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Empoli

Empoli is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Florence, Tuscany, Italy, about 30 km southwest of Florence, to the south of the Arno in a plain formed by the river. The plain has been usable for agriculture since Roman times. The commune's territory becomes hilly as it departs from the river. Empoli is on the main railway line from Florence to Pisa, and is the point of divergence of a line to Siena. Empoli has an enduring tradition as an agricultural centre. It has given its name to a local variety of artichoke.

History
Archaeological finds have revealed that Empoli was already settled in the early Roman Empire times, and continued to exist until the 4th century AD. The river acted as a communication way for the trade of agricultural products, together with the local amphorae. In the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century Empoli is called in portu ("in the port") as a river port on the Roman road Via Quinctia, which led from Fiesole and Florence to Pisa. Empoli was also on the Via Salaiola, connecting to Volterra's salt ponds.

Since the 8th century Empoli consolidated as a town around the castle, known as Emporium or Empolis. In 1119 it was absorbed into the Guidi counts' possessions. In 1182 it fell under Florentine rule. In 1260, after the Battle of Montaperti, Empoli was the seat of a famous council in which Farinata degli Uberti opposed the destruction of Florence.

Later Empoli became an important fortress, and was therefore repeatedly sacked and attacked. In 1530 its fall marked the end of the independence of the Florentine Republic.

Main sights

 * Piazza Farinata degli Uberti, also known as Piazza dei Leoni ("Lions Square"), is marked in its centre by a fountain by Luigi Pampaloni (1827). Here lies the Collegiata di Sant'Andrea, the main city's monument. The church probably existed as early as the 5th century AD, and is mentioned in a papal bull of 1059. It was rebuilt in the 11th century by the pievano Rolando, by permission of the Countess Emilia dei Conti Guidi. In the mid of the following century, a Romanesque arcaded facade was added: it was decorated with bi-chrome marble stones, in a style inspired by the basilica of San Miniato in Florence. The green stones were from Prato, and the white ones are from Carrara: today the lower part of the original decoration remains. In 1735 the architect Ferdinando Ruggieri extensively modified the façade and the interior structure, including the ceiling. It houses noteworthy artworks including paintings by Francesco Botticini, a terracotta by Luca della Robbia, an altarpiece (1785) by Zanobi del Rosso and a triptych by Lorenzo di Bicci portraying the Madonna in Throne with Saints.
 * The Palazzo Ghibellino is the former palace of the Guidi counts. It was probably erected in the 11th century. In 1260 it was the seat of the Ghibelline parliament where the fate of the Florence's Guelphs was decided. In the 16th century, the palace was restored, leaving little of the original structure, though.
 * The Palazzo Pretorio was the Town Hall in the Middle Ages. Currently, it houses several activities, including an auditorium.

The house of the painter Pontormo is in the frazione (hamlet) of Pontorme.

Sport
Empoli's main association football team is Empoli F.C., which is currently playing in the.

Twinnings

 * 🇦🇹 Sankt Georgen an der Gusen, Austria

Notable people

 * Farinata degli Uberti, real name Manente degli Uberti (1212–1264), politician leader [anti-Papal]
 * Giovanni da Empoli (1483–1518), navigator
 * Jacopo Carrucci, better known as Pontormo (1494–1556), painter
 * Jacopo da Empoli (1551–1640), painter
 * Alessandro Marchetti (1633–1714), mathematician and writer
 * Giuseppe del Papa (1648–1735), doctor and philosopher
 * Ippolito Neri (1652–1708), doctor and poet
 * Renato Fucini (1843–1921), writer
 * Giuliano Vanghetti (1861–1940), orthopaedist
 * Ferruccio Busoni (1866–1924), musician
 * Alberto Castellani (1884–1932), Eastern countries scholar
 * Mentore Maggini (1890–1941), astronomer
 * Remo Scappini (1908–1994), politician and anti-Fascist militant
 * Carlo Rovini (1932–1988), poet and writer
 * Mario Panzani (1921–2016), painter and sculptor

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Empoli


text:
Lucius Varius Rufus

Lucius Varius Rufus (c. 74 – 14 BC) was a Roman poet of the early Augustan age.

He was a friend of Virgil, after whose death he and Plotius Tucca prepared the Aeneid for publication, and of Horace, for whom he and Virgil obtained an introduction to Maecenas. Horace spoke of him as a master of epic and the only poet capable of celebrating the achievements of Vipsanius Agrippa (Odes, i.6); Virgil (under the name of Lycidas, Ecl. ix.35) regretted that he had hitherto produced nothing comparable to the work of Varius or Helvius Cinna.

Macrobius (Saturnalia, vi. I, 39; 2, 19) states that Varius composed an epic poem De Morte, some lines of which are quoted as having been imitated or appropriated by Virgil; Horace (Sat. i.10, 43) probably alluded to another epic, and, according to the scholiast on Epistles, i.16, 2 729, these three lines were taken bodily from a panegyric of Varius on Augustus.

Varius's most famous literary production was the tragedy Thyestes, which Quintilian (Inst. Orat. x.1, 98) declared fit to rank with any of the Greek tragedies. A didascalia on the play, preserved in a Paris manuscript, states that it was produced at the games celebrated in 29 BC by Octavian in honour of the victory at Actium, and that Varius received a present of a million sesterces from the Roman ruler.

Fragments of Varius's works are located in E. Bahrens, ''Frag. Poetarum Romanorum (1886); monographs by A. Weichert (1836) and R. Unger (1870, 1878, 1898); Martin Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (1899), ii.1; Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature'' (Eng. trans., 1900), 223.

title: Lucius Varius Rufus


text: User talk:83.235.252.69

title: User talk:83.235.252.69


text:
Alley Baggett

Alley Baggett (born July 14, 1973) is an American glamour model and makeup artist.

She appeared on the cover of Playboy's Book of Lingerie in the March/April 1996 issue. She has since appeared on more than twelve Playboy Special Edition covers. She has also been featured in British lad mags FHM and Loaded.

Early life
Baggett was born and raised in Houston, Texas, to parents of Spanish descent. She originally had aspirations of becoming a dancer on Broadway and settled in New York, during this time Baggett did jobs such as a cocktail waitress.

Career
Outside of the modeling realm, Baggett has worked on television as a WWF Sunday Night Heat commentator on the USA Network and has appeared on Penn and Teller's Sin City Spectacular, the WB's Unhappily Ever After, Telemundo's The Umberto Show and the Maria Conchita Alonso Show. She has also performed in music videos for Ricky Martin's "Shake Your Bon-Bon" and Third Eye Blind's "Never Let You Go". Baggett was featured in a comic book series based on a crime fighting alter-ego, Alley Cat. She has also appeared in various car tuning magazines.

Personal life
At age fifteen Baggett got married and had a child.

title: Alley Baggett


text: Category:Nahuatl

title: Category:Nahuatl


text:
Leukonychia

Leukonychia (or leuconychia) is a medical term for white discoloration appearing on nails. It is derived from the Greek words leuko 'white' and onyx 'nail'. The most common cause is injury to the base of the nail (the matrix) where the nail is formed.

Leukonychia totalis
This condition consists of a whitening of the entire nail and mostly likely occurs on all nails. Whitening of one, and only one, entire nail is not recognized as a symptom of Leukonychia totalis but as a likely result of mechanical trauma. Leukonychia totalis may be a clinical sign of hypoalbuminaemia (low albumin), which can be seen in nephrotic syndrome (a form of kidney failure), liver failure, protein malabsorption and protein-losing enteropathies. A genetic condition or a side effect from taking sulphonamides (a family of antibiotics) can also cause this appearance. By 2011, only 6 cases of non-hereditary Leukonychia totalis were published.

In familial cases of leukonychia totalis, this condition is caused by mutations in the PLCD1 gene, in chromosome 3p22.2, this mutation shows an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance, but in some cases, this condition may be autosomal recessive.

Leukonychia partialis
This condition consists of a whitening of parts of the nail plate in the form of small white dots. There are three different variations of partial leukonychia; punctate, transverse and longitudinal leukonychia. Some of the more serious variations of leukonychia partialis may lead to leukonychia totalis.

Leukonychia striata

Leukonychia striata, transverse leukonychia, or Mees' lines are a whitening or discoloration of the nail in bands or "stria" that run parallel to the lunula (nail base). This is commonly caused by physical injury or disruption of the nail matrix. Common examples include excessive biting or tapping of the nails, trauma or injury from accidents involving doors or windows, and extensive use of manicure. It may also occur in great toenails as a result of trauma from footwear. Alternatively, the condition can be caused by heavy metal poisoning, most commonly by lead. Finally, it can be caused by cirrhosis of the liver or chemotherapy.

The tendency toward leukonychia striata is sometimes inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. In other cases, it can be attributed to vigorous manicuring and trauma aforementioned, or to a wide variety of systemic illnesses. Serious infections known for high fevers, measles, malaria, herpes, and leprosy may also cause this condition. In many patients, there is no obvious cause, and the streaks resolve spontaneously.

There is a similar condition called Muehrcke's lines (apparent leukonychia) which differs from leukonychia in that the lines fade with digital compression and do not migrate with the growth of the nail.

Leukonychia punctata
Also known as "true" leukonychia, this is the most common form of leukonychia, in which small white spots appear on the nails. Picking and biting of the nails are a prominent cause in young children and nail biters. Besides parakeratosis, air that is trapped between the cells may also cause this appearance. It is also caused by trauma. In most cases, when white spots appear on a single or a couple of fingernails or toenails, the most common cause is injury to the base (matrix) of the nail. When this is the case, white spots disappear after around eight months, which is the amount of time the nails take to regrow completely. The pattern and number of spots may change as the nail grows.

