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Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service

The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (大日本帝國海軍航空隊) (IJNAS) was the air arm of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The organization was responsible for the operation of naval aircraft and the conduct of aerial warfare in the Pacific War.

The Japanese military acquired their first aircraft in 1910 and followed the development of air combat during World War I with great interest. They initially procured European aircraft but quickly built their own and launched themselves onto an ambitious aircraft carrier building program. They launched the world's first purpose-built aircraft carrier, JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Hōshō, in 1922. Afterwards they embarked on a conversion program of several excess battlecruisers and battleships into aircraft carriers. The IJN Air Service had the mission of national air defence, deep strike, naval warfare, and so forth. It retained this mission to the end.

The Japanese pilot training program was very selective and rigorous, producing a high-quality and long-serving pilot corps, who were very successful in the air during the early part of World War II in the Pacific. However, the long duration of the training program, combined with a shortage of gasoline for training, did not allow the IJN to rapidly provide qualified replacements in sufficient numbers. Moreover, Japan, unlike the U.S. or Britain, never altered its program to speed up the training process of its recruits. The resultant decrease in quantity and quality, among other factors, resulted in increasing casualties toward the end of the war.

Japanese navy aviators, like their army counterparts, preferred maneuverable aircraft, leading to lightly built but extraordinarily agile types, most famously the A6M Zero, which achieved its feats by sacrificing armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. Aircraft with armor and self-sealing fuel tanks, such as the Kawanishi N1K-J would not enter service until late 1944–1945, which was too late to have a meaningful impact.

Origins
The beginnings of Japanese naval aviation were established in 1912, with the creation of a Commission on Naval Aeronautical Research (Kaigun Kokūjutsu Kenkyūkai) under the authority of the Technical Department. The commission was charged with the promotion of aviation technology and training for the navy. Initially was focus was in non-rigid airships but it quickly moved on to the development of winged and powered aircraft. That year, the commission decided to purchase foreign winged aircraft and to send junior officers abroad to learn how to fly and maintain them. The navy purchased two seaplanes from the Glenn Curtiss factory in Hammondsport, New York, and two Maurice Farman seaplanes from France. To establish a cadre of naval aviators and technicians, the navy also dispatched three officers to Hammondsport and two to France for training and instruction. After their return to Japan at the end of 1912, two of the newly trained naval aviators made the first flights at Oppama on Yokosuka Bay, one in a Curtiss seaplane, the other in a Maurice Farman.

In 1912, the Royal Navy had also informally established its own flying branch, the Royal Naval Air Service. The Japanese admirals, whose own Navy had been modeled on the Royal Navy and whom they admired, themselves proposed their own Naval Air Service. The Japanese Navy had also observed technical developments in other countries and saw that the airplane had potential. Within a year, the Imperial Japanese navy had begun the operational use of aircraft. In 1913, the following year, a Navy transport ship, Wakamiya Maru was converted into a seaplane carrier capable of carrying two assembled and two disassembled seaplanes. Wakamiya also participated in the naval maneuvers off Sasebo that year.

Siege of Tsingtao

On 23 August 1914, as a result of its treaty with Great Britain, Japan declared war on Germany. The Japanese, together with a token British force, blockaded then laid siege to the German colony of Jiaozhou and its administrative capital Qingdao on the Shandong peninsula. During the siege, starting from September, four Farman seaplanes (two active and two reserve) on board Wakamiya conducted reconnaissance and aerial bombardments on German positions and ships. The aircraft had crude bombsights and carried six to ten bombs that had been converted from shells, and were released through metal tubes on each side of the cockpit. On 5 September, during the first successful operation, two Farman seaplanes dropped several bombs on the Bismarck battery, the main German fortifications in Tsingtao. The bombs landed harmlessly in the mud, but the aircraft were able to confirm that the light cruiser SMS Emden was not at Tsingtao; this was intelligence of major importance to Allied naval command. On 30 September Wakamiya was damaged by a mine and later sent back to Japan for repairs. But the seaplanes, by transferring on to the shore, continued to be used against the German defenders until their surrender on 7 November 1914. Wakamiya conducted the world's first naval-launched aerial raids in history and was in effect the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy. By the end of the siege the aircraft had conducted 50 sorties and dropped 200 bombs, although damage to German defenses was light.

Further developments (1916–1918)
In 1916, the Commission on Naval Aeronautical Research was disbanded and the funds supporting it were reallocated for the establishment of three naval air units (hikotai) which would fall under the authority of the Naval Affairs Bureau of the Navy Ministry. The first unit was established at Yokosuka in April 1916, however, the lack of a specific naval air policy in these early years was made apparent by the fact that the Yokosuka Air Group operated with the fleet only once a year when it was transported briefly to whatever training area the IJN was then using for maneuvers. Japanese naval aviation, though, continued to make progress. In 1917, officers at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal designed and built the first Japanese seaplane, the Ro-Go Ko-gata reconnaissance seaplane, which was much more useful at sea and much safer than the Maurice Farman aircraft that the navy had been using up to that point. The aircraft was eventually mass-produced and became the mainstay of the navy's air arm until the mid-1920s. Japanese factories by the end of the war, in increasing numbers, were beginning to turn out engines and fuselages based on foreign designs. A major expansion in Japanese naval air strength was part of the 1918 naval expansion program which made possible a new air group and a naval air station at Sasebo. In 1918, the IJN secured land around Lake Kasumigaura in Ibaraki Prefecture, northeast of Tokyo. The following year, a naval air station for both land and sea aircraft was established, and subsequently, naval air training was transferred to Kasumigaura, from Yokosuka. After the establishment of a naval air training unit at Kasumigaura, the air station became the principal flight training center for the navy.

Sempill mission

The Japanese navy had closely monitored the progress of aviation of the three Allied naval powers during World War I and concluded that Britain had made the greatest advances in naval aviation. They had also learned a good deal about naval aviation through their contacts within the Royal Navy. In 1920, a representative had also been sent to Britain to observe air operations off the decks of HMS Furious (47). In 1921, the Japanese government formally requested that the British dispatch a naval air mission, in order to develop and to provide a professional edge to Japanese naval aviation. There were reservations on the part of the Admiralty, about granting the Japanese unrestricted access to British technology. Despite this the British government sent an unofficial civil aviation mission to Japan.

The Sempill Mission led by Captain William Forbes-Sempill, a former officer in the Royal Air Force experienced in the design and testing of Royal Navy aircraft during the First World War. The mission consisted of 27 members, who were largely personnel with experience in naval aviation and included pilots and engineers from several British aircraft manufacturing firms. The British technical mission left for Japan in September with the objective of helping the Imperial Japanese Navy develop and improve the proficiency of its naval air arm. The British government also hoped it would lead to a lucrative arms deal. The mission arrived at Kasumigaura Naval Air Station the following month, in November 1921, and stayed in Japan for 18 months.

The Japanese were trained on several British aircraft such as the Gloster Sparrowhawk; as the mission also brought to Kasumigaura well over a hundred aircraft comprising twenty different models, five of which were then currently in service with the Royal Air Force, including the Sparrowhawk. These planes eventually provided the inspiration for the design of a number of Japanese naval aircraft. Technicians became familiar with the newest aerial weapons and equipment - torpedoes, bombs, machine guns, cameras, and communications gear. Naval aviators were trained in various techniques such as torpedo bombing, flight control and carrier landing and take-offs; skills that would later be employed in the shallow waters of Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The mission also brought the plans of the most recent British aircraft carriers, such as HMS Argus and HMS Hermes, which influenced the final stages of the development of the carrier Hōshō. By the time the last members of the mission had returned to Britain, the Japanese had acquired a reasonable grasp of the latest aviation technology and the Sempill mission of 1921–22 marked the true beginning of an effective Japanese naval air force. Japanese naval aviation also, both in technology and in doctrine, continued to be dependent on the British model for most of the 1920s.

The military in Japan were also aided in their quest to build up their naval forces by Sempill himself, who had become a Japanese spy. Over the next 20 years, the British Peer provided the Japanese with secret information on the latest British aviation technology. His espionage work helped Japan rapidly develop its military aircraft and its technologies before the Second World War.

Carrier aviation

Japanese interest in the potential of carrier operations demonstrated by the observations on board Furious led to the inclusion of an aircraft carrier in the eight-eight fleet program of 1918. The 7,470-ton Hōshō was laid down in December 1919 at Yokohama. Hōshō was the second warship after the British HMS Hermes (95) to be designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and the first one to be completed as from the keel up.

In the 1920s, the larger percentage of aircraft that were initially acquired and inducted into service were land based seaplanes whose main tasks were reconnaissance and anti-submarine patrols. The Japanese had drawn up plans for the formation of 17 squadrons of these aircraft, but budgetary constraints limited the units to eleven until 1931. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty two incomplete capital ships were allowed to be rebuilt as carriers, for the Japanese; JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Akagi and JAPANESE BATTLECRUISER Amagi. However, Amagi was damaged during the Great Kanto earthquake in 1923 and JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Kaga became a replacement. Akagi was completed in 1927 while Kaga completed a year later. With these two carriers much of Imperial Japanese Navy's doctrines and operating procedures were established.

