text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/"silver berry"

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy deleted. - Mailer Diablo 03:32, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"silver berry"
Delete. Googling 'silver berry' + flower returns a Deciduous Shrub, not a flower. Inaccurate info, possibly vandal/vanity.Feco

 * Delete no content. Maybe even speedy delete.Howabout1 22:01, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm going to speedy delete it. It's pure nonsense—a microscopic flower that "lives in the camp"?  Meaningless.  Postdlf 22:05, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Greg Bonser

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy deleted. - Mailer Diablo 03:33, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Greg Bonser
What's our stance on Community activists? I'd put this one on the delete column. Feydey 21:59, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Greg doesn't meet any of the Criteria for biographies, delete --nixie 23:33, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * What are the criteria for biographies? This contains biographical info, and points people to other places that they can get more info.  Greg Bonser.
 * Autobiography gives you a good picture. People feel strongly that you should at the very least not start articles about yourself, no matter how important you consider yourself. Feydey 21:33, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:Handle (disambiguation)

Comments about the article title
Maybe this should be handle (grip). All of the other definitions seem to be using the grip version as a metaphor. 207.159.180.63 (talk) 03:32, 10 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Certainly! And having not been challenged for four year, I request the moving. --109.53.245.17 (talk) 09:48, 28 November 2014 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: move the pages, per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 02:30, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

– See above. --Relisted. Dekimasu よ! 05:28, 5 December 2014 (UTC) 109.53.245.17 (talk) 10:01, 28 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Handle → Handle (disambiguation)
 * Handle (grip) → Handle

 * Comment: This should be converted to a multimove request, as the nominator also submitted a request to move Talk:Handle (grip). I'm surprised there seems to be nothing here relating to the usage as a verb. —BarrelProof (talk) 16:06, 28 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Support. Red Slash 05:16, 29 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. bd2412  T 17:02, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Handle (disambiguation)


text:
User talk:Wally/Instantnood advocacy

'This page is for all past, present and future enquiries or statements regarding my representation of User:Instantnood. For general comments or requests for assistance, please see here. For issues relating to the User:El_C case, please see here. Wally '

Re: AMA Request for Assistance
Thanks. It has been listed on RfC as well. But I don't know if there's any people came in and joined the discussions from the link at WP:RFC. — Instantnood 13:56, Mar 27, 2005 (UTC)

 * Hello Wally. A request for arbitration has been filed against me at WP:RFAr by Snowspinner as the AMA advocate for jguk. I would like to request for assistance, and to have a representative to help me in compiling compelling evidence for the arbitration. Can you give me a hand? — Instantnood 20:37, Apr 10, 2005 (UTC)

WP:RFAr
First I have to thank you for your assistance.

The conflict started when I joined Wikipedia, and discovered quite a lot of articles are not NPOV, and do not stick with the political NPOV section of the naming conventions, mainly to do with "mainland China" and "Republic of China". For contents, I fixed them. For titles of pages, I proceeded to WP:RM, WP:CFD and WP:TFD. Some were passed, but many were voted down. I took the advice from some of the proponents, and try to have these pages first handled at the talk page of naming conventions. It led to lengthy debates running through February and March. Huaiwei, SchmuckyTheCat and jguk were some of the strong opponents of the moves. It was agreed upon during the discussions that each page should be handled on a case-by-case basis. As the matter has to be solved, I said I was going to proceed to have polls on April 4 for "China"/"PRC" vs. "mainland China". The polls were created on April 9. Some considered it as a surprise, and complained the idea to have polls was not publicised before they were created, and jguk nominated the page to VFD.

I would like to hear your opinion on the merits and drawbacks of accept arbitration to conclude the situation, before I make the decision.

If you accept my request for assistance, I will be willing to work with you, and will answer all queries completely and truthfully. I always stay civil in all my edits and all discussions I join. I will refrain to edit the pages in contention, given that all parties do not make further controversial edit that is in contradiction with the current set of naming conventions. Thanks again for your help. — Instantnood 21:33, Apr 10, 2005 (UTC)

 * By the way, Wgfinley, who responded to AsylumInmate's appeal for me, has also shown his interest to assist me over this matter. I am not familiar with AMA procedures, but I believe assistance from you and from him will be equally important and helpful. — Instantnood 22:02, Apr 10, 2005 (UTC)

Contact from Instantnood
Wally -- Instantnood has also contacted me about being his advocate. I have asked him to clarify who he would wish to serve but am not opposed to working together with you if he would like. Given case loads though (I currently have Netoholic in arb right now) would probably be better for one or the other of us to do it. Let me know.

