchevskaya || 1054 T-3 || Klyuchevskaja is an active 4750-m volcano on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East. || ·
 * -id=637
 * 73637 Guneus || || Guneus, from Greek mythology. He was a warrior from Cyphus, and one of the Achaean leaders in the Trojan War. || ·
 * -id=638
 * 73638 Likhanov || || Albert Anatolievich Likhanov (born 1935), a famous Russian writer, academician of the Russian Academy of Education, professor at several universities, and founder and head of Russia's largest children's charity fund, Russian Children Foundation. || ·
 * -id=640
 * 73640 Biermann || 1977 RM || Ludwig Biermann (1907–1986), a German astrophysicist who was the first director of the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. He made pioneering studies on stellar convection and the solar chromosphere and corona. His 1951 study of the structural changes in the tail of comet C/1942 X1 provided the first evidence of the existence of the solar wind. || ·
 * -id=670
 * 73670 Kurthopf || 1982 QP || Kurt Hopf (born 1952) is a head teacher of the primary school in Hof, Germany. With enthusiasm and expertise he directed the Hof Public Observatory from 1976 until 2003 and has published astronomical articles and educational material for children. The name was suggested by G. and D. Heinlein (Src). || ·
 * -id=686
 * 73686 Nussdorf || || The village of Nussdorf (Nußdorf in Landau) situated in Germany's Palatinate region. The village was named after the abundant walnut trees and first mentioned in the year 802. It is well known for its wine-growing tradition and for its pursuit for harmony between nature and culture. || ·
 * -id=687
 * 73687 Thomas Aquinas || || Saint Thomas Aquinas, Italian Catholic philosopher and theologian || ·
 * -id=692
 * 73692 Gürtler || || Joachim Gürtler (born 1939), a German astronomer who researched and lectured at the Astrophysical Institute of the University of Jena. His main research field was the interstellar medium. He is co-discoverer of the IR carbon dioxide ice band in spectra of molecular clouds. The name was suggested by the first discoverer. || ·
 * -id=693
 * 73693 Dorschner || || Johann M. Dorschner (born 1939), a German astronomer who researched and lectured at the Astrophysical Institute of the University of Jena. His main research field was interstellar and circumstellar dust. He established the Jena laboratory astrophysics branch. The name was suggested by the first discoverer. || ·
 * -id=699
 * 73699 Landaupfalz || || Landau/Pfalz is a German university town in southern Rhineland-Palatinate, embedded in vineyards and surrounded by wine-growing villages. || ·
 * -id=700
 * 73700 von Kues || || Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464), was a German theologian, mathematician, scholar, experimental scientist and influential philosopher, born near Trier. He stressed the incomplete nature of man's knowledge of god and of the Universe. His paper Perfectio mathematica (1458) anticipates infinitesimal methods. || ·
 * }

73701–73800

 * 73701 Siegfriedbauer || || Siegfried J. Bauer (born 1930) is an Austrian professor emeritus of meteorology and geophysics at the University of Graz. He was associate director of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and is a full member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. His research focuses on the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan. || ·
 * -id=703
 * 73703 Billings || || Gary W. Billings is a Canadian geophysicist and amateur astronomer in Calgary, Alberta. He discovered five minor planets in 1999. More recently, he has conducted extensive CCD photometry of variable stars in collaboration with observers worldwide. He served as a council member of the AAVSO from 2002 to 2004. || ·
 * -id=704
 * 73704 Hladiuk || || Donald W. Hladiuk (born 1957) is a Canadian geologist in Calgary, Alberta. For over 20 years, he has presented sky highlights on a local radio morning show. He has led numerous astronomical expeditions with the Calgary chapter of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, of which he has twice been president. || ·
 * -id=767
 * 73767 Bibiandersson || || Bibi Andersson (1935–2019), a Swedish screen actress who studied at the legendary Royal Dramatic Theatre School in Stockholm. She became well known for Wild Strawberries (1957) directed by Ingmar Bergman. In 1963, she received the Silver Bear for Best Actress in Berlin. || ·
 * -id=769
 * 73769 Delphi || || The ancient sanctuary of Delphi, considered the centre of the world by the ancient Greek. Delphi lies on the south-west slopes of the Parnassos mountain, in the valley of the river Phokis, and is the most renowned archaeological site in Greece. || ·
 * -id=782
 * 73782 Yanagida || || The Japanese village of Yanagida located in the center of Noto peninsula. This village is home of the Yanagida Astronomical Observatory, where this minor planet was discovered. In March 2005, the village and two neighboring towns, Noto and Uchiura, were merged to form a new town. || ·
 * }
 * }

73801–73900

 * -id=819
 * 73819 Isaootuki || || Isao Otuki (born 1958) became a member of the Miyagi Abukuma Astronomical Society in 1974 and actively popularizes astronomy. || ·
 * -id=827
 * 73827 Nakanohoshinokai || || The Nakano Star Gazers Club of Nakano, Tokyo, was founded in 1973. Although Nakano has the brightest night sky in Japan, the members have contributed to many outreach activities in astronomy. || ·
 * -id=857
 * 73857 Hitaneichi || || Hiroshi Taneichi (born 1927), a Japanese professor emeritus at Yamagata University, who studied photo-reactions at the Laboratory of Nuclear Science, Tohoku University. He is now a member of the Yamagata Astronomical Society. || ·
 * -id=862
 * 73862 Mochigasechugaku || || "Mochigase chugaku" was a junior high school in Mochigase, Japan. It was established in 1956 and closed in 2013. || ·
 * -id=872
 * 73872 Stefanoragazzi || || Stefano Ragazzi (born 1954) is a professor at the Milan Bicocca University and director of Gran Sasso National Laboratory INAF. || ·
 * -id=883
 * 73883 Asteraude || 1997 DQ || An "astéraude" is an asteroid discovered by one of the members of the French AUDÉ society (Association des utilisateurs de détecteurs électroniques. This minor planet was the first of a series of discoveries made by members of the association, which discovered about 50 asteroids every year since 1997 (Src) || ·
 * -id=885
 * 73885 Kalaymoodley || 1997 EV || Kalayvany Moodley (born 1969), a South African friend of the Italian discoverer Andrea Boattini. Born in Johannesburg, she studied hotel management in Durban, where she currently lives and runs a convention center. || ·
 * -id=891
 * 73891 Pietromennea || || Pietro Mennea (1952–2013) was an Italian sprinter, who won a gold medal in the 200-m at the 1980 Moscow Olympics. In 1979, he set a 200-m world record of 19.72s, a record that stood for almost seventeen years. || ·
 * }

73901–74000

 * -id=936
 * 73936 Takeyamamoto || || Takeshi Yamamoto (1932–2005) was a Japanese amateur astronomer who studied astronomy under Issei Yamamoto. He devoted himself to educating the general public about astronomy in the city of Moriyama || ·
 * -id=955
 * 73955 Asaka || || Asaka is reclaimed land in Koriyama city, Fukushima prefecture. || ·
 * -id=984
 * 73984 Claudebernard || || Claude Bernard (born 1931) worked in the French Railways (SNCF) as a train driver. He is an avid solar observer who has gathered visual observations of sunspots and tried to correlate them with terrestrial phenomena. He co-founded the astronomical association of the SNCF. || ·
 * }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Clifton Cricket Club

Clifton Cricket Club is an English cricket club based on Manchester Road (A666) in Clifton, Salford.

The club were founder members of the Greater Manchester Cricket League (GMCL) in 2016 and play in that league's Premier division, finishing 3rd in the inaugural. season.

Clifton's current Captain is former Lancashire and Derbyshire all rounder and wicketkeeper Gareth Cross.

title: Clifton Cricket Club


text:
Hebert Arboretum

The Hebert Arboretum is a new arboretum located at Springside Park in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, United States. The Arboretum displays a diverse collection of trees and other plants in formal landscapes in a natural setting.