When Hōshō was completed, little thought was given to naval aircraft in an offensive role and moreover with only one carrier there was insufficient consideration given to carrier doctrine within the Japanese naval establishment. However, in 1928 the First Carrier Division was formed with three carriers and the study of the role of aircraft carriers in a naval engagement was initiated. Because of the short range of carrier aircraft at the time, many in the naval hierarchy were still very much surface oriented. They viewed carrier aircraft to be employed as support for the main battle fleet and not as offensive weapons. Aircraft were to act as scouts and spotters, layers of smoke screens for naval gunfire, fleet air defense, and later (with the increase in aircraft performance) as a means to attack battleships and other surface targets.

Naval aviators however, had a different perspective. Believing that a major aerial engagement to clear the space over the opposing fleets would precede the final surface battle, they increasingly considered the enemy's carriers as the main targets of naval air power. Hence, in the early 1930s, the Imperial Japanese Navy adhered to no unified doctrine as to how carriers would be utilized in a fleet action and had no clear vision as to the role of air power in naval warfare. But with the continued increase in the range and power of aircraft, carriers became acknowledged for their ability to strike at targets beyond the range of surface guns and torpedoes. Including gunnery staffs as well as naval aviators, the IJN became convinced that carrier aircraft should be used for a preemptive strike against the enemy's carriers to achieve air superiority in the proximity of the surface battle. Around 1932–33, the IJN began to shift its aerial focus from targeting the enemy's battleships to their aircraft carriers; and by the mid-30s, with the improved performance of bombing aircraft and particularly dive-bombers, the destruction of the enemy's carrier force became the primary focus of Japan's carrier forces. The emerging concept of a mass aerial attack also shifted the emphasis away from the protection of the main battle fleet to attacks on targets over the horizon. Essential to the implementation of such a tactic was the locating of the enemy before the enemy found the Japanese carriers. As a consequence, it was important to the Japanese that naval aircraft be able to "outrange the enemy" in the air, just as Japanese surface forces could do by naval gunnery and torpedo attacks. Subsequently, throughout the 1930s, Japanese naval aviation emphasized range in its specifications for new aircraft.

Land-based air groups
In addition to developing carrier-based aviation, the IJN maintained many land-based air groups. In the early 1930s, the Japanese created a new category of aircraft termed rikujo kogeki-ki (land based attack aircraft) or Rikko for short. This was in keeping with the strategy of providing a rapid defense of the home islands against the possible westward advance of an American naval offensive across the Pacific. Land-based aircraft actually provided the bulk of Japanese naval aviation up to the eve of the Pacific War. In this regard, Japan was unique among the three major naval powers during the interwar period and the immediate prewar years with only the two air wings of the US Marine Corps being analogous to Japan's land based naval air units. The creation of these air units had begun at the end of World War I, when plans had been drawn up for 17 of them, however these plans were not fully implemented until 1931. They were to be located at six air stations around the Japanese home islands: Yokosuka, Sasebo, Kasumigaura, Omura, Tateyama, and Kure. These units were composed of various types of aircraft which were mostly seaplanes. In absolute numbers, land-based aircraft provided the largest growth in Japaneses naval air power in the years before the Pacific War. The Circle One naval expansion program which had been formulated in 1927 and put into effect in 1931 called for the creation of 28 new air groups. Although only 14 groups were actually established by 1934, which was a response to American naval expansion under the first Vinson plan, the Circle Two program called for eight additional air groups to be created by the end of 1937. They were to operate out of six new air stations at Ōminato, Saeki, Yokohama, Maizuru, Kanoya, and Kisarazu in the home islands and Chinhae on the southern coast of Korea. Under the pressure of the second Vinson plan, initiated by the United States, the Japanese increased the momentum in building up their land-based air forces. The deadline for completion date of the aviation of the Circle One expansion moved up to 1937 and an all-out effort was also made to complete the aircraft production of the Circle Two program by the end of the same year.

By the end of 1937, the navy possessed 563 land-based aircraft, in addition to the 332 aircraft aboard its carrier fleet. The navy air service had a total of 895 aircraft and 2,711 aircrew, including pilots and navigators, in thirty-nine air groups. Although, this total 895 aircraft was considerably less than total American naval air strength for the same period, Japan's land based aviation force was substantially larger. The substantial land-based air power worked to Japan's advantage when the nation went to war in 1937 with China.

Expansion (1931–1937)

By 1927 Japanese naval aviation had grown sufficiently in size and complexity that it was necessary to consolidate the administrative organization of the air service. The various air operations and activities during peacetime, which were divided between the Navy Ministry and the Navy Technical Department, were now merged into a single Naval Aviation Department. In 1932, an independent Naval Air Arsenal was also established to streamline the testing and development of aircraft and weaponry. During their early years, these organizations were under the command of able air enthusiasts, who played a major role in the rapid expansion of Japanese naval aviation during the following decade. The London Naval Treaty of 1930 had imposed new limitations on warship construction, which caused the Navy General Staff to view naval aviation as a way to make up for the shortcomings in the surface fleet.

In 1931, the air service pushed for and established the remainder of the 17 air squadrons that had been projected in the 1923 expansion plans. These were eventually combined into six air groups (kokutai) located at six bases around Japan. Furthermore, the Circle naval expansion programs featured an additional 12 air groups. They also included the development of specific aviation technologies and the acceleration of air crew training. The Circle One plan concentrated on developing new aircraft types, including large flying boats and land-based attack aircraft, as well as the building of seaborne units, both floatplanes and carrier aircraft. The Circle Two plan continued the buildup in naval aircraft and authorized the construction of two aircraft carriers.

Shanghai incident (1932)
In January 1932, clashes between Chinese and Japanese forces occurred in Shanghai. On 29 January, several aircraft from the seaplane tender Notoro, anchored in the Yangtze river, carried out low-level attacks on Chinese military positions in Zhabei, on artillery positions outside the city and on an armored train at a railway station in the northern part of the city. There were heavy civilian casualties and property losses, partly as a result of crude bombing techniques and mechanisms at the time. The Third Fleet consisting of the First Carrier Division with the carriers Kaga and  Hōshō was also dispatched to the city. Kaga arrived off the entrance of the Yangtze River on 1 February, and was joined by Hōshō two days later. On board Hōshō were ten fighters and nine torpedo bombers, while Kaga had 16 fighters and 32 torpedo bombers. Altogether, the Japanese had eighty aircraft that could be deployed over Shanghai, mostly Nakajima A1N2 fighters and Mitsubishi B1M3 torpedo bombers. On 3 February, a number of the aircraft from the two carriers were deployed to Kunda Airfield, where they flew missions in support of Japanese ground forces.

Aircraft from Hōshō participated in the IJN's first aerial combat on 5 February, when three fighters escorting two bombers were engaged by nine Chinese fighters over Zhenru; one Chinese fighter was damaged. On 22 February, while escorting three B1M3 torpedo bombers, three fighters from Kaga operating from Kunda Airfield scored the IJN's first aerial victory when they shot down a Boeing 218 fighter, flown by an American volunteer pilot Robert Short. After gaining intelligence that the Chinese were planning to mount a counteroffensive, the Japanese bombers carried out attacks on Chinese airfields at Hangzhou and Suzhou between 23 and 26 February, destroying a number of aircraft on the ground. On 26 February, six A1N2 fighters from Hōshō, while escorting nine bombers from Kaga on a bombing raid on an airfield at Hangzhou, engaged five Chinese aircraft and shot down three of them. The Japanese carriers returned to home waters after a cease-fire had been declared on 3 March. Aircrews of Kaga received a special commendation from the commander of the Third Fleet, Vice Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura, for their actions.

The actions of the Japanese aviators over Shanghai represented the first significant air operations over East Asia and for the IJN it also marked the first combat operations from its aircraft carriers. The attack on Zhabei was also the most destructive aerial attack on an urban area until the Condor Legion's attack on Guernica, five years later. Although perceived as insignificant skirmishes, the resulting aerial campaign led to several conclusions: though the A1N2 fighter proved to be inferior in performance to the Boeing 218, the campaign had demonstrated the above average flying skills of the IJN's pilots and the relative precision of its bombing techniques during clear weather.

China War (1937–1941)

From the onset of hostilities in 1937 until forces were diverted to combat for the Pacific war in 1941, naval aircraft played a key role in military operations on the Chinese mainland. The IJN had two primary responsibilities: the first was to support of amphibious operations on the Chinese coast and the second was the strategic aerial bombardment of Chinese cities. This was unique in naval history, as it was the first time that any naval air service had ever carried out such an effort. The campaign initially began in 1937, taking place largely in the Yangtze River basin with attacks on military installations along the Chinese coast by Japanese carrier aircraft. Naval involvement reached its peak in 1938–39 with the ferocious bombardment of cities deep in the Chinese interior by land-based medium bombers and concluded during 1941 with an attempt by tactical aircraft, both carrier and land-based, to cut communication and transportation routes in southern China. Although, the 1937–41 air offensives failed in its political and psychological aims, it did reduce the flow of strategic materiel to China and for a time, improved the Japanese military situation in the central and southern parts of the country. The China War was of great importance and value to the Japanese naval aviation in demonstrating how aircraft could contribute to the projection of naval power ashore.

Despite the fierce rivalry between the military branches, in the fall of 1937 General Matsui Iwane, the Army general in command of the theater, admitted the superiority of the Naval Air Services. His combat troops relied on the Navy for air support. Naval bombers such as the Mitsubishi G3M and Mitsubishi G4M were used to bomb Chinese cities. Japanese fighter planes, notably the Mitsubishi Zero, gained tactical air superiority; control of the skies over China belonged to the Japanese. Unlike other naval airforces, the IJNAS was responsible for strategic bombing and operated long ranged bombers.

