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Eagle (heraldry)

The eagle is used in heraldry as a charge, as a supporter, and as a crest. Heraldic eagles can be found throughout world history like in the Achaemenid Empire or in the present Republic of Indonesia. The European post-classical symbolism of the heraldic eagle is connected with the Roman Empire on one hand (especially in the case of the double-headed eagle), and with Saint John the Evangelist on the other.

History
A golden eagle was often used on the banner of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Eagle (or the related royal bird vareghna) symbolized khvarenah (the God-given glory), and the Achaemenid family was associated with eagle (according to legend, Achaemenes was raised by an eagle). The local rulers of Persis in the Seleucid and Parthian eras (3rd-2nd centuries BC) sometimes used an eagle as the finial of their banner. Parthians and Armenians used eagle banners, too.

European heraldry

In Europe the iconography of the heraldic eagle, as with other heraldic beasts, is inherited from early medieval tradition. It rests on a dual symbolism: On one hand it was seen as a symbol of the Roman Empire (the Roman Eagle had been introduced as the standardised emblem of the Roman legions under consul Gaius Marius in 102 BC); on the other hand, the eagle in early medieval iconography represented Saint John the Evangelist, ultimately based on the tradition of the four living creatures in Ezekiel.

In early heraldry or proto-heraldry of the 12th century, however, the eagle as a heraldic charge was not necessarily tied to either imperial or biblical symbolism. The Anglo-Norman L'Aigle family, who held Pevensey castle and the Borough of Pevensey, used the eagle as an emblem in an instance of canting arms. The earliest known use of the eagle as a heraldic charge is found in the Great Seal of Leopold IV of Austria, dated 1136. Adalbert I, Duke of Teck used an eagle in his seal in c. 1190.

By the late medieval period, in German heraldry the eagle developed into a symbol of the Holy Roman Empire, and thus became comparatively rare outside of coats of arms derived from the Imperial Eagle. The Imperial Eagle was and is denominated the Reichsadler. The first evidence of the use of the double-headed Imperial Eagle dates to the mid-13th century (Chronica Majora, c. 1250; Segar's Roll, c. 1280). The German kings continued use of the single-headed eagle during the 14th century. In Italy, the Ghibelline faction (the faction loyal to the Emperor in the drawn-out conflict between emperors and popes) began to display or an eagle sable in chief of their coats of arms, known as capo dell'impero or "chief of the empire". Similarly, German cities began to incorporate the Imperial Eagle into their seals and coats of arms to imply Imperial immediacy. From such usage, use of the heraldic eagle by the end of the medieval period became so strongly associated with the Holy Roman Empire that the eagle was rarely used as an independent heraldic charge. Examples of continued use of an eagle in coats of arms based on traditions of the 13th century include the Polish, Moravian, and Silesian coats of arms.

By far the oldest and most common manner of depicting the eagle in heraldry is what would come to be known as displayed (éployée), in direct imitation of Roman iconography. The eagle's body is depicted with lateral symmetry, but its head is facing the dexter side. In late medieval blasons, the term "eagle" (Middle French egle) without specification refers to an "eagle displayed". In early modern English terminology, it became common to use "eagle displayed". Also specific to English heraldry is the distinction between "eagle displayed with its wings elevated" and "eagle displayed with wings inverted". This is due to a regional English convention of depicting the tips of the wings pointing upward, while in continental heraldry, the tips of the wings were depicted downward ("inverted"). Later, English heraldry partially adopted the continental convention, leading to a situation where it was unclear whether the two forms should be considered equivalent. In German heraldry, no attitude other than "eagle displayed with wings inverted" ever became current, so that the simple blason of "eagle" (Adler) still refers to this configuration.

There is a gradual evolution of the standard depiction of the heraldic eagle over the course of the 12th to 16th centuries. In the 12th to 13th century, the head is raised and the beak is closed. The leading edge of the wings (in German heraldry termed Sachsen or Saxen, representing the main bones in the bird's wing, humerus and ulna) are rolled up at the ends into a spiral shape, with the remiges shown vertical. The tail is represented as a number of stiff feathers. By the later 14th century, the head is straightened, and the beak opens, with the tongue becoming visible. The rolling-up of the leading edge of the wings disappears. The claws now form an acute angle relative to the body, occasionally receiving a "hose" covering the upper leg. The tail feathers now spread out in curved lines. In the 15th century, the leading edge of the wings become half-circles, with the remiges no longer vertical but radiating outward. The legs form a right angles. In the 16th century, eventually, the depiction of the eagle becomes more extravagant and ferocious, the animal being depicted "it in as ornamental and ornate a manner as possible". Fox-Davies (1909) presents a schematic depiction of this evolution, as follows:

Depiction
The depiction of the heraldic eagle is subject to a great range of variation in style. The eagle was far more common in continental European—particularly German—than English heraldry, and it most frequently appears Sable (colored black) with its beak and claws Or (colored gold or yellow). It is often depicted membered (having limbs of a different color than the body) / armed (an animal depicted with its natural weapons of a different color than the body) and langued (depicted having a tongue of a different color than the body) gules (colored red), that is, with red claws / talons and tongue. In its relatively few instances in Gallo-British heraldry (e.g. the arms of the Earls of Dalhousie) the outermost feathers are typically longer and point upward.

Head
An eagle can appear either single- or double-headed (bicapitate), in rare cases triple-headed (tricapitate) eagle is seen.

An eagle can be displayed with his head turned to the sinister (left side of the field). In full aspect describes an eagle with his head facing the onlooker. In trian aspect (a rare, later 16th and 17th century heraldry term) describes when the eagle's head is facing at a three-quarter view to give the appearance of depth – with the head cocked at an angle somewhere between profile and straight-on.

Wings
Overture or close is when the wings are shown at the sides and close to the body, always depicted statant (standing in profile and facing the right side of the field). (Trussed - the term when depicting domestic or game birds with their wings closed - is not used because the eagle is a proud animal and the word implies it is tied up or bound by a net.)

Addorsed ("back to back") is when the eagle is shown statant (standing in profile and facing the right side of the field) and ready to fly, with the wings shown open behind the eagle so that they almost touch.

Espanie or épandre ("expanded") is when the eagle is shown affronté (facing the viewer with the head turned to the dexter) and the wings are shown with the tips upward.

Abaisé or abaissé ("lowered") is when the eagle is shown affronté (facing the viewer) and the wings are shown with the tips downward. A good example is the eagle on the reverse side of the US quarter-dollar coin.

Kleestängel, also Kleestengel or Klee-Stengeln ("clover-stems"), are the pair of long-stemmed trefoil-type charges originating in 13th-century German depictions of the heraldic eagle. They represent the upper edge of the wings and are normally Or (gold / yellow), like the beak and claws, as in the arms of Brandenburg or several versions of the arms of Prussia. Reinmar von Zweter fashioned the Klee-Stengeln of his eagle into a second and third head. In Polish the term is przepaska, which means "cloth" or "band" (in Latin, "perizonium" or "perisonium"), which may refer either to the Kleestängel, as in the Polish arms (white on a white eagle, formerly also gold on a white eagle ) and others derived from it, or to the Brustspange as below.

Brustspange, also Brustmond or Brustsichel, is an elongated crescent across the breast and wings (in effect, a pair of Kleestängel extended to join each other). As with Kleestängel, there is no specific English term for this charge as it does not occur in English heraldry: it is usually blazoned simply as a crescent, and when the ends terminate in trefoils as a "crescent trefly" or "treflée". Sometimes there is a cross paty in the centre, notably in the arms of Silesia (silver on a black eagle) introduced in the early 13th century by either Duke Henry the Bearded or Duke Henry II the Pious, which occurs in numerous related arms.

Eagle displayed
The informal term "spread eagle" is derived from a heraldic depiction of an eagle displayed (i.e. upright with both wings, both legs, and tailfeathers all outstretched). The wings are usually depicted "expanded" or "elevated" (i.e., with the points upward); displayed inverted is when the wings are depicted points downward. According to Hugh Clark, An Introduction to Heraldry, the term spread eagle refers to "an eagle with two heads, displayed", but this distinction has apparently been lost in modern usage. Most of the eagles used as emblems of various monarchs and states are displayed, including those on the coats of arms of Germany, Romania, Poland and the United States.

Displayed is the most common attitude, with examples going back to the early Middle Ages.

