text:
Talk:People's republic

Political Use of the Expression

 * It has typically been used by political members of the political right wing to castigate towns for policies they deem beyond the pale or "un-American", by casting their ideological opponents as communists.

I lived in Boston for a long time, surrounded almost exclusively by liberals and socialists. It was from them I heard the term "People's Republic of Cambridge", in a light-hearted jocular way. They seemed to think it was normal usage.

I believe it refers to substantial changes (made within the democratic system) to conform the economic modalities of the community to the socialist ideal. Such measures as rent control come to mind.

I don't think the usage is primarily a dig by conservatives. I listened to 3 or 4 months of Sean Hannity on the radio and can't remember hearing him use the term. -- Uncle Ed (talk) 18:43, Apr 21, 2005 (UTC)

 * In Amherst, several of my teachers used it half-jokingly, to refer to excessive political correctness on the part of the town or the school board, or less commonly, to refer to such incidences as the performance of The Vagina Monologues, which would be unacceptable in most towns. Generally these teachers did consider themselves "liberals" (with one exception, who never refered to his own politics), and didn't appear to object to the concepts referenced, but were rather old, and did appear to find the goings on in modern Amherst mildly amusing.

 * I think it's more often independents who use it actually, most of the Republicans in the town keep fairly quiet, those who don't use rather more hysterical terms. One teacher considered himself a "liberal" but was a staunch independent, the others I can think of didn't mention their affiliation.  Regardless, I think it's common to use the term humorously, if one isn't really offended by the goings on but doesn't particularly support them.  --71.192.116.13 01:16, 16 April 2007 (UTC)

I think this is kind of inaccurate, though not entirely. Just from having studied Maoism, Mao is pretty specific in saying that China is a people's republic because the People -- workers, students, peasants, cadres, revolutionary classes in general -- enjoy the full benefits of democracy (borrowed from America's 1st amendment) whereas reactionary classes are denied these basic freedoms. I think he talks about it in "On Handling Contradictions Among the People," and Starr does a good job of summarizing it in his book "The Political Thought of Mao". User:arobotar
 * Irrelevant. China isn't under Mao anymore and can hardly be called Maoist. 67.39.180.44 22:26, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Which is itself irrelevant, because the reasonings used by the modern-day Chinese Government are pretty much the same. --Mrdie (talk) 09:45, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

In Chinese
In Chinese, the words for "people's republic" (renmin gongheguo 人民共和国) and "republic" (minguo 民国) are practically synonyms. In fact if you abbreviate "people's republic" in Chinese (a la Chinese language conventions), it becomes "republic" (民国). To the Chinese speaker, renmin gongheguo (people's republic) is just a wordier term for minguo (republic). 67.39.180.44 22:31, 15 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Not just in Chinese... Republic itself is derived from res publica. --  Миборовский  22:57, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

 * No, renmin gongheguo never abbreviated as minguo.--刻意(Kèyì) 22:37, 4 July 2010 (UTC)
 * 民国 is derived from 人民共和国 via shortening, just like how 美国 comes from 美利坚合众国, 亚洲 comes from 亚细亚, 北大 comes from 北京大学, 台灣高鐵 comes from 台灣高速鐵路 and the "京广" in 京广高速铁路 comes from 北京-广州. Though today 民国 isn't used as an abbreviation for 人民共和国, back in the 1910s it certainly was. The concept of "republic" was a foreign concept, after all, and things tend to have various semantic translations. --  李博杰  | —Talk contribs email 02:00, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

If that is the case, wouldn't it make the English phrase "people's republic" similar to a redundant acronym, tautology or pleonasm, given that res publica itself refers to "a public (i.e. "of people") affair"? It seems similar to phrases such as "ATM machine" (automatic teller machine machine) or "PIN number" (personal identification number number), since "people's republic" can be loosely translated as "an affair of people belonging to the people" or "people's people's affair". --  李博杰  | —Talk contribs email 01:49, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Vital info missing
The article at this point completly lacks the very fundamentals on the meaning of the term. A 'people's republic' or a 'democratic republic' is, in Marxist-Leninist doctrine, not just a state governed by communists, its is a transitory stage towards building socialism. Thus, when the name of Vietnam was changed from 'Democratic Republic of Vietnam' to 'Socialist Republic of Vietnam', this marked a qualitivative development in the analysis of the Communist Party of Vietnam. Likewise, the usage of the term 'People's Republic' denotes that the CP of China does not consider that China has acheived socialism. --12:11, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, I agree with the anon - my understanding is that Marxist-Leninist doctrine basically envisions a number of steps towards true communism - first you have the bourgeois state - then you have the "democratic republic" or "people's republic" or "people's democracy" which is, theoretically, a popular front type organization where the communist party cooperates with non-communist parties until the time is ready to move to socialism. Thus, the USSR was a socialist state, where only the CPSU was a legal political party, but the various eastern European satellites were "people's democracies" where the communist party (theoretically) governed in coalition with non-communist parties - like the continued existence of the various non-socialist parties in the East German Volkskammer.  This ought to be clarified if possible. john k (talk) 16:58, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Marx and Lenin opposed the idea of a "People's state"
From State and Revolution by Lenin: "We are in favor of a democratic republic as the best form of state for the proletariat under capitalism. But we have no right to forget that wage slavery is the lot of the people even in the most democratic bourgeois republic. Furthermore, every state is a “special force” for the suppression of the oppressed class. Consequently, every state is not “free” and not a “people's state". Marx and Engels explained this repeatedly to their party comrades in the seventies."

Here, Lenin specifically states after attacking people who use the term "people's state" earlier, that there can never be such thing as a "people's state". It seems weird that the article calls "People's Republic" a Marxist-Leninist term when its usage goes strongly against the philosophy of both Marx and Lenin. Maybe it would be more correct to call it a Stalinist or Maoist term. 129.21.126.46 (talk) 17:12, 14 May 2009 (UTC)

The idea of "People's Republics" came during the "People's Democracy" period of the 1940's (of which China was also classified as). "People's Democracies" did not claim to do away with classes or stress that "no class leads the state" per se, it just stressed that everyone was united in fighting fascism. By 1950 or so the People's Republics were described as being under the dictatorship of the proletariat. --Mrdie (talk) 09:45, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

The origin of the term
The idea of People's republic" term was born in Hungary in 1918. It was invented by count Mihály Károlyi who was liberal capitalist and extremely wealthy man. In 1919, the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic held the name of "People's republic". After that, it became a fasionable prevalent denomination for communist states. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Stubes99 (talk • contribs) 17:13, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

Democratic republics
I don't think that "Democratic Republic" shall be redirected here. It don't need to be a socialist republic to take the name 'democratic republic'! —Preceding unsigned comment added by A young communist (talk • contribs) 13:05, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

Too Many Examples in 'Other Uses?'
There's a lot of examples in that paragraph for an expression that could be applied to roughly half the cities on the planet. I get the problem. I come from Taxachussettes myself. It's a liberal state. I've heard people use the term in regards to my state. But I assume that the expression is also applied to Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and any number of cities, townships, counties, colleges, corporations, etc. You got to draw the line somewhere.