The Japanese strategic bombing was mostly done against Chinese big cities, such as Shanghai, Wuhan and Chongqing, with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943.

The bombing of Nanjing and Guangzhou, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration. Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians...»

Pacific war

At the beginning of the Pacific war the Imperial Japanese Navy possessed the most powerful carrier force in the world, through combination of excellent ships, well-designed aircraft, and unsurpassed aviators. The Navy Air Service consisted of five naval air fleets. The Japanese had a total of ten aircraft carriers: six fleet carriers, three smaller carriers, and one training carrier. The 11th Air Fleet: contained most of the Navy's land based strike aircraft. One important advantage exercised by the Japanese at the start of the war was their ability to mass carrier air power. In April 1941 the First Air Fleet was created, concentrating the Navy's carriers into a single powerful striking unit. The Kido Butai (Mobile Unit/Force) was the First Air Fleet's operational component. At the start of the war, three carrier divisions made up the Kido Butai. Unlike in the United States Navy where carrier divisions served only in an administrative capacity, the carrier divisions of the Kido Butai were operational entities. The two carriers in a division fought together, often exchanging aircraft squadrons and commanders on strikes. The commander of the Kido Butai could wield the aircraft of its three divisions as a single entity bringing masses of aircraft crewed by highly trained aviators onto a single target.

During the first six months of the war Japanese naval air power achieved spectacular success and spearheaded offensive operations against Allied forces. On 7 December 1941, the IJN's Kido Butai attacked Pearl Harbor, crippling the U.S Pacific Fleet by destroying over 188 aircraft at the cost of 29 aircraft. On 10 December, Japanese naval land based bombers operating from bases in Indochina, were also responsible for the sinkings of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse which was the first time that capital ships were sunk by aerial attack while underway. In April 1942, the Indian Ocean raid drove the Royal Navy from South East Asia. There were also air raids carried out on the Philippines and Darwin in northern Australia.

In these battles, the Japanese veterans of the Chinese war did well against inexperienced Allied pilots flying obsolete aircraft. However, their advantage did not last. In the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, and again in the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Japanese lost many veteran pilots. Because the Japanese pilot training program was unable to increase its production rate, those veterans could not be replaced. Meanwhile, the American pilot training program went from strength to strength. The American aircraft industry rapidly increased production rates of new designs that rendered their Japanese opponents obsolescent. Examination of crashed or captured Japanese aircraft revealed that they achieved their superior range and maneuverability by doing without cockpit armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. Flight tests showed that they lost maneuverability at high speeds. American pilots were trained to take advantage of these weaknesses. The outdated Japanese aircraft and poorly trained pilots suffered great losses in any air combat for the rest of the war, particularly in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. In the Battle of Leyte Gulf a few months later, the First Air Fleet was used only as a decoy force to draw the main American fleet away from Leyte. The remnants of Japanese naval aviation were then limited to land-based operations, increasingly characterized by kamikaze attacks on American invasion fleets.

From 16 December 1941 to 20 March 1945 IJN aviation casualties killed were 14,242 aircrew and 1,579 officers.

Aircraft strength 1941
The IJNAS had over 3,089 aircraft in 1941 and 370 trainers.
 * 1,830 first-line aircraft including:
 * 660 fighters, including 350 Mitsubishi Zeros
 * 330 carrier-based strike aircraft
 * 240 land-based, twin-engined bombers
 * 520 seaplanes (includes fighters and reconnaissance) and flying boats.

Organization
The elite of the pilots were the carrier-based air groups (Kōkūtai, later called koku sentai) whose size (from a handful to 80 or 90 aircraft) was dependent on both the mission and type of aircraft carrier that they were on. Fleet carriers had three types of aircraft: fighters, level/torpedo planes, and dive bombers. Smaller carriers tended to have only two types, fighters and level/torpedo planes. The carrier-based Kōkūtai numbered over 1,500 pilots and just as many aircraft at the beginning of the Pacific War. The IJN also maintained a shore-based system of naval air fleets called Koku Kantai and area air fleets called homen kantai containing mostly twin-engine bombers and seaplanes. The senior command was the Eleventh Naval Air Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Nishizō Tsukahara. Land based aircraft provided the bulk of Japan's naval aviation up to the eve of World War II.

Each naval air fleet contained one or more naval air flotillas (commanded by Rear Admirals) each with two or more naval air groups. Each naval air group consisted of a base unit and 12 to 36 aircraft, plus four to 12 aircraft in reserve. Each naval air group consisted of several Squadrons (飛行隊) of nine, 12 or 16 aircraft; this was the main IJN Air Service combat unit and was equivalent to a squadron (中隊) in the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service. Each hikotai was commanded by a Lieutenant (j.g.), Warrant Officer, or experienced Chief Petty Officer, while most pilots were non-commissioned officers. There were usually four sections in each hikotai, each section (小隊) with three or four aircraft; by mid-1944 it was common for a shotai to have four aircraft. There were over 90 naval air groups at the start of the Pacific War, each assigned either a name or a number. The named naval air groups were usually linked to a particular navy air command or a navy base. They were usually numbered when they left Japan.

title: Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service


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Dimitrovgrad, Serbia

Dimitrovgrad (Димитровград) alternatively Caribrod (Цариброд) is a town and municipality located in the Pirot District of southeastern Serbia. According to 2022 census, the municipality has a population of 8,043 and the town has 5,188 inhabitants.

Name
Since 1950, the official name of the town has been Dimitrovgrad (Димитровград), but the name Caribrod (Цариброд) is also used. In Bulgarian, the name Tsaribrod (Цариброд) is preferred because there is another Dimitrovgrad on the Maritsa river in Bulgaria and Tsaribrod was used before the town was named after Georgi Dimitrov, a Bulgarian Communist leader who advocated a union between the Bulgarians and remaining Yugoslav nations to form the Balkan Federation.

The idea was abandoned when Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito failed to reach agreements with Joseph Stalin (Tito–Stalin split); however, Dimitrov himself did not become unpopular in Yugoslavia from the breakdown and subsequently, the name of the town continued to be in honour of him despite many citizens themselves having preferred Caribrod.

There have been attempts to return the old name, Caribrod, but all had less than 50% turnout and most of them were in favor of keeping the name Dimitrovgrad. In 2019, local government decided to add tables with name Caribrod on several municipality's objects in order to please the needs of people who like the former name. In October 2019 municipal assembly decided to return the old name to the municipality. The document is sent to Ministry of Public Administration for further procedures.

Climate
Dimitrovgrad has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb).

History
The Roman road Via Militaris was built in the 1st century AD and went through the town. In May 2010, well-preserved remains of the road were excavated during the work on Corridor 10.

An Ottoman military base operated in the west of Dimitrovgrad prior to the Balkan nations full independence.

During the Serbo-Bulgarian War, two battles were fought here, the 1st Battle of Caribrod and the 2nd Battle of Caribrod.

The Serbian and Bulgarian Prime ministers met at the then Tsaribrod in 1912 to discuss the disputed territories in Macedonia. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes gained parts of the Principality of Bulgaria (known in Bulgaria as Western Outlands) which included Tsaribrod following the Treaty of Neuilly, signed on November 27, 1919.

From 1929 to 1941, Caribrod was part of the Morava Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It was occupied by Kingdom of Bulgaria between 1941 and 1944 during World War II.

Demographics
According to the 2022 census results, the municipality has 8,043 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups
Regardless of ethnic self-identification, most of the town's population speaks a South Slavic dialect usually called Torlak which includes linguistic features of both Serbian (especially phonology) and Bulgarian (postposed definite articles and lack of the infinitive verb form), as well as some Macedonian language vocabulary.

Ethnic composition of the municipality:

Economy
The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dimitrovgrad, Serbia


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Shivering Shakespeare

Shivering Shakespeare is an Our Gang short film directed by Anthony Mack. Produced by Hal Roach and released to theaters by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, it was the 95th Our Gang short to be released.

Plot
The gang participates in a play entitled The Gladiator's Dilemma written, produced and directed by the wife of Kennedy the Cop. The badly written play goes comically wrong as the young actors forget their lines, miss their cues, and deal with unwieldy props and costumes. The audience members, unruly teenage boys, mercilessly heckle the actors and torment them by throwing food. The movie ends with everyone in the auditorium participating in a pie fight. Mrs. Kennedy sees the play being completely ruined and orders everyone to stop. The kids turn to Mr. Kennedy. He nods, giving them permission, and all the kids throw their pies at her.

Production notes
Shivering Shakespeare was the final Our Gang comedy directed by Robert A. McGowan, who was billed as "Anthony Mack" to differentiate himself from his uncle, Robert Francis McGowan, who was the Our Gang series' producer and senior director. The younger McGowan would remain a part of the Our Gang unit as a writer for the rest of its existence, even after the series was sold to MGM in 1938.

