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History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent

The history of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent begins with the prehistoric human activity of the Indus Valley Civilisation to the early Indian states and empires.

Prehistory

By 5500 BCE a number of sites similar to Mehrgarh (modern-day Pakistan) had appeared, forming the basis of later chalcolithic cultures. The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with Central Asia and the Near East.

Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewerage. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from c. 2600 BCE. Cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th–4th millennia BCE. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India, and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.

The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices. One of the earliest known docks is at Lothal (2400 BCE), located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.

Excavations at Balakot (Kot Bala) (c. 2500–1900 BCE), modern day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early furnace. The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects. Ovens, dating back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500–1900 BCE), were also excavated at Balakot. The Kalibangan archeological site further yields evidence of potshaped hearths, which at one site have been found both on ground and underground. Kilns with fire and kiln chambers have also been found at the Kalibangan site.

Based on archaeological and textual evidence, Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008)—a University of Minnesota professor emeritus of geography—traces the origins of Indian cartography to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–1900 BCE). The use of large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was known in South Asia with some regularity since the Vedic period (2nd – 1st millennium BCE). Climatic conditions were responsible for the destruction of most of the evidence, however, a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded convincing evidence of early cartographic activity. Schwartzberg (2008)—on the subject of surviving maps—further holds that: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'

Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization. The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges–Jamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper.

Early kingdoms
The religious texts of the Vedic period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurveda (1200–900 BCE), numbers as high as $$10^{12}$$ were being included in the texts. For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the aśvamedha ("an allegory for a horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion. The Shatapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.

Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: $$(3, 4, 5)$$, $$(5, 12, 13)$$, $$(8, 15, 17)$$, $$ (7, 24, 25)$$, and $$(12, 35, 37)$$ as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square." It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together." Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two. Mesopotamian influence at this stage is considered likely.

The earliest Indian astronomical text—named Vedanga Jyotisha and attributed to Lagadha—is considered one of the oldest astronomical texts, dating from 1400 to 1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700 to 600 BCE), it details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events. It also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation. Since the  is a religious text, it has connections with hindu astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhikamāsa. Ritus and Yugas are also described. Tripathi (2008) holds that "Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time."

The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of the Vedic period in India offer early records of veterinary medicine. Kearns & Nash (2008) state that mention of leprosy is described in the medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE). The Sushruta Samhita an Ayurvedic text contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, a detailed study on Anatomy, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources. However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Hindu religious book Atharvaveda, written in 1500–1200 BCE.

Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta (6th century BCE). Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged. Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that it should only be used when necessary. The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India. Sushruta's treatise provides the first written record of a cheek flap rhinoplasty, a technique still used today to reconstruct a nose. The text mentions more than 15 methods to repair it. These include using a flap of skin from the cheek, which is akin to the most modern technique today. Otoplasty' (surgery of the ear) was developed in ancient India and is described in the medical compendium, the Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium, c. 500 AD).the first description of a surgical procedure to treat stones was described in the Sushruta Samhita by Sushruta around 600 BC. Two types of diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400–500 CE with one type being associated with youth and another type with being overweight. Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Best isolated and purified insulin in 1921 and 1922. This was followed by the development of the long-acting insulin NPH in the 1940s. The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by Sushruta (6th century BC). Angina Pectoris

During the 5th century BCE, the scholar Pāṇini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Pāṇini's morphological analysis remained more advanced than any equivalent Western theory until the mid-20th century. Metal currency was minted in India before the 5th century BCE, with coinage (400 BCE–100 CE) being made of silver and copper, bearing animal and plant symbols on them.

Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE. Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt. These swords have been variously dated to periods between 1700 and 1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. Archaeological sites in such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BCE and 1200 BCE. Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radio carbon dating. Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be placed earlier. In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE. These developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.

Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE – 1206 CE)

The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The use of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible by about the 4th century. The stupa, the precursor of the pagoda and torii, was constructed by the 3rd century BCE. Rock-cut step wells in the region date from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place.

During the 1st millennium BCE, the Vaisheshika school of atomism was founded. The most important proponent of this school was Kanada, an Indian philosopher. The school proposed that atoms are indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed, and that each one possesses its own distinct (individuality). It was further elaborated on by the Buddhist school of atomism, of which the philosophers Dharmakirti and Dignāga in the 7th century CE were the most important proponents. They considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.

By the beginning of the Common Era glass was being used for ornaments and casing in the region. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and local artisans learnt methods of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era. The Satavahana period further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass. Wootz originated in the region before the beginning of the common era. Wootz was exported and traded throughout Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that manufacturing process for Wootz was also in existence in South India before the Christian era.

Evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). The mining of diamonds and its early use as gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important early center for diamond mining and processing. Diamonds were then exported to other parts of the world. Early reference to diamonds comes from Sanskrit texts. The Arthashastra also mentions diamond trade in the region. The Iron pillar of Delhi was erected at the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413), which stood without rusting for around 2 millennium. The Rasaratna Samuchaya (800) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.

In the 2nd century, the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna refined the Catuskoti form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed Tetralemma (Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of Classical logic.

The origins of the spinning wheel are unclear but South Asia is one of the probable places of its origin. The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14th century. The cotton gin was invented in South Asia as a mechanical device known as charkhi, the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of the region, driven by water power. The Ajanta Caves yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used until further innovations were made in form of foot powered gins. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining. Each mission returned with different results on refining sugar. Pingala (300–200 BCE) was a musical theorist who authored a Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There is evidence that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the Pascal triangle and Binomial coefficients, although he did not have knowledge of the Binomial theorem itself. A description of binary numbers is also found in the works of Pingala. The Indians also developed the use of the law of signs in multiplication. Negative numbers and the subtrahend had been used in East Asia since the 2nd century BCE, and South Asian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century CE, and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood. Although the Indians were not the first to use the subtrahend, they were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in East Asian texts until 1299. Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated, and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.

A decimal number system using hieroglyphics dates back to 3000 BC in Egypt, and was also in use in ancient India. By the 9th century CE, the Hindu–Arabic numeral system was transmitted from the Middle East and to the rest of the world. The concept of 0 as a number in decimal system, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical decimal calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division. Brahmagupta (598–668) was able to find (integral) solutions of Pell's equation and described gravity as an attractive force, although already known to Greek scholars, and used the term "gurutvākarṣaṇam (गुरुत्वाकर्षणम्)]" in Sanskrit to describe it. Conceptual design for a perpetual motion machine by Bhaskara II dates to 1150. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.

The trigonometric functions of sine and versine, from which it was trivial to derive the cosine, were used by the mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century. The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was stated by mathematician, Bhāskara II, in the 12th century.

Indigo was used as a dye in South Asia, which was also a major center for its production and processing. The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product. The cashmere wool fiber, also known as pashm or pashmina, was used in the handmade shawls of Kashmir. The woolen shawls from Kashmir region find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Gupta Empire, and the earliest reference to candied sugar comes from India. Jute was also cultivated in India. Muslin was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).

European scholar Francesco Lorenzo Pullè reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell India. Out of these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source. The other manuscript, used as a source by Francesco I, is titled Samgraha.

Samarangana Sutradhara, a Sanskrit treatise by Bhoja (11th century), includes a chapter about the construction of mechanical contrivances (automata), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.

Late Medieval (1206–1527)
Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics developed and founded mathematical analysis. The infinite series for π was stated by him, and he made use of the series expansion of $$\arctan x$$ to obtain an infinite series expression, now known as the Madhava-Gregory series, for $$\pi$$. Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for $$\pi$$. They used the improved series to derive a rational expression, $$104348/33215$$ for $$\pi$$ correct up to nine decimal places, i.e. $$3.141592653 $$ (of 3.1415926535897...). The development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) was carried out by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the 15th century CE. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series).

