text:
Talk:Flight data recorder/old merge talk

These sections are obsolete, closed for no concensus Meggar 06:12, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

merge?
I disagree with the merge. A merge with black box (systems) would be more appropriate.

- JH

Jep..... merge!!!! --QA

Yes, I agree that the black box article should be merged under this article.

--Sepheris

I disagree with a this merge. The Black box (transportation) page was made only a few days ago by a new user who must not have noticed that there were already pages for Black Box (disambiguation), Cockpit voice recorder, and Event recorder. New information should go into one of those pages. Meggar 05:05, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

I was looking up "Black Box" to find information on Flight Data Recorders. I think it should be merged. - NB

I disagree with merging the articles. There's already a perception problem with the press and the general public, referring to such devices collectively as "black boxes". Wikipedia is a good place for people to get educated. Use disambiguation and "See also" links to direct the reader between the articles. -QuicksilverT @ 20:41, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

I can see no purpose in the Black box (transportation) page. No-one is likely to enter 'black Box (transportation)' as a search term. Everything in the page is covered in the Black Box (disambiguation) page and its descendants. IMO deletion not merging is required. treesmill 02:09, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

I think Black Box is a good parent article for all these articles on data recorders. I think "black box" is the most likely term a person would use, since it's the common slang term. Kerowyn 03:57, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

The fundamental problem is the Black Box page. This should be renamed as, perhaps, Black Box (systems) and Black Box should become the disambiguation page with Black Box (transportation) deleted. Someone entering Black Box looking for information on Flight Recorders (or for other uses of the phrase) would then immediately find a link to what they are seeking. Unless I see some objection to this I shall make the change in a week or so. treesmill 16:23, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, that should improve disambiguation. This Black Box idea is a powerful meme. The Black box (transportation) article serves a purpose in as much as it explains why a technical article can’t be written on the subject, and perhaps will avert another round of merging efforts. Meggar 04:06, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

Black box (transportation) should be a general page covering all forms of transport event/voice requirements (air, sea, rail, road?) not just air

merge .. took long to find..

 * Many opinions, no consensus. Merge tag removed. Meggar 01:12, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

another merge?
I think Flight recorder and Cockpit voice recorder could be merged with this article. - Matthew238

 * The FDR and CVR have always been separate independent units with different inputs, different storage media, and different requirements. No use merging them. Some of flight recorder might me merged but it also mentions other units like QAR and the possible future video recorders.

 * I also believe the articles should remain separate. The devices are quite distinct in their functionality. Further, someone looking for CVR would presumably be redirected to Flight Data Recorder if the articles were merged. This is not the way Wikipedia should work. It should retain all the virtues of a conventional encyclopedia with the advantages that hyperlinking provides. Far better to rely on links between the articles than merge them. treesmill 02:01, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * 'Do not merge: they are two distinct items. Certainly, a link is proper.  --CoolGuy 18:21, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Merge with Flight Recorder and disambigulate from Black Box.  CVR should at the very least be cross linked.  At the moment there is no link between these articles.  Thoglette 15:32, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

I dont see how you can disambiguate this FROM black box. Dr Warren refers to the FDR that he himself invented as the "Black Box" as does the aerospace industry. On recieving an AO (Order of Australia) for contributions to the Aerospace industry in 2002 he was quoted as saying "Its very comforting that the BLACK BOX is now accepted as something beneficial to humanity" http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/blackbox.html The entire speech is on the DSTO website which at the time i type this i cant even get access to on our intranet so i cant post you that link. note the name of the book displayed in this link http://www.abc.net.au/newcastle/stories/s1296988.htm The cockpit voice recorder is referred to as just that by aerospace, NOT the black box. The CVR is little more than glorified tape recorder attached to a microphone and is inherently a "Dumb" device. Im pretty damn sure Dr Warren knew by 2002 that the black boxes are always painted bright orange, and yet calls them Black Boxes himself. Also consider the fact that the FDR was invented before any other modern equipment referred to as the Black Box. So far, i have seen no proof to the contrary. the FDR IS the ORIGINAL black box, and should be referred to as such. As a SLANG term, Black Box refers to almost any device that records critical operational data, but does not interfere with the workings of what its attached to, and therefore discludes equipment like a cars Body Control Module which is built to manage the engine and related systems on a car. The Phreakers black box was called a black box because thats what it was, a black box, all it was was something to reproduce DTMF tones, so again cant be dropped into even a similar category. Squad'nLeedah 03:11, 25 December 2006 (UTC)


text: Template:U.S. presidential call signs

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:U.S. presidential call signs


text:
WUSA (film)

WUSA is a 1970 American drama film directed by Stuart Rosenberg, starring Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, and Anthony Perkins, and co-starring Laurence Harvey, Cloris Leachman and Wayne Rogers. It was written by Robert Stone, based on his 1967 novel A Hall of Mirrors. The story involves a radio station in New Orleans with the eponymous call sign that is apparently involved in a right-wing conspiracy. It culminates with a riot and stampede at a patriotic pep rally when an assassin on a catwalk opens fire.

Plot
Rheinhardt, a cynical drifter, gets a job as an announcer for WUSA, a conservative talk radio station in New Orleans. He is content to parrot WUSA's reactionary editorial stance on the air, even if he does not agree with it. Rheinhardt finds his cynical detachment challenged by a woman he meets in a bar, Geraldine, and by Rainey, a neighbor and troubled idealist who becomes aware of WUSA's sinister, hidden purpose. And when events start spinning out of control, even Rheinhardt finds he must take a stand.

Bingamon, the station's owner, is sponsoring a white supremacist hate rally that draws a protest from black militants. Rainey attempts to assassinate Bingamon, but after he misses and accidentally wounds someone else, the crowd beats him to death. In the chaos, drugs end up in the possession of Geraldine, who is arrested by the police and later hangs herself in jail. Rheinhardt packs his bags and leaves town.

Cast

 * Paul Newman as Rheinhardt
 * Joanne Woodward as Geraldine
 * Anthony Perkins as Morgan Rainey
 * Laurence Harvey as Farley
 * Pat Hingle as Matthew Bingamon
 * Don Gordon as Bogdanovich
 * Michael Anderson, Jr. as Marvin
 * Leigh French as Girl
 * Bruce Cabot as King Wolyoe
 * Cloris Leachman as Philomene
 * Moses Gunn as Clotho
 * Wayne Rogers as Minter
 * Robert Quarry as Jack Noonan
 * Skip Young as Representative Jimmy Snipe
 * B.J. Mason as Roosevelt Berry
 * Sahdji as Hollywood
 * Geoffrey Edwards as Irving, Disc Jockey
 * Hal Baylor as "Shorty"
 * Clifton James as "Speed", Sailor In Bar
 * Tol Avery as Senator
 * Paul Hampton as Rusty Fargo
 * Jerry Catron as "Sidewinder" Bates
 * Preservation Hall Jazz Band

Reception
Anthony Perkins was nominated for best supporting actor of the year by the National Society of Film Critics.

In the 1970s, Paul Newman called it "the most significant film I've ever made and the best."

Roger Greenspun, reviewing the film for The New York Times, wrote: "If it were an ordinary bad movie (and it is a very bad movie), WUSA might, in spite of the distinguished names, and less distinguished presence, of its leading actors, be dismissed with no more than a nod to the tension between Rosenberg's ponderously emphatic direction, and Robert Stone's ponderously allusive screenplay. I suspect Stone wins out, for WUSA feels more like poor theater than poor moviemaking—so, that it continually suggests a failed version of The Balcony, even though it strives to fall short of The Manchurian Candidate...Despite its obsession with collecting evidence, and its handy school of pseudo-documentary, WUSA fights unreal battles with an unseen enemy. Lacking either the grace of art or the vitality of guerrilla theater, it can offer only the coarsest nourishment—and only to the elaborately self-deceived."

title: WUSA (film)


text:
EAST Initiative

The EAST Initiative is an educational non-profit organization that oversees and trains for a school program, EAST, that operates primarily in the United States.

The program began in 1995 in Arkansas. It offers students and teachers professional technology and software for use in a loosely structured, self-driven environment.

title: EAST Initiative


text:
Health of Charles Darwin

For much of his adult life, Charles Darwin's health was repeatedly compromised by an uncommon combination of symptoms, leaving him severely debilitated for long periods of time. However, in some ways, this may have helped his work, as Darwin himself wrote: "Even ill-health, though it has annihilated several years of my life, has saved me from the distractions of society and amusement."

Darwin consulted numerous doctors, but, with the medical science of the time, the cause remained undiagnosed. He tried all available treatments, but these had at best only temporary success. More recently, there has been much speculation as to the nature of his illness.

It has been suggested that exhuming Darwin's remains could clarify the nature of his health issues.

Development of illness and symptoms
As a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, Darwin found that he was too sensitive to the sight of blood and the brutality of surgery at the time, so he turned his attention to natural history, an extramural interest he developed when studying at the University of Cambridge to qualify as a clergyman.

On 10 December 1831, as he waited in Plymouth for the voyage on HMS Beagle to begin, he suffered from chest pain and heart palpitations, but told no one at the time in case it stopped him from going on the survey expedition. During the voyage, he suffered badly from sea-sickness during the eighteen months he was at sea, but he spent much of the three years and three months he was on land in strenuous exploration. In Argentina at the start of October 1833, he collapsed with a fever. He spent two days in bed, and then memories of a young shipmate who had died of the fever persuaded him to take a boat down river to Buenos Aires, lying ill in his cabin until the fever passed.

On 20 September 1834, while returning from a horseback expedition in the Andes mountains, he fell ill and spent the month of October in bed in Valparaiso. This would be consistent with infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. In his diary for 25 March 1835, while to the east of the Andes near Mendoza, he noted "an attack (for it deserves no less a name) of the Benchuca, a species of Reduvius, the great black bug of the Pampas". These are associated with transmittal of Trypanosoma cruzi causing Chagas' disease, but in subsequent days he does not mention the fever characteristic of first infection, which may have occurred in September 1834.

After the voyage ended on 2 October 1836, he quickly established himself as an eminent geologist, at the same time secretly beginning speculations on transmutation as he conceived of his theory. On 20 September 1837, he suffered "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart" and as "strongly" advised by his doctors, left for a month of recuperation in the countryside. That October he wrote, "Of late anything which flurries me completely knocks me up afterwards, and brings on a violent palpitation of the heart." In the spring of 1838 he was overworked, worried and suffering stomach upsets and headaches which caused him to be unable to work for days on end. These intensified and heart troubles returned, so in June he went "geologising" in Scotland and felt fully recuperated. Later that year however, bouts of illness returned—a pattern which would continue. He married Emma Wedgwood on 29 January 1839, and in December of that year as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, he fell ill and accomplished little during the following year.