Eagle rousant
An eagle rising or rousant (essorant) is preparing to fly, but its feet are still on the ground. It is the eagle's version of statant (standing in profile and facing the right side of the field).
 * with wings addorsed and elevated means in profile with the wings swept to the back and their tips extended upwards.
 * with wings addorsed and inverted means in profile with wings swept to the back and their tips extended downwards.
 * with wings displayed and elevated means facing to the front with the wings spread and their tips extended upwards.
 * with wings displayed and inverted means facing to the front with the wings spread and their tips extended downwards.

There is sometimes confusion between a rousant eagle with displayed wings and a displayed eagle. The difference is that rousant eagles face to the right and have their feet on the ground and displayed eagles face the viewer, have their legs splayed out, and the tail is completely visible. There is a debate over whether rousant or displayed is the eagle's default depiction.

Eagle volant
Volant describes an eagle in profile shown in flight with wings shown addorsed and elevated and its legs together and tucked under. It is considered in bend ("diagonal") as it is flying from the lower sinister (heraldic left, from the shield-holder's point of view) to the upper dexter (heraldic right, from the shield-holder's point of view) of the field. However, the term "in bend" is not used unless a bend is actually on the field.

Eagle recursant
An eagle shown recursant has its back towards the viewer, e.g., "An eagle volant recursant descendant in pale" is an eagle flying downward in the vertical center of the shield with its back towards the viewer.

Eagles combatant
Like the heraldic lion, the heraldic eagle is seen as dominating the field and normally cannot brook a rival. When two eagles are depicted on a field, they are usually shown combatant, that is, facing each other with wings spread and one claw extended, as though they were fighting. Respectant, the term used for depicting domestic or game animals shown facing each other, is not used because eagles are aggressive predators.

Eagles addorsed
When two eagles are shown back-to-back and facing the edges of the field the term used is addorsed / endorsed or adossés ("back-to-back").

Eaglet
This term is used when three or more Eagles are shown on a field. They represent immature eagles.

Alerion
Originally the term erne or alerion in early heraldry referred to a regular eagle. Later heralds used the term alerion to depict baby eagles. To differentiate them from mature eagles, alerions were shown as an eagle displayed inverted without a beak or claws (disarmed). To difference it from a decapitate (headless) eagle, the alerion has a bulb-shaped head with an eye staring towards the dexter (right-hand side) of the field. This was later simplified in modern heraldry as an abstract winged oval.

An example is the arms of the Duchy of Lorraine (Or, on a Bend Gules, 3 Alerions Abaisé Argent). It supposedly had been inspired by the assumed arms of crusader Geoffrey de Bouillon, who supposedly killed three white eaglets with a bow and arrow when out hunting. It is far more likely to be canting arms that are a pun based on the similarities of "Lorraine" and "erne".

Imperial Eagle
The Aquila was the eagle standard of a Roman legion, carried by a special grade legionary known as an Aquilifer, from the second consulship of Gaius Marius (104 BC) used as the only legionary standard. It was made of silver, or bronze, with outstretched wings. The eagle was not immediately retained as a symbol of the Roman Empire in general in the early medieval period. Neither the early Byzantine emperors nor the Carolingians used the eagle in their coins or seals. It appears that the eagle is only revived as a symbol of Roman imperial power in the high medieval period, being featured on the sceptres of the Ottonians in the late 10th century, and the double-headed eagle gradually appearing association with the Komnenos dynasty in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Holy Roman Empire
The eagle is used as an emblem by the Holy Roman Emperors from at least the time of Otto III (late 10th century), in the form of the "eagle-sceptre".

Frederick Barbarossa (r. 1155–90) is reported as having displayed an eagle on his banner, Otto IV (r. 1209–15) an eagle hovering over a dragon. The first evidence of the use of the Reichsadler (imperial eagle) proper dates to the mid-13th century. Matthew Paris' Chronica Majora (c. 1250) displays a coat of arms with a black double-headed eagle in a yellow field for Otto IV. Segar's Roll (c. 1280) displays the same coat of arms, or, an eagle sable beaked and armed gules for the "king of Germany" (rey de almayne). Outside of these exceptional depictions (in sources from outside of Germany), the double-headed eagle remains unattested as emblem of the German kings or emperors until the 1430s. In the 14th century, the German kings use the royal banner (Königsfahne) with the single-headed eagle. The earliest pictorial representations of this date to the first half of the 14th century (Codex Balduini). This banner develops into the Reichssturmfahne (imperial war flag) with the double-headed Reichsadler (imperial eagle) by the mid-15th century. Sigismund (r. 1433–37) still uses either the single-headed or the double-headed eagle. Consistent use of the double-headed eagle only begins with the Habsburg emperors (with Frederick III, 1440). After 1558 (Ferdinand I), the title of King of the Romans is used for the emperor's heir apparent; the double-headed eagle now represents the emperor, and the single-headed eagle the emperor's heir apparent (thus, Ferdinand IV, King of the Romans, who pre-deceased his father in 1654 and never became emperor, is given a single-headed eagle only).

Byzantine imperial eagle
Use of the double-headed eagle is first attested in Byzantine art of the 10th century. Its use as an imperial emblem, however, is considerably younger, attested with certainty only in the 15th century, i.e. at about the same time the double-headed eagle was also adopted in the Holy Roman Empire. There are speculative theories according to which the double-headed eagle was first introduced as a dynastic emblem of the Komnenoi, from as early as the 11th century. The Palaiologoi emperors appear to have used the double-headed eagle often as ornamental emblem on their robes etc. during the 13th and 14th century, but only in the 15th century as an emblem on coins or seals. In the 15th century, the double-heade eagle was first used as an emblem by the semi-autonomous Despots of the Morea, who were younger imperial princes, and by the Gattilusi of Lesbos, who were Palaiologan relatives and vassals. The double-headed eagle was used in the breakaway Empire of Trebizond as well. Western portolans of the 14th–15th centuries use the double-headed eagle (silver/golden on red/vermilion) as the symbol of Trebizond rather than Constantinople. Single-headed eagles are also attested in Trapezuntine coins, and a 1421 source depicts the Trapezuntine flag as yellow with a red single-headed eagle. Apparently, just as in the metropolitan Byzantine state, the use of both motifs, single and double-headed, continued side by side. Other Balkan states followed the Byzantine model as well: chiefly the Serbians, but also the Bulgarians and Albania under George Kastrioti (better known as Skanderbeg), while after 1472 the eagle was adopted by Muscovy, when Ivan III of Russia married Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaiologos.

The Serbian eagle (in the modern coat of arms of Serbia, 1882) is derived from the coat of arms of the Nemanjić dynasty (16th century), in turn derived from the Byzantine imperial eagle. Use of the double-headed eagle for Serbia is among the examples of early representations in Western portolans (Angelino Dulcert 1339).

Eagle of Saint John
John the Evangelist, the author of the fourth gospel account, is symbolized by an eagle, king of the birds, often with a halo. The eagle is a figure of the sky, and believed by Christian scholars to be able to look straight into the sun.

The best-known heraldic use of the Eagle of St. John has been the single supporter chosen by Queen Isabella of Castile in her armorial achievement used as heiress and later integrated into the heraldry of the Catholic Monarchs. This election alludes to the queen's great devotion to the evangelist that predated her accession to the throne.

The Eagle of St. John supported the shields used by Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, as queen consort of England, and by Mary I and King Philip as joint monarchs of England. In Spain, Philip bore the Eagle of St John (variously one or two) in his ornamented armorial achievements until 1668.

The Eagle of the Evangelist was restored as single supporter holding the 1939, 1945 and 1977 official models of the armorial achievement of Spain, but been removed in 1981 when the current design was adopted. The eagle was used by the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco as a symbol of his regime. It is also frequently used in modern civic heraldry.

Piast and Přemyslid dynasties
The eagles in the Polish, Moravian and Silesian coats of arms are based on 13th-century dynastic arms. The Silesian Piasts was the first branch of Piast dynasty to use an eagle for their coat of arms. The first documented use of the Upper Silesian Eagle was on the Casimir I of Opole's seal in 1222 and was later followed by the first use of the Lower Silesian Eagle by the Henry II the Pious in 1224. Przemysł II was the first Polish ruler to use the Polish Eagle as a coat of arms to represent the whole of Poland in 1295.