Mathmatation Narayana Pandit wrote two works, an arithmetical treatise called Ganita Kaumudi and an algebraic treatise called Bijaganita Vatamsa. Narayana is also made contributions to algebra and magic squares.Narayana's other major works contain a variety of investigations into the second order indeterminate equation nq2 + 1 = p2 (Pell's equation), solutions of indeterminate higher-order equations Narayana has also made contributions to the topic of cyclic quadrilaterals. The Navya Nyaya school began around eastern India and Bengal, and developed theories resembling modern logic, such as Gottlob Frege's "distinction between sense and reference of proper names" and his "definition of number," as well as the Navya-Nyaya theory of "restrictive conditions for universals" anticipating some of the developments in modern set theory. Udayana in particular developed theories on "restrictive conditions for universals" and "infinite regress" that anticipated aspects of modern set theory. According to Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti:

The Navya-Nyāya or Neo-Logical darśana (school) of Indian philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE by the philosopher Gangesha Upadhyaya of Mithila. It was a development of the classical Nyāya darśana. Other influences on Navya-Nyāya were the work of earlier philosophers Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE) and Udayana (late 10th century).Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity (upamāna), and testimony (sound or word; śabda).

Shēr Shāh of northern India issued silver currency bearing Islamic motifs, later imitated by the Mughal Empire. The Chinese merchant Ma Huan (1413–51) noted that gold coins, known as fanam, were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one fen and one li according to the Chinese standards. They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each. In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's elliptical model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.

Gunpowder and gunpowder weapons were transmitted to India through the Mongol invasions of India. The Mongols were defeated by Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate, and some of the Mongol soldiers remained in northern India after their conversion to Islam. It was written in the Tarikh-i Firishta (1606–1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan was presented with a pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258 CE. As a part of an embassy to India by Timurid leader Shah Rukh (1405–1447), 'Abd al-Razzaq mentioned naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display. Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in the Vijayanagara Empire by as early as 1366 CE. From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in the region was prevalent, with events such as the siege of Belgaum in 1473 CE by the Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani.

Early Modern period (1527–1857 CE)
By the 16th century, South Asians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad. Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533). Gujarāt supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chhapra as a center of saltpeter refining.

In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington describes the gunpowder warfare of 16th and 17th century Mughal India, and writes that "Indian war rockets were good weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bamboo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic... The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahāngir."

The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in South Asia is described in Arabic and Persian works. During medieval times, the diffusion of South Asian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an advanced irrigation system which bought about growth and also helped in the growth of material culture. The founder of the cashmere wool industry is believed traditionally held to be the 15th-century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who introduced weavers from Central Asia.

The scholar Sadiq Isfahani of Jaunpur compiled an atlas of the parts of the world which he held to be 'suitable for human life'. The 32 sheet atlas—with maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the era—is part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647 CE. According to Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008): 'The largest known Indian map, depicting the former Rajput capital at Amber in remarkable house-by-house detail, measures 661 × 645 cm. (260 × 254 in., or approximately 22 × 21 ft).'

Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, Tipu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.

By the end of the 18th century the postal system in the region had reached high levels of efficiency. According to Thomas Broughton, the Maharaja of Jodhpur sent daily offerings of fresh flowers from his capital to Nathadvara (320 km) and they arrived in time for the first religious Darshan at sunrise. Later this system underwent modernization with the establishment of the British Raj.

Colonial era (1858–1947 CE)
The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 enabled the Governor-General of India to convey messages by post within the territories of the East India Company. Mail was available to some officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed. The Indian Post Office service was established on October 1, 1837. The British also constructed a vast railway network in the region for both strategic and commercial reasons.

The British education system, aimed at producing able civil and administrative services candidates, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutions. Jagadis Chandra Bose (1858–1937), Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861–1944), Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974), Meghnad Saha (1893–1956), P. C. Mahalanobis (1893–1972), C. V. Raman (1888–1970), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995), Homi Bhabha (1909–1966), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), Vikram Sarabhai (1919–1971), Har Gobind Khorana (1922–2011), Harish Chandra (1923–1983), Abdus Salam (1926–1996) and E. C. George Sudarshan (1933-2018) were among the notable scholars of this period.

Extensive interaction between colonial and native sciences was seen during most of the colonial era. Western science came to be associated with the requirements of nation building rather than being viewed entirely as a colonial entity, especially as it continued to fuel necessities from agriculture to commerce. Scientists from India also appeared throughout Europe. By the time of India's independence colonial science had assumed importance within the westernized intelligentsia and establishment.

French astronomer, Pierre Janssen observed the Solar eclipse of 18 August 1868 and discovered helium, from Guntur in Madras State, British India.

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Gash-Barka Region

Gash-Barka (ጋሽ-ባርካ, Italian: Regione di Gash-Barka) is an administrative region of Eritrea. It is situated in the south-west of the country, bordering the Anseba region to the north, and the Maekel (Central) and Debub (Southern) regions to the east; the country of Sudan lies to the west and Ethiopia to the south.

The capital of Gash-Barka is Barentu. Other towns include Agordat (the former capital), Molki, Sebderat and Teseney. As of 2005, the region had a population of 708,800 compared to a population of 625,100 in 2001. The net growth rate was 11.81 per cent. The total area of the province was 33,200 km2 and the density was 21.35 persons per km2., making up roughly one-third of Eritrea. The region is dubbed as the "breadbasket" of the country as it is rich in agriculture. The region is also rich in marble, and other important minerals, including gold. In Ougaro, there are some old mineshafts and machinery from the days when the Italians mined gold there.

Geography
It is situated in the south-west of the country, bordering the Anseba region to the north, and the Maekel (Central) and Debub (Southern) regions to the east; the country of Sudan lies to the west and Ethiopia to the south. The major crops in the region are bananas, tomatoes, cotton, onions, millet, sesame, green pepper and sweet melon. Within the entire country there existed extensive forestation as recently as 1900 AD; however, there is less than one percent forested area present in the country, and this deforestation trend has been mirrored in the region. Most of Eritrea was previously habitat for the endangered painted hunting dog, Lycaon pictus; however, this canid is now deemed extirpated from Gash-Barka and all of Eritrea due to the expanding human population in this country. The topography of the region has highland plateau, which are cooler than the regions around the coastal plains. There are two rainy seasons, the heavier one during summer and the lighter one during spring. The climate and geography of the region along with other regions of Eritrea is similar to the one of Ethiopia. The average elevation in the region is around 1800 m to 2100 m. The hottest month is May recording temperatures up to 30 °C, while the coldest month is December to February when it reaches freezing temperature. The region received around 508 mm of rainfall and the soil is conducive for agriculture.

Demographics
As of 2005, the region had a population of 708,800 compared to a population of 625,100 in 2001. The net growth rate was 11.81 per cent. The total area of the province was 33,200 km2 and the density was 21.35 persons per km2. As of 2002, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR), defined as the children per woman was 5.1. The General Fertility Rate (GFR), defined as the births per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 45 remained at 168.0. The Crude Birth Rate (CBR), the number of births per 1,000 population, was 34.0. The percentage of women pregnant as of 2002 out of the total population was 10.2 per cent. The mean number of children ever born stood at 6.3. The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), defined as the number of deaths of children for every 1,000 born was 66.0 while the Child Mortality Rate (CMR), defined as the number of child deaths for every 1,000 children 5 years of age was 61.0. The under-5 mortality rate stood at 123.0. The number of children with the prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) was 1039, fever was 1039, and Diarrhea was 1039. The number of women with the knowledge of AIDS was 1,500 and the number of people with no knowledge of the disease or its prevention was 0.0 per cent.

Education and economy
As of 2002, the number of males completing or attending highest level of schooling in the region was 2,700 while it was 3,179 females. The per centage of literate males was 37.50 and the percentage of literate females was 22.00. A fraction of 61.70 males had no education, while the corresponding number for females was 74.20. The fraction of males completing secondary school stood at 0.80 and the fraction of males completing more than secondary was 001. The corresponding numbers for females was 0.40 and 000 respectively. As of 2002, the number of people engaged in Professional/technical/managerial activities was 4.00 per cent, Clerical was 2.70 per cent, Sales and services was 26.40 per cent, Skilled Manual was 14.00 per cent, Unskilled Manual was 0.80 per cent, Domestic Service was 8.90 per cent and Agriculture was 42.50 per cent. The total number of employed men was 2,150 and the total number of employed women was 2,012. The number of men who were paid their total earnings in cash was 59.10 per cent, in kind was 5.70 and in both was 22.90. The number of women who were paid their total earnings in cash was 81.90 per cent, in kind was 1.60 per cent and in both was 5.20 per cent.