For over forty years Darwin suffered intermittently from various combinations of symptoms such as: malaise, vertigo, dizziness, muscle spasms and tremors, vomiting, cramps and colics, bloating and nocturnal intestinal gas, headaches, alterations of vision, severe tiredness, nervous exhaustion, dyspnea, skin problems such as blisters all over the scalp and eczema, crying, anxiety, sensation of impending death and loss of consciousness, fainting, tachycardia, insomnia, tinnitus, and depression.

Water treatment
Darwin had no success with conventional treatments. In 1849, after about four months of incessant vomiting he took up the recommendation of his friend Captain Sulivan and cousin Fox to try the water therapy regimen at Dr James Gully's Water Cure Establishment at Malvern. He read Gully's book, which provided case histories and had a price list at the back. Darwin rented a villa at Malvern for his family and started a two-month trial of the treatment on 10 March. Gully agreed with Darwin's self-diagnosis of nervous dyspepsia and set him a routine including being heated by a spirit lamp until dripping with perspiration, then vigorous rubbing with cold wet towels and cold foot baths, a strict diet, and walks. Darwin enjoyed the attention and the demanding regime which left him no time to feel guilty about not working. His health improved rapidly, and he felt that the water cure was "no quackery". He had no faith in the homeopathic medicines Gully gave him three times a day but took them obediently. They stayed on until 30 June, and back home at Down House, he continued with the diet and with the water treatment aided by his butler. He followed the rules about rising early and rationing his working time and had the Sandwalk constructed in the grounds for his walking exercise, setting a routine which he continued.

In September, his sickness returned during the excitement of a British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting, and Darwin made a day visit to Malvern, then recuperated at home. In June 1850, after losing time to illness (without vomiting), he spent a week at Malvern. Later that year he wrote to Fox about the credulity of his "beloved Dr Gully" who when his daughter was ill, treated her with a clairvoyant girl to report on internal changes, a mesmerist to put her to sleep, John Chapman as homeopathist and himself as hydropathist, after which Gully's daughter recovered. Darwin explained to Fox his wrathful scepticism about clairvoyance and worse, homeopathy, thinking the infinitesimal doses were against all common sense and should be compared against the effects of no treatment at all. Gully had pestered Darwin to subject himself to clairvoyance, and when he saw the clairvoyant, he tried to test her by asking her to read the number on a banknote he had in an envelope, but she scornfully said this was something her maidservant did and proceeded to diagnose horrors in Darwin's insides, a tale he recounted for years afterwards. When Darwin's own young daughter Annie had persistent indigestion, he confidently took her to Gully on 24 March 1851 and after a week, left her there to take the cure but a fortnight later was recalled by Dr. Gully as Annie had bilious fever. Dr. Gully was attentive and repeatedly reassured them that she was recovering, but after a series of crises, Annie died on 23 April. Darwin was heartbroken at this tragic loss, but surprisingly stayed well in the aftermath, busy with organising the funeral arrangements.

Darwin kept records of the effects of the continuing water treatment at home and in 1852 stopped the regime, having found that it was of some help with relaxation but overall had no significant effect, indicating that it served only to decrease his psychosomatic symptomatology.

With the memories of Annie's death, Darwin did not want to return to Malvern. In 1856, he began writing for publication of his theory, and he pressed on, overworking, until by March 1857 illness was cutting his working day "ridiculously short". He found a new hydrotherapist, Dr. Edward Wickstead Lane, whose Moor Park hydropathic establishment near Farnham in Surrey was only 40 miles from Darwin's home. His condition was much as when Darwin had first seen Gully, and Dr. Lane later wrote, "I cannot recall any [case] where the pain was as poignant as his. When the worst attacks were on, he seemed crushed with agony." Darwin arrived on 22 April and wrote to Fox that "it is really quite astonishing & utterly unaccountable the good this one week has done me", deciding to stay on to 5 May. He enjoyed the more relaxed regime, which did not include clairvoyance, mesmerism or homeopathy, as Lane did "not believe in all the rubbish which Dr G. does." Darwin became a complete convert, "well convinced that the only thing for Chronic cases is the water-cure", and wrote, "I really think I shall make a point of coming here for a fortnight occasionally, as the country is very pleasant for walking." He told Hooker he had "already received an amount of good, which is quite incredible to myself & quite unaccountable.—I can walk & eat like a hearty Christian; & even my nights are good.—I cannot in the least understand how hydropathy can act as it certainly does on me. It dulls one's brain splendidly, I have not thought about a single species of any kind, since leaving home." He then contradicted himself by asking about alpine species.

He returned to Moor Park from 16 to 29 June and 5–12 November 1857 and from 20 April to 3 May 1858, but this retreat was unavailable when he was shocked by receipt of Wallace's paper on 18 June, as Dr. Lane was put on trial accused of adultery with a lady patient. Darwin was able to resume treatment at Moor Park from 25 to 31 October 1858, as he struggled on to write On the Origin of Species despite repeated health problems. He was able to keep writing thanks to visits to the spa on 5–18 February, 21–28 May and 19–26 July 1859.

With the proofs of the book returned to the printers, he was worn out. On 2 October, he left for Ilkley and had treatment at Wells House hydropathic establishment operated by Dr. Edmund Smith, a surgeon and hydropathic doctor. Emma brought their children on 17 October, and the family including Darwin stayed in North House, Wells Terrace, which he rented. Reading the first adverse reviews there, his health worsened with a sprained ankle followed by a swollen leg and face, boils and a rash. He had an "odious time", and wrote of Smith that "he constantly gives me impression, as if he cared very much for the Fee & very little for the patient". By 6 November, he felt worse than when he came. Emma and the children went home on 24 November. Darwin stayed on in the establishment, and for the last ten days of the stay, he felt much better. He returned home on 7 December, and under pressure of work, his health slipped back a bit.

As arguments continued, Darwin had more stomach upsets, and on 28 June 1860, two days before the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate, he fled to Lane's new hydropathic establishment at Sudbrooke Park, Petersham, near Richmond in Surrey and recuperated as well as reading reports of the debate.

Darwin avoided further hydropathy, perhaps recalling his time at Ilkley, and Lane left the business for a while after selling Sudbrooke Park. In 1863, Darwin's illness worsened seriously, and Emma Darwin persuaded her husband to return to Malvern. His cousin Fox had earlier told him that Gully had suffered a mental breakdown and was unavailable. They arrived on 2 September, but Darwin felt that he was being fobbed off with the supervising physician, Dr. Ayerst. Emma arranged for Dr. Gully to attend and endorse Ayerst's treatment, but by then Darwin's eczema was too raw to bear any water. Darwin had a complete breakdown and on 13 October, left the spa worse than when he arrived. His ill health was the worst he had ever experienced and continued until the start of 1866.

Continuing illness
Darwin desperately tried many different therapies, within the limitations of medical science of the time. He took all kinds of medicines, including bismuth compounds and laudanum, and even tried quack therapies, such as electrical stimulation of the abdomen with a shocking belt. On 16 May 1865, he wrote to John Chapman, who was now a qualified specialist in dyspepsia, sickness and psychological medicine. Chapman had sent Darwin a book about a therapy for seasickness of applying ice bags to the small of the back, and Darwin invited him to Down House to try out this therapy. In a manuscript dated 20 May 1865, thought to have been for Chapman, Darwin described his symptoms:

"Age 56–57. – For 25 years extreme spasmodic daily & nightly flatulence: occasional vomiting, on two occasions prolonged during months. Vomiting preceded by shivering, hysterical crying, dying sensations or half-faint. & copious very palid urine. Now vomiting & every paroxys[m] of flatulence preceded by singing of ears, rocking, treading on air & vision. focus & black dots – All fatigues, specially reading, brings on these Head symptoms ?? nervousness when E[mma] leaves me ...' [the list continues]"

In his autobiography of 1876, Darwin wrote of his illness, emphasising that it had been brought on by "the excitement" of socialising: "Few persons can have lived a more retired life than we have done. Besides short visits to the houses of relations, and occasionally to the seaside or elsewhere, we have gone nowhere. During the first part of our residence we went a little into society, and received a few friends here; but my health almost always suffered from the excitement, violent shivering and vomiting attacks being thus brought on. I have therefore been compelled for many years to give up all dinner-parties; and this has been somewhat of a deprivation to me, as such parties always put me into high spirits. From the same cause I have been able to invite here very few scientific acquaintances.

My chief enjoyment and sole employment throughout life has been scientific work; and the excitement from such work makes me for the time forget, or drives quite away, my daily discomfort. I have therefore nothing to record during the rest of my life, except the publication of my several books. ..."

Possible causes
Medical science has tried repeatedly to pinpoint the etiology, and many hypotheses were made, such as:

Diagnoses for Darwin's illness have been uncritically reviewed from a chronological aspect with emphasis on the variety of these diagnoses. More recently, there has been a critical review with emphasis on the maternal (Wedgwood) family history as an indicator of the nature of the illness.
 * Asperger's syndrome (now known as Autism Spectrum Disorder) or other Pervasive developmental disorder
 * Chagas disease
 * Chronic fatigue syndrome
 * Crohn's disease
 * Cyclic vomiting syndrome
 * Lactose intolerance
 * Lupus erythematosus
 * Mast cell activation syndrome
 * Ménière's disease
 * Orthostatic intolerance
 * Panic disorder with agoraphobia
 * Obsessive–compulsive disorder
 * Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome
 * Posttraumatic stress disorder
 * Psychosomatic disease
 * Tick-borne disease

Psychic causation
Darwin found that his illness often followed stressful situations, such as the excitement of attending a meeting. Having escaped "smoky dirty London" to his country retreat of the former parsonage of Down House at Downe, he became increasingly reclusive, actually fitting a mirror outside the house, so that he could withdraw when visitors were coming around the corner. When he left, it was mostly to visit friends or relatives, though he did endeavour to meet his obligations to attend scientific meetings.