So, I suggest we keep the cities/states/whatevers with a cited reference and purge the rest. If it's really that common a phenomenon that it's become a part of that area's cultural identity, then it should be easy to prove, right? Otherwise, the list just becomes a giant 'me too' pile on. Does that sound fair? 198.140.203.1 (talk) 07:08, 13 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Done. Here's the full list in case anyone wants to find citations and put them back in:
 * Examples are The People's Republic of Madison, Wisconsin, "The People's Republic of New Jersey", the People's Republic of Berkeley, the People's Republic of Montclair, the People's Republic of Dublin South-Central, "The People's Republic of Taxachussetts" (Massachusetts), the "People's Republic of South Yorkshire" or "The People's Republic of Chicago". "People's Republic of California", and "People's Republic of Boulder."
 * --Wikimedes (talk) 08:40, 13 November 2013 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was not moved. A split or new article otherwise may still be valuable. --BDD (talk) 19:46, 28 December 2013 (UTC)

People's Republic → People's Democracy – "People's Republic" are the name often given to socialist states, yes, that's right, but the reason for this is the ideological concept, "People's Democracy".. The article should be moved to the ideological concept (for instance, China still has "people's democracy", but they call it the "People's Democratic Dictatorship")... Its a notable subject and deserves to be moved to its proper name. The only reason for why I can't move it is because currently People's Democracy redirects to a small, Northern Irish political organization. And yes, I know, there are state who have called themselves people's republic without actually being communist, but they were inspired by Marxist, socialist thought, as in the case of Bangladesh and Libya. --TIAYN (talk) 12:42, 10 December 2013 (UTC)

Poll

 * Oppose. The article as it stands is not about an ideological concept, but about countries whose name includes/included "People's Republic". In fact, the word "democracy" only occurs once in the article. The "Northern Irish political organization" may have been small, but it was significant in the history of The Troubles. It should not have been unilaterally moved, but included in this RM and left where it was pending the outcome. Scolaire (talk) 22:57, 10 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Question - shouldn't this really be a dab page, given that it is/was just a title? The ideology behind most of the uses of the title could be easily explained at socialist state, with short notes here for the non-socialist ones, instead of the unreferenced article/dab currently. Green Giant (talk) 03:18, 11 December 2013 (UTC)
 * ? Split - looking at it again, I can see what both of you (User:TIAYN and User:Scolaire) are getting at, so I think the best option might be to split the current article into two roughly as follows:
 * a (hopefully referenced) article on the concept of people's democracy as suggested by User:TIAYN, composed of the current lead and the first paragraph of the main section (with some sort of disambiguation between the concept and the political group);
 * a list of People's Republics as suggested by User:Scolaire composed of the bullet points in the lower half of the current article, which could serve a dual purpose because even as a list it would still be a sort of dab page.
 * Green Giant (talk) 17:13, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

 * Oppose - Not all "People's Republics" subscribe to "people's democracy". The scope of the current article is broader than the proposed title.  No objection to the creation of an article on people's democracy as Green Giant suggests above.  TDL (talk) 20:41, 11 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Danlaycock and Green Giant. Neljack (talk) 02:56, 15 December 2013 (UTC)

Discussion
You don't seem to get the point, the countries were named "People's Republic" because of the ideological concept of "People's Democracy". The two are directly related to each other.. Secondly, by itself, as it currently stands, this article is not notable enough to be an article (its like listing every country which has the word "Democratic" or "Kingdom" in it. --TIAYN (talk) 23:38, 10 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Then nominate this article for deletion, and then write an article on people's democracy on your user subpage, and then talk about moving articles. This process is back-to-front. Unilaterally moving perfectly good articles, as you did, and then requesting that this article be moved, and then presumably asking somebody else to re-write it to your prescription, is farcical. Scolaire (talk) 13:44, 11 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Was the Belarusian People's Republic named because of the ideological concept of "People's Democracy"?
 * As for your second point, we have numerous such articles including -stan, -land, Democratic republic, Commonwealth. TDL (talk) 20:42, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

"People's Democracy" is notable enough to have its own article, names of countries who happen to have the words "People's Republic" is not.. I agree with you, if the article isn't moved, it should be turned into a disambig page. --TIAYN (talk) 08:07, 11 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Alternatively, it could be moved to List of People's Republics. A list differs from a dab page in that it has a short introductory paragraph, which is essentially all that this article is. Also, there is no real ambiguity, since "People's Republic" means esentially the same thing in each country. Scolaire (talk) 14:35, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

There is not a single good reason for creating an article entitled "List of People's Republic.. What is notable about this, what's the point of just listing the countries by there names if there is no single denominator. If that is the point of this article, it should be turned into a disambig page. But since this article is actually directly linked to the concept of people's democracy, the only thing we need to do is to move to "People's democracy" (and I can expand it, its an extremely important concept within communist thought. So no, either move, turn into a disambig article (and then I can create an article titled "People's democracy") or delete it. Creating an article List of countries having People's Republic in their name is original research, should we create an article entitled List of countries having Republic in their name? No, of course not, so why is this any different? --TIAYN (talk) 20:46, 11 December 2013 (UTC)
 * A list is just a list. There are hundreds if not thousands of them on WP. As for creating an article, you can create one any time you want. In fact, It's already been created: . Just do the writing, post the link, and put your money where your mouth is. Scolaire (talk) 00:41, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Don't care, we don't need to throw away space for articles such as those.. Either move it to People democracy, delete this or create a people's democracy article (I can do that) and redirect List of People's Republics to List of socialist states. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Trust Is All You Need (talk • contribs) 17:06, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * "Don't care"??? Well, if that is your attitute there is no point in continuing this discussion. Scolaire (talk) 09:09, 13 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is WP:NOTPAPER, so we don't need to worry about "throwing away space". If you think the subject of this article is not notable enough to justify an article, then file an WP:AFD.  (While you're at it, you should also nominate all the other similar articles such as -stan, -land, Democratic republic, Commonwealth).  But requesting a move so that you can change the subject of the article isn't the appropriate way to deal with the situation.
 * As I said above, not all "People's Republics" are socialist states, so redirecting List of People's Republics to List of socialist states would not be appropriate. TDL (talk) 19:11, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * There is a big different, both -stan and -land is an article on their own respective terms, what constitute a democratic republic is heavily debated (and therefore its a notable topic, but an extremely bad article), and Commonwealth is an article, again, in its own term ... People's Republic is not an article on its own term, and since People's Republic and People's Democracy are the same thing, why not move it to its actual name (and explain its ideological rationale, instead of splitting it into two, small articles?) --TIAYN (talk) 19:35, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Was the Belarusian People's Republic named because of the ideological concept of "People's Democracy"? TDL (talk) 20:52, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * "People's Republic" is a Marxist term, in fascism it doesn't have any meaning (its just another name)... If you search People's Republic on google, you will get directed to Marxist sites, sources, not fascist. Per WP:RS we follow reliable sources (and what the majority of reliable sources say).. According to the majority of reliable sources, people's republic is a Marxist term (and not a fascist one).. Move. --TIAYN (talk) 21:37, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * No one is denying that the term is often used by Marxist states. But clearly it's used more widely than that.  If you'd like to write an article on "People's Democracy" and the subset of "People's Republics" which were inspired by this ideological concept, then go right ahead.  But this article is about the broader usage of the term and shouldn't be repurposed for the narrower scope that you propose.  TDL (talk) 02:59, 13 December 2013 (UTC)

I am afraid you all are not familiar with both concepts and their development, hence the discussion. Briefly: "people's democracy" is a true marxist "trademarked" term, in reference to the intermediate step between "bourgeoise democracy" ("false democracy") to "socialist democracy" ("true democracy") and further to communism where the term "democracy" will be meaningless, since there will be no government. Whereas the term "people's republic" started as a generic term to indicate transition from monarchy to democracy since 1917 and into 1930s (most of them were off Russian Empire and all of them were under the influence of Russian Revolution). Many of them were not Marxist, not even Socialist. The second "wave" was post-WWII, clearly under Soviet dictation to use a standard name. Third wave was staring with decolonization of 1960s, when some of them kissed ass of Soviet Union, and what kind of marxism/socialism was in Kongo or Cambodja, you know yourselves. In summary: "people's democracy" is a form of government, "people's republic" is not (if somebody is interested they may look into constitutions of all "peoples' republics and often find unexpected things). - Altenmann >t 04:09, 13 December 2013 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Requested move(merge)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: procedurally closed. Mergers are outside the scope of RM. Jenks24 (talk) 12:52, 25 August 2014 (UTC)

