text:
Soldering gun

A soldering gun is an approximately pistol-shaped, electrically powered tool for soldering metals using tin-based solder to achieve a strong mechanical bond with good electrical contact. The tool has a trigger-style switch so it can be easily operated with one hand. The body of the tool contains a transformer with a primary winding connected to mains electricity when the trigger is pressed, and a single-turn secondary winding of thick copper with very low resistance. A soldering tip, made of a loop of thinner copper wire, is secured to the end of the transformer secondary by screws, completing the secondary circuit. When the primary of the transformer is energized, several hundred amperes of current flow through the secondary and very rapidly heat the copper tip. Since the tip has a much higher resistance than the rest of the tubular copper winding, the tip gets very hot while the remainder of the secondary warms at a much slower rate. An additional secondary winding is often used to power a pilot lamp which illuminates the workpiece.

The soldering gun is useful when soldered joints must be made intermittently. A constant-heat device has to be set in a safe place when powered but not actually in use, to prevent damage or injury. The fast-switching gun cools quickly enough to be set down a few seconds after use.

Applications
Soldering guns are used where more heat is needed than from the lower-power soldering irons. They can be used for heavy electrical connections, stained glass assembly, and light sheet-metal work. Typical soldering guns are rated at 100 to 240 watts power. A gun may include a two-stage trigger to give two heat settings. Tips designed for cutting and shaping plastic are available; soldering guns for general home use may be supplied with a kit of different tips.

The temperature of the soldering tip is regulated manually by holding the button until the solder melts, and then releasing it. When the solder is about to start solidifying, the button is pressed again, and so on. An experienced worker develops the skill to regulate the temperature according to need. Because the temperature of the tip is not automatically regulated, use of a soldering gun for joints on printed circuit boards can result in too much heat supplied to the joint, damaging the circuit board.

The copper tip slowly dissolves in the solder and eventually has to be replaced. The soldering gun generates an electromagnetic spike when the button is released, which can be a problem for electromagnetically-sensitive devices. The spike can be seen when a high-efficiency LED is soldered, as the LED flashes. The heavy magnetic field produced by the tip can attract and hold small ferrous metal pieces (screws, etc.).

History
Pistol-grip electrically-heated soldering tools had been used since the 1920s. In 1941 Carl E. Weller invented and later obtained for a transformer-based soldering tool which heated and cooled rapidly, essentially as described in this article. Weller formed a company to manufacture and sell his invention commercially in 1946. The Weller company was bought in 1970 and merged into the Cooper Industries group, retaining the Weller brand for soldering equipment.

title: Soldering gun


text:
One-room school

One-room schools, or schoolhouses, were commonplace throughout rural portions of various countries, including Prussia, Norway, Sweden, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain. In most rural and small town schools, all of the students met in a single room. There, a single teacher taught academic basics to several grade levels of elementary-age children. While in many areas one-room schools are no longer used, some remain in developing nations and rural or remote areas where scarce students or teachers complicate organizing the educational process differently.

In the United States, the concept of a "little red schoolhouse" is a stirring one, and historic one-room schoolhouses have widely been preserved and are celebrated as symbols of frontier values and of local and national development. When necessary, the schools were enlarged or replaced with two-room schools. More than 200 are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. In Norway, by contrast, one-room schools were viewed more as impositions upon conservative farming areas, and, while a number survive in open-air museums, not a single one is listed on the Norwegian equivalent to the NRHP.

Prussia
Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce a tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education for either boys and girls. In comparison, compulsory schooling in France or Great Britain was not successfully enacted until the 1880s. The state-sponsored system was introduced in the late 18th century and has had a widespread influence ever since. The first Prussian schools were simple one-room schools, but by 1773 Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow had already set up a model school with primary education in two separate age-grouped classes.

Ireland
In Ireland, free primary education was mandated in 1831, prompting the establishment of many single-teacher National Schools across rural areas, most initially using a room in an existing building. By the 1890s there was a school in every parish. Most extant one- and two-room school buildings date from the decades after 1891 when primary education became compulsory. Most of those still in use today have been extended following merger with neighbouring schools. Since 2002, any state-funded school with at least 10 pupils is entitled to at least 2 teachers; the 21 schools which fell below this threshold are located on offshore islands. In recent decades, an increasing number of schools have been founded for parents not content with the National School system. These include Gaelscoileanna (which teach through Irish rather than English) and multi-denominational schools (most Irish schools are controlled by one or other of the main Christian churches). Although such schools eventually become eligible for state funding, they usually begin with a single teacher in a room or prefabricated building.

United States
One-room schools were used only in rural areas. As late as 1930 half of the nation's school children lived in rural areas. About 65% of the nation's school buildings were one-room, and they were attended by 30% of the rural students. Consolidation rapidly reduced their numbers in the 1920s and 1930s. They had a place in popular folklore, with one fondly recalling a, "little house, on a little ground, with a little equipment, where a little teacher at a little salary, for a little while, teaches little children little things." A less romantic view by sociologist Newell Sims reported on the majority of rural schools of all sizes in the 1930s:"The utter inadequacy of the majority is the striking feature of rural school buildings. They are poorly situated, often without any grounds, or, with grounds that are grassless, treeless and beautyless. As structures they are poorly planned, poorly lighted, poorly heated, poorly seated, poorly equipped or virtually unequipped either for comfort or education, and poorly kept. Drinking water is not usually supplied. Sanitary arrangements and toilet facilities are as likely to be entirely lacking as to be provided in even a half-way decent manner."

Teachers in one-room schools were usually daughters of nearby farmers. They were recent graduates and spent a couple of years teaching before they quit to get married. The teachers were poorly prepared and needed to coach children of all ages/grades within one room. Their main role is well-described by a student from Kentucky in the 1940s:"The teachers that taught in the one room, rural schools were very special people. During the winter months they would get to the school early to get a fire started in the potbelly stove, so the building would be warm for the students. On many occasions they would prepare a hot, noon meal on top of the stove, usually consisting of soup or stew of some kind. They took care of their students like a new mother hen would care for her newly hatched chicks; always looking out for their health and welfare."

A typical school day was 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., with morning and afternoon recesses of 15 minutes each and an hour period for lunch. "The older students were given the responsibility of bringing in water, carrying in coal or wood for the stove. The younger students would be given responsibilities according to their size and gender such as cleaning the black board (chalkboard), taking the erasers outside for dusting plus other duties that they were capable of doing."

Transportation for children who lived too far to walk was often provided by horse-drawn kid hack or sulky, which could only travel a limited distance in a reasonable amount of time each morning and evening, or students might ride a horse, these being put out to pasture in an adjoining paddock during the day. In more recent times, students rode bicycles.

Southern students and teachers most often walked to and from school; a three-mile journey was not uncommon. Due to the poor quality of roads, automobiles were not frequently used.

The vast majority of one-room schools have been torn down; a few were converted for other purposes. However, in a handful of rural communities, such as Mennonites and Amish, one-room or two-room schools survived longer. As of 2005, almost 400 one-rooms schools still operate in the United States.

Teacher's residence
The teacher's residence, or teacherage, was often attached to the school, or very close by, so that a male teacher's wife and family were an integral part of the management and support system for the school. Single, female teachers were more often billeted or boarded with a local family to provide for social norms requiring social supervision of single females.

Consolidation
Motorized school buses in the 1920s made longer distances possible, and one-room schools were soon consolidated in most portions of the United States into multiple classroom schools where classes could be held separately for various grade levels. Gradually, one-room school houses were replaced. Most one-room schools had been replaced by larger schools by World War II except in the most rural areas. However, they are still found in remote parts of Alaska where villages have a small population.

Preservation: buildings and cultural

In Calvert County, Maryland, Port Republic School Number 7 closed its doors in 1932 and sat unused for over 40 years. Then, in 1976 the Calvert Retired Teachers Association, looking for a Bicentennial Year project, decided to restore the one-room schoolhouse. On July 24, 1977, after months of hard work by teachers and community volunteers, the old school bell rang out once more, and the little one-room school house, filled with its memories and memorabilia, was ready for visitors. It is now one of the county's tourist attractions. A similar project was done in Queen Anne's County, Maryland, by retired Teachers and Community Volunteers. The restored schoolhouse is located in front of Queen Anne's County High School. In Iowa, over 125 small one-room school houses have been turned into local museums. The buildings in some places found new purpose as homes.

In Harrisburg, Nebraska, Flowerfield School serves as a living museum, and fourth-graders within the Nebraska panhandle spend a day at Flowerfield going through an average school day in 1888. The students have the opportunity to experience both log and sod versions of the house, writing with quill pens, and a trip to the nearby museum, where they learn about other aspects of life in 1888.

In Vandalia, Indiana, the Vandalia District No. 2 one-room schoolhouse served Owen County's Lafayette Township students in grades 1 – 8 from the time it was completed in 1868 until it closed in 1951. The building, restored by a group of volunteers in 1976, is presently maintained and preserved by the Vandalia Community Preservation Association.