The Margraviate of Moravia from at least the 1270s used a chequered eagle. The Moravian Eagle (without chequering) was first documented on the seal of Ottokar's uncle, Margrave Přemysl (d. 1239) and is thus likely derived from the coat of arms of the Přemyslid dynasty, who in the early 13th century used a "flaming eagle" coat of arms alongside the Bohemian lion for the Kingdom of Bohemia.

Heraldic eagles
Heraldic eagles are enduring symbols used in the national coats of arms of a number of countries:
 * Albania: Principality of Albania (1914), House of Kastrioti coat of arms
 * Armenia: Quarterly, eagles for the Artaxiad and Arsacid dynasties (adopted 1992).
 * Austria: Reichsadler (1919).
 * Bogotá: was granted by the Emperor Charles V to the New Kingdom of Granada on December 3, 1548.
 * Czech Republic: Quartered, Moravian and Silesian eagles (Jiří Louda 1992)
 * Germany: the German Bundesadler (since 1950), a direct continuation of the Reichsadler design used in the Weimar Republic from 1928.
 * Liechtenstein: Coat of arms of Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein (b. 1945), with the Silesian eagle in the first quarter.
 * Moldova: an eagle displayed holding an Orthodox cross in its beak, adopted 1990.
 * Montenegro: Byzantine imperial eagle (2004).
 * Poland: Piast dynasty, adopted 1990.
 * Romania: Eagles for Wallachia and Transylvania, adopted 2016, partially based on the arms of Carol I of Romania (1881)
 * Russia: Byzantine imperial eagle, adopted 1993, first adopted for Muscovy by Ivan III of Russia (1472).
 * Serbia: Serbian eagle (Byzantine imperial eagle, Nemanjić dynasty).

United States
Since 20 June 1782, the United States has used its national bird, the bald eagle, on its Great Seal; the choice was intended to at once recall the Roman Republic and be uniquely American (the bald eagle being indigenous to North America). The representation of the American Eagle is thus a unique combination between a naturalistic depiction of the bird, and the traditional heraldic attitude of the "eagle displayed".

The American bald eagle has been a popular emblem throughout the life of the republic, with an eagle appearing in its current form since 1885, in the flags and seals of the President, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Justice Department, Defense Department, Postal Service, and other organizations, on various coins (such as the quarter-dollar), and in various American corporate logos past and present, such as those of Case and American Eagle Outfitters.

Benjamin Franklin is quoted in a letter to his daughter regretting the eagle's use as a national symbol, calling it a "bird of bad moral character" that steals from other birds and is easily frightened, and joking that it is good that the eagle in the Cincinnati's proposed seal looked more like a turkey. This has led to a misconception that Franklin actively supported a turkey or opposed an eagle for the grand seal.

French Empire

The French Imperial Eagle or Aigle de drapeau (lit. "flag eagle") was a figure of an eagle on a staff carried into battle as a standard by the Grande Armée of Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars.

Although they were presented with Regimental Colours, the regiments of Napoleon I tended to carry at their head the Imperial Eagle. This was the bronze sculpture of an eagle weighing 1.85 kg, mounted on top of the blue regimental flagpole. They were made from six separately cast pieces and, when assembled, measured 310 mm in height and 255 mm in width. On the base would be the regiment's number or, in the case of the Guard, Garde Impériale. The eagle bore the same significance to French Imperial regiments as the colours did to British regiments - to lose the eagle would bring shame to the regiment, who had pledged to defend it to the death.

Upon Napoleon's fall, the restored monarchy of Louis XVIII of France ordered all eagles to be destroyed and only a very small number escaped. When the former emperor returned to power in 1815 (known as the Hundred Days) he immediately had more eagles produced, although the quality did not match the originals. The workmanship was of a lesser quality and the main distinguishing changes had the new models with closed beaks and they were set in a more crouched posture.

Napoleon also used the French Imperial Eagle in the heraldry of the First Empire, as did his nephew Napoleon III during the Second Empire. An eagle remains in the arms of the House of Bonaparte and the current royal house of Sweden retains the French Imperial Eagle on its dynastic inescutcheon, as his founder, Jean Bernadotte, was a Marshal of France and Prince of Pontecorvo.

Other national emblems

 * The greater coat of arms of Belgium (1837) includes a banner of the arms of Antwerp Province above the mantle, which depict both a double-headed eagle and a single-headed eagle.
 * The coat of arms of Panama (1904), has an eagle rising with wings displayed and elevated on place of a crest. Since 2002 the eagle is officially specified as a harpy eagle.
 * The coat of arms of Jordan (1921) featured an eagle before the development of the "Eagle of Saladin" emblem.
 * The coat of arms of Iceland (1944) has an eagle or griffin (Gammur) among its supporters.
 * The coat of arms of the Philippines (1946) includes the bald eagle of the United States.
 * The national emblem of Indonesia (1950) has a Garuda (mythological bird) styled after the Javan hawk-eagle
 * The coat of arms of Ghana (1957) has two tawny eagles as supporters.
 * Coat of arms of Nigeria (1960)
 * The coat of arms of Mexico (1968) shows a Mexican golden eagle devouring a rattle snake.
 * The coat of arms of Namibia (1990) has an African fish eagle.
 * The flag of Kazakhstan has a soaring steppe eagle.
 * The coat of arms of South Sudan (2011) has an African fish eagle.
 * The emblem of Kyrgyzstan (2016) has a hawk.

Military badges
Naturalistic eagles are often used in military emblems, such as the emblem of the Royal Air Force (United Kingdom), NATO School, the European Personnel Recovery Centre, etc.

Eagle of Saladin
In Arab nationalism, with the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the eagle became the symbol of revolutionary Egypt, and was subsequently adopted by several other Arab states (the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Libya, the partially recognised State of Palestine, and Yemen).

The eagle is commonly identified as Saladin's emblem due to his yellow flag was adorned with an eagle, as well as the depiction of an Egyptian vulture on the west wall of the Cairo Citadel which was built during the rule of Saladin. The current design of the eagle itself, however, is of more recent date specifically after the Egyptian revolution of 1952.

As a heraldic symbol identified with Arab nationalism, the Eagle of Saladin was subsequently adopted as the coats of arms of Iraq and Palestine. It has previously been the coat of arms of Libya, but later replaced by the Hawk of Quraish. The Hawk of Quraish was itself abandoned after the Libyan Civil War. The Eagle of Saladin was part of the coat of arms of South Yemen prior to that country's unification with North Yemen.

Zimbabwe Bird
The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird is the national emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on the national flags and coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia (since 1924), as well as on banknotes and coins (first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar). It probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle. The bird's design is derived from a number of soapstone sculptures found in the ruins of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.

title: Eagle (heraldry)


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Talk:Kolkata/Archive 2

I'm not arguing with anyone, nor do I wish to reply to this post. I only intend project my view. It is the British who built up cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Because of their urban planning, architectural wonders, administration and foresight, these cities are what they are today - Cosmopolitan & metropolitan. Compare it to non descript cities such as Ahemdabad and Jaipur, which cannot be termed as cosmopolitan. Before the British arrived, Calcutta was a grassy hamlet and Bombay was made up of 7 little islands. If the British hadn't merged the 7 islands, Bombay would just be another hamlet on the Konkan coast. I think we should give credit to the British and not to some sleazy politicians who are just being xenophobic, bigoted and jingoistic. I still call my city Bombay irrespective of what others have to say. Nichalp 20:04, Apr 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * You say you are not looking to argue and yet you slap the most ludicrous of statements on to this page. The British architecture is no better than great Hindu or Islamic architecture preceding it. For the buildings which catered to British politicians we have a legacy of the draining of Indian resources by creating a railroad and export system to suck out Indian products and push back in English products, thus making India, a huge and rich land, dependent on a snot of an island in Europe! Britain succeeded only in impoverishing the nation, dividing it along communal lines. Before the British, incidents of Muslim-Hindu riots were at a low, and after their partitioning of Bengal, of their sectioning Urdu and Hindi, etc. etc. India was screwed by the arrival of the British, whether you have a strange backward Imperialist nostalgia, which sounds like an African-American reminiscing about the pre-Civil War slave days in the good old South. Note that sprawling metropolises like Lucknow and Hyderabad were gorgeous and actually boasted relative civil prosperity; before the Muslims several grand cities are known ruled by Hindu and Buddhist kings with far less internal strife than created by the British.