Administration
The region also includes the following districts: Agordat City, Barentu City, Dghe, Forto, Gogne, Haykota, Logo Anseba, Mensura, Mogolo, Molki, Omhajer (Guluj), Shambuko, Tesseney and Upper Gash. Eritrea has a one party national Assembly governed by People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) (originally Eritrean people's Liberation Front), an authoritarian government. From the time of independence since 24 May 1991, the country has been continuing with a transitional government elected during the elections in April 1993. The scheduled elections in 2001 has been postponed indefinitely. The regional and local elections are conducted on a periodic basis on a restricted framework. All men and women of any ethnic or religious background are eligible to vote. No parties or groups other than PFDJ are allowed to contest and the elections are presided by representatives from PDFJ. Policy decisions should be centered around the party mandate and opposition and dissenters have been imprisoned.

title: Gash-Barka Region


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Talk:Jujube

It is called ಬಾರೆಹಣ್ಣು in Kannada
This is silly. All other names are given in Roman transliteration. Who other than a Kannada speaker would have a clue how to pronounce the above? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.151.17.68 (talk) 15:42, 16 April 2024 (UTC)

Tulu Language
I added the Tulu word for jujube, it was very interesting to know that it is known by the same name in assam, so I had to put this one up. Also why is there no mention of the fact that this plant grows in the wild without water. Also i had read that jujube is the best thing you could eat if you were out in the desert and dying of thirst. Anyone can find a source and put that up. Cause I remember we would play in the hot sun when were kids and we would pluck jujubes from the tree and eat 4 or 5 before drinking water. It would refresh us like anything, no energy drink or miracle supplement can come close. Ofcourse we never knew this it was only recently I read somewhere that jujubes are the best thing to have when you are dehydrated, especially when you have lost a lot vital body salts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.172.63.194 (talk) 19:26, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

Incorrect reference?
Hong zao jiu, to my knowledge, is often made with jujube. However the reference (4) stated do not discuss this at all. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.253.236.56 (talk) 16:05, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

Date
The jujube and the date are both fine fruits but taste nothing alike. The most that can be said is that when dried they have a faint visual resemblance. I'm not going to change anything by noting this, but it is off my chest now. — Pekinensis 18:25, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * So what else is new? :) It's given the name of Chinese date, not date, in the same way as Bombay duck isn't duck, it's fish. We English-speakers have a funny way of doing that... thefamouseccles 03:26, 12 Aug 2005 (UTC)
 * Jujubes went from East to West. At the reverse, dates went West to East, and when the Chinese got acquainted with dates, they called them "western jujubes". So, from an ethnobotanical point of view, the link is clear ! Michel Chauvet (talk) 10:05, 25 November 2012 (UTC).

Systematistic sadism
Are the genus name and specific epithet of this thing really "Ziziphus zizyphus" - differing by only one letter? How ridiculous... -Ian
 * Yes, that's correct; one letter difference is enough to mean the name is not a tautonym, and is therefore legitimate as a plant name. - MPF 22:55, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Irrelevant and misleading. Tautonyms are perfectly legitimate.

 * In the US, it's rare to see fresh date or jujube - maybe because they are not grown in the country. I ate a lot of jujube or Chinese date when I was a kid. In Chinese, 枣 means jujube, while 椰枣 means date. 椰 means coconut (palm tree). Unfortunately, for almost all the English language learners in China, date is 枣, rather than 椰枣. -- —Preceding unsigned comment added by Yuming.us (talk • contribs)

Candied?
I was not under the impression that dried red or black jujubes were candied (i.e. soaked in sugar); I thought they were naturally sweet. Why use the term "candied"? Badagnani 06:27, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Dried ones are natually sweet, but candid ones are just as common. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.126.75.181 (talk) 00:20, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

I noticed a statement that the Jujube is extremely rare in the US. They grow outstandingly well in the desert. I have a tree in Southern Nevada. The limbs are hanging to the ground due to being so loaded with fruit. I love eating them straight off the tree. My only question is the name, is it ho-hoba? or Jew-jew-bee? Gustywind (talk) 00:15, 14 September 2011 (UTC)gustywind

Brown Dates
At Chinese grocery stores, I always find red, black and brown varieties of the Chinese date. The article explains what the black variety is (simply smoked red ones) but what exactly are the brown ones.. are they aother variety of the jujube or is it simply a red jujube that has been treated in a certain manner? -- —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.6.23.248 (talk • contribs)

 * Good question. I think I ran into these during my last trip to a Chinese grocery store as well.  How do they compare in size and shape to the red and black ones?  This may take some research.  Badagnani 01:50, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Regular "brown dates" (Phoenix dactylifera, the kind grown in the Middle East) are called wú lòu zǐ (无漏子). Badagnani 05:10, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I went back and bought a bag and they aren't dates at all. They seem to be a variety of jujube..

There seem to be three varieties of jujube in all:

 * 1.Ziziphus jujuba: the common red "Chinese jujube"
 * 2.Zizyphus mauritania: also known as "Indian jujuje" and it is brown
 * 3.Ziziphus spina-christi: also known as "Arabian jujube" and it is brown

 * I'm pretty sure that the Brown dates sold at the chinese store are either 2 or 3... The package I bought has the symbol for jujube 枣 along with some other ones which I can't decipher... the package doesn't give the latin name.. so I have no idea how to determine which one it is...24.6.23.248 03:32, 28 July 2006 (UTC)

What are the other Chinese characters? You can probably figure them out with Wiktionary. If you still can't figure it out I will buy some the next time I'm at the grocery store in Cleveland. We can probably figure out the Latin name if we have the Chinese name. I don't know the Chinese word for "brown." Badagnani 04:10, 28 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Chinese brown dates.jpg I didn't think it would work... but I scanned the package and it looks alright.. so I am posting the picture on here.... Hopefully we can figure out what this is.AllTalking 08:33, 28 July 2006 (UTC)

Those look exactly like the package I saw. Here are some of the characters: 特級蜜棗. That means something like "special type sweet jujube" or "special grade honey jujube." Products can be confusing because they change the way the characters are written for artistic reasons. Badagnani 16:06, 28 July 2006 (UTC)

I just found a package of the same kind of brown dates, called 梧州蜜枣 (Wuzhou honey/sweet jujube). Badagnani 03:14, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

Name of fruit/tree
Much like plum, pear, or loquat, the commonly known and used name for this tree/fruit is "Jujube". Badagnani 22:36, 15 September 2007 (UTC)
 * This is an uncontroversial move to the sci name per WP:PLANTS. Also while Jujube is clearly the commonest, and de facto official English name, the page also lists "Red Date" and "Chinese Date" as names. Additionally, though this has not been covered in either this article about the single species Ziziphus zizyphus, or the Ziziphus genus article, the OED gives 'jujube' as "any of several species of Ziziphus", so there may be a good case for splitting out the culinary info to a separate page - MPF 22:54, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

I don't believe it is the case that any other species is commonly called "Jujube" in English. Badagnani 00:11, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

"Red date" is simply a translation of the Chinese name, hongzao (红枣), and is typically only used in this context. Badagnani 00:26, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Repeat: please DO NOT delete two lengthy paragraphs merely for the POV of higher prominence for the English name over the scientific. - MPF 01:27, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

 * You have just thoughtlessly deleted material I have added as well. Your mindless reversions, needlessly and without consensus reinserting the scientific name in place of the common name, are very bad. Badagnani 01:31, 16 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I haven't deleted anything apart from one or two mentions of the English name in the taxobox. If you want those back in, just add them again, without removing everything else. I did also move one or two sentences higher/lower to more logical positions in the page, maybe you've misinterpreted that as their being removed? (e.g. the sentence "The Jujube has been cultivated for over 4,000 years for its edible fruit, and over 400 cultivars have been selected" is now in the cultivation section, rather than the species description section) - MPF 01:45, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