BTW, left a message with the coordinator about a meeting, I would like to have one soon. --Wgfinley 22:08, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Third-party opinion
Hi Wally, I noticed you decided to take up the matter regarding Instantnood, so I thought you might like a third-party opinion on the matter. I believe Instantnood has been a well-intentioned editor and has not gone against the letter of Wikipedia policies, although on many occassions I do think that he has stretched the spirit of them.

Here is the situation as I see it:

After justification from Instantnood that he was only trying to enforce the naming conventions in Naming conventions (Chinese), opponents attempted to get the naming conventions changed. There was much debate, but in the end, changes were basically voted down or were basically close to 50/50 divided. The only thing that seemed to be agreed upon was that the situation is complicated and moves should be done on a case-by-case basis as evidenced by this explicit conversation between Instantnood and Huaiwei, one of the opponents: Huaiwei, Instantnood.

In light of this agreement, Instantnood proceeded to do individual polls on each article. Granted, the 35 (according to the arbitration page; this number seems a bit high, though I haven't counted it myself) simultaneous polls he opened up probably wasn't the smartest way to do this, and it has even gotten on my nerves a bit, even though I'm a supporter of most of them. I myself doubt the polls will do any good either since they always end up nearly 50/50 divided. However, now the opponents are using this as evidence that Instantnood is trying to subvert procedure, and do not even acknowledge anymore the agreement that the pages were to be considered on a case-by-case basis.

In any case, I'm getting somewhat sick of this constant bickering. I've tried to do some minor mediation between Instantnood and his opponents by having them compromise whenever possible, but any truce between them have been only temporary. I'm glad you decided to take up this case. Good luck! --Umofomia 22:45, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I went ahead and counted and it actually is 34, so I guess the arbitration page was only slightly off. There are currently 9 in Taiwan vs. ROC and 25 in China or PRC vs. mainland China.  --Umofomia 23:24, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Pertaining to the supposed agreement over the case-by-case threatment, perhaps my response here may give some clues as to why it might turn out not to be an "agreement" afterall. Instantnood interprets it as a case-by-base process which fully complies with the current naming conventions. I interprets it as a process made neccesary because the same convention is under content dispute, and that even in its current state, has never stated that it should be enforced universaly and without question, be it as text in articles, as title names, or category names. ie, he sees it as an extension of the current convention. I see it as a means to solve disagreements independent of content disputes in the current convention.--Huaiwei 16:07, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I essentially agree with everything Umofomia has said. Instantnood did not start these polls out of the blue. I believe that he/she ("he" henceforth) has been acting in good faith trying to implement Naming conventions (Chinese). He has done so in a non-disruptive, but perhaps not the most effective manner. I first noticed his attempts several weeks ago when he requested several moves en bloc at WP:RM (the procedure for requested moves has since changed). The block moves met with some opposition and several people (myself included, IIRC) pointed out to him that it would be better to treat all requested moves individually, because it may be difficult to reach overall consensus on a large number of items. After some interlude concerning the naming conventions themselves, Instantnood recently went back to creating the polls about the individual articles as had been previously suggested. As far as I'm concerned, this is the first time we're even getting to the core of the issue – most previous attempts were flawed procedurally. Instantnood's critics have been quite harsh: people have called him an "annoying gnat" and accused him of disrupting WP when he proposed moves on WP:RM exactly according to procedure, there has been the inevitable comparison to Nazis, etc. Some people even complained about Instantnood notifying potentially interested parties on their talk pages of the fact that the polls had been created.

 * I'm repeating myself here, but IMHO what's at the heart of the debate is a lack of separation between policy making and policy implementation. The relevant policy in this case are the naming conventions for China-related articles. These conventions appear to be supported by community consensus and should not even require separate polls to allow them to be implemented. Instantnood and others have been trying to direct the debate in a direction where it is more about the applicability of the naming conventions, whereas some of his opponents do not appear to be willing or able to engage in this debate, choosing to debate matters of law (the naming conventions themselves) rather than matters of fact or issues of interpretation in arguably inappropriate places. The net result is an ongoing sequence of similar debates that quickly derail without ever reaching a clear consensus. This despite the fact that a consensus on the naming conventions does exist.

