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Talk:Marcel Breuer

misattribution?
The Hagerty House is attributed to Gropius, on that page. 141.149.35.69 (talk) 04:06, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Marcel Breuer
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Marcel Breuer's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "Goldberger": From Vlastimil Koubek: Goldberger, Paul. "Washington Buildings: Low Profile and Boxlike Design." New York Times. December 29, 1975. From Robert C. Weaver Federal Building: Goldberger, "Marcel Breuer, 79, Dies," New York Times, July 2, 1981.

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 23:49, 19 June 2015 (UTC)

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Bronx Community College missing or originally done for NYU or Hunter?
There are a lot of available photos of Bronx Community College buildings (originally Breuer dormitory, now classroom). Where does this fit in the list of works? It is currently missing unless, after being developed for these other clients it became BCC? Good Curbed article here too: |Touring Marcel Breuer's Bronx Community College Campus, a Hidden NYC Gem and good pictures here| Wikimedia Commons Category Bronx Community College KevinCuddeback (talk) 16:21, 30 June 2020 (UTC)

great job!
I really appreciated the Chronology of Breuer's work. I think linking to the other pages of artists he worked with on some of the homes would be beneficial.

One of the references uses the way back machine, not sure if that is an acceptable form of citation.

71.209.214.194 (talk) 01:50, 31 January 2021 (UTC)

Books and pamphlets on Breuer

 * Abercrombie, Stanley. Koerfer House (with Herbert Beckhard), Moscia, Tessin, Switzerland 1963-6, Stillman House III (with Tician Papachristou), Litchfield, Connecticut 1972-74.  Tokyo:  A.D. A. Edita Tokyo, 1977.
 * Argan, Giulio Carlo. Marcel Breuer, Disegno Industriale e Architettura.  Milano:  Görlich, 1957.
 * Armesto, Antonio, ed. Marcel Breuer:  Casas Americans.  Barcelona:  G. Gili, 2001.
 * Blake, Peter. Marcel Breuer:  Architect and Designer.  New York: 1949.
 * ———., ed. Sun and Shadow:  The Philosophy of an Architect.  New York:  Dodd, Mead [1955].
 * Chaljub, Benedicte. Marcel Breuer à Flaine – Portrait. Le Conseil d'Architecture, d'Urbanisme et de l'Environnement de Haute-Savoie, 2014.
 * Cobbers, Arnt. Marcel Breuer, 1902-1981:  Form Giver of the Twentieth Century.  London:  Taschen, 2007.
 * Crump, James, Breuer's Bohemia. New York: The Monacelli Press/Penguin Random House, forthcoming 2021.
 * Driller, Joachim. Marcel Breuer:  das architektonische Frühwerk bis 1950.  Ph.D. Thesis, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg i.Br., 1990.
 * ———. Breuer Houses. Translated by Mark Cole and Jeremy Verrinder.   London:  Phaidon Press Limited, 2000.
 * ———. Marcel Breuer: Die Wohnhäuser, 1923-1973.  Stuttgart:  Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1998.
 * Droste, Magdalena and Manfred Ludewig. Marcel Breuer Design.  Köln:  Benedikt Taschen, 1994.
 * Earles, William D. The Harvard Five in New Canaan:  Midcentury Modern Houses by Marcel Breuer, Landis Gores, John Johansen, Philip Johnson, Eliot Noyes and Others.  New York:  W. W. Norton, 2006.
 * Galema, Wijnand and Fransje Hooimeijer. Bouwen aan diplomatie: De Amerikaanse ambassade in Den Haag Marcel Breuer, 1956 – 1959. Hague: Cultuurhistorische verkenning, 2008.
 * Gatje, Robert F. Marcel Breuer:  A Memoir.  New York:  The Monacelli Press, 2000.
 * Howard, Shirley Reiff. Marcel Breuer, Concrete and the Cross.  Muskegon, Michigan.:  Hackley Art Museum, 1978.
 * Hyman, Isabelle. Marcel Breuer, Architect.  The Career and the Buildings.  New York:  Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2001.
 * Izzo, Alberto and Camillo Gubitosi, eds. Marcel Breuer:  Architettura 1921-1980.  Firenze:  Centro Di, 1981.
 * Jones, Cranston. Buildings and Projects, 1921-1961.  New York:  Praeger, 1962.
 * Kepes, Gyorgy, ed. The Man-Made Object.  New York:  G. Braziller, 1966.
 * Masello, David. Architecture Without Rules:  The Houses of Marcel Breuer and Herbert Beckhard.  New York:  W. W. Norton, 1993.
 * Pearson, Christopher E. M. Designing UNESCO:  Art, Architecture and International Politics at Mid-Century.  Burlington, Vermont.:  Ashgate Publishing Company, 2010.
 * Papachristou, Tician. Marcel Breuer, New Buildings and Projects.  New York:  Praeger, 1970.
 * Schneck, Adolf G., ed. Der Stuhl:  Stuhltypen aus verschiedenen Ländern und Versuche neuzeitlicher Lösungen in Ansichten und Masszeichnungen.  Stuttgart:  Hoffmann, 1928.........
 * Stoddard, Whitney S. Adventure in Architecture:  Building the New Saint John's.  New York:  Longmans, Green, 1958.
 * Thimmesh, Hilary. Marcel Breuer and a Committee of Twelve Plan a Church: A Monastic Memoir. Collegeville, Minnesota: Saint John's University Press, 2011.
 * Young, Victoria M. Saint John's Abbey Church: Marcel Breuer and the Creation of a Modern Sacred Space. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014

Exhibition catalogues

 * Breuer's Whitney: an Anniversary Exhibition.  New York:  Whitney Museum of American Art, 1996.
 * A Design Student's Guide to the New York World's Fair. New York:  PM Magazine and Laboratory School of Industrial Design, 1939.
 * Marcel Breuer: an Exhibition organized by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.  New York:  Metropolitan Museum of Art, [1972].
 * Bergdoll, Barry and Leah Dickerson. Bauhaus 1919-1933:  Workshops for Modernity.  New York:  Museum of Modern Art, 2009.
 * Scheffler, Renate, ed. Marcel Breuer:  Ausstellung im Bauhaus-Archiv.  Berlin:  Bauhaus-Archiv, [1975].
 * von Vegesack, Alexander and Mathias Remmele, eds. Marcel Breuer:  Design and Architecture.  Weil am Rhein:  Vitra Design Museum, 2003.
 * Wilk, Christopher. Marcel Breuer:  Furniture and Interiors.  London:  Architectural Press, 1981.

Journal articles

 * "A. & S. – Nassau Store Designed to Provide Main-Store Facilities in Outlying Area." Architectural Record (February 1951).
 * "Air Line Office with a Lift." Architectural Record (April 1946).
 * "Aluminum City Terrace Housing." Architectural Forum (July 1944): 65-76.
 * "A Beach Club to Sell a View." Architectural Record (July 1948).
 * "The Breuer House at the Museum of Modern Art New York." The Architect and Building News (20 May 1949).
 * "La Case di Marcel Breuer nel Connecticut." Domus, no. 233 (1949).
 * "Casa Para la Familia que Crece." Nuestra Arquitectura  21, no. 242 (September 1949).
 * "Casa rustica", Domus (Sep 1949): 1-4.
 * "The Case of the Aging House: How it Was Given a New Lease on Life."  House and Garden (April 1951).
 * "De Bijenkorf te Rotterdam." Bouwkundig Weekblad (24 April 1956).
 * "Discoveries in Living." Science Illustrated (April 1942):  65-95.
 * "A Dollar Buys More Room." Science Illustrated (April 1942).
 * "Dormitory Interiors." Architectural Record (April 1946).
 * "Elementary School: Bantam, Connecticut."  Progressive Architecture (February 1957).
 * "Factory by Marcel Breuer is Bright and Handsome-All Around." Architectural Forum (February 1955).
 * "Fireplace: House in New York."  The Architect and Building News (14 October 1949).
 * "For Practice in Housekeeping." Architectural Record (June 1950).
 * "Four American Houses." The Architectural Review (November 1939).
 * "A Garden City of the Future." The Architects’ Journal (26 March 1936).
 * "Geller House, Lawrence, Long Island." Progressive Architecture (February 1947).
 * "Guest Architect in the Netherlands." Katholick Beowblad (vol. xxvi, no. 21).
 * "Grand magasin à Rotterdam." [unknown publication] [French]
 * "Habitations 50." L’architecture d'aujourd’hui ( July 1950): 35-48.
 * "A House Fitted to the Berkshire Hills." Architectural Record (February 1949).
 * "House for the Growing Family." Architectural Forum (May 1949): 94-101.
 * "Houses by F.R.S. Yorke and Marcel Breuer." Architectural Review (January 1939):   29-35.
 * "Marcel Breuer." Interiors (September 1977):  98-109.
 * "Marcel Breuer: almacenes, en Rotterdam." Revista Informes de la construcción (April 1956).
 * "Marcel Breuer Builds for Himself." Architectural Record (October 1948):  91-101.
 * "Marcel Breuer Designs in Plywood." Upholstering (February 1947).
 * "Marcel Breuer: Bauhaus Tradition, Brutalist Invention" The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 74, no. 1 (Summer, 2016)
 * "Marcel Breuer: da Bauhaus à Casa no Jardim." Pilotis (February 1950).
 * "Marcel Breuer: Teacher and Architect."  House and Home (May 1952).
 * "Marcel Breuer's Own House." The Architectural Review (1949).
 * "Netherlands Department Store Rebuilds." Architectural Record (May 1955).
 * "Noi pietra, essi legno: La casa di Marcel Breuer nel Connecticut." Domus (1949):  2-7.
 * "Una Nueva Obra de Marcel Breuer." Nuestra Arquitectura 11 (November 1948).  [Spanish]
 * "Oeuvres Récentes de Marcel Breuer, Architecte." L’architecture d'aujord’hui (July 1946):  3-26.
 * "On the Cover: The Geller House."  Empire State Architect  (July/August 1947).
 * "Sulla Media de Sogni di un Cittadino Americano." Domus (1949).
 * "Symmetrical Cantilevers on Asymmetrical Base." House and Home (January 1952):  119-124.
 * "Theater Arts Center: The Way to Solve a Complex Problem is to the Make it Simple."  Architectural Forum (December 1952).
 * "Tomorrow's House Today." House and Garden (February 1947).
 * "The Tompkins House, Hewlett Harbor, Long Island." Architectural Record (September 1947).
 * "Two Modern Summer Cottages (Blueprints for Tomorrow)." House and Garden (ca. 1948):  62.
 * "Wohnhaus mit aufgehängtem Balkon." Bauen + Wohnen (1949).  [German]

Journal issues devoted to Breuer

 * Bouwkundig Weekblad Architectura, no. 40, 5 (October 1929).
 * Cobouw, no.12 (22 March 1957).
 * Cobouw, no.13 (29 March 1957).
 * Nuestra Arquitectura 9 (September 1947).
 * Process: Architecture 32 (September 1982).

