text:
Montmagny, Switzerland

Montmagny is a former municipality in the district of Broye-Vully in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland.

The municipalities of Bellerive, Chabrey, Constantine, Montmagny, Mur, Vallamand and Villars-le-Grand merged on 1 July 2011 into the new municipality of Vully-les-Lacs.

History
Montmagny is first mentioned in the 13th Century as Manniaco. In 1458 it was mentioned as Montmagniel.

Geography
Montmagny has an area,, of 3.8 km2. Of this area, 2.77 km2 or 72.9% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.81 km2 or 21.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.17 km2 or 4.5% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.07 km2 or 1.8% is either rivers or lakes.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.2% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.3%. Out of the forested land, 19.2% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.1% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 67.9% is used for growing crops and 2.9% is pastures, while 2.1% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality was part of the Avenches District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Montmagny became part of the new district of Broye-Vully.

The municipality is located in the hill country of the Vully region.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or, on a Coupeaux Vert a Wolf rampant Sable langued Gules.

Demographics
Montmagny has a population of 180. , 7.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 8.4%. It has changed at a rate of 12.7% due to migration and at a rate of -1.8% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population speaks French (126 or 80.8%), with German being second most common (20 or 12.8%) and Portuguese being third (4 or 2.6%). There are 3 people who speak Italian.

Of the population in the municipality 64 or about 41.0% were born in Montmagny and lived there in 2000. There were 13 or 8.3% who were born in the same canton, while 60 or 38.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 14 or 9.0% were born outside of Switzerland.

In there were 3 live births to Swiss citizens and 1 death of a Swiss citizen. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 2 while the foreign population remained the same. There was 1 non-Swiss man who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 10 and the non-Swiss population decreased by 5 people. This represents a population growth rate of 2.9%.

The age distribution,, in Montmagny is; 22 children or 12.2% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 20 teenagers or 11.1% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 20 people or 11.1% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 24 people or 13.3% are between 30 and 39, 34 people or 18.9% are between 40 and 49, and 18 people or 10.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 15 people or 8.3% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 17 people or 9.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 10 people or 5.6% who are between 80 and 89.

, there were 68 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 74 married individuals, 7 widows or widowers and 7 individuals who are divorced.

the average number of residents per living room was 0.55 which is fewer people per room than the cantonal average of 0.61 per room. In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least 4 m2 as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics. About 54.4% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).

, there were 63 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.4 persons per household. There were 23 households that consist of only one person and 6 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 64 households that answered this question, 35.9% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 17 married couples without children, 16 married couples with children There were 7 single parents with a child or children.

there were 34 single family homes (or 55.7% of the total) out of a total of 61 inhabited buildings. There were 7 multi-family buildings (11.5%), along with 18 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (29.5%) and 2 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (3.3%). Of the single family homes 11 were built before 1919, while 10 were built between 1990 and 2000. The most multi-family homes (4) were built between 1919 and 1945 and the next most (2) were built before 1919.

there were 74 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 4 rooms of which there were 30. There were 2 single room apartments and 22 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 57 apartments (77.0% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 14 apartments (18.9%) were seasonally occupied and 3 apartments (4.1%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 31.77% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (25.09%), the LPS Party (20.94%) and the SP (12.45%). In the federal election, a total of 63 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%.

Economy
, Montmagny had an unemployment rate of 4.8%. , there were 27 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. people were employed in the secondary sector and there were businesses in this sector. 4 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 2 businesses in this sector. There were 73 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 35.6% of the workforce.

the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 21. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 18, all of which were in agriculture. There were no jobs in the secondary sector. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 3. In the tertiary sector; 2 were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 1 was a technical professional or scientist.

, there were 13 workers who commuted into the municipality and 44 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 3.4 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 0% used public transportation to get to work, and 64.4% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 36 or 23.1% were Roman Catholic, while 97 or 62.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, and there were 3 individuals (or about 1.92% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 3 (or about 1.92% of the population) who were Islamic. There were and 1 individual who belonged to another church. 12 (or about 7.69% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 4 individuals (or about 2.56% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Montmagny about 45 or (28.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 20 or (12.8%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule). Of the 20 who completed tertiary schooling, 75.0% were Swiss men, 20.0% were Swiss women.

In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 24 students in the Montmagny school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 155 children of which 83 children (53.5%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 13 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 11 students in those schools.

, there was one student in Montmagny who came from another municipality, while 28 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

title: Montmagny, Switzerland


text:
Talk:Ryan Cabrera

Article talk page
This is not the place to gush your admiration for Ryan. If your comment is not about editing the article, go find a discussion forum someplace to talk about how "hot" he is. CovenantD 22:35, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

I have removed: "If anyone knows the song set list from Ryan's You stand Watching tour 2005, please post it hear and as well the link where the information came from." from the "You Stand Watching" section as it does not relate at all to the article. It is more appropriate to suggest content development in the talk page is it not? (99.242.107.142 (talk) 17:52, 4 June 2008 (UTC))

Unsure of the status as "fan site" and references
I'm not sure what in this page appears to be a "fan site". It seems to be written rather factually, can anyone cite some points?

Also, I posted information about his upcoming album (below) - I think this is the reason there is a flag for "no references". Now my reference was hearing Ryan Cabrera himself state this at a live show on July 28th 2007 at the Crazy Donkey, Farmingdale NY. What do you recommend as a proper way to cite this reference?

"Untitled - Currently Unreleased Cabrera is currently in the studio recording his fourth album. It is due to be released March 2008. The album includes songs entitled "Home" and "Keep your Enemies Close and Your Lovers closer"." - July 31,2007 8:32pm EST

Article for the song "Say"
On the article for the song Say by Ryan I added that Rob Dyrdek makes a cameo appearence in the music video. If you look at the article and think the little bit of information I put in needs to be changed to sound better it's up to you. posted by FortWhatever —Preceding unsigned comment added by FortWhatever (talk • contribs) 18:52, 27 June 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Ryan Cabrera. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20091003093056/http://www.mtv.com:80/videos/ryan-cabrera/57550/shine-on.jhtml to http://www.mtv.com/videos/ryan-cabrera/57550/shine-on.jhtml

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 18:19, 8 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Ryan Cabrera. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20140715001740/http://www.music-chart.info/artist/66027/Ryan-Cabrera to http://www.music-chart.info/artist/66027/Ryan-Cabrera

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 18:48, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Ryan Cabrera


text:
Talk:Roger Stone

Netflix documentary as a source
I'll raise the question about using Netflix as a source at WP:RS, it seems to me that it should be treated like a book. NadVolum (talk) 07:39, 29 May 2023 (UTC)

 * @NadVolum; appreciated, thanks. I'll join the discussion over there. 49ersBelongInSanFrancisco (talk) 04:34, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

Lead image
Requesting that the lead image be changed to a recent picture taken by Gage Skidmore at this year's Turning Point Action Conference. The other image is a low quality copy from the Associated Press, which does not use a Creative Commons license. TaurusEmerald (talk) 16:57, 26 July 2023 (UTC)

Stone and Assange
Two of my edits were recently reverted with the reason "revert bold changes by Burrobert. Please discuss on talk. Appears to change the meaning of what the sources say". My edits do not "change the meaning of what the sources say". They do change the meaning of what this Wikipedia page says and there is a good reason for that. It's fairly clear that the original text "change[d] the meaning of what the sources say" and the purpose of my edit was to ensure the text conformed to the source. Here are the details of the first reverted edit:
 * "However" and "deny" are words to watch - this is basic editing: see wp:Words_to_watch
 * First change: "However, two unnamed associates of Stone have alleged that he collaborated with WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange during the 2016 presidential campaign to discredit Hillary Clinton" -> “Two unnamed associates of Stone have alleged that Stone claimed to have had contact with Julian Assange during the 2016 presidential campaign".
 * Compare this with what the source says: “one of two Stone associates who say Stone claimed to have had contact with Assange in 2016”. Spelling it out, the two associates do not say Stone collaborated with Assange. The associates say Stone claimed to have had contact with Assange. That's a big difference.

 * Second change: "Stone and Assange have denied these claims". -> "WikiLeaks and Assange said they have never communicated with Stone. Stone said he could recall only one occasion on which he mentioned contact with Assange, and said that mention was made as a joke".
 * Compare this with what the source says: "WikiLeaks and Assange have also said they never communicated with Stone" and "He said he only recalled having one conversation with anyone in which he alluded to meeting the WikiLeaks founder — a comment he said he made as a joke to a long-winded Nunberg ... "It was a joke, a throwaway line to get him off the phone" ". Hopefully, that is also very clear.