The Gang

 * Norman Chaney as Chubby / Nero
 * Jackie Cooper as Jackie / the Christian
 * Allen Hoskins as Farina / Farinacus
 * Bobby Hutchins as Wheezer / Mary Annicus' youthful brother
 * Mary Ann Jackson as Mary Ann / Mary Annicus
 * Pete the Pup as himself

Additional cast

 * Edith Fellows as Screaming kid
 * Douglas Greer as Curtain puller
 * Donald Haines as giggling guard / Shepherd
 * Jack McHugh as Teenager
 * Gordon Thorpe as Effeminate boy
 * Bobby Mallon as Shepherd / guard
 * Jerry McGowan as Dancing girl
 * Malcolm Sebastian as Wizard
 * Johnny Aber as Teenager
 * Georgie Billings as Shepherd / guard
 * Bradley "Buster" Slaven as Shepard/guard
 * Allen Cavan as Audience member who "resents it"
 * Dorothy Coburn as Pie sale girl
 * Carlton Griffin as man inside bull costume
 * Harry Keaton as Audience member licking lips
 * Edgar Kennedy as Kennedy The Cop
 * Ham Kinsey as Audience member hit by pie
 * Charles McAvoy as man whose son is splattered
 * Gertrude Sutton as Mrs. Kennedy
 * Lyle Tayo as Chubby's mother
 * Helen Gilmore as Audience member
 * Buddy Moore as Undetermined role

title: Shivering Shakespeare


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Eblaite language

Eblaite (, also known as Eblan ISO 639-3), or Palaeosyrian, is an extinct East Semitic language used during the 3rd millennium BC in Northern Syria. It was named after the ancient city of Ebla, in modern western Syria. Variants of the language were also spoken in Mari and Nagar. According to Cyrus H. Gordon, although scribes might have spoken it sometimes, Eblaite was probably not spoken much, being rather a written lingua franca with East and West Semitic features.

The language was discovered through cuneiform tablets found in Ebla.

Discovery
The 1964 discovery at the Tell Mardikh site in Northern Syria of an ancient city from the second half of the third millennium BC completely altered archaeological knowledge of the time, as it indicated the existence of a contemporary urban culture during the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia, within a geographic zone where, at the time, previous excavations had revealed nothing on the same scale.

In agreement with Ignace Gelb's theories on the subject of all inhabited centers in Syria of the same era, it appeared that the Tell Mardikh civilization's cultural identity did not necessarily fall within the Semitic family. However, in 1968, the discovery at the same site of a statue bearing an ancient Akkadian inscription, mentioning the king Ibbit-Lim of Ebla, soon contradicted this hypothesis. It therefore became possible not only to identify this city as the ancient city of Ebla, referred to in numerous Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources, but additionally, considering the strong linguistic connotations of the king's name, to specify the identity as Amorite. It became necessary, however, to revise these conclusions again, after the 1974 discovery in the ancient ruins of a Bronze Age palace (2400–2225 BC) of 42 cuneiform tablets, then of 17,000 others the following year, revealing a language different from Amorite, which exhibited archaic morphological characteristics present in Akkadian, with incontestable lexical similarities to West Semitic languages such as Hebrew or Aramaic. Excavations were directed by Professor Paolo Matthiae and the inscriptions translated by Giovanni Pettinato.

This opposition between a West Semitic lexicon and an Akkadian morphology led to controversies surrounding the nature of this language. For P. Fronzaroli, the opposition suggested an Akkadian dialect that had undergone a strong Western influence. On the other hand, Giovanni Garbini favored a more nuanced approach, drawing attention to the fragility of a comparison with Akkadian, and pointing out that there is no other contemporary model with which to draw comparisons. In his "Considerations on the Language of Ebla", he highlighted the artificial character of this opposition between morphology and lexicon and noted that "Akkadian differs from Western Semitic as we knew it hitherto because the latter was documented only on the phase following Amorite innovation. If it is traced back to the time before these innovations, a northwestern pre-Amorite Semitic begins to emerge, which is concordant with Akkadian just because the latter preserved its earlier character after Amorite invasion". Essentially basing his study on the lexicon, G. Pettinato was nevertheless the first to announce in 1975 the discovery of a new Semitic language, to which he gave the name "Paleo-Canaanite." Although the academic community was in favor of this idea, they were not unanimous regarding Pettinato's proposed name. In fact, while indicating advantageously its similarity to Hebrew, Ugaritic, or Phoenician, the name proved nevertheless incapable of indicating its morphological roots in East Semitic languages. G. Garbini then proposed the term "Paleo-Syrian," but again, this proved just as inadequate to convey the Mesopotamian particularities and was not accepted. Therefore, without a name to fit this new language's different linguistic characteristics, "Eblaite" was finally chosen.

Nature of the documents
Of the Eblaite corpus, whose publication began in 1974 as stated above, the majority of discovered documents are administrative or economic in nature, along with about a hundred historical tablets as well as some scholastic writings: lexicons, syllabaries, or bilingual texts. To this list, we must also add a few rare literary texts: fragments of myths, epics, hymns, proverbs, as well as some documents for conjuration.

From a linguistic perspective, although a great number of these documents were effectively written in Sumerian, a rather large portion of these only used the language ideogrammatically, as confirmed by certain Semitic elements added to the Sumerograms – such as morphological markers, suffix pronouns, or certain prepositions – which reveal an underlying language distinct from Sumerian.in U4 DINGIR a-mu-su3 NIDBA "the day when the god of his father had his festival"Such writing practices obviously made approaching Eblaite difficult. Fortunately, some rare documents, bilingual letters or tablets, mostly written syllabically, enabled the breaking down of this graphical barrier and the clarification of our knowledge of this language.

Of course, even if we add to this collection the onomastic material, which in Semitic languages typically consists of short sentences, the portion of the Eblaite corpus that is usable from a linguistic perspective remains relatively narrow and limited from a morphological, syntactical, or lexical point of view.

The graphical barrier and writing practices
The main difficulty faced by those studying the language of Ebla arose largely from issues in the writing system. Indeed, Eblaite shares its cuneiform writing system with the Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Hurrian, and Elamite languages, a graphical system where each symbol may have collectively or separately an ideogrammatic and/or phonetic value. In the first case, the symbol or chain of symbols simply signifies an idea that is understandable by way of its Sumerian meaning; in the second case, the symbol indicates, with a more-or-less large approximation based on writing practices, the form of an Eblaite term following a principle of syllabic decomposition.

The comparative study of Eblaite symbols reveals some differences with the systems used by other schools of scribes. On the other hand, the Eblaite syllabary, without being identical, bears significant similarities with that of the ancient Akkadian used in Kish during the Early Dynastic Period (DA II).

In fact, three transcription practices appear in the Ebla texts: one exclusively syllabic, another using both syllabism and ideography, and the last largely employing the ideographic principle. Included in the first category is mostly the incantatory texts and the writing of anthroponyms; in the second, the epistolary, historical, and literary documents, not to mention some diplomatic texts; and in the third, economic and administrative texts, relating to the management and stewardship of the palace where ideography is a sufficient system for the writing of realia. Qualitatively and quantitatively, this situation entirely resembles that of the Mesopotamian corpus.

Only a small portion of documents found are syllabic, compared to the large quantity of texts written using Sumerian logograms. This led G. Pettinato to consider, at first, that these documents were written in Sumerian. Such a hypothesis obviously no longer holds today with regard to our understanding of the writing and formulation practices particular to Sumerian and Eblaite scribes. These graphical conventions are so specific that they are very often sufficient to identify the language underlying the ideograms. Thus, for example, the Sumerian practice of writing filiation following the formula X DUMU Y ("X son of Y") stands out from the Akkadian and Eblaite practice which prefers the phrasing X DUMU.NITA Y.

However, if, as we just saw, we can identify a signified of Semitic origin beneath a Sumerogram, it remains difficult to extract its signifier. Fortunately, the restoration of phonetic values to these symbols has been made possible by the existence of bilingual lexical lists, where each Sumerian ideogram has its Eblaite form specified in a glossary using syllabic writing.

Even when the phonetic value of the word is specified, a whole series of semantic problems remains, still obstructing our understanding. For example, when an Eblaite scribe uses the symbol LUGAL meaning "king" in Sumerian, he transcribes it with its Akkadian value šarrum but translates it as "dignitary." This simple example shows the gaps in interpretation that may result from reading Eblaite symbols while only considering their Sumerian values.

As for the strictly syllabic system of writing, it is not free of issues either. The rarity of Vowel + Consonant -type symbols (VC) require certain approximations in the transcription of words. Thus we find the term ʾummum "mother" syllabically rendered as u3-mu-mu. Additionally, while Sumerian sometimes proceeds morphologically by reduplication of a word to make it plural, Eblaite reuses this practice with the same meaning, but transforming it into a simple graphical signified. In this way we find forms along the lines of nasi11-nasi11 to write the plural of nas11 "the people." Furthermore it is not uncommon that the writing presents a defective character, where all the morphological markers are not indicated: ḫa-za-an šu-ba-ti = *ḫazānum yimḫur "the mayor takes it."

To these issues we can also add those connected with the intrinsic limits of the Sumerian writing system, incapable of rendering a portion of Semitic languages' phonological system. As Diakonoff specifies, the Sumerian system is organized upon a tense~lax opposition and can only with great difficulty render the voiced~unvoiced opposition as well as the emphatics of Semitic languages. Thus we find the syllables /da/, /ṭa/, and /ta/ transcribed with the same symbol DA, as well as the syllables /gu/, /ku/, and /qu/ with the same symbol GU.