Diagnosis of panic disorder and agoraphobia
Barloon and Noyes report that as a young man, Darwin had "episodes of abdominal distress, especially in stressful situations". He had a "premorbid vulnerability" which was referred to as "sensitivity to stress of criticism in his youth". They contend that "variable intensity of symptoms and chronic, prolonged course without physical deterioration also indicate that his illness was psychiatric." Panic disorder usually appears in the teens or in early adulthood with an association with potentially stressful life transitions. The histories of panic disorder patients often include some type of separation from a person who is emotionally important to them, which may be significant as Darwin's mother died in 1817 when he was eight, though apparently Darwin had a happy childhood overall and was encouraged by his siblings. Bowlby suggested that separation anxiety may help cause the development of panic disorder in adulthood and that agoraphobic patients frequently describe parents as dominant, controlling, critical, frightening, rejecting, or overprotective, which matches (disputed) descriptions of Darwin's father as tyrannical (see below).

A study by Chambless and Mason says that regardless of gender, the less masculine in trait a person afflicted with panic disorder is, the more likely they are to use avoidance (social withdrawal) as a coping mechanism. Individuals who have more masculine traits often turn to external coping strategies (for example, alcohol). Bean wrote that while Darwin had great confidence, at the same time he was neurotic, became nervous when his routine was altered, and was upset by a holiday, trip, or unexpected visitor.

Colp disputes a diagnosis of agoraphobia, because Darwin dutifully attended 16 meetings of the Council of the Royal Society and was away from home about 2,000 days between 1842 and his death in 1882. However, Barloon and Noyes state that Darwin only left home infrequently, usually accompanied by his wife. They cite Darwin declining an invitation: "I have long found it impossible to visit anywhere; the novelty and excitement would annihilate me."

Relationship with father
Rempf imputes a psychic cause based on the theory of Oedipal complex, proposing that Darwin's illness was "an expression of repressed anger toward his father" (the physician Robert Darwin). Rempf believed that Darwin's "complete submission" to a tyrannical father prevented Darwin from expressing anger towards his father and then subsequently toward others. In a similar diagnosis, English psychiatrist Dr. Rankine Good stated, "Thus, if Darwin did not slay his father in the flesh, then he certainly slew the Heavenly Father in the realm of natural history," suffering for his "unconscious patricide" which accounted for "almost forty years of severe and crippling neurotic suffering." Sir Gavin de Beer disputed this explanation, claiming a physical causation.

Darwin's autobiography says of his father, "... [he] was a little unjust to me when I was young, but afterwards I am thankful to think that I became a prime favourite with him." Bradbury quotes J. Huxley and H.B.D. Kettlew: "The predisposing cause of any psychoneurosis which Charles Darwin displayed seems to have been the conflict and emotional tension springing from his ambivalent relations with his father ... whom he both revered and subconsciously resented." Bradbury also quotes John Chancellor's analysis: "... [Darwin's] obsessive desire to work and achieve something was prompted by hatred and resentment of his father, who had called him an idler and good-for-nothing during his youth."

Such psychoanalysis remains controversial, particularly when based only on writings.

Relationship with wife, nervousness about being left alone
Peter Brent writes in his biography of Darwin, Darwin: A Man of Enlarged Curiosity, that Charles and Emma Darwin's "ties to each other were linked to childhood and the very beginnings of memory. They had a common history, a joint tradition. It is hard to think their relationship a passionate one, but it was happy, and the happiness had deep roots." Bradbury—himself a social psychologist—draws on this biography to argue that in Darwin's letters, Emma was "always the mother, never the child, Darwin always the child, never the father." Darwin gave his wife the nickname "mammy", writing, "My dearest old Mammy ... Without you, when sick I feel most desolate ... Oh Mammy, I do long to be with you and under your protection for then I feel safe." Brent states that it is difficult to see that this is a thirty-nine-year-old man writing to his wife and not a young child writing to his mother. Barloon and Noyes quote Darwin's admission to Dr. Chapman of "nervousness when Emma leaves me", which they interpret as a fear of being alone associated with his panic disorder.

Like his mother, Darwin's wife Emma was devoutly Unitarian. His father, speaking from experience, warned Charles before he proposed to Emma that "some women suffered miserably by doubting about the salvation of their husbands, thus making them likewise to suffer." Darwin did tell Emma of his ideas at that stage, and, while she was deeply concerned about the danger to his afterlife expressed in the Gospel, "If a man abide not in me...they are burned", she married him and remained fully supportive of his work throughout their marriage. She read and helped with his "Essay" setting out his theory in 1844, long before he showed his theory to anyone else. She went through the pages, making notes in the margins pointing out unclear passages and showing where she disagreed. As his illness progressed, she nursed him, restraining him from overworking and making him take holiday breaks, always helping him to continue with his work.

Religious tension
Darwin had a complex relationship to religion. The Darwin–Wedgwood family were of the Unitarian church, with his grandfather Erasmus Darwin and father taking this to the extent of Freethought, but, in the repressive climate of the early 19th century, his father complied with the Anglican Church of England.

Charles Darwin's education at school was Anglican, then after in Edinburgh, he joined student societies where his tutors espoused Lamarckian materialism. He liked the thought of becoming a country clergyman, and before studying at the University of Cambridge, "as I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible, I soon persuaded myself that our Creed must be fully accepted." The clergyman naturalist professors there who became his lifelong friends fully accepted an ancient earth but opposed evolutionism which they felt would undermine the social order. He did well at theology and, in his finals, came 10th out of a pass list of 178. At both universities, he saw how evolution was associated with radicals and democrats seeking to overthrow society and how publicly supporting such ideas could lead to destruction of reputation, loss of position and even imprisonment for blasphemy.

At Cambridge, he was convinced by William Paley's writings of design by a Creator, but, on the Beagle expedition, his findings contradicted Paley's beneficent view. On his return, his deepening speculations led to the inception of Darwin's theory, and he increasingly disbelieved in the Bible, gradually becoming what was later termed an agnostic.

Darwin was clearly worried by the implications of his ideas and desperate to avoid distress to his naturalist friends and to his wife. When first telling his friends, he wrote "it is like confessing a murder", and his writings at the time of the publication of Darwin's theory suggest emotional turmoil. What is unclear is whether this was anxiety about disgrace and damage to his friends, or about his loss of faith in Christianity, or indeed a rational fear of the harsh treatment he had seen meted out to radicals and proponents of evolutionism.

The Chagas hypothesis
Advanced for the first in time in 1959 by eminent Israeli specialist in tropical medicine Dr. Saul Adler from Hebrew University, the hypothesis of Chagas disease was based partly on the fact that during the Beagle expedition, Darwin was bitten by the insect vector of this disease near Mendoza to the east of the Argentinian Andes while on one of his land exploration trips. He noted in his journal for 26 March 1835:

"At night I experienced an attack, & it deserves no less a name, of the Benchuca, the great black bug of the Pampas. It is most disgusting to feel soft wingless insects, about an inch long, crawling over ones body; before sucking they are quite thin, but afterwards round & bloated with blood, & in this state they are easily squashed."

The great black bug of the Pampas is identified by Richard Keynes as Triatoma infestans, commonly called winchuka (vinchuca), the vector for Trypanosoma cruzi which leads to Chagas disease. It is unlikely that Darwin was infected on this occasion as he did not mention having a fever in the days following the incident, but it is possible that he could have been infected in September 1834 when he recorded being ill but made no note about being bitten by a Benchuca at that time. Modelling of triatomine geographical distribution in Chile shows that Darwin traveled extensively in the areas of central and northern Chile where these bugs occur sleeping outdoors and in rural houses.

Arguments for the Chagas hypothesis were mainly his gastric symptoms and some of his nervous signs and symptoms (caused in Chagas by an imbalance of the autonomic nervous system), malaise and fatigue, as well as his ultimate cause of death, which seems to have been chronic cardiac failure (present in ca. 20% of Chagas patients, with cardiomegaly and ventricular tip aneurysm) accompanied by lung edema.

Evidences against the Chagas hypothesis are numerous, however:
 * Darwin died at a relatively old age for his time (73 years old);
 * The symptoms abated as he aged, which is not typical for the disease, where age exacerbates the symptoms;
 * He did not seem to have several of the pathological damages present at chronic Chagas disease, such as megacolon and megaesophagus;
 * Some of the symptoms, such as tachycardia, fatigue and tremors, were already present before the Beagle voyage;
 * The numerous partial exacerbations and remissions are unusual in Chagas disease;
 * The incidence of trypanosome-infested benchucas in Mendoza, Argentina (which has a colder climate), where Darwin reported the bite, is very low;
 * No other members of Beagle's crew who accompanied Darwin in his land trip showed signs of a similar disease;

Recently, unsuccessful requests were made to test Darwin's remains for T. cruzi DNA at the Westminster Abbey by using modern PCR techniques but were met with a refusal by the Abbey's curator. The attempt was the subject of a recent documentary of Discovery Health Channel.

Ménière's disease
The hypothesis of Ménière's disease has gained some popularity. A diagnosis of Ménière's disease is based on a series of symptoms, some of which were present in Darwin's case, such as tinnitus, vertigo, dizziness, nausea, motion sickness, vomiting, continual malaise and fatigue. The fact that Darwin did not suffer from hearing loss, and that "fullness" of the ears is never mentioned, practically excludes Ménière's disease. The definition of this disease is, however, not very solid, and some form of "atypical Ménière's disease" remains a remote possibility. Motion sickness was present throughout his life and became apparent very early, when he suffered horribly from seasickness during the whole Beagle voyage. Darwin himself had the opinion that most of his health problems had an origin in his four-year bout with seasickness. Later, he could not stand traveling by carriage, and only horse riding would not affect his health. Psychic alteration often accompanies Ménière's and many other chronic diseases. An argument put forward for a diagnosis of Ménière's is that Darwin hunted a lot when he was young and could have damaged his inner ear with the repeated noise of shooting. While it is not unlikely that the noise damaged the inner ear and caused tinnitus, it could not have caused Ménière's disease. While Ménière's disease patients suffer during vertigo attacks from sickness and vomiting, the dyspepsia problems of Darwin have nothing to do with it. One of the diagnoses that he received from his physicians at the time was that of "suppressed gout"; the idea that this was an early name for Ménière's lacks any ground.