Longitudinal leukonychia
Longitudinal leukonychia is far less common and features smaller 1mm white longitudinal lines visible under the nail plate and perpendicular to the nail bed. It may be associated with Darier's disease.

Apparent leukonychia
Apparent leukonychia is caused by changes in the nail bed that are visible through the nail plate. A number of patterns of apparent leukoncychia, including Terry's nails, half-and-half (Lindsay's) nails, and Muehrke's lines, have been classically characterized.

Cause
It is harmless and most commonly caused by minor injuries, such as nail biting, or may occur while the nail is growing. It also may be caused by calcium deficiency. Leukonychia occurs most commonly in healthy individuals, and is unrelated to any known nutritional or physiological deficiency. When caused by injury the marks will disappear as the nail grows outwards. While there are various sources that link dietary needs or vitamin deficiency with recurrent leukonychia, this notion has been challenged by some medical researchers.

Other possible reasons for this problem can be linked to:

 * Arsenic poisoning
 * Lead poisoning
 * Pneumonia
 * Heart disease
 * Kidney failure
 * Ill health
 * Hypoalbuminemia
 * Vitamin deficiency
 * Ulcerative colitis
 * Liver cirrhosis
 * Psychogenic stresses
 * Onychophagia
 * Trauma injury
 * Occupational trauma
 * Zinc deficiency
 * Protein deficiency
 * Psoriasis
 * Eczema
 * Iron deficiency

Diagnosis
A doctor will take a thorough medical history, and may take blood tests as well as examining liver and kidney function. Intracellular (red blood cell) assays are more sensitive than tests for plasma levels.

Treatment
Improvements have been reported from treating malnutrition associated with zinc deficiency and other minerals.

title: Leukonychia


text:
The White-Haired Girl

The White-Haired Girl is a Chinese contemporary classical opera by Yan Jinxuan to a Chinese libretto by He Jingzhi and Ding Yi. It was later adapted to a ballet, a Peking opera, and a film. The ballet adaptation was regarded as a revolutionary opera.

The folklore of the white-haired girl is believed to have spread widely in the areas occupied by the Communist Party of Northern China since the late 1930s. Many years later, a literary work was created in the liberated area controlled by the Chinese Communist Party in the late 1940s. The film was made in 1950 and the first Peking opera performance was in 1958. The first ballet performance was by Shanghai Dance Academy, Shanghai in 1965. It has also been performed by the noted soprano Guo Lanying.

The opera is based on legends circulating in the border region of Shanxi, Chahar and Hebei, describing the misery suffered by local peasantry, particularly the misery of the female members. The stories are based on real-life stories of no fewer than half a dozen women, in a time frame stretching from the late Qing dynasty to the 1920s or 1930s. The political overtone and historical background when it was created means that communist propaganda was added in inevitably, and the most obvious example was the added portion of happy ending and the protagonists joining the communist force, which did not happen in real life.

Along with Red Detachment of Women, the ballet is regarded as one of the classics of revolutionary China, and its music is familiar to almost everyone who grew up during the 1960s. It is one of the Eight Model Operas approved by Jiang Qing during the Cultural Revolution.The White-Haired Girl also intentionally showed the political meaning by creating a figure of diligent and beautiful country woman who was under the oppression of the evil landowner. As it aroused an emotion against the "old ruling class", it satisfied "moral ideas of the left-wing literary and artistic intelligence, the popular social and cultural values of rural and urban audiences". The film presented "the traditional Chinese agricultural lifecycle", where the poor lived in poverty no matter how hard they tried. It implied a revolution to overthrown the unchanging social structure. As the mise-en-scene of the film, it used a fair amount of medium-shot to define the character through facial expressions.

Characters and cast
Yang Xier

The daughter of a tenant farmer Yang Bailao and the fiancée of Wang Dachun. She was forced to sell to the landlord Huang Shiren to repay his father's debt. After suffering humiliation and mistreatment from the landlord and the landlord's mother, Xier eventually escaped and hid in a mountain temple while surviving on offerings. Due to lack of sunlight and little salt intake, her skin and hair gradually turned white causing local villagers to mistakenly perceive her as a powerful white-haired goddess. In the end, Xier was found by Dachun and they reunited.

Performer: Tian Hua (b. 1928, Hebei, China)

Tian Hua is a well-known actress famous for her role of Xier. She received extensive learning from the Central Academy of Drama. She was nominated and received Hundred Flowers Awards, Golden Rooster Awards and Golden Phoenix Awards.

Huang Shiren

The landlord who forced Yang Bailao to sell Xier to repay debts. He abused and humiliated Xier and the other maids. After Xier escaped, he encountered white-haired Xier and recognized her as a reincarnation of a goddess who came to punish him for his mistreatment of Xier. Huang Shiren was eventually punished by the villagers.

Performer: Chen Qiang (1918-2012, Hebei, China)

Chen Qiang was a film and stage actor best known for his performances as antagonists in The Red Detachment of Women, The White Haired Girl and Devils on the Doorstep. His performance in The White Haired Girl gained the Special Recognition Award in 6th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival.

Wang Dachun

A farmer, a neighbor and fiancé of Xier. After Xier was taken away by the landlord, Dachun joined the Communists's Eighth Route Army and fought in the Anti-Japanese War. After his return from the war, he overthrew the landlord and distributed his farmland to peasants. In the end, he found Xier in the mountains and rejoined.

Performer: Li BaiWan (1926-2010)

Li BaiWan joined the Communists's Eighth Route Army at the age of 11.

Plot
(Based on the ballet version)

It is the eve of the Chinese Spring Festival. The peasant girl Xi'er from a village in Yanggezhuang, Hebei province is waiting for her father Yang Bailao to return home to celebrate the Spring Festival together. Her father, a tenant peasant hired under the despotic and usurious landlord Huang Shiren (who makes a fortune as a loan shark exploiting peasants), has been force to run away from home to avoid the debt collectors. Xi'er's girl friends come to bring her paper cuttings with which they decorate the windows. After the girls leave, Xi'er's fiancé, Wang Dachun, comes to give two catties of wheat flour to Xi'er so that she can make jiaozis. In turn, Xi'er gives Dachun a new sickle as a gift.

Xi'er's father secretly returns home at dusk, with no gift other than a red ribbon to tie to his daughter's hair for the festivity of the holiday. The landlord catches wind of his return and will not let them have a peaceful and happy Spring Festival, and the debt collector comes for the high rent which Yang has been unable to pay. They kill Yang Bailao, and take away Xi'er by force as his concubine. Dachun and other villagers come on the scene, and Dachun wants to go to the landlord's residence to fight for justice but is stopped by Zhao Dashu (Uncle Zhao) who, instead, instruct Dachun and other young people to join the Eighth Route Army.

At the home of the landlord, Xi'er is forced to work day and night as a slave and is exhausted. Zhang Ershen (literally Second Aunt Zhang), an elderly maid of the landlord, is very sympathetic of Xi'er. Xi'er dozes off while trying to take a short break. The mother of the landlord comes on the scene and, with her hairpin, pokes Xi'er's face to wake her up. The landlord mother then orders Xi'er to prepare her a lotus seed soup. When the soup is served, the landlord mother, displeased with the taste, pours the still-boiling soup on Xi'er's face. Outraged by the pain and anger, Xi'er picks up the whip that the landlord uses to punish her, and beats up the landlord mother. The landlord mother falls and crawls on the floor attempting to flee while Xi'er continues to whip her with her utmost strength. Xi'er gets her vengeance, but she is subsequently locked up by the landlord.

One day, the landlord leaves his overcoat in the living room and in the pocket of the overcoat is the key to Xi'er's cell. Zhang Ershen is determined to help Xi'er. She takes the key and opens the door for Xi'er, who flees. Shortly, the landlord finds Xi'er missing, and sends his accomplice, Mu Renzhi, and other men to chase her. Xi'er comes to a river that stops her. She takes off a shoe and leaves it at the river side, and then hides in the bush. Mu Renzhi and his men find the shoe and assume that Xi'er has drowned herself in the river, and they report to the landlord as such.

Xi'er escapes to the mountains, and in the following years, she lives in a cave, gathers offerings for food from a nearby temple. She fights attacking wolves and other beasts. In time, her hair turns white from suffering the elements.

On one stormy night, the landlord Huang Shiren and several of his other servants come to the temple to worship and provide offerings. Their trip is stopped by the thunderstorm. Coincidentally Xi'er is now in the temple too, and by the light of a flash of lightning, the landlord sees her — with her long white hair and shabby clothes that have been weathered to nearly white. He thinks it is the reincarnation of a goddess who has come to punish him for his mistreatment of Xi'er and other despotisms. He is so frightened that he is paralyzed with fear. Xi'er recognizes that it is her arch-enemy and seizes the opportunity to take further revenge. She picks up the brass incense burner and hurls it against the landlord. The landlord and his gang flee.

Meanwhile, her fiancé, Wang Dachun, has joined the Eighth Route Army and fought the Japanese invaders. Now he returns with his army to overthrow the rule of the imperialist Japanese and the landlord. They distribute his farmland to the peasants. Zhang Ershen tells the story of Xi'er, and they decide to look for her in the mountains. Wang Dachun finally finds her in the cave with her hair turned white. They reunite and rejoice. The final ending of the film fulfilled the audience's revenge to the "evil landlord". The landlord accepted the punishment from the angry people under the judgment of the CCP.