Selected writings by Breuer

 * published in Circle, 1936].
 * "On a Design of a Binuclear House." [typed manuscript of article published in California Arts and Architecture (Dec. 1943)]
 * "On Paul Klee." [typed manuscript]
 * "On Reorganization of the Bauhaus in 1923." [typed manuscript]
 * Preface to Living Architecture: Egyptian, ed. By Kenenth Martin LEake.  New York:  Grosset & Dunlap, 1964.
 * "Stuyvesant Six: A Redevelopment Study." Pencil Points (June 1944).
 * "Tell Me, What is Modern Architecture?"  House and Garden, April 1940.
 * "Wo stehen wir?" [lecture originally delivered in Zürich, 27 Apr 1934

title: Talk:Marcel Breuer


text: Template:See also

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Village of the Damned (1995 film)

Village of the Damned is a 1995 American science fiction-horror film directed by John Carpenter, written by David Himmelstein, and starring Christopher Reeve, Linda Kozlowski, Kirstie Alley, Michael Paré, Mark Hamill, and Meredith Salenger. It is a remake of the 1960 film of the same name, itself based on the 1957 novel The Midwich Cuckoos by John Wyndham. The 1995 version is set in Northern California, whereas the book and original film are both set in the United Kingdom. The 1995 film was marketed with the tagline, "Beware the Children".

This was the last publicly released film starring Reeve before he was paralyzed in an equestrian accident in May 1995, as well as his last theatrically released film. The film received negative reviews from critics and failed at the box office upon release.

Plot
The people and animals of the sleepy coastal town of Midwich in Marin County, California fall asleep at a 10 AM "blackout" and regain consciousness at 4 PM. Following the blackout, ten women of child-bearing age mysteriously fall pregnant, including a virgin girl and a married woman who has not been sexually active for a year due to her husband being away for work in Tokyo. None of them seek abortions after having dreams, and all the babies are born the same night in a barn – five boys and five girls, though the virgin's daughter is stillborn due to umbilical cord asphyxia. The surviving children are healthy but have pale skin, white-blonde hair, cobalt eyes, and fierce intellect.

However, they do not appear to possess a conscience or individual personalities. They display eerie psychic powers that can result in violent and deadly consequences whenever they experience pain or provocation. The children soon "pair off" like mates, except for David, whose intended mate was the stillborn girl. As a result, David is the outcast of the group. Although he retains some degree of psychic powers, he also has the ability to show human compassion. He talks to his mother, Jill McGowan, the school principal, and begins to understand his situation. The children's leader is Mara, the daughter of the physician, Dr. Alan, and his wife, Barbara. As a baby, Mara used her powers to force her mother to commit suicide by jumping off a cliff. Her mate is Robert.

The children, who now have a bad reputation in town, eventually move to their classroom at a local barn for survival. Local priest Father George attempts to shoot them, only for Mara to use her powers and force George to shoot himself. Soon, it is learned that there are other colonies of blackout children in foreign countries, but due to their inhuman nature, they were quickly eliminated, in some cases at the cost of destroying the entire town. One of the scientists, Dr. Susan Verner, is forced to show the children the well-preserved alien corpse of David's intended mate she secretly kept for research. The children force her to commit suicide by impaling herself. An angry mob gathers to attempt to kill the children, but their unsuccessful efforts lead Midwich into chaos, and the rest of the scientific team flees.

Alan devises a plan to detonate a bomb inside a briefcase in the children's classroom. By thinking of a brick wall, he is able to create a mental barrier and keep the presence of the bomb a secret from the children. Jill begs him to spare David because he is not like the others. Alan attempts to do this by asking David to leave to get his notebook from his car. The rest of the children begin to suspect that Alan is hiding something. Mara's true face shows through as she breaks through Alan's defenses, revealing the bomb. The other children look at the clock, and the bomb explodes, killing everyone inside, including Alan. Jill holds David outside during the explosion.

While driving, Jill tells David: "We'll go someplace where nobody knows who we are."

Main cast

 * Christopher Reeve as Dr. Alan Chaffee, the town doctor
 * Linda Kozlowski as Jill McGowan, the school principal, and a widow who becomes the mother of David
 * Kirstie Alley as Dr. Susan Verner, an epidemiologist working for the federal government of the United States, who investigates the mass pregnancies
 * Michael Paré as Frank McGowan, Jill's late husband
 * Meredith Salenger as Melanie Roberts, a virgin whose baby is stillborn
 * Mark Hamill as Reverend George, the town minister
 * Pippa Pearthree as Sarah, Reverend George's wife
 * Peter Jason as Ben Blum
 * Constance Forslund as Callie Blum
 * Karen Kahn as Barbara Chaffee, Dr. Chaffee's wife
 * George Buck Flower as Carlton
 * Squire Fridell as Sheriff

The Children

 * Thomas Dekker as David McGowan, son of Jill McGowan
 * Lindsey Haun as Mara Chaffee, daughter of Dr. Alan and Barbara Chaffee
 * Cody Dorkin as Robert, brother of Melanie Roberts
 * Trishalee Hardy as Julie, daughter of Ben and Callie Blum
 * Jessye Quarry as Dorothy
 * Adam Robbins as Isaac, son of Reverend George and Sarah
 * John Falk as Matt
 * Renee Rene Simms as Casey
 * Danielle Keaton as Lily

Development
According to Carpenter, there had been attempts to remake Village of the Damned since Invasion of the Body Snatchers had been successfully remade in 1978. In 1981, Lawrence Bachmann, who was head of MGM-British Studios when the 1960 film was made, said he was going to remake the movie. "I couldn't really do the book properly then," he said. "Twenty years ago, you couldn't talk about abortion; censorship didn't even allow you to mention impregnation. This time, we'll do it right." The project wound up at Universal, who approached Carpenter to remake it. He said, "I thought, 'Sure, it's an obvious choice, it's easy, that's a pretty easy movie to make.'"

Carpenter saw the original when he was 12 "and it stuck in my mind for several reasons. The whole idea of a whole town blacking out was 'Wow!' Also, I somehow got this incredible crush on one of the girls in the original. She was the first love object I had; I wanted her to zap me and take me over and make me do whatever she wanted." He said, "I also knew exactly where to shoot it. I live up there, Inverness, California, and Point Reyes, where we shot The Fog in 1979. I have a house up there. It's paradise; you can stand anywhere, put the camera down and shoot, and you've got it, it's there. It's a small town, plus it's home; I get to shoot at home for a change. So off we went."

Script
Carpenter rewrote the script by David Himmelstein. "It's a truly great novel," he said. "It's funny but in all the drafts of the script I read everybody was trying to go in a different direction from the old picture and the novel. They avoided it being about an alien visitation, strangely. Come on, guys, we've got to tell the story now. It's there. So I went back to the original roots of it. Should be pretty good."

"You don't have to do much to the original, really," he said. "You've got to bring it up to date, humanize it a little and make the characters rich. When the original was made, you couldn't say the word `pregnant' on screen. So the birth scenes and the women weren't dealt with."

Shooting
Carpenter said his relationship with the studio was "a good marriage, because we all had the same goals in mind...we all knew what story we wanted to tell. I can't tell you how impressed I am with Universal; the way they treated me, you can't get better than that."

Unlike its predecessor, the film was shot in widescreen color. Lloyd Paseman of The Register-Guard said that the shooting in widescreen color and the fact that major actors such as Christopher Reeve, Mark Hamill and Kirstie Alley were a part of the film made it so that the film was "anything but cheap".

Additional graphic violence was added in the remake. The children cause one adult to kill herself by stabbing herself with a scalpel and another adult to immolate herself.

"It was fun to do a drama like Village, as opposed to In The Mouth of Madness, which had a little edge to it," said Carpenter. "This is more straight. This is more a baby-boomer, middle-class kind of a movie. There's nothing wrong with that; I just hadn't done one of those in a long time. If you make a movie over $10 million, you have got to try to reach out to the broadest audience you can find. If you make it under $10 million, you're able to make it more quirky, more daring, more subversive, if you want to use that word. That's the joy of low-budget filmmaking. You can be tough, you can be down, you can be all sorts of things that from a business standpoint you can't do when you get over a certain budget."

If the children applied moderate psychic powers, their pupils would have the appearance of being green or red, and the color became a bright white when they applied strong psychic powers.