The Arboretum was officially established in 1999 to carry out a dream of former Parks Superintendent Vincent Hebert. A master plan was developed by students at the Conway School of Landscape Design in Conway, Massachusetts, and an ecological restoration and landscape design was created for the lower pond area.

title: Hebert Arboretum


text:
Talk:Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski

Blackballed?
If Wieniawa-Dlugoszowski was "blackballed by the French," why is he listed as the President of the Government in exile?

Valentinejoe

The pre war constitution of Poland allowed for the president to name his successor in time of war. This Mosicki did and Wieniawa received the nomination, but it was withdrawn because of French pressure. Gervase Vernon

 * Indeed. I don't think that W-D can be counted as one of the Polish presidents. W-D was only a vice-president for one day. Mościcki was the president till 30 September. On 1 September, on the day Germans invaded Poland, he chose Edward Rydz-Smigly as "president in case the office becames emptied before the peace is restord" (a strange title, created in the April Constitution, basically a president-replacement nom by current president in case of his possible death). On 18 September, ERS was interned in Romania (together with Moscicki). On 25 Sept Moscicki issued a declaration (backdated to 17 Sept) that the post was transfered from ERS to BWD. Due to French opposition, on 26 Sept he revoked this declaration (backdated, again, to 17 Sept); on 27 Sept (I am not sure if this was backdated) he nominated Raczynski who certainly assumed the post on 30 Sept (the sources are a bit confused as to on what day Raczynski became the president).--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 21:02, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Suspicions about his suicide
The following section, written by a banned hoaxer, has been moved to talk. Perhaps it contains some true info.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 07:18, 13 July 2008 (UTC)

Nowadays historians are not sure about his suicide. For polish cavalryman was unimaginable to die in "civilian way" - the only honorouable way was killing by shot in the head. Another suspicious thing was his signature on the "goodbye letter" - only one letter B. (he had never signed like that). Strange was olso his clothing during the suicide - pyjama - it was very unhonorouble for an officer to die in clothes like this.

After several days, when Polish ex-Legionnaries societies demanded graphological expertise of this "goodbye letter" it disappeared.

All his friends were saying that it was unthinkable that he commited suicide. Before his mission on Cuba he was happy, he bought new summer suits, was organisng his new ambassade and was meeting almost all his friends. Jan Kowalewski said "He couldn't commit suicide. He was so happy, that he will be for the next time on his motherland's duty, he starting organising his new work. I am absolutely sure that he was killed..."

All these facts are suspicious and are confirming suspicions that Wieniawa-Długoszowski was killed by his great enemy Władysław Sikorski.

When was he president?
This article says he was nominated for president on 17 September, and that Poland was invaded soon after. But Poland was invaded on 1 September. Also this article says he was president on 25-26 September, but the article Second Polish Republic says he was president on 1 October. Richard75 (talk) 00:34, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

Poland was invided twice - on 1 September by Nazi Germany and on 17 September by Soviet Russia - see Soviet invasion of Poland. Interfides (talk) 18:16, 26 August 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski


text: User talk:66.158.218.66

title: User talk:66.158.218.66


text: Template:Political parties in the United Kingdom


text:
Entoptic phenomenon

Entoptic phenomena are visual effects whose source is within the human eye itself. (Occasionally, these are called entopic phenomena, which is probably a typographical mistake.)

In Helmholtz's words: "Under suitable conditions light falling on the eye may render visible certain objects within the eye itself. These perceptions are called entoptical."

Overview
Entoptic images have a physical basis in the image cast upon the retina. Hence, they are different from optical illusions, which are caused by the visual system and characterized by a visual percept that (loosely said) appears to differ from reality. Because entoptic images are caused by phenomena within the observer's own eye, they share one feature with optical illusions and hallucinations: the observer cannot share a direct and specific view of the phenomenon with others.

Helmholtz commented on entoptic phenomena which could be seen easily by some observers, but could not be seen at all by others. This variance is not surprising because the specific aspects of the eye that produce these images are unique to each individual. Because of the variation between individuals, and the inability for two observers to share a nearly identical stimulus, these phenomena are unlike most visual sensations. They are also unlike most optical illusions which are produced by viewing a common stimulus. Yet, there is enough commonality between the main entoptic phenomena that their physical origin is now well understood.

Examples
Some examples of entoptical effects include:
 * Floaters or muscae volitantes are slowly drifting blobs of varying size, shape, and transparency, which are particularly noticeable when viewing a bright, featureless background (such as the sky) or a point source of diffuse light very close to the eye. They are shadow images of objects floating in liquid between the retina and the gel inside the eye (vitreous humor). They are visible because they move; if they were pinned to retina by the vitreous or fixed within the vitreous they would be as invisible as ordinary viewing of any stationary object, such as the retinal blood vessels (see Purkinje tree below). Some may be individual red blood cells swollen due to osmotic pressure. Others may be chains of red blood cells stuck together; diffraction patterns can be seen around these. Others may be "coagula of the proteins of the vitreous gel, to embryonic remnants, or the condensation round the walls of Cloquet's canal" that exist in pockets of liquid within the vitreous. The first two sort of floaters may collect over the fovea (the center of vision), and therefore be more visible, when a person is lying on his or her back looking upwards.
 * Blue field entoptic phenomenon has the appearance of tiny bright dots moving rapidly along squiggly lines in the visual field. It is much more noticeable when viewed against a field of pure blue light and is caused by white blood cells moving in the capillaries in front of the retina. White cells are larger than red blood cells and can be larger than the diameter of a capillary, so must deform to fit.  As a large, deformed white blood cell goes through a capillary, a space opens up in front of it and red blood cells pile up behind. This makes the dots of light appear slightly elongated with dark tails.
 * Haidinger's brush is a very subtle bowtie or hourglass shaped pattern that is seen when viewing a field with a component of blue light that is plane or circularly polarized. It's easier to see if the polarisation is rotating with respect to the observer's eye, although some observers can see it in the natural polarisation of sky light. If the light is all blue, it will appear as a dark shadow; if the light is full spectrum, it will appear yellow. It is due to the preferential absorption of blue polarized light by pigment molecules in the fovea.
 * Purkinje images are the reflections from the anterior and posterior surfaces of the cornea and the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lens. Although these first four reflections are not entoptic—they are seen by others who are looking at someone’s eye— Becker described how light can reflect from the posterior surface of the lens and then again from the anterior surface of the cornea to focus a second image on the retina, this one much fainter and inverted. Tscherning referred to this as the sixth image (the fifth image is formed by reflections from the anterior surfaces of the lens and cornea to form an image too far in front of the retina to be visible) and noted it was much fainter and best seen with a relaxed emmetropic eye. To see it, one must be in a dark room, with one eye closed; one must look straight ahead while moving a light back and forth in the field of the open eye. Then one should see the sixth Purkinje as a dimmer image moving in the opposite direction.
 * The Purkinje tree is an image of the retinal blood vessels in one's own eye, first described by Purkyně in 1823. It can be seen by shining the beam of a small bright light through the pupil from the periphery of a subject's vision.  This results in an image of the light being focused on the periphery of the retina. Light from this spot then casts shadows of the blood vessels (which lie on top of the retina) onto unadapted portions of the retina. Normally the image of the retinal blood vessels is invisible because of adaptation. Unless the light moves, the image disappears within a second or so. If the light is moved at about 1 Hz, adaptation is defeated, and a clear image can be seen indefinitely. The vascular figure is often seen by patients during an ophthalmic examination when the examiner is using an ophthalmoscope. Another way in which the shadows of blood vessels may be seen is by holding a bright light against the eyelid at the corner of the eye. The light penetrates the eye and casts a shadow on the blood vessels as described previously. The light must be jiggled to defeat adaptation. Viewing in both cases is improved in a dark room while looking at a featureless background. This topic is discussed in more detail by Helmholtz.
 * Purkinje's blue arcs are associated with the activity of the nerves sending signals from where a spot of light is focussed on the retina near the fovea to the optic disk. To see it, one needs to look at the right edge of a small red light in a dark room with the right eye (left eye closed) after dark-adapting for about 30 seconds; one should see two faint blue arcs starting at the light and heading towards the blind spot. When one looks at the left edge, one will see a faint blue spike going from the light to the right.
 * A phosphene is the perception of light without light actually entering the eye, for instance caused by pressure applied to the closed eyes.