Burrobert (talk) 04:02, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

 * 1. Not really a substantial difference.
 * 2. WP:MANDY.
 * Zaathras (talk) 04:20, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Too vague to mean anything. Where does Mandy fit in? If there is no difference, which I don't accept, why not change to my version? Burrobert (talk) 04:37, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Burrobert (talk) 04:58, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Since we know that Stone met and was in contact with Assange we don't really need to give so much air to the idea that the meeting didn't happen. Some of your changes are innocuous but let's make sure we understand what the source says and what Stone says and don't substitute the latter for the former. Andre🚐 05:13, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * You have changed the discussion by introducing a source which does not appear to be mentioned in this page. If we are going to use the sources currently cited in this page then my comments above still stand. My responses to the new source are:
 * The text on our page is referring to contact "during the 2016 presidential campaign". The new source says "court documents from the federal investigation of Mr. Stone, released late Monday, show that at least after the election, the two men had maintained a personal relationship" and "The records shed no new light on whether Mr. Stone, 67, directly communicated with Mr. Assange before the election".
 * The new source does not say "Stone met and was in contact with Assange". It talks about an "exchange of messages". Burrobert (talk) 06:01, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not "changing the discussion" by introducing a new source. I reverted your bold edits, now we're discussing a possible constructive path toward a resolution. Therefore we should discuss our understanding of the material. My understanding is that Stone met with and had contact with Assange, and then said otherwise on several occasions (understandably). We can set that aside for a moment, but let's be clear that Stone did have contact with Assange, and we can figure out how to phrase that. Andre🚐 06:16, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

"Stone met with and had contact with Assange". Has anyone said Stone met with Assange? Burrobert (talk) 06:28, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

 * He was found guilty for lying to Congress for meeting with Wikileaks and he also was in close contact with Trump about Wikileaks Andre🚐 06:34, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Actually, you may be right that it was only contacts with Wikileaks, not a physical meeting, but he still lied about it on multiple occasions. Andre🚐 06:36, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I think we should use the term "had contact with" then rather than "met", which is likely to be misinterpreted as a physical meeting. Incorporating your new source into the article, here is a suggested wording for the lead. It contains a few changes to more accurately reflect the source being used. In particular it is more careful about the times when the various statements and supposed events occurred:
 * In 2018, two associates of Stone alleged that Stone claimed to have had contact with Julian Assange during the 2016 presidential campaign. In response, Assange told the Washington Post that he had not met with Stone in Spring 2016 and Wikileaks said it had had no contact with Stone. Stone said he could recall only one occasion on which he mentioned meeting with Assange, and said that mention was made as a joke. Court documents released in 2020, showed Stone and Assange exchanged messages in June 2017. Burrobert (talk) 07:21, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * ¯\_(⊙︿⊙)_/¯        Burrobert (talk) 13:19, 17 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I guess that's fine - @Valjean any thoughts? Andre🚐 16:38, 17 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Ok I'll wait a few minutes to see if Valjean has any thoughts. Burrobert (talk) 04:35, 18 August 2023 (UTC)
 * @Burrobert I think theres a mistake in the edit Assange told the Washington Post that he had not met with Stone in the northern Spring of 2016
 * Is northern spring a mistake or is it something I dont know? Softlemonades (talk) 13:25, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * The Washingpost source says "Through his attorney, Assange — who has been living in the Ecuadoran Embassy in London since 2012 — told The Post in January that he did not meet Stone in spring 2016". I added the word "northern" to distinguish it from the southern Spring which occurs at a different time of year. If you can think of a better way of wording this, feel free to change the wording. Burrobert (talk) 13:29, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

Stone and Assange - redux

 * "acknowledged", "pointed to": these are words to watch - see MOS:SAID: "Said, stated, described, wrote, commented, and according to are almost always neutral and accurate".
 * "deny" is a word to watch - see wp:Words_to_watch
 * First change: "two sources close to Stone, former Trump aide Sam Nunberg and a person speaking on condition of anonymity, acknowledged to The Washington Post that Stone had established contact with WikiLeaks owner Julian Assange" --> "two sources close to Stone, former Trump aide Sam Nunberg and a person speaking on condition of anonymity, told The Washington Post that Stone had claimed to have made contact with Julian Assange".
 * This change was explained in the earlier section. The source says "one of two Stone associates who say Stone claimed to have had contact with Assange in 2016".

 * Second change: "According to Nunberg, who claimed he spoke to the paper after being asked to do so by Special Counsel Robert Mueller" -—> "According to Nunberg, Special Counsel Robert Mueller had asked him to recount Stone's description of the telephone call with Assange".
 * Compare this with the source, which says "Sam Nunberg, said in an interview Monday that Stone told him that he had met with Assange — a conversation Nunberg said investigators for special counsel Robert S. Mueller III recently asked him to describe". Nunberg isn’t saying Mueller told him to talk to the Washingppost. Mueller was asking Nunberg to tell him (Mueller) about the conversation. The source later says "Nunberg told The Post that the questions he was asked by Mueller’s investigators indicated to him that the special counsel is examining statements Stone has made publicly about WikiLeaks".

 * Third change: "Stone joked to him that he had taken a trip to London to personally meet with Assange, but declined to do so, had only wanted to have telephone conversations to remain undetected and did not have advance notice of the leaked emails” —>  "Stone said Nunberg had called him and asked about his plans for the weekend and Stone had replied he was travelling to London to visit Assange as "a throwaway line to get [Nunberg] off the phone" “.
 * The original text is difficult to understand and is wrong in a number of ways here. I can't see the source for the phrase "but declined to do so, had only wanted to have telephone conversations to remain undetected". In the conversation, Stone does not say "he had taken a trip to London”. He says “he was travelling to London to visit Assange”. The fictitious trip was taking place in the future, not the past. Secondly, Nunberg does not say Stone joked to him. In fact Nunberg says “he did not take the comment as a joke”. It is Stone who describes the statement as "a joke, a throwaway line to get him off the phone".

Burrobert (talk) 04:31, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

 * why is this in a second topic? Softlemonades (talk) 04:33, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I made two separate edits that were reverted. I have created a separate topic for each edit. There is some overlap in the subject. Burrobert (talk) 04:38, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I have created a separate topic for each edit ok thank you for explaining, i had trouble understanding Softlemonades (talk) 04:42, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

This talk section relates to this edit Burrobert (talk) 04:52, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Burrobert (talk) 04:59, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * There's really no reason to deal with these 2 edits in 2 separate sections. So why don't we shorten this WP:TEXTWALL into a single thread. Feel free to redact or combine your own posts. Andre🚐 05:13, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * you can remove my replies if you combine threads Softlemonades (talk) 05:34, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I think it will become unwieldy if we change things now. Why not deal with the first reverted edit above, then deal with this one. Burrobert (talk) 06:03, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * It's already unwieldy now. Andre🚐 06:17, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

I have changed the lead in accordance with the discussion in the section "Stone and Assange". What should we do about the suggestions mentioned above in this section? Burrobert (talk) 12:56, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * There does not appear to be much interest in this. I am going to start slowly reintroducing the changes mentioned above. Please raise any concerns here. Burrobert (talk) 01:59, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Any concerns so far? Burrobert (talk) 02:10, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
 * The changes seem minor to me Andre🚐 02:31, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Correct. Thought it would be safer to start with the less controversial ones. More changes to come. Burrobert (talk) 02:42, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roger Stone


text:
Synthon

In retrosynthetic analysis, a synthon is a hypothetical unit within a target molecule that represents a potential starting reagent in the retroactive synthesis of that target molecule. The term was coined in 1967 by E. J. Corey. He noted in 1988 that the "word synthon has now come to be used to mean synthetic building block rather than retrosynthetic fragmentation structures". It was noted in 1998 that the phrase did not feature very prominently in Corey's 1981 book The Logic of Chemical Synthesis, as it was not included in the index. Because synthons are charged, when placed into a synthesis an uncharged form is found commercially instead of forming and using the potentially very unstable charged synthons.

Example

 * [[Image:Retrosynthetic analysis of phenylacetic acid.svg|400px|Retrosynthetic analysis of phenylacetic acid]]

In planning the synthesis of phenylacetic acid, two synthons are identified: a nucleophilic "COOH−" group, and an electrophilic "PhCH2+" group. Of course, both synthons do not exist by themselves; synthetic equivalents corresponding to the synthons are reacted to produce the desired reactant. In this case, the cyanide anion is the synthetic equivalent for the COOH− synthon, while benzyl bromide is the synthetic equivalent for the benzyl synthon.

The synthesis of phenylacetic acid determined by retrosynthetic analysis is thus:

 * Ph\sCH2\sBr + Na+[C\tN]− → Ph\sCH2\sC\tN + NaBr
 * Ph\sCH2\sC\tN + 2 H2O → Ph\sCH2\sC(\dO)\sOH + NH3

where Ph stands for phenyl.
 * [[Image:Synthesis of phenylacetic acid english.svg|600 px]]

 * C2 synthons - acetylene, acetaldehyde
 * -C2H4OH synthon - ethylene oxide
 * carbocation synthons - alkyl halides
 * carbanion synthons - Grignard reagents, organolithiums, substituted acetylides

Alternative use in synthetic oligonucleotides
This term is also used in the field of gene synthesis—for example "40-base synthetic oligonucleotides are built into 500- to 800-bp synthons".