 * It cannot be estimated, even to millions, how much gold, silk, precious stones, manpower and misery was taken out of India by the British. Even the jewel in the British crown is Indian. Basically, British was a big goon who broke into someone?s house, held them at gunpoint, spit on their values and culture, and left with as much of a loot as he could take. During their stay, hundreds and thousands of Indians were forced into service of the British, formed into an army at the beck and call of British concerns and massacred at will. Indians, both Muslim and Hindu, were coerced into converting to Christianity and learning English, because without those conditions having been met, positions of even nominal power were off-limits. To decrease the cost of governing the country, the British created hundreds of puppet governments, led by the traditional Hindu and Muslim kings, to give the people of India the illusion of autonomy. Of course, as is well-documented, every court in India had a British advisor whose word was law. These were all administered to by emissaries of the queen of England. In 1857, Muslims and Hindus joined forces and fought against the British Rule. Indians call it a fight for Liberty, like that of the Americans and the French? of course, the British called it the Sepoy Mutiny.

 * Bengalis have been calling it Kolkata for years. If you're sorry to have seen the British leave that's fine, but your opinion is going to be met with mine (hence this monologue). Bombay can be Bombay, and Calcutta can be Calcutta, but it doesn't change the disgusting parasitic imperialism of the British overlords. All in all, the British did nothing good for India that would not have naturally come the twentieth century. India was left, in 1947, with extreme poverty, a crumbling infrastructure, political in-fighting fueled by British divide and conquer policy (attested to by British writers of the time) and a couple of missionaries. Any government left with this sort of a situation would be hard-pressed to correct the problems in a country already immense population-wise and diverse in terms of religion and cultures. Now, through pot-holes and bumps in the road, India is slowly picking itself up. --LordSuryaofShropshire 20:22, Apr 28, 2004 (UTC)

Nichalp 09:40, May 4, 2004 (UTC)
 * I did not state that Indian architecture is anyway inferior to European. You have to appreciate the fact that beautiful fusion architecture is present in both Calcutta and Bombay such as Victoria Memorial, Victoria Terminus etc. Built by the British, who else?
 * I DO NOT dispute the fact that India was milked of its resources.
 * I'm not saying that the British were innocent of their crimes.
 * I'm stating that infrastructure was better under colonial times. I'm not pro colonial, its only that politicans today haven't matched up the the british rule in terms of infrastructure.
 * Learning English has its privileges today. If it wasn't for English we would be in the position China & Estonia are in. Trying to achieve "English parity' with India and the rest of the world.
 * The roads used to be washed daily in the past. Has a road ever been washed?
 * Slums have mushroomed after independance. Who's responsible?
 * Roads have become narrower in cities due to uncontrollable hawkers.
 * An article in the Times of India stated that there is no urban planning takinen today to find out the consequences of an action, as was done in british time. this was w.r.t. flyovers in Bombay. Any flyover is built without seeing to the future implications.
 * Divide and rule is not a charecteristic of the British only. It was already divided before they arrived with infighting among the kingdoms. Remember one of the failures of the Mutiny of 1857? the Jats, Sikhs did not take part in the revolt.
 * I believe that till 1857 the East India company ruled India. The Queen formally only took over after 1857, not before.
 * After the railways were built, do you know that it took 50 years to build something as remarkable as what was built back then. I'm talking about the Konkan Railway Line. (Its acknowledged by the KR themselves, I'm not making it up).(what's the reason why?
 * Except in Bombay (I dont know about Delhi) is there any conservation of architecture in India? (There's a beautiful gate in Lucknow, I've passed by it, unfortunately decrepitated.)
 * Who founded the two cities and built it up? It didn't exist before the British arrived.
 * Finally I wish to state that Even though they were Goons, a lot of positive things came about from the British (mis) rule, and that should not be overlooked.

Naming policy poll
→Raul654 has started a poll, asking if the most common english name or the proper local name should be used for locations. This city is listed as an example. The poll is at Naming policy poll -- chris_73 07:52, 23 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Germans
Germans in Calcutta. Could someone elaborate?

Moved from Talk:Calcutta
I changed this to a redirect because too many links direct to here referring to the city. Not many people know of the name change. --Jiang 05:43, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

The name "change" made in 1999 didn't change the way the city is referred to in English, at least not yet: "Calcutta" gets 917,000 google hits; "Kolikata" gets 1230; "Kalikata" gets 1200. "Calcutta" appears in the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2003) and the others don't. -- Someone else 05:55, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Should the page be moved here then? --Jiang

 * That would be my suggestion, but you might want to ask around. I don't really think the gambling term needs disambiguation, but obviously someone did... that could be done on the city's page, though, without a separate disambiguation page. -- Someone else 06:11, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * We've been through that whole discussion more than once - see talk:Kolkata and/or talk:Kyiv. Mkweise 06:24, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * The name change was to "Kolkata," which is the Bengali name for it and in use concordantly with the British one. It is well-known around the world in diplomatic circles but has not outstripped "Calcutta" in English currency. Kalikata/Kolikata was the original name of from which the latter two, Kolkata and Calcutta, derived. I have made mention of it in the intro since it is important and should not just be ignored, especially since naming convention has presided over "Calcutta"'s use as standard in the article anyway. --LordSuryaofShropshire 04:51, Jun 11, 2004 (UTC)

So, I'm still confused about the names "Kalikata" and "Kolkata". If "Kalikata" is not the Bengali name, what is it? Why did the city go from "Kalikata" to "Kolkata", and when did this happen? john k 05:50, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Kalikata is the Bengali name, however it was in use back in the 16th century. It went to Kolkata because of usage, much like Chaucerian English changed in pronunciation to resemble more recognizable (to us) forms today. People used to pronounce a word like "was" as "vaaz" in the Middle Ages. Vowel shifts, regional incursions by different accents, have all contributed. In the same way, Kalikata morphed into Kolkata. The British, who changed names to suit their own accents, preferred Calcutta to Kolkata. --LordSuryaofShropshire 17:09, Jun 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'd like to add that there are two forms of Bengali... the highly literary, completely pure form whose grammar is very old, Sadhu Bhasha, and there is the more common, standard form spoken today, based on the "Calcutta"/"Kolkata" Bengali, known as Cholit Bhasha. Both are highly regarded when written properly in literature. Rabindranath Tagore set the standard for high literature in the modern strain. His own name is an example of the Kalikata - Calcutta trend. His name, and the form he always signed with in his writings, and that by which he is known by all Bengalis, is "Thakur," which means "God." Anglicization rendered it Tagore in English-speaking circles. Anyway, in his voluminous writings (preponderantly in Bengali) he always referred to Calcutta as "Kolkata," but there are times when he mentions "Kalikata" as well, a deliberate throwback to the original name. This is just some background on the name situation in Bengal. As for Kalikata, its first known usages were in tax records by Akbar and a mention by Bipridas, a 15th/16th century Bengali poet, in reference to the city now known as Kolkata/Calcutta. --LordSuryaofShropshire 17:16, Jun 11, 2004 (UTC)

Okay, thanks, that makes sense. Perhaps this should be laid out more clearly in the article. john k 17:37, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree... perhaps a "History of the Name" section might be added, though the preliminary intro mentioning Kolkata as official can be retained. I'll see to it within the next week if nobody else crops up with ideas. --LordSuryaofShropshire 18:00, Jun 11, 2004 (UTC)

Yes, that Kolkata is now the official name should definitely be mentioned at the beginning. john k 19:34, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Kolkata/Archive 2


text:
Dewlap

A dewlap is a longitudinal flap of skin or similar flesh that hangs beneath the lower jaw or neck of many vertebrates. More loosely, it can be various similar structures in the neck area, such as those caused by a double chin or the submandibular vocal sac of a frog. More generally, it can be any hanging mass of skin, such as a fold of loose skin on an elderly person's neck, or the wattle of a bird. Dewlaps can be considered as a caruncle, defined as "a small, fleshy excrescence that is a normal part of an animal's anatomy".

Etymology
The word is first attested in the mid 1300s as dewelappe ("fold of skin that hangs from the throat of oxen and kine"), from lappe ("loose piece", from Old English ), but the first element *dew(e)- is of nebulous origin and meaning; it probably was altered by folk etymology with "dew". Old English had fræt-læppa in the aforementioned sense (and Middle English fresh-lappe). There also seems to be a cognate to Danish dialectal ("flap of skin that sweeps dew from grass, especially on the neck of an ox"), but this might be a parallel independent development.