For the same reasons, it is equally impossible for the Sumerian writing system to render the laryngeals and pharyngeals of Eblaite. However, to overcome these difficulties, they used – just like ancient Akkadian – graphical conventions such as the use of the symbols E and MA to render the phonemes /ḥ/ or /ʿ/, or else by playing on syllabic symbols which end in the vowel /e/, which is nothing but the vocalic trace of one of the two preceding articulations.

Additionally, as shown by the written forms la-ḫa for /laḫān/ or ba-da-a for /baytay/ for example, the phonemes /w/, /y/, /m/, and /n/ are not rendered graphically in the final or initial position. Taking these two examples again, notice that, for one, the quantity of the vowels is not rendered by the writing (the form da-za-a for /taṣṣaʾā/ "they will go out" shows us that double consonants face the same fate) and secondly, that the vowel /a/ is used equally to represent the syllables /ʾa/, /ya/, and /ay/.

Phonological system
As shown above, the difficulties with reading Eblaite texts complicate approaching its phonological system.

Studying the usage context for the symbols I, I2, A, ʾA, ḪA, etc. with regard to the writing conventions of Akkadian scribes enabled the determination, beyond some identification difficulties created by the graphical barrier, of "the existence and autonomy of the phonemes /h/, /ḥ/, and /ḫ/ confirmed by the realization of the vowel /a/ as [ɛ] in the closed syllables /ḥaC/ and /ʾaC/, as well as the tendency to extend this phenomenon to the vowel /a/ followed by a pharyngeal. It is currently lacking the elements to determine the existence of a phoneme /ġ/ or a variant [ġ]."

Also through a contextual analysis of the symbols z + Vowel (V): ze2, s + V: se11, š + V, Pelio Fronzaroli confirmed the existence of the phonemes /s/, /ṣ/, /ḍ/, and /ẓ/, as well as the phonemes /s/, /š/, and /ṯ/, a group to which it is perhaps also necessary to add /z/.

As for the existence of diphthongs, this remains questionable. The diphthong /ay/ seems to be conserved in Eblaite as illustrated by the form /ʿayn-ʿayn/ though it is still preserved in other semitic languages which have lost the diphthong. However, the reality of this phoneme is heavily discussed by I. Gelb: "The main difference between Fronzaroli's treatment of the diphthong /aj/ at Ebla and mine is that Fronzaroli believes (...) that the original diphthong /aj/ was preserved in Eblaite (even though not written), while I take it to have developed to /ā/."

Here we should also highlight the issue of the unstable realization of liquids with the alternation of /r/ and /l/. I. Gelb speculated two reasons for this phenomenon: "If the weakness of the r / l phoneme (which is amply exemplified at Ebla) should be considered as an indication of the Hurrian influence on Eblaic phonology, then we should note that this feature is characteristic not only of Hurrian (and other languages in the general area), but also of Egyptian, and may therefore be either a surviving feature of the Semito-Hamitic (or Afro-Asiatic) or a cross-linguistic areal feature."

Pronominal system
Eblaite has two forms of personal pronouns: independent and suffix. Additionally, the texts have also revealed a determinative pronominal form as well as interrogative forms. The epigraphical material does not always allow a complete reconstruction of the paradigms, and the gaps must be filled on the basis of linguistic comparisons as well as internal reconstitutions that take the language's own structures into account.

Special forms for the masculine second and third person accusative and dative:

Nominal system
Eblaite presents a nominal system that is comparable to that of Akkadian and whose traces are found in certain Semitic languages. In particular, there are three inflectional categories: gender, with masculine and feminine forms; number, with singular, dual, and plural; and finally case, covering both syntactical relationships like the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases, but also more concrete relationships like the dative and locative cases. This organization of the nominal morphology was likely that of all Semitic languages until the first millennium BC.

Verbal system
Eblaite's verbal system follows the same structure as that of other Semitic languages, where the paradigmatic framework is organized based upon a double axis: the derivational axis, within which the verb's basic form goes through a certain number of modifications, and the inflectional axis, where the verb takes on an aspectual, personal, or modal value through a system of suffixation and prefixation.

Classification
Eblaite has been described as an East Semitic language or a "North Semitic" language; scholars notice the great affinity between Eblaite and pre-Sargonic Akkadian and debate the relationship between the two.

East Semitic classification

 * Scholars such as Richard I. Caplice, Ignace Gelb and John Huehnergard have the view that Eblaite is an East Semitic language not to be seen as an early Akkadian dialect, because the differences from other Akkadian dialects are considerable.
 * Manfred Krebernik says that Eblaite "is so closely related to Akkadian that it may be classified as an early Akkadian dialect", although some of the names that appear in the tablets are Northwest Semitic.

North Semitic classification

 * Edward Lipiński, claiming that in the third millennium BC, there was no clear border between East Semitic languages and West Semitic languages, calls Eblaite "Paleosyrian" and explains the similarities to Akkadian by the use of the same system of writing borrowed from Sumer. Lipiński separates Eblaite from Akkadian, assigning the latter to the East Semitic languages while classifying Eblaite with Amorite and Ugaritic into a grouping he names the North Semitic languages.

By supporters of a classification as East Semitic, Eblaite is considered a language which exhibits both West Semitic and East Semitic features. Grammatically, Eblaite is more similar to Akkadian, but lexically and in some grammatical forms, Eblaite is more similar to West Semitic languages.

title: Eblaite language


text:
2004 United States presidential election in Arkansas

The 2004 United States presidential election in Arkansas took place on November 2, 2004, and was part of the 2004 United States presidential election. State voters chose six representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

Arkansas was won by incumbent President George W. Bush by a 9.8% margin of victory. Prior to the election, 11 out of 12 news organizations considered this a state Bush would win, or otherwise considered as a red state. Although there was little advertising and campaigning, polling did show a tight race as Bush won the state in 2000 with just over 50%. This was the last election in which Arkansas was decided by a single-digit margin or in which the Democrat received more than 40% of the state’s vote, and the last election in which Arkansas voted to the left of Arizona, Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Indiana.

Primaries

 * 2004 Arkansas Democratic presidential primary
 * 2004 Arkansas Republican presidential primary

Predictions
There were 12 news organizations who made state-by-state predictions of the election. Here are their last predictions before election day.

Polling
Pre-election polling showed Bush leading throughout most of the general election. Bush frequently reached the 50% threshold, while Kerry never reached 47% in any poll taken prior to the election. The final 3 polls averaged Bush leading at 51% to Kerry at 45%.

Fundraising
Bush raised $1,387,692. Kerry raised $466,194.

Advertising and visits
Neither campaign advertised or visited the state during the fall campaign.

Analysis
Early on, Kerry was seen to have a small but mostly insignificant chance at possibly flipping the state back to the Democratic Column. The Kerry Campaign saw Arkansas as a "Secondary Concern" focusing on the more important states such as Ohio and Wisconsin that were the key to winning the General Election. During October however Bush began to widen the margin in many polls mostly due to Bush portraying Kerry as a "Northern Yankee big-city liberal" and a "Tax raiser" in the Presidential debates and after Osama bin Laden delivered a speech on the Arabic news network Al Jazeera days before the election quoted saying “Your security is in your own hands” Bush was essentially guaranteed to carry the state from then on.

On election day Bush performed better than what polls showed, outperforming nearly every single poll.

The only areas that went for Democratic opponent John Kerry were a handful of Delta counties; the state capital, Little Rock; Pine Bluff; and only a few counties to the south. Bush performed better in Arkansas than last election against Al Gore, the VP of Bill Clinton, the latter being the home son of Arkansas.

In this election, Arkansas voted 7.3% to the right of the nation at-large.

Although Arkansas is the home of former Democratic Governor and President Bill Clinton, who won his state's electoral vote in both 1992 and 1996, Democratic nominees Al Gore in 2000 and John Kerry in 2004 were both unsuccessful in carrying Arkansas, which went to Republican nominee George W. Bush in both elections. This election represented, arguably, the last time Arkansas was considered competitive on a national political level, as the GOP would gain supporters due to an increased distaste for the social liberalism espoused by the Democratic Party. Over the next 12 years, various Democrats representing Arkansas federally and statewide (including all three Democratic Congressmen in the House and both Democratic Senators at the time) would retire or be defeated in "wave" elections, culminating in the state rejecting its former first lady, Hillary Clinton, by almost 27 points in the 2016 election. As of the 2020 election, no statewide or federally elected position (i.e. Congress) in Arkansas is held by a Democrat.

, Kerry remains the last Democratic candidate to win more than 40% of the vote. It is also the last election in which Jackson County, Monroe County, Clark County, Mississippi County, Lawrence County, Clay County, Poinsett County, Lincoln County, Bradley County, Randolph County, Hempstead County and Little River County voted for the Democratic candidate. This is also the last time in which the state was decided by a single digit margin of victory.

By county
[[File:Arkansas County Flips 2004.svg|thumb|County Flips:

Democratic {{legend|#92c5de|Hold}}

Republican {{legend|#f48882|Hold}} {{legend|#ca0120|Gain from Democratic}} ]]

Counties that flipped from Democratic to Republican

 * Ashley (Largest city: Crossett)
 * Craighead (Largest city: Jonesboro)
 * Cross (Largest city: Wynne)
 * Dallas (Largest city: Fordyce)
 * Drew (Largest city: Monticello)
 * Greene (Largest city: Paragould)
 * Hot Spring (Largest city: Malvern)
 * Izard (Largest city: Horseshoe Bend)
 * Lafayette (Largest city: Stamps)
 * Nevada (Largest city: Prescott)
 * Ouachita (Largest city: Camden)

By congressional district
Bush won all 4 congressional districts, including three held by Democrats.