Carbocationic synthons

Many retrosynthetic disconnections important for organic synthesis planning use carbocationic synthons. Carbon-carbon bonds, for example, exist ubiquitously in organic molecules, and are usually disconnected during a retrosynthetic analysis to yield carbocationic and carbanionic synthons. Carbon-heteroatom bonds, such as those found in alkyl halides, alcohols, and amides, can also be traced backwards retrosynthetically to polar C-X bond disconnections yielding a carbocation on carbon. oxonium and acylium ions are carbocationic synthons for carbonyl compounds such as ketones, aldehydes and carboxylic acid derivatives. An oxonium-type synthon was used in a disconnection en route to the hops ether, a key component of beer (see fig.1). In the forward direction, the researchers used an intramolecular aldol reaction catalyzed by titanium tetrachloride to form the tetrahydrofuran ring of hops ether.

Another common disconnection that features carbocationic synthons is the Pictet-Spengler reaction. The mechanism of the reaction involves C-C pi-bond attack onto an iminium ion, usually formed in situ from the condensation of an amine and an aldehyde. The Pictet-Spengler reaction has been used extensively for the synthesis of numerous indole and isoquinoline alkaloids.
 * The Pictet-Spengler disconnection.png

Carbanion alkylation is a common strategy used to create carbon-carbon bonds. The alkylating agent is usually an alkyl halide or an equivalent compound with a good leaving group on carbon. Allyl halides are particularly attractive for SN2-type reactions due to the increased reactivity added by the allyl system. Celestolide (4-acetyl-6-t-butyl-1,1-dimethylindane, a component of musk perfume) can be synthesized using a benzyl anion alkylation with 3-chloro-2-methyl-1-propene as an intermediate step. The synthesis is fairly straightforward, and has been adapted for teaching purposes in an undergraduate laboratory.

title: Synthon


text:
1995 in art

Events from the year 1995 in art.

Events

 * January – New San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, designed by Mario Botta, opens.
 * June – Narendra Patel's sculpture Jantar-Mantar, on the campus of the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (UWM) on the east side of Milwaukee, Wisconsin., is dedicated.
 * November 28 – Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art, designed by Richard Meier, opens.

Exhibitions

 * October 22 – Brilliant!, an exhibition by the Young British Artists group (who also feature heavily in this year’s British Art Show), opens at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, USA.

Works

 * Larry D. Alexander – Clinton Family Portrait
 * Ilan Averbuch – Little Prince (sculpture, Portland, Oregon)
 * Christo and Jeanne Claude - "Wrapped Reichstag" in Berlin, Germany
 * Tracey Emin – Everyone I Have Ever Slept With 1963–1995 ("The Tent")
 * Helen Frankenthaler - Cassis
 * Lucian Freud – Benefits Supervisor Sleeping
 * Antony Gormley – Havmannen (sculpture)
 * Marcus Harvey – Myra
 * Philip Jackson (sculptor)
 * Dolphin Group
 * Jersey Liberation Memorial
 * Maggie Reading
 * Rachel Joynt and Remco de Fouw – Perpetual Motion (sculpture, Naas by-pass, Ireland)
 * Nabil Kanso – series
 * Dance of Salome
 * The Raven
 * Yue Minjun - Execution
 * Sir Eduardo Paolozzi – Newton (sculpture)
 * Cornelia Parker – Embryo Firearms (preempted objects)
 * Cornelia Parker and Tilda Swinton – The Maybe (performance piece)
 * Nari Ward - Peace Keeper

Awards

 * Archibald Prize – William Robinson, Self-portrait with stunned mullet
 * John Moores Painting Prize - David Leapman for "Double-Tongued Knowability
 * Schock Prize in Visual Arts – Claes Oldenburg
 * Turner Prize – Damien Hirst (Mona Hatoum, Callum Innes, and Mark Wallinger were shortlisted).

The Venice Biennial
 * The Golden Lion for best Pavilion : Akram El-Magdoub, Hamdi Attia, Medhat Shafik, and Khaled Shokry representing Egypt

January to June

 * February – Robert Stewart, Scottish textile designer (b. 1924)
 * March 18 – Robin Jacques, English illustrator (b. 1920)
 * April 1 – Dame Lucie Rie, Austrian-born British studio potter (b. 1902)
 * April 3 – Lang Jingshan, Chinese photographer (b. 1892)
 * April 15 – Harry Shoulberg, American expressionist painter (b. 1903)
 * April 24 – Lodewijk Bruckman, Dutch magic realist painter (b. 1903)
 * May 26 – Friz Freleng, American animator, cartoonist, director and producer (b. 1906)
 * May 30 – William McVey, American sculptor (b. 1905)
 * June 22 - Al Hansen, American artist (b. 1927)

July to December

 * July 4 – Bob Ross, American painter and television presenter (b.1942)
 * July 24 – George Rodger, English photographer (b.1908)
 * August 23 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German American photographer (b.1898)
 * August 28 – Carl Giles, English cartoonist (b.1916)
 * September 3 – Mary Adshead, English painter (b.1904)
 * October 21
 * Jesús Blasco, Spanish comic book author and artist (b.1919)
 * Nancy Graves, American sculptor, painter and printmaker (b.1939)
 * October 26 – Wilhelm Freddie, Danish painter and sculptor (b.1909).
 * date unknown
 * Jean-Yves Couliou, French painter (b.1916)
 * Stevan Knežević, Serbian painter, sculptor and professor of art (b.1940)

title: 1995 in art


text:
Sukjong of Joseon

Sukjong (7 October 1661 – 12 July 1720), personal name Yi Sun, was the 19th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. A skilled legislator, he caused multiple changes in political power throughout his reign, by switching among the Namin (Southerners), Seoin (Westerners), Soron and Noron political factions.

Biography
King Sukjong was born on October 7, 1661, to King Hyeonjong and Queen Myeongseong at Gyeonghui Palace. His given name was Yi Sun. He became the Crown Prince Myeongbo in 1667 at age 6, and in 1674, at age 13, he became the 19th ruler of the Joseon Dynasty.

King Sukjong was a brilliant politician, but his reign was marked by some of the most intense factional fights in the Joseon dynasty. Sukjong frequently replaced faction in power with another one to strengthen the royal authority. With each change of government, which was called hwanguk, literally change/switching of the state, the losing faction was completely driven out of politics with executions and exiles. Nevertheless, the chaotic changes of government did not affect the general populace significantly, and his reign is considered one of more prosperous times.

Factional Fighting
In the early years of Sukjong's reign, the Southern faction and Western faction clashed over the Royal Funeral Dispute, a seemingly minor issue regarding the mourning period for Queen Insun. The Southern faction claimed that the mourning period should last one year while the Western faction argued for a nine-month mourning period. A one-year mourning period meant that Hyojong of Joseon was considered the eldest son while 9-month period would suggest that Hyojong was considered not the eldest son, following the rules that governed the yangban class. In other words, the Western faction viewed the royal family as the first of the yangban class rather than a separate class for which different rules applied. The two factions were also in conflict over the issue of fighting the Qing Dynasty, which was considered barbaric country (as opposed to Ming Dynasty) that threatened Joseon's national security. The Southern faction, led by Heo Jeok and Yun Hyu, supported war against Qing while Western factions wanted to focus first on improving domestic conditions.

Sukjong at first sided with the Southern faction, but in 1680, Heo Jeok was accused of treason by Western faction, which led to the execution of Heo Jeok and Yun Hyu and purging of the Southern faction. This incident is called Gyeongsin Hwanguk. Once in power, the Western faction split into the Noron (Old Learning) faction, led by Song Si-yeol, and the Soron (New Learning) faction, led by Yun Jeung. After nine years in power, the Noron collapsed when Sukjong deposed Queen Min (posthumously called Queen Inhyeon), who was supported by the Western faction, and named Consort Hui of the Jang clan (also called Consort Jang or Jang Hui-bin) as the new queen. She is widely thought to be one of the most beautiful women of Joseon, she was the only person recorded in Annals for her beautiful features. The Western faction angered Sukjong when it opposed the naming of Consort Jang's son as crown prince. The Southern faction, who supported Consort Jang and her son, regained power and drove out Western faction, executing Song Si-yeol in revenge. This is called Gisa Hwanguk.