"other use section"
Hi, I added jujubes are often placed in the newly wed's chamber on their wedding night...I couldn't find an English source for this, but there are plenty of Chinese sources and I know for a fact is true. I'm not source how should I source this. But here's a link mentioning it: http://www.china.com.cn/book/zhuanti/txt/2006-10/27/content_7285545.htm Cecikierk 06:03, 27 January 2008 (UTC)Cecikierk

Don't ban me
Sorry, I did wrong —Preceding unsigned comment added by Raymond88824 (talk • contribs) 06:55, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

Correct name
According to The Plant List, the correct name for this species should be Ziziphus jujuba Mill. MKwek (talk) 05:49, 30 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Z. jujuba was recently conserved against Z. ziziphus. Z. jujuba is certainly correct.Plantdrew (talk) 16:57, 31 January 2013 (UTC)

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. is also called "jujube" (merge?, dab?, or clarify?)
This article lists Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. as a synonym for Ziziphus jujuba Mill. but there exists a separate article under that name. Are Chinese and Indian jujubes different cultivars or different species? Does this deserve a merge, dab, hatnote, or maybe "see also" section? 74.232.36.177 (talk) 01:46, 15 October 2015 (UTC)

"Palestine"
The reference to "Palestine" should be in the past tense, not the present. The footnote relates to a publication from the 19th century. Dkelber (talk) 15:54, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

Should have stayed, this is in the "Cultural and religious references" section. Dkelber (talk) 15:58, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

Stated! Darn autocorrect! Dkelber (talk) 15:58, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Nomenclature
I have corrected the details concerning the Latin name. Linnaeus was not the first to describe the species scientfically, but merely the first to give it a binomial name. Miller's spelling of the genus name was not an accident: he was reviving the name as used by Tournefort. This part of the discussion really ought to be at the entry for Zizyphus (the genus) not here at the species. Only the history of the specific epithet zizyphus/jujuba is relevant here. Myopic Bookworm (talk) 11:27, 17 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jujube


text:
European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica

The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica. Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts (GRIP and GISP). Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch.

The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme (1996–2005) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station, which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica: Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station.

In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research.

Concordia Station at Dome C

This site (-75.1°N, 123.35°W, 3233 m above sea level, 560 km from Vostok Station) was chosen to obtain the longest undisturbed chronicle of environmental change, in order to characterise climate variability over several glacial cycles, and to study potential climate forcings and their relationship to events in other regions. The core goes back 740,000 years and reveals 8 previous glacial cycles. Drilling was completed at this site in December 2004, reaching a drilling depth of 3270.2 m, 5 m above bedrock. Present-day annual average air temperature is −54.5 °C and snow accumulation 25 mm/y. Information about the core was first published in Nature on 10 June 2004.

The picture shows delta deuterium data (a proxy for temperature: more negative values indicate lower temperatures) from both EPICA and Vostok. The upper plot, with x-axis being age (years before 1950) clearly shows the extra information in the EPICA core before the start of the Vostok record. The lower picture, plotted against depth, shows how compressed the deeper parts of the cores are: the earliest 100 kyr (thousand years) of the EPICA core are in the bottom 100 m of the core.

Before 400 kyr the character of the ice ages are seen to be somewhat different: interglacial warmth is distinctly less warm than the four most recent interglacials; however, the interglacial periods before 400 kyr occupied a much larger proportion of each cycle than subsequently. The interglacial 400 kyr ago, which is believed (from arguments about the configuration of the orbital parameters of the earth) to be an approximate analogue to the current interglacial, was quite long: 28 kyr. The Nature paper argues that if this analogue is accepted, then the current climate would be expected to continue like today's, in the absence of human influence (which it states is unlikely, given the predicted increases in greenhouse gas concentrations).

Further analysis of the core is hoped to extend the record back somewhat further, possibly as far as the Brunhes–Matuyama magnetic reversal, believed to be at about 780 kyr.

The core time scale is derived from the measured depth scale by a model incorporating surface snow accumulation variations, ice thinning, basal heat fluxes, etc., and is empirically "tied" at 4 times by matches to the marine isotopic record.

Kohnen Station, Dronning Maud Land
Kohnen Station is located at -75°N, 0.06667°W, 2892 m above sea level. Higher annual snowfall and sensitivity to conditions over the South Atlantic will allow the study of any links between shifts in the Atlantic Ocean circulation and the rapid climate events detected over Greenland.

Beyond EPICA – Oldest Ice
The European project "Beyond EPICA – Oldest Ice" aims at obtaining older ice cores, which are expected to provide climatic data up to 1.5 million years old. A drill site, "Little Dome C", was chosen in 2022 and drilling operations will take place in the following years.


text:
Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport

Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport, known locally as Timmerman Field, is an airport in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, owned by Milwaukee County. Located 5 miles (8 km) northwest of the city center, it is used mainly for general or private aviation. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2023–2027, in which it is categorized as a regional reliever airport facility.

History
The airport was built in 1929 and dedicated on July 6, 1930, one of 25 such projects in U.S. cities by the newly incorporated airplane manufacturer Curtiss-Wright. The airport was originally known as Curtiss-Wright Field, hence the letters "WC" in its airport codes. In 1945, Curtiss-Wright sold it to Fliteways, Inc., the airport's property manager since 1936. Milwaukee County purchased the airport from Fliteways in July 1947, when it was 131 acre in size. It was host to the Experimental Aircraft Association's earliest Fly-In Conventions from 1953 to 1958. The airport was renamed in July 1959 for Lawrence J. Timmerman (1878–1959), chairman of the Milwaukee County Board of Supervisors from 1936 to 1959.

Current users
Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport currently serves various general aviation groups. The current fixed-base operator is Spring City Aviation. The airport is home to the Milwaukee chapter of Youth and Aviation, as well as two Civil Air Patrol squadrons: the Timmerman Composite Squadron and the Milwaukee Senior Support Squadron 10. The airport also serves many private and public users.

Facilities and aircraft
Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport covers an area of 420 acre and contains two asphalt paved runways: the primary runway 15L/33R measuring 4,107 x 75 ft (1,252 x 23 m) and the crosswind runway 4L/22R measuring 3,203 x 75 ft (976 x 23 m). It also has two turf runways: 15R/33L measuring 3,231 x 270 ft (985 x 82 m) and 4R/22L measuring 2,840 x 270 ft (865 x 82 m).

For the 12-month period ending April 30, 2023, the airport had 27,266 aircraft operations, an average of 75 per day: 97% general aviation, 2% military, and just less than 1% air taxi. In July 2024, there were 90 aircraft based at this airport: 78 single-engine, 8 multi-engine, 3 jets and 1 helicopter.

Ground transportation
Public transit service to the airport is provided by Milwaukee County Transit System.

Accidents & Incidents

 * On May 26, 2022, a Cessna 152 crashed while on a training flight at Timmerman. The student pilot in control of the plane was doing solo landing practice when he reported engine trouble and flight control issues and subsequently crashed in a yard near the airport. The pilot received fatal injuries.

title: Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport


text:
RAF Mepal

RAF Mepal is a former RAF station located 0.7 mi south of Mepal, Cambridgeshire, England and 5.9 mi west of Ely. Construction commenced in July 1942 and opened in June 1943.

History
Mepal first hosted No. 75 (NZ) Squadron RAF flying Short Stirlings and later Avro Lancasters.

Tiger Force
It was used towards the end of the Second World War to prepare Avro Lancaster bombers squadrons such as No. 44 (Rhodesia) squadron for use in Tiger Force which was to bomb Japan.

Thor missiles
From 1957 PGM-17 Thor missiles were based at the airfield in the north east corner.