Electors
Technically the voters of Arkansas cast their ballots for electors: representatives to the Electoral College. Arkansas is allocated 6 electors because it has 4 congressional districts and 2 senators. All candidates who appear on the ballot or qualify to receive write-in votes must submit a list of 6 electors, who pledge to vote for their candidate and his or her running mate. Whoever wins the majority of votes in the state is awarded all 6 electoral votes. Their chosen electors then vote for president and vice president. Although electors are pledged to their candidate and running mate, they are not obligated to vote for them. An elector who votes for someone other than his or her candidate is known as a faithless elector.

The electors of each state and the District of Columbia met on December 13, 2004, to cast their votes for president and vice president. The Electoral College itself never meets as one body. Instead the electors from each state and the District of Columbia met in their respective capitols.

The following were the members of the Electoral College from Arkansas. All were pledged to and voted for George W. Bush and Dick Cheney:
 * 1) Bobbi Dodge
 * 2) Gay White
 * 3) Ida Fineburg
 * 4) John Felts
 * 5) Jim Davis
 * 6) Martha McCaskill


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Bryan Schwor

(Keep) I have seen this Bryan Schwor film. It is about 45 minutes long and is relatively amusing, though the editing is less than perfect. The Silly Goose group are mostly WSU students in Pullman, Washington. The company isn't school sanctioned or anything, but their movies aren't totally unknown to the area.

Jim


text:
Genographic Project

The Genographic Project, launched on 13 April 2005 by the National Geographic Society and IBM, was a genetic anthropological study (sales discontinued on 31 May 2019) that aimed to map historical human migrations patterns by collecting and analyzing DNA samples. The final phase of the project was Geno 2.0 Next Generation. Upon retirement of the site, 1,006,542 participants in over 140 countries had joined the project.

Beginnings
Created and led by project director Spencer Wells in 2005, the Genographic Project was a privately funded, not-for-profit collaboration between the National Geographic Society, IBM and the Waitt Foundation. Field researchers at eleven regional centers around the world began by collecting DNA samples from indigenous populations. Since the fall of 2015, the Project was led by Miguel Vilar.

In fall 2012, the Genographic Project announced the completion of a new genotyping array, dedicated to genetic anthropology, called GenoChip. GenoChip is specifically designed for anthropological testing and includes SNPs from autosomal DNA, X-chromosome DNA, Y-chromosome DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The design of the new chip was a collaborative effort between Wells of National Geographic, Eran Elhaik of Johns Hopkins, Family Tree DNA, and Illumina.

In the fall of 2015, a new chip was designed as a joint effort between Vilar, Genographic Lead Scientist, and Family Tree DNA.

In the spring of 2019, it was announced that the Geno project had ended but results would remain available online until 2020. In July 2020 the site was retired.

Geno 2.0
The autosomal admixture analysis developed by Wells and Elhaik classifies individuals by assessing their proportions of genomic ancestry related to nine ancestral regions: East Asian, Mediterranean, Southern African, Southwest Asian, Oceanian, Southeast Asian, Northern European, Sub-Saharan African and Native American.

Geno 2.0 Next Generation
In 2016, the project began utilizing cutting-edge Helix DNA sequencing for Geno 2.0 Next Generation, the current phase of the Genographic Project. As compared to earlier phases which used nine regional affiliations, Geno 2.0 Next Generation analyzes modern-day indigenous populations around the world using either 18 or 22 regional affiliations. Utilizing a DNA-collection kit, Helix acquires a saliva sample from a participant, which is then analyzed for genomic identifiers that offer unprecedented insight into the person's genetic origins. The data is then uploaded to the Genographic Project DNA database.

Volunteer participation
From 2005 to 2019 Genographic engaged volunteers (in fieldwork and providing DNA samples) and citizen science projects. During this time the National Geographic Society sold non-profit self-testing kits to members of the general public who wished to participate in the project as "citizen scientists". Such outreach for public participation in research has been encouraged by organizations such as International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG), which is seeking to promote benefits from scientific research. This includes supporting, organization and dissemination of personal DNA (genetic) testing.

The ISOGG supports citizen participation in genetic research, and believes such volunteers have provided valuable information and research to the professional scientific community.

In a 2013 speech to the Southern California Genealogical Society, Spencer Wells discussed its encouragement of citizen scientists. He said: "Since 2005, the Genographic Project has used the latest genetic technology to expand our knowledge of the human story, and its pioneering use of DNA testing to engage and involve the public in the research effort has helped to create a new breed of 'citizen scientist.' Geno 2.0 expands the scope for citizen science, harnessing the power of the crowd to discover new details of human population history."

Criticism
Shortly after the announcement of the project in April 2005, the Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) noted its connections to controversial issues (such as concern among some tribes that the results of genetic human migration studies might indicate that Native Americans are not indigenous to North America). The IPCB recommended against indigenous people participating.

The founder of IPCB, Debra Harry, offered a rationale for why Indigenous people were discouraged to participate in the Genographic Project. According to Harry, a Northern Paiute Native American and Associate Professor in Indigenous Studies at Nevada University, the Genographic Project resulted in a human genetic testing practice that appeared to mask an ulterior motive rather than mere scientific research. Particularly, the great concern about the possible political interest behind the Genographic Project, motivated the IPCB to preemptively alert the global indigenous community on the “not so altruistic motivations” of the project. Additionally, IPCB argues that the Genographic project not only provides no direct benefit to Indigenous peoples but instead raises considerable risks. Such risks, raised by Harry in an interview released in December 2005, were used to advocate against the indigenous participation in the project. Another comment made by IPCB founder Debra Harry was that the Genographic Project served as a method to discredit kin relations through the possibility that ancestral identities may be invalidated and to deny Indigenous peoples’ access and authority over the resource-rich territories that they had for long inhabited. The IPCB also identified another attempt at biocolonialism in the Genographic Project. The latter involved the high probability of genetic testing results producing errors such as false negatives and positives that lead to the misidentification of Native people as non-Native and vice versa. Another negative consequence expressed by TallBear is the risk that an individual's cultural identity can be conclusively established through biocolonialist projects such as the Genographic Project. Ultimately, TallBear's argument is in close agreement with Harry's concerns regarding the Genographic Project and serves as a significant force motivating IPCB to advocate against Biocolonialism.

In May 2006, the project came to the attention of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII). UNPFII conducted investigations into the objectives of the Genographic Project, and recommended that National Geographic and other sponsors suspend the project. Concerns were that the knowledge gleaned from the research could clash with long-held beliefs of indigenous peoples and threaten their cultures. There were also concerns that indigenous claims to land rights and other resources could be threatened.

, some federally recognized tribes in the United States declined to take part in the study including Maurice Foxx, chairman of the Massachusetts Commission on Indian Affairs and a member of the Mashpee Wampanoag.

Not all Indigenous peoples agree with his position;, more than 70,000 indigenous participants from the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, and Oceania had joined the project.

title: Genographic Project


text:
Talk:16550 UART

Not a microprocessor
A UART is not a microprocessor! This has been in the article for years! --Wtshymanski 15:16, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

16550 vs 16550A
Early 16550 chips had a bug, which allowed them to only really function as 16450 chips, this was fixed with the 16550A and later revisions.

Uploaded an image...
...and yet I have no ambition to learn the Wiki syntax to link the silly thing into the article. It's up at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Exar16550onItronixPCB.jpg if somebody with a clue wants to handle that. Thanks. Myself248 08:14, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

Dates
It would be nice to have the dates they were first released listed somewhere. --68.48.43.61 (talk) 2012-03-02 14:36:59 (UTC)
 * The introduction year for the 16550A is July 1987. The 16550 introduction is unclear. Bytesock (talk) 22:51, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

Baud or BPS?
I'm wondering about the part that says: "At speeds higher than 9600 baud[...]". Is baud correct here, or should it read BPS? --80.222.99.8 (talk) 12:11, 29 November 2015 (UTC)

 * BAUD is correct, because that is the speed at the hardware level, and the preferred word to use in UART discussions. As an example, 8N1 (8 bit of data, no party, 1 stop bit) is a total of 10 "bit times" at the hardware level, because there is 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit.  For this same example, BPS would be 80% of the BAUD rate, because 8 divided by 10.  •  Sbmeirow  •  Talk  • 07:27, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

 * Baud is the number of symbols per second on the line. So a modem that is capable of giving the user 9600 bit/s will actually only send 2400 symbols per second on the PSTN line which is bandwidth limited to 3000 Hz. This is usually done by amplitude and phase shifting and can be viewed using eye diagrams etc on a oscilloscope. However the 2400 baud/s modem will in this case demand the UART can handle 9600 bits/s. That asynchronous serial throws away 20% is another story. Bytesock (talk) 22:48, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

16C550
Could a description of this UART be added by someone? I don't see it on the list. 66.169.230.39 (talk) 21:13, 19 February 2022 (UTC)

Don't use the word speed before baud.
The word speed doesn't seem correct. Baud rate perhaps, not speed. See baud vs. bps discussion. 66.169.230.39 (talk) 21:16, 19 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:16550 UART


text:
A151 road

The A151 road is relatively minor part of the British road system. It lies entirely in the county of Lincolnshire, England. Its western end lies at coordinates 52.80315°N, -0.60863°W otherwise,.