The One Room School House Project of Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas, includes listings and information on some 880 schools throughout the state and nation. The information, pictures, and stories included in this site have been collected and sent to the project by researchers and historians from across America.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: One-room school


text: User talk:129.32.48.229

title: User talk:129.32.48.229


text:
BusinessObjects Data Integrator

Business Objects's Data Integrator is a data integration and ETL tool that was previously known as ActaWorks. Newer versions of the software include data quality features and are named SAP BODS (BusinessObjects Data Services). The Data Integrator product consists primarily of a Data Integrator Job Server and the Data Integrator Designer. It is commonly used for building data marts, ODS systems and data warehouses, etc.

Additional transformations can be performed by using the DI scripting language to use any of the already-provided data-handling functions to define inline complex transforms or building custom functions.

Data Integrator Designer stores the created jobs and projects in a Repository. However, Data Integrator Designer also facilitates team-based ETL development by including a Central Repository version control system. Although this version control system is not as robust as standalone VCSs, it does provide the basic check-in/check-out, get latest, version labeling and undo checkout functionality.

The DI Job Server executes, monitors and schedules jobs that have been created by using the Designer.

Web Administrator
The DI web administrator is a web interface that allows system administrators and database administrator to manage the different repositories, the Central Repository, Metadata, the Job Server and Web Services.

 * Scheduling, monitoring, and executing batch jobs
 * Configuring, starting, and stopping real-time servers
 * Configuring Job Server, Access Server, and repository usage
 * Configuring and managing adapters
 * Configuring and managing tools.

Supported Platforms
Data Integrator runs on Windows platforms and under HP-UX (including 64-bit), Sun Solaris, AIX and Linux, while the repository, which supports the Common Warehouse Meta model, may be based on Oracle, DB 2 or SQL Server.

title: BusinessObjects Data Integrator


text:
Serafim Karalexis

Serafim Karalexis is a film producer. He began as an experimental filmmaker while attending Boston University's School of Fine and Applied Arts. He imported the film "I Am Curious (Yellow)" into the US, which eventually went to the US Supreme Court. BYRNE v. KARALEXIS [396 U.S. 976] He was responsible for Billy Joel going to the Soviet Union for concerts in Leningrad and Moscow as an HBO Special. He has produced and distributed over 30 films in the US.

Filmography

 * The Steal (1995) (associate producer)
 * Anna Pavlova (1983) (associate producer)
 * Death Promise (1977) (producer)
 * The Super Weapon (1976) (producer)
 * The Black Dragon's Revenge (1975) (executive producer)
 * The Black Dragon (1974) (associate producer)
 * The Real Bruce Lee (1973) (producer)
 * I Am Curious Yellow (1967) (distributor)
 * The Punk Rock Movie (1977) (associate producer)
 * The Death of Bruce Lee (1975) (producer)
 * Super Weapon (1980) (producer)

title: Serafim Karalexis


text:
Cupid (1998 TV series)

Cupid is an American comedy-drama television series created by Rob Thomas that aired on ABC from September 26, 1998 to February 11, 1999 and which featured Paula Marshall as Dr. Claire Allen, a Chicago psychologist who is given charge of a man named Trevor Hale (Jeremy Piven). Hale believes he is Cupid, sent down from Mount Olympus by Zeus to connect 100 couples without using his powers, as a punishment for his arrogance.

Originally broadcast on ABC on Saturday evenings at 10 p.m. EST, the show lasted one season.

Plot
Trevor Hale is attractive, witty, uncommonly intelligent—and he may be Cupid, the Greco-Roman god of erotic love. Probably not, but he thinks so. Trevor's insistence that he is Cupid lands him in a mental hospital, where he meets psychologist Claire Allen, a renowned authority on romance. Trevor tells Claire that he has been stripped of his godly powers by Zeus, and exiled from Mount Olympus as a punishment for arrogance. To win his way back among the gods, Trevor must unite 100 couples in everlasting love, without his bow and arrows. Claire does not believe in Cupid, but she risks her career by releasing Trevor from the hospital, assuming responsibility for his behavior. Trevor finds work as a bartender, and regularly disrupts Claire's group therapy sessions. All the while, he plots his campaign to promote romance, and earn his way back to Olympus. While encouraging sexual abandon in others, Trevor remains chaste; he believes sex with a mortal will confine him to Earth forever.

Main

 * Jeremy Piven as Cupid / Trevor Hale
 * Paula Marshall as Dr. Claire Allen
 * Jeffrey D. Sams as Champ Terrace

Recurring

 * Paul Adelstein as Mike
 * Noelle Bou-Sliman as Tina
 * Daniel Bryant as Laurence
 * Melanie Deanne Moore as Jaclyn
 * Jeffrey Vincent Parise as Nick
 * Geryll Robinson as Chris

Notable guest stars

 * Joe Flanigan as Alex
 * Hollis Resnik as Linda
 * Tim DeKay
 * Connie Britton
 * Laura Leighton
 * Lisa Loeb
 * Tiffani Thiessen

Episodes
Fifteen episodes were produced, and fourteen episodes were aired. Two additional episodes titled "Company Pier" and "Chapter Six" were scripted, but were never filmed.

Production
In an Entertainment Weekly article from December 2004, creator Rob Thomas mentions that the show would have ended with Trevor and Claire becoming Trevor's 100th match—and without revealing whether Trevor really was Cupid.

Staff

 * Rob Thomas – Creator, executive producer, supervising producer
 * Scott Winant – Executive producer, director
 * Joe Voci – Executive producer
 * Scott Sanders – Executive producer
 * Jeff Reno – Executive producer
 * Ron Osborn – Executive producer
 * Hart Hanson – Co-Executive Producer
 * W.G. "Snuffy" Walden – Composer

Reception
E! Online named Cupid as #4 on its "Top Ten Shows Cancelled Before Their Time".

Show revival
ABC and Rob Thomas brought Cupid back to the airwaves with an October 2007 deal for which scripts and production were approved in March 2008. The series was relocated to New York City and cast Bobby Cannavale as Trevor and Sarah Paulson as Claire. Only seven episodes of the revival series aired, from March 31 – June 16, 2009.

title: Cupid (1998 TV series)


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User:Stockwell

'''You could consider this account inactive. I know you don't delete anything from Wikipedia but I've pretty much seen what I came to see. Thanks.'''

title: User:Stockwell


text:
Wikipedia talk:Arbitration/Index/Principles/Pre-2020

WOW! Kudos to Grunt (especially) and the others who helped out. This is a page that has been desperately needed. Blank Verse  ∅  06:40, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This appears to be a work in progress, but I just noticed one particular precedent that seems to be violated quite often lately that is missing from this list. See Izak:"Spamming" to influence. I think that the same principle has been mention in one or two other RFARs, but this is the only one that I remembered off the top of my head. I would have to check, but I don't think this particular principle is mentioned on any of the Wikipedia policy pages. It would probably be a good idea to verify that all of the precedents mentioned have also been clearly stated on at least one of the Wikipedia policy pages. Blank Verse   ∅   13:05, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Maintainer?
Is this like most (all?) of the non-evidence RFAR pages, in that only ArbCom members should edit it, or can anyone check a closed RFAR and see if any new principles appeared in it, and then add them to this page? The Literate Engineer 16:55, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

MostWanted05
user:86.134.208.138 or commonly known as MostWanted05 is now on this revert everything to his liking and completely ignoring the rules for writing a good article. I am trying to work a compromise with the person but it's to no avail, so now I call upon Jimbo Wells to solve this matter. LILVOKA.

Cases by principle?
Hi, I remember that there was a page where past cases were grouped by principle (i.e. no personal attacks) where did that go? -- nyenyec ☎ 14:38, 1 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Aye, I actually came here looking for the same thing. It's much more useful to be able to say "per Case:Foo don't flabnitz" rather than just "A past decision was don't flabnitz." -  brenneman  {L} 03:32, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

Cases
I'm going to start trying to find cases citing these principles. --David.Mestel 20:36, 21 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Finished! All the principles now have cases. --David.Mestel 16:53, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

Maintenance of list
May anyone add principles to this list? I noticed that we just got a "don't unblock yourself" from the Maru case, which I don't see anywhere on this page. What's the format/protocol? -- nae'blis 15:37, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Redemption
The user in question as a redeemed editor has been indef blocked again... Administrators%27_noticeboard/IncidentArchive133. Are there any other examples of users placed under probation who've reformed? If so, please replace as fit. Mostlyharmless 03:06, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Mark as inactive/historical
This page was prepared in 2006 and has become somewhat outdated, though it remains useful because it is well-organized. 71.174.111.245 (talk) 00:40, 26 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Never mind, I forgot to read the notice at the top that says it's not actively updated. Sorry. 71.174.111.245 (talk) 00:41, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Wikipedia talk:Arbitration/Index/Principles 2 which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 03:05, 8 December 2020 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Sasin Graduate Institute of Business Administration, Chulalongkorn University

The title of this article is incorrect. It should be Sasin Graduate Institute of Business Administration of Chulalongkorn University NOT ", Chula..." -- I do not know how to change this.
 * done. Sasin Graduate Institute of Business Administration of Chulalongkorn University -- Bact 23:26, 19 July 2005 (UTC)


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Talk:One-room school

blurb for Did You Know
...that one-room schools were commonplace throughout rural portions of the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries? All of the students met in a single room, and a single teacher taught reading, writing and arithmetic to seven grade levels of boys and girls. (Image:Williamson School one-room school in Blanch Caswell County North Carolina.jpg) Vaoverland 06:46, Apr 25, 2005 (UTC)

on April 26, 2005, while on main page, revised to: DId you know they liked france.?