Cyclic vomiting syndrome
The pathologist John A. Hayman of the University of Melbourne has presented a case that Darwin's symptoms indicate that he suffered from cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS), an illness associated with mitochondrial DNA abnormalities. His paper on the topic was accepted by the BMJ and the Medical Journal of Australia, and was published in December 2009. In a supplement published in February 2012, he proposed that stroke-like episodes of memory loss and partial paralysis which do not occur with CVS are characteristic of the MELAS syndrome. An A3243G mtDNA mutation has been found in 80% of patients with this syndrome, and has also been described in those with CVS. This mutation in mitochondria is associated with symptoms of intestinal problems, seasickness and Ménière's disease as well as CVS and MELAS syndrome, thus giving a shared source of the various problems that affected Darwin. Any mitochondrial disease would have been inherited from his mother Susannah Darwin, whose own mother had 8 other children. Some of them had illnesses which could have been related to the same mutation.

CVS was also proposed as part of the cause in a 2011 analysis by gastroenterologist Sidney Cohen of the medical college of Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia. His study explained the illness as being due to a combination of cyclic vomiting syndrome, Chagas disease, and Helicobacter pylori.

Other possible causes
Evidence for familial systemic lactose intolerance syndrome was that vomiting and gastrointestinal symptoms usually appeared two to three hours after meals and that, apparently, Darwin got better when he stopped taking milk or cream.

Food intolerance and lactase deficiency may also be confused with food allergies. Symptoms include difficulty swallowing and breathing, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Upon reaching several other organs in the body, allergens can cause hives, eczema, lightheadedness, weakness, hypotension, etc. This has been proposed as the source of Darwin's illness, but the hypothesis is improbable, because, as with lactose intolerance, its temporal and causal relationship with food is easily established, and this was not always the case.

Chronic arsenic poisoning (arsenicosis) has been considered too. This hypothesis has been advanced by John H. Winslow, who published a book arguing that Darwin took arsenic at low dosages as a remedy and that there was "a very close match" between his symptoms and those of arsenicosis. However, it is highly improbable too, due to the long duration of the illness (40 years), the abruptness of symptoms, the cause of his death, and the absence of many symptoms and signs of this kind of poisoning (persistent weight loss and diarrhea, the appearance of dark brown calluses on the palms and the soles of the feet and of skin, known as hyperpigmentation).

Barry Marshall proposed in February 2009 that the cause of Darwin's illness was the ulcer-causing bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Marshall, who together with Robin Warren won the Nobel Prize in 2005 for discovery of the bacterium, states that this was a very common gastric infection of the time which causes ulcers in 10% of infected persons and causes dyspepsia in another 10% or so. He had yet to have a short paper on this accepted for publication.

Combined causes
From a clinical point of view, perhaps Darwin suffered from more than one disease, and had many psychosomatic complications and phobias arising from his debilitating condition. This is known to happen with many patients today, such as in severe cases of panic disorder, usually accompanied by hypochondria and depression.

Dr. Peter Medawar has supported the diagnosis that Darwin's health problems were part organic, part psychological. Colp concluded that Darwin's illness consisted most probably of panic disorder without agoraphobia, psychosomatic skin disorder, and possibly Chagas disease of the stomach, which he suggested "was first active and then became inactive, permanently injuring the parasympathetic nerves of his stomach and making it more sensitive to sympathetic stimulation and hence more sensitive to the psychosomatic impact of his anxieties. An organic impairment best explains the lifelong chronicity of many of his abdominal complaints." Thus, the psychological aspects of Darwin's illness might be both a cause and an effect of Darwin's illness. D.A.B. Young wrote in a Royal Society journal in 1997 that the psychogenic view of Darwin's sickness "holds the field". The proponent of Chagas disease, Dr. Saul Adler, stated that Darwin may have suffered both from Chagas disease and from "an innate or acquired neurosis".

At a conference hosted by the University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine on the topic of Darwin's ailments, gastroenterologist Dr. Sidney Cohen of Thomas Jefferson University concluded that in his early years Darwin had suffered cyclic vomiting syndrome, but as he had brought up secretions such as stomach acid rather than food, this had not affected his weight and nutrition. He believed that Chagas disease contracted during the Beagle voyage was consistent with Darwin's account of his fever at that time and his later gastrointestinal complaints, as well as the heart disease later in life that led to Darwin's death. In addition, Helicobacter pylori which often occurs with Chagas would have caused Darwin to have peptic ulcer disease.

Hereditary disease
Many of Darwin's children suffered from similarly vague illnesses for much of their early lives. Darwin himself—concerned with heredity—wondered if he had passed on his generally infirm condition to his children, and was especially interested if their mother Emma Wedgwood, his cousin, was also responsible. His concerns later in life with the effects of inbreeding were potentially motivated by this personal aspect as well.

Charles Darwin's children's illnesses differed essentially from those of their father's. They were sickly as children; however those that survived infancy and childhood grew into healthy adults. Darwin himself was a healthy child with no record of illness; it was only as an adolescent that first symptoms of his illness are mentioned.

Contribution to Darwin's work
Darwin's illness may have contributed to his long and fruitful career in science. George Pickering, in his book Creative Malady (1974), wrote that Darwin—isolated from social life and obligations of a "normal" scientist, such as administrative and teaching work—had ample time and material comforts for research, thought, and writing extensively, which he did. Despite long periods of unproductivity due to ill health, he produced much research. Darwin often complained that his malady robbed him of half a lifetime, but even so, many believe that his scientific contributions can be compared favorably to those of such figures as Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.

Darwin himself wrote about this, in his autobiographical "Recollections of the Development of my Mind and Character" (1876):

"Lastly, I have had ample leisure from not having to earn my own bread. Even ill-health, though it has annihilated several years of my life, has saved me from the distractions of society and amusement."

title: Health of Charles Darwin


text:
Naked (1993 film)

Naked is a 1993 British black comedy drama film written and directed by Mike Leigh and starring David Thewlis as Johnny, a loquacious intellectual, philosopher and conspiracy theorist. The film won several awards, including best director and best actor at Cannes. Naked marked a new career high for Leigh as a director and made the then-unknown Thewlis an internationally recognised star.

Plot
In a Manchester alley, Johnny is having sex with a woman, who initially encourages him but then protests that he is hurting her, pushes him away, and runs off vowing that "her Bernard" will get vengeance on him for this. Johnny grabs his things from his apartment, steals a car, and flees to Dalston, a "scrawny, unpretentious area" in east London. He seeks refuge at the home of Louise, a former girlfriend from Manchester, who is not happy to see him. Louise works as a file clerk and lives with two flatmates, the unemployed Sophie, whom she calls her "hippy-dippy friend", and the primary tenant Sandra, a nurse who is away in Zimbabwe.

Johnny seduces Sophie while treating Louise coldly, but soon tires of her. He leaves and walks around central London, expounding his world view at length to anyone who will listen. Among the people he meets are Archie, a young Scottish man looking for his girlfriend Maggie on Brewer Street, and Brian, a security guard who looks after an empty office building at night, which Johnny calls "the most tedious job in England", while planning to move to a seaside cottage in the future.

After pursuing a drunk woman and rejecting her when he notices a skull and crossbones tattoo on her shoulder, Johnny follows a young cafe worker home but is thrown out when she starts crying. He hitches a ride with a man hanging posters around town until the man, exasperated by Johnny's nonstop haranguing, throws him down in the street and kicks him before driving off with Johnny's duffel bag containing his clothes and books. Johnny wanders the streets and is severely beaten by a wandering gang of thugs.

He returns to Louise's residence to find that their landlord Jeremy (aka Sebastian), a psychopathic and amoral yuppie and rapist, has let himself into the apartment and raped Sophie. Sophie is desperate to get Jeremy out of the house, but she and Louise fear the police will not help. They try to keep the injured Johnny quiet, but he has a fit that awakens the sleeping Jeremy.

Sandra returns early from her trip. Though horrified by the state of the apartment, she tends to Johnny's injuries. Louise drives Jeremy from the house by feigning interest in him, then pulling a knife on him. He departs, leaving behind several hundred pounds. Feeling desolate and rejected, Sophie flees the house with her few possessions. Louise and Johnny seemingly reconcile and discuss returning to Manchester together, but once she leaves for work, Johnny steals the money and hobbles out into the streets.

Cast

 * David Thewlis as Johnny Fletcher
 * Lesley Sharp as Louise Clancy
 * Katrin Cartlidge as Sophie
 * Greg Cruttwell as Jeremy G. Smart/Sebastian Hawk
 * Claire Skinner as Sandra the Nurse
 * Peter Wight as Brian, the security guard
 * Ewen Bremner as Archie the Scotsman with a tic
 * Susan Vidler as Maggie
 * Gina McKee as The Cafe Girl
 * Elizabeth Berrington as Giselle
 * Darren Tunstall as Poster Man

Background and development
Leigh first had the idea for the story while a student in Manchester in the early 1960s: "We had a very enlightened teacher who endlessly reminded us that the next total eclipse would be in August 1999. Later I started thinking about the millennium and the end of the world. In 1992 the millennium was impending, so I brought that idea to the film."

In 1965, Leigh had teamed up with David Halliwell, hired the Unity Theatre for a fortnight, and directed the first production of Halliwell's Little Malcolm and his Struggle Against the Eunuchs. According to theatre critic Michael Coveney, "Malcolm Scrawdyke is clearly a precursor of Johnny in Naked. Scrawdyke was a loutish art student and absurd ideologue from Huddersfield who had trouble with girls and a hatred for his teachers...the play shared a deeply felt schoolboy coarseness with Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi, a piece originally written as a vicious attack on a loathed mathematics master."

Leigh's method, as in all his character dramas, consisted of elaborate improvisational rehearsals with the cast to develop the characters' background stories and traits. The actors interacted with the outside world and each other while in character until Leigh told them to come out of character and be themselves. The dialogue produced from these interactions was then edited, or "distilled", to form the script, based on a minimal plot outline by Leigh. The cast was not allowed to discuss their characters with one another outside of rehearsals, as Leigh, for realism, would rather they meet and interact as they would in real life. Thewlis's background reading for the part of Johnny included Voltaire's Candide, the teachings of the Buddha and James Gleick's Chaos, as well as the Bible and the Qur'an.

Principal photography
After weeks of improvisation, filming took place in London from 9 September to 16 December 1992. Sandra's Neo-Gothic home was an actual interior/exterior location that Leigh featured heavily, particularly in the last shot of the film, as its corner location allowed for wide street views.