Charlotte Gravenor, the hairstylist, bleached the hair of the actors who played the children, and then applied white hairspray to their hair. This made them appear like aliens. Bruce Nicholson and Greg Nicotero applied a special effect where the eye pupil colors change when the children seize control of the adults.

Reception
In addition to being a failure at the box office, the film received negative critical response. Based on 37 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, Village of the Damned holds a 30% approval rating from critics, with an average score of 4.1 out of 10. In 1996, the film was nominated at the 16th Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel but lost to The Scarlet Letter.

Richard Harrington of the Washington Times gave the film a negative review, noting the poor decision-making from its characters and the lack of pacing, writing "Carpenter, whose batting average is dipping dangerously low, shows no grasp of character development, plot line or time passage." Lloyd Paseman of The Register-Guard said that while the remake did not attempt to make Village of the Damned "something" that its predecessor was not, the film had "mediocre" dialogue and plot development. He gave it two stars out of four. Paseman also remarked that in this film Reeve made an "earnest" attempt, that Kozlowski did the highest quality acting for the film, that Dekker was "credible", and that Hamill was "badly miscast". Gene Siskel critiqued the film harshly in his 0.5/4-star review, calling the film "an excruciating bore...not a single of one its lame cliches work" and later listed it on his bottom 10 of the year, while his frequent collaborator Roger Ebert gave the film 2/4 stars and said "[John Carpenter] directs the film quite masterfully...but one must ask why he picks the dullest, most idiotic screenplays. It's said he turned down Basic Instinct to direct this film...at that point, one must wonder if he's out to sabotage his own career." The San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a 1/4 star review, calling it "A trip to a village of the darned tedious" and said the film featured "some of the dumbest character writing to ever grace the silver screen."

Janet Maslin of The New York Times was more enthusiastic, regarding it as "John Carpenter's best horror film in a long while". The remake was "mostly more sly than frightening ... restaging the original story with fresh enthusiasm and a nice modicum of new tricks." James Berardinelli also gave the film a lukewarm 3/4-star review, calling it "an enjoyable, if obviously-flawed, amalgamation of horror and science fiction...it starts strong and does a decent job at keeping its momentum until a climactic finale...not Carpenter's shining achievement, but he still shows his promise."

In a 2011 interview, Carpenter described the film as a "contractual assignment" that he was "really not passionate about" and stated that it is one of his least favorite films that he's made as a director.

Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.

In pop culture
The design of the characters in the music video for M83's "Midnight City" is based on the film.

title: Village of the Damned (1995 film)


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Aira Caldera

Aira Caldera is a gigantic volcanic caldera that is located on the southern end of Kyushu, Japan. It is believed to have been formed about 30,000 years ago with a succession of pyroclastic surges. It is currently the place of residence to over 900,000 people. The shores of Aira Caldera are home to rare flora and fauna, including Japanese bay tree and Japanese black pine. The caldera is home to Mount Sakurajima, and the Mount Kirishima group of stratovolcanoes lies to the north of the caldera. The most famous and active of this group is Shinmoedake.

Aira Caldera has an underlying magmatic chamber that connects with the Kirishima magmatic system. This has enabled magma from the caldera to feed into Sakurajima stratovolcano, causing it to expand over time. Thus, Sakurajima has caused a series of disasters such as the eruption in 1914 which killed 58 people and sank the magma chamber by 60 cm.

Location
Aira caldera is located at Kyushu, the southernmost island of Japan. The supervolcano peaks at 1117 m.

The eruption forming the Aira Caldera, occurred approximately 30,000 years ago, and resulted in tephra and ignimbrite from a vast amount of magma affecting the nearby land. The eruption also aided in the formation of the 200 m deep Kinko Bay which formed after sea water entered the area.

Aira caldera is surrounded by the major city of Kagoshima which has a population of more than 900,000. Residents do not mind small eruptions because they have measures in place for protection. For example, school students are required to wear hard helmets for protection against falling debris. Additionally, a disaster prevention system with the world's best high-tech volcanic monitory system was put in place. The Caldera is now closely monitored by the Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre which is a part of the University of Kyoto and Disaster Prevention Research Institute. This ensures the safety of the residents and provides a peaceful coexistence with the people of Kagoshima and the active caldera.

Geological background
Aira Caldera is almost rectangular in shape related to local faulting and was created in a series of large scale of pyroclastic surges that contributed to the Shirasu-Daichi pyroclastic plateau with the last now dated to 29,428 to 30,148 years calibrated before present although earlier work had the date at ~22,000 years ago with wide possible range from 34,500  to 16,500 years before present. The eruption formed a caldera that was 17 km by 23 km. The Aira Caldera is one of a series of volcanic complexs in the Kagoshima Graben which has been postulated to extend northward from the undersea Kikai Caldera to the Ata South Caldera, Ata North Caldera (see Ata Caldera), the Aira Caldera associated with Kagoshima Bay and through past to the Kirishima Volcano Group. This alignment was first noted in the 1940s. The tectonic processes are rather complex in this region where the Okinawa Plate is colliding with the Amur Plate and the Pacific Plate is subducting under both.

The formation of Aira Caldera started with a Plinian pumice eruption of the Osumi pumice fall from a vent near where Sakurajima is now and was quickly followed by an oxidised Tsumaya pyroclastic flow. It is likely subsequent eruptions in this series were at vents in what has been termed the Wakamiko caldera to the north west. Basement rock fragments and pumiceous materials from a massive explosion formed the Ito pyroclastic flow which deposited more than 800 km3 of Ito Ignimbrite (known as “Shirasu” locally) and 300 km3 of Aira-Tn Tephra in volume. Within the constraints that much of the caldera is under the sea, the reason for the large vent area is because the caldera erupted well over earlier estimates of 140 km3 of magma in a short amount of time. The caldera is known for its gravitational anomalies which is associated with a funnel-like shape in the strata.

The structure of the caldera seemed unique in early work as it was different from the then typical Valles-type Caldera whose defining characteristics include a Valles-type ring fracture which acts as a channel for such large-scale pyroclastic flows. Such diffuse non directional pyroclastic flows, overwhelming the local landscape, have now also been described in New Zealand, for example in the Hatepe eruption.

Local Impact Ito eruption
Before the initial eruption of 25,000 years ago there was a wide and shallow basin of nearly the same size as the present Aira Caldera occupying the northern end of Kagoshima Bay with an east–west orientation. The basin is separated from the rest of the bay by a ridge with heights 300 m to 500 m above sea level. The topography encompasses the outline of an older caldera so suggesting there were pyroclastic flows that pre-dated the formation of present-day Aira Caldera.

The first phase of activity resulted from injection of mafic magmas that destabilized the stored rhyolite magma and was the mainly homogeneous Osumi Pumice Fall (named because the pumice fall extended across the Ōsumi Peninsula to the south east). Above the Osumi pumice fall deposit, is the second phase Tsumaya pyroclastic flow deposit which is wholly confined within the pre-Aira basin. The Tsumaya pyroclastic flow buried the pre-Aira topography such as box canyons (formed by older pyroclastic flow deposits). The maximum thickness in the caldera is 130 m in the Kokubu area with the average thickness being 30 m or less. The Tsumaya pyroclastic flow consists of a "pale pinkish brown glass matrix containing a small amount of pumice and lithic fragments" consistent with the Osumi pumice fall and the Tsumaya pyroclastic flow occurred from the same vent. There was only a very short period between the Tsumaya pyroclastic flow and the formation of the present caldera in the Ito eruption.

In contrast the Ito pyroclastic flow extends outside the basin as well as occupying inside the basin. The Aira-Tn tephra falls from this eruption were up to 0.800 m thick in the south east and this and Ito Ignimbrite up to 160 m thick, are the most significant pyroclastic deposits. The depth of the ash fall over the whole island of Kyūshū was over 32 cm and more than 4 cm for much of Japan

Relationship between Aira and Kirishima magmatic systems
Aira caldera is one of the most active and hazardous calderas in the world. It is home to the Kirishima volcanoes, a group of active volcanoes at the north end of Aira caldera. One of these volcanoes, Shinmoedake, has produced two strong magmato-phreatic eruptions, separated by almost 300 years. Starting in December 2009, active diving and inflation before the outbreak were noticed. A series of sub-plinian events then occurred from January 19 to the 31st. The first phase (eruption climax) was accompanied by a strong co-eruptive deflation.

Aira Caldera may respond to small eruptions that come from a common reservoir. However, not all the volcanic systems are connected all the time as magma pathways open and close. The connection between Aira and Kirishima represents the clearest example of volcano interconnectivity revealed by geodetic monitoring. The inflation of one volcano can enhance the eruption probability of a neighbouring volcano. The subduction of the Philippine sea plate beneath the Eurasian plate is the reason for the active volcanism.

Aira Caldera and Kirishima's magma storage is linked through tunnels that extend horizontally over tens of kilometers which is able to be explained through the presence of hotspots. However, the volcanic systems are not always connected since the magma pathways open and close. For example, the Shinmoedake vertical connection was closed for approximately 300 years until reactivation.

The changes in volume for the Aira and Kirishima systems suggest they had different inflation and deflation periods. Between 2009 and 2013, there was evidence of inflation in the Aira system. However, after the 2011 eruption at Kirishima, the Aira system experienced a deflation. This was Aira caldera's only deflation between 2009 and 2013.

Inflation of Aira Caldera
The magma storage underlying Aira Caldera has been feeding into the stratovolcano Sakurajima, expanding over time. However, there have been points in time where the chamber has deflated as a result of eruptions releasing the pressure built which cannot be explained by stress changes. Thus, it has been described as a consequence of magma withdrawing from the Aira system when Kirishima was replenishing. A prime example is the Sakurajima eruption in 1914 (approximately 1.5 km3 in volume), which caused the magma chamber to sink 60 cm. 58 people were killed in the eruption. For this amount of magma to erupt, it would take approximately 130 years for the chamber to refill as according to Dr James Hickey and his co-authors. Dr Hickey stated "These results were made possible by combining data from various monitoring methods and applying them to new numerical modelling techniques, moving away from older modelling methods that have been in use since the 1950s."