A phenomenon that could be entoptical if the eyelashes are considered to be part of the eye is seeing light diffracted through the eyelashes. The phenomenon appears as one or more light disks crossed by dark blurry lines (the shadows of the lashes), each having fringes of spectral colour. The disk shape is given by the circular aperture of the pupil.

title: Entoptic phenomenon


text: Talk:Inverness (federal electoral district)


text:
Constitutional theocracy

The phrase constitutional theocracy describes a form of elected government in which one single religion is granted an authoritative central role in the legal and political system. In contrast to a pure theocracy, power resides in lay political figures operating within the bounds of a constitution, rather than in the religious leadership.

The phrase was used in connection with the Iranian government of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1987 by Olivier Roy, and from the 1990s onward has been used in discussions of Iran, and occasionally of other governments. Professor Mahmood Mamdani has spoken of a "constitutional theocracy" in the context of "a state–wide clerical authority in Iran". Ran Hirschl of the University of Toronto law school has written more than one article discussing "constitutional theocracies": for example considering "modern states formally governed by principles of Islamic Shari'a laws".

The concept of constitutional theocracy is also used by journalists writing about Iran, or about the process of developing a constitution in Iraq, and in general discussions of the relationship between religion and government. Following its link with Iran's Islamic revolution, the phrase has also been used to discuss, among other topics, early twentieth-century Turkish politics and contemporary Chechnyan politics.

Hirschl's views
Professor Hirschl has expanded on the distinction between constitutional theocracies and ordinary democracies in his article, Constitutional Courts vs. Religious Fundamentalism: Three Middle Eastern Tales. where he says:

The original text of Article 2 of the 1971 Egyptian Constitution read: 'Islam is the religion of the State, Arabic is its official language, and the principles of Islamic Shari’a are a principal source of legislation.' On May 22, 1980, the text of Article 2 was changed to read, 'Islam is the religion of the State, Arabic is its official language, and the principles of Islamic Shari’a are the principal source of legislation.' The result of this amendment effectively transformed Egypt into a 'constitutional theocracy,' in which no legislation could contravene Islamic legal principles.

Hirschl refers to the existence of official, government-established Shari’a courts in both Egypt and Iran as evidence that these are constitutional theocracies. Though his definition seems generally compatible with other views that a constitutional theocracy is a government using a single religion as its sole source of law, other writers do not mention Egypt as often as Iran in this context.

The lack of any official, government-established Shari'a courts in Iraq, and the use of the phrase "a principal source of legislation" rather than "the principal source of legislation" in the Iraqi constitution, has been understood to mean that Iraq is not a constitutional theocracy, at least according to Hirschl's definition.

title: Constitutional theocracy


text:
User:IceKarma/Colour selection thoughts

Hi. I've just started this page. I'll be filling it out, but for now, the basic principle of colour selection for all audiences, including all three kinds of dichromatism and monochromatism, choose a set of colours that are distributed well in colour space in both the hue and contrast dimensions.

title: User:IceKarma/Colour selection thoughts


text:
Talk:Christian X of Denmark

Rewrite project.
There are apparently some mistakes in my summary of the Easter Crisis of 1920, particularly relating to the disposition of Zahle's government at the end of the crisis. I'm trying to find a source that clearly explains the process at this time. User:Tomlillis 14th October

 * If you read Danish, the best book is probably Tage Kaarsted's "Påskekrisen 1920". --Valentinian 16:49, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Iceland
Would it be worthwhile to add "King of Iceland" to the succession box? --Lemmy Kilmister--

 * Done. Valentinian (talk) 20:40, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Was King Christian X called King Christian I as the King of Iceland? -- Nidator 16:31, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I see that they call him Kristján X on the list of Icelandic rulers. I guess this means that the Danish numbering was used in Iceland too, but that the name was written in Icelandic. I'm asking because I think it would make sense to make an article on the Kingdom of Iceland. -- Nidator 16:45, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

 * You are correct, it is the Danish numbering with his name written in Icelandic. During his reign, Iceland got its own separate coinage minted at the Royal Mint in Copenhagen, and these coins use Christian's CX cypher, see e.g. http://www.gladsaxegymnasium.dk/2/artikler/isl60nna.htm, so I believe this notation must have been official. The Icelandic Wikipedia's article is also is:Kristján 10.. Valentinian T / C 17:52, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

 * All the previous Christians had ruled Iceland, so that's why the numbering is the same. He was the 10th Christian to be king of Iceland, Iceland had just previously been considered a dependency of first Norway and then Denmark rather than a kingdom in its own right, but that doesn't change the fact that the previous Danish kings since 1380 were Iceland's monarch.--Batmacumba (talk) 14:53, 13 September 2019 (UTC)

I have removed from the succession box the statement that he was pretender to the Icelandic throne after 1944. If somebody can provide a published source which describes him in this fashion, then it should be re-instated. Noel S McFerran 12:18, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I think it is safe to say that both myself and Valentinian agree with you on that. -- Nidator 15:14, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

 * The republic was declared following the expiration of a 25 year period agreed on in the Danish-Icelandic union treaty of 1918, so it was done by a procedure accepted by the Danish government and as such the monarch had no basis for claiming Iceland.--Batmacumba (talk) 14:53, 13 September 2019 (UTC)

military history?
On what possible basis is Christian a figure in military history? This wikiproject has reached the level of complete insanity in articles included within its purview. john k 01:35, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

MILHIST is currently going through an assessment drive of articles that were flagged by a bot as potentially being relevant to the project. This involves sorting through the results and marking those that aren't relevant, while assessing those that are if they haven't been already. Christian X of Denmark was one of the results that was flagged, which is why I took a look at it to see if it did fall within the scope of the project. I decided to add him to MILHIST on the basis of his role as a war leader during the German occupation. Although largely symbolic, in consideration of Denmark being a constitutional monarchy, it was significant. I should note that several other leaders of countries that were involved in World War II have been included within the scope of the project. However I'm open to removing him from the scope of the project if there's a consensus for non-inclusion. -- Broken Sphere Msg me 17:00, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

I responded on your talk page. I think I have at least three objections: 1) that Denmark's involvement in World War II was tangential at best, as there were no military campaigns involving the Danish army; 2) that Christian's status as an essentially powerless constitutional monarch makes his inclusion dubious - I note that a number of British monarchs, the earlier of which were actually reasonably involved in actual political control of wars, and are not in the project (Anne of Great Britain, George III of the United Kingdom, George IV of the United Kingdom, Victoria of the United Kingdom, George V of the United Kingdom, George VI of the United Kingdom) - the only exception in the last 300 years is George II, who actually led troops in battle at Dettingen (George I actually commanded troops in the War of the Grand Alliance and War of the Spanish Succession before inheriting Britain, and should probably be included, but is not at present).; and finally, and probably more controversially 3) that civilian political leaders who never actually commanded troops should not be included in the project. john k 17:40, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Some of this response is what I posted on yours -