The scenes between Johnny and Brian the security guard came from an eight-hour improvisation. The uncut shot of Johnny and Brian in silhouette, where Johnny expounds on his convoluted apocalyptic conspiracy theory, had 26 takes, but Leigh ended up using one of the earliest. The film's dialogue has a loose, improvisational quality but, according to Thewlis, the only improvisation filmed on location was the scene of Johnny meeting and antagonising the poster man.

The song sung by Johnny and Louise near the film's end, "Take me back to Manchester when it's raining", was one Leigh used to sing with his friends in Habonim ("the Builders"), the international socialist Jewish youth movement he joined as a schoolboy. After the film was released, Leigh heard from a retired schoolmaster at Stand Grammar in Whitefield, Greater Manchester, who had written the song for a school revue in 1950.

Themes
The film is dark, monochromatic and claustrophobic, with subtle visual references to film noir and Alfred Hitchcock. Many shots are in stairwells and in borrowed flats whose tenants are hostile toward or unaware of the decor, making them seem disconnected from cultural touchstones and their place in their homes. Alienation, sexual violence and misogyny, addiction and depression are touched upon as Johnny meets various rootless individuals who work in dead-end jobs or are unemployed.

Intelligent, educated and eloquent, Johnny is also deeply embittered and egotistical. He tends to dominate conversations with his aggressive intellectualism and theories about modern culture. His tactics are based on a particular form of intellectual bullying, directed at strangers and intimate partners alike, and summed up in domineering, scholastic barrages drawn from eclectic sources. His overall behaviour is reckless, self-destructive, and at times borderline sadistic, and shows a penchant for aggressive sexual domination at least twice in the film.

Biographer Sheridan Morley described Johnny as "Alfie in the grips of Thatcherite depression"—thus, according to critic Michael Coveney, "cross fertilising Bill Naughton's chirpy cockney Lothario, immortalised by Michael Caine, with the dark sinister disaffection of the new underclass—a neat way of indicating that the Swinging Sixties had degenerated into the nauseated Nineties." Coveney said that Leigh had captured something of the anxiety, rootless cynicism, and big-city disaffection of the time.

Ben Myers, in a Guardian article calling Naked Mike Leigh's "finest work" and "the best British film in recent history", elaborated on the many theories filmgoers have had on who Johnny might represent: "a modern, albeit highly flawed, Jesus attempting to change people's lives. Or perhaps he's the devil himself. Others have suggested it is a post-AIDS morality movie, or a classic urban existentialist tale."

Critics have suggested comparisons with William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Jean Renoir's Boudu Saved from Drowning (one of Leigh's favourite films). Hamlet talks "incessantly to the audience [...] assuming a dominance over other characters through expressions of mania, and rapid, witty speech. Thewlis, [...] wrapped like Hamlet in a black and inky coat, [is similarly] socially untethered but burdened with useless knowledge and a vicious, bullying line in repartee." Of the precedent of "idiosyncratic, character-driven film-making" in Boudu, Coveney said: "Both Naked and Boudu explore the tension between the domesticated and the anarchic (this is a central theme, probably the theme running through Leigh's work), and focus this tension in the tragicomedy of a central character."

Reception
The film generated mostly positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 88% "fresh" rating based on reviews from 60 critics, with an average score of 8.30/10 and the consensus: "Naked lives up to its title with a thoroughly committed performance from David Thewlis that's backed up with some of Mike Leigh's most powerful direction." Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 84 (out of 100) based on 20 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be "universal acclaim".

Derek Malcolm of The Guardian noted that the film "is certainly Leigh's most striking piece of cinema to date" and that "it tries to articulate what is wrong with the society that Mrs Thatcher claims does not exist." Of Johnny, he writes: "He likes no one, least of all himself, and he dislikes women even more than men, relapsing into sexual violence as his misogyny takes hold. He is perhaps redeemable, but only just. And not by any woman in our immediate view." He praised the directing and performances, singling out Thewlis, writing that he "plays [Johnny] with a baleful brilliance that is certain to make this underrated, but consistently striking, actor into a star name ... [Johnny] is, at his worst, a cold, desperate fish. His redeeming feature is that he still cares."

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars and analysed the message behind the title, saying it "describes characters who exist in the world without the usual layers of protection. They are clothed, but not warmly or cheerfully. But they are naked of families, relationships, homes, values and, in most cases, jobs. They exist in modern Britain with few possessions except their words." He praised the directing, writing: "[Leigh's] method has created in Naked a group of characters who could not possibly have emerged from a conventional screenplay; this is the kind of film that is beyond imagining, and only observation could have created it." He concluded: "This is a painful movie to watch. But it is also exhilarating, as all good movies are, because we are watching the director and actors venturing beyond any conventional idea of what a modern movie can be about. Here there is no plot, no characters to identify with, no hope. But there is care: The filmmakers care enough about these people to observe them very closely, to note how they look and sound and what they feel."

Julie Burchill attacked the film in The Sunday Times, saying that Leigh's characters talked like lobotomised Muppets: "sub-wittily, the way Diane Arbus's subjects look." And Suzanne Moore in The Guardian criticised the lethargic females whose lives Johnny routinely ruins: "What sort of realism is this? To show a misogynist and surround him with such walking doormats has the effect, intentional or not, of justifying this behaviour." Lesley Sharp responded: "There are a lot of people who don't go to art house cinemas who do have deeply troubled lives and are at risk ... We do actually live in a misogynistic, violent society and there are a lot of women in abusive relationships who find it very difficult to get out of them. And a lot of men, too." Coveney wrote in the film's defence: "Is there no room for irony, for the idea that in depicting horror in the sex war an artist is exposing them, not endorsing them? And who says that Sophie is an unwilling doormat or that Louise is a doormat at all? It is clear that the latter is taking serious stock of her relationship with Johnny. She exhibits both patience and tenderness in her dealings with him, whereas she finally pulls a knife on Jeremy."

Box office
The film opened in the UK on 22 screens on 5 November 1993 and grossed £52,279 for the weekend for 16th position at the UK box office.

Accolades

 * Year-end lists
 * Top 7 (not ranked) – Duane Dudek, Milwaukee Sentinel
 * Best "sleepers" (not ranked) – Dennis King, Tulsa World

title: Naked (1993 film)


text:
Harold Madison Wright

Harold Madison Wright, (December 10, 1908 – December 11, 1997) was a Canadian engineer and athlete.

Born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, he received a B.Sc in geological engineering and a M.Sc in metallurgical engineering from the University of Utah. He also received an MA in geology from the University of British Columbia. In 1947 he established a consulting firm called Wright Engineers.

He competed in athletics (100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 m relay) at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

From 1964 to 1968 he was president of the Canadian Field Hockey Association. From 1969 to 1977 he was president of the Canadian Olympic Association, during the first Olympic Games to be hosted in Canada. He also served as director of the Commonwealth Games Association of Canada and the British Columbia Sports Federation.

Honours
Wright is the recipient of the following honours and awards:
 * In 1977 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 1986.
 * In 1979 he was awarded the Olympic Order in silver.
 * In 1981 he was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of British Columbia.
 * In 1987 he was inducted into the Canadian Amateur Sports Hall of Fame.
 * In 2003 he was inducted into Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame.
 * He was inducted into the Canadian Mining Hall of Fame.

title: Harold Madison Wright


text:
Data validation

In computing, data validation or input validation is the process of ensuring data has undergone data cleansing to confirm they have data quality, that is, that they are both correct and useful. It uses routines, often called "validation rules", "validation constraints", or "check routines", that check for correctness, meaningfulness, and security of data that are input to the system. The rules may be implemented through the automated facilities of a data dictionary, or by the inclusion of explicit application program validation logic of the computer and its application.

This is distinct from formal verification, which attempts to prove or disprove the correctness of algorithms for implementing a specification or property.

Overview
Data validation is intended to provide certain well-defined guarantees for fitness and consistency of data in an application or automated system. Data validation rules can be defined and designed using various methodologies, and be deployed in various contexts. Their implementation can use declarative data integrity rules, or procedure-based business rules.

The guarantees of data validation do not necessarily include accuracy, and it is possible for data entry errors such as misspellings to be accepted as valid. Other clerical and/or computer controls may be applied to reduce inaccuracy within a system.

Different kinds
In evaluating the basics of data validation, generalizations can be made regarding the different kinds of validation according to their scope, complexity, and purpose.

For example:
 * Data type validation;
 * Range and constraint validation;
 * Code and cross-reference validation;
 * Structured validation; and
 * Consistency validation

Data-type check
Data type validation is customarily carried out on one or more simple data fields.

The simplest kind of data type validation verifies that the individual characters provided through user input are consistent with the expected characters of one or more known primitive data types as defined in a programming language or data storage and retrieval mechanism.

For example, an integer field may require input to use only characters 0 through 9.

Simple range and constraint check
Simple range and constraint validation may examine input for consistency with a minimum/maximum range, or consistency with a test for evaluating a sequence of characters, such as one or more tests against regular expressions. For example, a counter value may be required to be a non-negative integer, and a password may be required to meet a minimum length and contain characters from multiple categories.

Code and cross-reference check
Code and cross-reference validation includes operations to verify that data is consistent with one or more possibly-external rules, requirements, or collections relevant to a particular organization, context or set of underlying assumptions. These additional validity constraints may involve cross-referencing supplied data with a known look-up table or directory information service such as LDAP.

For example, a user-provided country code might be required to identify a current geopolitical region.

Structured check
Structured validation allows for the combination of other kinds of validation, along with more complex processing. Such complex processing may include the testing of conditional constraints for an entire complex data object or set of process operations within a system.

Consistency check
Consistency validation ensures that data is logical. For example, the delivery date of an order can be prohibited from preceding its shipment date.

Example
Multiple kinds of data validation are relevant to 10-digit pre-2007 ISBNs (the 2005 edition of ISO 2108 required ISBNs to have 13 digits from 2007 onwards ).

 * Size. A pre-2007 ISBN must consist of 10 digits, with optional hyphens or spaces separating its four parts.
 * Format checks. Each of the first 9 digits must be 0 through 9, and the 10th must be either 0 through 9 or an X.
 * Check digit. To detect transcription errors in which digits have been altered or transposed, the last digit of a pre-2007 ISBN must match the result of a mathematical formula incorporating the other 9 digits (ISBN-10 check digits).

Validation types

 * Allowed character checks
 * Checks to ascertain that only expected characters are present in a field. For example a numeric field may only allow the digits 0–9, the decimal point and perhaps a minus sign or commas. A text field such as a personal name might disallow characters used for markup. An e-mail address might require at least one @ sign and various other structural details. Regular expressions can be effective ways to implement such checks.