Five years later in 1694, as the Southern faction planned another purge of the Western faction, accusing them of conspiracy to reinstate the deposed Queen, Sukjong began to regret deposing Queen Min and favored Consort Suk of the Choe clan, an ally of the Queen and the Noron faction. Angry with the Southern faction's attempt to purge Westerners, Sukjong abruptly turned around to purge Southerners and brought the Western faction back to power. The Southern faction would never recover from this blow, also called Gapsul Hwanguk. Sukjong demoted Queen Jang to her previous title (Jang Hui-bin) and reinstated Queen Min. Consort Jang was eventually executed by poison for cursing the Queen. The Soron faction supported Crown Prince Yi Yun, Consort Jang's son, while the Noron faction supported Consort Choe's son, Prince Yeoning (Yi Geum), later to become Yeongjo of Joseon. The late Queen Inhyeon and the newly installed Queen Kim (posthumously known as Queen Inwon) were both childless.

In 1718, Sukjong allowed the crown prince, soon to be Gyeongjong of Joseon, to rule as regent. Sukjong died in 1720 supposedly after telling Yi Yi-myoung to name Prince Yeoning as Gyeongjong's heir - in absence of a historiographer or recorder. This would lead to yet another purge in which four Noron leaders were executed in 1721, followed by another purge with the executions of eight Noron members in 1722.

Sukjong's accomplishments include tax reform (大同法), the creation of a new monetary system and currency (Korean mun), and the liberalization of civil service rules promoting the middle class and children of concubines into higher-ranking regional government positions.

In 1712, Sukjong's government worked with the Qing Dynasty in China to define national borders between the two countries at the Yalu and Tumen Rivers. The Japanese government recognized Ulleung Island as Joseon's territory in 1696 (the South Korean government insists that Liancourt Rocks was also recognized, while the Japanese government disagrees).

Sukjong's reign also saw agricultural development in remote provinces and increased cultural activity including publishing. He died after reigning for 46 years in 1720 at age 60. He was buried in Myeongneung in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province, inside the Five Western Royal Graves (서오릉, 西五陵; Seooneung).

Family
Consort(s) and their respective issue
 * Father: King Hyeonjong of Joseon (14 March 1641 – 17 September 1674)
 * Grandfather: King Hyojong of Joseon (3 July 1619 – 23 June 1659)
 * Grandmother: Queen Inseon of the Deoksu Jang clan (9 February 1619 – 19 March 1674)
 * Mother: Queen Myeongseong of the Cheongpung Kim clan (13 June 1642 – 21 January 1684)
 * Grandfather: Kim Woo-myeong (1619–1675)
 * Grandmother: Lady Song of the Eunjin Song clan (1621–1660)
 * Queen Ingyeong of the Gwangsan Kim clan (25 October 1661 – 16 December 1680)
 * First daughter (27 April 1677 – 13 March 1678)
 * Second daughter (23 October 1679 – 24 October 1679)
 * Miscarriage (22 July 1680)
 * Queen Inhyeon of the Yeoheung Min clan (15 May 1667 – 16 September 1701)
 * Queen Inwon of the Gyeongju Kim clan (3 November 1687 – 13 May 1757)
 * Royal Noble Consort Hui of the Indong Jang clan (3 November 1659 – 9 November 1701)
 * Crown Prince Yi Yun (20 November 1688 – 11 October 1724), first son
 * Prince Seongsu (1690–1690), second son
 * Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan (17 December 1670 – 9 April 1718)
 * Prince Yeongsu (1693–1693), third son
 * Yi Geum, Prince Yeoning (31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), fourth son
 * Fifth son (1698–1698)
 * Royal Noble Consort Myeong of the Miryang Park clan (? – 1703)
 * Yi Hwon, Prince Yeollyeong (13 June 1699 – 2 October 1719), sixth son
 * Royal Noble Consort Yeong of the Andong Kim clan (1669–1735)
 * Royal Consort Gwi-in of the Gyeongju Kim clan (1690–1735)
 * Royal Consort So-ui of the Gangneung Yu clan (? – 1707)

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Kim Jin-kyu in the 1961 film Jang Hui-bin.
 * Portrayed by Shin Seong-il in the 1968 film Femme Fatale, Jang Hee-bin.
 * Portrayed by Park Geun-hyung in the 1971 MBC TV series Jang Hui-bin.
 * Portrayed by Park Geun-hyung in the 1981 MBC TV series Women of History: Jang Hui-bin.
 * Portrayed by Kang Seok-woo in the 1988 MBC TV series 500 Years of Joseon: Queen Inhyeon.
 * Portrayed by Im Ho in the 1995 SBS TV series Jang Hui-bin.
 * Portrayed by Jun Kwang-ryul in the 2002–3 KBS2 TV series Royal Story: Jang Hui-bin.
 * Portrayed by Ji Jin-hee in the 2010 MBC TV series Dong Yi.
 * Portrayed by Seo Woo-jin in the 2012 tvN TV series Queen and I.
 * Portrayed by Kang Han-byeol in the 2012 MBC TV series The King's Doctor.
 * Portrayed by Yoo Ah-in and Chae Sang-woo in the 2013 SBS TV series Jang Ok-jung, Living by Love.
 * Portrayed by Choi Min-soo in the 2016 SBS TV series The Royal Gambler.
 * Portrayed by Kim Kap-soo in the 2019 SBS TV series Haechi.

title: Sukjong of Joseon


text:
Villars-le-Grand

Villars-le-Grand is a former municipality in the district of Broye-Vully in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland.

The municipalities of Bellerive, Chabrey, Constantine, Montmagny, Mur, Vallamand and Villars-le-Grand merged on 1 July 2011 into the new municipality of Vully-les-Lacs.

History
Villars-le-Grand is first mentioned in 1246 as Uilar.

Geography
Villars-le-Grand has an area,, of 4.2 km2. Of this area, 3.68 km2 or 87.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.13 km2 or 3.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.35 km2 or 8.3% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.08 km2 or 1.9% is either rivers or lakes.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 5.2%. Out of the forested land, 1.7% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 77.4% is used for growing crops and 7.9% is pastures, while 2.4% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality was part of the Avenches District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Villars-le-Grand became part of the new district of Broye-Vully.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or, a Grill Sable.

Demographics
Villars-le-Grand has a population of 275. , 5.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -3.5%. It has changed at a rate of -1.8% due to migration and at a rate of -1.1% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population speaks French (262 or 90.3%), with German being second most common (24 or 8.3%) and Portuguese being third (2 or 0.7%). There is 1 person who speaks Italian.

Of the population in the municipality 134 or about 46.2% were born in Villars-le-Grand and lived there in 2000. There were 55 or 19.0% who were born in the same canton, while 72 or 24.8% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 16 or 5.5% were born outside of Switzerland.

In there were 2 live births to Swiss citizens and 2 births to non-Swiss citizens. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 2 while the foreign population increased by 2. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 10 and the non-Swiss population increased by 2 people. This represents a population growth rate of -2.8%.

The age distribution,, in Villars-le-Grand is; 24 children or 8.7% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 32 teenagers or 11.6% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 23 people or 8.4% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 24 people or 8.7% are between 30 and 39, 44 people or 16.0% are between 40 and 49, and 38 people or 13.8% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 49 people or 17.8% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 23 people or 8.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 14 people or 5.1% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 4 people or 1.5% who are 90 and older.

, there were 115 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 154 married individuals, 12 widows or widowers and 9 individuals who are divorced.

the average number of residents per living room was 0.61 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.61 per room. In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least 4 m2 as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics. About 66.7% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).

, there were 107 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.7 persons per household. There were 19 households that consist of only one person and 9 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 109 households that answered this question, 17.4% were households made up of just one person and there were 2 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 39 married couples without children, 41 married couples with children There were 6 single parents with a child or children.

there were 47 single family homes (or 52.2% of the total) out of a total of 90 inhabited buildings. There were 10 multi-family buildings (11.1%), along with 30 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (33.3%) and 3 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (3.3%). Of the single family homes 17 were built before 1919, while 6 were built between 1990 and 2000. The most multi-family homes (4) were built before 1919 and the next most (1) were built between 1919 and 1945. There was 1 multi-family house built between 1996 and 2000.

there were 115 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 4 rooms of which there were 39. There were single room apartments and 43 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 102 apartments (88.7% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 6 apartments (5.2%) were seasonally occupied and 7 apartments (6.1%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 3.6 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.79%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 39.93% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (24.39%), the SP (15.18%) and the CVP (5.26%). In the federal election, a total of 96 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 43.4%.

Economy
, Villars-le-Grand had an unemployment rate of 2.1%. , there were 67 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 16 businesses involved in this sector. 1 person was employed in the secondary sector and there was 1 business in this sector. 5 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 1 business in this sector. There were 150 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.7% of the workforce.

the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 42. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 38, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 1, in manufacturing. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 3, all in education.

, there were 9 workers who commuted into the municipality and 100 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 11.1 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 5.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 60% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 78 or 26.9% were Roman Catholic, while 174 or 60.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There were 3 (or about 1.03% of the population) who were Islamic. 23 (or about 7.93% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 12 individuals (or about 4.14% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Villars-le-Grand about 98 or (33.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 23 or (7.9%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule). Of the 23 who completed tertiary schooling, 69.6% were Swiss men, 21.7% were Swiss women.