People's Republic → People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism) – I've looked into definitions.. Merriam-Webster defines people's republic as "a republic usually organized and controlled by a national Communist or Socialist party" and Oxford dictionaries defines it as "Used in the official title of several present or former communist or left-wing states".. No dictionaries I've checked defines it as anything else then Marxist related. This article should be merged into the existing People's Democracy (Marxism–Leninism) article. --TIAYN (talk) 07:58, 15 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Support Merger --TIAYN (talk) 07:58, 15 August 2014 (UTC)
 * The above is the nominator
 * Speedy procedural close This is not the way to propose a merge. You are requesting a move to a location occupied by a different article.  The proper method uses WP:PM -- proposed mergers. Furhter, this article is not tagged with the merger templates. If you require assistance, then the people at WP:PM will provide it to you. If not, please use the proper mergefrom/mergeto tags and list it at WP:PM -- 65.94.169.222 (talk) 06:12, 16 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Comment. Whether it's a "people republic" or a "people's democracy," it should be lower cased. King of all fruit (talk) 08:47, 17 August 2014 (UTC) Sockpuppet investigations/Kauffner
 * Oppose merger as per the last RM on the subject. Not all the "People's Republics" listed on this page are based on Marxism–Leninism (hence why there is a Non-Marxist–Leninist People's Republics section), so this content would not fit within the scope of the target article. There are many states that go by "People's Republic", so some sort of list of them is encyclopedic (like Democratic republic)  Since not all People's Republics are based on Marxism–Leninism, this list should be separate from the article on the ideology.  TDL (talk) 12:32, 23 August 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

North Korea
How is North Korea non-Marxist?65.123.43.130 (talk) 22:35, 21 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Because they have stopped calling themselves that in 1994. Secondly, its hard to fathom how a hereditary system has any connection to Marxism at all considered Marxism is again hereditary anything.. --TIAYN (talk) 23:29, 22 January 2015 (UTC)

Democratic People's Republic of Korea no longer Marxist–Leninist?
I thought North Korea had removed all references to Marxism–Leninism, but this article classifies the country as a "communist or socialist state". Dustin ( talk ) 21:06, 28 March 2015 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 15:23, 8 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Flag of the Crimean Republic.svg

"Other uses" section
The "Other uses" section covers places (cities, counties etc) that have been informally nicknamed "people's republics" as a result of electing more left-wing representatives than other places have. This does not seem to me very encyclopedic. It also seems rather out of place in an article about forms of national government. It also runs the risk of growing like Topsy as one editor after another adds a newly-nicknamed "people's republic". I suggest that we remove this section from the article. - Polly Tunnel (talk) 16:36, 11 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Agreed. This use should be mentioned and illustrated by one or two examples at most, with references in the most reliable sources. It is enough to illustrate the point. It would be useless to try to list all local administrations that have a constituency at the left of their national average. Note that this has been discussed higher on this talk page. Place Clichy (talk) 18:57, 11 October 2019 (UTC)

 * Many thanks for your comment. As no opposition to my proposal has been raised in the last four weeks I have removed the "Other uses" section from the article. Polly Tunnel (talk) 17:54, 7 November 2019 (UTC)

Requested move 27 December 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved (non-admin closure) Iffy★Chat -- 23:59, 3 January 2020 (UTC)

It's my understanding that it should be capitalised only when referring to the actual country and not to the concept itself, unless I'm missing something.--Davide King (talk) 12:34, 27 December 2019 (UTC)

 * The previous RM concluded that this article was about countries whose name includes/included "People's Republic" rather than about an ideological concept. The concept may be already covered in People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism). But it seems to me that this article is doing a fair bit of synthesis, doesn't seem like the sources are about this term. – Thjarkur (talk) 15:24, 27 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Support - This is an article about people's republics in general and should take no special caps. Primergrey (talk) 19:42, 27 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Support, common noun. Compare Islamic republic, crowned republic, etc. Ivar the Boneful (talk) 08:24, 29 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Support it is not a proper noun here. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 22:24, 30 December 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Term or form of government?
I find almost no good sources about this subject. Oxford Dictionaries define the term as a title rather than as a common noun or a form of government, however Merriam-Webster defines it as. "Democratic-republican constitution usually mentioning socialism" appears to be original research. – Thjarkur (talk) 22:32, 30 December 2019 (UTC)

Left-Wing Bangladesh?
I know but Bangladesh’s Full Name contains People’s Republic so It’s left-wing Abdullah Al Manjur (talk) 13:00, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

Left wing Abdullah Al Manjur (talk) 13:00, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

Sorry about that. Abdullah Al Manjur (talk) 18:52, 1 May 2020 (UTC)

Removing tags
I'm hoping to remove the remaining tags from this article:

(i) The Template:More citations needed at the "Non-Marxist–Leninist people's republics" section. I have added a dozen citations to this section so I am proposing to remove the tag.

(ii) The Template:Original research at the top of the article. It's unclear exactly what is being questioned here. The only Template:Citation needed in the article concerns the clause "Although it initially became associated with populist movements in the 19th century such as the German Völkisch movement and the Narodniks in Russia..." in the lead. I can find no sources confirming this association, though it may be genuine. I suggest that we remove both this clause and the tag.

-- Polly Tunnel (talk) 10:27, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * ✅ as no objections have been raised. I have retained the wikilinks from the deleted text in the "See also" section and removed some wikilinks from there that repeat those in the main text (per MOS:NOTSEEALSO). -- Polly Tunnel (talk) 13:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 11:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Flag of the Crimean Republic.svg

title: Talk:People's republic


text: Category:Buildings and structures in Northamptonshire

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Category:Tourist attractions in Northamptonshire

See also Places of interest in Northamptonshire


text:
International Copyright Act of 1891

The International Copyright Act of 1891 (, March 3, 1891) is the first U.S. congressional act that extended limited protection to foreign copyright holders from select nations. Formally known as the "International Copyright Act of 1891", but more commonly referred to as the "Chace Act" after Sen. Jonathan Chace of Rhode Island.

The International Copyright Act of 1891 was created because many people shunned the idea of literary piracy. It was the first U.S. congressional act that offered copyright protection in the United States to citizens of countries other than the United States. The act extended limited protection to foreign copyright holders from select nations. It was also important for American creators since they were more likely to have international copyright protection in countries that were offered the same protection by the United States. The Act empowered the President to extend copyright to works of foreign nationals.

The act was passed on March 3, 1891, by the 51st Congress. The Act went into effect on July 1, 1891. On July 3, 1891, the first foreign work, a play called Saints and Sinners by British author Henry Arthur Jones, was registered under the act.

The protection of foreign works
During the time when the United States was just beginning to develop its own literary tradition, the nation refused to protect foreign works. As a result, American works were unprotected abroad and domestic publishers had to compete with each other for cheap editions of foreign works. Prior to the International Copyright Act, the first national copyright law was passed in 1790 and provided a copyright protection for 14 years, but only for authors who were citizens or residents of the United States. In order to get copyright protection in the rest of the world, American authors were required to gain residency in the country in which they desired copyright protection. For example, Mark Twain obtained residency in Canada to protect his publication of The Prince and the Pauper.

To protect foreign literature in the United States, British authors would have an American citizen serve as a collaborator in the publishing process, and then have the book registered in Washington, D.C., under the collaborator's name. It was not until the 1830s that the pressure to extend American copyright to foreign authors first developed. Both American and British authors and publishers joined forces and pushed for a bilateral treaty between the United States and England. Famous authors such as Charles Dickens came to the United States to show their support for international copyright. Their biggest problem were American printers that already were protected by a high tariff on imported works, and who had no wish to pay royalties to English writers or publishers.

The United States discussed international copyright with Great Britain over the years. Congress requested correspondence to this effect in 1842. There was a proposed treaty in 1853 under Millard Fillmore, and consideration of its ratification continued into an extension provided during Franklin Pierce's presidency in 1854.