 * Batch totals
 * Checks for missing records. Numerical fields may be added together for all records in a batch. The batch total is entered and the computer checks that the total is correct, e.g., add the 'Total Cost' field of a number of transactions together.

 * Cardinality check
 * Checks that record has a valid number of related records. For example, if a contact record is classified as "customer" then it must have at least one associated order (cardinality > 0). This type of rule can be complicated by additional conditions. For example, if a contact record in a payroll database is classified as "former employee" then it must not have any associated salary payments after the separation date (cardinality = 0).

 * Check digits
 * Used for numerical data. To support error detection, an extra digit is added to a number which is calculated from the other digits.

 * Consistency checks
 * Checks fields to ensure data in these fields correspond, e.g., if expiration date is in the past then status is not "active".

 * Cross-system consistency checks
 * Compares data in different systems to ensure it is consistent. Systems may represent the same data differently, in which case comparison requires transformation (e.g., one system may store customer name in a single Name field as 'Doe, John Q', while another uses First_Name 'John' and Last_Name 'Doe' and Middle_Name 'Quality').

 * Data type checks
 * Checks input conformance with typed data. For example, an input box accepting numeric data may reject the letter 'O'.

 * File existence check
 * Checks that a file with a specified name exists. This check is essential for programs that use file handling.

 * Format check
 * Checks that the data is in a specified format (template), e.g., dates have to be in the format YYYY-MM-DD. Regular expressions may be used for this kind of validation.

 * Presence check
 * Checks that data is present, e.g., customers may be required to have an email address.

 * Range check
 * Checks that the data is within a specified range of values, e.g., a probability must be between 0 and 1.

 * Referential integrity
 * Values in two relational database tables can be linked through foreign key and primary key. If values in the foreign key field are not constrained by internal mechanisms, then they should be validated to ensure that the referencing table always refers to a row in the referenced table.

 * Spelling and grammar check
 * Looks for spelling and grammatical errors.

 * Uniqueness check
 * Checks that each value is unique. This can be applied to several fields (i.e. Address, First Name, Last Name).

 * Table look up check
 * A table look up check compares data to a collection of allowed values.

Post-validation actions

 * Enforcement Action
 * Enforcement action typically rejects the data entry request and requires the input actor to make a change that brings the data into compliance. This is most suitable for interactive use, where a real person is sitting on the computer and making entry. It also works well for batch upload, where a file input may be rejected and a set of messages sent back to the input source for why the data is rejected.
 * Another form of enforcement action involves automatically changing the data and saving a conformant version instead of the original version. This is most suitable for cosmetic change. For example, converting an [all-caps] entry to a [Pascal case] entry does not need user input. An inappropriate use of automatic enforcement would be in situations where the enforcement leads to loss of business information. For example, saving a truncated comment if the length is longer than expected. This is not typically a good thing since it may result in loss of significant data.

 * Advisory Action
 * Advisory actions typically allow data to be entered unchanged but sends a message to the source actor indicating those validation issues that were encountered. This is most suitable for non-interactive system, for systems where the change is not business critical, for cleansing steps of existing data and for verification steps of an entry process.

 * Verification Action
 * Verification actions are special cases of advisory actions. In this case, the source actor is asked to verify that this data is what they would really want to enter, in the light of a suggestion to the contrary. Here, the check step suggests an alternative (e.g., a check of a mailing address returns a different way of formatting that address or suggests a different address altogether). You would want in this case, to give the user the option of accepting the recommendation or keeping their version. This is not a strict validation process, by design and is useful for capturing addresses to a new location or to a location that is not yet supported by the validation databases.

 * Log of validation
 * Even in cases where data validation did not find any issues, providing a log of validations that were conducted and their results is important. This is helpful to identify any missing data validation checks in light of data issues and in improving the validation.

Validation and security
Failures or omissions in data validation can lead to data corruption or a security vulnerability. Data validation checks that data are fit for purpose, valid, sensible, reasonable and secure before they are processed.

title: Data validation


text:
Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Category:Cinema by country

The following discussion comes from Categories for deletion. This is an archive of the discussion only; please do not edit this page. -Kbdank71 17:03, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Category:Cinema_by_country
Change all "Fooian cinema" to "Cinema of Foo". -- Beland 02:25, 15 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Agree - in needs a lot of work. Also, went one comes across a country that is defunct... use the original country AND its present day status: Category:Cinema of Czechoslovakia, and Category:Cinema of the Czech Republic ... Category:Cinema of Slovakia. ~ RoboAction 00:10, 31 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose A lot of work to convert the names into an ungainly and non standard form. Philip 22:37, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Agree - the work will be done by bots, and "X of Country" is a standard form in widespread use. I find it easier to guess category names when they're in this form. Bryan 09:54, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Agree. -Kbdank71 19:21, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Moved.


text:
Alejandro María Aguado, 1st Marquess of Marismas del Guadalquivir

Alejandro María Aguado y Remírez de Estenoz, 1st Marquess of Marismas del Guadalquivir (29 June 1784, in Sevilla – 14 Aprili 1842, in Gijon), Spanish banker, was born of Old Christian parentage, originally from Sevilla, Andalusia, Spain.

He began life as a soldier, fighting with distinction in the Spanish War of Independence first against the French, then on the side of Joseph Bonaparte. After the Battle of Bailén (1808) he entered the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult.

He was exiled in 1815, and immediately started business as a commission-agent in Paris, where, chiefly through his family connexions in Havana and Mexico, he acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable him to undertake banking. The Spanish government gave him full powers to negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 1831; and Ferdinand VII rewarded him with the title of Marquess of Marismas del Guadalquivir, the decorations of several orders and valuable mining concessions in Spain. Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having become possessed of large estates in France, including the Château Margaux, famous for its wine, he was naturalized as a French citizen. He died in Spain on 14 April 1842, leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid collection of pictures which at his death was sold by auction.


text:
Link (film)

Link is a 1986 British horror film starring Elisabeth Shue and Terence Stamp along with a trio of simian stars which consist of Locke as Link, Jed as Imp, and Carrie as Voodoo. The title character, "Link", is a super-intelligent yet malicious chimpanzee (played by an orangutan) who lashes out against his masters when they try to have him euthanised.

It was directed by Richard Franklin and written by Everett De Roche from a story by Lee David Zlotoff and Tom Ackermann. The score was provided by Jerry Goldsmith. It was filmed in St. Abbs, Scotland. Shue and Goldsmith received Saturn Award nominations for their contributions.

Franklin was a devotee of Alfred Hitchcock - he had recently directed Psycho II - and said after filming “I hesitate to liken it to The Birds because everyone will say ‘Oh shit, he's doing Hitchcock again.' Unlike The Birds, which is kind of a fantasy, Link is based on anthropological realities. I’m calling it an anthropological thriller as opposed to a psychological thriller.”

Plot
Dr. Steven Phillip lives in a Victorian mansion by the English Coast with three chimpanzees which he has been doing research on to investigate the “link” between man and ape. Jane Chase is invited to his house during summer vacation as an assistant, and upon arriving, she gets greeted at the door by a chimpanzee named Link, dressed in a butler's uniform.

Philips disappears, but Jane thinks he left for London. She decides to stay with the chimpanzees. Over time the chimps become more violent. They begin to take over the house and to get involved in inter-tribal squabbles, leading to a confrontation with Jane.

Human actors

 * Elisabeth Shue as Jane Chase, a young American zoology studying in England who takes the opportunity to assist Dr. Phillip with his studies.
 * Terence Stamp as Dr. Steven Phillip, an anthropologist studying the mental capabilities of chimpanzees in his isolated estate in the English countryside. Anthony Perkins was offered the role but turned it down.
 * Steven Pinner as David, Jane's boyfriend who investigates Phillip's estate after Jane's call gets abruptly cut off.
 * Kevin Lloyd as Bailey, Phillip's friend who is called to put Link down.
 * David O'Hara as Tom, David's friend who goes with him on his search for Jane.
 * Richard Garnett as Dennis, David's friend who goes with him on his search for Jane.
 * Linus Roache (uncredited)

Ape actors

 * Locke as Link, a 45 year old circus chimpanzee who now serves as Phillip's butler and lashes out against his human masters. Despite being written to be a chimpanzee and having a poster of his old circus days as a chimpanzee, the role was given to Locke who is an orangutan. His fur was dyed darker and wore prosthetic ears to make him resemble a chimpanzee. He was owned and trained by legendary animal trainer Ray Berwick.
 * Carrie as Voodoo, a female chimpanzee who is often caged for her aggressive nature, but is occasionally let loose. This is one of the few times a full grown chimpanzee is used in a film.
 * Jed as Imp, Voodoo's son and Phillip's prized student in his studies. He has a tendency to escape and kill other animals (birds, cats, sheep).

Production
In 1979 Richard Franklin optioned a short outline which he described as "a sort of Jaws with chimps." He did not do anything with it until the writer Everett de Roche showed him a National Geographic article by Jane Goodall about violence among chimpanzees.

Franklin later said what sparked the idea of the film was Goodall observing "the cannibalizing of young chimpanzees by one particular mad female chimp. She observed actual inter-tribal warfare, not unlike the opening of 2001, between two groups of chimps. The whole ’60s idea of man being the only animal to make war against its own kind was suddenly thrown out the window. Since then, they’ve discovered that lions and other animals do it as well, but that, to me, was a really interesting idea for a good thriller.”

Everett De Roche wrote the script. Franklin tried to get finance for the film in Australia in 1981 but was then offered Psycho II which led to Cloak and Dagger. After those films he decided to reactivate Link.

"Link is much more mysterious than it is horrifying," said Franklin. "For a long time, the girl doesn’t know, nor does the audience, exactly what happened to the doctor. It owes a bit to Psycho, actually, because you’ll notice that in mood, tone and look, it resembles Psycho II, crossed with the English setting of Jane Eyre.”

"It’s very suspenseful and moderately violent, although chimps indulge in bloodless violence," said Franklin. "They don’t use weapons, they just pull your arms off.”

Shooting
The film was made in the UK for EMI Films. "The English setting to me was essential," said Franklin. "I wanted to contrast the primitivism of jungle animals with Old World values, high culture, and "civilisation" - which is one of the subjects of the picture."

Franklin was asked to use make up for the apes but he elected to use real apes, and editing techniques to make it seem how they were reacting.