...that one-room schools were commonplace throughout rural portions of the United States, Canada and Australia until the early 20th century, and that they continue in some parts of Ireland today?

More pics
I'll try and remember to upload some more photos, from historic sites. -- user:zanimum

timeline
The article states that most one room schools were gone by WWII. That may be true, but there were still plenty operating up through the 1950s west of the Mississippi river. As recently as the late 1990's I met a young woman who was a teacher at a one room school in western Nebraska.

They still exist in France ! Ericd 21:15, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Should this be at One-room schools in the United States ?
It seems odd that there could be a reasonable globally-defined article about one-room schools, just as it would be odd to have an article about one-room houses of worship throughout the world. This article was clearly originally written from a US perspective, and there has really been only one small addition about one-room schools in Ireland, which itself only shows that the idea of the "one-room school" is far from a coherent global phenomenon, and the roles and function of a "one-room school" is totally different in different countries. As One-room schools in the United States is 90+% of the article's content, and the article was probably written just because the one-room schoolhouse is such a US cultural icon, idealized in Little House on the Prairie etc., I suggest the article be moved, at least for the time being. If someone can demonstrate that a reasonable globally-defined article can be written (which I think is soomewhat doubtful), covering not just the US, but also other countries including the many one-room schools in the third world in an integrated way such that it makes a meaningful whole, then of course I would support a move back.--Pharos 23:24, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * No; The article should not be moved. The universality of the article can be preserved by the addition of material from other places, and this also supports NPOV. Of course, the article could be 'forked' and the material specific to the U.S.A. used to create the article you suggest. However, why not just expand this article with further examples, and pull the specific material under one section / sub-heading? Peter Ellis 23:54, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * One-room, one-teacher schools are not only a cultural phenomenon of America. My mother and her siblings attended a one-room school in a farming area about 30km from Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, during the 1930s. Several of the children rode on a horse from the farm, until she as the youngest got a hand-me-down bicycle. Her parents had attended one-room schools. Peter Ellis 00:03, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I certainly did not mean that one-room schools are only a phenomenon in the United States, but on the contrary that while this article is basically about the United States, the whole global cultural experience of one-room schools is much broader, perhaps too broad to even have a coherent article on "one-room schools" generally. I imagine that there may be some similarities in the pedagogical tradition of English-speaking countries (even these would be rather broad), but it strains the mind to think of the few really general things that could be said about one-room schools around the world (that they tend to be rural and have only one teacher, is the most I can come up with). I, for one, am rather surprised at the Chinese version of this article, which seems like a pretty direct translation; surely there is something to be said about one-room schools in China! Do you see my point?--Pharos 00:43, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I concur with Peter Ellis that the article has universality and should not be moved at this time. The challenge to teach children of a variety of ages in a single room (and for those children to learn effectively) is not confined to the US.  The original author attempted to put in more perspectives by referring as an example to the Australian Robert Menzies.  There are very strong pedagocical similarities in English-speaking countries.  Other features associated with one-room schools apply to more than the US - the statement about the availability of school buses leading to the decline in numbers of these schools applies in Australia too.  Traditions elsewhere in the world including China need to be captured by more knowledgeable Wikipedians - as the article is only new (less than 2 days old as it was created 25 April) it should be given a chance to develop - it has obviously gained a high profile from being featured on the Wikipedia front page. --AYArktos 00:53, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I originally started the article, and yes, the focus was U.S. I knew little on the subject as far as other countries, etc. However, in the few days of the article's existence so far, I have learned more and more about the similar schooling arrangements in rural locations of other countries. That is exactly what Wikipedia does very well, for me and a lot of others.

Obviously, one-room schools are a subject of interest to people from all over the world (literally, perhaps?). It seems to me that we can build on the diversity with sections for areas within this article, at least until added content leads us to a need for separate articles. Thats my vote for now, keep adding content folks, and we'll sort it out, OK? Mark in Richmond. Vaoverland 03:05, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)

We have two problems. 1) the coentent is mostly US-centric. A lot of articles are like that, so it's not that big of a deal. 2) the head only mentions English-speaking, developed countries. Most people who have ever been educated in the history of the planet probably went to a one-room school at one point, so the header needs to reflect this. Anyay, for both reasons, this article needs this tag. Kevlar67 21:07, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Eureka School house photo - VT
I'm not sure if you need more photos for this page, but I just uploaded my photo of the first one-room in Vermont so please add it if you want some northeast representation. It was in continuous use until 1900 and has been restored H0n0r 02:13, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

No discussion of Amish-Americans? (German descendants)
They still use one-room schoolhouses to teach their children, from grades 1 to 8. (After grade 8, they become full-time farmers.) -  Theaveng 13:47, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

One-room schools in culture
I think there should be a section on one-room schools in today's culture, like in books, movies, and television. Angie Y. (talk) 18:07, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

One room schools still exist
One room schools still exist in America outside the Amish, Mennonite, and Rural communities. If we are to count Christian, private, and alternative one-room or two-room schools. Then there is one or more in almost every American town. I attended a one room "Christian" school for part of a year. And it looks just like the schools in these old pictures. Near me there are at least 2 Christian one room schools, and a three room school right in the same area. I am also guessing this is probably the same in the UK and Canada. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Brenthere (talk • contribs) 19:57, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

'Consolidation' section
This section needs citations, and I believe the section on one room schools in rural australia to be incorrect- one room schools are mostly completely unfeasible in this situation because of the huge distances between students. The most common ways for students to be educated in rural areas in Australia is distance education or sending children to boarding schools in larger cities.

58.172.84.130 (talk) 09:36, 29 November 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Where are one-room schools (still) used?
There do not seem to be any sources for information on the usage of one-room schools outside the US. The claim made in the article's opening paragraph is completely unsourced; I have tagged this appropriately. Information on one-room schools in the developing world would be particularly useful here. Akakievich (talk) 00:11, 13 April 2020 (UTC)

Section: Preservation: buildings and cultural
The Section "Preservation: buildings and cultural" only gives specific anecdotes, the section should have generalized information about the challenges and efforts to preserve remaining one-room school schoolhouses, otherwise it should be removed.Myotus (talk) 15:32, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:One-room school


text:
Omri Katz

Omri Katz is a retired American actor. His television and film credits include the television series Dallas and Eerie Indiana, and the movies Matinee, Adventures in Dinosaur City, and Hocus Pocus.

Biography
Katz is the son of Israeli Jewish immigrants Yoram and Rina Katz. He has an older brother named Michael and an older sister named Lali. Katz resided in Israel for a year during his childhood, and has also worked as a hairdresser.

In 2015, it was reported that Katz maintains acquaintance with his former fellow actors from Hocus Pocus. As of February 2022, Katz operated a cannabis company.

Wins

 * 1984 – Soap Opera Digest Award, Outstanding Youth Actor in a Prime-Time Soap Opera for Dallas.

Nominations

 * 1985 - Young Artist Award, Best Young Actor in a Daytime or Nighttime Television Series for Dallas.
 * 1986 – Soap Opera Digest Award, Outstanding Youth Actor/Actress on a Prime Time Serial for Dallas.
 * 1987 - Young Artist Award, Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor in a Long Running Series Comedy or Drama for Dallas.
 * 1988 - Young Artist Award, Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Drama Series for Dallas.
 * 1992 - Young Artist Award, Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Series for Eerie, Indiana.
 * 1994 - Young Artist Award, Best Youth Actor Leading Role in a Motion Picture Comedy for Hocus Pocus.

title: Omri Katz


text:
User talk:Harsha.Master

Harsha Master is an software engineer from Bangalore.

title: User talk:Harsha.Master


text:
Patio process

The patio process is a process for extracting silver from ore. Smelting, or refining, is most often necessary because silver is only infrequently found as a native element like some metals nobler than the redox couple 2 + 2 ⇌  (gold, mercury, ...). Instead, it is made up of a larger ore body. Thus, smelting, or refining, is necessary to reduce the compound containing the Ag+ cation into metallic Ag and to remove other byproducts to get at pure silver. The process, which uses mercury amalgamation to recover silver from ore, was first used at scale by Bartolomé de Medina in Pachuca, Mexico, in 1554. It replaced smelting as the primary method of extracting silver from ore at Spanish colonies in the Americas. Although some knowledge of amalgamation techniques were likely known since the classical era, it was in the New World that it was first used on a large industrial scale. Other amalgamation processes were later developed, importantly the pan amalgamation process, and its variant, the Washoe process. The silver separation process generally differed from gold parting and gold extraction, although amalgamation with mercury is also sometimes used to extract gold. While gold was often found in the Americas as a native metal or alloy, silver was often found as a compound such as silver chloride and silver sulfide, and therefore required mercury amalgamation for refinement.