Current use
Very little remains of the original site, most of it razed to the ground after the USAF and their Thor missiles left. The site is now the Elean business park and is home to the world's only straw burning power station and a few manufacturing and warehousing operations. A small memorial plaque is in place at the entrance to the site.

title: RAF Mepal


text:
Central Region (Eritrea)

Central Region (Tigrinya: ዞባ ማእከል, Regione Centrale), also known as the Ma'ekel or Maakel Region, is an administrative region of Eritrea, located in central Eritrea. The region was formed on 15 April 1996, from the historical province of Hamasien. The region is located on the central plateau, and sits at an average of about 2250 m above sea level. It contains Asmara, the capital and largest city of Eritrea.

Central is the smallest region in Eritrea, and contains the major city and national capital, Asmara. As of 2005, the region had a population of 675,700 compared to a population of 595,900 in 2001. The net growth rate was 11.81 per cent. The total area of the province was 1,300.00 km2 and the density was 519.77 persons per km2.

Geography
Central is the smallest region in Eritrea, and contains the major city and national capital, Asmara. Maekel is situated inland, and borders Anseba to the north-west, the Northern Red Sea region to the north-east, the Debub (Southern) region to the south, and Gash-Barka to the west. Much of the architecture in the region reflects Italian colonial influences. The topography of the region has highland plateau, which are cooler than the regions around the coastal plains. There are two rainy seasons, the heavier one during summer and the lighter one during spring. The climate and geography of the region along with other regions of Eritrea is similar to the one of Ethiopia. The average elevation in the region is around 1800 m to 2100 m. The hottest month is May recording temperatures up to 30 °C, while the coldest month is December to February when it reaches freezing temperature. The region received around 508 mm of rainfall and the soil is conducive for agriculture.

Demographics
As of 2002, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR), defined as the children per woman was 3.4. The General Fertility Rate (GFR), defined as the births per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 45 remained at 109.0. The Crude Birth Rate (CBR), the number of births per 1,000 population, was 27.0. The percentage of women pregnant as of 2002 out of the total population was 7.1 per cent. The mean number of children ever born stood at 4.8. The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), defined as the number of deaths of children for every 1,000 born was 39.0 while the Child Mortality Rate (CMR), defined as the number of child deaths for every 1,000 children 5 years of age was 22.0. The under-5 mortality rate stood at 60.0. The number of children with the prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) was 1,069, fever was 1,069, and Diarrhea was 1,069. The number of women with the knowledge of AIDS was 2,264 and the number of people with no knowledge of the disease or its prevention was 0.2 per cent. As of 2005, the region had a population of 675,700 compared to a population of 595,900 in 2001. The net growth rate was 11.81 per cent. The total area of the province was 1,300.00 km2 and the density was 519.77 persons per km2.

Education and economy
As of 2002, the number of males completing or attending highest level of schooling in the region was 3,186 while it was 4,506 females. The per centage of literate males was 85.00 and the percentage of literate females was 72.00. A fraction of 13.80 males had no education, while the corresponding number for females was 23.90. The fraction of males completing secondary school stood at 9.60 and the fraction of males completing more than secondary was 009. The corresponding numbers for females was 9.30 and 003 respectively.

As of 2002, the number of people engaged in Professional/technical/managerial activities was 16.40 per cent, Clerical was 12.80 per cent, Sales and services was 27.30 per cent, Skilled Manual was 15.10 per cent, Unskilled Manual was 0.60 per cent, Domestic Service was 22.30 per cent and Agriculture was 4.60 per cent. The total number of employed men was 2,810 and the total number of employed women was 3,202. The number of men who were paid their total earnings in cash was 80.40 per cent, in kind was 0.90 and in both was 0.40. The number of women who were paid their total earnings in cash was 89.00 per cent, in kind was 1.20 per cent and in both was 0.30 per cent.

Administration
The region is divided into subregions; Berikh, Ghala Nefhi, North Eastern, North Western, Serejaka, South Eastern and South Western, while Asmara forms a separate administrative area. Other settlements within the Central Region include Himberti, Emba Derho and Tsazega. The region's administrator is Major General Ramadan Osman Awliyai. Eritrea has a one party national Assembly governed by People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) (originally Eritrean Liberation Front), an authoritarian government. From the time of independence since 30 May 1991, the country has been continuing with a transitional government elected during the elections in April 1993. The scheduled elections in 2001 has been postponed indefinitely. The regional and local elections are conducted on a periodic basis on a restricted framework. All men and women of any ethnic or religious background are eligible to vote. No parties or groups other than PFDJ are allowed to contest and the elections are presided by representatives from PDFJ. Policy decisions should be centered around the party mandate and opposition and dissenters have been imprisoned.

title: Central Region (Eritrea)


text:
Apolonia Ustrzycka

Princess Apolonia Poniatowski (17 January 1736 – 1814) was a Polish noblewoman, the sister-in-law of the King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski.

Biography
She was the daughter of Bazyli Ustrzycki (1715-1751), castellan of Przemyśl and his second wife, Katarzyna Zielonka (b.1715). She married Prince Antoni Lubomirski in 1749, and Prince Kazimierz Poniatowski on 21 January 1751.

In 1763, her brother-in-law was elected king of Poland. She became the mother of Stanisław, Grand Treasurer of Lithuania, and Konstancja Poniatowska.

Her second marriage was unhappy. Her husband was known for his love life and was famously one of the clients of Henrietta Lullier.

title: Apolonia Ustrzycka


text:
User:JMBell/Lost Library

This page and its subpages must NOT be deleted

This is where all your forgotten memories go, as well as dreams, or the dust that was under your bed yesterday but isn't there anymore. It's also the place where I archive long conversations or list things down such as my favorite books, stuff, you know, THINGS!

Anyway, this place is lost, so you shouldn't be here.

 * GET LOST!!!

Just kidding. :) JMBell°

Talkpage Archives

 * ArcTP header
 * ArcTP 1 April 16 - June 6, 2005
 * ArcTP 2 After leaving

Userpage history

 * Original (April 16) version
 * April 19 revision
 * April 22 revision
 * Current version

Sir James' history

 * Current version

My projects

 * Diplomats' Guild
 * Welcome Template

title: User:JMBell/Lost Library


text:
Mepal

Mepal is a village in Cambridgeshire, England. Mepal is part of the East Cambridgeshire district, and is located just north of the A142 road between Ely and Chatteris. First listed as Mepahala in the 12th century, the village name meant 'Nook of land of a man named Mēapa' in Old English.

History
Mepal's history has always been tied up with that of The Fens and the village is less than ten metres above sea level. One of the smaller villages of the Isle of Ely, Mepal lies at the western end of the Isle on what was once the shore between the fenland and the higher ground of the Isle.

The Old Bedford River and the New Bedford River (also known as the Hundred Foot Drain) run very close on the northwestern side of the village, and the only important bridges of the rivers are found in Mepal. The old and new rivers, originally modified by the Victorians, offer the main drainage route for the Fens and retain a major flood plain between the two river beds. The flood plain typically floods between November and March of each year.

A major fire devastated the village in the 19th century, leading to a drop in population from 510 to 397 between 1861 and 1871. There are thus very few remaining buildings dating from before the 19th century.

RAF Mepal
Mepal retains the historical pride of being the home of No. 75 Squadron RAF, which was operational between 1943 and 1945. It held the enviable post of being the prior home to No. 75 'New Zealand' Squadron which was equipped with Lancaster bombers. 75 Squadron flew the highest total operations for the whole of RAF Bomber Command, 8017 in total. Mepal is visited on an annual basis by previous members of the Squadron and their families, as part of remembrance. A museum jointly dedicated to RAF Mepal and RAF Witchford is located in the nearby village of Witchford.

After the war, RAF Mepal was selected in 1957 as a site for deploying Thor medium-range nuclear missiles, although these were removed by 1963. The airfield was subsequently decommissioned and the land sold off.

Church
The parish church, dedicated to Saint Mary, mother of Jesus, and a Grade II* listed building, dates from the 13th century and has been largely unaltered since. It is notable as the only church in the Isle of Ely without either tower or spire, having a double bellcote instead. The building is listed in Nikolaus Pevsner's Buildings of England, Cambridgeshire Vol. IV.