"From a technical viewpoint, it was really not as hard to do as I had anticipated," said Franklin. "But there was a lot of pressure on me, even at the last minute, to use men in suits, which I thought would be dishonest. We weren’t making a fantasy, and we weren’t making Greystoke with its fable-like qualities. We were doing something which was supposed to be based on what chimps can really do. "

Filming finished in July 1985. It was one of the last films made under the regime of Verity Lambert at EMI.

"The killings are strange with one chimp actually pulling somebody through a mail slot, which is kind of different,” said Franklin. “It breaks new ground, and cinematically, it has never been done."

Release
Prior to the film's release Frankin said "Universal’s instinct will probably be to release it this summer, which I really hope they don't do. It’s not a Spielberg movie. It’s quite different and, in a way, I wish Psycho II had been given the chance to make more money by playing fewer theatres for a longer period of time. Link is a very special thriller and should be treated accordingly.”

When the film was released in the US by the Cannon Group, eight minutes were cut, despite Franklin's objections. When EMI was taken over by the Cannon Group, five more minutes were cut out. Franklin later described this process as "each new one chipping a little more away until my wife was moved to liken the plight of my monkey movie to that of the horse in Black Beauty."

Reception
The film received generally mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film 44% positive reviews based on 18 reviews. Franklin later called the movie "on almost every level... an unsatisfying experience."

Alternate versions
The French cut is 3 minutes shorter (the opening sequence is missing), but features scenes that were cut from the international version. In 2021, a composite 125 minutes extended cut was released in France; this cut was created based on various sources and features all scenes from both versions.

Cancelled sequel
Prior to the film's release Franklin said he had an idea for a follow-up movie, about an anthropologist in Africa who becomes involved in a chimpanzee war. "It would be another picture entirely, ” said Franklin. "Steven Spielberg said he would direct Jaws 2 if he could do the story of the Indianapolis, which is the story that’s told in Jaws by Robert Shaw. With Link, we got an entirely different story, which takes chimps as far from the jungles of Africa as possible.” However the commercial failure of Link meant the film was never made.

title: Link (film)


text:
Talk:Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah

Untitled
Some of the material on this page was copied from a page on the Vepachedu Educational Foundation. This text is released under the GFDL, and is not a copyright violation. For further information, see Talk:Qutb Shahi dynasty.

The Merger
The content from :Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah has been merged into this article (both were almost identical). Chirag 19:12, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Bhagmati
The legend. Clearly seen as a legendary figure. --Kansas Bear (talk) 16:21, 29 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah


text:
Talk:Nigerian Pidgin

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 10 September 2021 and 31 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Paytonmcintyre.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 05:17, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
I doubt that there are no native speakers. The language is to a large extend identical to Cameroon Pidgin (high mutual intelegibility) and in Cameroon there are definitly native speakers in some of the cities (e.g. Limbe). It would be astonishing if the same was not true for Nigeria. The grammar of the language differs considerably from english, so I would definitely call it a creole, not a dialect of english. Nannus 20:24, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I've reworded the lead paragraph to acknowledge the pidgin/creole/acrolect continuum mentioned by Ihemere (2006, cited in article). -- Avenue 13:14, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

Merging wih Nigerian Pidgin English
Yes, but not sure which gets merged into which. --A12n 00:43, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Merge both into Naija Broken and leave the two existing articles as redirects. We seem to handle pidgins by referring to them by the names with which they are referred in the relevant pidgin, e.g., Krio, Gullah.  It would stand to reason that this should be treated the same way.  Heather 19:12, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

 * However, in the case of those articles, the current name is the most common name. Speakers and non-speakers alike call it Krio, not Sierra Leonean Criole. However, here, Nigerian Pidgin is the most widely-recognized name. Picaroon (t) 23:36, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

I have trouble understanding why you'd want to merge them. The grammar, vocabulary, and words are marketly different. IT'd be like merging Kreyol with French, or Papiamentu with Portuguese. It's a mix of languages with english, it is certianly not purely english. For an example, see how you do with this: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggWMWgRkK_4 -- keep in mind this is an american who moved there as a child, his word choice may not be as distant from standard english as you would expect. --—  r obbiemuffin  page talk 16:43, 27 March 2011 (UTC)

Questioning the redirect
Nigerian English and Naija are 2 different languages. Naija is more slang and informal, and has foreign influences. While Nigerian English on the other-hand is a language of the English with some grammar changes and spellings by Nigerians, but not necessarily a Pidgin. --71.204.139.111 (talk) 00:01, 30 June 2010 (UTC)

Is this Nigerian Pidgin or not?
Just wondering...there has been a way of speaking among the younger generation in the country since the 1980s, "no matter how dem try-o" always causing an "-o" to get appended at the end of a verb. May this be called Nigerian Pidgin or is this yet something else? I'd also like to ask this here because it's mentioned nowhere in the article. -andy 77.7.110.160 (talk) 15:35, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

The Nigerian pidgin is spectacularly unique to its origin, which is Nigeria, its Neither an English nor a Pidgin-English, as it doesn't conform to the rules of English nor can an English man fully understand the Nigeria Pidgin if not learnt or heard before. If we are to reason rationally we'd come to a conclusion that this is a language related to its owner and no sub-owner or parent owner. The Philosophy of language makes us understand that a language is a noun while meaning acts as a verb which explains the language. A Nigerian brought up within the horizon of such language will understand its intonation and refer meaning to it. It's simply not a Pidgin-English but a Nigeria-Pidgin.

"No matter how dem try o" -- is mostly used in the Nigerian-Pidgin. e.g During adverts programs such language usage are expressed. so i would say its a Nigeria Pidgin, except there is another context in which such language is mostly used by other countries.

I am also Nigerian & have studied my people's unnative language, which is pidgin language. Ojuolape878 (talk) 07:53, 3 June 2015 (UTC)

 * A "Pidgin English" is a pidgin (language with no native speakers, developed ad hoc by people with no other language in common) whose vocabulary is taken largely from English; but the name does not imply that a speaker of standard English can understand it. — Who or what is the "owner" of a language? —Tamfang (talk) 09:17, 5 April 2016 (UTC)

"Una" as used in Nigerian Pidgin is not of igbo origin as conjuctured. It is rather a contraction of "ustedes" (Spanish) or its portugese rendering

Jamaican Creole comparison
I feel a direct comparison between Nigerian Pidgin and Jamaican Creole isn't particularly salient as a lot of the features discussed in that section are found in many African-substrate pidgins and creoles. Reduplication in particular is found in a large percentage of creoles worldwide. I'm going to work on turning it into a general comparison with other creoles if there are no objections. Ebolamunkee (talk) 03:44, 17 March 2012 (UTC)

Agreed. Its 2022 and instead of linking 'Nigerian Pidgin' to the Krio language from which it clearly originates, we still have this dubious or forced connection with Jamaican Patois. The Sierra Leone Creoles are the direct descendants of resettled Jamaican Maroons in Freetown (1800), not Nigerians. Yet it is the Nigerian Pidgin that is somehow connected to their language. Not only is it laughable, but the reality is that it is the Saro Creoles of recaptive stock from Freetown, resettled in Nigeria (1800s), who are the progenitors of the variety of 'Pidgin' spoken in Nigeria today. Instead of highlighting this historical fact in the article, the page-watchers are still (in 2022) having fantasies about some bizzare connection of their language to Jamaican Patios. Embarrassing. Inamo11 (talk) 17:16, 24 December 2022 (UTC)

Spanish removed
I removed the unreferenced Spanish influence. From Talk:Mediterranean Lingua Franca:
 * English words like "savvy" (from sabir) and "pickaninny" can be traced to Lingua Franca.

 * I've removed these two pending citation, at least "pickaninny". The OED gives:

The word is evidently one of those diffused around the Atlantic coasts through the Portuguese-based pidgins associated with trade (and esp. the slave trade) in the 17th cent. A Spanish origin is much less likely; although the diminutive adjective in -ino does occur in Spanish (cf. {dag}pequenino, {dag}pequennino (both 1200 or earlier), {dag}pequeñino (1549 or earlier)), such attestations are very rare in comparison to the usual diminutive pequeñito (1410 or earlier); the Cuban Spanish form attested in quot. 1849 is comparatively late, and may reflect borrowing from English. In support of the Portuguese pidgin origin there is the evidence of Sranan (see quot. 1796) and the occurrence of pickaninny in West African pidgins in the 19th cent. (current West African pidgins have the form pikin which prob. originated in Surinam and spread from there to Jamaica, thence to Sierra Leone (Krio), and West Africa more generally: see M. Huber Ghanaian Pidgin Eng. (1999) 85, 103). The theory that the word originated as a compound equivalent to Spanish pequeño niño little child or Portuguese pequeno negro (cf. Sranan pikien-ningre ‘negerkinderen, kreolen’ given by H. C. Focke, Neger-Engelsch Woordenboek (1855)) is unlikely. -- Error (talk) 02:03, 7 November 2016 (UTC)

"Brokin"
As far as I know, this is not an actual term, but just an onomatopoeic spelling of "Broken". In other words there is no denotational or connotational difference between "broken" and "brokin". I submit that using the spelling "brokin" can be misleading in the sense that it might convey the impression that it's an actual term, rather than a reflection of common pronunciation in Nigeria. In this case, it would be preferable to spell it "broken". Orientalduck98 (talk) 04:27, 23 December 2016 (UTC)

 * I have no idea what the distinction in pronunciation between "broken" and "brokin" is supposed to be. Can we get some IPA? --Mocha2007 (talk) 16:44, 8 March 2019 (UTC)

Changing the Title of the Article to Naija language
I am considering changing the name of the article from Nigerian Pidgin to Naija language. Naija (indigenously written as Naijá Languej) has been the official name of the language since the 2009 conference of the Naija Languej Akademi in Ibadan, Nigeria. There is now a standard orthography, as well as lexical and syntaxical developments. Many recent formal articles and papers written in the language or referencing the language in Nigerian and use "Naija". Pidgin is also not an accurate definition for the language. In addition Naija has already been commonly used as the name for the language. "A de tok Naija" (I speak Naija) is a common phrase used to signify to the others that you can speak Nigerian Pidgin. Since I understand Nigerian Pidgin has been used historically, I think naming the page Naija language (Nigerian Pidgin) is also an option. Especially considering this differentiates the page from Naija ( the adjective) and Naija (another name for Nigeria)

Citation for the name change: https://www.ifra-nigeria.org/naija-corner/naija-languej-akedemi Proceedings of the 2009 conference: https://www.ifra-nigeria.org/publications/e-papers/conferences/18-naija-proceedings-of-the-conference-on-nigerian-pidgin

Corpus: http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2155/courtin.pdf — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.127.92.5 (talk) 20:18, 8 September 2018 (UTC)

spelling
"chook" is spelt "chuk" 102.88.63.73 (talk) 16:46, 9 April 2023 (UTC)

unu

 * Another Igbo word much used in pidgin is una, derived from the Igbo word unu which is equivalent to the English term "you people".