Development of the patio process
Bartolomé de Medina was a successful Spanish merchant who became fascinated with the problem of decreasing silver yields from ores mined in Spanish America. By the mid-sixteenth century, it was well known in Spain that American silver production was in decline due to the depletion of high-grade ores and increasing production costs. The New Laws, prohibiting the enslavement of Indians, had resulted in higher labor costs as miners turned to wage labor and expensive African slaves. These higher production costs made mining and smelting anything but the highest grade silver ores prohibitively expensive, just as the availability of high grade ores was in decline. Bartolomé de Medina initially focused his attentions on learning about new smelting methods from smelters in Spain. He was approached during his research by an unknown German man, known only as "Maestro Lorenzo," who told him that silver could be extracted from ground ores using mercury and a salt-water brine. With this knowledge, Medina left Spain for New Spain (Mexico) in 1554 and established a model patio refinery in order to prove the effectiveness of the new technology. Medina is generally credited with adding "magistral" (a type of copper sulfate CuSO4 derived from pyrites) to the mercury and salt-water (H2O · NaCl) solution in order to catalyze the amalgamation reaction. Some historians assert that there were already sufficient copper sulfates in the local ores and that no additional magistral was needed, though others argue that while naturally occurring copper sulfates allowed for potential amalgamation sans magistral, the erratic results of this method made magistral a key component of the effective refinement of ore on a large scale. Regardless of whether or not Medina's contribution was entirely original, he promoted his process to local miners and was able to obtain a patent from the Viceroy of New Spain. As a result, he is generally credited with the invention of silver amalgamation in the form of the patio process.

The effectiveness of this method was such that when German experts arrived in America in the late 1700s to teach the newest amalgamation technology, they admitted they did not believe they could improve upon the American method in its context. Friedrich Sonneschmidt, a German refiner, stated: "It is not to be expected that there will ever be found a method by which all varieties of ore can be refined, having expenses lower than or even equal to those required by the patio beneficiation." The amalgamation was so efficient that a refiner could turn a profit even if the ores were poor enough to yield only 1.5 oz of silver per 100 lbs of original material.

Basic elements of the patio process
Before being taken to the ingenio (amalgamation refinery), excess material would be broken off of the silver ore. At the refiner, it was ground to a fine sand (harina) by an arrastra or stamp mill, which consisted of a rotating shaft fitted with heavy iron stamps that crushed the ore against a mortar block. The harina was then placed in heaps of 2,000 lbs or more, to which was added salt, water, magistral (essentially an impure form of copper sulfate, CuSO4), and mercury. This was then mixed by bare-legged Indian laborers or by horses or mules and spread in a 1-to-2-foot-thick (0.30 to 0.61 m) layer in a patio (a shallow-walled, open enclosure). After six to eight weeks of mixing and soaking in the sun, a complex reaction converted the silver to native metal, which formed an amalgam with the mercury. The mixture was then washed and strained through a canvas bag before being placed into a hooded oven. Heating this amalgam vaporized the mercury, leaving the silver. The mercury vapor would then condense on the cooled hood, where it could be collected and reused. The amount of salt and copper sulfate varied from one-quarter to ten pounds of one or the other, or both, per ton of ore treated. The decision of how much of each ingredient to add, how much mixing was needed, and when to halt the process depended on the skill of an azoguero (English: quicksilver man). The loss of mercury in amalgamation processes is generally one to two times the weight of silver recovered.

The patio process was the first form of amalgamation. However, it is unclear whether this process or a similar process—in which amalgamation occurred in heated vats rather than open patios—was the predominant form of amalgamation in New Spain, as the earliest known illustration of the patio process dates from 1761. There is substantial evidence that both processes were used from an early date in New Spain, while open patios were never adopted in Peru. Instead, Andean refiners placed milled ore in stone tanks vaulted over a fire, which helped accelerate amalgamation by mitigating the bitterly cold temperatures at the high elevation of the Andean mines. Both processes required that ore be crushed and refiners quickly established mills to process ore once amalgamation was introduced. Water mills were common in the Andes, powered by man-made dams, while in New Spain, where water was relatively scarce, mills were often powered by horses or other draft animals.

Due to amalgamation's reliance upon mercury, an expansion of mercury production was central to the expansion of silver production. A key source of mercury was at Huancavelica, Peru, where vast deposits were discovered in 1563. Additional mercury was sourced from Almadén, Spain, and Idrija in present-day Slovenia. From shortly after the invention of mercury amalgamation to the end of the colonial period, the Spanish crown maintained a monopoly on mercury production and distribution, ensuring a steady supply of royal income. Fluctuations in mercury prices generally resulted in corresponding increases and decreases in silver production. Crown control over these prices could be used to intentionally depress or stimulate silver production in Spanish colonies.

Broader historical significance
The introduction of amalgamation to silver refining in the Americas not only ended the mid-sixteenth century crisis in silver production, it also inaugurated a rapid expansion of silver production in New Spain and Peru as miners could now profitably mine lower-grade ores. In addition, places that were rich in ore but too isolated from indigenous populations or forests for the labor- and fuel-intensive smelting method to be profitable, as was the case with Potosí in modern-day Bolivia, were now viable. As a result of this expansion, the Americas became the primary producer of the world's silver, with Spanish America producing three-fifths of the world's silver supply prior to 1900.

Increased silver production due to the introduction of mercury amalgamation resulted in an increased demand for labor. In New Spain, mining labor was initially supplied by the encomienda system or by enslaved Indians before transitioning to a repartimiento rotating labor system, but by the early 1600s, the majority of workers were Indian free wage or debt peonage workers. These naboríos were free, unattached Indians who contracted themselves out for sustenance and payment. Spaniards tended to distrust naboríos and accused them of profiteering by stealing ore, taking advances and fleeing, or contracting themselves out to multiple employers at a time. Regardless, the mines in New Spain increasingly relied on naboríos, who constituted over two thirds of mine workers in the region. Repartimiento Indian workers made up roughly seventeen percent of laborers, with another fourteen percent composed of Black slaves. Throughout the Spanish colonies, white men typically took positions as supervisors or mine owners.

The introduction of silver amalgamation allowed for an expansion of silver production in Peru that had profound consequences for Peru's native population. From 1571, the year the amalgamation process was introduced to the Andes, to 1575, Peru's silver production quintupled. In 1572, in order to provide sufficient labor to accommodate the expansion of silver mining to lower-grade ores, Viceroy Francisco Toledo organized an Indian draft labor system, the mita. This system of forced labor was based on the mit'a, a rotating, reciprocal labor obligation instituted in pre-Hispanic Andean society. Under this system, thousands of natives were forced to work in silver and mercury mines for less than subsistence-level wages. Thirteen thousand draft laborers per year worked at the largest mine in the Americas, located at Potosí in modern Bolivia. Native attempts to avoid the mita led to the abandonment of many Indian villages throughout Peru as thousands of Indians either moved permanently to Potosí or fled their traditional ayllus in order to escape the labor draft. Spanish monopolization of refining through amalgamation cut natives out of what had earlier been a native-dominated enterprise. Refining represented the most profitable segment of silver production. In conjunction with the mita, the exclusion of natives from owning refineries contributed to the transformation of Peruvian natives into a poorly paid labor force.

The rapid expansion of silver production and coinage—made possible due to the invention of amalgamation—has often been identified as the primary driver of the price revolution, a period of high inflation lasting from the sixteenth to early seventeenth-century in Europe. Proponents of this theory argue that Spain's reliance on silver coins from the Americas to finance its large balance of payments deficits resulted in a general expansion of the European money supply and corresponding inflation. Critics of the theory, however, argue that inflation was really a result of European government policies and population growth.

While the role of the expansion in silver production in the price revolution may be disputed, this expansion is often acknowledged as a key ingredient in the formation of early-modern world trade. In the 1530s, China decreed that all internal taxation must be paid in silver, driving demand for Spanish American silver and facilitating the development of extensive trade networks linking Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas as Europeans sought to gain access to Chinese wares.

title: Patio process


text: User talk:70.64.197.7

title: User talk:70.64.197.7


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Southern Michigan

Southern Michigan is a loosely defined geographic area of the U.S. state of Michigan. Southern Michigan may be referred to as a sub-region or component area to other regions of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. It is an area of rolling farmland, including the Irish Hills. It is usually defined as anywhere less than approximately 45-50 miles North of the Ohio/Indiana border, it can also be defined as the bottom two rows of counties of Michigan, meaning any county which borders Ohio or Indiana and the county just north of that. The region shares a state border with Indiana and Ohio. However the actual line is somewhat disputed.

Definitions
Depending on the viewer's perspective, the area known as Southern Michigan can fall into three well defined and larger regions of the state:

 * Central Michigan the Greater Lansing and the Flint and Tri-Cities area.
 * West Michigan the area surrounding Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, which share similarities with other cities in Michiana and on the Lake Michigan shore.
 * Southeast Michigan includes Metro Detroit and outlying cities such as Ann Arbor, Adrian, and Jackson, though Jackson is normally included in "South-Central Lower Michigan" or "Mid-Michigan".

title: Southern Michigan


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Glottalization

Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice (partial closure). Glottalization of obstruent consonants usually involves complete closure of the glottis; another way to describe this phenomenon is to say that a glottal stop is made simultaneously with another consonant. In certain cases, the glottal stop can even wholly replace the voiceless consonant. The term 'glottalized' is also used for ejective and implosive consonants; see glottalic consonant for examples.

There are two other ways to represent glottalization of sonorants in the IPA: (a) the same way as ejectives, with an apostrophe; or (b) with the under-tilde for creaky voice. For example, the Yapese word for "sick" with a glottalized m could be transcribed as either or. (In some typefaces, the apostrophe will occur above the m.)