 * While the ArbCom was specifically not asked to rule on the naming conventions, I would very much like to hear their opinion on the legal and procedural status of naming conventions in general. Given that naming conventions exist, if and how should they be implemented? Is it real worth everyone's time to engage in the same kind of debate over and over again, every single time a proposed move comes up? Or should there rather be a single locus of debate, namly concentrating on the conventions themselves, which could then be implemented with minimal or no debate? I think an opinion on this matter would be useful for all of WP beyond this isolated case. --MarkSweep 01:18, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Allow me to speak up here, considering some of the indirect references to "opponents" was in reference to me.

 * From the way I see it, this case has become a blurring behind two key debates: That over the use of the term "Taiwan", and that of "Mainland China." The two are loosely related, although the main debates surrounding their usage was quite distinct. While both concerns the forumlation and inplementation of the converntion in question, lumping the two together suggests similar motives, attitudes, conduct, and even a coordination of efforts between the two to arrive at a single aim.

 * This issue is not just about one party trying to enforce a convention, and another opposing it. The suggestion that a "consensus on the naming conventions" exists was directly under dispute, which members of both parties have actually recognised, to the point that some have even declared that the convention is no longer a document worthy to be enforced. I remember early on in the disputes, that I have even called on all to avoid renaming anything until the discussions over the convention can reach a reasonable level of concensus. Unfortunately, both parties has gradually failed to do so, initially with "covert" moves, which eventially led to outright action without warning. I am still detecting signs of "covert" moves, which includes actions by Instantnood, directly contradicting MarkSweep's comments that he was "outright" and "responsible". For everyone of his announced moves, he made a few more without any notice, and it was the later which usually degenerates into revert wars which he quite naturally avoids mention.

 * In fact, seen from the other angle, I would even argue, that the insistance in trying to enforce the covention in its current form at all costs is sending the signal that it discourages efforts by others to put forth their views and to improve on it. Not all calls for improvement are neccesarily disruptive. Can we band them all together and assume they are so?

 * That being said, I does not mean I agree that all charges laid against Instantnood are valid. He is right in asking for comments before making controversial moves, but my issue with him, is that he did not do this for all similar edits. MarkSweep's comment, that "some people even complained about Instantnood notifying potentially interested parties on their talk pages of the fact that the polls had been created," would be inclusive of me as one of the main complainants, but it does not mean I agree that he is disrupting WP. What I do call for, however, is accountability in his actions. If the convention is supposedly non-controversial and represents concensus, then why the need for covert action to enforce them?

 * Presently, I do wonder what the Arbcom is supposed to be judging on, or even what this entire process aims to do. In fact even as I am writing this, I am wondering just what issues are under contention too. I would hope to see this sorted out, before we end up back in square one again.--Huaiwei 15:58, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I come to contribute my humble opinion that I have posted in the discussion page. Voting once on Taiwan-related articles is okay. Disregarding the previous voting result and moving forward to initiate a second round of vote is disturbing. Was there a consensus supporting instantnood to initiate a second round of votes?

Using the naming convention as the justification for the first round of votes for MASSIVE moves is marginally acceptable, but the result being voted down should have already prompted Instantnood to ponder on the neutrality of the convention, instead of prompted him to initiate repetitive voting over and over again. The contradictory result to the naming convention is a strong indication telling the participants that the current convention has ignored a POV which is held by a significant number of the Wikipedian. It also suggests modification on the naming convention to a better neutral point. IMHO, Instantnood failed to understand this. There goes my two cents.--Mababa 05:09, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I very much agree with Umofomia 22:45, 10 Apr 2005 above. Instantnood may not always have done what was optimal for Wikipedia, but he seemed to have honest intentions. Conversely, I found his opponents' arguments often disingenuous or even insulting, such as I have so far abstained from voting (primarily because I was confused in the labyrinth of pages about this issue), but I feel I have to speak up for someone who has remained remarkably patient and polite in the face of all this. — S e b a s ti a n  ( T ) 08:39, 2005 Apr 22 (UTC)
 * Mababa's and Huaiwei's far-fetched accusations of denigrating "the island of Qingmoy and Matsu".
 * SchmuckyTheCat's insults
 * 's contributions (many of which reverts), including his call to ban Instantnood.
 * I am sorry, but I do not remember ever commenting on Qingmoy and Matsu?--Huaiwei 09:30, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * OK I have to correct myself. On second glance you probably meant that he was dismissive of Taiwan. However, that doesn't change my impression: Instantnood has consistently proven that he does care about Taiwan, and reproaching him for not caring can not be called other than disingenuous. — S e b a s ti a n  ( T ) 08:39, 2005 Apr 22 (UTC)