In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 36 students in the Villars-le-Grand school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 155 children of which 83 children (53.5%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 17 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 18 students in those schools. There were also 1 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.

, there were 18 students in Villars-le-Grand who came from another municipality, while 29 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

title: Villars-le-Grand


text: Category:Former federal electoral districts of Ontario


text: User talk:12.77.112.43

title: User talk:12.77.112.43


text:
Muscadet

Muscadet is a  French white wine. It is made at the western end of the Loire Valley, near the city of Nantes in the Pays de la Loire region. It is made from the Melon de Bourgogne grape, often referred to simply as melon. While most appellation d'origine contrôlée wines are named after their growing region, or in Alsace after their variety, the name Muscadet refers to an alleged characteristic of the wine produced by the melon grape variety: vin qui a un goût musqué (wine with a musk-like taste). However, according to wine expert Tom Stevenson, Muscadet wines do not have much, if any, muskiness or Muscat-like flavors or aromas.

The sole variety used to produce Muscadet, Melon de Bourgogne, was initially planted in the region sometime in or before the 17th century. It became dominant after a hard freeze in 1709 killed most of the region's vines. Dutch traders, who were major actors in the French wine trade, encouraged the planting of this variety; they distilled much of the wine produced into eau de vie for sale in Northern Europe.

The generic Muscadet appellation, officially established in 1937, contains three regional sub-appellations:
 * 1) Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine, officially established in 1936, covering 20,305 acre with 21 villages in the Loire-Atlantique department and 2 in the Maine-et-Loire department. This appellation produces 80% of all Muscadets.
 * 2) Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire, officially established in 1936, covering 467 acre with 24 villages spread across the Loire-Atlantique and Maine-et-Loire departments.
 * 3) Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu, officially established in 1994, benefits from the Grandlieu lake's microclimate. This sub appellation covers 717 hectares with 17 villages in the Loire-Atlantique department and 2 villages in the Vendée department.

History
The wine-growing tradition in the region where Muscadet is produced dates from an edict of the Roman emperor Probus who had the first vineyards planted by soldiers. The exact origins of Muscadet wine, and its association with the Melon de Bourgogne grape, is not clear. One estate near Nantes, Château de la Cassemichère, claims that the first Melon de Bourgogne vines used to make Muscadet were transported from Burgundy and planted in their vineyards in 1740. However, most ampelographers believe that the Melon de Bourgogne grape was introduced to the Pays Nantais region in the 17th century by Dutch trader looking for a sufficient source of neutral, white wines that could be distilled into brandewijn. Following the deep freeze of 1709, most of the red grape varieties were severely damaged and replaced by the hardier Melon de Bourgogne. The French ampelographer Pierre Galet found evidence that following that deep freeze, King Louis XIV ordered the replanting himself with a grape called Muscadent blanc that was most likely the Melon de Bourgogne.

By the 20th century, Muscadet began to fall out of favor in the global wine market and earned a reputation for being homogenous and simple. The late 20th century saw a revival in the Muscadet region as ambitious wine producers experimented with new winemaking techniques aimed at bringing out more flavor and complexity in the wine. The 1980s saw a rise in use of oak barrel fermentation and lees stirring while the 1990s introduced the widespread use of extended skin-contact (maceration) prior to fermentation. By the 20th century, the use of these techniques created a wide range of styles and quality of Muscadet wine.

Climate and geography
The Muscadet growing region lies at the far western reaches of the Loire Valley and is dominated by maritime influences of the nearby Atlantic Ocean. The ocean's influence makes the climate of the Muscadet region cooler than the rest of the Loire Valley with more precipitation. Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that the city of Nantes serves as a shield, protecting the region from northwesterly winds. However the closest vineyards to the city in the village of Vertou are located over 9.5 km from the city center and at higher elevation. Winters have the potential to be harsh with deep freezes common and threatening all the way into early spring.

Vineyards in the Muscadet region are scattered across a wide range of terroirs ranging from gentle slopes near the rivers to rolling hills to flat fertile land near the mouth of the Loire river. The most ideally situated vineyards are in the rolling hills Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine sub-appellation located south and east of Nantes. The soil in this area is rich in magnesium and potassium, made up of clay, gravel and sand above subsoils of gneiss, schist, granite and volcanic rock. Throughout the Muscadet region the soils drain well, which is a necessity in a region as damp as the Pays Nantais. In the broader, generic Muscadet AOC (Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) the soil is predominantly silt and sand while the soils of the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire has high concentration of schist and the Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu sub-appellation has a mixture of granite and schist based soils.

Appellations
There are four main appellations of the Muscadet region. At the lowest level is the umbrella AOC Muscadet which covers the entire 32,000 acre region. Wine expert Jancis Robinson notes that wines carrying this basic designation are normally the most simple examples of Muscadet. Since the late 1990s, this level has been excluded from using sur lie aging by AOC regulations. Next come the three sub-appellations representing different micro-climates of the region: Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine; Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire, which includes the northernmost expanse of the area; and Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu, which is located in the southwestern area around the eponymous lake. As the most northern sub-appellation, the quality of wines from the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire can vary greatly depending on the vintage. In cooler years the grapes struggle to ripen and tend not to have the fruit to balance the acidity. In warmer years, this area tends to produce the most balanced wines. Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu is the most recent AOC promotion, gaining its status in 1996. Prior to gaining its own sub-appellation, this region was responsible for nearly three-quarters of the wine labeled as basic Muscadet AOC. Well made examples from Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu are characterized by floral bouquet and minerality.

The Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine sub-appellation is the most productive and notable region of Muscadet, producing more than three-quarters of the region's entire production. (In contrast, the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire AOC only produces around 20% of the amount of wine of Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine ) In fact, more AOC Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine is produced on a yearly basis than in any other single AOC in the entire Loire Valley. The appellation is located east and south around the city of Nantes and is named after the rivers Sèvre and Maine that flow through it. Vineyard soil composition varies throughout the region and can range from the granite and schist hillsides around the village of Saint-Fiacre-sur-Maine to the predominantly clay based soils of Vallet. The most ideally situated vineyards are located around the villages of La Chapelle-Heulin, St-Fiacre, Vallet and Vertou Around 45% of the wine made Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine is aged sur lie. The wines made in this style tend to be slightly fuller body and can have some of the texture and mouthfeel of a white Bourgogne AOC. Well made examples will have a balance of fruit, acidity and texture.

Viticulture
The most common viticultural hazards in the Muscadet region are seasonal frost and mildew near harvest. The Melon de Bourgogne has adapted well to these condition being very frost resistant and capable of ripening early. Harvest usually takes place in mid to late September but in recent years producers have been experimented with harvesting the grapes several days to a couple weeks later. The traditional method is to harvest early in order to maintain acidity that is a key characteristic of Muscadet wine. The trend to pick later, and risk the threat of rains and mildew rot, is to give the grapes more time to develop sugars and riper phenols that can impart more fruit notes and complexity to the wine. However, these grapes that are picked later will usually experience a dramatic drop in acidity.

Winemaking
The grape variety used to produce Muscadet, Melon de Bourgogne, is a relatively neutral grape. Winemaking techniques have evolved in the region to adapt to the grape's limitation and bring out more flavor and complexity. The most well-known of these techniques is sur lie aging, where the wine stays in contact with the dead yeast cells left over after fermentation (the lees). The technique was discovered, almost accidentally, in the early 20th century. Traditionally Muscadet producers would set aside a barrel of wine for special occasions, such as a family wedding. This "honeymoon barrel", as it became known, would take on more flavor and texture due to its contact with the lees. Through this process, autolysis occurs which contributes to a creamy mouthfeel that may make the wine seem to have a fuller body. The release of enzymes during this process inhibits oxidation which may also improve the aging potential of the wine. During this process, the wine is usually not racked for several months. While in many wines, the lack of racking could have the undesired consequences of developing off flavors or other wine faults. However, the relative neutrality of the Melon de Bourgogne grape works in the favor of the Muscadet wine and poses minimal risk to developing off flavors.

The late 20th century saw a wave of winemaking innovation and the popularization of several winemaking techniques. The mid-1980s saw increased usage of oak barrels for fermentation over stainless steel fermenting tanks. The process of stirring the lees (bâtonnage) also became more commonplace. By stirring the lees, the dead yeast come into greater contact with the wood-based tannins and pigments that are usually extracted into the wine. The lees act as a sort of buffer between the wines and the oak elements, allowing the wine to maintain its color and not become too harsh and tannic. In the late 1990s, more Muscadet producers started extending the amount of time that the must spends in contact with the grape skins prior to fermentation. This extended maceration allowed the wine to leach more phenolic compounds from the skin which can add complexity to the wine.