Types
Glottalization varies along three parameters, all of which are continuums. The degree of glottalization varies from none (modal voice, ) through stiff voice and creaky voice  to full glottal closure (glottal reinforcement or glottal replacement, described below). The timing also varies, from a simultaneous single segment to an onset or coda such as  or  to a sequence such as  or. Full or partial closure of the glottis also allows glottalic airstream mechanisms to operate, producing ejective or implosive consonants; implosives may themselves have modal, stiff, or creaky voice. It is not always clear from linguistic descriptions if a language has a series of light ejectives or voiceless consonants with glottal reinforcement, or similarly if it has a series of light implosives or voiced consonants with glottal reinforcement. The airstream parameter is only known to be relevant to obstruents, but the first two are involved with both obstruents and sonorants, including vowels.

Glottal replacement
When a phoneme is completely substituted by a glottal stop, one speaks of glottaling or glottal replacement. This is, for instance, very common in British English dialects such as Cockney and Estuary English dialects. In these dialects, the glottal stop is an allophone of, and  word-finally, and when followed by an unstressed vowel (including syllabic   and ) in a post-stress syllable. 'Water' can be pronounced – the glottal stop has superseded the 't' sound. Other examples include "city", "bottle" , "Britain" , "seniority". In some consonant clusters, glottal replacement of /t/ is common even among RP speakers.

Geordie English has a unique form of glottalization involving glottal reinforcement of t, k, and p, for example in "matter", "lucky", and "happy". T, k, p sounds between vowels are pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop represented in IPA as p͡ʔ, k͡ʔ and t͡ʔ.

Glottal replacement occurs in Indonesian, where syllable final is produced as a glottal stop. In Hawaiian, the glottal stop is reconstructed to have come from other Proto-Polynesian consonants. The following table displays the shift →  as well as the shift  →.

Glottal replacement is not purely a feature of consonants. Yanesha' has three vowel qualities (,, and ) that have phonemic contrasts between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. While the latter generally consists of creaky phonation, there is some allophony involved. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs (especially before voiced consonants) ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: ('deer') →.

Glottal reinforcement
When a phoneme is accompanied (either sequentially or simultaneously) by a or a, a glottal stop modifier, then one speaks of pre-glottalization or glottal reinforcement.

English
This is common in some varieties of English, RP included; and  are the most affected but  and  also regularly show pre-glottalization. In the English dialects exhibiting pre-glottalization, the consonants in question are usually glottalized in the coda position: "what", "fiction" , "milkman" , "opera". To a certain extent, some varieties of English have free variation between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement.

Low Saxon
Glottal reinforcement is present in some varieties of Low Saxon, most notably Twents. It usually denotes syllable reduction, and can be heard before plosives: Dat düt et that does it, that is the case can in its most extreme form be reduced to.

title: Glottalization


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User talk:Anaru

Hi there! Can't believe nobody wished you welcome yet so I'll do it:

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Questions, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Now, I have a question. I was just studying Parkinson's (I am in final year med in Sydney, Australia) and tried to remember that basal ganglia connectivity diagram from back many years ago - I had a quick look at Wikipedia and hey, there it was! :)

I saw that Andrew Gillies is the creator of the coronal sections of the basal ganglia and I assume you and Mr Gillies may be the same person. Great picture! Given that it's got the same colour coding, I also suppose you are the creator of the aforementioned diagram (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Basal-ganglia-classic.png)? If so, I suggest that you license it appropriately before somebody deletes it, as it has already been marked as being of unknown origin. I assume you would use GFDL like you did with the brain diagrams.

Thanks anyway for helping me with my Parkinson's study! :) BjarteSorensen 06:49, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Neuroscience
Dr. Gillies: I'd like to extend an invitation to join us over at WikiProject_Neuroscience. I'm trying to revive this group, to focus on cleaning up and properly referencing neuroscience-related articles here on Wikipedia. We've already gotten cerebellum properly written, referenced, and reworked. The next major focus is the article brain (which is a mess), though I am personally working towards repairing and updating basal ganglia as well. Thanks for the clean up on that, by the way! Cheers and good luck. Semiconscious ( talk  · home) 19:23, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Anaru


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Gilbert Adair

Gilbert Adair (29 December 1944 – 8 December 2011) was a Scottish novelist, poet, film critic, and journalist. He was critically most famous for the "fiendish" translation of Georges Perec's postmodern novel A Void, in which the letter e is not used, but was more widely known for the films adapted from his novels, including Love and Death on Long Island (1997) and The Dreamers (2003).

Life and career
Adair was born in Edinburgh but from 1968 to 1980 he lived in Paris. His early works of fiction included Alice Through the Needle's Eye (following Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass) and Peter Pan and the Only Children (following Peter and Wendy). He won the Author's Club First Novel Award in 1988 for his novel The Holy Innocents. From 1992 to 1996 he wrote the "Scrutiny" column for The Sunday Times. During 1998 and 1999 he was the chief film critic of The Independent on Sunday, where in 1999 he also wrote a year-long column called "The Guillotine".

In 1995 he won the Scott Moncrieff Translation Prize for his book A Void, which is a translation of the French book La Disparition by Georges Perec. The original book contains no instances of the letter e; Adair translated it with the same limitation. His works are compared to those of Julian Barnes, A. S. Byatt and Patrick Gale. His book Flickers: A History of the Cinema in 100 Images was admired by David Foster Wallace.

The film Love and Death on Long Island (1997), directed by Richard Kwietniowski, was based on his 1990 novel of the same name. The film The Dreamers (2003) directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, with a script by Adair, was based on his book The Holy Innocents, which Adair revised and re-released under the same title as the film. Adair collaborated on the screenplays of several Raúl Ruiz films: The Territory (1981), Klimt (2006) and A Closed Book (2010).

Adair was gay, though he rarely talked about the matter, not wishing to be labelled. "Obviously there are gay themes in a lot of my novels," he said in an interview soon before he died, "but I really wouldn't be happy to be thought of as a 'Gay Writer' ... Being gay hasn't defined my life." At the end of his life, he lived in London. Adair died from a brain haemorrhage on 8 December 2011, at age 66, thirteen months after suffering a stroke which blinded him. He was writing a stage version of Love and Death on Long Island, which was being developed by producers New Gods and Heroes, at the time of his death.

Fiction

 * Alice Through the Needle's Eye (1984)
 * Peter Pan and the Only Children (1987)
 * The Holy Innocents (1988) – winner of the Author's Club First Novel Award, a tale of sexual obsession set against the backdrop of the Paris street riots of 1968.
 * Love and Death on Long Island (1990)
 * The Death of the Author (1992) – a black satire of contemporary theoretical cultishness and a metaphysical murder mystery
 * The Key of the Tower (1997)
 * A Closed Book (1999) – a literary thriller about a prize-winning novelist left blind after a serious car accident.
 * Buenas Noches, Buenos Aires (2003) – the story of Gideon, a young Englishman in 1980s Paris, on the verge of sexual discovery
 * The Dreamers (2003) – the revised version of his 1988 novel, The Holy Innocents.

Evadne Mount trilogy

 * 1) The Act of Roger Murgatroyd (2006) – a murder mystery set in the 1930s on Dartmoor
 * 2) A Mysterious Affair of Style (2007)
 * 3) And Then There Was No One (2009)

Non-fiction

 * ''Frog Specialist Marketing Poem (Writers Forum) 1984
 * A Night at the Pictures (with Nick Roddick) (1985)
 * Myths & Memories (1986)
 * Vietnam on Film (1981)
 * The Postmodernist Always Rings Twice (1992)
 * Wonder Tales: Six French Stories of Enchantment (editor with Marina Warner) (1995)
 * Flickers: An Illustrated Celebration of 100 Years of Cinema (1995)
 * Surfing the Zeitgeist (1997; an anthology of his Sunday Times "Scrutiny" columns)
 * Movies (editor) (1999)
 * The Real Tadzio (2001) – a biography of the boy (Baron Władysław Moes) who inspired Thomas Mann's Death in Venice.

Screenplay

 * The Dreamers (2003) – the film adaptation of his 1988 novel, The Holy Innocents.