Nonetheless, in the United States, only works published in the United States could be restricted with copyright. Authors including Mark Twain, Louisa May Alcott, Edward Eggleston, and Bill Nye wrote letters in the mid-1880s to the Century requesting international copyright. These letters to the journals had a strong effect on this issue, as did the American Copyright League that was formed in 1883. The league was a great supporter of an International Copyright Act and, at the Madison Square Theater in 1885, the league sponsored readings by American authors in aid of the League's cause.

In 1885, United States Senator Joseph Roswell Hawley introduced a bill aimed at extending copyright to foreign authors for consideration by Congress. A chief difference between the Hawley Bill and the eventual Chace Bill was Hawley's removal of publisher and book-sellers' interests in the copyright process. It was ultimately unsuccessful, though Mark Twain involved himself in the lobbying process and influenced President Grover Cleveland's thinking on the matter. Cleveland asked Congress for legislation to this effect in his State of the Union address that December.

"National treatment"
While the United States was refusing any protection for foreign literary works, more and more countries in Europe started adapting the principle of "national treatment". This principle meant that each nation that signed the treaty was obligated to protect works produced by nationals of all other treaty members on the same terms that it protects its own nationals.

In 1884, academics, writers and diplomats met in Berne, Switzerland, to begin the work to form a multilateral copyright treaty. This was based on the principle of national treatment together with minimum standards so that a member country would be free to treat the copyrighted work of its own nationals however they chose to, but when it came to the works from other treaty members it would have to obey certain minimum standards. The treaty was signed in 1886 but the United States was not one of its founding members. American representatives had attended the Berne conference only as observers and it would take another 5 years until the United States took its first step to protect foreign works.

"The manufacturing clause"
Ever since the first national copyright law in 1790, the United States had required certain "statutory formalities" to acquire copyright protection. These formalities served as a test of an author's intention to claim protection for his or her work. The International Copyright Act of 1891 now applied these formalities to foreign publishers as well, but added an extra requirement called the "Manufacturing Clause".

The Manufacturing Clause required that all copies of foreign literary works should be printed from type set in the United States if they were to have American protection. This was an obvious concession to American printers, since they might otherwise have opposed the Act. When the International Copyright Act of 1891 was finally passed, foreign authors had to have their works in Washington, D.C., "on or before the day of publication in this or any foreign country." This too would create a problem, but by the early 1900s British authors were granted American Copyright since it was published abroad thirty days from its deposit in Washington, D.C. This would then allow American publishers time to release an authorized edition.

Provisions of the Act
The International Copyright Act of 1891 instituted important changes in copyright matters. One of the most extensive changes was that from the date the Act went into effect, all books were required to be manufactured in the United States in order to obtain American copyright. However, foreign authors had a better chance of protecting their works than before. This Act was the first step that the United States took towards an international copyright that could benefit foreign authors as well as domestic. Throughout time, the United States had been somewhat of a copyright outcast since they had not joined many international treaties or conventions. However, as the United States became a major exporter of copyrighted materials this changed. Even if there's still no such thing as an "international copyright" that will automatically protect an author's rights throughout the world, the International Copyright Act of 1891 was the first step to a number of international copyright treaties and conventions that the United States is now a part of (e.g. Berne Convention, Universal Copyright Convention, WIPO).

Presidents grant international copyrights
The following is a timeline of presidents granting copyright to other countries:
 * July 1, 1891: Belgium, France, Switzerland, Great Britain and its colonies by Benjamin Harrison
 * April 15, 1892: German Empire by Benjamin Harrison
 * October 31, 1892: Italy by Benjamin Harrison
 * May 8, 1893: Denmark by Grover Cleveland
 * July 20, 1893: Portugal by Grover Cleveland
 * July 10, 1895: Spain by Grover Cleveland
 * February 27, 1896: Mexico by Grover Cleveland
 * May 25, 1896: Chile by Grover Cleveland
 * October 19, 1899: Costa Rica by William McKinley
 * November 20, 1899: The Netherlands by William McKinley
 * November 17, 1903: Cuba by Theodore Roosevelt
 * July 1, 1905: Norway by Theodore Roosevelt

The Copyright Act of 1909 had its own prescriptions for extending copyright to other countries.

title: International Copyright Act of 1891


text:
Lists of kickboxers

The list of kickboxers is divided into:

 * List of male kickboxers
 * List of female kickboxers

title: Lists of kickboxers


text:
Pope Andronicus of Alexandria

Pope Andronicus of Alexandria, 37th Pope of Alexandria & Patriarch of the See of St. Mark.

Early life
He was from a rich family of great influence and his cousin was the chief of the imperial court at Alexandria, Egypt. He was very well educated and he studied the holy scriptures and excelled in their interpretation. Because of his knowledge, his righteousness and his charity toward the poor, he was ordained a deacon. By consensus he was chosen to be patriarch, although he never lived in any monastery. He remained in Alexandria all the days of his papacy, not intimidated by the authority of the Melkites.

Sasanian conquest of Egypt from 618–621
Shortly after the ordination of Pope Andronicus, the Persian King Khosrau II and his army came with mighty power against the army of the Romans, and destroyed them utterly, and annihilated them. They took possession of the land of the Romans, and the cities of Halab & Antioch in Syria, and took captive the land of Jerusalem, Idumaea, and the land of Egypt. The Persians invaded outside the City of Alexandria, were there are 600 inhabited monasteries. The monks were independent, and insolent without fear, through their great wealth; and they did deeds of mockery. But the army of the Persians surrounded them on the west of the monasteries, and no place of refuge remained for them; and so they were all slain with the sword, except a few of them, who hid themselves, and so were safe. And all that was there of money and furniture was taken as plunder by the Persians; and they destroyed 600 monasteries located outside of Alexandria, which have remained in ruins to this day. When the people of in the City of Alexandria heard what they had done, because of their fear, they opened the gates of the city for them.

King Khosrau II saw in a night dream someone saying to him, "I have delivered to you the city. Do not destroy it. But kill its heroes for they are hypocrites." He arrested the Governor of the city, and tied him up in chains. He ordered the elders of the city to bring forth the men, from 18 to 50 years old to come forward to give everyone twenty denari, and to enlist them as soldiers for the city. 80,000 men came forward and he killed them all by the sword.

Afterward, the Persian King with his army invaded Upper Egypt. He passed by the city of Niciu, which is also called Ibshadi. He heard that there were some 700 monks living in cells and caves. So he sent his troops and surrounded them, and when the sun rose, they entered and slew all of them with the sword, and not one of them remained. King Khosrau II continued to kill and imprisoned many Christians until Byzantine, Emperor Heraclius conquered Egypt and drove him out.

After Pope Andronicus had accomplished six years in his patriarchal office, and had suffered from the Persians, and seen all these disasters, which he encountered and patiently endured, he went to his rest, and departed to the Lord in perfect peace, holding fast to the right faith, the faith of his fathers, on the 8th of Toba (January 16, 623).

title: Pope Andronicus of Alexandria


text:
Old Palace School

The Old Palace of John Whitgift School is a selective independent school for girls in Croydon, London. It was founded in 1889, and is scheduled to close in 2025. It is based in the Old Palace in Old Town, a Grade I listed building.

It consists of a pre-school for pupils aged 3–4, a preparatory department for pupils aged 4–11, and a senior school for pupils aged 11–18. The school is operated by the Whitgift Foundation, along with Whitgift School and Trinity School of John Whitgift, and is consistently ranked as one of the top performing independent girls' schools in London.

History
The school was founded in 1889 by the Sisters of the Church. The "Old Palace" itself was for 500 years the summer residence of the Archbishops of Canterbury. In the 19th century the Archbishops ended their residence at Croydon Palace and used Addington Palace, also in Croydon, instead. The Palace was sold and subsequently used as a bleaching factory, amongst other things. The building was rescued by the Duke of Newcastle in 1887 and given to the Sisters of the Church who used it for educational purposes.