 * 1) Danish involvement was hardly tangential - it was profoundly affected by being one of the countries invaded and occupied by Germany in 1940 and later was used as a base for the invasion of Norway. We also have articles of reasonable length based on Denmark's situation like Occupation of Denmark and Danish resistance movement as well as more specific ones such as Deportation of the Danish police.  Lack of effective Danish resistance at the start nor the speed at which the country was conquered do not relegate it to having a peripheral role during the war, albeit not an active one as some of the other occupied countries like say France or Poland.
 * 2) Christina's role as head of state and what he did during the war was important to the Danes, even if largely symbolic. As for similar monarchs who aren't yet in the project - they can always be added.
 * 3) I checked on other wartime leaders who are included within the project, e.g. FDR, Churchill, Mussolini, Vidkun Quisling, and Hirohito. Not one of these people actually commanded a force in the field during the war, yet are included within the project based on the roles they played.  -- Broken Sphere Msg me 18:47, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Alright. After some discussion with other folks involved with the project and consideration, I'm removing the MILHIST banner (point #2). However my stance re. points #1 and 3 remains, but that is another subject. Broken Sphere Msg me 21:04, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Perhaps our view of the purview of the project is somewhat different. My general feeling is that having to do with a war should not be sufficient to get someone in a "military history" project. One should have to have something to do with the military aspects of the war. In terms of FDR, Churchill, Mussolini, Quisling, etc., I'd say that Churchill perhaps merits inclusion for his war reporting and service in WWI. Besides that, though, my general feeling is that while all these people (including Christian) ought to go in a "Wikiproject World War II", they do not belong in a "Wikiproject Military History". But to have this category include "everyone who's ever been a leader of a country which was at war" expands it to the point of meaninglessness. This isn't apparent yet because it's only been done for World War II, or for major countries. In terms of point 1, this probably doesn't matter at this point, but of course Denmark was deeply affected by its experience during the Second World War. On the flip side, though, Denmark did not seriously affect the course of World War II. At the formal level of international law, Denmark was arguably not even a belligerent. Which isn't to deny that there was a Danish resistance (I know little about it, but I would assume there was one), just that the Kingdom of Denmark, as a state, did not participate in the Second World War. This gets again to the issue of "military history". My general opinion is that "military history" doesn't mean "anything having to do with a war, no matter how distantly," but rather "history of military affairs". Abraham Lincoln and Edwin Stanton, though civilians, were arguably part of the military history of the American Civil War, because they were directing the Union's military efforts. I would suggest that Charles Francis Adams and Thaddeus Stevens, although important to an understanding of the Civil War, are not figures in military history, and so shouldn't be included. john k 22:27, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Saving Jews
The Terezin article mentions that he secured the release of inmates from Terezin concentration camp, yet this article makes no reference to it. Surely it should, that's a very notable thing? LouiseCooke —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.195.71.44 (talk) 13:58, 28 August 2008 (UTC)

The yellow star of Christian 10.... and many, many other propaganda stories ... are a very widespread web of lies and good intentions. I have today shortened down the relation of one of the versions. But I think, that it could be relevant to make an article called something like: Propagandestories about king Christian 10. --82.125.185.219 (talk) 19:04, 2 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Propaganda and urban legends are two different things.·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 19:05, 2 December 2012 (UTC)

The stories about Christian should be called propaganda, because they were invented deliberately. Later they were backed up by Leon Uris in Exodus, which were also written deliberately with a political point of view. I believe, however,  that some secondary stories were urban legends, but the main story, about the riding with a yellow star, can be traced down to a  man with public-relation training in the association of danish-american citizens. I think the link is in the article. Recent research has settled that completely. But the propagandastories had no support from the king or the royal house. Poor Christian was only a pawn in the game. --82.125.185.219 (talk) 09:44, 3 December 2012 (UTC)

See note nr. 2 to the article. --82.125.185.219 (talk) 13:41, 3 December 2012 (UTC)
 * I added a link to this Pdf. "The King and the Star: Myths created during the Occupation of Denmark" by Vilhjálmur Örn Vilhjálmsson. It doesn't say however that the King did not know about the story. When it was circulated by the Danish ambassador to the US in 1943 it seems to me that the King must have known about it, and actively participated in the public relations strategy. I still don't think propaganda is the correct word for this. Very interesting though.·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 13:44, 3 December 2012 (UTC)

That the king could be unaware of the proceedings of Denmarks ambassador in USA is absolutely possible, but, you are right, its not proven. The ambassador, Kauffmann, had defected from the official danish politic and rallied Germanys ennemis. So all ties were cut. In the US there were danish citizens organising the participation of danish merchant ships in the allied warfare. During the war Kauffmann was condemned by the danish government, after he became the man who saved the country's reputation. But the article of Vilhjalmsson indicates that the it was a group of New York danish-americans who put the yellow star stories in circulation. Again: There is no proof, but strong evidence. --82.125.62.87 (talk) 08:11, 4 December 2012 (UTC) Cordialement Mio Nielsen, France.

What about Fictions about Christian X as title for a new article? Will I get some help, because my english is... rather foreign. --83.200.223.243 (talk) 15:35, 7 December 2012 (UTC)

Today I inserted a new section about the king and the star and 15 minutes later half of it was deleted and a hagiographic sentence about the king added. Everybody must understand, that the danes were morally perfect under the war and the proof is... that they say it themselves. I would appreciate another opinion. --83.193.114.90 (talk) 16:11, 2 January 2013 (UTC)Mio Nielsen
 * I deleted the paragraph since it was poorly written, repeated material already included in the section above and used an editoriaklizing writing style not suitable for an encyclopedia. It also went straight from the myth of the Jewish star to Theresienstadt with no mention of the Rescue of the Danish Jews - it also made an unsupported statement that the King didn't speak out against the deportation. I am not on a mission to suggest that the Danes are or ever were morally perfect, but the balance between praise and blame needs to follow what is written in the literature. We are not here to rewrite the history of WW2 in Denmark, but to present what others have written.·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 16:17, 2 January 2013 (UTC).

Are you aware, my earnest friend, that all the killer-dictators of history has praised peace in public and asserted that they wanted nothing else? Should we quote all that rubbish in their biography? No! For years people on wikipedia has demanded proofs that king Christian did not ride with a yellow armband. Things are getting better cause you are only asking for proofs that he did not speak out against the deportation. I believe the second half of my new section was necessary to understand the context. It needed corrections, certainly. The anecdote you have added is the kind of small-talk that the danes have used since the war to embellish their wartime behaviour. All the wikipediaarticles about Chr.X has been full of that kind of smalltalk: The danish, the swedish, the norvegian (less), the german (very much) and the french. Its a constant work to clean it away. What Chr. X said orally to a small audience has no more importance that if I say that we should give all we own to the poor. I am not going to revert your reverting. Keep some of your illusions and happy new year from--83.193.114.90 (talk) 20:17, 2 January 2013 (UTC) Mio Nielsen, France.

With the quotations from Hastings the article is far away from king Christian. Now the question is about the saving of the danish jews - an interesting subject having its own article on Wiki. My father too lived in Denmark during the war. Will he also get an article about how he saved the jews? Worse: Hastings notes the the english put their german refugees in camps. But the danes did worse: We gave them over to the Gestapo. It was only the jews who were danish citizens who should be saved. It is perfectly true, that most survived. A great thing certainly, but there is no historic evidence that the king played a role in that. However he has been appointed a hero and I am not correcting the article any longer. Its hopeless. --82.125.191.174 (talk) 09:26, 17 June 2013 (UTC) M. N.

Thank you Maunus, for deleting the quotations of Hastings. But the article is still not perfect in my eyes. The reader is still given the impression that Christian was important for the rescue of the danish jews. It is a fact that - like the majority of the danish population - Christian was not antisemitic. If you want to tell that in the article, it should be done without making the reader feel, that something is true in the stories about the star of David etc. We owe the millions of people who have believed in these stories to tell them clearly, that king Christian was not involved in saving the jews and that the stories were invented by other people and for another purpose. --83.200.157.166 (talk) 09:30, 22 June 2013 (UTC) M.N.