Muscadet wines are usually bottled in the spring or autumn following the vintage though they can be made in the vins de primeur style (like a Beaujolais nouveau) and be released as early as the third Thursday of November. At time of bottling some carbon dioxide may still be present in the wine, giving it a slight effervescence that can come across as a "prickly" sensation to the tongue. This effervescence is rarely seen to the degree of a semi-sparkling wine such as Lambrusco. Under French AOC regulations, the maximum alcohol content of a Muscadet must be no more than 12% (after chaptalization)-making it the only unfortified French wine to have a maximum alcohol content stipulation.

Sur lie on the wine label
Prior to the early 1990s, any producer of Muscadet wine could use the phrase sur lie on their wine labels regardless of the length of time and manner that it actually spent in contact with the lees. In 1994, French authorities designed regulations that limit the use of sur lie to only wines that comply with a set guideline. First, while the sub-appellations of Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine, Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire and Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu are permitted to use the term, any wine labeled with just the generic AOC Muscadet cannot. Second, the wine must spend at least a full winter in contact with the lees and not be bottled until after the third week of March following the harvest. Some wines are kept in contact longer, in order to produce a more full-bodied style, and not bottled till between mid-October to mid-November. Finally the wine must be bottled directly off its lees and not go through any racking or filtration process. Currently there is no regulation on the size or type of vessel that the wine should be kept in sur lie with. There is a movement among some Muscadet producers to limit the practice to just that done in standard-sized oak barrels, but currently any size barrel or even stainless steel fermentation tanks are allowed to age a wine sur lie and label it accordingly.

Wine industry
At the turn of the 21st century there were over 2,500 vineyards in the Muscadet region tended mostly as small lots by individual farmers who either commercialize their own wine or sell their grapes to one of the forty plus négociants in the region. These négociants would blend and bottle the wine under their own label.

Grapes
The only grape variety permitted in any of the AOC Muscadet is the Melon de Bourgogne. The grape was once prevalent in the Burgundy wine region but was eventually prohibited in the region by French authorities. Introduced by Dutch wine traders in the 17th century, the grape came to thrive in the cool, mild climate of the Pays Nantais. Other varieties are grown in the region-such as Folle blanche, Cabernet franc, Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir and Chenin blanc, Pinot gris, Groslot, and Négrette -but must be used under different designations such as the Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) wines of Coteaux d'Ancenis, Fiefs Vendéens or Gros Plant du Pays Nantais.

Wines
Muscadet wines are often light bodied and almost always dry with very little, if any residual sugar. The AOP (Appellation d'Origine Protégée) states that the wine may not have residual sugar above 5 grams per liter for Blanc and above 3 grams of sugar per liter for Blanc "Sur Lie." Left over carbon dioxide from the bottling process can leave the wines with a slight "prickly" sensation. Master of Wine Mary Ewing-Mulligan describes Muscadets as fresh and crisp, at their peak drinking ability from release up to three years of age. Muscadet that have been aged sur lie can have very subtle "yeasty" aromas. The acidity keeps the wines light and refreshing. Some examples can have a slight "saltiness" about them.

Food pairing
The classic food and wine pairings in the Pays Nantais region is of Muscadet with the local seafood, particularly oysters. Other seafood dishes with which Muscadet pairs well include lobster, shrimp and mullet. San Francisco Chronicle wine editor Jon Bonné called Muscadet "the perfect oyster wine". The moderate alcohol level of Muscadet allows it to complement many types of dishes without overwhelming them. The light, crisp acidity can "cut through" (meaning it stands out against) rich, creamy dishes which can be a refreshing change of pace for the palate.

Cellaring and service
Most Muscadets should be drunk within three years of production. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. Depending upon the soils upon which they are produced and vinification, some Muscadets can have an aging potential of up to and exceeding ten years. The organisation responsible in France for promoting Loire Valley wines suggests that Muscadet should be served at between 9 and 11 C.

title: Muscadet


text:
Harold S. Shapiro

Harold Seymour Shapiro (2 April 1928 – 5 March 2021) was a professor of mathematics at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, best known for inventing the so-called Shapiro polynomials (also known as Golay–Shapiro polynomials or Rudin–Shapiro polynomials) and for work on quadrature domains.

His main research areas were approximation theory, complex analysis, functional analysis, and partial differential equations. He was also interested in the pedagogy of problem-solving.

Born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, to a Jewish family, Shapiro earned a B.Sc. from the City College of New York in 1949 and earned his M.S. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1951. He received his Ph.D. in 1952 from MIT; his thesis was written under the supervision of Norman Levinson. He was the father of cosmologist Max Tegmark, a graduate of the Royal Institute of Technology and now a professor at MIT. Shapiro died on 5 March 2021, aged 92.

title: Harold S. Shapiro


text:
User:Addesso

It was 2.14pm on Friday, April 22, 2005, when I started this page.

I guess I am no longer new.

I am a painter, photographer, and graphic designer. If you would like me to create, edit, or work on graphics and photos for any article, please ask!

I am a Member of . . . !
In no particular alphabetical order:
 * Association of Apathetic Wikipedians
 * Association of Wikipedians Who Dislike Making Broad Judgements About the Worthiness of a General Category of Article, and Who Are In Favor of the Deletion of Some Particularly Bad Articles, but That Doesn't Mean They are Deletionist
 * Department of Fun
 * Harmonious Editing Club

title: User:Addesso


text:
Anemodouri

Anemodouri (Greek: Ανεμοδούρι) is a village in the municipal unit Falaisia, southwestern Arcadia, Greece. It is located on the northwestern slopes of mount Tsemperou. It is 3 km northwest of Anavryto, 3 km southeast of Rapsommatis, 4 km west of Paparis and 9 km southeast of Megalopoli.

title: Anemodouri


text:
List of airports in the Montreal area

The following active airports serve the area around Montreal, Quebec, Canada, lying underneath or immediately adjacent to Montreal's terminal control area:

Other
Montréal-Trudeau (formerly known as Dorval) handles the scheduled passenger service for Montreal. Mirabel formerly also handled scheduled passenger service, but it has been discontinued and the airport is little used. Saint-Hubert is the major general aviation reliever for the city, though Trudeau also sees a lot of general aviation traffic.

Plattsburgh International Airport in Plattsburgh, New York, markets itself as "Montreal's U.S. airport". The airport is 60 mi from Montreal, and closer than Trudeau to the South Shore. More than 80% of passengers departing Plattsburgh Airport are Canadian.

title: List of airports in the Montreal area


text:
Skyler Stone

Skyler Joseph Clipner, professionally known as Skyler Stone (born January 1, 1979) is an American actor who starred in Con  which ran on Comedy Central for two months in the spring of 2005.

Early life and education
Stone was born in St. Louis, Missouri and moved to Kalamazoo, Michigan with his family at the age of 14. He attended Western Michigan University.

Career
Stone started his career in radio at WRKR in Kalamazoo, Michigan. His first movie role was in The Rules of Attraction, playing a speed freak named Quinlivan in a scene that ended up cut from the film. He played Scarlett Johansson's character's husband in the flashback scenes for The Island, and a cook in Waiting.... Stone was cast in Christopher Guest's For Your Consideration as a trashy radio morning show host after Guest saw the "Cancun Coma" episode of Con. In July 2007, Stone was cast in the comedy House Broken, as Danny DeVito's son.

Stone sold a pilot called Skyler's Revolution to Fox Broadcasting Company and Warner Bros. Television in 2007, wherein he made prank calls to celebrities, but it was not picked up for a series. He appeared in the CSI: NY episode "Youngblood." Stone was a contestant on Dog Eat Dog and Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck twice (the second time in the Tournament of Losers). In 2010 he appeared in the CBS sitcom Rules of Engagement.

Stone is a regular at the Laugh Factory, The Improv, and The Comedy Store, in Hollywood, California. He made his first national stand-up appearance on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on January 3, 2007.

In 2013, he provided the voice for Scowler, a Pachyrhinosaurus in BBC Earth's Walking With Dinosaurs: The Movie.

Personal life
Stone resides in Sherman Oaks, California.

title: Skyler Stone


text:
First Avenue (Manhattan)

First Avenue is a north-south thoroughfare on the East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan, running from Houston Street northbound to 127th Street. At 125th Street, most traffic continues onto the Willis Avenue Bridge over the Harlem River, which continues into the Bronx. South of Houston Street, the roadway continues as Allen Street south to Division Street. Traffic on First Avenue runs northbound (uptown) only.

History
Like most of Manhattan's major north-south Avenues, First Avenue was proposed as part of the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 for Manhattan, which designated 12 broad north-south Avenues running the length of the island. The southern portions of the Avenue were cut and laid out shortly after the plan was adopted. The northern sections of the Avenue would be graded and cut through at various intervals throughout the 19th century as the northward development of the island demanded.

The IRT Second Avenue Line ran above First Avenue from Houston Street to 23rd Street before turning west at 23rd and then north onto Second Avenue. This elevated line was torn down in 1942.