Kelly's Directory, a trade directory set up in 1835, wrote that the church features "inscriptions on the tomb of Alan de Walsingham, sub-prior and sacristan of Ely cathedral, to the church of Ely, is a building of flint and stone in the Early English style, consisting of chancel, nave, south porch and a western turret containing one bell : the chancel was restored by the Rev. Charles S. Harris LL.M. rector (1876-84), and the church in 1905 at a cost of £600 : in 1908 the interior was reseated and a vestry added at a cost of £200 : there are 100 sittings. The register dates from the year 1559."

Village life
The village of Mepal retains a hotel, restaurant and bar (The Three Pickerels), a post office/village shop, and a Church of England primary school rated 'Good' by Ofsted in 2023. Mepal Village Hall was built in 1873-74 as Mepal National School and saw its first pupils on 4th May 1874. The Hall also functions as a polling station. There is a local football club shared between Mepal and Sutton, a youth club, and Friendship club. Allotments, rented out by the Mepal parish council, are located by the village children's play park.

Former public houses include the Cross Keys, in which Clement Freud lived when he was Member of Parliament for the Isle of Ely in the 1970s and early 1980s.

From Monday to Saturday Mepal has a two-hourly bus service (no Sunday service) to Chatteris, Ely and Cambridge.

Botanical
Adjacent to St Mary's church is a small woodland notable for the old elm trees, believed to be Plot elm hybrid.

title: Mepal


text:
Larry Collins (guitarist)

Lawrence Collins (October 4, 1944 – January 5, 2024) was an American guitarist, best known for being a part of The Collins Kids duo with his sister Lorrie, being mentored by Joe Maphis, and for his fast and energetic playing.

When The Collins Kids initially split up in 1961, Collins continued to perform as a solo artist, and most notably co-wrote the 1972 hit "Delta Dawn".

The Collins Kids
Collins was a member of The Collins Kids, with his sister Lorrie (1942-2018 ). Their hits in the 1950s included "Hop, Skip and Jump", "Beetle Bug Bop", and "Hoy Hoy". The Collins Kids became regular performers on Town Hall Party in 1954, appeared on the Grand Ole Opry, and on the syndicated for television version of the show, Tex Ritter's Ranch Party in the late 1950s.

Collins and his mentor, country star Joe Maphis, recorded an album together for Columbia Records, titled Fire on the Strings, released in 1957. The Collins siblings continued to perform together until 1961 when they separated. The duo reunited for a rockabilly revival concert in England in 1993 and performed together until Lorrie's death in 2018.

Later works
When he was not a part of The Collins Kids, Collins continued to perform as a solo artist. Collins went on to write and produce hits for many well known country music stars, and is most notable for co-writing the 1972 hit "Delta Dawn" with Alex Harvey and the 1981 country hit "You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma" with Sandy Pinkard.

Equipment
Collins was known for playing a double-neck Mosrite guitar like his mentor, Joe Maphis.

Personal life and death
Lawrence Collins was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on October 4, 1944, and died of natural causes in Santa Clarita, California, on January 5, 2024, at the age of 79.

title: Larry Collins (guitarist)


text:
User talk:Panhandler

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library

For more information click  here . You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Sam Spade 18:32, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Panhandler


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Thayer Hirsh

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 15:17, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Thayer Hirsh
Hoax or personal attack. And NN to begin with. Rl 18:32, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Even if it was genuine, it is still NN. -Casito⇝Talk 23:07, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, possible hoax. Megan1967 04:50, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Forevertron

Dr. Evermor's Forevertron is the 2nd largest scrap metal sculpture in the world, standing 50 ft. (15,2 m.) high and 120 ft. (36,5 m.) wide, and weighing 300 tons. Built in the 1980s, it is housed in Dr. Evermor's Art Park on Highway 12, in the town of Sumpter, in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States.

The sculpture incorporates two Thomas Edison dynamos from the 1880s, lightning rods, high-voltage components from 1920s power plants, scrap from the nearby Badger Army Ammunition Plant, and the decontamination chamber from the Apollo 11 spacecraft. Its creator, Tom Every (1938 - 2020), was born in Brooklyn, Wisconsin and was a demolition expert who spent decades collecting antique machinery for the sculpture and the surrounding fiction that justifies it. According to Every, Dr. Evermor was a Victorian inventor who designed the Forevertron to launch himself, "into the heavens on a magnetic lightning force beam." The Forevertron, despite its size and weight, was designed to be relocatable to a different site—the sculpture is built in sections that are connected by bolts and pins.

In addition to the Forevertron itself, the sculpture includes a tea house gazebo from which Every says: "Queen Victoria and Prince Albert may observe the launching of Dr. Evermor; it also includes a giant telescope where skeptics may observe the ascent." Dr. Evermor's art park is home to a large number of other sculptures, many of which relate to the Forevertron, such as the Celestial Listening Ear and the Overlord Master Control Tower. Other large-scale sculptures include gigantic insects (the Juicer Bug and Arachna Artie), the Epicurean bellows-driven barbecue train, The Dragon, and The UFO. The most numerous sculptures are the Bird Band and Orchestra which includes nearly 70 birds ranging from the size of a child to twenty feet tall, all made from scrap industrial parts, geological survey markers, knives, loudspeakers, springs, and musical instruments, among other salvaged materials.

Every related that he took pride in allowing the original materials to remain unaltered as much as possible, using their original forms in new juxtapositions to create his aesthetic. Although Every has now passed, tours of the art park site can generally be accessed from passing through the surplus store adjacent to it, Delaney's Surplus. Every also created much of the installation art for the House on the Rock, including the world's largest carousel.

title: Forevertron


text:
User talk:Dudi144

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

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For more information click  here . You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

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text: Category:Outsider art

title: Category:Outsider art


text:
Chris Pennie

Chris Pennie (born May 31, 1977) is an American musician who is the former drummer for the progressive rock band Coheed and Cambria and former drummer and co-founder of mathcore band The Dillinger Escape Plan.

Background
Pennie began playing drums at the age of 13, and at age 16 decided to pursue music seriously. He grew up in Randolph, New Jersey and graduated from Randolph High School, and spent two years at Berklee College of Music where he received a diploma in Music Synthesis, which focuses on electronic music composition and manipulation.

Influences and legacy
Pennie has cited drummers Lars Ulrich and Stewart Copeland as his main early influences. In regard to his current playing, Sean Reinert is one of his biggest inspirations. He has also emphasized on several occasions that listening to and playing a diverse assortment of music has been an integral part in developing his style, noting such eclectic influences as 1970s jazz-rock fusion group Mahavishnu Orchestra, technical metal bands Meshuggah, Cynic, and electronic-influenced groups such as Nine Inch Nails and DJ Shadow.

Many drummers have cited Pennie as an influence or expressed admiration for his work, including Brann Dailor, Richard Christy of Death, Peter Wildoer, Dave Witte, Tyshawn Sorey, Charlie Zeleny, Dan Searle of Architects, Andy Dalton of See You Next Tuesday, J. R. Conners of Cave In, Craig Reynolds of Stray from the Path, Jean-François Richard of Ion Dissonance, Andrew McEnaney of Structures, Tobias Persson of Visceral Bleeding, Stephen Carr of Exotic Animal Petting Zoo, Stefano Ghigliano of Stigma, Danny Grossarth of Candiria, Eric Schnee of Paria, Darren Pugh of Collibus, Eli Litwin of John Frum, Chris Golding of Sulaco and Corey Melom of The Crinn.

Bands
While in high school he was playing in the local New Jersey based band, Prozak. The other 3 members of Prozak were 8–10 years Pennie's senior, and in order for Prozak to play the local bars and clubs, Pennie's father would accompany him to the various gigs. Chris played with Prozak from 1993 until he began attending Berklee School of Music in 1995. He recorded ten songs with Prozak during his time with the band but they were never commercially released.