I will try to be even more clear. My contributions to the article were all based on the only serious historical work on the subject. It was in poor english certainly, but somebody could have corrected it. Instead of waiting for that to be done, half of it was deleted on the spot. The quotations from Hastings on the contrary were left until I protested. They were completely outside the subject, but they obviously intended to save some fragments of the mythical stories. And today there is still a remark like The myth has been read as a metaphor... ! And I am the contributor accused of editorialising ! As for the quotations from Munk by Møller, it should be said that Møller is a danish politician - not historian. Todays politicians are trying to justify danish wartime behaviour, they are not a neutral source. --83.200.157.166 (talk) 10:52, 23 June 2013 (UTC) M.N.
 * It is not editorializing to mention that some authors have considered the myth a metaphor for the warm relation - this is a fact. Editorializing is to tell the reader how they are supposed to read and understand the text of the article. Per Stig Møller is in fact a historian, he has a Dr.phil degree in literary history (specializing in the WW2 period), as well as a politician. User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 12:04, 23 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Furthermore you seem not to be realizing that a wikipedia article is supposed to give a balanced view of the literature on a topic - not a selective one focusing for example on the latest revisionist scholarship. The article now very clearly states that it is generally agreed upon that the story is a myth and has no basis in reality, but that the king also was not an anti-semite. This seems to me a very fair and balanced summary of the literature. If you believe it is not correctly reflecting the literature then you need to bring more sources showing that. We do not rewrite the article based on one source that takes a negative view of the king and his relation to the jews while all the others do the opposite.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 12:09, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

Well, I should have looked more in detail at Møllers biography. But for the rest I do not understand your point of view. Obviously the people who read the myth as a metaphor ignored how it was created. They ignored reality. If some people read the holocaust as a metaphor - then they are wrong. And their opinion should only be quoted as an error. Its as simple as that. As for taking a negative view of the king - then I do not follow you. Who are taking a negative view ? Not me certainly. I am trying to underline that neither he nor the danish government had anything to do with the creation of the myth. I hope you do not have a negative opinion about me, because I did not save anybody during WW2 ! Also: Your expression: ...it is generally agreed upon... leaves an uncertainty. If it is only generally agreed, then it means that there must be some dissident voices. I would like to hear who. Have you found one single historian saying that the king had something to do with the saving of the danish jews? The icelandic historian who have treated the matter is not a revisionist - as you call him. There has never been another serious opinion about the matter - as far as I know. --83.200.157.166 (talk) 14:08, 23 June 2013 (UTC)M.N.

A mainstream history of Denmark as the one by Danstrup and Koch is treating the occupation in the last volume. There is not a word about the kings actions. Because he did nothing. Very probably because he could do nothing. An ordinary dane as me heard the mythical stories only when I came to live outside Denmark. In history lessons in school we had the opinion from the teacher that the king stayed in the country as an act of submission. The teacher mentioned that the norwegian king had acted bravely by fleeing. But it is my opinion that king Christian simply did not get the time to do that. The germans came so surprisingly and went to Amalienborg before anything else. I suppose all other danish history books have been silent about the myth. Nobody has bothered to mention it and nobody has done research into its birth and expansion. The work of the Icelandic author is the first and only one - to my knowledge. If I am wrong I would like to know your sources. --83.200.222.37 (talk) 10:21, 24 June 2013 (UTC)M. N.
 * I don't see how the article currently gives the idea that the king did anything to save the Jews. It doesn't say anything at all about him having a role in saving the Jews. I states that the myth is a myth and quotes another anecdote presented by Møller, which also clearly does not say he had any role in saving anyone at all, but only suggests that he was not anti-Semitic. I really dont see the problem you are seeing.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 11:05, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

Thank you for your prompt answer. And here is mine: My last contribution here was not aimed at the article but at your last remarks just above. I must admit that the article is currently nearer to the truth than what I perceive as your personal opinion. Feel free not to answer my questions, but remember that there is a problem ... if not in the article then in the population. Look at the weird questions above on this talk-page. When there are wrong ideas out in the real world then our article should be particularly clear. Also because myth-creating is a very interesting issue. My best regards --83.200.222.37 (talk) 14:51, 24 June 2013 (UTC) M. N.
 * I don't have a personal opinion about Danish royalty or Denmark during WWII. I was very intrigued by the Icelandic scholar's study and I learned some very interesting things from this exchange. If you don't have further suggestions for improvements I will call it a day.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 14:56, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

I was talking about your personal opinions concerning the literature on the topic. I don't have any further suggestions... but only and still the same. The article is not clear. Talking about the king being not antisemitic as you do, can only have the object of insinuating that the myths had something true in them, and that the king showed personal courage during the occupation. The example you give might be true. But it was ten years before the jews were arrested - and in a country where anti-semitic feelings were almost unknown.--83.200.222.37 (talk) 05:41, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Scouting?
Wilson links him to Boy Scouting, was there a connection?--Kintetsubuffalo (talk) 04:22, 31 October 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Christian X of Denmark


text:
Joseph Cawthra

Joseph Cawthra (14 October 1759 – 15 February 1842) was a Canadian merchant and politician. Cawthra arrived in York, Upper Canada, (now Toronto) from Yeadon, Yorkshire, England, in 1802. He was granted a 400 acre tract of land in Mississauga, Ontario (which at the time was undeveloped rural property) by the Crown, provided he built a home on it within four years. The land remained in the hands of the Cawthra Family up until the 1970s, and much of it is now retained by the City of Mississauga as parkland.

Cawthra married Mary Turnpenny in 1801 and they had at least 9 children, 6 sons and three daughters, including:

 * William Cawthra (1801–1880) - Toronto City Alderman 1836, merchant and philanthropist
 * John Cawthra (1789–1851) - Newmarket merchant and member for Simcoe County in the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada (1828–1830)
 * twins Henry (1787-1854) and Joseph (1787-1790)
 * Jonathan Cawthra (1791-1868) - Private in Captain Cameron's Company of the 3rd Regiment of York Militia during the War of 1812

Business and Wealth
Cawthra founded and ran several businesses in Yorkshire and New York before opening Toronto's first apothecary shop, which would establish the base for his family's great wealth. Joseph's wealth grew enormously as a result of his involvement in profiteering during the War of 1812. Eventually Cawthra money was invested in other enterprises throughout the city, especially real estate. When he died, he left the bulk of his great estate and business interests to one of his sons, William Cawthra.

Politics and Philanthropy
Cawthra served one term as the Alderman for St. Lawrence Ward on the inaugural 1834 Toronto City Council before being defeated by conservative candidates. His seat was re-taken for the reformers in 1836 by his son William. Joseph's spell of municipal office, his sole venture into electoral politics, reflected not only his prominence in reform circles but also his active engagement in civic affairs.

Although Cawthra was a leading merchant, his attitude towards the Bank of Upper Canada was for a long time consistent with his politics. In evidence given to the House of Assembly's select committee on the state of the provincial currency in 1830, he decried its privileged position as the only chartered bank in the colony and advocated a more competitive financial market. Later that year, however, he acquired his first shares in the bank, possibly in order to stand as an "anti-establishment" candidate for its directorate, along with Jesse Ketchum, Thomas David Morrison, and Robert Baldwin. He was elected to the directorate in 1835, and re-elected in 1836 and 1837.

Cawthra was an anomalous and enigmatic figure in early Toronto society: a wealthy Anglican merchant who was involved in the Mackenzieite reform politics of Toronto who left no surviving evidence of his reasons. Family tradition records his antipathy for the family compact and ascribes his adherence to the Church of England to the personal advice of John Wesley, the father of Methodism, not to leave it. It seems plausible that Cawthra was simply a man of independent views, with sufficient financial independence to indulge them.

Legacy
Cawthra Road (Peel Regional Road 17) and Cawthra Park Secondary School in Mississauga are named for him.