Is it the pronoun you-plural, or something else? —Tamfang (talk) 21:20, 27 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nigerian Pidgin


text: User talk:216.194.210.162

title: User talk:216.194.210.162


text: User talk:130.179.39.163

title: User talk:130.179.39.163


text:
Skver (Hasidic dynasty)

Skver (also Skvir, Skvere, Skwere, or Square; סקווירא) is a Chasidic dynasty founded by Rebbe Yitzchok Twersky in the city of Skver (known in Yiddish), or Skvyra, in present-day Ukraine during the mid-19th century. Adherents of the rebbes of Skver are known as Skverer Hasidim. The Skver dynasty is a branch of the Chernobyl dynasty. Its founder, Rebbe Yitzchok, also known as Reb Itzikl, was one of the eight sons of Rabbi Mordechai, the Maggid of Chernobyl. There are currently three rebbes of the Skverer dynasty:
 * David Twersky, who leads the largest and most prominent branch, headquartered in New Square, New York.
 * Yechiel Michl Twersky, son of the late Rebbe David ("Reb Duvid'l") Twersky, who heads the Skver-Boro Park community.
 * Yitzchok Twersky, son of the late Reb Mottel Twersky, who leads the Skver-Flatbush community.

Philosophy and lifestyle
Skverer Hasidism stresses Torah study, prayer, and abstention from excessive earthly pleasures, in order to achieve purity of heart and mind. To that end, the village of New Square was established, where residents are sheltered from influences deemed decadent.

A central part of the lifestyle is the attachment to the Rebbe. As with most Hasidic groups today, the Rebbe's position is generally attained through his lineage. However, to be accepted by the masses, the Rebbe is expected to display behaviors such as humility, love for fellow Jews, and general devotion to God's service. The rebbe, as tzadik, or righteous person, is seen as a conduit to God for the masses.

Modes of dress for Skverer Hasidim are generally similar to those of other Hasidic groups, especially that of Vizhnitz, Belz, and Klausenburg. Weekday attire for men consists of long coats, called rekls, and velvet hats. On Shabbos (the Jewish Sabbath), Jewish holidays, and special occasions, the men wear long black coats made of silk (or imitation silk made from polyester), called bekishes. Today, married men also wear fur hats, called shtreimels, and knee-high leather boots known as shtievl.

Married women usually wear a wig, often with an additional covering over it, such as a scarf or a hat, and wear modest clothing, with long, conservative skirts, long sleeves, fully covered necklines, and stockings.

History
The first Rebbe of Skver was Rabbi Hershele of Skver (Reb Hershele Skverer), a direct descendant of the Baal Shem Tov. When Rabbi Hershele settled in Skver (Skvira), he was elected to become the town rabbi in the shtutishe shil (שטאטישע שול, "main shul in the city"). Rabbi Hershele's daughter later married Rabbi Yitzchok Twersky (called Reb Itzikl), the seventh son of Rabbi Mordechai of Chernobyl.

Reb Itzikl, founder of the dynasty
After Hershele died on Chol Hamoed Succos, 5548 (1788), Itzikl, the seventh son of Mordechai of Chernobyl and Hershele's son-in-law, became the next rabbi of Skver.

Itzikl was married three times. He married his first wife, a granddaughter of Rabbi Yitzchok of Radvil and the Apter Rov, in 1783. They had two sons: Avrohom Yehoshua Heshil of Makhnovka, and Menachum Nochum of Shpikov. His second wife, Chaya Malka, was a daughter of Rabbi Yisroel Friedman of Ruzhin. His third wife, Chana Sima, was the daughter of Rabbi (Tsvi) Hershele of Skver.

Itzikl is known in Hasidic legend as the filozof eloki ("the Godly philosopher"). The Haskala movement (the "Jewish Enlightenment"), was sweeping through Eastern Europe in the late eighteenth century, and Itzikl frequently attempted to debate and confront the Maskilim.

There are no published works by Itzikl himself, but a collection of oral teachings called "Yalkut Meorei Or" (among other books) has been published by Skverer Hasidim in recent years under the imprint of Mechon Mishkenos Yakov.

Dovidl
Itzikl's son by his third wife Chana Sima, Dovidl, succeeded his father as Skverer Rebbe.

In 1919, Dovidl left Skvira for Kiev due to the Bolshevik revolution. He stayed in Kiev until his death (on 15 Kislev 5680) later that year. He left no published works.

Reb Yakov Yosef
Dovidl's son, Rebbe Yakov Yosef (1899–1968) married Trana, the daughter of Rabbi Pinye of Ustilla and granddaughter of Yissachar Dov Rokeach of Belz, in 1925. As a young man, he lived in Belz, and later adopted some of the Belzer customs. A few years later, he set up court in Kalarash, Romania (now Călăraşi, Moldova), and later in Iaşi. After World War II, he lived in Bucharest.

In 1948, after surviving the war in Romania, Yakov Yosef came to the United States.

After spending a few years in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, he established a community in what was then rural Rockland County, New York, and named it New Square, where he moved with a few followers in 1956.

Duvid Twersky

After Yakov Yosef's death in 1968 his son Duvid Twersky became rebbe. Aside from its headquarters in New Square and its branches in New York City, the group maintains institutions in Canada, England, and Israel. Its school in New Square has close to five-thousand students.

Reb Itzikl Skverer of Boro Park
Reb Dovidl's eldest son, Rabbi Mordechai Twersky, died in the same year, before his father in Kiev. During those difficult times, many Jews fled Ukraine and came to America.

Rabbi Mordechai's son, Rabbi Yitzchak Twersky, also left Bessarabia and came to America, arriving in 1923. Eventually, he settled in Borough Park, Brooklyn, and opened his shul on 47th Street, between 13th and 14th Avenue.

Rabbi Yitzchak Twersky died while his son Rabbi Dovid Twersky was still young. Although there were not many vibrant Hasidic communities in America in those days, he was raised in a Hasidic atmosphere in his mother's house where he was guarded against what they considered the "harmful influences" of American culture. Rabbi Dovid Twersky was known for his expertise and influence with many in the medical field, and consequently, was often sought out for advice. He died in 2001, and was succeeded by his son, Rabbi Yechiel Mechel Twersky, the rebbe of Skver-Boro Park.

Institutions of Skver-Boro Park
Institutions of Skver-Boro Park include:
 * Bais Yitzchok boys' school (named after Grand Rabbi Yitzchak Twersky).
 * Tomer Devorah girls' school (founded by the late rebbe, Dovid Twersky, around 1960. The school currently has an enrollment of about two-thousand girls).

There are also summer camps for the boys and girls where they enjoy a range of programs in the summer months.

Dynasty lineage

 * Grand Rabbi Yisroel Baal Shem Tov — founder of Hasidism.
 * Grand Rabbi Menachem Nachum Twersky of Chernobyl (1730–1797) — author of Meor Einayim and Yesamach Lev; disciple of the Baal Shem Tov.
 * Grand Rabbi Mordechai Twersky (1770–1837) — also known as the Chernobyler Magid (Preacher of Chernobyl); son of the Meor Einayim; author of Keser Torah.
 * Grand Rabbi Yitzchok (Itzikl) Twersky of Skver (1812–1885) — son of the Magid of Chernobyl; son-in-law of Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh of Skver, a patrilineal descendant of the Baal Shem Tov.
 * Grand Rabbi David (Duvidl) Twersky of Skver (1848–1919) — son of Rebbe Itzikl.
 * Grand Rabbi Mordechai Twersky of Skver (1868–1919) — son of Rebbe Duvidl.
 * Grand Rabbi Yitzchak Twersky of Skver-Boro Park (1888–1941) — arrived in America in 1923, son of Rabbi Mordechai.
 * Grand Rabbi David Twersky of Skver-Boro Park (1922–2001) — son of Rabbi Yitzchak.
 * Grand Rabbi Yechiel Michl Twersky — present rebbe of Skver-Boro Park, son of Rabbi David.
 * Grand Rabbi Avroham Yehoshua Heshel Twersky — Head of Skver-Boro Park institutions, son of Rabbi David
 * Grand Rabbi Shlomo Twersky of Skver (1870–1921) — son of Rebbe Duvidl.
 * Grand Rabbi Eluzar Twersky of Faltishan-Skver (1893–1976) — Rebbe of Faltishan (Fălticeni, Romania); son of Rabbi Shlomo; arrived in America in 1947.
 * Grand Rabbi Yisrael Avraham Stein of Faltishan (1915–1989) — Rabbi of Faltishan, and Faltishaner Rebbe in Brooklyn; son-in-law of Rabbi Elazar; arrived in America in 1946.
 * Grand Rabbi Mordechai Stein of Faltishan — present Faltishaner Rabbe; son of Rabbi Yisrael Avraham.
 * Rabbi Avrom Twersky of Faltishan (ca. 1920-1985) — Rebbe of Faltishan Borough Park; son of Rabbi Eluzer.
 * Grand Rabbi Shulem Meir Twersky — Present Faltishan Borough Park Rebbe; son of Rabbi Avrom.
 * Grand Rabbi Yaakov Yosef Twerski of Skver (1899–1968) — Rebbe of New Square; son of Rabbi Duvidl.
 * Grand Rabbi Duvid Twersky of Skver — present Rebbe of New Square and Grand Rabbi of the Skverer Hasidim worldwide; son of Rebbe Yaakov Yosef.

Literature

 * Meor Eynayim, by the first rebbe of Chernobyl, Rebbe Menachem Nachum Twersky
 * Toldos Yaakov Yosef, by Rabbi Yaakov Yosef Hakohen of Polnoye, disciple of the Baal Shem Tov
 * Ohr ha-Chaim ("the light of life"), by Rabbi Haim Ben-Attar, traditionally studied on Friday nights (at the start of the Sabbath).

title: Skver (Hasidic dynasty)