Nevertheless, there are continuous measurements of the ground movement that indicate the area is now inflating. Recent GPS deformation measurements, amalgamated with geophysical data and computer modelling enable the reconstruction of the magma system beneath the caldera. Through this, Dr James Hickey and his co-authors were able to create a depiction of the tunnels beneath the caldera.

They discovered that magma is filling the magma chamber at a faster rate than the Sakurajima volcano erupts. The reservoir is expanding each year as a volume of 14 million m3 is supplied to the system. Dr Haruhisa Nakamichi, Associate Professor at the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, and co-author, said: "It is already passed by 100 years since the 1914 eruption, less than 30 years is left until a next expected big eruption, Kagoshima city office has prepared new evacuation plans from Sakurajima, after experiences of evacuation of the crisis in August 2015."

A group of scientists led by Dr Dominique Remy used Synthetique Aperture Radar (SAR) to detect levels of inflation of Aira Caldera over the Kokubu urban district. They observed a change in the pattern of Kokubu's surface. Through a model of the deformation field of the caldera, it is predicted there is "a maximum volume increase of 20–30×106 m3 between 1995 and 1998." They deduced an inflation of approximately 70 mm at the centre of the caldera and 40 mm in the south urban area of Kokubu.

Flora and fauna
The plants near Sakurajima regrow after eruptions. The Japanese bay trees and Japanese black pines are two species which grow furthest away. These plants are able to repopulate; however they cannot withstand the debris and pumice after an eruption. Eurya japonica and Alnus firma can be found in the middle ground away from the peak. They are able to grow back from an eruption and withstand its destruction more than the vegetation furthest away. Japanese Pampas grass and knotweed are located closest to the volcano. They respond quickly after an eruption and form a meadow of mosses and lichens during regrowth. Nevertheless, It takes many years for the forest to regrow. This enables people to observe the changes of vegetation from the different eruptions in different eras.

Kagoshima Bay (Kinko Bay) is home to much wildlife; including 1000 different species of fish, a population of dolphins, as well as rare creatures such as the Satsumahaorimushi tube worm. Rare minerals exist on the sea bottom with hydrothermal vents including volcanic chimneys.

title: Aira Caldera


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Câmara de Lobos

Câmara de Lobos (lit. 'Sealion Chamber') is a municipality, parish and town in the south-central coast of the island of Madeira. Technically a suburb of the much larger capital city of Funchal, it is one of the larger population centres and an extension of the Funchal economy.

History
The location of the modern town is believed to be the original landing point for the Portuguese discoverer João Gonçalves Zarco, who is credited with the discovery of the Madeira Islands. When the explorer disembarked in this area (1419), he observed a narrow rocky peninsula that extended into the ocean, and another nearby that formed an amphitheatre-like harbour that could shelter ships from Atlantic storms. There, Zarco and his men also found a large colony of marine animals that would become the reason for naming this area Câmara de Lobos. The name lobos is a Portuguese derivation for "seals" (lobos-marinhos), which were the animals discovered by Zarco and his men in the sheltered bay. Because of the large colony of these animals, the area was christened câmara dos lobos. This was a pejorative term, since câmara is the Portuguese word for "municipal chamber" (sometimes erroneously referred to as the "town hall" or "town council"), and the sailors literally named the area the "Municipal chamber of [the place where there are] sea-wolves". Today, the species of monk seals are rare, being an animal common to the Mediterranean, but today confined to a small colony on the Desertas Islands.

The municipality was created by ministerial decree on 25 May 1835, and invested its executive on 4 October 1835. Initially, this administrative division included the parishes of Câmara de Lobos, Curral das Freiras, Estreito de Câmara de Lobos and Campanário, all districts of Funchal. With many alterations, the newly constituted municipality of Câmara de Lobos operated with those parishes as its core, until Quinta Grande was constituted from sites in the parishes of Campanário and Câmara de Lobos, but maintaining its total area. On 6 May 1914, Campanário is deannexed to the newly created municipality of Ribeira Brava, and on 5 July 1996, the parish of Jardim da Serra was constituted from the higher localities of Estreito de Câmara de Lobos.

On 15 September 1994, the parish of Estreito de Câmara de Lobos was elevated to the status of town, while two years later, on 3 August 1996, the village of Câmara de Lobos attained the status of town.

Geography
Câmara de Lobos is the second largest settlement by population in Madeira with the largest (45%) contribution of youth under 25 years. Located within the metropolitan zone of Funchal, it is limited to the east by Funchal (through the parish of Estreito de Câmara de Lobos); to the west by the municipality of Ribeira Brava and the steep cliffs of Cabo Girão (one of the highest cliffs in Europe: 580 meter elevation); and north by the municipalities of Santana and São Vicente (and the mountains of Pico de Arieiro); while fronting the Atlantic Ocean to the south (except an area in the southwest near Quinta Grande (Fajã dos Padres) whose coast is part of the neighbouring parish of Campanário in Ribeira Brava

The decree of 1955 (No.40.221/5 July 1955) defines these limits more explicitly. but allows for interpretations:
 * "In the north, from Pico do Arieiro, the municipal limit follows the line from the heights defined by Pedra Rija, Pico do Cidrão, Pico do Gato, Pico das Torres, Pico da Cágada, Pico Ruivo de Santana, Pico da Lapa da Cadela, Pico do Coelho, Pico das Eirinhas, Pico da Laje, Pico das Torrinhas, Pico Casado and Pico do Jorge. On the west, follow Pico do Jorge along a line in the altitudes specified by the Pico Arranha-Mata, Pico do Cerco, Pico Grande, Pico do Serradinho, Boca do Paço de Aires, Boca dos Corgos, Alto dos Aviceiros, Lombo do Covão, or Estrebaria, Pico do Trevo, Eira das Moças and Pico da Cruz, where they follow the road of Achada in Campanário until Vera Cruz, continuing through the escarpment of Partilha until an escarpment overlooing the sea, conforming to demarkations signed by cadastral services. To the south, the municipality is limited by the foremetioned escarpment until the mouth of the Ribeira da Quinta Grande and then by the coast line until the ravine in Socorridos, but not including the Fajã dos Padres. The east corresponds to the western limit of the municipality of Funchal, or specifically the line that exits Pico do Serrado and follows Lombo da Partilha until the confluence of the ravine of Eiroses and Socorridos, which serves as the municipalities limit until the ocean."

Human geography
The municipality of Câmara de Lobos, in accord with the 2001 census, has a population of 30,814, while its resident population is 31,476 inhabitants (47% to 53%, male to female composition). While 22.7% are seniors (the lowest percentage in Maderia), its active population represents 10,986 of the population.

There are five parishes that constitute the municipality of Câmara de Lobos:
 * Câmara de Lobos - The central urbanized area of Lobos (an area of 7.74 km2) is primarily residential and commercial: the parish population is approximately 17,986 inhabitants. This core parish, is boxed in by Funchal (to the east), Quinta Grande (in the west) and Estreito de Câmara de Lobos (to the north). Many of these areas are highly development housing units, constructed during the late 20th Century, during the extensive growth in tourism and financial services on the island. Farmlands, which located in northern tracts have since given way to residential and commercial businesses.
 * Curral das Freiras
 * Estreito de Câmara de Lobos
 * Jardim da Serra
 * Quinta Grande

Sports
The city has a football club, Câmara de Lobos, currently competing in the Campeonato de Portugal after escaping relegation in the 2019–20 season.

Twin towns — sister cities
Câmara de Lobos is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇹 Forio, Italy

Economy
Although agriculture and fishing are still considered the primary sources of income, the area has grown as an extension of the tourism industry in the neighboring parishes. Its local development prospects are tied to the growing tourist market, while for six centuries of history it has been associated with the fishing and agriculture, in particular bananas and other fruits common to the island. Further, Madeira Wine, an important industry on the island, continues to drive the cultivation of local vineyards.

Notable people

 * Jaime Ornelas Camacho (1921 in Curral das Freiras – 2016) a Portuguese politician, the first President of the Regional Government of Madeira, 1976-1978
 * Rúben Micael (born 1986 in Câmara de Lobos) a footballer with 407 club caps and 16 for Portugal
 * Edgar Costa (born 1987 in Câmara de Lobos) a Portuguese footballer with 330 club caps

title: Câmara de Lobos


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Distorion Co.

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy deleted. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:28, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Distorion Co.
This seems to be a vanity page. I think it should be deleted or moved to the author's user page.

Mushroom 00:57, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Could be speedy deleted as nonsense --nixie 01:03, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I have speedy deleted it as patent nonsense (future history). jni 06:16, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Taryn Stickney

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:27, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Taryn Stickney
This seems to be a vanity page. I think it should be deleted or moved to the author's user page.

Mushroom 00:57, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. Google search for phrase "Taryn Stickney" gets one obscure hit.  Sheldrake 02:24, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. The usual sort of kid vanity page. jni 06:18, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity. Can't be userfied to anon page. Mgm|(talk) 08:43, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 17:06, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity, incomplete un-encyclopedic article. Oliver Keenan 19:16, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanitycruft. No chance of being encyclopedic. ComCat 06:41, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanity. Look at the talk page if you have any doubts. Vengeful Cynic 21:21, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lexi merwin

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy deleted. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:26, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Lexi merwin
Vanity. Zzyzx11 | Talk 00:59, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete.  Google search for phrase "Lexi Merwin" gets 0 hits.  The 1-line article is un-encyclopedic.  Sheldrake 02:21, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedied for containing no useful info. She's a person, so what? Mgm|(talk) 08:42, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Gordon Chalk

Sir Gordon William Wesley Chalk, (16 May 1913 – 26 April 1991) was Premier of Queensland for a week, from 1 to 8 August 1968. He was the first and only Queensland Premier from the post-war Liberal Party.