I see what you are getting at. But in actual fact, that is probably a strong case against Instantnood then the other way round. If Instantnood declares that he was disinterested in the Taiwan issue, and yet was one of the biggest enforcers of the convention on Taiwan, that perhaps explains why he seems to think it unnecesary to engage in discussions over the interpretation and reforumulation of the existing convention, the very thing others such as Mababa are calling for. Someone who shows indifference to the issue at hand, fails to demonstrate appreciation of diversive views, and has only shown interest in enforcing a controversial convention naturally comes underfire by those who do.--Huaiwei 11:31, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Reviewed Case
Hey Wally, I had a chance to look at the case now. It appears the case Schmucky brought (which was impossible to follow, I couldn't find one diff he pesented) is going to be merged with the one Jguk is bringing. That one has four Arbcom votes to accept last I checked so that should be going forward. Snowspinner is going to be advocating for Jguk so I'm certain he will submit a ton of evidence when the case is accepted.

I think we have a good case on this as I believe that Instantnood is only trying to enforce the adopted naming conventions and those opposed to the naming conventions are making life hell for him. He's always been polite from everything I've seen and it is his opponents who are getting upset, yet he never seems to get frazzled. I would be happy to coordinate efforts with you on this case as he is certain to be a great client.

Look me up on IRC (I'm in there a lot) or on AIM, I am progboatguy72 on there. If you use another messenger let me know, I pretty much use them all but am trying to consolidate to AIM wherever I can (AIM has the best Mac support). Look me up so we can discuss strategy.

The first thing I want to get at is the title of the case, I don't believe the case should be titled "Instanthood" but "Jguk & SchmuckytheCat v. Instanthood" and would want to move to get that changed quickly. --Wgfinley 23:25, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I just completed a proposed response to the filing. Let me know what you think as I would like to get it filed right away. --Wgfinley 00:38, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Hey Wally, I included the changes you suggested and am in agreement (I think I altered a word or two here and there) and have updated the filing with the changes. I'm on right now obviously, if you want to catch up with me on IRC I am there. --Wgfinley 04:47, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

We were in agreement on the content of the filing so I have gone ahead and posted it. If there's anything else that needs to be altered on it let me know. Look forward to talking to you soon. --Wgfinley 05:08, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Re: Proposed Filing Response
Thanks a lot for the effort you and Wgfinley have paid. :-D Let me know at any time if there's anything come up in your mind, or further information that you want to know. By the way, you may be interested to take a look at User:Instantnood/RFAr. — Instantnood 05:53, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * I am watching quite close to the edits by SchmuckyTheCat and is updating the page frequently, whenever there's a need to do so. By the way, you may also be interested to take a look of the followings:

{|width=100% cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 border=0 style="background:transparent"
 * width=25| ||style="background:#ffffff"|
 * width=25| ||style="background:#ffffff"|

Discussions at Talk:China, Talk:People's Republic of China, Talk:Republic of China and Talk:Taiwan

 * Talk:China
 * /old
 * /Archive 1
 * /Archive 2
 * /Archive 3
 * /Archive 4
 * /Archive 5
 * Talk:People's Republic of China
 * #Page moves of "X in People's Republic of China " articles (a block move request by Curps on WP:RM)
 * Talk:Republic of China
 * Talk:Taiwan
 * /Archive1
 * #Organizing ROC-Taiwan articles
 * #Subarticles
 * #Subsections

Discussions

 * Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions %28Chinese%29/NPOV basically the whole page
 * Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions %28Chinese%29/archive4 (especially #Political NPOV section, #A plea for understanding)
 * Edits by 160.39.195.88 (contributions of 160.39.195.88) (read this edit too :-) )