Cawthra Avenue in The Junction is not named for Cawthra but rather for the Cawthra Estate with linkage to Sir William Mulock whom had a son named Cawthra Mulock or his mother Mary Cawthra, daughter of John Cawthra.

title: Joseph Cawthra


text:
1-9

1-9 may refer to:

 * 0s, the first "decade" of the AD/CE time system (AD 1–9)
 * 1% rule (Internet culture), also known as the 1–9–90 rule
 * Two services of the New York City Subway which formerly ran together
 * 1 (New York City Subway service)
 * 9 (New York City Subway service)
 * U.S. Route 1/9 concurrency in northern New Jersey
 * Emergency telephone number for city police in Morocco

title: 1-9


text:
Talk:Misnomer

Some other misnomers
Here are some other misnomers that should be included as examples:

 * American “Indian”
 * “planetary” nebula
 * “rare earth” element
 * “tidal” wave

Why there is no new examples without consensus?
I have attempted to make four edits on two topics: agriculture and geography. Two subtopics of these are buckwheat and North Sulawesi. Why these four edits have been reverted? Why there is now new examples without consensus? 2001:448A:11A3:1039:C13F:1A6A:78BB:F566 (talk) 14:19, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
 * You ignored this hidden text that is clearly visible immediately adjacent to your edit: "BY CONSENSUS, THE NUMBER OF EXAMPLES IS LIMITED. DO NOT ADD NEW ITEMS WITHOUT CONSENSUS." I'm not sure why you think it doesn't apply to you. This is not a list article, so the examples cannot be endless. The few that are in the article now are good examples. There is a longstanding consensus that no new examples should be added to the article without a consensus to add a new example, and addition of a new example requires removing another example that is not as good as the new one. So you have three choices: Discuss any new example here and get a clear consensus to add it, or start a new article "List of misnomers", or stop trying to add new examples. Please abide by the consensus. Sundayclose (talk) 14:37, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Oh, I know. It has been while for a long why is the main reason there is no new examples without consensus. 2001:448A:11A3:1039:C13F:1A6A:78BB:F566 (talk) 15:48, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
 * You knew you weren't supposed to add new examples but you did it anyway??? Don't do it again. And I've already explained why there are no new examples: It's not a list article. Sundayclose (talk) 16:13, 11 September 2023 (UTC)

The draft has already created
I create a list of misnomers, including graph in pencils is not actually created with graph and buckwheat is not closely related to wheat. Can anybody add more items in this list? 2001:448A:11A1:1A7E:6DA7:58EA:C3:B57E (talk) 06:53, 15 September 2023 (UTC)

Geographical Misnomers
Add a section listing examples of geographical misnomers.

1204753792 edits (talk) 06:12, 21 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Southwest Papua is a province of Indonesia that occupies the northwest side of Papua unlike what the name suggests.
 * Greenland despite its name is more known for its icy climate being located close to the north pole rather than as the name suggests, its greenery.

 * hi this is an update to clarify why: I think these serve as textbook examples of a misnomer, it's not too hard to understand why the name is erroneus, and at least if you know a bit about geography you'd know a little bit about these two places 1204753792 edits (talk) 00:32, 22 March 2024 (UTC)

common but non-obvious example
Maybe the not-so-obvious but very common misnomer Spanish slug, Lusitanian slug, Iberian slug (Arion vulgaris) could be added here. 130.238.112.129 (talk) 16:11, 24 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Misnomer


text:
MapReduce

MapReduce is a programming model and an associated implementation for processing and generating big data sets with a parallel, distributed algorithm on a cluster.

A MapReduce program is composed of a map procedure, which performs filtering and sorting (such as sorting students by first name into queues, one queue for each name), and a reduce method, which performs a summary operation (such as counting the number of students in each queue, yielding name frequencies). The "MapReduce System" (also called "infrastructure" or "framework") orchestrates the processing by marshalling the distributed servers, running the various tasks in parallel, managing all communications and data transfers between the various parts of the system, and providing for redundancy and fault tolerance.

The model is a specialization of the split-apply-combine strategy for data analysis. It is inspired by the map and reduce functions commonly used in functional programming, although their purpose in the MapReduce framework is not the same as in their original forms. The key contributions of the MapReduce framework are not the actual map and reduce functions (which, for example, resemble the 1995 Message Passing Interface standard's reduce and scatter operations), but the scalability and fault-tolerance achieved for a variety of applications due to parallelization. As such, a single-threaded implementation of MapReduce is usually not faster than a traditional (non-MapReduce) implementation; any gains are usually only seen with multi-threaded implementations on multi-processor hardware. The use of this model is beneficial only when the optimized distributed shuffle operation (which reduces network communication cost) and fault tolerance features of the MapReduce framework come into play. Optimizing the communication cost is essential to a good MapReduce algorithm.

MapReduce libraries have been written in many programming languages, with different levels of optimization. A popular open-source implementation that has support for distributed shuffles is part of Apache Hadoop. The name MapReduce originally referred to the proprietary Google technology, but has since been genericized. By 2014, Google was no longer using MapReduce as their primary big data processing model, and development on Apache Mahout had moved on to more capable and less disk-oriented mechanisms that incorporated full map and reduce capabilities.

Overview
MapReduce is a framework for processing parallelizable problems across large datasets using a large number of computers (nodes), collectively referred to as a cluster (if all nodes are on the same local network and use similar hardware) or a grid (if the nodes are shared across geographically and administratively distributed systems, and use more heterogeneous hardware). Processing can occur on data stored either in a filesystem (unstructured) or in a database (structured). MapReduce can take advantage of the locality of data, processing it near the place it is stored in order to minimize communication overhead.

A MapReduce framework (or system) is usually composed of three operations (or steps):

 * 1) Map: each worker node applies the   function to the local data, and writes the output to a temporary storage. A master node ensures that only one copy of the redundant input data is processed.
 * 2) Shuffle: worker nodes redistribute data based on the output keys (produced by the   function), such that all data belonging to one key is located on the same worker node.
 * 3) Reduce: worker nodes now process each group of output data, per key, in parallel.

MapReduce allows for the distributed processing of the map and reduction operations. Maps can be performed in parallel, provided that each mapping operation is independent of the others; in practice, this is limited by the number of independent data sources and/or the number of CPUs near each source. Similarly, a set of 'reducers' can perform the reduction phase, provided that all outputs of the map operation that share the same key are presented to the same reducer at the same time, or that the reduction function is associative. While this process often appears inefficient compared to algorithms that are more sequential (because multiple instances of the reduction process must be run), MapReduce can be applied to significantly larger datasets than a single "commodity" server can handle – a large server farm can use MapReduce to sort a petabyte of data in only a few hours. The parallelism also offers some possibility of recovering from partial failure of servers or storage during the operation: if one mapper or reducer fails, the work can be rescheduled – assuming the input data are still available.

Another way to look at MapReduce is as a 5-step parallel and distributed computation:

 * 1) Prepare the Map input – the "MapReduce system" designates Map processors, assigns the input key K1 that each processor would work on, and provides that processor with all the input data associated with that key.
 * 2) Run the user-provided Map code – Map is run exactly once for each K1 key, generating output organized by key K2.
 * 3) "Shuffle" the Map output to the Reduce processors – the MapReduce system designates Reduce processors, assigns the K2 key each processor should work on, and provides that processor with all the Map-generated data associated with that key.
 * 4) Run the user-provided Reduce code – Reduce is run exactly once for each K2 key produced by the Map step.
 * 5) Produce the final output – the MapReduce system collects all the Reduce output, and sorts it by K2 to produce the final outcome.

These five steps can be logically thought of as running in sequence – each step starts only after the previous step is completed – although in practice they can be interleaved as long as the final result is not affected.

In many situations, the input data might have already been distributed ("sharded") among many different servers, in which case step 1 could sometimes be greatly simplified by assigning Map servers that would process the locally present input data. Similarly, step 3 could sometimes be sped up by assigning Reduce processors that are as close as possible to the Map-generated data they need to process.

Logical view
The Map and Reduce functions of MapReduce are both defined with respect to data structured in (key, value) pairs. Map takes one pair of data with a type in one data domain, and returns a list of pairs in a different domain:

→

The Map function is applied in parallel to every pair (keyed by ) in the input dataset. This produces a list of pairs (keyed by ) for each call. After that, the MapReduce framework collects all pairs with the same key from all lists and groups them together, creating one group for each key.

The Reduce function is then applied in parallel to each group, which in turn produces a collection of values in the same domain:

→

Each Reduce call typically produces either one key value pair or an empty return, though one call is allowed to return more than one key value pair. The returns of all calls are collected as the desired result list.

Thus the MapReduce framework transforms a list of (key, value) pairs into another list of (key, value) pairs. This behavior is different from the typical functional programming map and reduce combination, which accepts a list of arbitrary values and returns one single value that combines all the values returned by map.