Pennie also spent time with the pop-punk group Boxer. Formed in 1995 with another Berklee graduate, Jeremy McDowell, they became the first band to be signed to the now famous Vagrant Records. They released one album, The Hurt Process, in 1998, and broke up in late 1999. Pennie also recorded drums for his former tourmates in experimental metalcore group All Else Failed on their 2004 album This Never Happened. Pennie describes his band, The Dillinger Escape Plan, as being 'mathcore' where they start each song with no structure and an open palette.

He and guitarist Ben Weinman, along with now-departed singer Dimitri Minakakis and bass guitarist Adam Doll, formed Dillinger Escape Plan in March 1997. He and Ben Weinman wrote the majority of Dillinger's material and Pennie called Weinman his "musical soulmate". Pennie also took care of a lot of the electronic influence in the band's material in the studio as well as onstage, triggering effects and loops with footswitch pedals.

Chris began working in the studio with rock band Coheed and Cambria, because the drummer Josh Eppard had left the band. Due to contractual obligations, Pennie was not allowed to record for Coheed's 2007 album Good Apollo, I'm Burning Star IV, Volume Two: No World for Tomorrow. Instead, the band recruited Foo Fighters drummer Taylor Hawkins for the task. On June 28, 2007, Coheed and Cambria announced on their Myspace that Chris Pennie joined the band.

On November 2, 2011, Coheed and Cambria announced on their Facebook page that Pennie had left the band. Chris also announced he had parted ways with Coheed and Cambria, in order to focus on other projects such as Return to Earth and Fight Mannequins.

Other projects
Pennie lent his talent to the predominantly electronic band Idiot Pilot on their 2007 album Wolves. MTV reported: "the Dillinger Escape Plan's Chris Pennie appears on the album, augmenting several of Wolves' tracks with his drumming prowess. Anderson said the one-two punches of Hoppus, Robinson, Barker, and Pennie are bringing something new to Idiot Pilot's established sound."

Equipment
Drums (Mapex Saturn Series in Black Cherry Sparkle finish): Cymbals (Sabian): Sticks (Vater): Bass Pedals (Mapex):
 * 20-inch × 22-inch bass drum
 * 9-inch × 12-inch rack tom
 * 16-inch × 16-inch floor tom
 * 7-inch × 14-inch Mapex snare drum
 * 14-inch HHX Groove hats
 * 18-inch HHXplosion crash
 * 19-inch HHXplosion crash
 * 21-inch HH Raw Bell dry ride
 * 19-inch Paragon Chinese
 * Vater Xtreme Design 5B
 * Mapex Falcon double bass pedal

With Dillinger Escape Plan

 * 1997: The Dillinger Escape Plan
 * 1998: Under the Running Board
 * 1998: Split with Nora
 * 1999: Split with Drowningman
 * 1999: Calculating Infinity
 * 2002: Irony Is A Dead Scene
 * 2002: Black on Black: A Tribute to Black Flag – cover of "Damaged, Pt.s I & II"
 * 2003: Cursed, Unshaven and Misbehavin': Live Infinity
 * 2004: Bring You to Your Knees: A Tribute To Guns 'N Roses – cover of "My Michelle"
 * 2004: Miss Machine
 * 2005: We Reach: The Music of the Melvins – cover of "Honeybucket"
 * 2006: Plagiarism
 * 2019: Live Infinity

With Coheed and Cambria

 * 2008: Kerrang – Maiden Heaven (Iron Maiden tribute record) – "The Trooper"
 * 2009: Neverender: Children of The Fence Edition
 * 2010: Year of the Black Rainbow

With Return to Earth

 * 2007: Captains of Industry
 * 2010: Automata
 * 2022: Oblivion

Others

 * 1998: Boxer – The Hurt Process
 * 2005: Getaway Car – "Getaway Car" Mass Appeal
 * 2004: All Else Failed – This Never Happened
 * 2007: Idiot Pilot – Wolves
 * 2010: The Armed – Common Enemies
 * 2010: New World Man – A Tribute to Rush
 * 2011: The Armed – Young & Beautiful
 * 2012: The Armed – Spreading Joy
 * 2016: Joseph A. Peragine – Diagnosis: Schizophrenia
 * 2018: Joseph A. Peragine – Vol.2 (Diagnosis: Schizophrenia)
 * 2018: Joseph A. Peragine – Vol.3 (Diagnosis: Schizophrenia)
 * 2018: Joseph A. Peragine – Vol.4 (Diagnosis: Schizophrenia)
 * 2020: Greg Puciato – Child Soldier: Creator of God (provided drums on "Creator of God" and "Fire For Water")
 * 2023: Joseph A. Peragine – Mantra

title: Chris Pennie


text:
High-power rocketry

High-power rocketry is a hobby similar to model rocketry. The major difference is that higher impulse range motors are used. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) definition of a high-power rocket is one that has a total weight of more than 1500 g and contains a motor or motors containing more than 125 g of propellant and/or rated at more than 160 Newton-seconds (40.47 lbf·s) of total impulse, or that uses a motor with an average thrust of 80 N or more.

Types
High-power rockets are defined as rockets flown using commercially available motors ranging from H to O class. In the U.S., the NFPA1122 standard dictates guidelines for model rocketry, while NFPA1127 is specific to high-power rockets. In most U.S. states NFPA1122 has been adopted as part of the legal code. A smaller number of states use NFPA1127.

Associations
The Tripoli Rocketry Association and the National Association of Rocketry are the major sanctioning bodies for the hobby in the US, providing member certifications, and criteria for general safety guidelines.

In most other countries, where HPR is supported, the regulations are similar to or derived from the Tripoli Rocket Association Unified Safety Code and the NAR High-power Certification system.

In Australia, there are several prefectures of the Tripoli Rocketry Association.

In Canada, the Canadian Association of Rocketry - L'Association Canadienne De Fuséologie is appointed as regulator for the hobby.

In New Zealand, the controlling body for rocketry is the New Zealand Rocketry Association or NZRA

In South Africa, the controlling body for rocketry is the Rocketry Organization of South Africa or Rocketry SA.

In the UK the British Model Flying Association or BMFA is the governing body with United Kingdom Rocketry Association or UKRA acting as the High Power Association for Motor flights classed as H and above.

In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the Interessengemeinschaft Modellraketen has an approved HPR certification program which is cross-recognized by NAR, CAR and UKRA.

Certification in the United States and Canada
Unlike model rocketry, certification is required by the governing organizations in order for individuals to fly high-powered rockets. The certification system is standardized across the hobby and governing organizations. There are three levels of certification, each allowing the user to fly successively larger motors. In the US (TRA and NAR):

Level 1: H, I

Level 2: J, K, L

Level 3: M, N, O and beyond

Note: In Canada, the Canadian Association of Rocketry has an additional step to Level 4, which is equivalent to the US Level 3. Level 1 is H motor, Level 2 is I motor and CAR Level 3 and 4 is the same as U.S. Level 2 and 3, respectively. Due to a change by the Board of Directors upon recommendation from the RSO Committee, all hybrids are considered High Power.

In order to gain certification an individual needs to demonstrate their ability to fly a rocket within the given power range of the level they are seeking successfully. For example, if an individual desires to gain a Level 1 certification they must successfully fly an H-I motor in an appropriately sized rocket and retrieve it successfully in a condition suitable to launch it again safely. This is also true for Level 2 and 3 certification with the added requirements that, for Level 2 a written test be successfully passed and for Level 3 the build be documented and overseen by two designated technical authorities called TAPs (Technical Advisory Panel) who are themselves Level 3 certified and notably proficient at rocketry. The level 3 technical authorities are authorized by the respective Tripoli or NAR national organizations. These requirements vary slightly between NAR and Tripoli, but are very close in both organizations.

The above rocket motor impulse levels would all be classified as Class 2 rockets per the US Federal Code of Federal Regulations CFR Title 14 Aeronautics and Space, Part 101, Subpart C, 101.22 Definitions:

“(b) Class 2—High-Power Rocket means an amateur rocket other than a model rocket that is propelled by a motor or motors having a combined total impulse of 40,960 Newton-seconds (9,208 pound-seconds) or less.