The A151: summary
In the early 19th century, the A151 would have been called a cross-road since it runs across the pattern of these radial routes. As originally designated, it ran from the A15 at Bourne Market Place (TF095201), eastwards to Fleet Hargate, three kilometres east of Holbeach (TF393250), on the A17. Its present western section, between Colsterworth and Bourne, was part of the B676 road.

Road building and re-thinking of the road system have meant that nowadays, its western end is on the A1 near Colsterworth, in the administrative district of South Kesteven, and its eastern end on the A17 near Holbeach, in the district of South Holland. On the way, it passes to the north of Grimsthorpe Castle and at TF076200, just to the south of Bourne Woods. Then at TF095201, it bisects Bourne. It enters The Fens on the eastern edge of that small town. At TF154207, it passes through the hamlet of Twenty, in Bourne North Fen. At Guthram Gowt, it leaves Kesteven by crossing the South Forty-Foot Drain into the Parts of Holland. Spalding (TF245227), the principal town of South Holland, is also the main town on the A151 route. Across the River Welland, lie Moulton, then Holbeach, near which the A151 ends at the A17 (TF350258). That road leads on to King's Lynn and East Anglia.

History: turnpike roads
As elsewhere, roads in England have developed over many years. Perhaps some of the A151 lies on lines which are pre-Roman. In other words, parts are two thousand or more years old. However, change is constant and little of the road is that old. In the nature of things, these changes are poorly or not at all documented, so will be treated generally, in that light, in an overview below. The historical part of the story begins with the turnpike roads.

The A151 was originally designated such in 1921. Then, the roads were much as they had been forty or fifty years before, under the turnpike trusts. Since the Second World War, there has been much building of by-passes and the like so that the precise lines have sometimes changed but they are still fundamentally the same. The main difference in the present case is that the road designation has been extended from the A15 at Bourne to the A1 at Colsterworth, while at the other end, the easternmost three kilometres have been replaced by a new part of the A17.

In the field of acts of Parliament founding turnpike trusts, much was happening locally in 1756. The Wansford to Stamford trust on the Great North Road had been set up in 1749 but in 1756, its sphere was extended through Stamford to Bourne. The last 1.6 kilometres of this road, as the trust left it, running down the hill to Bourne Market Place, are now part of the A151. It was freed from tolls on 1 November 1871. The half of this section which lies outside the modern town was probably built by the trust between 1756 and the Bourne Enclosure Awards of 1770–1.

The Lincoln Heath to Peterborough Trust was also established in 1756. Its remit included the forerunner of the present A15 which crosses the end of the Stamford road at Bourne Market Place. However, also included with this was the road from the Stamford road west of Bourne (a place known locally as Stamford Hill), to Colsterworth. With the exception of the western extremity, in Colsterworth village, this is now part of the A151. It was freed from tolls on 1 November 1882.

The Lincoln Heath to Peterborough trust was organized in districts of which that covering the road from Colsterworth to Stamford Hill, Bourne was the ‘'West District'’. In 1860, it was re-grouped with the ‘'Middle District'’ which extended from Graby Bar (TF091295) to Market Deeping (TF138099).

From Spalding, through Holbeach to Long Sutton, beyond the end of the modern A151, the road was turnpiked in 1764. It was freed from tolls on 1 November 1866. It may not be coincidental that this was the year of the final opening of the railway from Bourne to King's Lynn, the line having been opened in stages from 1858. This road was declared a main road by the Highways Act of 1878.

The road from Bourne to Spalding was turnpiked in 1822 and freed from tolls in 1860. It was declared a main road by the Highways Act of 1878. Before 1822, this section was in three parts. One led out from Bourne onto Bourne North Fen. The Spalding end led out from Spalding to the Spalding and Pinchbeck fen edge bank. The linking section was not officially a road. There was however, some droving traffic which was frowned upon by the drainage authorities, whose embankments it tended to erode. According to Cary's map of 1787, the official route ran via Tongue End (TF155188) and crossed the River Glen at Gurthram (TF173224).

Toll gates
The principal source of information about the positions of toll gates is the Ordnance Survey 1 inch map published in 1824. It places them as follows:

 * Corby Toll Bar. SK969234 (also 1834–6)
 * T[urn] P[ike]. SK991247
 * T P. TF062210 (also 1834–6)
 * T P. TF079198 (also 1834-6 but there shown as on the Stamford road)
 * Friers Bar. TF117206 (Exeter Estate book but no gate shown.)
 * T P. TF169223 (corroborated by Paterson's Roads) (also 1834–6)
 * T P. TF198244 (corroborated by Paterson's Roads) (also 1834–6)
 * T P. TF2724. (also 1834-6 and the O.S. map of 1890 shows "The Gate" public house).
 * T P. TF466217. (also 1834–6)

The six digit National grid References of the marked positions on the 1824 map are taken from an equivalent modern map. The four digit references are much less accurate, being taken from an Ordnance Survey map by inspection of Wright Fig.3. The Ordnance Survey does not note the Friars Bar toll gate but in the Exeter Estate book, the position is called Friers Bar though no obstruction of the road by a gate is indicated. Paterson's Roads is a road book listing the features of roads and mileages from the ends of its itineraries, sequentially.

It is noticeable and a little surprising that according to the Ordnance Survey, it was possible in some cases to go a long way out of a town before coming to a toll gate. This is particularly noticeable eastwards from Spalding.

Condition of the turnpike roads
We have a few references to the condition of parts of the turnpike forerunners of the A151. Arthur Young's book on the Lincolnshire economy was published in 1813, while the first Fosdyke bridge was still under construction. He therefore, will have taken the future A151 between Spalding and Fleet Hargate on his journey from Boston to Wisbech. He wrote of it thus: ''In the Hundred of Skirbeck to Boston, and thence to Wisbeach, [turnpike roads] are generally made with silt, or old sea-sand, deposited under various parts of the country ages ago, and when moderately wet are very good; but dreadfully dusty and heavy in dry weather; and also on a thaw they are like mortar. Take the county in general, and they must be esteemed below par.'' What he is saying is that the turnpike roads in the Townlands were made of the same marine silt as forms the land itself in that part of the country. The heaviness in dry weather to which he refers, arose from the loose, deep, sandy surface through which wheels would have to be dragged. According to Wheeler, 1 LT of silt was reckoned to cover 1 yd in a length of a road, 18 in thick and 10 ft wide, the silt costing about 8d. to 10d. per ton for digging and spreading. In some cases the road was turned over. That is a pit was dug in the road until the silt was reached then that was dug out and formed into the carriageway. The surface of the next length was dug and put into the pit as a foundation then the silt dug and placed on top of it and so on along the road. Gravel was used where obtainable and from about 1870, Wheeler introduced granite. By the end of the 20th century granite and slag were being consolidated by steam roller Of the Bourne to Colsterworth road, Young said we were every moment either buried in quagmires of mud or racked to dislocation over pieces of rock which they term mending. Materials and methods for repairing fenland roads are described by Wheeler. The best material available was dug locally from pits.

Terrain
When roads are built by engineers with capital to support their work, they are successfully able to build roads across difficult soils. Modern road builders have less need to seek out easy geological conditions. When roads were made not by civil engineers but by people walking on the ground, the road followed the soils which were found to be easiest under foot. The A151 passes across two types of country, the upland and the fen. The highest point on it lies within a kilometre of its western end at 123 metres above mean sea level. It then passes across a gently sloping dissected plateau of Jurassic rocks capped in its highest parts by glacial clay. After about 16 kilometres, it enters the fen and is soon at about two metres, rising to three, nearer the coast.

Western End
Having for some time, extended its influence by diplomacy and trade, The Roman Empire began to take control in Britain from the year 43. An important part of the means of control was the building of soundly-built roads, running directly between key places. This led the engineers to overcome all but the greatest obstacles rather than going round them. One result of this was that they built roads on soils which others would have avoided. When the Roman authorities had withdrawn from Britain and their roads wore out, people began to wander from the Roman road lines where they could find a more secure footing by taking another line.

The Roman equivalent of the A1 was built to a very high standard, during the early years of Roman rule in Britain. The English successors of the Romans in Britain, called this road Ermine Street from their word for "soldier", compare the German personal name, Herman. The twenty kilometre length of Ermine Street, at roughly the centre of which, the line of the A151 lies, passed over chalky till (boulder clay) which is very sticky when wet. As the Ermine Street carriageway broke up, people sought easier going by moving down towards the small River Witham whose valley had been eroded through the till, into the Jurassic limestone below it.

Thus, in 1756 when the Colsterworth to Bourne road was turnpiked, the toll road which was to become the A151 began at the crossroads in Colsterworth, further west than it now does, though the first toll gate noted by the 1824 Ordnance Survey map was about three kilometres from there. When the Colsterworth bypass was built, its southern half was placed virtually on the Ermine Street line so that now, while the A151 still begins at the A1, it is not at the old Great North Road but at Ermine Street, on the chalky till soil that we start our journey. Bourne Road, Colsterworth, the section removed from the A151, remains part of the B676, the road which leads westwards, towards Melton Mowbray.

Once the clutter associated with a trunk road junction is left behind, the road passes through agricultural land and woods. To the north are fairly level fields and to the south, Twyford Wood, which cloaks the remains of North Witham airfield.