Early years
The only child of Queensland-born parents Samuel Chalk, butcher, and his wife, Sarah Elizabeth ( Wesley), "Chalkie", as he was nicknamed, was baptised in the Church of Christ (but as an adult gave his religion as Methodist). He attended Rosewood State, Marburg Rural, and Lockyer State High Schools.

Career
Chalk entered politics in 1947 having previously worked as a sales manager at the Toowoomba Foundry. In January 1965, he defeated Alex Dewar 11 votes to 9 to be elected as Deputy Liberal Leader, after Alan Munro resigned as leader and Deputy Premier.

On 23 December 1965, Chalk succeeded the retiring Sir Thomas Hiley as Leader of the Queensland Liberal Party, Deputy Premier and Treasurer in a coalition government with the Country Party led by Frank Nicklin. He did so by defeating Dewar a second time, 12 votes to 8. He continued in these roles when Jack Pizzey succeeded Nicklin as Premier on 17 January 1968.

Following the sudden death of Pizzey on 31 July 1968, the Governor Sir Alan Mansfield swore in Chalk as Premier on 1 August, pending the Country Party electing a new leader. They chose Joh Bjelke-Petersen, who succeeded Chalk after a week in office.

Chalk continued as Treasurer and Leader of the Liberal Party until his resignation from parliament in 1976.

Seats held

 * 1947–1950 East Toowoomba for the Queensland People's Party and the Liberal Party
 * 1950–1976 Lockyer for the Liberal Party (resigned)

Ministerial positions

 * Minister for Transport 12 August 1957 – 23 December 1965
 * Treasurer 23 December 1965 – 13 August 1976
 * Premier 1 August 1968 – 8 August 1968

Honours
In the Queen's Birthday Honours of June 1971, he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE).

Personal life
Upon his death in 1991 Chalk was accorded a State funeral which was held at Albert Street Uniting Church and he was later cremated.

title: Gordon Chalk


text:
Khatun

Khatun is a title of the female counterpart to a khan or a khagan of the Turkic Khaganates and in the subsequent Mongol Empire.

Etymology and history
Before the advent of Islam in Central Asia, Khatun was the title of the queen of Bukhara. According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Khatun [is] a title of Sogdian origin borne by the wives and female relatives of the Göktürks and subsequent Turkish rulers."

According to Bruno De Nicola in Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206–1335, the linguistic origins of the term "khatun" are unknown, though possibly of Old Turkic or Sogdian origin. De Nicola states that prior to the spread of the Mongols across Central Asia, Khatun meant 'lady' or 'noblewoman' and is found in broad usage in medieval Persian and Arabic texts.

Peter Benjamin Golden observed that the title qatun appeared among the Göktürks as the title for the khagan's wife and was borrowed from Sogdian xwāten "wife of the ruler" Earlier, British Orientalist Gerard Clauson (1891–1974) defined xa:tun as "'lady' and the like" and says there is "no reasonable doubt that it is taken from Sogdian xwt'yn (xwatēn), in Sogdian xwt'y ('lord, ruler') and xwt'yn 'lord's or ruler's wife'), "which is precisely the meaning of xa:tun in the early period."

Modern usage
In Uzbek, the language spoken in modern-day Bukhara, in Uzbekistan, the word is spelled xotin and has come to simply refer to any woman. In Turkish, it is written hatun. The general Turkish word for 'woman', kadın, is a doublet derived from the same origin.

Notable Khatuns

 * Qutluğ Säbäg Qatun, queen regent of the Second Turkic Khaganate
 * Börte, wife of Genghis Khan
 * Töregene Khatun (d. 1246), wife of Ogedei Khan, regent of the Mongol Empire from 1241 to 1246
 * Ebuskun, wife of Mutukan
 * Boraqchin, wife of Batu khan
 * Oghul Qaimish, wife of Guyuk Khan
 * Chabi, wife of Kublai Khan
 * Doquz Khatun, wife of Hulagu Khan
 * Gurju Khatun, wife of Kaykhusraw II
 * Buluqhan Khatun, wife of Abaqa Khan
 * Kokejin/Bairam egchi, wife of Zhenjin
 * Bulugan, wife of Temur Khan
 * Dagi khatun, wife of Darmabala
 * Radnashiri, wife of Ayurbarwada khan
 * Despina Khatun, wife of Uzun Hasan
 * Samur Khatun, daughter of Elbeg khan
 * Mandukhai Khatun, wife of Dayan Khan
 * Erketü Qatun, wife of Altan Khan
 * Syeda Momena Khatun, daughter of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah
 * Anu Khatun, wife of Sengge and Galdan Boshugtu Khan
 * Momine Khatun, mother of Atabeg Jahan Pahlavan. The mausoleum in Nakhichevan was built by Jahan Pahlavan in honor of her.
 * Rabia Bala Hatun (died 1324), wife of Sultan Osman I
 * Gülçiçek Hatun (fl. 14th century), wife of Sultan Murad I
 * Devlet Hatun (died 1411), wife of Sultan Bayezid I
 * Gülfem Hatun (died 1561/1562), consort of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent
 * Canfeda Hatun (died 1600) was a lady-in-waiting to Nurbanu Sultan
 * Şemsiruhsar Hatun (died 1613), consort of Sultan Murad III
 * Melike Mama Hatun Saltukid female ruler (reigned between 1191 and 1200)
 * Nene Hatun (1857–1955), Turkish folk heroine
 * Halime Hatun (?–c.1281), the wife of Ertugrul Ghazi

Valide Hatun
Valide Hatun was the title held by the "legal mother" of a ruling Sultan of the Ottoman Empire before the 16th century.

By the beginning of the 16th century, the title hatun for sultan's mother, princesses, and sultan's main consort was replaced by "sultan" and they started to carry it after their given names. This usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Consequently, the title valide hatun also turned into valide sultan.

Given name

 * Ayşe Hatun Önal, Turkish model
 * Hatun Sürücü, German murder victim
 * Khatun Sapnara, Bangladeshi-born British judge

title: Khatun


text:
Che Kam Kong

Che Kam Kong (died in 1871), also known as Chea Kunkong, was a Chinese Protestant Christian who was killed because of his beliefs in China. He is regarded by some to be one of the first martyrs among Protestants in China. Che Kam Kong visited British Hong Kong in 1865, and in 1866 converted to Christianity. He proselytized extensively over the next five years, allegedly bringing about the conversion of over a hundred people in Poklo, Guangdong province. Town elders in Poklo, concerned with this abandonment of traditional religious beliefs, warned Che to stop, yet he refused. He was kidnapped and tortured in 1871 in an attempt to force him to give up his beliefs. He is said to have declared, "You may kill my body but you cannot destroy my soul". He was taken outside the city gates and killed; his body was cut up and thrown into a nearby river.

title: Che Kam Kong


text:
Rationalis

A rationalis was a high-ranking fiscal officer in the Roman Empire. Until replaced by the comes sacrarum largitionum by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century, the rationalis summarum – comparable to a modern-day finance minister – was one of two state officials who had authority over the imperial treasury, the other one being the rationalis rei privatae (manager of imperial estates and city properties). Examples for tasks that were performed by a rationalis are "the collection of all normal taxes and duties, the control of currency and the administration of mines and mints".

Each province also had various classes of rationales, and Emperor Diocletian's administrative reforms had mirrored the dual structure on the diocesis–level, instituting the local positions rationalis summarum and magister rei privatae above the procuratores. The former continued to exist after the reforms, one example are the comes et rationalis summarum Aegypti. In the 6th century, the post was increasingly rendered into its Greek equivalent, logothete, which later was given to the senior fiscal secretaries of the middle Byzantine Empire (7th–12th centuries).

title: Rationalis


text:
Wikipedia talk:Today's featured article/April 15, 2005

This looked a bit unwikified, so I linked some terms in the first paragraph of the parent article. Can that compared before this goes on the front page? Jonathunder 01:01, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)

Typo in the image label, I think... "botton" -> "bottom", unable to change as page protected --Dan Huby 12:54, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)


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Hongshi

Hongshi (Manchu: Hung ši; 18 March 1704 – 20 September 1727) was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. Born to the ruling Aisin Gioro clan as the third son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he was banished from the imperial clan in 1725, ostensibly for supporting his uncle Yunsi, a political rival of his father. He died in disgrace in 1727 but was later posthumously restored to the imperial clan by his younger brother, the Qianlong Emperor.

Early life
Hongshi was born to the Aisin Gioro clan as the third son of Yinzhen (Prince Yong), who was the fourth son of the Kangxi Emperor. Hongshi's mother, a Han Chinese woman with the family name "Li", was a secondary consort of Yinzhen.

Yinzhen ascended to the throne in December 1722 after the death of his father, and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. In his father's early reign, Hongshi was not known to have played a major role in the imperial court. Unlike his fourth brother Hongli, who was awarded the title of a qinwang (first-rank prince), Hongshi never received a noble rank. Between 1722 and 1726, Hongshi became associated with his uncle Yunsi, who was a political rival of his father. In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor stripped Yunsi of his princely title and banished him from the Aisin Gioro clan on trumped-up charges; by extension, the emperor also decreed that Hongshi would be expelled from the Forbidden City. In his imperial edict, the emperor wrote that Hongshi could "be Yunsi's son if he wishes to" – suggesting that Hongshi was especially close with Yunsi, and that the emperor was deeply troubled by their relationship.