It is necessary but not sufficient to have implementations of the map and reduce abstractions in order to implement MapReduce. Distributed implementations of MapReduce require a means of connecting the processes performing the Map and Reduce phases. This may be a distributed file system. Other options are possible, such as direct streaming from mappers to reducers, or for the mapping processors to serve up their results to reducers that query them.

Examples
The canonical MapReduce example counts the appearance of each word in a set of documents:

function map (String name, String document): // name: document name // document: document contents for each word w in document: emit (w, 1) function reduce (String word, Iterator partialCounts): // word: a word // partialCounts: a list of aggregated partial counts sum = 0 for each pc in partialCounts: sum += pc    emit (word, sum)

Here, each document is split into words, and each word is counted by the map function, using the word as the result key. The framework puts together all the pairs with the same key and feeds them to the same call to reduce. Thus, this function just needs to sum all of its input values to find the total appearances of that word.

As another example, imagine that for a database of 1.1 billion people, one would like to compute the average number of social contacts a person has according to age. In SQL, such a query could be expressed as:

Using MapReduce, the K1 key values could be the integers 1 through 1100, each representing a batch of 1 million records, the K2 key value could be a person's age in years, and this computation could be achieved using the following functions:

function Map is input: integer K1 between 1 and 1100, representing a batch of 1 million social.person records for each social.person record in the K1 batch do let Y be the person's age let N be the number of contacts the person has produce one output record (Y,(N,1)) repeat end function function Reduce is input: age (in years) Y    for each input record (Y,(N,C)) do Accumulate in S the sum of N*C Accumulate in Cnew the sum of C    repeat let A be S/Cnew produce one output record (Y,(A,Cnew)) end function

Note that in the Reduce function, C is the count of people having in total N contacts, so in the Map function it is natural to write C=1, since every output pair is referring to the contacts of one single person.

The MapReduce system would line up the 1100 Map processors, and would provide each with its corresponding 1 million input records. The Map step would produce 1.1 billion (Y,(N,1)) records, with Y values ranging between, say, 8 and 103. The MapReduce System would then line up the 96 Reduce processors by performing shuffling operation of the key/value pairs due to the fact that we need average per age, and provide each with its millions of corresponding input records. The Reduce step would result in the much reduced set of only 96 output records (Y,A), which would be put in the final result file, sorted by Y.

The count info in the record is important if the processing is reduced more than one time. If we did not add the count of the records, the computed average would be wrong, for example:

-- map output #1: age, quantity of contacts 10, 9 10, 9 10, 9

-- map output #2: age, quantity of contacts 10, 9 10, 9

-- map output #3: age, quantity of contacts 10, 10

If we reduce files #1 and #2, we will have a new file with an average of 9 contacts for a 10-year-old person ((9+9+9+9+9)/5):

-- reduce step #1: age, average of contacts 10, 9

If we reduce it with file #3, we lose the count of how many records we've already seen, so we end up with an average of 9.5 contacts for a 10-year-old person ((9+10)/2), which is wrong. The correct answer is 9.1 66 = 55 / 6 = (9×3+9×2+10×1)/(3+2+1).

Dataflow
Software framework architecture adheres to open-closed principle where code is effectively divided into unmodifiable frozen spots and extensible hot spots. The frozen spot of the MapReduce framework is a large distributed sort. The hot spots, which the application defines, are:
 * an input reader
 * a Map function
 * a partition function
 * a compare function
 * a Reduce function
 * an output writer

Input reader
The input reader divides the input into appropriate size 'splits' (in practice, typically, 64 MB to 128 MB) and the framework assigns one split to each Map function. The input reader reads data from stable storage (typically, a distributed file system) and generates key/value pairs.

A common example will read a directory full of text files and return each line as a record.

Map function
The Map function takes a series of key/value pairs, processes each, and generates zero or more output key/value pairs. The input and output types of the map can be (and often are) different from each other.

If the application is doing a word count, the map function would break the line into words and output a key/value pair for each word. Each output pair would contain the word as the key and the number of instances of that word in the line as the value.

Partition function
Each Map function output is allocated to a particular reducer by the application's partition function for sharding purposes. The partition function is given the key and the number of reducers and returns the index of the desired reducer.

A typical default is to hash the key and use the hash value modulo the number of reducers. It is important to pick a partition function that gives an approximately uniform distribution of data per shard for load-balancing purposes, otherwise the MapReduce operation can be held up waiting for slow reducers to finish (i.e. the reducers assigned the larger shares of the non-uniformly partitioned data).

Between the map and reduce stages, the data are shuffled (parallel-sorted / exchanged between nodes) in order to move the data from the map node that produced them to the shard in which they will be reduced. The shuffle can sometimes take longer than the computation time depending on network bandwidth, CPU speeds, data produced and time taken by map and reduce computations.

Comparison function
The input for each Reduce is pulled from the machine where the Map ran and sorted using the application's comparison function.

Reduce function
The framework calls the application's Reduce function once for each unique key in the sorted order. The Reduce can iterate through the values that are associated with that key and produce zero or more outputs.

In the word count example, the Reduce function takes the input values, sums them and generates a single output of the word and the final sum.

Output writer
The Output Writer writes the output of the Reduce to the stable storage.

Theoretical background
Properties of monoids are the basis for ensuring the validity of MapReduce operations.

In the Algebird package a Scala implementation of Map/Reduce explicitly requires a monoid class type .

The operations of MapReduce deal with two types: the type A of input data being mapped, and the type B of output data being reduced.

The Map operation takes individual values of type A and produces, for each a:A a value b:B; The Reduce operation requires a binary operation • defined on values of type B; it consists of folding all available b:B to a single value.

From a basic requirements point of view, any MapReduce operation must involve the ability to arbitrarily regroup data being reduced. Such a requirement amounts to two properties of the operation •:
 * associativity: (x • y) • z = x • (y • z)
 * existence of neutral element e such that e • x = x • e = x for every x:B.

The second property guarantees that, when parallelized over multiple nodes, the nodes that don't have any data to process would have no impact on the result.

These two properties amount to having a monoid (B, •, e) on values of type B with operation • and with neutral element e.

There's no requirements on the values of type A; an arbitrary function A → B can be used for the Map operation. This means that we have a catamorphism A* → (B, •, e). Here A* denotes a Kleene star, also known as the type of lists over A.

The Shuffle operation per se is not related to the essence of MapReduce; it's needed to distribute calculations over the cloud.

It follows from the above that not every binary Reduce operation will work in MapReduce. Here are the counter-examples:

 * building a tree from subtrees: this operation is not associative, and the result will depend on grouping;
 * direct calculation of averages: avg is also not associative (and it has no neutral element); to calculate an average, one needs to calculate moments.

Performance considerations
MapReduce programs are not guaranteed to be fast. The main benefit of this programming model is to exploit the optimized shuffle operation of the platform, and only having to write the Map and Reduce parts of the program. In practice, the author of a MapReduce program however has to take the shuffle step into consideration; in particular the partition function and the amount of data written by the Map function can have a large impact on the performance and scalability. Additional modules such as the Combiner function can help to reduce the amount of data written to disk, and transmitted over the network. MapReduce applications can achieve sub-linear speedups under specific circumstances.

When designing a MapReduce algorithm, the author needs to choose a good tradeoff between the computation and the communication costs. Communication cost often dominates the computation cost, and many MapReduce implementations are designed to write all communication to distributed storage for crash recovery.

In tuning performance of MapReduce, the complexity of mapping, shuffle, sorting (grouping by the key), and reducing has to be taken into account. The amount of data produced by the mappers is a key parameter that shifts the bulk of the computation cost between mapping and reducing. Reducing includes sorting (grouping of the keys) which has nonlinear complexity. Hence, small partition sizes reduce sorting time, but there is a trade-off because having a large number of reducers may be impractical. The influence of split unit size is marginal (unless chosen particularly badly, say <1MB). The gains from some mappers reading load from local disks, on average, is minor.