In 1945, the school became a Direct Grant Grammar School and in 1975, became a fully independent day school for girls. The school joined the Whitgift Foundation in 1993. The school merged with Croham Hurst School, a former private girls' school, in 2008.

In September 2023, Whitgift Foundation announced the decision to close the school permanently in August 2025 owing to financial difficulties.

Grounds
The senior school building was for centuries the summer palace of the Archbishops of Canterbury. It began life as the manor house, part wooden from at least the 12th century, and stone from the 14th century. The core of today's palace was built in the 15th century. The guardroom – once a reception room, now a library – dates from the time of Archbishop Thomas Arundel (1396–1414), and is one of the earliest uses of brick in Britain. Archbishop John Stafford (died 1452) built what is now one of the finest medieval great halls left in southern England. A number of monarchs from Henry VI to Elizabeth I banqueted under its high arched-brace roof, each sitting on Stafford's stone throne, part of which survives against the west wall. Elizabeth made numerous visits, and her bed, always travelling with her, was set down in what is now known as Queen Elizabeth's room, a large 15th-century first-floor space, with moulded ceiling joists. The chapel dates from the 15th century, and includes a gallery pew in dark oak often referred to as "Queen Elizabeth's Pew", built by Archbishop William Laud. Beneath this is a Norman font gifted in Victorian times from St George's Church, Southwark, the same font where Charles Dickens had Little Dorrit christened. The senior school also houses modern, purpose-built facilities including seven laboratories, a heated indoor swimming pool, and an Art and Technology building. In 2001 a building for the Junior Department and one housing the Sixth Form and P.E. area were opened. The school also benefits from access to Whitgift Foundation grounds and facilities.

The pre-school and preparatory school now occupy a separate site to the senior school, in the former Croham Hurst School buildings on Melville Avenue in South Croydon.

Notable former pupils

 * Jane Featherstone – television producer
 * Sarah Jones – Labour MP for Croydon Central from 2017
 * Violet Piercy – runner
 * Jane Steen – Church of England Bishop of Lynn in Norfolk
 * Helen Young – weather forecaster and television presenter
 * Afua Kyei − Chief Financial Officer and Executive Director of the Bank of England

Houses
All students are assigned to one of four houses named after notable people associated with the Palace. The houses, and their colours, are Anselm (yellow), Hatton (green), Laud (purple), and Stafford (blue).

title: Old Palace School


text:
Richard Chevolleau

Richard Chevolleau is a Jamaican–Canadian actor, best known for playing Augur on Earth: Final Conflict from 1997 to 2002.

Early life
Chevolleau was born in Kingston, Jamaica, and raised in Toronto. After completing high school, he studied the Meisner Technique of acting with Paul Bardier.

Career
He began his career in the late 1980s with guest parts in the television series My Secret Identity and Friday the 13th: The Series, before having his first major starring role in the 1989 television film Pray for Me, Paul Henderson.

In 1994 he had a starring role in the television series Boogies Diner.

In 1995 he starred in Clement Virgo's film Rude. He also starred in Virgo's 1997 film The Planet of Junior Brown.

He has appeared in supporting roles in the television series Street Time, This Is Wonderland,  'Da Kink in My Hair, Lost Girl, She's the Mayor, Saving Hope, Hannibal, Blood and Water, Killjoys, Hudson & Rex and Murdoch Mysteries, the films Lulu (1996), The Wrong Guy (1997), Narc (2002), Lie with Me (2005), Four Brothers (2005), Talk to Me (2007), The Gospel According to the Blues (2010), and Home Again (2012), and on stage as Cory in a production of August Wilson's Fences for Theatre Calgary and the National Arts Centre.

In 2004, he had a guest appearance in the CTV series The Eleventh Hour as Gilbert Brown, a prison inmate who had been victimized by a brutal gang rape. He won the Gemini Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Guest Role in a Dramatic Series at the 19th Gemini Awards in 2004, and the ACTRA Award for Best Actor in 2005.

title: Richard Chevolleau


text:
Alpha Chi Rho

Alpha Chi Rho (ΑΧΡ), commonly known as Crows, Crow, or AXP, is a men's collegiate fraternity founded on June 4, 1895, at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut, by the Reverend Paul Ziegler, his son Rev. Carl Ziegler, and Carl's friends William H. Rouse, Herbert T. Sherriff and Rev. William A.D. Eardeley. It is a charter member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, and its national headquarters is R.B. Stewart National Headquarters, located in Neptune, New Jersey. The symbol of the fraternity is the labarum and men of Alpha Chi Rho are commonly called "Crows."

The Revered Fathers of Alpha Chi Rho

 * Rev. Paul Ziegler, Trinity '72 – He was Phi Beta Kappa and valedictorian of his class, member of the Beta Beta society as a student, devoted his life to the ministry, composed the Landmarks and Ritual, and designed the Fraternity Badge. He was the original author of the Exoteric Manual. All four of his sons were in Alpha Chi Rho and ministers of the Episcopal Church: Carl G., Phi Psi; Howard B., Phi Psi; Winfred H., Phi Omega; and Eustice P., Phi Gamma.
 * Rev. Carl Ziegler, Trinity '97 – He was the oldest son of Founder Paul Ziegler, Phi Beta Kappa, lifelong Episcopal clergyman, National Chaplain for many years and the last to enter the chapter eternal.
 * William H. Rouse, Trinity '96 – "his sage advice and tactful approach was invaluable during infancy of our Fraternity." He was the first President of Phi Psi Chapter, a teacher by profession who spent the later years of his life in Florida teaching English to Cuban and South American immigrants.
 * Herbert T. Sherriff, Trinity '97 – He attended high school and college with Carl G. Ziegler, and wrote the first installment of the fraternity's history. He had a career in public health in Portland, Oregon.
 * Rev. William A.D. Eardeley, Trinity '97 – He started his career as an Episcopal minister and later became a noted genealogist. He was the first National President of the Fraternity and designed the Coat of Arms. He helped form Phi Chi and Phi Phi chapters.

title: Alpha Chi Rho


text:
Mastika

Mastika or mastiha is a liqueur seasoned with mastic, a resin with a slightly pine or cedar-like flavor gathered from the mastic tree, a small evergreen tree native to the Mediterranean region. In Greece, mastiha (μαστίχα) or mastichato (μαστιχάτο) is a sweet liqueur produced with the mastika resin from the Greek island of Chios, which is distilled after hardening to crystals. Sugar is typically added. It is a sweet liqueur that is typically consumed at the end of a meal. It has a distinctive flavor, reminiscent of pine and herbs. It is claimed to have medicinal properties and to aid digestion.

In August of 2012, wildfires spread across the island of Chios, scorching 31,480 acres and destroying more than half of the island's mastic orchards. Because the product has a "protected designation of origin" from the European Union, the fire not only impacted local Chios farmers, who lost approximately 60 percent of their crops, but also derailed the global supply of the product.

Chios Mastiha

Chios Mastiha Liqueur (Μαστίχα Χίου, ) is a liqueur flavoured with mastic distillate or mastic oil from the island of Chios. The name Chios Mastiha has protected designation of origin status in the European Union. Chios Mastiha liqueur is clear with a sweet aroma. It is traditionally served cold.

Production
The process is regulated by Greek law and includes the flavouring of alcohol with mastic oil by agitation or the distillation of mastic with alcohol. The solution is then diluted with water and sweetened with sugar. The final alcoholic strength by volume of Chios Mastiha must be at least 15%.