Hongshi was barred from entering the Forbidden City, but unlike Yunsi, he was not imprisoned. He was instead placed under the custodianship of his uncle, the imperial prince Yuntao, 12th son of the Kangxi Emperor. After his banishment, Hongshi did not show any remorse. In April 1726, the Yongzheng Emperor, deeply angered at his son's refusal to repent, ordered Hongshi's name removed from the yudie (玉牒; i.e., the imperial clan genealogy book), a symbolic gesture that formally marked Hongshi's expulsion from the Aisin Gioro clan, and, by extension, the renunciation of their father-son relationship.

Death and rehabilitation
Hongshi died on 20 September 1727, aged 23, in the fifth year of his father's reign. There is no authoritative account of the circumstances of his death. Some historians believe that the Yongzheng Emperor ordered Hongshi to commit suicide in order to eliminate him as a rival to his more favored brother, Hongli. Qing dynasty researcher Tang Bangzhi (唐邦治), in his 1923 book Qing Huangshi Sipu (清皇室四谱), includes a passage that seems to suggest Hongshi died on the same day he was expelled from the imperial clan, but did not elaborate further. This passage, which is not consistent with the official Draft History of Qing, led later historians to speculate about the reasons of Hongshi's death. They postulated that the Yongzheng Emperor, in recalling his own bitter struggle against his brothers over the succession to the throne, as well as his brothers' continued attempts to sabotage his rule during his reign, wanted to avoid a repeat of the same situation for his own successor. This theory, while widely circulated, was never conclusively proven. Hongshi, unlike his uncles, was never well-established politically in his own right – he neither participated in military campaigns nor undertook any significant assignments during his father's reign.

Many historians remain skeptical that Hongshi was put to death by his father. The skeptics suggest that the emperor could have placed Hongshi under house arrest – as was common practice during the reign of the Kangxi emperor – or exiled him and achieved the same ends. Moreover, Yunsi and his associates had been largely rounded up and neutralised by the time of Hongshi's death. Even if Hongshi was set free by his father, he would not have had nearly sufficient political clout to mount a challenge against Hongli. Hongshi's death made Hongli the undisputed heir apparent for the remainder of the Yongzheng Emperor's reign (their younger brother, Hongzhou, did not express interest in the struggle for succession).

Shortly after the death of the Yongzheng Emperor in 1735, the imperial prince Yunlu (允禄) wrote a memorial to the newly enthroned Hongli, the Qianlong Emperor, asking for Hongshi to be posthumously rehabilitated and restored to the Aisin Gioro clan. The Qianlong Emperor obliged and remarked that while Hongshi was "young and reckless", because "many years have passed since his demise", such harsh treatment was no longer necessary. The emperor also said that he still felt "brotherly love" towards Hongshi. Apart from some generic comments and a reference to Hongshi's association with Yunsi, neither Yunlu nor the Qianlong Emperor mentioned any specific crimes committed by Hongshi. It is therefore still somewhat of a mystery under what circumstances the Yongzheng Emperor decided to disown and banish him.

Family
Primary Consort

 * Primary consort, of the Donggo clan (嫡福晉 董鄂氏; 1703–1775)
 * First daughter (14 October 1722 – 2 June 1727)

Concubine

 * Mistress, of the Zhong clan (鍾氏)
 * Yongshen (永珅; 11 September 1721 – 31 January 1724), first son
 * Mistress, of the Tian clan (田氏)
 * Second daughter (23 March 1724 – 30 May 1726)

In fiction and popular culture

 * Portrayed by Qu Aohui in Scarlet Heart (2011)
 * Portrayed by Wu Lipeng in Empresses in the Palace (2011)
 * Portrayed by Li Jie in Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace (2018)

title: Hongshi


text: User talk:24.205.131.149

title: User talk:24.205.131.149


text:
Method of exhaustion

The method of exhaustion (methodus exhaustionis) is a method of finding the area of a shape by inscribing inside it a sequence of polygons whose areas converge to the area of the containing shape. If the sequence is correctly constructed, the difference in area between the nth polygon and the containing shape will become arbitrarily small as n becomes large. As this difference becomes arbitrarily small, the possible values for the area of the shape are systematically "exhausted" by the lower bound areas successively established by the sequence members.

The method of exhaustion typically required a form of proof by contradiction, known as reductio ad absurdum. This amounts to finding an area of a region by first comparing it to the area of a second region, which can be "exhausted" so that its area becomes arbitrarily close to the true area. The proof involves assuming that the true area is greater than the second area, proving that assertion false, assuming it is less than the second area, then proving that assertion false, too.

History
The idea originated in the late 5th century BC with Antiphon, although it is not entirely clear how well he understood it. The theory was made rigorous a few decades later by Eudoxus of Cnidus, who used it to calculate areas and volumes. It was later reinvented in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD in order to find the area of a circle. The first use of the term was in 1647 by Gregory of Saint Vincent in Opus geometricum quadraturae circuli et sectionum.

The method of exhaustion is seen as a precursor to the methods of calculus. The development of analytical geometry and rigorous integral calculus in the 17th-19th centuries subsumed the method of exhaustion so that it is no longer explicitly used to solve problems. An important alternative approach was Cavalieri's principle, also termed the method of indivisibles which eventually evolved into the infinitesimal calculus of Roberval, Torricelli, Wallis, Leibniz, and others.

Euclid
Euclid used the method of exhaustion to prove the following six propositions in the 12th book of his Elements.

Proposition 2: The area of circles is proportional to the square of their diameters.

Proposition 5: The volumes of two tetrahedra of the same height are proportional to the areas of their triangular bases.

Proposition 10: The volume of a cone is a third of the volume of the corresponding cylinder which has the same base and height.

Proposition 11: The volume of a cone (or cylinder) of the same height is proportional to the area of the base.

Proposition 12: The volume of a cone (or cylinder) that is similar to another is proportional to the cube of the ratio of the diameters of the bases.

Proposition 18: The volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its diameter.

Archimedes

Archimedes used the method of exhaustion as a way to compute the area inside a circle by filling the circle with a sequence of polygons with an increasing number of sides and a corresponding increase in area. The quotients formed by the area of these polygons divided by the square of the circle radius can be made arbitrarily close to π as the number of polygon sides becomes large, proving that the area inside the circle of radius r is πr2, π being defined as the ratio of the circumference to the diameter (C/d).

He also provided the bounds 3 + 10/71 < π < 3 + 10/70, (giving a range of 1/497) by comparing the perimeters of the circle with the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed 96-sided regular polygons.

Other results he obtained with the method of exhaustion included
 * The area bounded by the intersection of a line and a parabola is 4/3 that of the triangle having the same base and height (the quadrature of the parabola);
 * The area of an ellipse is proportional to a rectangle having sides equal to its major and minor axes;
 * The volume of a sphere is 4 times that of a cone having a base of the same radius and height equal to this radius;
 * The volume of a cylinder having a height equal to its diameter is 3/2 that of a sphere having the same diameter;
 * The area bounded by one spiral rotation and a line is 1/3 that of the circle having a radius equal to the line segment length;
 * Use of the method of exhaustion also led to the successful evaluation of an infinite geometric series (for the first time);

title: Method of exhaustion


text:
Resurrection (Tolstoy novel)

Resurrection (pre-reform Russian: Воскресеніе; post-reform Воскресение, also translated as The Awakening), first published in 1899, was the last novel written by Leo Tolstoy. The book is the final of his major long fiction works published in his lifetime. Tolstoy intended the novel as a panoramic view of Russia at the end of the 19th century from the highest to the lowest levels of society and as an exposition of the injustice of man-made laws and the hypocrisy of the institutionalized church. The novel also explores the economic philosophy of Georgism, of which Tolstoy had become a very strong advocate towards the end of his life, and explains the theory in detail. The publication of Resurrection led to Tolstoy's excommunication by the Holy Synod from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901.

Background
The theme for the new novel had been supplied by Tolstoy's friend Anatoly Koni. He told Tolstoy the story of a man who had come to him for legal aid. As a youth this man had seduced a pretty orphan girl of sixteen who had been taken into the home of a relative of the young man when her parents died.Once her benefactress observed the girl's pregnant condition, she drove her away. Abandoned by her seducer, the girl, after hopeless attempts to earn an honest livelihood, became a prostitute. Detected in stealing money from one of her drunken "guests" in a brothel, the girl was arrested. On the jury that tried the case fate placed her seducer. His conscience awakened to the injustice of his behaviour, he decided to marry the girl, who was sentenced to four months in prison. Koni concluded his story by relating that the couple did actually marry, but shortly after her sentence expired, the girl died from typhus.

Tolstoy was moved by Koni's story, partly because it resembled an incident from his own life. For shortly before his death he told his biographer of two seductions in his life which he could never forget: "The second was the crime I committed with the servant Masha in my aunt's house. She was a virgin. I seduced her, and she was dismissed and perished." Although actually, as Pavel Basinsky says, she worked later in the house of Tolstoy's sister.

In August 1898, after much deliberation and consulting with colleagues, Tolstoy decided to quickly finish, copyright and sell the novel to aid the emigration of the most persecuted third of the pacifist Spiritual Christian Dukhobortsy from Russia to Canada. He completed it in December 1899.

The book was to be published serially simultaneously in Russia, Germany, France, England and America, to quickly raise funds and give him time to finish the story, but delayed due to contract "difficulties" requiring parts to be censored and shortened. It appeared in the popular Russian weekly magazine Niva illustrated by Leonid Pasternak, and in the American monthly magazine The Cosmopolitan as The Awakening. Many publishers printed their own editions because they assumed that Tolstoy had given up all copyrights as he had done with previous books. The complete text was not published in Russia until 1936, and in English in 1938.