History and evolution
In 1944, under the direction of President Zhou Yang, some artists of The Lu Xun Academy of Art in Yan 'an produced an opera, "The White Haired Girl", based on the folk tales and legends of the "white-haired immortal" in 1940.

According to one of its original writers, He Jingzhi, the play "The White-haired girl" is based on a real-life story about a "white-haired goddess" in North Hebei Province in 1940s. The "White-haired goddess" is a peasant woman who lost her family lived in the wild like animals, who was then found by The Eighth Route Army and sent to the village. To commemorate the Seventh National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, the opera was first performed in Yan An in 1945, and was highly praised by the leadership of the Communist Party and achieved great success. Later, it was widely performed in the liberated area. The end of 1945 saw the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei version. In order to meet the needs of " national salvation to prevail over cultural enlightenment", the play has been continuously adapted into different versions.

In July 1947, Ding Yi, another opera co-author, made many changes and deletions to the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei version, mainly to cut pregnant Xi Er's hard life after escaping to the cave.

In 1950, the opera was further adapted into a new version by He Jingzhi. This revision followed Ding Yi's thought of deletion and modification, and also made major changes to the original play. These changes included some important parts of Xi Er's characters. At the same year, famous Japanese ballet dancer Mikiko Matsuyama and her husband Masao Shimizu came to China. They had watched The White-Haired Girl film and aimed to transfer the story into a ballet version. Five years later in Japan, Matsuyama played Xi’er in the ballet.

In 1958, Mikiko Matsuyama and her ballet troupe performed the ballet version of The White-Haired Girl. This was the first time that The White-Haired Girl has performed in a ballet.

Chinese ballet troupe performed the show in 1964. However, in the rehearsal stage, in order to better interpret the peasants, all ballet dancers lived with farmers in a small village to experience their lives.

From the 1940s to the 1970s, The White-Haired Girl had multiple stage and film versions.

In 2015, Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China followed Xi's speech, which was about the literature and arts in China, and launched a revival tour of The White-Haired Girl. Under Peng Liyuan's artistic direction, the performance began in Yan’an. The tour incorporated 3D visual effects and ended in Beijing in Mid-December 2015.

Film version
A film version released in 1950 coincided with the Land Reform Movement. The White-Haired Girl was re-released in the mid-1960s alongside new films intended support the Socialist Education Movement as "emphasis films".

Featuring the same basic plot and background from the opera and ballet, the film is adapted from the opera of the same title. It tells the story of Xier's escape into the mountains and forests after being raped by the landlord Huang Shiren. Her hair turns white, and she is rescued by Dachun later.

The biggest difference between the film and opera is form of expression. The movie abandoned some dance moves and songs, but it is more direct to show the story and theme, That make it easier for people to understand the theme, Through the tragic experiences of Yang Bailao and Xi'er's, father and daughter, this paper deeply reveals the sharp contradiction between the landlords and the peasants, angrily accuses the evils of the landlord class, warmly praises the Communist Party and the new society, vividly illustrates the theme of "the old society forces people into ghosts, and the new society turns ghosts into people", and points out the only way for the peasants to turn over and liberate.

The opera ballet more emphasize to Performance tension than the film, It is obvious that Opera Ballet are more ornamental, and test the actors skills.

In the context of Mao-era cinema, the film was part of a genre of redemptive melodramas which encouraged the audiences to "speak bitterness". Film versions of The White-Haired Girl used ghost story and horror movie aesthetics to move their audiences.

Differences among adaptations
The original hybrid, western-style geju opera was created by collaboration of composer Ma Ke and others in Yan'an's Lu Xun Art Academy in 1945. It differs from later adaptations in its depiction of superstition. In the original opera of 1945, Xi'er was caught by the local population, who believed she was a ghost and had power to inflict harm on people. To try to destroy her evil magical power, the local populace poured the boys' urine, the blood of a slain black dog, menstrual blood, and human and animal feces on her, something that was done in real life to at least one of the girls. Her suffering as a woman in a patriarchal society gradually became the suffering of the exploited and oppressed social class. Communists felt it was necessary to eradicate the superstition that was still deeply rooted in the minds of local populaces, so this barbaric act was accurately reflected in the opera, with Wang Dachun eventually stopping the mob after recognizing Xi'er, leading to the final happy ending. After the communist victory in China, this scene was deleted in later adaptations for fear of encouraging superstition and presenting a negative image of the working-class people.

In the 1950 film version, Xi'er's father was tricked and driven to suicide by Huang Shiren. Xi'er was raped by Huang Shiren and became pregnant. When Huang Shiren got married, he and his mother decided to sell Xi'er to a brothel. With Auntie Yang's help, Xi'er ran away to the mountains and gave birth to a still-born baby. The suffering of Xi'er reflected the contradiction between the poor peasants and the landlord class in the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, which proved that only the people's revolution led by the Communist Party could remove the feudalism and free the peasants who had the same fate as Xi'er.

Music
"White-haired Girl" is a new national opera that combines poetry, song and dance. First, the structure of the opera plot, the division of the traditional Chinese opera, the scene changes, diverse and flexible. Secondly, the language of opera inherits the fine tradition of singing and singing in Chinese opera. Third, opera music uses northern folk songs and traditional opera music as materials and creates them. It also absorbs some expressions of Western opera music and has a unique national flavor. Fourth, opera performance, learning the traditional Chinese opera performance methods, paying due attention to dance figure and chanting rhythm, at the same time, also learning how to read the lines of the drama, both beautiful and natural, close to life. This play uses the tunes of northern folk music, absorbs drama music, and draws on the creation experience of Western European opera. Unlike other ballets, the music of The White-Haired Girl is more like that of a musical, i.e., it blends a large number of vocal passages, both solos on the part of Xi'er and choruses into the music. Because of their mellifluous melodies, these songs became very popular. The following is a partial list of these songs:

 * "Looking at the World"
 * "The Blowing North Wind"
 * "Tying the Red Ribbon"
 * "Suddenly the Day Turns to Night"
 * "Join the Eighth Route Army"
 * "Longing for the Rising Red Sun in the East"
 * "Big Red Dates for the Beloved"
 * "The Sun Is Out"
 * "Dear Chairman Mao"

Citation
Bai, Di. "Feminism in the Revolutionary Model Ballets The White-Haired Girl and The Red Detachment of Women." Art in Turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution 76 (1966): 188–202.

Bohnenkamp, Max L. Turning Ghosts into People: "The White-Haired Girl", Revolutionary Folklorism and the Politics of Aesthetics in Modern China, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014.

Jia, Bo. Gender, Women's Liberation, And The Nation-State: A Study of The Chinese Opera The White Haired Girl. New Brunswick, New Jersey. May, 2015.

Ll Jing, The Retrospect and Reflection of the New Yangge Movement's Research[J],Journal of Qinghai Normal University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition).Journal of Qinghai Normal University,Xining 810008,China. March, 2009.

Shan Yuan, Analysis of the Implied Connotation of the Text: White Hair Girl[J],Research of Chinese Literature, Xianning Teachers College, Xianning city, Hubei 437005,China. March,2002

Wilkinson, J. Norman. "‘The White-Haired Girl’: From ‘Yangko’ to Revolutionary Modern Ballet." Educational Theatre Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, 1974, pp. 164–74. Crossref, doi:10.2307/3206632.

Wu Hanyue, "An Analysis of the Creation Background of the Opera The White-Haired Girl", Song of Yellow River, China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House, December 2020, p173.

Yin Jiangyan, " Study on the value of Ideological and Political Education in literary and artistic works ——Red classic opera " the white-haired girl" as the center", Hunan University of Science and Technology, China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House, June 2018.

"Chinese Opera Music Album: The White Haired Girl by Various Artists." Apple Music, China Record Corporation, 31 Dec. 2002, music.apple.com/us/album/chinese-opera-music-album-the-white-haired-girl/111883716.

Wang Bin and Shui Hua, "The White Haired Girl" Changchun Film Studio, 1950

新浪娱乐. "第30届大众电影百花奖获奖名单." 新浪娱乐, 新浪娱乐, 16 Oct. 2010, ent.sina.com.cn/m/c/2010-10-16/11193114573.shtml.

中国电影表演艺术学会. "第十二届表演艺术学会奖金凤凰奖 - 终身成就奖." 中国电影表演艺术学会, 中国电影表演艺术学会, www.1985byxh.com/awards12_chengjiu.html.

中国电影家协会. "第一届中国电影金鸡奖获奖及提名名单（1981）." 中国电影家协会, 中国电影家协会, www.cfa1949.com/pjbj/jjj/jjljhjmd/.

腾讯娱乐. 陈佩斯父亲陈强去世 生前主演《白毛女》成名, 腾讯娱乐, 27 June 2012, ent.qq.com/a/20120627/000035.htm.

释凡. "著名表演艺术家陈强生前十大经典角色." 陈强十大经典影视角色, 网易娱乐, ent.163.com/special/chenqiangyingshijuesejingdian/.

title: The White-Haired Girl


text:
Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire

This is a list of people who have served as Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. Since 1689, all the Lord Lieutenants have also been Custos Rotulorum of Derbyshire.