For processes that complete quickly, and where the data fits into main memory of a single machine or a small cluster, using a MapReduce framework usually is not effective. Since these frameworks are designed to recover from the loss of whole nodes during the computation, they write interim results to distributed storage. This crash recovery is expensive, and only pays off when the computation involves many computers and a long runtime of the computation. A task that completes in seconds can just be restarted in the case of an error, and the likelihood of at least one machine failing grows quickly with the cluster size. On such problems, implementations keeping all data in memory and simply restarting a computation on node failures or —when the data is small enough— non-distributed solutions will often be faster than a MapReduce system.

Distribution and reliability
MapReduce achieves reliability by parceling out a number of operations on the set of data to each node in the network. Each node is expected to report back periodically with completed work and status updates. If a node falls silent for longer than that interval, the master node (similar to the master server in the Google File System) records the node as dead and sends out the node's assigned work to other nodes. Individual operations use atomic operations for naming file outputs as a check to ensure that there are not parallel conflicting threads running. When files are renamed, it is possible to also copy them to another name in addition to the name of the task (allowing for side-effects).

The reduce operations operate much the same way. Because of their inferior properties with regard to parallel operations, the master node attempts to schedule reduce operations on the same node, or in the same rack as the node holding the data being operated on. This property is desirable as it conserves bandwidth across the backbone network of the datacenter.

Implementations are not necessarily highly reliable. For example, in older versions of Hadoop the NameNode was a single point of failure for the distributed filesystem. Later versions of Hadoop have high availability with an active/passive failover for the "NameNode."

Uses
MapReduce is useful in a wide range of applications, including distributed pattern-based searching, distributed sorting, web link-graph reversal, Singular Value Decomposition, web access log stats, inverted index construction, document clustering, machine learning, and statistical machine translation. Moreover, the MapReduce model has been adapted to several computing environments like multi-core and many-core systems,  desktop grids, multi-cluster, volunteer computing environments, dynamic cloud environments, mobile environments, and high-performance computing environments.

At Google, MapReduce was used to completely regenerate Google's index of the World Wide Web. It replaced the old ad hoc programs that updated the index and ran the various analyses. Development at Google has since moved on to technologies such as Percolator, FlumeJava and MillWheel that offer streaming operation and updates instead of batch processing, to allow integrating "live" search results without rebuilding the complete index.

MapReduce's stable inputs and outputs are usually stored in a distributed file system. The transient data are usually stored on local disk and fetched remotely by the reducers.

Lack of novelty
David DeWitt and Michael Stonebraker, computer scientists specializing in parallel databases and shared-nothing architectures, have been critical of the breadth of problems that MapReduce can be used for. They called its interface too low-level and questioned whether it really represents the paradigm shift its proponents have claimed it is. They challenged the MapReduce proponents' claims of novelty, citing Teradata as an example of prior art that has existed for over two decades. They also compared MapReduce programmers to CODASYL programmers, noting both are "writing in a low-level language performing low-level record manipulation." MapReduce's use of input files and lack of schema support prevents the performance improvements enabled by common database system features such as B-trees and hash partitioning, though projects such as Pig (or PigLatin), Sawzall, Apache Hive, HBase and Bigtable are addressing some of these problems.

Greg Jorgensen wrote an article rejecting these views. Jorgensen asserts that DeWitt and Stonebraker's entire analysis is groundless as MapReduce was never designed nor intended to be used as a database.

DeWitt and Stonebraker have subsequently published a detailed benchmark study in 2009 comparing performance of Hadoop's MapReduce and RDBMS approaches on several specific problems. They concluded that relational databases offer real advantages for many kinds of data use, especially on complex processing or where the data is used across an enterprise, but that MapReduce may be easier for users to adopt for simple or one-time processing tasks.

The MapReduce programming paradigm was also described in Danny Hillis's 1985 thesis intended for use on the Connection Machine, where it was called "xapping/reduction" and relied upon that machine's special hardware to accelerate both map and reduce. The dialect ultimately used for the Connection Machine, the 1986 StarLisp, had parallel  and , which in turn was based on the 1984 Common Lisp, which had non-parallel   and   built in. The tree-like approach that the Connection Machine's hypercube architecture uses to execute  in $$O(\log n)$$ time is effectively the same as the approach referred to within the Google paper as prior work.

In 2010 Google was granted what is described as a patent on MapReduce. The patent, filed in 2004, may cover use of MapReduce by open source software such as Hadoop, CouchDB, and others. In Ars Technica, an editor acknowledged Google's role in popularizing the MapReduce concept, but questioned whether the patent was valid or novel. In 2013, as part of its "Open Patent Non-Assertion (OPN) Pledge", Google pledged to only use the patent defensively. The patent is expected to expire on 23 December 2026.

Restricted programming framework
MapReduce tasks must be written as acyclic dataflow programs, i.e. a stateless mapper followed by a stateless reducer, that are executed by a batch job scheduler. This paradigm makes repeated querying of datasets difficult and imposes limitations that are felt in fields such as graph processing where iterative algorithms that revisit a single working set multiple times are the norm, as well as, in the presence of disk-based data with high latency, even the field of machine learning where multiple passes through the data are required even though algorithms can tolerate serial access to the data each pass.

Implementations of MapReduce

 * Apache CouchDB
 * Apache Hadoop
 * Infinispan
 * Riak

title: MapReduce


text:
Prepayment of loan

Prepayment is the early repayment of a loan by a borrower, in part (commonly known as a curtailment) or in full, often as a result of optional refinancing to take advantage of lower interest rates.

In the case of a mortgage-backed security (MBS), prepayment is perceived as a financial risk—sometimes known as "call risk"—because mortgage loans are often paid off early in order to incur lower interest payments through cheaper refinancing. The new financing may be cheaper because the borrower's credit has improved or because market interest rates have fallen; but in either of these cases, the payments that would have been made to the MBS investor would be above current market rates. Redeeming such loans early through prepayment reduces the investor's upside from credit and interest rate variability in an MBS, and in essence forces the MBS investor to reinvest the proceeds at lower interest rates. If instead the borrower's opportunities deteriorate (creditworthiness declines or market interest rates rise), then the borrower loses the incentive to refinance, since the existing mortgage interest rate cannot be reduced with a new mortgage. The fact that MBS investors are exposed to downside prepayment risk, but rarely benefit from it, means that these bonds must pay an incrementally higher interest rate than similar bonds without prepayment risk, to be attractive investments. (This is the embedded "option cost" that results in a lower option-adjusted spread.) Similar issues arise for callable bonds in the American municipal, corporate, and government agency sectors.

As another way to compensate for prepayment risk (which is a reinvestment risk), a prepayment penalty clause is often included in the loan contract. "Soft" prepayment terms can allow prepayment without penalty if the home is sold. "Hard" prepayment terms do not allow any exceptions without penalty.

Bond issuers can mitigate some prepayment risk by issuing what are called "super sinker" bonds. Super sinkers are usually home-financing bonds that repay bondholders their principal quickly if homeowners prepay their mortgages. In other words, mortgage prepayments are used to retire a specified maturity. Super sinkers are likely to be paid off in a relatively short time. As a result, the bondholders may receive higher long-term yields after only a short period.

Individual borrowers who expect to prepay their loans early should generally favor a combination of lower principal balance and higher interest rate (which stops accruing after prepayment), rather than a below-market interest rate and higher principal balance (which much be paid in full, regardless of prepayment). In general, only borrowers who expect to keep their loans for many years should opt for below-market interest rates by paying mortgage origination points or forgoing automobile rebates.

Homeowner prepayment decisions are impacted by a number of variables and are notoriously hard to predict, adding another layer of uncertainty to investing in MBS markets. Prepayment speeds can be expressed in SMM (single monthly mortality), CPR (conditional prepayment rate, which is the annually compounded SMM), or PSA (percentage of the Public Securities Association prepayment model). For mortgages at least 30 months old, 100% PSA = 6.0% CPR = 0.51% SMM, equivalent to the full prepayment of 6% of a pool's remaining mortgages each year.

title: Prepayment of loan