First Avenue has carried one-way traffic since June 4, 1951.

The tunnel on First Avenue adjacent to the west side of the Headquarters of the United Nations opened to traffic on April 3, 1953. This vehicular tunnel was constructed to provide a bypass for through traffic, reducing traffic volumes on the street level above the tunnel, which was intended to function as a local service road for the United Nations complex and the blocks on the west side of First Avenue. The 1377 ft tunnel runs between portals at 42nd and 47th streets. While the tunnel has always operated one-way in the northbound direction, it was originally designed to accommodate separate lanes for northbound and southbound traffic because First Avenue was a two-way street prior to the start of the tunnel's construction. Work on the project commenced on August 1, 1949 with the relocation of the subsurface utilities that were located in the path of the tunnel.

A protected bike lane was established along the left side of the avenue south of 50th Street in 2011.

Description
First Avenue passes through a variety of neighborhoods.

Starting in the south at Houston Street, First Avenue passes through the East Village, once a predominantly German and Jewish neighborhood, now a gentrified area populated mostly by hipsters and yuppies. First Avenue then runs by two large urban development projects, Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village, two middle-income housing developments that sit on what used to be the Gashouse District, an industrial area. These fill the east side of the avenue from 14th to 23rd Streets. The avenue is very wide in this segment, and is separated by a median. The New York Veterans Affairs Medical Center, the Bellevue Hospital, and NYU Langone Health fill the blocks from there to 34th Street. Between 42nd and 48th streets, the avenue runs past United Nations Headquarters. Here a local bypass, United Nations Plaza, splits from the main road, which runs through the First Avenue Tunnel, rejoining the local street at 49th Street.

Crossing under the Queensboro Bridge and entering the Upper East Side, First Avenue runs through a number of residential areas. It serves as one of the main shopping streets of the Yorkville neighborhood, historically a working class German and Hungarian neighborhood, today a wealthy enclave of upper-class residents. In this district, First Avenue is also known as "Bedpan Alley" (a play on "Tin Pan Alley") because of the large number of hospitals located nearby.

Crossing 96th Street, First Avenue runs through Spanish Harlem, a historically Puerto Rican neighborhood. Before Puerto Rican migration in the 1950s, much of this district was populated by Italians and known as "Italian Harlem". First Avenue in Italian Harlem was the site of a major open-air pushcart market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There is still a small Italian enclave in the Pleasant Valley district of East Harlem, between 114th and 120th Streets. The northern reaches of First Avenue, north of roughly 110th Street have also seen a significant increase in Mexican residents.

First Avenue then connects to the Willis Avenue Bridge, which crosses the Harlem River at 125th Street and connects to Willis Avenue in the Bronx. A separate segment of First Avenue runs southbound from 127th Street to 125th, and feeds traffic from the Harlem River Drive and RFK Bridge into East Harlem.

Transportation
The M15/M15+ Select Bus runs on the one-way pair of First and Second Avenue between 125th Street and Houston Street. The northbound M9 runs on it between 20th Street and 29th Street, terminating at Bellevue Hospital at 26th Street. The M31, M50, M57, M86+ Select Bus and M116 serve First Avenue for short segments.

The BMT Canarsie Line has a station at 14th Street.

In popular culture

 * The opening scene of Ghostbusters II was filmed at the intersection of First Avenue and 77th Street.
 * In the Seinfeld TV series, Kramer describes the intersection of First Avenue and 1st Street as the "nexus of the universe". This provided the name for a nightclub called the Nexus Lounge at that location.

title: First Avenue (Manhattan)


text:
Talk:Carmi Gillion

Untitled
Looks like a bogus entry, to me. Carmi Gilon was the head of the israeli secret service. I'm isreaeli, and I never heard about the story described here. Eranb 21:29, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree. Google only turns up what appear to be misspellings of Carmi Gilon (the "Carmi Gillion" discussed is alive in 2000-something in all the Google hits). I'm going to list this as an article for deletion. LamilLerran 06:24, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Carmi Gillion


text: User talk:83.198.129.41

title: User talk:83.198.129.41


text:
Cocktail party effect

The cocktail party effect refers to a phenomenon wherein the brain focuses a person's attention on a particular stimulus, usually auditory. This focus excludes a range of other stimuli from conscious awareness, as when a partygoer follows a single conversation in a noisy room. This ability is widely distributed among humans, with most listeners more or less easily able to portion the totality of sound detected by the ears into distinct streams, and subsequently to decide which streams are most pertinent, excluding all or most others.

It has been proposed that a person's sensory memory subconsciously parses all stimuli and identifies discrete portions of these sensations according to their salience. This allows most people to tune effortlessly into a single voice while tuning out all others. The phenomenon is often described as a "selective attention" or "selective hearing". It may also describe a similar phenomenon that occurs when one may immediately detect words of importance originating from unattended stimuli, for instance hearing one's name among a wide range of auditory input.

A person who lacks the ability to segregate stimuli in this way is often said to display the cocktail party problem or cocktail party deafness. This may also be described as auditory processing disorder or King-Kopetzky syndrome.

Neurological basis (and binaural processing)
Auditory attention in regards to the cocktail party effect primarily occurs in the left hemisphere of the superior temporal gyrus, a non-primary region of auditory cortex; a fronto-parietal network involving the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus also accounts for the acts of attention-shifting, speech processing, and attention control. Both the target stream (the more important information being attended to) and competing/interfering streams are processed in the same pathway within the left hemisphere, but fMRI scans show that target streams are treated with more attention than competing streams.

Furthermore, activity in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) toward the target stream is decreased/interfered with when competing stimuli streams (that typically hold significant value) arise. The "cocktail party effect" – the ability to detect significant stimuli in multi-talker situations – has also been labeled the "cocktail party problem", because the ability to selectively attend simultaneously interferes with the effectiveness of attention at a neurological level.

The cocktail party effect works best as a binaural effect, which requires hearing with both ears. People with only one functioning ear seem much more distracted by interfering noise than people with two typical ears. The benefit of using two ears may be partially related to the localization of sound sources. The auditory system is able to localize at least two sound sources and assign the correct characteristics to these sources simultaneously. As soon as the auditory system has localized a sound source, it can extract the signals of this sound source out of a mixture of interfering sound sources. However, much of this binaural benefit can be attributed to two other processes, better-ear listening and binaural unmasking. Better-ear listening is the process of exploiting the better of the two signal-to-noise ratios available at the ears. Binaural unmasking is a process that involves a combination of information from the two ears in order to extract signals from noise.

Early work
In the early 1950s much of the early attention research can be traced to problems faced by air traffic controllers. At that time, controllers received messages from pilots over loudspeakers in the control tower. Hearing the intermixed voices of many pilots over a single loudspeaker made the controller's task very difficult. The effect was first defined and named "the cocktail party problem" by Colin Cherry in 1953. Cherry conducted attention experiments in which participants listened to two different messages from a single loudspeaker at the same time and tried to separate them; this was later termed a dichotic listening task. His work reveals that the ability to separate sounds from background noise is affected by many variables, such as the sex of the speaker, the direction from which the sound is coming, the pitch, and the rate of speech.

Cherry developed the shadowing task in order to further study how people selectively attend to one message amid other voices and noises. In a shadowing task participants wear a special headset that presents a different message to each ear. The participant is asked to repeat aloud the message (called shadowing) that is heard in a specified ear (called a channel). Cherry found that participants were able to detect their name from the unattended channel, the channel they were not shadowing. Later research using Cherry's shadowing task was done by Neville Moray in 1959. He was able to conclude that almost none of the rejected message is able to penetrate the block set up, except subjectively "important" messages.

More recent work
Selective attention shows up across all ages. Starting with infancy, babies begin to turn their heads toward a sound that is familiar to them, such as their parents' voices. This shows that infants selectively attend to specific stimuli in their environment. Furthermore, reviews of selective attention indicate that infants favor "baby" talk over speech with an adult tone. This preference indicates that infants can recognize physical changes in the tone of speech. However, the accuracy in noticing these physical differences, like tone, amid background noise improves over time. Infants may simply ignore stimuli because something like their name, while familiar, holds no higher meaning to them at such a young age. However, research suggests that the more likely scenario is that infants do not understand that the noise being presented to them amidst distracting noise is their own name, and thus do not respond. The ability to filter out unattended stimuli reaches its prime in young adulthood. In reference to the cocktail party phenomenon, older adults have a harder time than younger adults focusing in on one conversation if competing stimuli, like "subjectively" important messages, make up the background noise.

Some examples of messages that catch people's attention include personal names and taboo words. The ability to selectively attend to one's own name has been found in infants as young as 5 months of age and appears to be fully developed by 13 months. Along with multiple experts in the field, Anne Treisman states that people are permanently primed to detect personally significant words, like names, and theorizes that they may require less perceptual information than other words to trigger identification. Another stimulus that reaches some level of semantic processing while in the unattended channel is taboo words. These words often contain sexually explicit material that cause an alert system in people that leads to decreased performance in shadowing tasks. Taboo words do not affect children in selective attention until they develop a strong vocabulary with an understanding of language.