Translations

 * Letters by François Truffaut (1990) (also editor)
 * A Void by Georges Perec (1994) — winner of the Scott Moncrieff Translation Prize
 * Zazie in the Metro by Raymond Queneau (2000) (introduction)

title: Gilbert Adair


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Talk:Silent letter/Archive 1

Great, except. ..
Where is the explanation for why silent letters exist? Isn't that something this article should address? I'd guess most people who come to this article are looking for that answer. I know I was. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.163.0.41 (talk) 15:12, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
 * The fact remains, which everyone would like to ignore, that silent letters do not exist. Due to regional dialectal variation caused often by cross-lingual corruption, vulgarities and slang are common as are "silent letters". If people were less lazy and more educated, they would know to pronounce each letter. Alsobeing that with the aforementioned corruption there are differences in pronounciation letter by letter, I assume that I shall encounter resistance by those that would rather standardise pronounciation to avoid revealing those vulgar differences. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 157.252.146.251 (talk) 18:08, 8 May 2010 (UTC)
 * ROTFL. That's the kind of uninformed lay "prescriptivism" that gives prescriptivism its bad reputation among linguists. The b in subtle, doubt or debt, for example, has never been pronounced by anyone, and I dare you to pronounce all the cases of silent letters listed in this article. Likely, you wouldn't even manage to, and your English would come out garbled and unintelligible. Written language and spoken language are simply two quite different things: A certain amount of prescriptivism (as in historically justified conservatism) is sensible for formal, standardised written language, but any attempt to regularise spoken language in this way is pure lunacy and ignores the fact that written language (even in its most formal and standardised forms) is derived from spoken language, not the other way round. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 12:41, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

Pronunciation of "soften"
Someone not logged in deleted "soften" from a list of words with silent letters and left the comment: "removed the exmple of a silent 't' in 'soften' becuase it isn't silent" [sic]. Does this statement apply to any major dialects of English? I checked a half-dozen American, British, and Australian dictionaries, and none indicated that the 't' is pronounced even optionally. Unless there is evidence that a significant number of English speakers do pronounce the 't', I would vote to restore the "soften" example to the article. Tomgally 01:01, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

It was me who revomed the soften example. I have only ever heard north americans drop the 't' from 'soften.' It stikes me as a little odd that the all the dictionaries you checked say that the 't' is silent, since I can't recall ever hearing a British person drop the 't' (I live in Britian). I don't think a letter who's silence (or lack thereof) is dependant on accent should really be counted a silent letter. Misodoctakleidist 17:58, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with you that if many British people do pronounce the 't' in "soften," then it shouldn't be included as an example in the article. The British dictionaries I checked were the Collins English Dictionary, Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, New Penguin English Dictionary, and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. None shows a 't' in the pronunciation. But there's a huge variety of British dialects, and dictionaries tend to recognize only a narrow range of southern English accents. Just out of curiosity, what part of Britain do you live in? Tomgally 00:06, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I live in Cumbria (North-West England). I also checked the New Penguin English Dictionary, and there was no 't' in the pronounciation. You are right that dictionaries usually consider only recieved pronounciation. Although, I can't say I've ever noticed anyone with a RP accent dropping the 't' either. Perhaps I am just wrong. Misodoctakleidist 22:49, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Having been a British person all my life I would suggest that the received English is entirely with a silent T. This is from an Essex boy that goes to university in wales. The only way I can imagine the T being pronounced is in that it changes the pronunciation from a long to a short O (soff-n instead of soaf-n)--Shadebug 12:45, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

 * It may surprise you to learn that some parts of the country exist north of Birmingham. Misodoctakleidist 18:53, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

 * True enough, but being that RP as well as fair chunk of the population live below that line, I would say it's still a valid point.--Shadebug 23:56, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I have never heard anyone pronounce soften with a long o. Misodoctakleidist 18:48, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Nor is Shadebug claiming that, but rather that that would be the 'natural' pronunciation of sofen. —Tamfang (talk) 18:13, 28 March 2014 (UTC)

English Examples
Here's the paragraph giving some examples of silent letters in English.

In English, examples of silent letters include the "p" in "psychology," the "e" in "hope," and the "n" in "damn." The "t"s in "often" and "tsunami" are silent in some speakers' pronunciation of the words but spoken in others'.

How can you call the  in "hope" silent? It's a magic : part of the representation of the vowel. Omit to  and you get "hop". I'm changing this example. - Jim 25Apr05
 * Good point. Thanks for making that change. It would be nice, too, to have some examples from languages other than English. Any French speakers care to contribute? Tomgally 05:30, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I don't think grandfather is a good example, pronouncing the "d" is by far more common than the silent version. I'm from Australia, things may be different in America, but I'm sure its at least reasonably common to pronounce the d.

I'd agree that the D in grandfather, at least in British English, is silent more due to laziness than to that being proper pronunciation.--Shadebug 12:48, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Trivia question (classroom full of students thinks I (the teacher) should know!
What word in the English language has the most silent letters?

The only one I could think of with more than one (off the top of my head) was "whistle" with two. (I'm pretty sure even RP-speaking Brits don't pronounce THAT "t"!)

Isn't the e in whistle also silent? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.106.43.108 (talk) 17:46, 11 July 2008 (UTC)

 * "Queue"? Pronounced "Q".  62.172.108.23 (talk) 15:45, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

 * "boatswain" pronounced bəʊsn̩ for 5 silent letters (a, t, w, a, and i) --144.132.16.9 (talk) 12:42, 15 April 2015 (UTC)

Silent letters in French car brand names
How many silent letters have the French car brand names "Renault", "Peugeot", and "Citroën"? --84.61.36.54 11:07, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Renault: the two final consonants are silent.
 * Peugeot: the final consonant is silent. The second 'e' isn't pronounced, but forces the 'g' to its fricative palato-alveolar form.
 * Citroën: no silent letter.
 * 82.150.248.28 (talk) 09:29, 31 March 2010 (UTC)

Silent C and Silent H
Any chance somebody more informed than myself could mention silent Cs and the position of the English language on Hs, both at the beginning of letters. That is, silent Cs such as Cnidarian or Cthonic and why anybody in their right mind would stay at an hotel or get treated at an hospital. I'm teaching english as a second language and, although as primary school students they won't care, I'd like to make sure I've got this right.--Shadebug 12:54, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

I don't know about those C words, but in most dialects of English, the h in hospital is fully pronounced. There is the fact that some speakers do not pronounce h's at the beginning of words with unaccented first syllables, like in "an historic," and in certain dialects, there is the yew-hew merger, where any incidence of the cluster /hj/ to be pronounced only as /j/, but this is seen as incorrect, even by those who speak a dialect where this is the norm.

RJM (talk) 04:17, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

Why are not silent letters dropped altogether?
Silent letters are not easy for kids to grasp. What's more, it is not easy for adults either. Why hasn't the silent letters gone away altogether? These letters are doing good to no one. Take, the Americans. They have successfully eliminated the 'u' from most words that have a combination of 'ou'. For example, 'color' has replaced 'colour', 'endeavor' has replaced 'endeavour' and no one is complaining. Then, why are we holding on to the 'knee'? A makeover by dropping silent letters will go a long way in making the language easy.  Essentialwitness (talk) 13:08, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Silent E's at the end of words were not originally silent. There was a sound change that modified the pronunciation of the words containing this; originally it was pronounced as a schwa with the preceding vowel pronounced differently as in German.  In the same way, the silent K's were also pronounced before.  These letters were retained as a matter of culture.  The dropped U's in American English were more a matter of Americans separating themselves from the British as opposed to simplifying the language.  It's a matter of English speakers retaining the culture of their spelling instead of abandoning it for simplification.  The Japanese could probably simplify their written language by devising a new writing method, but there is already a culture surrounding both, and they are unlikely to change much further.
 * --RJM (talk) 19:46, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

As well, please keep in mind that this is a talk page about the article, not about the concept of a silent letter and debating whether spelling reforms should be made... LjL (talk) 19:52, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

silent b and a —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.59.24.243 (talk) 00:59, 16 October 2009 (UTC)

Pronunciation of Practically
Similarly to "soften" above, some dialects pronounce it "pract-i-ca-ly" and some drop the a for "pract-i-cly". Bad example? 65.190.247.221 (talk) 04:11, 22 November 2009 (UTC)

Display of IPA zero symbol for silent letters
In the intro paragraph there is the text "the symbol ∅ is used, which is like a diamond with a slash through it." On my screen - Windows XP in Google Chrome browser - the symbol I see looks nothing like "a diamond" but rather a circle with a slash through it - the same as given earlier in the discussion of "empty set symbol." The source code has 'IPA|∅' inside double curly braces.

Does anyone know where to get the correct symbol the text is referring to, with a diamond shape? As it stands there is a contradiction between the copy and the symbol.Birdbrainscan (talk) 12:34, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

 * As the article now correctly says, it is not a diamond and it has never been. It is simply a circle with a slash through it. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 13:09, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

Silent U in QU ??? Extremely doubtful
A one-sentence paragraph in the article reads:

"After ‹g› or ‹q›, ‹u› is almost always silent."

There is no citation for this supposed fact, and

I. I strongly doubt that many experts in phonetics would agree with the statement as regards QU.

The reason is that by itself, in the rare word where Q occurs without a U, the Q fairly consistently has a K sound -- and not a KW sound. The implication is that in QU combinations that sound like KW, it is the U that is responsible for the W sound.

If this seems unlikely, note that a K sound followed immediately by a long OO sound (as in pool or moon) and then another vowel sound -- when pronounced quickly together -- create essentially a KW sound before the final vowel. (To see this, say KOO-IT faster and faster. Soon enough it will sound just like QUIT.)

For this reason, I believe the statement about QU should be omitted, since it is simply not true.

II. The quoted statement also fails to be true for GU as well.

Many, many, many words simply pronounce the U after a hard G sound! (Like gum, gut, gust, guff, gull, gum, etc.)

There are also plenty of words where -- for reasons similar to the case of QU -- the GU diphthong sounds like GW. (E.g., anguish, guano, linguistics, guava, unguent.)