Flavouring
The only flavouring agents used in Chios Mastiha liqueur are an alcoholic distillate of mastic or mastic oil made from Chios mastic. Mastic is the hardened sap harvested from the mastic tree, Pistacia lentiscus var chia, a small evergreen shrub that grows on rocky terrain on the southern part of the island. Chios mastic is certified by the Agricultural Products Certification and Supervision Organization as part of the Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development and Food. The island's mastic production is controlled by a co-operative of medieval villages, the Mastichochoria.

Chios

 * The Growers' Spirit is a producing company run by the Chios Gum Mastic Growers Association (CGMGA). The CGMGA offers Mastiha liqueur made with both mastic distillate and mastic oil in two different variants: Kentos (20% alcohol) and Enosis (30% alcohol).
 * Stoupakis Chios Distillery produces Homeric Mastiha, which contains mastic distillate.
 * Tetteris Distillery is one of the oldest producers of mastiha liqueur. Tetteris traditional distillery was founded in 1912. Before the company foundation, Stylianos Tetteris was producing and selling ouzo infused with mastic, for exportation. In 1954, Eleftherios Tetteris, seeing the tendency of the consumer public towards local liqueurs, and having studied oenology in France, was the first to experiment in the production of Mastic liqueur by distilling grains in a special way, and developed a special method (that only the Tetteri distillery knows and uses until today), taking natural distillate, and then with the addition of alcohol and sugar, produced the Mastic liqueur.

KLEOS Mastiha Spirit is the first luxury mastiha brand from Greece launched in March 2018, by the first Greek woman in history to start a liquor brand, Effie Panagopoulos. It is the only double distilled, small batch, low in sugar mastiha on the market.

Wider Greece

 * Skinos, based in Athens.
 * Finest Roots, based in Kalamata, produces Roots Mastic and Roots Mastic Vintage Strength.
 * Mavrakis, based in Patra.
 * D'ARGO Distillery, based in Athens, produces CHANDOLIA Mastic Liqueur by 100% Distillate

United States

 * Mastrogiannis Mastiha
 * Ambrosia Group, based in Miami, produces FOS Greek Mastiha.
 * YA Mastiha

History
Mastic has been harvested for at least 2,500 years since Greek antiquity. The first mention of actual mastic 'tears' was by Hippocrates. Hippocrates used mastic for the prevention of digestive problems, colds and as a breath freshener. Roman emperors used mastic along with honey, pepper, and egg in the spiced wine conditum paradoxum. Digestive liqueurs, similar to Mastiha but made with grapes, were known as the Greek elixirs before the French Revolution.

Influence in literature
Greek writer and journalist Zoe Rapti, released a novel titled Έρωτας με Λικέρ Μαστίχα (Love with Mastic Liqueur), in 2013. The book is in development to become a film.

title: Mastika


text:
Dumfriesshire, Clydesdale and Tweeddale (UK Parliament constituency)

Dumfriesshire, Clydesdale and Tweeddale is a constituency of the House of Commons, located in the South of Scotland, within the Dumfries and Galloway, South Lanarkshire and Scottish Borders council areas. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) at least once every five years using the First-past-the-post system of voting. It is currently represented in Westminster by the former Secretary of State for Scotland, David Mundell, a Conservative, who has been the MP since 2005.

The seat has a diverse electoral history, with the Dumfriesshire area being a longtime Conservative seat, the Clydesdale area being formerly safe Labour territory, and Tweeddale had been part of Liberal Democrat-voting constituencies since the 1980s. Former Scottish Secretary, David Mundell has held the seat since 2005, and from 2005 to 2017 was the only Conservative MP in Scotland.

Constituency profile
One of the largest seats in terms of area, the constituency is predominantly rural and is very sparsely populated. It stretches from 10 miles outside of Edinburgh in the northeast all the way down to Gretna at the border with England. It is also the only seat in Scotland that has been held by the Conservatives in every election since its creation. It contains some very affluent areas as well as some more working-class areas; however, it is a large rural seat where farming is a big source of employment. The M74, which is the main road between Scotland and England, runs through the constituency as do the West Coast Mainline and Glasgow South Western railway lines. Its largest towns are Dumfries (Most of which is within the neighbouring seat of Dumfries and Galloway), Annan, Biggar, Gretna/Gretna Green, Langholm, Lockerbie, Moffat and Peebles. The seat also contains the Southern Upland Way, a popular walk for tourists in the south of Scotland. David Mundell has held the seat since its creation in 2005; however, it has been challenged by both the Labour Party and now the SNP. In the 2015 election, Mundell only retained the seat by a very slim majority of 798 with the SNP close behind. In the 2017 election, Mundell increased his majority to over 9000; however, by 2019 his majority had been reduced to 3800.

Boundaries
The Dumfriesshire, Clydesdale and Tweeddale constituency was created by the Fifth Review of the Boundary Commission for Scotland, and covers parts of the Dumfries and Galloway, South Lanarkshire and Scottish Borders council areas.

2005-2024: The Dumfries and Galloway Council wards of Annandale East and Eskdale, Annandale North, Annandale South, Lochar (part), Mid and Upper Nithsdale, and Nith (part), the Scottish Borders Council wards of Tweeddale East and Tweeddale West (part), and the South Lanarkshire Council wards of Clydesdale East and Clydesdale South (part).

2024-present: As above with some boundary changes within the Clydesdale East, Lochar and Nith wards.

Political history
The seat's main predecessor seats, Dumfriesshire, Clydesdale and Tweeddale, Ettrick & Lauderdale, all had distinct political influences. Dumfriesshire had been a Conservative/National Liberal seat from 1931 to 1997, but was lost to Labour's Russell Brown at the 1997 general election, in which the Conservatives lost all their Scottish seats.

Clydesdale had been a safe Labour seat since the 1980s, and Tweeddale, Ettrick and Lauderdale had been a Liberal/Liberal Democrat seat since 1983.

Following the boundary review for the 2005 general election, Labour held a clear majority of 12% over the Conservatives, according to calculations of notional results (an estimate of how the seat would have voted if it had existed at the previous election) and the seat was 96th on the Conservatives' target list. The Liberal Democrats finished in a close third place at the election. However, former Conservative MSP David Mundell was successful in gaining the seat from Labour, with a swing of 8.0%. This left him as the sole Conservative MP representing a Scottish constituency at the 2005 general election, after the Conservative MP for Galloway and Upper Nithsdale, Peter Duncan was defeated when standing at the new Dumfries and Galloway constituency, and Conservative attempts to gain Angus from the SNP ended in failure.

In 2010, Mundell was re-elected, with an increased majority. In 2015, after the SNP landslide victory in Scotland, he narrowly defeated the SNP candidate, Emma Harper by 798 votes, and was the only Scottish Conservative MP elected. However, following the SNP's losses at the 2017 snap general election, the Conservatives gained 12 seats in Scotland, with Mundell increasing his majority to 9,441 votes. Mundell was re-elected at the 2019 general election, but with a reduced majority, in an election where the SNP made gains across Scotland at the expense of Labour and the Conservatives.


text: Category:Macedonian drinks

title: Category:Macedonian drinks


text: Category:History of Northamptonshire

title: Category:History of Northamptonshire


text:
Caleb Heathcote

Caleb Heathcote (March 6, 1665 – February 28, 1721) served as the 31st Mayor of New York City from 1711 to 1713.

Early life
Heathcote was born on March 6, 1665, in his father's house in Chesterfield in Derbyshire, England. Caleb was the sixth son of nine children of the former Ann Chase Dickens and Gilbert Heathcote (d. 1690). He is related to the Heathcote baronets through two brothers: his eldest brother was Sir Gilbert Heathcote, 1st Baronet of London; another brother, Samuel, was the father of Sir William Heathcote, 1st Baronet of Hursley.

Career

In 1691, Heathcote traveled to America from England. He became a property owner quickly and in 1696, he created the borough town of Westchester. In 1697, he purchased the rights to Mamaroneck and Scarsdale from Ann Richbell and, in 1701, he was "instrumental in having erected the Manor of Scarsdale."