Selective attention begins to waver as we get older. Older adults have longer latency periods in discriminating between conversation streams. This is typically attributed to the fact that general cognitive ability begins to decay with old age (as exemplified with memory, visual perception, higher order functioning, etc.).

Even more recently, modern neuroscience techniques are being applied to study the cocktail party problem. Some notable examples of researchers doing such work include Edward Chang, Nima Mesgarani, and Charles Schroeder using electrocorticography; Jonathan Simon, Mounya Elhilali, Adrian KC Lee, Shihab Shamma, Barbara Shinn-Cunningham, Daniel Baldauf, and Jyrki Ahveninen using magnetoencephalography; Jyrki Ahveninen, Edmund Lalor, and Barbara Shinn-Cunningham using electroencephalography; and Jyrki Ahveninen and Lee M. Miller using functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Models of attention
Not all the information presented to us can be processed. In theory, the selection of what to pay attention to can be random or nonrandom. For example, when driving, drivers are able to focus on the traffic lights rather than on other stimuli present in the scene. In such cases it is mandatory to select which portion of presented stimuli is important. A basic question in psychology is when this selection occurs. This issue has developed into the early versus late selection controversy. The basis for this controversy can be found in the Cherry dichotic listening experiments. Participants were able to notice physical changes, like pitch or change in gender of the speaker, and stimuli, like their own name, in the unattended channel. This brought about the question of whether the meaning, semantics, of the unattended message was processed before selection. In an early selection attention model very little information is processed before selection occurs. In late selection attention models more information, like semantics, is processed before selection occurs.

Broadbent
The earliest work in exploring mechanisms of early selective attention was performed by Donald Broadbent, who proposed a theory that came to be known as the filter model. This model was established using the dichotic listening task. His research showed that most participants were accurate in recalling information that they actively attended to, but were far less accurate in recalling information that they had not attended to. This led Broadbent to the conclusion that there must be a "filter" mechanism in the brain that could block out information that was not selectively attended to. The filter model was hypothesized to work in the following way: as information enters the brain through sensory organs (in this case, the ears) it is stored in sensory memory, a buffer memory system that hosts an incoming stream of information long enough for us to pay attention to it. Before information is processed further, the filter mechanism allows only attended information to pass through. The selected attention is then passed into working memory, the set of mechanisms that underlies short-term memory and communicates with long-term memory. In this model, auditory information can be selectively attended to on the basis of its physical characteristics, such as location and volume. Others suggest that information can be attended to on the basis of Gestalt features, including continuity and closure. For Broadbent, this explained the mechanism by which people can choose to attend to only one source of information at a time while excluding others. However, Broadbent's model failed to account for the observation that words of semantic importance, for example the individual's own name, can be instantly attended to despite having been in an unattended channel.

Shortly after Broadbent's experiments, Oxford undergraduates Gray and Wedderburn repeated his dichotic listening tasks, altered with monosyllabic words that could form meaningful phrases, except that the words were divided across ears. For example, the words, "Dear, one, Jane," were sometimes presented in sequence to the right ear, while the words, "three, Aunt, six," were presented in a simultaneous, competing sequence to the left ear. Participants were more likely to remember, "Dear Aunt Jane," than to remember the numbers; they were also more likely to remember the words in the phrase order than to remember the numbers in the order they were presented. This finding goes against Broadbent's theory of complete filtration because the filter mechanism would not have time to switch between channels. This suggests that meaning may be processed first.

Treisman
In a later addition to this existing theory of selective attention, Anne Treisman developed the attenuation model. In this model, information, when processed through a filter mechanism, is not completely blocked out as Broadbent might suggest. Instead, the information is weakened (attenuated), allowing it to pass through all stages of processing at an unconscious level. Treisman also suggested a threshold mechanism whereby some words, on the basis of semantic importance, may grab one's attention from the unattended stream. One's own name, according to Treisman, has a low threshold value (i.e. it has a high level of meaning) and thus is recognized more easily. The same principle applies to words like fire, directing our attention to situations that may immediately require it. The only way this can happen, Treisman argued, is if information was being processed continuously in the unattended stream.

Deutsch and Deutsch
Diana Deutsch, best known for her work in music perception and auditory illusions, has also made important contributions to models of attention. In order to explain in more detail how words can be attended to on the basis of semantic importance, Deutsch & Deutsch and Norman proposed a model of attention which includes a second selection mechanism based on meaning. In what came to be known as the Deutsch-Norman model, information in the unattended stream is not processed all the way into working memory, as Treisman's model would imply. Instead, information on the unattended stream is passed through a secondary filter after pattern recognition. If the unattended information is recognized and deemed unimportant by the secondary filter, it is prevented from entering working memory. In this way, only immediately important information from the unattended channel can come to awareness.

Kahneman
Daniel Kahneman also proposed a model of attention, but it differs from previous models in that he describes attention not in terms of selection, but in terms of capacity. For Kahneman, attention is a resource to be distributed among various stimuli, a proposition which has received some support. This model describes not when attention is focused, but how it is focused. According to Kahneman, attention is generally determined by arousal; a general state of physiological activity. The Yerkes-Dodson law predicts that arousal will be optimal at moderate levels - performance will be poor when one is over- or under-aroused. Of particular relevance, Narayan et al. discovered a sharp decline in the ability to discriminate between auditory stimuli when background noises were too numerous and complex - this is evidence of the negative effect of overarousal on attention. Thus, arousal determines our available capacity for attention. Then, an allocation policy acts to distribute our available attention among a variety of possible activities. Those deemed most important by the allocation policy will have the most attention given to them. The allocation policy is affected by enduring dispositions (automatic influences on attention) and momentary intentions (a conscious decision to attend to something). Momentary intentions requiring a focused direction of attention rely on substantially more attention resources than enduring dispositions. Additionally, there is an ongoing evaluation of the particular demands of certain activities on attention capacity. That is to say, activities that are particularly taxing on attention resources will lower attention capacity and will influence the allocation policy - in this case, if an activity is too draining on capacity, the allocation policy will likely cease directing resources to it and instead focus on less taxing tasks. Kahneman's model explains the cocktail party phenomenon in that momentary intentions might allow one to expressly focus on a particular auditory stimulus, but that enduring dispositions (which can include new events, and perhaps words of particular semantic importance) can capture our attention. It is important to note that Kahneman's model doesn't necessarily contradict selection models, and thus can be used to supplement them.

Visual correlates
Some research has demonstrated that the cocktail party effect may not be simply an auditory phenomenon, and that relevant effects can be obtained when testing visual information as well. For example, Shapiro et al. were able to demonstrate an "own name effect" with visual tasks, where subjects were able to easily recognize their own names when presented as unattended stimuli. They adopted a position in line with late selection models of attention such as the Treisman or Deutsch-Norman models, suggesting that early selection would not account for such a phenomenon. The mechanisms by which this effect might occur were left unexplained.

Effect in animals
Animals that communicate in choruses such as frogs, insects, songbirds and other animals that communicate acoustically can experience the cocktail party effect as multiple signals or calls occur concurrently. Similar to their human counterparts, acoustic mediation allows animals to listen for what they need to within their environments. For Bank swallows, cliff swallows, and king penguins, acoustic mediation allows for parent/offspring recognition in noisy environments. Amphibians also demonstrate this effect as evidenced in frogs; female frogs can listen for and differentiate male mating calls, while males can mediate other males' aggression calls. There are two leading theories as to why acoustic signaling evolved among different species. Receiver psychology holds that the development of acoustic signaling can be traced back to the nervous system and the processing strategies the nervous system uses. Specifically, how the physiology of auditory scene analysis affects how a species interprets and gains meaning from sound. Communication Network Theory states that animals can gain information by eavesdropping on other signals between others of their species. This is true especially among songbirds.

Hearables for the cocktail party effect
Hearable devices like noise-canceling headphones have been designed to address the cocktail party problem. These type of devices could provide wearers with a degree of control over the sound sources around them.

Deep learning headphone systems like target speech hearing have been proposed to give wearers the ability to hear a target person in a crowded room with multiple speakers and background noise. This technology uses real-time neural networks to learn the voice characteristics of an enrolled target speaker, which is later used to focus on their speech while suppressing other speakers and noise. Semantic hearing headsets also use neural networks to enable wearers to hear specific sounds, such as birds tweeting or alarms ringing, based on their semantic description, while suppressing other ambient sounds in the environment.

These devices could benefit individuals with hearing loss, sensory processing disorders and misophonia as well as people who require focused listening for their job in health-care and military, or for factory or construction workers.

title: Cocktail party effect