III. For these reasons I have removed that sentence. (There may be circumstances in which the claim is true: for example, when GUE or QUE *ends* a word. But I would certainly disagree with the "almost always" characterization in the sentence as it was written.)Daqu (talk) 02:32, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I completely agree.
 * Generally, the "q" represents /k/ and the "u" represents /w/. Sometimes, though, the "u" is silent, e.g. "mosquito" and 'masquerade". Note, however, that in some acronyms, e.g. "Qantas", the "q" by itself gets pronounced /kw/ but this could be attributed to the fact that "q" almost always combines with "u" to form "qu" representing /kw/ (though not in "Qatar", "Iraq", "Quran", etc.), so, through force of habit, it gets pronounced that way even in the absence of the "u".
 * As for "gu", on the other hand, is a bit of a different beast. As mentioned above, "u" sometimes does its regular job as a vowel, e.g. "gut", or as part of a consonant-vowel digraph, e.g. "legume".  Sometimes the "u" separates the "g" from the following letter so that it is pronounced /g/ rather than /dʒ/, e.g. "guitar" or "tongue", in which case it is kind of silent (in that it's not pronounced) but perhaps not truly silent (in that it still influences pronunciation).  Sometimes, as with "u" after "q" it represents /w/, e.g. "language" (as mentioned above).  Sometimes, though, it really could be said to be silent, e.g. "guard" and "guarantee". Jimp 07:15, 22 May 2015 (UTC)

Some proposals for extension
Hi, what about looking for arab languages (there is a lot of examples to be found)? Checking the role, building words while speaking does play? And if You find some orthographic errors, I beg Your pardon, my native language is not english Bussakendle (talk) 13:30, 12 July 2013 (UTC)

As some of the characters in the existing parts of the article are represented as unreadable on my monitors screen, I unfortunately was only able to add some additional information, but I am not able to add remarks or sources to existing text. Bussakendle (talk) 15:39, 12 July 2013 (UTC)

Breakfast?
I don't understand the inclusion of this would in this article, while it is certainly true that the pronunciation of the combined word is not the same as how each of the constituent words would be pronounced, there is no silent letter in the word "breakfast", unles there is some dialect I am not aware of. 173.202.243.120 (talk) 17:30, 22 July 2013 (UTC)
 * No, there is no silent letter in "breakfast". It's just the "ea" digraph being pronounced as /e/ as in "lead", "head", "weapon", etc. Jimp 07:18, 22 May 2015 (UTC)
 * I disagree. "breakfast" does contain a silent letter. The words "breakfast", "lead", "head", "weapon", should be written as "brekfast", "led", "hed", "wepon". --Ælfwyn22 (talk) 21:51, 13 February 2016 (UTC)

Silent_letter
‘The letter ⟨h⟩ is always silent,’

Nonsense. --66.190.69.246 (talk) 00:47, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

tongue
A weird example:

 * Occasionally, spurious letters are consciously inserted in spelling. ... the "ongue" element of "tongue"; and countless others.

I suppose this was meant to be "the ue of tongue" (which I guess was added to match langue and other French words similarly pronounced). That whole sentence needs work; I'll cut tongue from it for now. —Tamfang (talk) 18:19, 28 March 2014 (UTC)

 * There's nothing spurious going on here at all. In mediæval times they were loath to use "u" next to "m", "n", "w" or "v" because it would result in something difficult to read (due to the way they would write the letters), so, instead they replaced the "u" with an "o".  Hence we have "come", "some", "son", "wonder", "love", etc.  The "e" in many of these words indicates that the "o" is to be pronounced like a "u".  Thus instead of "tung" you'd get "tonge", however, this would not do because an "e" directly following a "g" would turn it into /dʒ/ (i.e. /tʌndʒ/), so, the "u" is inserted to separate them giving us "tongue" (i.e. /tʌŋ/). Jimp 07:27, 22 May 2015 (UTC)

∅
"Handwritten notes use a circle with a line through it and the sound is called 'zero'". Firstly, it isn't a sound if it's silent. Secondly, it's not clear how phonetic transcription would "require a symbol to show that the letter is mute" since phonetic transcriptions are based on pronunciation not spelling (e.g. "damn" and "plumb" are pronounced exactly the same as "dam" and "plum"). Jimp 05:58, 22 May 2015 (UTC)

Silent letters
All letters are silent aren't they? Letters don't make sound, vocal cords do. 2602:306:3653:8A10:596:EB92:103D:86DB (talk) 20:39, 2 August 2015 (UTC)

Doubling of consonants -- is the second example best thought of as silent?
In English, there is a process in which certain root-final consonants are doubled when suffixes of a certain set (-ed, -ing, etc.) are added. This distinguishes them from roots that end with a final, silent <-e>. For example, the verb "plan" is spelled with a doubled  in the past tensed,, distinguishing it from which is the past tense for the woodworking verb "plane". This sort of silent consonant insertion by regular rule allows readers to distinguish the sound and meaning of vs., vs. , and vs. . This is a case of a silent letter, but its appearance does affect the sound of the preceding vowel. Does this fit within the scope of this article? Pete unseth (talk) 19:48, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

 * This phenomenon is already discussed in the article. It's not specifically a phenomenon about -ed endings: that is just a specific occurrence of it, but the general thing is that double consonant letters, while not representing geminate consonants like in some other languages, change the sound of the preceding vowel. This is a relatively regular spelling pattern in English - as regular as spelling patterns get in English (i.e. not much). LjL (talk) 21:28, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Silent letter/Archive 1


text:
Talk:Canada/USA Mathcamp

 * Mathcamp is pretty notable. Math teachers across the United States encourage their best math students to apply for the camp. Though maybe not as notable as the AMC or Mathcounts, it's still up there. — flamingspinach | (talk) 06:55, 2005 Apr 25 (UTC)

Forgot to log in
64.105.35.205 is me. PlatypeanArchcow 16:53, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

Sources for Mathcamp culture
Hey, this is Rob.

The new section for "Mathcamp culture" is cool, but I doubt it will be able to stick on Wikipedia, because there aren't any sources for it. It's all hearsay. Hearsay that over a hundred people will generally agree on, many of whom are on Wikipedia, but that doesn't matter in the grand scheme of things.

There are probably some well-referenced things that can be said about Mathcamp culture - in particular, anything that can be extracted from this article about Mathcamp in the Globe and Mail. Of course, that was Mathcamp 2003, so we'll have to find aspects of culture that are fairly invariant across the years.

I may give this a try soon, because Mathcamp really should have a good Wikipedia article.

 r speer  / ɹəəds ɹ  05:10, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Mathcamp culture section 2006-biased?
It seems to me that the "Mathcamp culture" is a bit biased towards more recent developments, particularly those from 2006. I mean, seriously, is Mood Loquacious more deserving of mention than, say, sarongs, or any of the dozen other older traditions that aren't mentioned?

Civman2000 02:58, 19 September 2006 (UTC) (Eric W, 05-06)

 * I haven't taken on the project of tracking down sourced facts about Mathcamp culture yet, but basically -- unless a new published source has shown up that I don't know about -- a properly sourced article will have to be 2003-and-before-biased. I believe Food Tongue is unverifiable, for example (and Moody Loquacious is extremely unverifiable). Sarongs should be easy to verify, though. I bet that Mathcamp even has officially published materials with people in sarongs.  r speer  / ɹəəds ɹ  23:58, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I assume the yearbook isn't a valid source? If it is, a lot of this stuff can be sourced to that. There is a section on sarongs in the '06 yearbook (or the supplement?) and some section intros were in food tongue and moody loquacious. On the other hand, sarongs doesn't need it (assuming the official MC site is a valid source) --- see Megan and (less clearly) staff in tree. Ealex292 08:55, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * The yearbook isn't a reliable source -- a random Wikipedian wouldn't be able to obtain one, and even if they could, they wouldn't be able to understand it, or tell the parts that actually happened from the parts that are just amusing. There is, however, a new article about 2004 in Imagine magazine. (It doesn't mention Food Tongue.)  r speer  / ɹəəds ɹ  09:14, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Food Tongue has now been referenced in a printed newspaper! It's a personality profile of Scott Garrabrant, mentioning that Food Tongue is spoken by Scott and his "friends from math camp". It doesn't merit more than a passing mention, as it is just "something made up at Mathcamp one day", but it can be used as an example of the quirkiness of Mathcamp culture.

We have sufficient sources to write a legitimate Mathcamp culture section. I'm going to remove the current one to give the process a push. I'm not trying to reduce Wikipedia's coverage of Mathcamp -- I feel that removing the current Mathcamp culture section will improve the article by making it more encyclopedic, and then people who want to describe Mathcamp culture can work on a new section with real sources. The current section gives Mathcampers who may want to edit the article the mistaken impression that they should add random anecdotes to it and that's enough.  r speer  / ɹəəds ɹ  22:05, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

 * It's been nearly two years, and there's still no Mathcamp Culture section... I'm not sure that idea worked at all. --Zarel (talk) 11:26, 16 December 2008 (UTC)

Mathcamp Culture Revisited
Those of you who have either seen this page as it appeared in 2006, or have read the older discussions on this Talk page will know that there once existed a Mathcamp Culture section. The major problem with it was that, though accurate, it was essentially impossible to verify, and thus not suitable for Wikipedia. Rob intended to start a project collecting material for a legitimate Culture section, but now, some two and a half years later, it appears that didn't happen. Understandable, but unfortunate, and I'd like to remedy it.