 * Francis Hastings, 2nd Earl of Huntingdon
 * George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury 3 July 1585 – 18 November 1590
 * Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury 1590/1 – 8 May 1616
 * vacant
 * William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire 4 May 1619 – 3 March 1626 jointly with
 * William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire 4 May 1619 – 20 June 1628
 * William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Newcastle 14 July 1628 – 13 November 1638
 * William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire 13 November 1638 – 1684
 * Robert Leke, 3rd Earl of Scarsdale 15 January 1685 – 1687
 * Theophilus Hastings, 7th Earl of Huntingdon 23 December 1687 – 1688
 * William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire 17 May 1689 – 18 August 1707
 * William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire 6 November 1707 – 1710
 * Nicholas Leke, 4th Earl of Scarsdale 5 September 1711 – 1714
 * William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire 15 October 1714 – 4 June 1729
 * William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire 31 October 1729 – 5 December 1755
 * William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire 21 January 1756 – 1764
 * John Manners, Marquess of Granby 23 June 1764 – 1766
 * Lord George Cavendish 17 June 1766 – 1782
 * William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire 2 July 1782 – 29 July 1811
 * William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire 27 August 1811 – 18 January 1858
 * William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire 20 February 1858 – 21 December 1891
 * Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire 12 February 1892 – 24 March 1908
 * Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire 7 July 1908 – 6 May 1938
 * Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire 21 June 1938 – 26 November 1950
 * Sir Ian Peter Andrew Munro Walker-Okeover, 3rd Baronet 12 June 1951 – 1977
 * Sir Peter Hilton 31 January 1978 – 30 June 1994
 * Sir John Knollys Bather 1 July 1994 – 2009
 * William Tucker 2009 - 2020
 * Elizabeth Fothergill 2020–present

Deputy lieutenants
A deputy lieutenant of Derbyshire is commissioned by the Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. Deputy lieutenants support the work of the lord-lieutenant. There can be several deputy lieutenants at any time, depending on the population of the county. Their appointment does not terminate with the changing of the lord-lieutenant, but they usually retire at age 75.

19th Century

 * John Broadhurst

title: Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire


text:
The Dunwich Horror

"The Dunwich Horror" is a horror novella by American writer H. P. Lovecraft. Written in 1928, it was first published in the April 1929 issue of Weird Tales (pp. 481–508). It takes place in Dunwich, a fictional town in Massachusetts. It is considered one of the core stories of the Cthulhu Mythos.

Plot
In the desolate, decrepit Massachusetts village of Dunwich, Wilbur Whateley is the hideous son of Lavinia Whateley, a deformed and unstable albino, and an unknown father. Strange events surround Wilbur's birth and precocious development; he matures at an abnormal rate, reaching manhood within a decade. Locals shun him and his family, and animals fear and despise him due to his repellent appearance and an unnatural, inhuman odor emanating from his body. All the while his grandfather, a sorcerer called only Old Whateley, indoctrinates him into certain dark rituals and the study of witchcraft. Various locals grow suspicious after Old Whateley buys more and more cattle, yet the number of his herd never increases and the cattle in his field become mysteriously afflicted with severe open wounds.

Wilbur and Old Whateley have sequestered an unseen entity at their farmhouse; this entity is connected somehow to a being known as Yog-Sothoth, which is Wilbur's father. Year by year, the entity grows to monstrous proportions, requiring the two men to make frequent modifications to the farmhouse. People begin to notice a trend of cattle mysteriously disappearing. Old Whateley eventually dies, and Wilbur's mother Lavinia disappears soon after. The colossal entity eventually occupies the entire interior of the farmhouse.

Wilbur ventures to Miskatonic University in Arkham to procure their copy of the Necronomicon – Miskatonic's library is one of only a handful in the world to stock an original. The Necronomicon has spells that Wilbur can use to summon the Old Ones, but his family's copy is damaged and lacks the page he needs to open the "door". When the librarian, Dr. Henry Armitage, refuses to release the university's copy to him (and, by sending warnings to other libraries, thwarts Wilbur's efforts to consult their copies), Wilbur breaks into the library under the cover of night to steal it. A guard dog, maddened by Wilbur's alien body odor, attacks with unusual ferocity and kills him. When Armitage and two other professors, Warren Rice and Francis Morgan, arrive on the scene, they see Wilbur's semi-human corpse before it melts completely, leaving no evidence.

With Wilbur dead, no one attends to the mysterious presence growing in the Whateley farmhouse. Early one morning, the farmhouse explodes, and the thing, a towering, invisible monster, rampages across Dunwich, leaving huge prints the size of tree trunks. The monster eventually makes forays into inhabited areas. The invisible creature terrorizes Dunwich for several days, killing two families and several policemen, until Armitage, Rice, and Morgan arrive with the knowledge and weapons needed to kill it. The use of a magic powder renders the monster visible just long enough to send one of the crew into shock. It babbles in an alien tongue, then screams for help from its father Yog-Sothoth in English just before the spell destroys it, leaving a massive burned area. In the end, its nature is revealed: it was Wilbur's twin brother, but it "looked more like the father than he [Wilbur] did."

Characters

 * Old Whateley
 * Lavinia Whateley's "aged and half-insane father, about whom the most frightful tales of magic had been whispered in his youth". He has a large collection of "rotting ancient books and parts of books" which he uses to "instruct and catechise" his grandson Wilbur. He dies of natural causes on August 2, 1924. Whateley was given no certain first name by Lovecraft, although Fungi from Yuggoth mentions a John Whateley. According to S.T. Joshi, "It is not certain where Lovecraft got the name Whateley," but there is a small town called Whately in northwestern Massachusetts near the Mohawk Trail, which Lovecraft hiked several times, including in the summer of 1928. Robert M. Price's short story "Wilbur Whateley Waiting" emphasizes the obvious pun in the name.

 * Lavinia Whateley
 * Born circa 1878, Lavinia Whateley is the spinster daughter of Old Whateley whose mother met an "unexplained death by violence" when Lavinia was 12. She is described as a somewhat deformed, unattractive albino woman...a lone creature given to wandering amidst thunderstorms in the hills and trying to read the great odorous books which her father had inherited through two centuries of Whateleys...She had never been to school, but was filled with disjointed scraps of ancient lore that Old Whateley had taught her...Isolated among strange influences, Lavinia was fond of wild and grandiose day-dreams and singular occupations. Elsewhere, she is called "slatternly [and] crinkly-haired". In 1913, she gave birth to Wilbur Whateley by an unknown father, later revealed to be Yog-Sothoth. On Halloween night in 1926, she disappeared under mysterious circumstances, presumably killed or sacrificed by her son.

 * Wilbur Whateley
 * Born February 2, 1913 at 5 a.m. to Lavinia Whateley and Yog-Sothoth. Described as a "dark, goatish-looking infant" —neighbors refer to him as "Lavinny's black brat" —he shows extreme precocity: "Within three months of his birth, he had attained a size and muscular power not usually found in infants under a full year of age...At seven months, he began to walk unassisted," and he "commenced to talk...at the age of only eleven months." At three years of age, "he looked like a boy of ten," while at four and a half, he "looked like a lad of fifteen. His lips and cheeks were fuzzy with a coarse dark down, and his voice had begun to break." "Though he shared his mother's and grandfather's chinlessness, his firm and precociously shaped nose united with the expression of his large, dark, almost Latin eyes to give him an air of...well-nigh preternatural intelligence," Lovecraft writes, though at the same time he is "exceedingly ugly...there being something almost goatish or animalistic about his thick lips, large-pored, yellowish skin, coarse crinkly hair, and oddly elongated ears."

 * He dies at the age of fifteen after being mauled by a guard dog while breaking into the Miskatonic library on August 3, 1928. His death scene allows Lovecraft to provide a detailed description of Wilbur's partly nonhuman anatomy: "The thing that lay half-bent on its side in a foetid pool of greenish-yellow ichor and tarry stickiness was almost nine feet tall, and the dog had torn off all the clothing and some of the skin...It was partly human, beyond a doubt, with very manlike hands and head, and the goatish, chinless face had the stamp of the Whateleys upon it. But the torso and lower parts of the body were teratologically fabulous, so that only generous clothing could ever have enabled it to walk on earth unchallenged or uneradicated. Above the waist it was semi-anthropomorphic; though its chest...had the leathery, reticulated hide of a crocodile or alligator. The back was piebald with yellow and black, and dimly suggested the squamous covering of certain snakes. Below the waist, though, it was the worst; for here all human resemblance left off and sheer phantasy began. The skin was thickly covered with coarse black fur, and from the abdomen a score of long greenish-grey tentacles with red sucking mouths protruded limply. Their arrangement was odd, and seemed to follow the symmetries of some cosmic geometry unknown to earth or the solar system. On each of the hips, deep set in a kind of pinkish, ciliated orbit, was what seemed to be a rudimentary eye; whilst in lieu of a tail there depended a kind of trunk or feeler with purple annular markings, and with many evidences of being an undeveloped mouth or throat. The limbs, save for their black fur, roughly resembled the hind legs of prehistoric earth's giant saurians, and terminated in ridgy-veined pads that were neither hooves nor claws."

 * This death scene bears a marked resemblance to that of Jervase Cradock, a similarly half-human character in Arthur Machen's "The Novel of the Black Seal": "Something pushed out from the body there on the floor, and stretched forth, a slimy, wavering tentacle," Machen writes. Will Murray notes that the goatish, partly reptilian Wilbur Whateley resembles a chimera, a mythological creature referred to in Charles Lamb's epigraph to "The Dunwich Horror". Robert M. Price points out that Wilbur Whateley is in some respects an autobiographical figure for Lovecraft: "Wilbur's being raised by a grandfather instead of a father, his home education from his grandfather's library, his insane mother, his stigma of ugliness (in Lovecraft's case untrue, but a self-image imposed on him by his mother), and his sense of being an outsider all echo Lovecraft himself."