Corby Glen
At the end of the wood, we leave Colsterworth parish. Three kilometres from the start, at the hamlet of Birkholme, the road finds a shallow valley formed by erosion which has cut through the till and exposed the underlying Jurassic limestone soils. Here, the 1824 map shows our first toll gate, Corby Toll Bar. The road follows this valley, under the railway main line, past the second toll gate site at the junction with the Boothby Pagnel road (B1176), then down to the River Glen at Corby Glen, where it turns a little southwards to avoid more glacial till and keep to the upper Lincolnshire limestone. The land between Colsterworth and the western edge of Bourne is a plateau, gently sloping down to the east and much dissected by erosion during periods when it was near but not under ice caps. The River Glen which we crossed at Corby Glen is also called the West Glen and is in one of the two main dissecting valleys. East of Corby Glen, we are on a strip of un-dissected plateau. The surface dips very gently towards the east but the geological strata dip more steeply so that a kilometre out of Corby Glen, the road passes onto the strata above the limestone, known as the Upper Estuarine Series, the Blisworth Limestone, Blisworth clay, Cornbrash and Kellaways clay, in that order.

Edenham
At Irnham crossroads, the A151 leaves Corby Glen parish for that of Edenham and is back down on the cornbrash. To the north, unseen in its little valley beyond the woods is Irnham, once the home of Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who commissioned the Luttrell Psalter, a book which tells us so much of English everyday life in the 14th century.

The road dips into the valley of the stream which flows on to form the lake in Grimsthorpe Park. Just skirting the glacial till, it rises to the crest at the other side, on the Kellaways clay and sand and turns sharply left onto the till. It used to go straight on and pass the north front of Grimsthorpe Castle. When the soil in the field beyond the bend is bare, its course can still be seen. The castle's owner did a deal with the turnpike trustees. He brought land on the other side of the road into his park and built them a new, though longer road around it. Once the semi-circular diversion is completed, the road turns sharp left again, through Grimsthorpe where it is on Jurassic clay. The 1824 Ordnance Survey map shows both the old and the new roads.

At Grimsthorpe village, the A151 is in the second of the main valleys dissecting the plateau, that of the East Glen river. From its association with Edenham, this river is often called the Eden. The West and East Glens join near Wilsthorpe, at. Through Grimsthorpe and Edenham, there are numerous bends and winds across the small exposures Jurassic soils, glacial gravel and alluvium, until the road climbs out of the valley over the till-capped ridge which separates Edenham parish from Bourne. On the glacial clay soil of the till, it passes between woods, including Bourne Wood.

Bourne
As the road arrives back on the Jurassic clay, it meets the A6121, a road designation which ends here, having begun at Morcott, in Rutland, on the other side of the A1, hence its beginning with the digit 6. In 1824, there was a toll gate here. The course of the A151 is directly down the slope into Bourne. It is clear archaeologically that the road used to run parallel with this and about 200 metres to the south. Historically, there appears to be no commonly available record as to when the move was made. It was certainly in two stages. The move of the upper part was probably made in the 18th century; the lower, in about 1140, when Bourne castle was built across it. Its present course is dictated by the former presence of Bourne Castle at the town end and by a desire to keep to the crest of a slight ridge in the hillside.

It is towards the top of this section that it is possible to detect a change in slope betraying the former presence of a shore of the Devensian periglacial lake, which was impounded by the ice into the Fenland basin. It was more evident but the declivity of the road has been smoothed out a little.

Much more modern, is the bypass road which joins from the south at the entrance to the town and just below the level of the surface of the former lake. This opened for use on 8 October 2005. In the town, the A151 passes immediately outside the castle site, along the latter's northern edge. However the plots along this side of the road were first laid out for houses in around 1280, so that the castle is no longer casually apparent.

At Bourne Market Place, the A151 crosses the A15. This road used to be part of the Lincoln Heath to Peterborough turnpike road, whose act of parliament is dated 1756. It was this trust which, in 1820, demolished the old town hall which used to stand in the street here.

At the junction, the road to the north led directly form the main gate of the castle. The market place was positioned immediately across a moat and a pomœrium, outside the gate but those are no longer visible from the road. However, our road continues not straight ahead but on a 45° angle toward the south. This bend arose because it passed around the perimeter of the pomœrium until it met the road leading eastwards from the gate. As the A151 reaches this, it turns back through 45° and continues eastwards along that approach road, across the line of the Roman version of the A15, King Street and past the Abbey Lawn. This is now a picturesque cricket ground, but was an 18th-century sheep lawn. Soon, the road leaves the 12th century, Norman road, heading towards the pre-Norman town. On arrival, it turns eastwards again, at the same time as crossing the now-buried course of the Car Dyke and onto the fen-edge gravel. This is material which drifted down the slope which we have followed, while it was under the water of the Devensian periglacial lake.

The Car Dyke is generally taken as the boundary of The Fens, though here, it heralds the more commercial part of the town. At once, the road passes the former works of BRM, the Formula One motor racing Constructors' Champion in 1962. The firm is gone but it has left an engineering tradition in the town. Shortly, the road turns north-eastwards, following the bank of the Roman artificial river across the fen, the Old Ea. At the edge of the town, it turns away from the now hidden river bed, almost eastwards across the black, humic soil of Bourne North Fen. Here we begin to see The Fens as the region more typically is, a broad, nearly flat, agricultural land.

At, the road turns due eastwards at Friar Bar, where to judge by its name, at one stage was a toll bar. The Ordnance Survey does not note it but on the Exeter Estate book, it is called Friers Bar. The road from Bourne to Spalding had been turnpiked in 1822, after the survey had begun. So it looks as though the Ordnance Survey had overlooked it. From here, the road runs $3.5 km$, straight to Twenty.

The Car Dyke marked the western boundary of the royal forest decreed, by one of the Norman kings. It extended south and east, across the fens to the Welland. There seems to be no precise agreement as to when the land was disafforested. It was somewhere between 1190 and 1230. The obvious occasion was the signing of Magna Carta in 1215 or perhaps, on one of its re-issues. That document mentions King John's afforestations.

Roads on the black soils tend to crumble at the edges as the soft humus collapses and oxidises. This road is typical of fen roads, in needing frequent attention to deal with that. It is typical too, in that it rises and falls as it passes over the silt banks left amongst the peat by small to medium marine creeks from the Middle Bronze Age, 3 to 3½ thousand years ago. This was before the peat in the soil was laid down.

In the black fens, the buildings are virtually always to be found on these old creeks, known as roddons. The many small roddons in Bourne North Fen merge at Twenty. There, the road uses part of this larger roddon by turning along it towards Guthram. Nowadays, this place is called Guthram Gowt but until the steam drainage engine was erected there, in 184?, it was Guthram Cote.

In the late medieval period, people lived on the fen edge and the Townlands but the fens themselves were thinly populated. There were however, a few comparatively grand establishments called Halls, Neslam Hall at, for example. It was a grange of Sempringham Priory on the site of the modern Mornington House round which the district boundary is still diverted as it was when the abbey, on the Kesteven fen edge, owned it. There were more but still rather few smaller dwellings called cotes. Moors Cote lay in Bourne North Fen, to the south-east of Twenty and Guthram Cote stood on the boundary between Kesteven and Holland, on an island of Devensian deposits, the Abbey sand and gravel. The road book, Paterson's Roads, of 1826, lists a toll gate at Guthram Cote, a distance of 5+1/4 mi from Bourne. Just to the east of this was the bridge over what it calls the South Forty-Foot Eau(15).

Pinchbeck
The Kesteven-Holland boundary is formed by the South Forty-Foot Drain, the main land drain of the Black Sluice Level. The present layout of the drainage dates from the Act of Parliament of 1765 but this part of the South Forty-foot is a re-use of one of the main drains of the Lindsey Level, a scheme which was declared complete in 1638. On the other side, in Pinchbeck North Fen, the road begins to wind, something quite unusual in these fens. It was laid out on the bank of a soak dike called the Weir Dike, which was cut in about 1600. In Pinchbeck North Fen, the dike is now largely defunct. The instructions stipulated that it should be at a distance of 100 feet (33M) from the bank of the River Glen. As the river bank meandered a little, so the road does(13).

The river is the one the A151 crosses at Corby Glen and Edenham. Here the two parts are combined. Beyond the Glen, to the south, is an area of dense Romano-British occupation. On this side, a little is known but if there is more, it is covered with post-Roman marine silt(14). It looks as though this part of the river began as a single sea bank, keeping the tide out of Pinchbeck South Fen but allowing it into the lower part of that area behind the townland to the north of the road. In the late Roman or early post-Roman period, the Glen escaped from its artificial Roman course of which the Bourne Old Ea was part. (The road follows the bank of this while leaving Bourne) and found its way to these tidal flats. Later, at some early but unknown medieval date, the marsh was turned into a polder of sorts and the Glen was directed along the old sea bank which then became one of the river banks. Thus, the course of the road was determined ultimately, by that of the sea bank.

The River Glen will have been in the phase when it flowed into the tidal marsh, with its mouth at Guthram, at around 500, the time when the unknown writer who goes under the name of Nennius tells us that King Arthur fought his first battle against the English settlers at the mouth of the River Glein. See Historia Britonum numbered paragraph 3. See also Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend.

title: A151 road