First, some notes. The culture section need not have every aspect of Mathcamp culture that ever happened. Not only is this clearly an impossible feat to accomplish, it is not even clear that it's desirable, as it becomes a slippery slope into a sort of blog for Mathcampers where they can dump things like "And on week 3 I played Mao". With this being the case, the particular points we introduce in the section need to be carefully considered.

The foremost filter, of course, is verifiability. It is imperative that we have legitimate sources for everything we say. In particular, I'd like to reiterate a point that was made earlier -- yearbooks are not legitimate sources. Though we do have the '07 and '08 yearbooks online (albeit password-protected), they cannot be used as sources -- not only would it probably count as original research, but there are major privacy issues involved.

The second filter, and one that's a lot more sketchy and subjective, is notability. Since most people go to Mathcamp for only a year or two, there is a slightly skewed perspective of what's significant and what's not. For instance, someone that only went to camp during '06 would think that Moody Loquacious is very significant, even though it effectively never came up in any subsequent camp. Likewise, a camper from exclusively '07 might consider Flip-Flop to be very significant, even though it is (mostly) dead as well.

Luckily, the second, more subjective filter is helped by the first, objective one. If something is in a reliable source, it's probably notable enough to be included. However, the converse is not necessarily true. There are definitely some things that I think should be included that are going to be difficult to verify. Thus, for what it's worth, here is a brief list of what I think we should track down sources for:

 * Sarongs -- sarongs have had a clear role at camp since 2000. Furthermore, MC has published material with people wearing sarongs, so getting the information is pretty trivial.
 * Foodtongue -- though some may disagree, FT has survived since '04, which means that, except for staff, there are no current Mathcamprs who were around when it was created. As far as I know, there exists precisely one legitimate source that in any way mentions Food Tongue -- a newspaper article about a former camper. For what it's worth, there is also a Foodtongue wiki but that is probably not legitimate
 * The IL and Puzzle Hunt -- though not strictly "culture", these are both staples of the Mathcamp experience that are not directly tied with any other category. Those are going to be difficult to get sources for, though.

Lgrinberg (talk) 01:15, 25 January 2009 (UTC)

 * The puzzle hunts are online, cf. here. I do not know well the Wikipedia guidelines for sourcing, so I can imagine it might be inappropriate to use the Mathcamp website itself as a source of information, but the existence of the puzzlehunts I think is appropriately demonstrated by the online archives --- for the past two years, at least, the online component has been most of the hunt. (And I expect this to have been true in the past.) On the other hand, it appears that the article already mentions the hunts. Cyrapas (talk) 00:45, 18 December 2014 (UTC)

 * I believe the Foodtongue Wiki counts as a legitimate source. I don't think the IL is really that important; it's more on the level of 30 Proofs in 30 Minutes and VMCSP - things that are important for one day of camp, but rarely mentioned otherwise.
 * The existence of the yearbook probably deserves to be mentioned, whether or not it's cited. Mira should get some more details. Phantom of the Lecture Hall is iffy... I'd say best leave it off. --Zarel (talk) 17:23, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

 * The Foodtongue wiki is probably not legitimate by itself. However, with the other article, it is probably fine. I am fine with not mentioning the IL, 30 Minutes, VMCSP, and Phantom.
 * As far as the yearbook, I can't think of any good way of mentioning that. I don't know of any sources that mention it. And what more should we say about Mira? Lgrinberg (talk) 03:54, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

I have added a section based on the above discussion. I have done my best to keep it as brief and objective as possible. Please expand or shorten it as you see necessary (though please discuss here first, at least mentioning rationale). Lgrinberg (talk) 04:11, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Hmm. It appears none of us knows how to cite sources. That's kind of silly. :/ I don't either, so I can't help. Justification for why something has been mentioned should not be put in the article itself. I can try to correct some other problems, though.\
 * On second thought, I guess I should get around to learning how to Wikipedia-cite. --Zarel (talk) 13:15, 25 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Ha, Leonid. Next time, when I make an edit to make the article satisfy the Manual of Style, it's probably a bad idea to "fix" it without consulting the MoS first. :P
 * Anyway, everyone else, feel free to add content to the "Mathcamp Culture" section, and leave it to me to edit it to conform to the MoS. --Zarel (talk) 20:53, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Canada/USA Mathcamp


text:
Raymond Abrashkin

Raymond Abrashkin (March 9, 1911 – August 25, 1960) was an American writer and filmmaker. He is known for writing, co-producing, and co-directing Little Fugitive and for co-creating and co-writing with Jay Williams the Danny Dunn series of science fiction books for children.

He also wrote the story "Little Cowboy" (1948).

Family
Raymond's parents were Harry Abrashkin, born in what is now Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine, and Bertha Kornfeld, born in England. Raymond was born in Brooklyn, New York.

He graduated from the City College of New York and taught in New York City public schools. His writing career began as the education editor of PM Newspaper. He became the principal writer for Young People's Records. He wrote the syndicated comic strip Timmy, drawn by Howard Sparber.

Around 1935, he married Evelyn Kurinski. They had two children, John Michael (West) Abrashkin, an artist (1941–1992), and William Henry (Hank) Abrashkin, a Trial Court Judge in Massachusetts (b. 1944). There are two grandchildren, Karen Anna Abrashkin (b. 1981) and John Raymond Abrashkin (b. 1983).

During World War II Abrashkin served in the United States Maritime Service on supply ships in the Atlantic. During and after the war, he lived in Greenwich Village, New York. In 1951 he and his family moved to a converted barn in Weston, Connecticut, where he lived for the remainder of his life.

Little Fugitive
In 1952, Abrashkin wrote the screenplay for Little Fugitive under the name "Ray Ashley", which he co-produced and co-directed with Morris Engel and Ruth Orkin. The movie, which came out in 1953, was nominated for an Academy Award, and won acclaim and praise from François Truffaut as setting the stage for the French New Wave movement.

While working on the movie at Coney Island, Abrashkin was stricken with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig's disease), from which he died, aged 49.

title: Raymond Abrashkin


text:
Jay Williams (author)

Jay Williams (May 31, 1914 – July 12, 1978) was an American author of science fiction (often for children), fantasy, historical fiction, non-fiction, and radical theatre.

Early life
Williams was born in Buffalo, New York, the son of Max and Lillian Jacobson. He cited the experience of growing up as the son of a vaudeville show producer as leading him to pursue his acting career as early as college.

He attended both the University of Pennsylvania (1932–33) and Columbia University (1934), participating in amateur theatrical productions.

Early endeavors
Out of school and out of work during the end of the Great Depression, he worked as a comedian on the upstate New York Borscht Belt circuit. From 1936 until 1941, Jay Williams worked as a press agent for Dwight Deere Winman, Jed Harris and the Hollywood Theatre Alliance. Williams even played a feature role in the Cannes prize winning film, Little Fugitive, produced in 1953.

Williams served in the Army during World War II, receiving a Purple Heart. While serving, he published his first book The Stolen Oracle in 1943. After his discharge from the military in 1945, he turned his attention to writing as a full-time career.

Writing
In all, Williams authored at least 79 books including 11 picture books, 39 children's novels, 7 adult mysteries, 4 nonfiction books, 8 historical novels and a play. He is probably best known for his young adult "Danny Dunn" science fiction/fantasy series which he co-authored with Raymond Abrashkin. Though Abrashkin died in 1960, Williams insisted Abrashkin should continue to receive credit as co-author of all 15 books of this series, which continued from 1956 until 1977. Williams was reported to personally reply to over 1,000 fan letters from his juvenile readers each year.

Like his first novel, The Stolen Oracle, Williams wrote mysteries for young adults, including The Counterfeit African (1945) and The Roman Moon Mystery. He also wrote adult crime fiction, using the pseudonym Michael Delving. (This may be a reference to Michel Delving, a large hobbit-populated town in The Lord of the Rings.) One of his series of mysteries features the American rare book and manuscript collector Dave Cannon, and takes place in Britain.

Jay Williams also wrote a number of successful historical novels for adults, including The Witches, a look at the eradication of the healing women in Scotland; Solomon and Sheba; The Siege, a tale of the 13th-century wars initiated by the [Pope] against the Albigensian heresy; Tomorrow's Fire (1964), set during the Third Crusade; and The Rogue from Padua, a novel that takes place in the Renaissance.

He was also interested in the future in his many speculative science fiction tales, often published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction; eight of these stories were published under the title Unearthly Beasts. His novel Uniad sees a world in which individuality has shrunk.

His novel The Forger examines commercialism and art, and the relation of art to real life.

Using the pseudonym "Michael Delving", Williams wrote seven mystery novels.

Williams also wrote non-fiction books: The Middle Ages, Knights of the Crusades, The Spanish Armada, and Joan of Arc, as well as his young adult Landmark book on World War II, The Battle for the North Atlantic. He was known for his extensive research in both his fiction and non-fiction.

He wrote about the environment in his Fall of the Sparrow, describing the loss of numerous animal and bird species, often due to man; and he wrote a travel book, A Change of Climate, a European trip with his son, Chris.

Personal life
Williams and his wife Barbara Girsdansky were married June 3, 1941. They had a son, Christopher ("Chris"), and a daughter, Victoria.

Jay Williams died at age 64 from a heart attack while on a trip to London on July 12, 1978.

title: Jay Williams (author)