 * Henry Armitage
 * The head librarian at Miskatonic University. As a young man, he graduated from Miskatonic in 1881 and went on to obtain his doctorate from Princeton University and his doctor of letters at Johns Hopkins University.  Lovecraft noted that while writing "The Dunwich Horror", "[I] found myself identifying with one of the characters (an aged scholar who finally combats the menace) toward the end".

 * Francis Morgan
 * Professor of Medicine and Comparative Anatomy (or Archaeology) at Miskatonic University. The story refers to him as "lean" and "youngish". In Fritz Leiber's "To Arkham and the Stars"—written in 1966 and apparently set at about that time—Morgan is described as "the sole living survivor of the brave trio who had slain the Dunwich Horror". According to Leiber, Morgan's "research in mescaline and LSD" produced "clever anti-hallucinogens" that were instrumental in curing Danforth's mental illness.

 * Warren Rice
 * Professor of Classical Languages at Miskatonic University. He is called "stocky" and "iron-grey".

Geographical
In a letter to August Derleth, Lovecraft wrote that "The Dunwich Horror" "takes place amongst the wild domed hills of the upper Miskatonic Valley, far northwest of Arkham, and is based on several New England legends – one of which I heard only last month during my sojourn in Wilbraham," a town east of Springfield, Massachusetts. One such legend is the notion that whippoorwills can capture the departing soul.

In another letter, Lovecraft wrote that Dunwich is "a vague echo of the decadent Massachusetts countryside around Springfield, Massachusetts – say Wilbraham, Monson and Hampden." Robert M. Price notes that "much of the physical description of the Dunwich countryside is a faithful sketch of Wilbraham," citing a passage from a letter from Lovecraft to Zealia Bishop that "sounds like a passage from 'The Dunwich Horror' itself":

"When the road dips again there are stretches of marshland that one instinctively dislikes, and indeed almost fears at evening when unseen whippoorwills chatter and the fireflies come out in abnormal profusion to dance to the raucous, creepily insistent rhythms of stridently piping bullfrogs."

The physical model for Dunwich's Sentinel Hill is thought to be Wilbraham Mountain near Wilbraham.

Some researchers have pointed out the story's apparent connections to another Massachusetts region: the area around Athol and points south, in the north-central part of the state (which is where Lovecraft indicates that Dunwich is located). It has been suggested that the name Dunwich was inspired by the town of Greenwich, which was deliberately flooded to create the Quabbin Reservoir, although Greenwich and the nearby towns of Dana, Enfield and Prescott actually were not submerged until 1938. Donald R. Burleson points out that several names included in the story—including Bishop, Frye, Sawyer, Rice and Morgan—are either prominent Athol names or have a connection to the town's history, however Rice is also the name of a prominent Wilbraham family as well.

Athol's Sentinel Elm Farm seems to be the source for the name Sentinel Hill. The Bear's Den mentioned in the story resembles an actual cave of the same name visited by Lovecraft in North New Salem, southwest of Athol. (New Salem, like Dunwich, was founded by settlers from Salem—though in 1737, not 1692. )

The book Myths and Legends of Our Own Land (1896), by Charles M. Skinner, mentions a "Devil's Hop Yard" near Haddam, Connecticut as a gathering place for witches. The book, which Lovecraft seems to have read, also describes noises emanating from the earth near Moodus, Connecticut, which are similar to the Dunwich sounds decried by Rev. Abijah Hoadley.

Literary
Lovecraft's main literary sources for "The Dunwich Horror" are the stories of Welsh horror writer Arthur Machen, particularly "The Great God Pan" (mentioned in the text of "The Dunwich Horror") and "The Novel of the Black Seal". Both Machen stories concern individuals whose death throes reveal them to be only half-human in their parentage. According to Robert M. Price, "'The Dunwich Horror' is in every sense an homage to Machen and even a pastiche. There is little in Lovecraft's story that does not come directly out of Machen's fiction." As one example similarity, both Wilbur and Helen are the child of an invisible god and a human female, and both of them after dying quickly turned into black liquid.

Another source that has been suggested is "The Thing in the Woods", by Margery Williams, which is also about two brothers living in the woods, neither of them quite human and one of them less human than the other.

The name Dunwich itself may come from Machen's The Terror, where the name refers to an English town where the titular entity is seen hovering as "a black cloud with sparks of fire in it". Lovecraft also takes Wilbur Whateley's occult terms "Aklo" and "Voorish" from Machen's "The White People".

Lovecraft also seems to have found inspiration in Anthony M. Rud's story "Ooze" (published in Weird Tales, March 1923), which also involved a monster being secretly kept and fed in a house that it subsequently bursts out of and destroys.

The tracks of Wilbur's brother recall those seen in Algernon Blackwood's "The Wendigo", one of Lovecraft's favorite horror stories. Ambrose Bierce's story "The Damned Thing" also involves a monster invisible to human eyes.

Reception
Lovecraft took pride in "The Dunwich Horror", calling it "so fiendish that [Weird Tales editor] Farnsworth Wright may not dare to print it." Wright, however, snapped it up, sending Lovecraft a check for $240, the largest single payment for his fiction he had received up to that point.

Kingsley Amis praised "The Dunwich Horror" in New Maps of Hell, listing it as one of Lovecraft's tales that "achieve a memorable nastiness". Lovecraft biographer Lin Carter calls the story "an excellent tale...A mood of tension and gathering horror permeates the story, which culminates in a shattering climax". In his list of "The 13 Most Terrifying Horror Stories", T.E.D. Klein placed "The Dunwich Horror" at number four. Robert M. Price declares that "among the tales of H. P. Lovecraft, 'The Dunwich Horror' remains my favorite." S.T. Joshi, on the other hand, regarded "Dunwich" as "simply an aesthetic mistake on Lovecraft's part", citing its "stock good-versus-evil scenario". However, he has also noted that it is "richly atmospheric."

Cthulhu Mythos
Although Lovecraft first mentioned Yog-Sothoth in the novel The Case of Charles Dexter Ward, it was in "The Dunwich Horror" that he introduced the entity as one of his extra-dimensional Outer Gods. It is also the tale in which the Necronomicon makes the most significant appearance, and the longest direct quote from it appears in the text. Many of the other standards of the Cthulhu Mythos, such as Miskatonic University, Arkham, and Dunwich, also form integral parts of the tale.

A librarian named Armitage appears in Don Webb's short story "To Mars and Providence", an alternate history where a juvenile Lovecraft is influenced by the events of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds.

The biannual NecronomiCon Providence has a Dr. Henry Armitage Memorial Scholarship Symposium, and its papers are printed by Hippocampus Press.

Film and television

 * A film version, The Dunwich Horror, was released in 1970. It starred Dean Stockwell as Wilbur Whateley, Ed Begley as Henry Armitage and Sandra Dee. Les Baxter composed the soundtrack. It was the final film for Begley, who died in April of that year.
 * Another film version of the tale starring Jeffrey Combs as Wilbur Whately and directed by Leigh Scott was first broadcast in October 2009 on SyFy. Dean Stockwell also stars in this version, this time as Dr. Henry Armitage. The working title was The Darkest Evil.
 * "The Dunwich Horror", along with "The Picture in the House" and "The Festival", were adapted into short claymation films, and released by Toei Animation as a DVD compilation called H.P. Lovecraft's The Dunwich Horror and Other Stories (H・P・ラヴクラフトのダニッチ・ホラー　その他の物語) in 2007.
 * A reimagined adaptation directed by Richard Griffin was released in 2008, titled Beyond the Dunwich Horror starring Michael Reed as Kenneth Crawford, Lynn Lowry as Margo Warren and Timmy DeCoff as Young Wilber Whateley.
 * In a Q&A session upon the release of Color Out of Space in 2020, director Richard Stanley revealed he was writing an adaptation that would serve as the second entry in a Lovecraft trilogy of film adaptations. However, it is unknown whether this adaptation will proceed due to film company SpectreVision cutting ties with Stanley after allegations of domestic violence. On August 16, 2022, Stanley stated that he intends to still go through with making his modern remake of The Dunwich Horror, having prepared a script for it, on the Here's the Thing with Alec Baldwin podcast. He also asked Baldwin to read the script for the role of Dr. Armitage which Baldwin expressed interest in.

Stage

 * In 2013, The company (a Yorkshire amateur dramatics society) produced a stage play adaptation of "The Dunwich Horror" at the Drama Studio at the University of Sheffield.

Audio

 * The radio drama Suspense adapted "The Dunwich Horror", starring Academy Award winner Ronald Colman as Henry Armitage, and aired originally on November 1, 1945.
 * David MacCallum read the story for a 1976 audio LP simply entitled 'The Dunwich Horror' released by Caedmon Audio.
 * The H.P. Lovecraft Historical Society adapted the story in 2008 as an audio drama titled Dark Adventure Radio Theatre: The Dunwich Horror, similar to their earlier adaptation of At the Mountains of Madness.
 * The story was adapted into an "audio horror movie" in 2010 by Colin Edwards and the sound company Savalas. The recording is essentially an audio drama recorded in 5.1 Surround Sound to create a movie without pictures. It premiered at the Filmhouse cinema in Edinburgh on 23 June 2010 as part of the 64th Edinburgh International Film Festival. Director/writer Colin Edwards was in attendance along with cast members Greg Hemphill, Innes Smith and Vivien Taylor and sound designer Kahl Henderson.
 * In 2011, Julie Hoverson, through her audio production company 19 Nocturne Boulevard, released an adaptation of "The Dunwich Horror" in a four-part miniseries.