Tolstoy's contribution of 34,200 roubles to the plight of Dukhobortsy ($17,000) had been acknowledged several times in gratitude and aid to the Tolstoy Estate "Yasnaya Polyana" by the descendants of Dukhobortsy in Canada.

One of the characters, Toporov, is an obvious caricature of Konstantin Pobedonostsev, then Ober-Procurator of the Most Holy Synod.

Plot
The story is about a nobleman named Dmitri Ivanovich Nekhlyudov, who seeks redemption for a sin committed years earlier. When he was a younger man, at his Aunts' estate, he fell in love with their ward, Katyusha (Katerina Mikhailovna Maslova), who is goddaughter to one Aunt and treated badly by the other. However, after going to the city and becoming corrupted by drink and gambling, he returns two years later to his Aunts' estate and sexually assaults Katyusha, leaving her pregnant. She is then thrown out by his Aunt, and proceeds to face a series of unfortunate and unpleasant events, before she ends up working as a prostitute, going by her surname, Maslova.

Ten years later, Nekhlyudov sits on a jury which sentences the girl, Maslova, to prison in Siberia for murder (poisoning a client who beat her, a crime of which she is innocent). The book narrates his attempts to help her practically, but focuses on his personal mental and moral struggle. He goes to visit her in prison, meets other prisoners, hears their stories, and slowly comes to realize that below his gilded aristocratic world, yet invisible to it, is a much larger world of cruelty, injustice and suffering. Story after story he hears and even sees people chained without cause, beaten without cause, immured in dungeons for life without cause, and a twelve-year-old boy sleeping in a lake of human dung from an overflowing latrine because there is no other place on the prison floor, but clinging in a vain search for love to the leg of the man next to him, until the book achieves the bizarre intensity of a horrific fever dream.

Nekhlyudov decides to give up his property and pass ownership on to his peasants, leaving them to argue over the different ways in which they can organise the estate, and he follows Katyusha into exile, planning on marrying her. On their long journey into Siberia, she falls in love with another man, and Nekhludov gives his blessing and still chooses to live as part of the penal community, seeking redemption.

Reception and criticism
The book was eagerly awaited. "How all of us rejoiced," one critic wrote on learning that Tolstoy had decided to make his first fiction in 25 years, not a short novella but a full-length novel. "May God grant that there will be more and more!" It outsold Anna Karenina and War and Peace.

Speaking of the Russian nation, William James has said: "I was especially struck by two books. Resurrection by Tolstoy and Karamasoff by Dostoevsky. To me the characters exhibited in them seem to come from another planet, where everything is different, and better. They have landed on earth by accident and are irritated by this, almost insulted. There is something childish, ingenuous in them, and one is reminded of the obstinacy of an honest alchemist who believes that he is capable of discovering the 'Cause of all causes'."

Despite its early success, today Resurrection is not as famous as the works that preceded it. It is usually regarded as inferior to War and Peace and Anna Karenina, although it is still marked as a very important literary achievement and a work that helps to understand the Russian Revolution. Some writers have said that Resurrection has characters that are one-dimensional and that as a whole the book lacks Tolstoy's earlier attention to detail. By this point, Tolstoy was writing in a style that favored meaning over aesthetic quality. "Resurrection naturally forces comparison with those supreme works, War and Peace and Anna Karenina, and it must be admitted that it falls below the lofty artistic achievements of these earlier novels. However, its best things, artistically speaking, belong to the narrative method of Tolstoy's earlier fiction rather than to the compressed, direct, and stylistically unadorned manner of the later period after What Is Art? was written. In 'Resurrection' there is that same wealth of precise realistic detail which conveys the appearance of indubitable actuality to imagined situations, as well as roundness, completeness, and the vitality of life to his characters. In its enchanting setting, the account of the first pure love of Nekhlyudov and Katusha Maslova, certainly the finest section of the novel, is all compounded of that same wonderful elusive quality that transformed the girlish loves of Natasha in War and Peace into the incommunicable poetry of youthful dreams. Tolstoy never did anything more delightfully infectious in fiction than the scene of the Easter service in the village church, where the young hero and heroine, after the traditional Russian greeting 'Christ is risen,' exchange kisses with the carefree rapture of mingled religious exaltation and dawning affinity for each other.

There is much of the old master also in Tolstoy's handling of the trial scene, in the portrayal of high society in both Moscow and Petersburg, and in the remarkably realistic treatment of the brutal march of the convicts to Siberia. In this area, however, the satirical representations of society are much less objective, and more grim and didactically purposeful than anything in War and Peace and Anna Karenina. Herein, indeed, lies the major artistic fault of Tolstoy's last full-length novel."

Brian Aldiss calls it the greatest of Tolstoy's novels.

Kenji Mizoguchi said, "[a]ll melodrama is based on Tolstoy's Resurrection".

Adaptations
Operatic adaptations of the novel include Risurrezione (1904) by Italian composer Franco Alfano, Vzkriesenie (1960) by Slovak composer Ján Cikker, and Resurrection by American composer Tod Machover. In late 1940–early 1941, Dmitri Shostakovich worked on an operatic realization entitled Katyusha Maslova, adapted by Anatoly Mariengof, but never developed it beyond sketches. French composer Albert Roussel's 1903 tone poem Résurrection is inspired by the novel.

Additionally, various film adaptations have been made, including the Russian film Katyusha Maslova by director Pyotr Chardynin (1915, the first film role of Natalya Lisenko); a 1937 Japanese film by Kenji Mizoguchi, The Straits of Love and Hate (愛怨峡, Aien kyō); the 1944 Italian film Resurrection; a 1949 Chinese film version entitled "蕩婦心" (A Forgotten Woman) starring Bai Guang; and a 1960 Russian film, directed by Mikhail Shveitser with Yevgeny Matveyev, Tamara Semina and Pavel Massalsky. The best-known film version, however, is Samuel Goldwyn's 1934 English-language film We Live Again, starring Fredric March and Anna Sten, and directed by Rouben Mamoulian.

The Spanish director Alberto Gonzalez Vergel released his TV film Resureccion in 1966. The 1968 BBC mini-series Resurrection was rebroadcast in the US on Masterpiece Theatre. The Italian directors Paolo and Vittorio Taviani released their TV film Resurrezione in 2001.

An Indian-Bengali film adaptation titled "জীবন জিজ্ঞাসা" (Jibon Jiggasha) was released in 1971, directed by Piyush Bose and starring Uttam Kumar and Supriya Chowdhury. The 1973 Indian movie Barkha Bahar was also based on this novel.

Japan's all-female musical theater group Takarazuka Revue adopted the novel into musical twice. First in 1962 as "カチューシャ物語" (Katyusha's Story), performed by Star Troupe starring Yachiyo Kasugano; and in 2012 as "復活 －恋が終わり、愛が残った－" (Resurrection – Love Remains After the Affair Ends) performed by Flower Troupe starring Tomu Ranju. The plot Takarazuka Revue adapted follows more closely to We Live Again than the book.

The novel was adapted for Australian radio in 1947 with an award winning performance by Peter Finch in the lead.

BBC Radio 4 broadcast a two-part adaptation by Robert Forrest of the novel on 31 December 2006 and 7 January 2007, with the cast including Katherine Igoe as Katerina, Richard Dillane as Prince Dmitri, Vivienne Dixon as Lydia and Joanna Tope as Vera.

In popular culture
The "Alice in Wonderland" style hair band in Japan is called a "Katyusha" after the character who wore one in a stage play and popularized it.

In the show Mr. Robot, Resurrection is a frequent motif. It is the favorite book of the character Mr. Robot, and he regularly seen holding it. The tie-in book, Red Wheelbarrow, features a torn out page from the opening of Chapter XIV of Resurrection. The season 4 episode "eXit" features a floppy disk hidden in a copy of Resurrection that is also labelled "eXit" and which Elliot Alderson uses to try to shut down the machine built by Whiterose.

A Bengali movie called "Jiban Jijnasa" (pronounced Jibon Jiggasha in Benglai ) is strongly based on the story of Resurrection though this novel is not credited in the movie.

title: Resurrection (Tolstoy novel)


text: User:Aramgutang/iTemplate

title: User:Aramgutang/iTemplate


text:
Illinois School Report Card

The Illinois School Report Card is a measurement of school performance administered by the Illinois State Board of Education. Each public school district in Illinois, including special charter districts, must submit to parents, taxpayers, the Governor, the General Assembly and the State Board of Education a school report card assessing the performance of its schools and students. The report card is an index of school performance measured against statewide and local standards and provides information to make prior year comparisons and to set future year targets through the school improvement plan.

Academic Progress
The Illinois School Report Card includes applicable test results for the groups which visit the school. This includes the SAT and the IAR. Other information, including the graduation rate and percentage of students on track to graduate are also included in this section.

Environment
This section includes information on student surveys and finances.

Students
Information on student demographics are included here. Information includes: racial diversity, low income, gifted, students with disabilities, and amount of absenteeism.

Accountability
Information on school improvement funds and Title I.

Teachers
Includes demographics on teachers at schools. Information on student teacher ratios, teacher education, teacher pay, and teacher absences are included.

Administrators
Information on administrator pay and administrator to student ratios are included in this section.

School Highlights
Information on courses offered as well as information on activities provided are listed here.

Feeder Schools
Schools which feed this school

Retired Tests
Information from previous tests which have been retired. Notable tests include: PARCC and the ACT.

title: Illinois School Report Card


text:
Military history of Vietnam

Army and warfare made their first appearance in Vietnamese history during the 3rd millennium BC. Throughout thousands of years, wars played a great role in shaping the identity and culture of people inhabited the land which is modern day Vietnam. Vietnam is considered one of the most peace-loving countries in Southeast Asia, and there is even greater belief that Vietnam can be the most peace-loving country in Southeast Asia and one of the most peaceful countries in most peaceful country in Asia and the world.