From the 1580s onward, it was applied to the fleshy fold or wattle of a turkey and also to a flaccid, elderly human throat.

Mammals
Many mammals such as dogs, rabbits and moose possess dewlaps. In zebu cattle, the dewlap is colloquially known as the "briefcase folds". The dewlap is also seen in both sexes of moose.

Rabbits
In rabbits, the dewlap is a secondary sex characteristic of female rabbits which grows once the doe reaches sexual maturity. In laboratory conditions, when a butyl alcohol extract of the urine of pregnant women was administered to male rabbits, they developed a dewlap, which then gradually disappeared once the administration ceased. If a female rabbit is ovarectomized before reaching maturity, the dewlap never develops, and even when an ovarectomy is performed on a mature female rabbit with a dewlap, the dewlap disappears gradually afterwards. Near the end of pregnancy, the female rabbit will pluck fur from the dewlap to line a nest for her young.

Reptiles and birds
Many reptiles have dewlaps, most notably the anole family and Sitana genus of lizards, which have large skin dewlaps they can extend and retract. The anole family has been found to have enhanced vision for color and depth perception. This family is able to see dewlap coloration from a distance, giving the dewlap use and importance. These dewlaps are usually of a different color from the rest of their body and, when enlarged, make the lizard seem much bigger than it really is. The dewlap is primarily used when indicating territorial boundaries and for males to attract females during the mating season. The pigments generating this color are pterins and carotenoids. These two pigments are the most easily seen through the anole's eyes. Pterin and carotenoid pigments are located throughout the tissue of the dewlap, creating yellow and red hues. Lizards usually accompany dewlap movement with head bobs and other displays. The dewlap moves through extension and contraction. The muscles creating this movement are the ceratohyoid muscles and are connected to the hyoid apparatus in the throat and larynx area. Though the purpose of these displays is unclear, the colors of the dewlap and the movements during the displays are thought to be a way of standing out against visual background noise.

Many birds also have dewlaps, including domestic chickens, some cracids and some guans.

title: Dewlap


text:
Talk:Massachusetts Avenue

Boston details
Would someone familiar with Boston care to fill in details for Boston corresponding to those in the article for D.C.? Thanks much. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.140.80.231 (talk • contribs) 12:26, 20 April 2005 (UTC)

Lawrence, KS belongs here?
If the street in Lawrence, Kansas is not called "Massachusetts Avenue" it seems kind of odd to include it here.

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved, not the primary topic. Massachusetts Avenue (Boston) can be moved to any better qualifier (with consensus) as a technical request or by the editor directly. -- JHunterJ (talk) 14:09, 25 May 2012 (UTC)

– Proposing the current "Massachusetts Avenue" be moved to the current redirect page "Massachusetts Avenue (disambiguation)". Reasons: 1) There are other Massachusetts Avenues in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts which aren't attached to the major linear one which stretches most of Massachusetts towards Western Mass. 2) The other current 'Mass. Ave' articles seem to have defined boundaries. 3) The "Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)" one actually spans several Mass. state counties, *and* municipal borders so even "Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)" is as incorrect in title as would be: "Massachusetts Avenue (Metro Boston)", "Massachusetts Avenue (Eastern and Central Massachusetts)", too strange to be "Massachusetts Avenue 1 (Massachusetts)" or "Massachusetts Avenue (Suffolk, Middlesex, and Worcester Counties)". My proposal is to move "Massachusetts Avenue" to "Massachusetts Avenue (disambiguation)" Then "Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)" to "Massachusetts Avenue" to serve all of separat cities on Mass Ave At the top, a link can be place to the main disambiguation page with all other 'Mass. Ave' articles. Any other 'Mass. Ave's in Massachusetts (not attached to this one) can go by "Massachusetts, Avenue (whatever municipality they're in)". The problem is the presently named "Massachusetts (Boston)" doesn't fit into any neat naming designations. Its in multiple counties; multiple municipalities; both eastern and central Massachusetts regions, and it seems like it might be out toward Western Massachusetts too since it parallels Route 2. CaribDigita (talk) 00:55, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Massachusetts Avenue → Massachusetts Avenue (disambiguation)
 * Massachusetts Avenue (Boston) → Massachusetts Avenue

 * Oppose – I don't understand how any of that is a reason to not keep the disambig page at Massachusetts Avenue. Dicklyon (talk) 02:00, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * The same "Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)" has more miles *outside* of the city of Boston than inside. It also passes through almost a dozen cities a considerable length of the entire state of Massachusetts:  Cambridge, MA; Arlington MA; Lexington, MA; Bedford, MA; Concord, MA; Boxborough, MA, Harvard, MA; Lunenburg, MA; Devens, MA etc. CaribDigita (talk) 02:46, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Why not move Massachusetts Avenue (Boston) to Massachusetts Avenue (Massachusetts)? Then it could legitimately cover the unattached Mass. Aves. in the Commonwealth, along with its current subject matter. Hertz1888 (talk) 02:23, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how notable Massachusetts Avenue in Worcester is, but "Massachusetts Avenue (Massachusetts)" could theoretically become another disambiguation page? That separate unrelated road seems to have Massachusetts Avenue Historic District (Worcester, Massachusetts) along it.  CaribDigita (talk) 02:46, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * The (Boston) one already says "Massachusetts Avenue, known to locals as Mass Ave, is a major thoroughfare in Boston, Massachusetts, and several cities and towns northwest of Boston." If its title is not ideal, that can be worked on without declaring it to be the primarytopic.  Dicklyon (talk) 02:53, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Oppose No suggestion is made that the Massachusetts Avenue in Massachusetts is the primary topic. — Malik Shabazz Talk/Stalk 03:54, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * I was thinking to a three-way split of "Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)" by mile-markers into county areas. The stretch of road in [[Massachusetts Avenue (Suffolk County) would cover the subject on Boston proper, Massachusetts Avenue, (Middlesex County) within cities and towns of Cambridge, Arlington, Lexington, Concord, etc.etc. and finally Massachusetts Avenue, (Worcester County) for around Linenburg, MA.  It beats a greater than seven-way split by municipality proper.  "Massachusetts Avenue, (Boston)", Massachusetts Avenue, (Cambridge), Massachusetts Avenue (Arlington), Lexington, Concord, . . . etc. A next thought maybe the Massachusetts one fits into a single latitude. "Massachusetts Avenue (x latitude)"CaribDigita (talk) 05:34, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Comment Massachusetts_Avenue_(Washington,_D.C.) should be primary. The DC avenue got 3,852 page views in the last 90 days, the one in Boston got 2361. That margin may not be decisive for everyone, but the avenue in DC is where the embassies are. So it has international significance. Kauffner (talk) 04:40, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Comment "Massachusetts Avenue (Washington D.C.)" in it's current namespace fits nicely with the naming conventions that already exist for many other roads in Washington D.C. See List_of_state-named_roadways_in_Washington,_D.C.. Interestingly enough it looks like Massachusetts is the only state with this naming problem. New York has a "New York Ave" but it is within New York City and therefore works quite nicely as "New York Avenue (Brooklyn)" CaribDigita (talk) 05:09, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Oppose. Just because a title is difficult to disambiguate does not mean it should be made the primary topic. Also, while Kauffner brings up a good point about page views, I do not consider a 3:2 ratio significant enough to consider the DC avenue primary, especially when taking into consideration that there are four or five other articles listed on the dab page. Jenks24 (talk) 08:05, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Massachusetts Avenue


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Tyholttårnet

Tyholttårnet is a 124 metre tall radio tower with an observation deck in Trondheim, Norway. It was completed in 1985. The tower features a revolving restaurant, at an altitude of 74 metres, which makes one complete revolution per hour.

title: Tyholttårnet


text: File:YMO - Multiplies UK LP album cover.jpg


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User talk:Euniana/archive1

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
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 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
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 * Brilliant prose
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Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. About, Help desk, and Village pump are also a place to go for answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

20:45, 30 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Uncharted Waters
It appears that you are a chinese based on your edits. I made some edits to the articles. Also, for links, the coresponding artlcle for historical background in English Wikipedia is Age of Exploration. We need to discuss how to put more detail for the background.