Graphic novel and comics

 * Comics artist Alberto Breccia adapted the story in 1974. It was published in Heavy Metal October 1979 issue.
 * Comics artist John Coulthart started to adapt the story in 1989. The unfinished story was published in 1999.
 * In 2011, IDW Publishing began publishing a four-issue limited adaptation of "The Dunwich Horror" by Bram Stoker Award-winning author Joe R. Lansdale and artist Peter Bergting.
 * In 2016, cartoonist and illustrator Ben Granoff published a graphic novel adaptation.
 * Gou Tanabe adapted the story into a three-volume manga in 2021.
 * In 2022 french illustrator Francois Baranger published a graphic novel adaptation.

Short story collection
The Dunwich Horror and Others is the title of a collection of H. P. Lovecraft short stories published by Arkham House, containing what August Derleth considered to be the best of Lovecraft's shorter fiction. Originally published in 1963, the 6th printing in 1985 included extensive corrections by S. T. Joshi in order to produce the definitive edition of Lovecraft's works. The collection has an introduction by Robert Bloch, titled "Heritage of Horror", reprinted from the 1982 Ballantine collection, Blood Curdling Tales of Supernatural Horror: The Best of H.P. Lovecraft.

The stories included in The Dunwich Horror and Others are "In the Vault", "Pickman's Model", "The Rats in the Walls", "The Outsider", "The Colour Out of Space", "The Music of Erich Zann", "The Haunter of the Dark", "The Picture in the House", "The Call of Cthulhu", "The Dunwich Horror", "Cool Air", "The Whisperer in Darkness", "The Terrible Old Man", "The Thing on the Doorstep", "The Shadow Over Innsmouth", and "The Shadow Out of Time".

Influence

 * The Leviathan arc of the Gothic soap opera Dark Shadows was heavily influenced by "The Dunwich Horror", as well as other Lovecraft works. The character of Jebez "Jeb" Hawkes is the essence of the Leviathan leader who matures at a rapid rate and transforms into an invisible murderous creature.
 * Neil Gaiman's short story "I, Cthulhu" features a human slave/biographer referred to only as Whateley.
 * Stoner/doom metal band Electric Wizard released a song on their 2007 album, Witchcult Today, entitled "Dunwich", based around the short story. "We Hate You", from their 2000 album, Dopethrone, contains sound clips from the film.
 * Rock band The Darkest of the Hillside Thickets, known for their Lovecraftian themes, released a song called "Going Down to Dunwich" which follows the plot of the story and contains audio clips from the 1970 film version.
 * Lucio Fulci's 1980 movie City of the Living Dead is set in a town named Dunwich.
 * On his third album, Medallion Animal Carpet, Bob Drake and a collaborator retell the story of "The Dunwich Horror" under the title "Dunwich Confidential".
 * The 2008 video game Fallout 3 features a location named The Dunwich Building, formerly home to a company called Dunwich Borers LLC, with a mini-story of a man searching for his father, who is in possession of an "old, bloodstained book made of weird leather". The man is found in front of an obelisk under the building, driven insane and turned into a feral ghoul. The building itself is full of various supernatural phenomena such as flashbacks to the past. A later downloadable add-on, Point Lookout, features a quest involving a book with a similar purpose as the Necronomicon and an equally strange name, the Krivbeknih, which can be destroyed in the basement of the Dunwich Building.
 * The 2015 video game Fallout 4, sequel to Fallout 3 and set in Massachusetts, features a location with similar paranormal activity called Dunwich Borers, which was a quarry owned by Dunwich Borers LLC.
 * "Boojum", a short story by Elizabeth Bear and Sarah Monette, features a living, sentient space ship (a Boojum) named "Lavinia Whateley" by her pirate crew.
 * Chiaki Konaka, scriptwriter of the 1995 cyberpunk series Armitage III, reported being influenced by this story when writing the series. Among other signs of influence are the character named Armitage, another character named Lavinia Whateley, and a location variously spelled as Dunwich or "Danich" Hill.
 * Doom metal band Iron Man's 2013 album South of the Earth contains the song "Half Face/Thy Brother's Keeper (Dunwich Pt. 2"), which is based on the story.
 * Japanese progressive metal band Ningen Isu recorded a song "Dunwich no Kai" (The Dunwich Horror) in their 1998 album Taihai Geijutsu-ten.
 * Harry Turtledove's book Nine Drowned Churches is set in Dunwich, England, which is similar to the town in "The Dunwich Horror", including the family names, and the protagonist is aware of the events of this story.
 * The board game Arkham Horror has an expansion known as The Dunwich Horror, in which both the grandfather named Wizard Whately and the Dunwich Horror appear.
 * In the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, a young girl with albinism named Lavinia Whateley appears in the Salem chapter, which features various motifs derived from Lovecraftian works which are played in concert with an alternative telling of the Salem witch trials. She is a close friend of another girl named Abigail Williams.

title: The Dunwich Horror


text:
Parental investment

Parental investment, in evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology, is any parental expenditure (e.g. time, energy, resources) that benefits offspring. Parental investment may be performed by both males and females (biparental care), females alone (exclusive maternal care) or males alone (exclusive paternal care). Care can be provided at any stage of the offspring's life, from pre-natal (e.g. egg guarding and incubation in birds, and placental nourishment in mammals) to post-natal (e.g. food provisioning and protection of offspring).

Parental investment theory, a term coined by Robert Trivers in 1972, predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates. This theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in sexual selection and mate preferences, throughout the animal kingdom and in humans.

History
In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. This introduced the concept of natural selection to the world, as well as related theories such as sexual selection. For the first time, evolutionary theory was used to explain why females are "coy" and males are "ardent" and compete with each other for females' attention. In 1930, Ronald Fisher wrote The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, in which he introduced the modern concept of parental investment, introduced the sexy son hypothesis, and introduced Fisher's principle. In 1948, Angus John Bateman published an influential study of fruit flies in which he concluded that because female gametes are more costly to produce than male gametes, the reproductive success of females was limited by the ability to produce ovum, and the reproductive success of males was limited by access to females. In 1972, Trivers continued this line of thinking with his proposal of parental investment theory, which describes how parental investment affects sexual behavior. He concludes that the sex that has higher parental investment will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the sex with lower investment will compete intra-sexually for mating opportunities. In 1974, Trivers extended parental investment theory to explain parent-offspring conflict, the conflict between investment that is optimal from the parent's versus the offspring's perspective.

Parental care
Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory. The earliest consideration of parental investment is given by Ronald Fisher in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, wherein Fisher argued that parental expenditure on both sexes of offspring should be equal. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of parental investment to include costs to any other component of parental fitness.

Male dunnocks tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in polyandrous or polygynandrous systems. They increase their own reproductive success through feeding the offspring in relation to their own access to the female throughout the mating period, which is generally a good predictor of paternity. This indiscriminative parental care by males is also observed in redlip blennies.

In some insects, male parental investment is given in the form of a nuptial gift. For instance, ornate moth females receive a spermatophore containing nutrients, sperm and defensive toxins from the male during copulation. This gift, which can account for up to 10% of the male's body mass, constitutes the total parental investment the male provides.

In some species, such as humans and many birds, the offspring are altricial and unable to fend for themselves for an extended period of time after birth. In these species, males invest more in their offspring than do the male parents of precocial species, since reproductive success would otherwise suffer.

The benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. For example, in the cichlid fish Tropheus moorii, a female has very high parental investment in her young because she mouthbroods the young and while mouthbrooding, all nourishment she takes in goes to feed the young and she effectively starves herself. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and faster than they would have been without it. These benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources. However, such benefits can come at the cost of parent's ability to reproduce in the future e.g., through increased risk of injury when defending offspring against predators, loss of mating opportunities whilst rearing offspring, and an increase in the time interval until the next reproduction.

A special case of parental investment is when young do need nourishment and protection, but the genetic parents do not actually contribute in the effort to raise their own offspring. For example, in Bombus terrestris, oftentimes sterile female workers will not reproduce on their own, but will raise their mother's brood instead. This is common in social Hymenoptera due to haplodiploidy, whereby males are haploid and females are diploid. This ensures that sisters are more related to each other than they ever would be to their own offspring, incentivizing them to help raise their mother's young over their own.

Overall, parents are selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will be likely to evolve when the benefits exceed the costs.

Parent-offspring conflict
Reproduction is costly. Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raising their young, and such expenditure may also be detrimental to their future condition, survival, and further reproductive output. However, such expenditure is typically beneficial to the offspring, since it enhances their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to parent-offspring conflict. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are substantially greater than the costs. Parents are equally related to all offspring, and so in order to optimize their fitness and chance of reproducing their genes, they should distribute their investment equally among current and future offspring. However, any single offspring is more related to themselves (they have 100% of their DNA in common with themselves) than they are to their siblings (siblings usually share 50% of their DNA), so it is best for the offspring's fitness if the parent(s) invest more in them. To optimize fitness, a parent would want to invest in each offspring equally, but each offspring would want a larger share of parental investment. The parent is selected to invest in the offspring up until the point at which investing in the current offspring is costlier than investing in future offspring.

In iteroparous species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offspring's demands against their own self-maintenance. This potential negative effect of parental care was explicitly formalized by Trivers in 1972, who originally defined the term parental investment to mean any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring. Penguins are a prime example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This behavior, one that does not necessarily benefit the individual, but the genetic code from which the individual arises, can be seen in the King Penguin. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, many of these behaviors appear mostly in parent-offspring relationships. While breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during this time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds.