From 1711 to 1713, while his elder brother Gilbert was serving as Lord Mayor of London, Heathcote served as the 31st mayor of New York City under Governor Robert Hunter during the reign of Queen Anne. During the reign of George I, Heathcote served as Surveyor General of His Majesty's Customs for the Eastern District of North America. He also served as judge of the Court of Admiralty for the Provinces of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut and one of His Majesty's Council for the Province of New York.

His estate in Westchester County, New York, is the site of the present-day town of Scarsdale (named after Sutton Scarsdale, his ancestral home in Derbyshire) and was granted on March 21, 1701, or 1702 by Lieutenant Governor of New York John Nanfan.

Nine Partners Patent

On May 27, 1697, Heathcote as one of nine partners in a land grant in Dutchess County in New York by Governor Benjamin Fletcher known as the Great Nine Partners Patent.

The parcel included about 4 mi along the Hudson River and was believed to be 8 to 10 mi wide, extending in theory to the Connecticut border.

Personal life
Caleb married Martha Smith (1681–1736), daughter of Colonel William "Tangier" Smith, Chief Justice of New York. Together, Martha and Caleb had six children, three of which died young (William, Mary and Elizabeth). Their surviving children included:

 * Gilbert Heatcote, who died aged twenty of smallpox while in England completing his education.
 * Anne Heathcote (1706–1778), who married James DeLancey (1703–1760), a son of Stephen Delancey and Anne Van Cortlandt (daughter of Stephanus Van Cortlandt), in 1729.
 * Martha Heathcote, who married Lewis Johnston, son of John Johnstone of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and brother of Andrew Johnston (who married Catharine Van Cortlandt).

Heathcote died suddenly of apoplexy in New York City on February 28, 1721. He was buried in the churchyard of Trinity Church in Manhattan, which he was instrumental in founding. As both of his sons and three of his daughters predeceased him, his entire estate, real and personal, was inherited by his two surviving daughters. His widow died on August 18, 1736, and was buried alongside him and three of their children at Trinity.

Descendants
Through his youngest surviving daughter, he was a grandfather of Margaret Johnston and Anne Johnston, who married William Burnet, only son of Gov. William Burnet and a grandson of George Stanhope, Dean of Canterbury. Margaret Johnston was married to Bowes Reed, the Secretary of State of New Jersey.

Legacy
A neighborhood and an elementary school in present-day Scarsdale, New York are named after Heathcote. A marble statue of him stands atop the Surrogate's Courthouse (former Hall of Records) at 31 Chambers Street in Manhattan. A street in the Bronx, NY is named after him.

title: Caleb Heathcote


text:
Ocala National Forest

The Ocala National Forest is the second largest nationally protected forest in the U.S. State of Florida. It covers 607 sqmi of North Central Florida. It is located three miles (5 km) east of Ocala and 16 mi southeast of Gainesville. The Ocala National Forest, established in 1908, is the oldest national forest east of the Mississippi River and the southernmost national forest in the continental U.S. The word Ocala is thought to be a derivative of a Timucuan term meaning "fair land" or "big hammock". The forest is headquartered in Tallahassee, as are all three National Forests in Florida, but there are local ranger district offices located in Silver Springs and Umatilla.

Geography
The Ocala National Forest lies between the Ocklawaha and St. Johns rivers in North Florida. In descending order of land area, it is located in parts of Marion, Lake, and Putnam counties.

The Ocala Forest is also known for having over 600 natural lakes and ponds. Between the river boundaries of this Forest lie central highlands, coastal lowlands, swamps, springs, and hundreds of lakes and ponds. Near the Juniper Prairie Wilderness and Juniper Springs is "The Yearling Trail", the location where The Yearling was filmed.

The Ocala National Forest receives more visitors than any other national forest in the Sunshine State. Millions visit the forest annually, which is one of North Florida's last-remaining traces of forested land. The forest’s porous sands, and largely undeveloped lands, provide an important recharge for the Floridan Aquifer. The Rodman Reservoir system forms most of the northern and northwestern border as part of the Ocklawaha River Basin.

The United States Navy's Pinecastle Bombing Range in the Ocala National Forest is the only place on the East Coast where the Navy can do live impact training. The Navy drops nearly 20,000 bombs a year at the site, a few hundred of which are live. The Pinecastle Bombing Range is a fenced 5760 acre area, with the eastern edge of the range located about 2 mi west of State Road 19 and the Camp Ocala campgrounds, and one-half mile (800 m) west of the Farles Lake campground. F/A-18 Hornet jet fighters and other aircraft take off from Naval Air Station Jacksonville or from aircraft carriers off the Florida coast, fly low over the forest, and drop their bombs in the middle 450 acre of the range. P-3 Orion and P-8 Poseidon aircraft will also use an instrumented range in the southeast quadrant of Lake George to conduct aerial mining training utilizing inert 500lb mines. All air-to-ground exercises using conventional ordnance up to and including 500 lb MK 82 bombs and five-inch (127 mm) Zuni rockets are authorized. Napalm and High Explosive Incendiary (HEI) are prohibited. Live ordnance is restricted to the Live Ordnance Impact Area; inert ordnance is used on all other targets. Pinecastle targets have also been certified for laser operations. The Navy has used the area for target practice for 50 years under a special use permit from the U.S. Forest Service.

The ghost town of Kerr City is in the forest. It is located on County Road 316 just west of State Road 19.

Ecology
The Ocala National Forest is in the southeastern conifer forests and the Florida scrub ecoregions. Dry, sandy areas support Florida longleaf pine sandhills (also called "high pine") and Florida scrub. Longleaf pine sandhills are woodlands dominated by longleaf pine. Florida scrub consists of a more or less dense shrub layer often with a tree canopy of sand pines. Both of these pine communities are sustained by frequent fires. The Ocala National Forest contains a high proportion of remaining inland scrub habitat and is noted for its sand pine scrub ecosystem. The forest contains the largest concentration of sand pine in the world as well as some of the best remaining stands of longleaf pine in northern Florida. Where fire is absent, southern coastal plain oak domes and hammocks can grow. These are small stands of thick evergreen oaks.

The forest contains several slow-moving rivers and numerous wet "prairies". Blackwater rivers support southern coastal plain blackwater river floodplain forests of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) along their banks. The forest's spring-fed rivers support southern coastal plain hydric hammocks, hammocks of evergreen and hardwood trees, near their floodplains. The prairies are Floridian highlands freshwater marshes. Southern coastal plain nonriverine basin swamps are large, seasonally flooded depressions of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) and swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora).

Big Scrub
The Big Scrub (earlier called the Etonia scrub) is a large area of Florida scrub, about 40 mi long and 15 to 20 mi wide, including about 200,000 acre of scrub habitat, out of the 366,037 acre in the national forest. It has been described as a sea of scrub with islands of high pine (Florida longleaf pine sandhill), while elsewhere in Florida patches of scrub have been described as islands occurring in a sea of high pine. The shrub layer of the Big Scrub generally consists of several evergreen oaks and other woody shrubs, some of which are not commonly found elsewhere in Florida scrub patches.

Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings lived much of her adult life just a few miles north of the Big Scrub in Cross Creek, Florida. She reported that the only inhabitants of the area lived in hammocks along streams or next to lakes, but not in the scrub itself. Rawlings based some of her writings (including South Moon Under and The Yearling) on the lives of the settlers around the Big Scrub after staying with families there. She described the Big Scrub in detail, stating that it was unique in the world. She wrote, "There is no human habitation—there never has been and probably never will be—in the scrub itself." She called the scrub "a vast wall, keeping out the timid and the alien." Patrick D. Smith, in writing about Rawlings, stated about the Big Scrub, "In all of America there is not a more wild and hostile land."