SYSS Mouse 02:52, 30 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Euniana/archive1


text:
Pierre Capretz

Pierre Jean Capretz (30 January 1925 – 2 April 2014) was a French educator and writer, noted for his audio-visual methods for teaching French. A graduate of the University of Paris, he began teaching French in 1949 at the University of Florida and joined the faculty of Yale University in 1956, eventually becoming Director of the Language Laboratory and then Director of the Language Development Studio. He is best known as the creator and host of the PBS television series French in Action. He received an honorary Doctor of Letters from Middlebury College in August 1993. He died in 2014 at the age of 89.

List of degrees received

 * Doctorate, University of Paris, 1950
 * Law Degree, University of Paris, 1947
 * Doctor of Letters, Honoris Causa, Middlebury College, 1993

title: Pierre Capretz


text:
Comparison of browser engines

This article compares browser engines, especially actively-developed ones.

Some of these engines have shared origins. For example, the WebKit engine was created by forking the KHTML engine in 2001. Then, in 2013, a modified version of WebKit was officially forked as the Blink engine.

Support
These tables summarize what actively-developed engines support.

Operating systems
The operating systems that engines can run on without emulation.

Notes

title: Comparison of browser engines


text:
Talk:Jungle beat

What happened here
Just to clarify: I, afterword, editted this page and added the template for speedy deletion because I was sure this was a nonsense article. I had a look at the contributors to this article after this and saw my mistake! It just happens to be a little silly-sounding. So I removed the speedy delete tag, but before doing this I accidentally purged my browser's cookies. So the anonymous IP on the history page who got rid of the delete template was me, Afterwordafter-word 12:31, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No harm done. I'm actually surprised someone hasn't marked it before now, it just sounds so ridiculous . . . but, alas, it's an all too real belief that some people hold . . . - Jersyko 13:55, Apr 20, 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jungle beat


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Pujie

Pujie (16 April 1907 – 28 February 1994) was a Qing dynasty imperial prince of the Aisin-Gioro. Pujie was the younger brother of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Pujie went to Japan, where he was educated and married to Hiro Saga, a Japanese noblewoman. In 1937, he moved to Manchukuo, where his brother ruled as Emperor under varying degrees of Japanese control during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). After the war ended, Pujie was captured by Soviet forces, held in Soviet prison camps for five years, and then extradited back to the People's Republic of China, where he was incarcerated for about 10 years in the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre. He was later pardoned and released from prison by the Chinese government, after which he remained in Beijing where he joined the Communist Party and served in a number of positions in the party until his death in 1994.

Names
Pujie's Manchu name was ; Pu-giye, his courtesy name Junzhi, and his art name Bingfan. Zeng Guofan was a source of inspiration for Pujie's art name, Bingfan. Bingfan means "live up to (the legacy of Zeng Guo)fan".

Early life
Pujie was the second son of Zaifeng (Prince Chun) and his primary consort, Youlan. As a child, he was brought to the Forbidden City in Beijing to be a playmate and classmate to his brother, Puyi. A well-known incident recounted how Puyi threw a tantrum when he saw that the inner lining of one of Pujie's coats was yellow, because yellow was traditionally a colour reserved only for the emperor.

In 1929, Pujie travelled to Japan and was educated in the Gakushūin Peers' School. He became fluent in Japanese. Later, he enrolled at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and graduated in July 1935.

Pujie was first married in 1924 to a Manchu noblewoman, Tang Shixia, but they had no children. He left his wife behind when he went to Japan, and the marriage was dissolved some years later. After graduating from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, Pujie agreed to an arranged marriage with a Japanese noblewoman. He selected Hiro Saga, who was a relative of the Japanese imperial family, from a photograph from a number of possible candidates vetted by the Kwantung Army. As Puyi did not have an heir, the wedding had strong political implications, and was aimed at both fortifying relations between the two countries and introducing Japanese blood into the Manchu imperial family.

The engagement ceremony took place at the Manchukuo embassy in Tokyo on 2 February 1937 with the official wedding held in the Imperial Army Hall at Kudanzaka, Tokyo, on 3 April. In October, the couple moved to Xinjing, the capital of Manchukuo, where Puyi was then the Emperor.

Life in Manchukuo
As Puyi had no children, Pujie was regarded as first in line to succeed his brother as the emperor of Manchukuo; the Japanese officially proclaimed him the heir presumptive. However, Pujie was not appointed by his brother as the heir to the throne of the Qing dynasty, as imperial tradition stated that a childless emperor should choose his heir from a subsequent generation instead of from his own generation. While in Manchukuo, Pujie served as honorary head of the Manchukuo Imperial Guards. He returned briefly to Japan in 1944 to attend the Army Staff College.

At the time of the collapse of Manchukuo during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945, Pujie initially attempted to escape to Japan with his brother. However, as it became apparent that no escape was possible, he opted to return to Xinjing in an unsuccessful attempt to surrender the city to forces of the Republic of China, rather than have the city fall into foreign hands.

Pujie was arrested by the Soviet Red Army and first sent to a prison camp in Chita, and then to another in Khabarovsk along with his brother and other relatives. He spent about five years in the Soviet prison camps until 1950, when the Sino-Soviet rapprochement allowed him and his fellow captives to be extradited to the newly founded People's Republic of China.

Life in the People's Republic of China
On his return to China, Pujie was incarcerated in the War Criminals Management Centre in Fushun, Liaoning. A model prisoner, he was eventually pardoned and released from prison by the Chinese government in 1960. He joined the Communist Party and served in a number of positions. In 1961 with permission from Chinese premier Zhou Enlai, he was reunited with his wife and younger daughter Husheng and settled in Beijing, while his daughter would later return to Japan and became a citizen there. In 1963, his daughter returned to stay with him and his wife for one year before returning to Japan again.

In 1978, Pujie became a deputy from Shanghai at the 5th National People's Congress. He subsequently served as Vice Chairman of the Nationalities Committee of the 6th National People's Congress in 1983. He was appointed Deputy Head of the China–Japan Friendship Group from 1985. He rose to a seat on the Presidium of the 7th National People's Congress in 1988. From 1986, Pujie was also Honorary Director of the Welfare Fund for Handicapped.

Pujie was also a technical adviser for the 1987 film The Last Emperor directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. On 28 November 1991, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Law by Ritsumeikan University. He died of illness at 07:55 on 28 February 1994 in Beijing at the age of 87. His body was cremated and half of his ashes were buried at Nakayama Shrine in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan, while the other half were buried in Beijing.

Family

 * First wife, of the Tatara clan (唐氏; 1904–1993), personal name Shixia (石霞)
 * Second wife, of the Saga clan (嵯峨氏; 16 March 1914 – 20 June 1987), personal name Hiro (浩)
 * Huisheng (26 February 1938 – 4 December 1957), (慧生)
 * Husheng (b. 13 March 1940), (嫮生)
 * Married Kenji (健治) of the Japanese Fukunaga (福永) clan in 1968, and had issue (three sons, two daughters)

Immediate family
Pujie's first wife was Tang Yiying (唐怡瑩; 1904–1993), who was better known as Tang Shixia (唐石霞). She was from the Manchu Tatara (他他拉) clan, and was the daughter of Zhiqi, a brother of the Guangxu Emperor's concubines Consort Zhen and Consort Jin. Pujie married Tang when he was 17, but did not get along well with her. In 1926, Tang became Zhang Xueliang's mistress and broke ties with Pujie and his family. When Pujie went to Japan for his studies, Tang had another affair – this time with Lu Xiaojia (盧筱嘉), the son of the warlord Lu Yongxiang. She looted Pujie's ancestral house, the Prince Chun Mansion in Beijing. Since then, Pujie and Tang had lived separately until their divorce. In 1949, Tang moved to Hong Kong and became a lecturer at the School of Eastern Languages in the University of Hong Kong.

In 1935, when Pujie returned to China from his studies in Japan, Puyi tried to help his brother find a Manchu wife. Pujie met one Wang Mintong (王敏彤) but they never married.