It shows that these penguins initially show a trade-off of their own health, in hopes of increasing the survivorship of their egg. But there comes a point where the male penguin's costs become too high in comparison to the gain of a successful breeding season. Olof Olsson investigated the correlation between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, allowing him to remain at the egg for a longer period of time.

The males' sacrifice of their body weight and possible survivorship, in order to increase their offspring's chance of survival is a trade-off between current reproductive success and the parents' future survival. This trade-off makes sense with other examples of kin-based altruism and is a clear example of the use of altruism in an attempt to increase overall fitness of an individual's genetic material at the expense of the individual's future survival.

Maternal-offspring conflict in investment
The maternal-offspring conflict has also been studied in animals species and humans. One such case has been documented in the mid-1970s by ethologist Wulf Schiefenhövel. Eipo women of West New Guinea engage in a cultural practice in which they give birth just outside the village. Following the birth of their child, each woman weighed whether or not she should keep the child or leave the child in the brush nearby, inevitably ending in the death of the child. Likelihood of survival and availability of resources within the village were factors that played into this decision of whether or not to keep the baby. During one illustrated birth, the mother felt the child was too ill and would not survive, so she wrapped the child up, preparing to leave the child in the brush; however, upon seeing the child moving, the mother unwrapped the child and brought it into the village, demonstrating a shift of life and death. This conflict between the mother and the child resulted in detachment behaviors in Brazil, seen in Scheper-Hughes work as "many Alto babies remain[ed] not only unchristened but unnamed until they begin to walk or talk", or if a medical crisis arose and the baby needed an emergency baptism. This conflict between survival, both emotional and physical, prompted a shift in cultural practices, thus resulting in new forms of investment from the mother towards the child.

Alloparental care
Alloparental care also referred to as 'Allomothering,' is when a member of a community, apart from the biological parents of the infant, partake in offspring care provision. A range of behaviors fall under the term alloparental care, some of which are: carrying, feeding, watching over, protecting, and grooming. Through alloparental care stress on parents, especially the mother, can be reduced, therefore reducing the negative effects of the parent-offspring conflict on the mother. The apparent altruistic nature of the behavior may seem at odds with Darwin's theory of natural selection, as taking care of offspring which are not one's own would not increase one's direct fitness, while taking time, energy and resources away from raising one's own offspring. However, the behavior can be explained evolutionarily as increasing indirect fitness, as the offspring is likely to be non-descendent kin, therefore carrying some of the genetics of the alloparent.

Offspring and situation direction
Parental investment behavior enhances the chances of survival of offspring, and it does not require underlying mechanisms to be compatible with empathy applicable to adults, or situations involving unrelated offspring, and it does not require the offspring to reciprocate the altruistic behavior in any way. Parentally investing individuals are not more vulnerable to being exploited by other adults.

Trivers' parental investment theory
Parental investment as defined by Robert Trivers in 1972 is the investment in offspring by the parent that increases the offspring's chances of surviving and hence reproductive success at the expense of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring. A large parental investment largely decreases the parents' chances of investing in other offspring. Parental investment can be split into two main categories: mating investment and rearing investment. Mating investment consist of the sexual act and the sex cells invested. The rearing investment is the time and energy expended to raise the offspring after conception. In most species, the female's parental investment in both mating and rearing efforts greatly surpasses that of the male. In terms of sex cells (egg and sperms cells), the female's investment is typically a larger portion of both genetic material and overall virility, while typically males produce thousands of sperm cells on a daily basis.

Human parental investment
Human women have a fixed supply of around 400 ova, while sperm cells in men are supplied at a rate of twelve million per hour. Also, fertilization and gestation occur in women, investments which outweigh the man's investment of a single effective sperm cell. Furthermore, for women, one act of sexual intercourse could result in a 38-week commitment of human gestation and subsequent commitments related to rearing such as breastfeeding. From Trivers' theory of parental investment, several implications follow. The first implication is that women are often but not always the more investing sex. The fact that they are often the more investing sex leads to the second implication that evolution favors females who are more selective of their mates to ensure that intercourse would not result in unnecessary or wasteful costs. The third implication is that because women invest more and are essential for the reproductive success of their offspring, they are a valuable resource for men; as a result, males often compete for sexual access to females.

Males as the more investing sex
For many species the only type of male investment received is that of sex cells. In those terms, the female investment greatly exceeds that of male investment as previously mentioned. However, there are other ways in which males invest in their offspring. For example, the male can find food as in the example of balloon flies. He may find a safe environment for the female to feed or lay her eggs as exemplified in many birds.

He may also protect the young and provide them with opportunities to learn as young, as is the case with many wolves. Overall, the main role that males overtake is that of protection of the female and their young. That often can decrease the discrepancy of investment caused by the initial investment of sex cells. There are some species such as the Mormon cricket, pipefish seahorse and Panamanian poison arrow frog males invest more. Among the species where the male invests more, the male is also the pickier sex, placing higher demands on their selected female. For example, the female that they often choose usually contain 60% more eggs than rejected females.

This links Parental Investment Theory (PIT) with sexual selection: where parental investment is bigger for a male than a female, it is usually the female who competes for a mate, as shown by Phalaropidae and polyandrous bird species. In these species females are usually more aggressive, brightly colored, and larger than males, suggesting the more investing sex has more choice while selecting a mate compared to the sex engaged in intra-sexual selection.

Females as a valuable resource for males
The second prediction that follows from Trivers' theory is that the fact that females invest more heavily in offspring makes them a valuable resource for males as it ensures the survival of their offspring which is the driving force of natural selection. Therefore, the sex that invests less in offspring will compete among themselves to breed with the more heavily investing sex. In other words, males will compete for females. It has been argued that jealousy has developed to avert the risk of potential loss of parental investment in offspring.

If a male redirects his resources to another female it is a costly loss of time, energy and resources for her offspring. However, the risks for males are higher because although women invest more in their offspring, they have bigger maternity certainty because they themselves have carried out the child. However, males can never have 100% paternal certainty and therefore risk investing resources and time in offspring that is genetically unrelated. Evolutionary psychology views jealousy as an adaptive response to this problem.

Application of Trivers' theory in real life
Trivers' theory has been very influential as the predictions it makes correspond to differences in sexual behaviors of men and women, as demonstrated by a variety of research. Cross-cultural study from Buss (1989) shows that males are tuned into physical attractiveness as it signals youth and fertility and ensures male reproductive success, which is increased by copulating with as many fertile females as possible. Women on the other hand are tuned into resources provided by potential mates, as their reproductive success is increased by ensuring their offspring will survive, and one way they do so is by getting resources for them. Alternatively, another study shows that men are more promiscuous than women, giving further support to this theory. Clark and Hatfield found that 75% of men were willing to have sex with a female stranger when propositioned, compared to 0% of women. On the other hand, 50% of women agreed to a date with a male stranger. This suggests males seek short-term relationships, while women show a strong preference for long-term relationships.

However, these preferences (male promiscuity and female choosiness) can be explained in other ways. In Western cultures, male promiscuity is encouraged through the availability of pornographic magazines and videos targeted to the male audience. Alternatively, both Western and Eastern cultures discourage female promiscuity through social checks such as slut-shaming.

PIT (Parental Investment Theory) also explains patterns of sexual jealousy. Males are more likely to show a stress response when imagining their partners showing sexual infidelity (having sexual relations with someone else), and women showed more stress when imagining their partner being emotionally unfaithful (being in love with another woman). PIT explains this, as woman's sexual infidelity decreases the male's paternal certainty, thus he will show more stress due to fear of cuckoldry. On the other hand, the woman fears losing the resources her partner provides. If her partner has an emotional attachment to another female, it is likely that he will not invest into their offspring as much, thus a greater stress response is shown in this circumstance.

A heavy criticism of the theory comes from Thornhill and Palmer's analysis of it in A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion, as it seems to rationalise rape and sexual coercion of females. Thornhill and Palmer claimed rape is an evolved technique for obtaining mates in an environment where women choose mates. As PIT claims males seek to copulate with as many fertile females as possible, the choice women have could result in a negative effect on the male's reproductive success. If women did not choose their mates, Thornhill and Palmer claim there would be no rape. This ignores a variety of sociocultural factors, such as the fact that not only fertile females are raped – 34% of underage rape victims are under 12, which means they are not of fertile age, thus there is no evolutionary advantage in raping them. 14% of rapes in England are committed on males, who cannot increase a man's reproductive success as there will be no conception. Thus, what Thornhill and Palmer called an 'evolved machinery' might not be very advantageous.

Versus sexual strategies
Trivers' theory overlooks that women do have short-term relationships such as one-night stands, while not all men behave promiscuously. An alternative explanation to PIT (Parental Investment Theory) and mate preferences would be Buss and Schmitt's sexual strategies theory. SST argues that both sexes pursue short-term and long-term relationships, but seek different qualities in their short- and long-term partners. For a short-term relationship women will prefer an attractive partner, but in a long-term relationship they might be willing to trade-off that attractiveness for resources and commitment. On the other hand, men might be accepting of a sexually willing partner in a short-term relationships, but to ensure their paternal certainty they will seek a faithful partner instead.