Periodic fires are necessary for the long term maintenance of Florida scrub. Fires in scrub are intense, killing sand pine trees and burning shrubs to the ground. A fire started by a lightning strike in the Big Scrub in 1935 became the fastest spreading wildfire in the history of the United States Forest Service. The fire consumed 35,000 acre in four hours, spreading at 6 mph. The Forest Service now conducts periodic burns in the Big Scrub after sand pines have been harvested from an area.

Animals
Ocala has a wide variety of wildlife. The Florida black bear population has its highest concentration here, and West Indian manatees frequent the inland waterways. Alligators, boar, bobcat, coyote, and white-tailed deer are all common. There are also numerous smaller animals, including (several types of) bats, eastern gray squirrels, gray fox, opossum, raccoon, red fox, nine-banded armadillo, river otter, striped skunks and southeastern pocket gophers. The sandy soil is home to the endangered gopher frog and gopher tortoise, whose extensive burrows provide important refuge for many other mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Herpetiles are abundant at Ocala, including species such as the barking frog, bullfrog, coachwhip, corn snake, brown and banded watersnakes, common snapping turtle, eastern coralsnakes, diamondback rattlesnakes, fence lizards, musk turtles, spadefoot toads and ratsnakes, Florida cottonmouths, Florida crowned snake, redbelly turtles, scrub lizards and softshell turtles, garter snakes, green anole (as well as the invasive brown anole), little brown skink, North American green treefrogs and racers, oak toads, peninsula cooter, pig frogs, pine snakes, pine woods tree frogs, pond sliders, pygmy rattlesnakes, ribbon snakes, ring-necked snakes, rough green snakes, the scarletsnake, six-lined racerunner, squirrel treefrogs, and southern five-lined skinks, southern leopard frogs and southern toads. An introduced population of Asian Rhesus macaques, originally a tourist attraction at Silver Springs State Park, have also ranged into the region and are occasionally seen.

Activities
The Ocala National Forest has an accommodating climate for year-round recreation. The mild winters are fine for family camping while a summer canoe trip down a palm-lined stream is a cool way to spend an August day. The temperatures for the dry months of November through February range from a daily average of 50 F to a high of 72 F. The summer season is much warmer and wetter. Short afternoon thundershowers often raise the humidity to about 90% while the temperatures range from 80 F to 95 F. The average rainfall is approximately 55 in per year.

Water plays an important part in a variety of recreational opportunities in the forest. Activities range from canoeing, boating, fishing, skiing, snorkeling, scuba diving, swimming, and the use of personal watercraft. Several boat ramps are available in the forest.

Many hiking trails run through the forest including the Florida Trail, Salt Springs Observation Trail, Lake Eaton Sinkhole Trail, St. Francis Trail, and Yearling Trail. Bicyclists can travel along a challenging 22 mi long ride on the Paisley Woods Bicycle Trail. Because this trail is not paved, bicycles need to be suited for rough terrain. Mountain bikes are ideal and encouraged for this environment.

The Ocala National Forest offers many locations to ride Off-Road Vehicles. Currently, two trail systems offer a variety of recreation experiences: (1) the Ocala North OHV Trail System offers a longer experience with six distinct trail loops totaling 125 mi and (2) the Wandering Wiregrass OHV Trail in the Southeast portion of the forest offers shorter day-use riding with a trail length of 17 mi. A new trail system was added in 2008 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the forest. It is part of the south trail system off FR 573.. A small trail 20 mi long called the Scrubjay and a longer trail 42 mi long called the Centennial may be accessed from trailheads off FR 573. SR 40, and the Big Scrub Campground. Some areas are restricted to off-road vehicles; a detailed forest map can help provide information on areas open to off-road vehicles.

There are many trails for horseback riding in the forest. Forest riding trails are old roads 6 to 8 ft wide, marked at intervals with painted spots – called blazes – on the trees. Some of the best trails include the One Hundred Mile trail and the LAM trail.

The Ocala National Forest is a wildlife management area, in which hunting and fishing activities are managed by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. A permit is required for all hunters (except those indicated as exempt) to hunt in this area. A Quota Hunt Permit may also be required during certain periods or certain game.

A public shooting range is located at the center of the National Forest Forest Road 11, north of S.R. 40 in the Ocala National Forest. GPS Coordinates: 29°11’16.80” N 81°46’14.15” W 12-position 100-yard rifle/handgun shooting range One single-station, self-throw shotgun pad Cost: Free Open daily from sunrise to sunset, except on Wednesday when closed until noon for maintenance. Closed sunset to sunrise, and Wednesday mornings until noon. This unsupervised facility in the Ocala National Forest offers a rifle and handgun range, and a single-station, self-throw shotgun pad. It was built with the cooperation of the U.S. Forest Service with funding provided by the Wildlife and Sport Fish Restoration Program (WSFR).

Lakes
The following is a list of lakes in or on the border of the forest:

 * Blue Sink
 * Lake Bryant
 * Lake Delancy
 * Lake Dexter
 * Doe Lake
 * Lake Dorr
 * Lake George
 * Halfmoon Lake
 * Lake Kathryn

 * Lake Kerr
 * Lochloosa Lake
 * Lake Mary
 * Mill Dam Lake
 * Lake Ocklawaha
 * Orange Lake
 * Lake Weir
 * Wildcat Lake
 * Lake Woodruff

Campsites

 * Doe Lake – western part of the forest, five miles (8 km) east of Lake Weir by the Ocklawaha River
 * Salt Springs - within the town of Salt Springs.
 * Big Bass Lake – southernmost campsite in the forest, known as a halfway mark between Weirsdale and Altoona
 * Big Scrub – two miles (3 km) northeast of Doe Lake campsite, the nearest town is Moss Bluff
 * Clearwater Lake Recreation Area – easternmost major campsite, close to Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge, named after nearby Clearwater Lake – the nearest town to this campsite is Paisley
 * Buck Lake – three miles (5 km) north of Altoona, six miles (10 km) north of Umatilla; located about 100 ft above sea level, where State Road 19 and Lake County road 445 meet.
 * Alexander Springs – about four miles (6 km) northeast of Buck Lake, close to CR 445, ten miles (16 km) southwest of Astor
 * Halfmoon Lake – named after nearby Halfmoon Lake.
 * Lake Delancy – northernmost major campsite, three miles (5 km) east of Rodman Reservoir, 10 mi southeast of Orange Springs
 * Juniper Springs – lies near the junction of State Road 19 and State Road 40
 * Fore Lake- Government campsite located 6.5 miles north of Hwy 40 on CR 314.
 * Camp La-No-Che – a 1400 acre Boy Scout camp located on the south side of the forest in the town of Paisley
 * Wildcat Lake - campsite, boat launching, and water skiing area along State Road 40 0.9 mi east of State Road 19.

Wilderness areas
There are four officially designated wilderness areas lying within Ocala National Forest that are part of the National Wilderness Preservation System.
 * Alexander Springs Wilderness
 * Billies Bay Wilderness
 * Juniper Prairie Wilderness
 * Little Lake George Wilderness

title: Ocala National Forest


text:
Stuttgart-Degerloch water tower

The Water Tower Stuttgart Degerloch is a bricked water tower in Stuttgart-Degerloch, Germany.

The tower was built in 1911/1912 and is 28 metres high. It has a diameter of 10.9 metres, a height of 28 metres and a container volume of 400 m³.

During World War II the water tower provided a marking point by the allied planes for the bombing of the heavy anti aircraft flak battery in Degerloch. This scenario prompted the authorities to blast three metres from the top of the water tower to bring its height even with the height level of the trees nearby thus blending the towers appearance in with the forest.

title: Stuttgart-Degerloch water tower


text:
Marquis of Amboage

Pla y Monge, Ramón Pedro Francisco or the Marquis of Amboage was a philanthropic multimillionaire and politician of the 19th century born in Ferrol, Galicia.

title: Marquis of Amboage