Pujie eventually married Hiro Saga, a Japanese noblewoman related to the Japanese imperial family, under an arranged marriage. They had two daughters: Huisheng (1938–1957) and Husheng (嫮生; born 1940). Huisheng died on 4 December 1957 at Mount Amagi in Japan in what appeared to be a murder–suicide case, while Husheng married Fukunaga Kenji (福永健治) and became known as "Fukunaga Kosei" after her marriage. The couple had five children.

title: Pujie


text:
Port Ivory, Staten Island

Port Ivory is a coastal area in the northwestern corner of Staten Island, New York City, New York, United States. It is located on Newark Bay near the entrances the Kill van Kull in the east and Arthur Kill in the west. It is bordered by Arlington to the east, Old Place to the south, Newark Bay to the north, and the Arthur Kill to the west.

The area bore the name of Milliken originally, and became locally known as Port Ivory after Ivory Soap, one of the best-known products from Procter & Gamble, which operated a factory at the site from 1907 until 1991, when the soap making operation was moved to Mexico. Located nearby is the Howland Hook Marine Terminal. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey which leases the Howland Hook facility is contracting out the construction of an intermodal rail yard using part of the former Ivory Soap factory site to help with ship to rail transshipment.

Another transportation resource is the North Shore branch of the Staten Island Railway, which crosses the Arthur Kill on its own Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge, adjacent and parallel to the Goethals Bridge, and eventually reaches Cranford Junction, New Jersey. However, passenger trains stopped serving the Port Ivory (formerly Milliken) station several years before passenger service on the branch as a whole ceased in 1953, and freight activity on the line became rare by the 1970s and nonexistent by the beginning of the 1990s. Efforts to restore the freight service by the New York City Economic Development Corporation were completed in June 2006. The Arlington Yard re-built connected to the new ExpressRail terminal at the marine terminal.

The Staten Island Expressway is sometimes cited as Port Ivory's southern boundary. The island's (and New York City's) lone mobile home park is on Goethals Road North, a service road of the expressway; the only other residents of the heavily industrial neighborhood live in a few older single-family homes a short distance to the east, along Forest Avenue.

title: Port Ivory, Staten Island


text:
Pompeo Aldrovandi

Pompeo Aldrovandi (23 September 1668 – 6 January 1752) was an Italian cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church.

Biography
Aldrovandi was born on 23 September 1668 in Bologna, then part of the Papal States, and studied law at the local university, being awarded a doctorate in canon and civil law in 1691. He entered the Roman Curia five years later and then steadily climbed the career ladder in the administration and was ordained priest in 1710, served as a chargé d'affaires in the nunciature in Spain from 1712 to 1716.

On 5 October 1716 he became titular archbishop of Neocaesarea and was appointed Nuncio in Spain in 1717. However, the political troubles between the Holy See and the King of Spain led to his being recalled to Bologna, where he stayed until the death of Pope Clement XI. On 23 March 1729, he was made titular Patriarch of Jerusalem and was made Governor of Rome and later in 1733 he was appointed Vice-chamberlain of the Apostolic Camera.

Aldrovandi was created Cardinal priest in the consistory of 24 March 1734 with the title of Sant'Eusebio. In 1734 he was appointed archbishop with personal title to the diocese of Montefiascone. He participated in the conclave of 1740, where the elections were stalled for forty days because many cardinals kept voting for him, despite their being unable to elect him, as they could not secure the required two-thirds majority. In the conclave Cardinal Lambertini, who was later elected Pope Benedict XIV, said to the College of Cardinals: "If you wish to elect a saint, choose Gotti; a statesman, Aldrovandi; an honest man, me." Vincenzo Ludovico Gotti (1664–1742) was professor of philosophy at the College of Saint Thomas, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Gotti was perhaps the leading Thomist of his time.

Aldrovandi served as Datary of His Holiness from 1740 to 1743. He died in 1752 at Montefiascone.

title: Pompeo Aldrovandi


text:
Marsden, Tyne and Wear

Marsden is located on the outskirts of the seaside town South Shields, North East England, located on the North Sea coast. It lies within historic County Durham.

Background
Marsden was originally a small village, consisting of farms, a few cottages and a lighthouse at Souter Point. Local industry consisted of a small limestone quarry.

The nearby Marsden Bay includes the Marsden Rock sea stack. The Leas, located to the north, is an important seabird sanctuary. This land, along with Souter Lighthouse (the first lighthouse in the world to be powered by alternating current), is now owned by the National Trust. Marsden is best known for its beaches including Marsden Beach, with the famous Marsden Rock and pub, the Marsden Grotto. The beaches stretch along to the beach known locally as Boatie's Bay.

Whitburn Colliery
In the 1870s, the Whitburn Coal Company bought the five local quarries, two of which were developed as the Lighthouse (Marsden) Quarries. An attempt to develop a shaft into the Northumberland Coalfield failed in 1874 because of water ingress, but in 1877 a second development using the Kind-Chaudron process, created access to the Bensham seam through two 13 ft diameter shafts. No.1 shaft had a depth of 180 fathom and No.2, a depth of 115 fathom.

The company built the twin-track South Shields, Marsden, and Whitburn Colliery Railway, leaving the North Eastern Railway line at Westoe Lane, South Shields and travelling to Marsden via two intermediate stations. Built to serve the colliery and opened in May 1879, the line served the Lighthouse limestone quarry, a paper manufactory, and local farms. On 19 March 1888, the line opened to the public.

Marsden village
The industrial development of the area required additional workers. The company built a new Marsden village, located between the Lighthouse Quarries and Whitburn Colliery. Designed to house more than 700 people, there were 135 houses across nine streets, a church and Methodist chapel, Co-op store, Post Office, school, and a Miners Institute. Located directly on the cliff top, resulting in an exposed and often weather-beaten experience, many wives refused to move to the village, meaning that most miners lived in South Shields and commuted daily using the newly constructed railway.

The village gave its name to the "Marsden Rattler", a passenger train which ran on the railway via the North Eastern Railway main line to.

By the time of nationalisation in 1945 into the National Coal Board, the site employed just under 1,500 miners. The railway line itself became the first nationalised passenger line on 1 January 1947. Passenger service was officially withdrawn on 14 November 1953, but trains ran until 23 November.

Marsden boasts two well-known pubs, the Marsden Grotto and the Marsden Inn. The Inn is located on Marsden Lane while the Grotto is hewn in the cliffs facing Marsden Rock. There are a few shops including a reptile shop and several post offices up towards Cleadon Hills. Marsden Lane is the main street leading up to Lizard Lane, Marsden Lane begins at the bottom of Horsley Hill Square before stretching up.

title: Marsden, Tyne and Wear


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gadiv

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 14:56, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Gadiv
Article content:"'gadiv' is both a pseudonym for the artist George Dodge and an acronym of his name (George Arthur Dodge IV). His work is geared toward sculptural assemblage and painting."Problems: -- Dcfleck 12:34, 2005 Apr 20 (UTC)
 * 1) Non-notability, both for "George Dodge" (no Wikipedia page, no Google hits for this particular artist, as far as I can tell) and for "gadiv" (37 hits, a minority of them apparently referencing this artist, most posts to www.deviantart.com apparently put up by the artist himself - plus one hit for his defunct web site, http://www.idgonemad.com/
 * 2) It's had an tag on it since inception (Apr. 9) with no further edits. I think it's basically an unambitious vanity site.
 * Concur. Delete.  Rossami (talk) 22:54, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, possible vanity. Megan1967 04:44, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gadiv


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Jurong Bird Park

Jurong Bird Park was an aviary and tourist attraction in Jurong, Singapore between 1971 and 2023. The largest such bird park in Asia, it covered an area of 0.2 km2 on the western slope of Jurong Hill, the highest point in the Jurong region. It was one of the parks managed by Mandai Wildlife Reserve, which are also the managers of Singapore Zoo, Night Safari and River Wonders.

In 2016, the Mandai Wildlife Group announced that the Jurong Bird Park would be relocated to a much larger park at Mandai Lake Road by 2020, consolidating with the three existing wildlife parks together with a new Rainforest Park to form an integrated nature and wildlife precinct known as the Mandai Wildlife Reserve. In 2021, the group announced that the park's successor in Mandai would be named Bird Paradise. In 2022, it was announced that Jurong Bird Park would close on 3 January 2023 to finalise its move to Bird Paradise at Mandai.

History
The idea of a permanent aviary was first conceived by Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for Finance, in 1968. During a World Bank meeting in Rio de Janeiro, Goh visited its zoological garden and was impressed with its free-flight aviary. He set out to ensure that Singaporeans would have a place where they could escape from urban life and relax with nature.