International politics
Parental investment theory is not only used to explain evolutionary phenomena and human behavior but describes recurrences in international politics as well. Specifically, parental investment is referred to when describing competitive behaviors between states and determining aggressive nature of foreign policies. The parental investment hypothesis states that the size of coalitions and the physical strengths of its male members determines whether its activities with its foreign neighbors are aggressive or amiable. According to Trivers, men have had relatively low parental investments, and were therefore forced into fiercer competitive situations over limited reproductive resources. Sexual selection naturally took place and men have evolved to address its unique reproductive problems. Among other adaptations, men's psychology has also developed to directly aid men in such intra-sexual competition. One essential psychological developments involved decision-making of whether to take flight or actively engage in warfare with another rivalry group. The two main factors that men referred to in such situations were (1) whether the coalition they are a part of is larger than its opposition and (2) whether the men in their coalition have greater physical strength than the other. The male psychology conveyed in the ancient past has been passed on to modern times causing men to partly think and behave as they have during ancestral wars. According to this theory, leaders of international politics were not an exception. For example, the United States expected to win the Vietnam War due to its greater military capacity when compared to its enemies. Yet victory, according to the traditional rule of greater coalition size, did not come about because the U.S. did not take enough consideration to other factors, such as the perseverance of the local population.

The parental investment hypothesis contends that male physical strength of a coalition still determines the aggressiveness of modern conflicts between states. While this idea may seem unreasonable upon considering that male physical strength is one of the least determining aspects of today's warfare, human psychology has nevertheless evolved to operate on this basis. Moreover, although it may seem that mate seeking motivation is no longer a determinant, in modern wars sexuality, such as rape, is undeniably evident in conflicts even to this day.

Sexual selection
In many species, males can produce a larger number of offspring over the course of their lives by minimizing parental investment in favor of investing time impregnating any reproductive-age female who is fertile. In contrast, a female can have a much smaller number of offspring during her reproductive life, partly due to higher obligate parental investment. Females will be more selective ("choosy") of mates than males will be, choosing males with good fitness (e.g., genes, high status, resources, etc.), so as to help offset any lack of direct parental investment from the male, and therefore increase reproductive success. Robert Trivers' theory of parental investment predicts that the sex making the largest investment in lactation, nurturing, and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in mating; and that the sex that invests less in offspring will compete via intrasexual selection for access to the higher-investing sex (see Bateman's principle ).

In species where both sexes invest highly in parental care, mutual choosiness is expected to arise. An example of this is seen in crested auklets, where parents share equal responsibility in incubating their single egg and raising the chick. In crested auklets, both sexes are ornamented.

Parental investment in humans
Humans have evolved increasing levels of parental investment, both biologically and behaviorally. The fetus requires high investment from the mother, and the altricial newborn requires high investment from a community. Species whose newborn young are unable to move on their own and require parental care have a high degree of altriciality. Human children are born unable to care for themselves and require additional parental investment post-birth in order to survive.

Maternal investment
Trivers (1972) hypothesized that greater biologically obligated investment will predict greater voluntary investment. Mothers invest an impressive amount in their children before they are even born. The time and nutrients required to develop the fetus, and the risks associated with both giving these nutrients and undergoing childbirth, are a sizable investment. To ensure that this investment is not for nothing, mothers are likely to invest in their children after they are born, to be sure that they survive and are successful. Relative to most other species, human mothers give more resources to their offspring at a higher risk to their own health, even before the child is born. This is associated with the evolution of a slower life history, in which fewer, larger offspring are born after longer intervals, requiring increased parental investment. The developing human fetus––and especially the brain––requires nutrients to grow. In the later weeks of gestation, the fetus requires increasing nutrients as the growth of the brain increases. Rodents and primates have the most invasive placenta phenotype, the hemochorial placenta, in which the chorion erodes the uterine epithelium and has direct contact with maternal blood. The other placental phenotypes are separated from the maternal bloodstream by at least one layer of tissue. The more invasive placenta allows for a more efficient transfer of nutrients between the mother and fetus, but it comes with risks as well. The fetus is able to release hormones directly into the mother's bloodstream to “demand” increased resources. This can result in health problems for the mother, such as pre-eclampsia. During childbirth, the detachment of the placental chorion can cause excessive bleeding.

The obstetrical dilemma also makes birth more difficult and results in increased maternal investment. Humans have evolved both bipedalism and large brain size. The evolution of bipedalism altered the shape of the pelvis, and shrunk the birth canal at the same time brains were evolving to be larger. The decreasing birth canal size meant that babies are born earlier in development, when they have smaller brains. Humans give birth to babies with brains 25% developed, while other primates give birth to offspring with brains 45-50% developed. A second possible explanation for the early birth in humans is the energy required to grow and sustain a larger brain. Supporting a larger brain gestationally requires energy the mother may be unable to invest.

The obstetrical dilemma makes birth challenging, and a distinguishing trait of humans is the need for assistance during childbirth. The altered shape of the bipedal pelvis requires that babies leave the birth canal facing away from the mother, contrary to all other primate species. This makes it more difficult for the mother to clear the baby's breathing passageways, to make sure the umbilical cord is not wrapped around the neck, and to pull the baby free without bending its body the wrong way.

The human need to have a birth attendant also requires sociality. In order to guarantee the presence of a birth attendant, humans must aggregate in groups. It has been controversially claimed that humans have eusociality, like ants and bees, in which there is relatively high parental investment, cooperative care of young, and division of labor. It is unclear which evolved first; sociality, bipedalism, or birth attendance. Bonobos, our closest living relatives alongside chimpanzees, have high female sociality and births among bonobos are also social events. Sociality may have been a prerequisite for birth attendance, and bipedalism and birth attendance could have evolved as long as five million years ago. As female primates age, their ability to reproduce decreases. The grandmother hypothesis describes the evolution of menopause, which may or may not be unique to humans among primates. As women age, the costs of investing in additional reproduction increase and the benefits decrease. At menopause, it is more beneficial to stop reproduction and begin investing in grandchildren. Grandmothers are certain of their genetic relation to their grandchildren, especially the children of their daughters, because maternal certainty of their own children is high, and their daughters are certain of their maternity to their children as well. It has also been theorized that grandmothers preferentially invest in the daughters of their daughters because X chromosomes carry more DNA and their granddaughters are most closely related to them.

Paternal investment
As altriciality increased, investment from individuals other than the mother became more necessary. High sociality meant that female relatives were present to help the mother, but paternal investment increased as well. Paternal investment increases as it becomes more difficult to have additional children, and as the effects of investment on offspring fitness increase.

Men are more likely than women to give no parental investment to their children, and the children of low-investing fathers are more likely to give less parental investment to their own children. Father absence is a risk factor for both early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. Father absence raises children's stress levels, which are linked to earlier onset of sexual activity and increased short-term mating orientation. Daughters of absent fathers are more likely to seek short-term partners, and one theory explains this as a preference for outside (non-partner) social support because of the perceived uncertain future and uncertain availability of committing partners in a high-stress environment.

Concealed ovulation
Women can only get pregnant while ovulating. Human ovulation is concealed, or not signaled externally. Concealed ovulation decreases paternity certainty because men are unsure when women ovulate. The evolution of concealed ovulation has been theorized to be a result of altriciality and increased need for paternal investment—if men are unsure of the time of ovulation, the best way to successfully reproduce would be to repeatedly mate with a woman throughout her cycle, which requires pair bonding, which in turn increases paternal investment.

Mating orientations
Sociosexuality was first described by Alfred Kinsey as a willingness to engage in casual and uncommitted sexual relationships. Sociosexual orientation describes sociosexuality on a scale from unrestricted to restricted. Individuals with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation have higher openness to sex in less committed relationships, and individuals with a restricted sociosexual orientation have lower openness to casual sexual relationships. However, today it is acknowledged that sociosexuality does not in reality exist on a one-dimensional scale. Individuals who are less open to casual relationships are not always seeking committed relationships, and individuals who are less interested in committed relationships are not always interested in casual relationships. Short- and long-term mating orientations are the modern descriptors of openness to uncommitted and committed relationships, respectively.

Parental investment theory, as proposed by Trivers, argues that the sex with higher obligatory investment will be more selective in choosing sex partners, and the sex with lower obligatory investment will be less selective and more interested in "casual" mating opportunities. The more investing sex cannot reproduce as frequently, causing the less investing sex to compete for mating opportunities. In humans, women have higher obligatory investment (pregnancy and childbirth), than men (sperm production). Women are more likely to have higher long-term mating orientations, and men are more likely to have higher short-term mating orientations.

Short- and long-term mating orientations influence women's preferences in men. Studies have found that women put great emphasis on career-orientation, ambition and devotion only when considering a long-term partner. When marriage is not involved, women put greater emphasis on physical attractiveness. Generally, women prefer men who are likely to perform high parental investment and have good genes. Women prefer men with good financial status, who are more committed, who are more athletic, and who are healthier.

Some inaccurate theories have been inspired by parental investment theory. The "structural powerlessness hypothesis" proposes that women strive to find mates with access to high levels of resources because as women, they are excluded from these resources directly. However, this hypothesis has been disproved by studies which found that financially successful women place an even greater importance on financial status, social status, and possession of professional degrees.

Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is the difference in body size between male and female members of a species as a result of both intersexual and intrasexual selection, which is sexual selection that acts both within and between the sexes. High levels of sexual dimorphism and larger body size in males is driven by a combination of male-male competition and female selective pressure. Primate species in which groups are formed of many females and one male have higher sexual dimorphism than species that have both multiple females and males, or one female and one male. Polygynous primates have the highest sexual dimorphism, and polygamous and monogamous primates have less. Decreased polygyny is associated with increased paternal investment.

The demographic transition
The demographic transition describes the modern decrease in both birth and death rates. From a Darwinian perspective, it does not make sense that families with more resources are having fewer children. One explanation for the demographic transition is the increased parental investment required to raise children who will be able to maintain the same level of resources as their parents.

title: Parental investment