(c) Class 3—Advanced High-Power Rocket means an amateur rocket other than a model rocket or high-power rocket".

Tripoli Rocketry Association maintains a Class 3 review committee who voluntarily (not required by the FAA) review rockets with altitudes expecting to reach or exceed 50,000 feet and as a pre-check for rocket projects that will be submitted to the FAA as a class 3 project. The Class 3 review committee performs the following functions:

 * Performing a 3-sigma, 6-degree of freedom dispersion analysis on submitted projects.
 * Providing guidance and a review of the Class 3 waiver application package prior to FAA submittal.
 * Working with the FAA/AST to educate applicants and FAA personnel to the needs of Class 3 project teams in maintaining the viability and safety of the hobby now and in the future.
 * To work toward achieving a more efficient and meaningful opportunity for members to pursue Class 3 and beyond flight attempts.

Under the US rules, rockets larger than 40,960 Newton-seconds (total impulse more than an O-class) can be launched, but are classified as Class 3 rockets and require individual approval from the Federal Aviation Administration. The class 3 approval is fairly involved necessitating 6-degree of freedom dispersion analysis for the returning rocket, a documentation of launch/ no-launch criteria among other things. Rockets with a total impulse of up to S (at least 327,680 Newton-seconds) have been launched by amateurs under the class-3 rules.

Between the two US certifying entities NAR and Tripoli, there is reciprocity of certification. For example, a Level 2 certified NAR member can be recognized by Tripoli as a Level 2 as both certifying entities are simply enforcing the same NFPA (National Fire Protection Act) and FAA/CFR regulations. Achieving dual certification would require paying dues to both entities. Between NAR and Tripoli the primary differences are: NAR tends to focus more on model rockery and contests. It appeals to children, scouting groups and novelty launches like hang-time and egg tosses. Tripoli's focus is geared more toward higher power, experimental and advanced rocketry. Tripoli for example encourages experimental (EX) or ammonium-perchlorate based non-commercial individually manufactured rocket motors for Level 2 and above certified fliers as well as hybrid motors (for example nitrous oxide gaseous oxidizer and solid rubber fuel). Tripoli also has active mentoring programs with many engineering programs of US universities and as above supports the exploration of the hard science of and limitations of rocketry by educated private citizens including class-3 rocketry. The non-NASA private spaceflight companies are launching what are classified as Class 3 rockets and above. At least one current employee of Space-X obtained his experience flying high powered rockets with the Tripoli Houston prefecture of the national organization as a university student enrolled in the engineering program of a local university.

Certification in the United Kingdom
The UKRA offer a certification program in the UK similar to the US, but limited to O. The process is very similar to that of the US.

Level 1 : H, I

Level 2 : J, K, L

Level 3 : M, N, O

Range Safety Officer (RSO)

The requirements for level 1 certification are a successful test flight with a level 1 size motor in front of a UKRA certified RSO.

A level 2 certificate requires a successful test flight with a level 2 sized motor witnessed by an RSO. The candidate also has to pass a multiple choice written exam set by the UKRA.

A level 3 candidate has to submit a detailed written report on their rocket to the UKRA Safety and Technical Committee, who will also examine the rocket prior to launch. After the written report has been approved and the rocket inspected, the candidate must then complete a successful test flight to obtain his level 3 certification.

Any UKRA member can apply to be a Range Safety Officer. The candidate must pass the level 2 written exam and pass an interview. An RSO can be either a Model Rocket RSO, Level 1 RSO, Level 2 RSO or Level 3 RSO, depending on the certification level they hold. The RSO can only act at launches involving rockets of his level of certification or lower.

Third party indemnity insurance is only provided by the British Model Flying Association (BMFA) and is included as part of the membership package. High Power Rocket fliers must hold the appropriate certificate for the size of motor that they are flying, and abide by the UKRA safety rules, for insurance to be valid.

The UKRA recognize the certification from the following National Organisations, who also recognize the UKRA certifications.
 * Interessengemeinschaft Modellraketen e.V. (IMR)
 * National Association of Rocketry (NAR)
 * Tripoli Rocketry Association (TRA)
 * Canadian Association of Rocketry (CAR)

Certification in Australia
May be done through the following associations. Australian Rocketry Association INC and its member clubs. The Tripoli Rocketry Association offers High Power Rocketry (HPR) certification to all Australians and is recognised internationally. It is the only truly international rocketry association in Australia and is the only rocketry association fully insured internationally.

Samantha Ridgway was the first woman TRA Cert III Rocketeer in Australia. She flew the rocket she designed and built, named Lucky 7 on an M1500 Rocket Motor.

Certification in South Africa
Rocketry SA offer a certification programme in South Africa with similar processes and procedures to those of the US and UK.

Level 1 : H, I

Level 2 : J, K, L

Level 3 : M, N, O

In order to gain certification an individual needs to demonstrate his ability to successfully build, launch and recover a rocket within the given power range of the level he/she is seeking.

Construction

High-power rocket designs can vary widely as do anticipated altitudes and performance, but altitudes of 10000 ft and velocities in the supersonic ranges are not uncommon. A combination of (often) larger mass and higher apogees may require sophisticated recovery systems. High-power rockets are frequently flown with sophisticated electronic devices used for recording flight data (altitude, velocity, acceleration/deceleration, G-forces) and for deploying recovery methods or devices.

High-power rockets are constructed from materials such as phenolic resin, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and other composite materials and plastics. Motor casings are normally machined aluminium with ablative phenolic or paper liners and are reloadable, i.e. can be used multiple times.

Propulsion
High-power rockets are predominantly powered by commercially available APCP-based motors or nitrous oxide-based hybrid motors.

Motors for High-Power Rocketry are typically "H" and above (with a few notable exceptions in the "G" range). The lettered naming system is a standard in the hobby in which successive letters double the delivered impulse of the previous letter. Each letter also has a range of impulses under which a given motor can be classified.

Obtaining rocket motors in the United Kingdom
Black powder motors, typically manufactured by companies such as Estes and Quest are classed as fireworks, and subject to few purchase restrictions in the UK, the main restriction being the purchaser must be over 18 years old. The motors are available up to class D in the UK and only suitable for low power model rockets.

Ammonium Perchlorate is classed as an explosive by the UK Health and Safety Executive, so Ammonium Perchlorate Composite Propellant (AP) motors formerly required the purchaser to have an Explosives Licence and Recipient Competent Authority Transfer Document (RCA). A Registered Store Certificate was also required if the purchaser wanted to store the motors rather than purchase them at the flying event and use them immediately.

The UKRA has negotiated an exemption so that model rocket fliers can obtain some AP motors in limited quantities without the need for an explosives licence. Since 4 December 2007, model rocketeers have been able to purchase AP motors with a net weight less than 1 kg of propellant without an Explosives Licence. They can also store motors up to a total net weight of 5 kg without needing an Explosives Licence or Registered Store Certificate. They will still require an RCA document. This can be obtained from the UK HSE by writing an appropriate letter to them requesting an exemption for model rocket motors. This document is currently issued free of charge, although this may change.

A motor with 1 kg of propellant is a K impulse motor, so model rocketeers can now fly level 2 models without the need for an explosives license, however an RCA is still required. This relaxation in the regulations has made mid and high power rocketry much more accessible in the UK.

Recovery
In model rocketry, a parachute, streamer or other recovery device or method deploys at apogee, but high-power rockets may employ more complex recovery systems since altitudes can be much higher than their counterparts. In a high-power rocket, an altimeter or electronic timer may deploy a drogue parachute (which stabilizes the rocket in descent) or a controlled freefall (where the fore and aft sections are merely separated by a tether or umbilical cord, often made of tubular nylon). These recovery events can be brought about by small explosive charges (black powder or Pyrodex) or pressurized gasses (e.g., CO2). At an altitude predetermined by the hobbyist, an altimeter deploys a main parachute that slows the rocket to a safe recovery speed. The most common varieties of altimeter use accelerometers, barometric sensors or a combination of both.

title: High-power rocketry