Work on the aviary started in January 1969. A 35 acre site on the western slope of Bukit Peropok in Jurong was chosen for the project. The bird park was expected to be completed by the end of 1969.

On 3 January 1971, Jurong Bird Park, built at a cost of S$3.5 million, was opened to the public.

Jurong Bird Park became a world-famous bird zoo holding specimens of magnificent bird life from around the world, including a large flock of flamingos. At the time of its closing in 2023 it was the world's largest bird park in terms of the number of birds, and second largest both in the number of bird species and land area (after Germany's Walsrode World Bird Park). There are 5,000 birds of 400 species in Jurong Bird Park, of which 24% are of threatened species, the highest percentage in any zoo worldwide.

In 2006, Jurong Bird Park completed a S$10 million makeover. As a result of the upgrade, the park got a new entrance plaza, a park-owned and managed Bongo Burgers restaurant, an ice cream parlour, a gift shop and a bird hospital.

Potential uses for the Jurong site after the bird park's closure include residential or recreational space. Memorable features such as the waterfall are expected to be retained.

Animals and exhibits

 * Penguin Coast

The Penguin Coast opened on 1 December 2010 as an upgrade of the outdated Penguin Parade habitat. African penguins were able to live in an outdoor pool meant to recreate a South African coastline with artificially created waves on the lagoon. Inside a Portuguese galleon facade, gentoo penguins, Humboldt penguins, king penguins and northern rockhopper penguins were kept in a climate-controlled enclosure kept at 10 - 15 °C.

Caribbean flamingos and lesser flamingos lived in two enclosures that opened in 1984.
 * Flamingo Pool

The park boasted a large flock of greater flamingos that had been breeding successfully since 1972.
 * Flamingo Lake

500 birds from 135 species were housed in this aviary. The aviary housed and had successfully bred many endangered birds, such as the Bali myna, black-winged starling, Edwards's pheasant, Malayan peacock-pheasant, Mindanao bleeding-heart, Santa Cruz ground dove and straw-headed bulbul.
 * Wings of Asia

The Jurong Bird Park had the largest collection of Heliconias in Southeast Asia with over 167 species. Many different aviaries housed a variety of rare and endangered birds.
 * Heliconia Walk

Guests could observe a variety of waterbirds including black-bellied whistling ducks, black-faced spoonbills, boat-billed herons, cattle egrets, Eurasian spoonbills, hamerkops, Meller's ducks, roseate spoonbills, straw-necked ibises and white-faced whistling ducks. The park received a breeding pair of shoebills from Qatar. A wave machine prevented the build-up of algae in the water.
 * Wetlands

A series of three walkthrough aviaries with Victoria crowned pigeons and a variety of other birds.
 * Royal Ramble

This building had three free-flight aviaries for rare birds-of-paradise.
 * Window on Paradise

The area consisted of 27 large aviaries containing the world's largest collection of hornbills. The Jurong Bird Park was the first to successfully breed the black hornbill in captivity. Species housed in this area are African grey hornbills, black hornbills, great hornbills, Oriental pied hornbills, Papuan hornbills, red-billed toucans, rhinoceros hornbills, rufous hornbills, silvery-cheeked hornbills, southern ground hornbills, toco toucans, trumpeter hornbills, western long-tailed hornbills, white-crowned hornbills, wreathed hornbills and wrinkled hornbills
 * Hornbills and Toucans

This walkthrough aviary stimulated the canopy layer of a rainforest and features various birds from the rainforests of Africa. It featured elevated walkways and a suspension bridge to provide an immersive experience, including ashy starlings, greater blue-eared starlings, great blue turacos, golden-breasted starlings, long-tailed glossy starlings, purple starlings, red-crested turacos, red-winged starlings, superb starlings, violet-backed starlings and Von der Decken's hornbills. The African Treetops aviary was formerly the Lory Loft, which was moved to the former Jungle Jewels site.
 * African Treetops

Guests could feed 10 species of lorikeets and lories. The attraction was chosen as a "Top 10 Best Family Experience" by the Singapore Tourism Board.
 * Lory Loft

A series of large aviaries that housed different species of birds of prey including Andean condors and king vultures. On 27 November 2019, a pair of critically endangered Philippine eagles named Geothermica and Sambisig were sent to the park as part of a recovery programme.
 * Birds of Prey

Larger ground-dwelling birds such as cassowaries, saddle-billed storks and sarus crane were housed in this area. Around the enclosures were four huts containing interactive displays like elephant bird egg replicas and a cassowary's casque as well as a dig site play area for children where they could excavate dinosaur fossils.
 * Dinosaur Descendants

The park housed multiple species of pelicans: Australian pelicans, Dalmatian pelicans, great white pelicans, pink-backed pelicans and spot-billed pelicans; having housed all pelican species in the past. It was also the world's first pelican underwater viewing gallery.
 * Pelican Cove

Located at the far north of the park, this 1 ha complex had cages containing several species of parrots from Australia, Asia and South America, including blue-eyed cockatoos, blue-throated macaws, blue-winged macaws, burrowing parrots, dusky parrots, galahs, golden conures, green-cheeked amazons, grey parrots, hyacinth macaws, red-bellied macaws, red-and-green macaws, red-fronted macaws, red-tailed black cockatoos, salmon-crested cockatoos, scarlet macaws, sun parakeets and yellow-shouldered amazons.
 * Parrot Paradise

The Waterfall Aviary was 2 ha in area and 35 m tall, and had one of the world's tallest artificial waterfalls. At the time of its construction in the early 1970s the Waterfall Aviary was the world's largest aviary with the world's tallest aviary. Guests crossed a suspended bridge to watch the many different birds. It housed a large variety of birds among which include black crowned cranes, helmeted guineafowl, milky storks, Nicobar pigeons, pied imperial pigeons, roseate spoonbills and scarlet macaws and several other species.
 * Waterfall Aviary

Shows
The "High Flyers Show" showcased the natural abilities and skills of various different birds including their yellow-naped amazon named Amigo who could sing in three different languages. At the end of the show, visitors were allowed to take pictures with a flock of pelicans and flamingos.

The "Kings of the Skies Show" featured the park's birds of prey.

Awards
Awarded to Jurong Bird Park:
 * Michelin 2-star rating, 2008
 * Conservation & Research Award, International Symposium on Breeding Birds in Captivity, 2006 and 2007
 * Excellence Award, Association of Southeast Asian Nations Tourism Association, 2004 and 2007
 * Best Loved Pro-Family Business, Singapore, 2006
 * Superstar Winner of the Excellent Service Awards, Singapore Tourism Board, 2004
 * Tourism Host of the Year, Singapore Tourism Board, 2003
 * Breeders Award, American Pheasant and Waterfowl Society, 2001
 * Highly Commended, Tourism For Tomorrow International Awards, 1993
 * First Breeders Award by the American Pheasant & Waterfowl Society, 2001

Transportation
Throughout its existence, Jurong Bird Park was never directly served by any MRT line, with the nearest station being Boon Lay MRT station.

There is a bus service operated by SBS Transit which calls at the bus stop outside the former park.

The park itself was once served by the Jurong Bird Park Panorail, a 1.7-kilometre (1.1 mi) loop monorail system which ran within the park. The system was constructed by Vonroll Transport Systems of Switzerland, which also built the Sentosa Monorail and Singapore Cable Car. The monorail system used four fully air-conditioned four-car trains which travelled around the park in approximately 11 minutes. It ceased operations in 2012 and was replaced by a trackless tram service similar to the ones found at the Singapore Zoo and Night Safari.

Current Status
The park is now closed and blocked off with barriers making it inaccessible to the public.

News stays that it will stay like this until 2025, when the site ownership will return to JTC. It is unclear what it will be used in the future. Most likely it will be turned into a nature park with it existing features, such as the waterfall.

title: Jurong Bird Park


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Members of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly, 1994–1997

This is a list of members of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from 1994 to 1997.

 * Fannie Bay CLP MLA Marshall Perron resigned on 29 May 1995. ALP candidate Clare Martin won the resulting by-election on 17 June.
 * Arnhem ALP MLA Wes Lanhupuy resigned on 25 August 1995. ALP candidate Jack Ah Kit won the resulting by-election on 7 October.
 * Stuart ALP MLA Brian Ede resigned on 23 August 1996. ALP candidate Peter Toyne won the resulting by-election on 28 September.


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