Hồng Bàng period

Weapons are the most common Bronze Age artifacts found so far. The presence of arms in many tombs of upper-class people indicates the existence of a warrior class in Đông Sơn society during the Hồng Bàng dynasty.

Medieval period
Warfare during this 500-year period (938–1407) was characterized by a combination of amphibious and land assaults. Owing to the fragmented terrain and long coast line of the country, maneuvers by boats were favoured by most military forces who had fought in Vietnam. Small-scale coastal and border raids were frequent. Domestic violence as well as foreign incursions were equally common. It is possible that during this period that Vietnam was at its height of power, first by defeating the Southern Han in 938 AD. Then they emerged and decisively defeated the neighboring Dali, Khmer Empire, Champa, and the Song.

Mongol invasions of Vietnam
In the 13th century, the Vietnamese defeated the Great Yuan dynasty of the Mongol empire three times, and it was seen as one of the most famous historical victories of Vietnam. In an extent, the Vietnamese successful repelling of Mongol invasions, had been recognized as the main factor which would have saved all Southeast Asia from Mongols.

Early modern period
Vietnam adopted firearms from the Ming dynasty in the late 14th century. The conquest of Champa was contributed to Later Lê dynasty firearm advantage.

Around 15th-16th century, firearms started to gain dominance on Vietnam's battlefields. Rivaling feudal lords were quick to adopt these new deadly weapons. Tactics were changed to accommodate guns and cannons and soon the country had as many guns as it could afford. Throughout the time, the Vietnamese state also annexed the Southern region of the declining Khmer Empire which would become Vietnam today.

Tây Sơn period
Future Emperor Quang Trung, along with Nguyễn Nhạc and Nguyễn Lữ, had successfully united all Vietnam after a century being divided between the Trịnh Lords and Nguyễn Lords. Following with it, the Vietnamese also successfully crushed the Siamese at the Battle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút and decisively, the Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa against Qing force. Thus, this had been also registered as Vietnamese military victories.

Japanese invasion of French Indochina
The Japanese invasion of French Indochina was a successful Japanese campaign against the French colonial power in Southeast Asia. The invasion was a part of a greater strategy which was meant to surround and isolate China. Following the fall of the French in Indochina, Việt Minh began its campaign against the Japanese occupiers, using guerrilla tactics. The conflict ended when Japan surrendered to the United States, following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Socialist period
Following the allied victory in World War II, France was hoping to regain control over its former colony in Indochina, which was also claimed by the Viet Minh. France attempted to invade and reoccupy Vietnam, but after nine years of war and the subsequent military defeat in The Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French gave up and retreated from Indochina. This resulted in Indochina being divided into four countries under the terms of the 1954 Geneva Accords: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea.
 * First Indochina War

The Laotian Civil War began in 1953 when war escalated between the government forces and Pathet Lao, which received support from North Vietnam and China. In addition to their desire to support the communist movement in Laos, Vietnam also wanted to control the strategically important areas in Laos. The conflict ended in 1975, when Pathet Lao seized power in Laos, ending the Kingdom of Laos.
 * Laotian Civil War

The North Vietnamese invasion of Laos begun in 1958 as a mixed result of boundary disputes and the Hanoi Regime's desire to control the Ho Chi Minh-path. The invasion was a success, and North Vietnam secured control over important parts of Laos.
 * North Vietnamese invasion of Laos

The Vietnam War started with the breach of the intended general election to unite the country by South Vietnam and the Việt Cộng initiation of a guerrilla war in the south. This led to an American intervention which lasted until 1973, when they withdrew their forces from Vietnam following a peace treaty. The war went on, and in 1975 North Vietnam emerged victorious.
 * Vietnam War

The Cambodian Civil War was a mixed result of the Khmer Rouge's desire to establish a communist regime in Cambodia, eventually dragging Cambodia into the Vietnam War due to the North Vietnamese support for the Khmer Rouge and their use of Cambodian soil to stage attacks into South Vietnam. The US heavily bombed PVA, VC and Khmer Rouge position in Cambodia. Khmer Rouge was aided militarily by the North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong, and won the war in 1975.
 * Cambodian Civil War

When the Laotian Civil War ended in 1975, the government of Laos started to persecute the Hmong-tribes, who had been fighting alongside the United States in the Vietnam War. Vietnam has participated in the persecution, which has led to thousands of Hmong fleeing to the United States and Thailand. Although the Hmong no longer poses a military threat to the government of Laos, they are still under suspect by Laotian authorities.
 * Hmong Insurgency

When the Vietnam War ended, the Khmer Rouge, which then controlled Cambodia, claimed the Mekong Delta being a historical part of Cambodia. When Vietnam refused to cede the delta to Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge responded by conducting several border skirmishes, infiltrations and sabotage. By the late 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia, and after two weeks of fighting, Vietnamese forces captured Pnomh Penh. Vietnam occupied Cambodia until 1988.
 * Cambodian-Vietnamese War

The Vietnamese border raids in Thailand were a Vietnamese attempt to stop the Khmer Rouge from using Thailand as a base when fighting against Vietnam and the Vietnamese-friendly regime in Pnomh Penh. This nearly led to a war, as Vietnamese troops often penetrated into Thai territory, chasing Khmer Rouge guerrillas. This often resulted in clashes between Vietnamese and Thai forces. However, this never led to a war.
 * Vietnamese border raids in Thailand

In response to Vietnam's 1978 invasion and occupation of Cambodia (which ended the rule of the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge), the People's Republic of China launched a brief punitive military campaign against Vietnam, lasting from 17 February to 16 March. Chinese forces entered northern Vietnam and captured several cities near the border. On 6 March 1979, China declared that the gate to Hanoi was open and that their punitive mission had been achieved, before withdrawing their troops from Vietnam. Both China and Vietnam claimed victory in the war; as Vietnamese troops remained in Cambodia until 1989, it can be said that China was unsuccessful in their goal of dissuading Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia.
 * Sino-Vietnamese War

After China withdrew from Vietnam in 1979, border conflicts continued to occur. These conflicts often involved cross-border raids and battles, and claimed thousands of lives from both sides. The conflict subsided in 1990, without an outbreak of war.
 * Sino-Vietnamese border conflicts 1979–1990

The Thai–Laotian Border War began in 1987, when Thailand invaded parts of Laos claimed by the former. Laos responded with force, and the Thai forces were pushed back to the border. During this brief war, Vietnam reinforced its communist ally, and helped them in their war against Thailand. The war ended with a ceasefire in 1988, when Laos had successfully regained all lost ground, and pushed the Thai forces out of the disputed territory.
 * Thai–Laotian Border War

Notable commanders

 * Trưng Sisters
 * Bà Triệu
 * Bùi Thị Xuân
 * Lý Bí
 * Triệu Việt Vương
 * Ngô Quyền
 * Đinh Bộ Lĩnh
 * Lê Hoàn
 * Lý Thường Kiệt
 * Trần Hưng Đạo: notable for the repellion of Mongol invasions to Vietnam twice
 * Trần Quang Khải
 * Trần Khánh Dư
 * Lê Lai: the General who disguised as Lord Lê Lợi against the Ming
 * Lê Lợi
 * Nguyễn Huệ, Nguyễn Nhạc and Nguyễn Lữ
 * Trương Định
 * Võ Nguyên Giáp

Gallery
Pictures of Vietnamese weapons from the Pacification of Tonkin were taken by westerners. http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f178/HappyAsian/sung-than-cong-hue.jpg http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f178/HappyAsian/vebinh.jpg http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f178/HappyAsian/guom.jpg http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f178/HappyAsian/hieu20lenh20va20binh20khi.jpg http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f178/HappyAsian/binh20khi.jpg http://images9.fotki.com/v178/photos/2/248599/2505348/Narmes_pris_aux_PavillonsNoirs-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v205/photos/2/248599/2505348/cNinh_le_lendemain_de_sa_chute-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v206/photos/2/248599/2505348/trailleuses_prises_aux_Chinois-vi.jpg http://images9.fotki.com/v186/photos/2/248599/2505348/ancaise_traversant_RiviereNoir-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v206/photos/2/248599/2505348/LStropher_armes_annamites-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v205/photos/2/248599/2505348/STSonTay_dans_la_citadelle-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v206/photos/2/248599/2505348/STporte_Est_citadelle_SonTay-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v205/photos/2/248599/2505348/STSonTay_le_soir_dela_prise-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v206/photos/2/248599/2505348/ns_reservoirs_citadelle_SonTay-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v205/photos/2/248599/2505348/QDPcanonniere_Eclair-vi.jpg http://images14.fotki.com/v206/photos/2/248599/2505348/orte_dela_citadelle_de_NamDinh-vi.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page4/tirailleurs_tonkinois.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page3/Absdeurs_chinois_ramenent_prisionn.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page6/Tirailleur_saigonnais_tirailleur_annamite.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page6/tirailleurs_tonkinois_Linh_Tap.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page4/photo_docteur_hocquard_4_vn.htm http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page3/photo_docteur_hocquard_3_vn.htm http://rusknife.com/uploads/monthly_05_2011/post-458-0-08882000-1305481640.jpg http://hinhxua.free.fr/autrefois/docteur-hocquard/page3/tropher_armes_annamites.jpg http://rusknife.com/topic/2184-%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5-%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8-%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BE/ http://images15.fotki.com/v1631/photos/2/248599/2505348/Narmes_pris_aux_PavillonsNoirs-vi.jpg

Replicas of traditional bladed weapons serve as decorations in Vietnam.

title: Military history of Vietnam