Some older ones

 * Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (Chinese)/archive3
 * #China or People's Republic of China
 * #China Includes Taiwan, and Tibet. At least Until Today

Early history of the naming conventions

 * Early history of the naming conventions
 * Taiwan as part of ROC
 * Usage of "mainland China", with reference to Hong Kong and Macao

Attempts to change the NPOV section

 * Attempts by Curps #1, #2
 * Jguk adding tag
 * SchmuckyTheCat adding tag
 * Attempts by 160.39.195.88 #1, #2
 * }
 * — Instantnood 07:13, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * See also the position of jguk at Talk:Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China and Category talk:Airports of the People's Republic of China. — Instantnood 07:29, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)

Thanks for reaching people and invite them to comment and to provide information. Refdoc said something at Requests for arbitration/Instantnood/Evidence just now, and you may be interested to hearing from her/him. — Instantnood 22:19, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)

Please also help watching User talk:Snowspinner :-D — Instantnood 22:28, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)

Note on Instantnood's advocacy
Thank you for your prompt response on my note. I am certain that your position, as the advocate for Instantnood, do not require information other than new information which you are not awared of. You also states "My job is to defend my client and not to get to the bottom of anything."
 * Reference

However, as one Wikipedian deeply concerns the result of the result of the voting war initiated by Instantnood, I wonder if it is appropriate for you and Wgfinley to proclaim that you would like to take the advantage of this arbitration opportunity to realize Instantnood's unilaternal interpretaion of the Naming convention against the majority voters who oppose his massive proposals, in the Instantnood's advocacy statement.

I believe this intention obviously contradicts with your statement: not to get to the bottom of anythign. IMHO, this is interfering the Wikipedia NPOV process, embroiding Arbcoms into the side of Instantnood's editing war, and this is far beyond the job as an advocate. This being said, I still appreciate your comment. I wish Instantnood good luck and I would be looking forward to a satisfying result from this arbitration.--Mababa 00:10, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Arbitration Committee case opening
The Arbitration request now entitled Instantnood, et al. has been accepted. Please bring evidence for your client to Requests for arbitration/Instantnood, et al./Evidence. Thank you. -- Grunt 🇪🇺 20:37, 2005 Apr 21 (UTC)

My view
In general, I'm not sure what to make of the whole situation. I tend to think that Instantnood has probably been overzealous, but not in an especially disruptive way, and I am still rather uncertain why this has gone to arbitration. My basic position on this is puzzlement - this is a content dispute, one which is not over any kind of overt POV pushing, and one which has not been characterized by a particularly large degree of rudeness. I basically think that there's nothing in particular to arbitrate here. john k 23:41, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Motion
Please take note of Requests_for_arbitration/Instantnood_2/Workshop Fred Bauder 14:33, July 27, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wally/Instantnood advocacy


text:
Talk:Budweiser Budvar

 * Budwars Taste Contest with American Soccerfans during the Soccer Worldchampionship 2006 by Gemany's leading Newsmagazin. So funny!--Nemissimo 19:34, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Personally, I find it preferable to American Budweiser.Drennleberrn 01:39, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Ausverkauf Budweisers
Habe soeben gehört, dass die Budweiser Brauerei in České Budějovice verkauft werden soll. Es ist -meiner Meinung nach- vollkomener Schwachsinn. Wen man den wirtschaftlichen Informationen glauben darf, schreibt der Betrieb "schwarze Zahlen" ("ist Gesund"). Privatisierung (Ausverkauf staatlicher, funktionierender Betriebe um Kapital für den Staat zu beschaffen), damit Haushaltslöcher "gestopft werden können", hat in der BRD (siehe Post, Bahn, Kommunaldienste u.a. -frühere "Staatsbetriebe"-) zum Abbau von Arbeitsplätzen, Preissteigerungen und anderen negativen Konsequenzen geführt. Investoren bzw. Käufer sind Gewinn- und nicht unbedingt Qualitätsorientiert. In diesen Fall sehe ich die Gefahr, dass über kurz oder lang die Prodution in andere Länder verlagert wird, die billiger - nicht unbedingt besser - herstellen können. Als passionierter Biergenieser fände ich es sehr bedauerlich.

Dies ist nur eine persöhnliche Sichtweise - Meinung - nicht eine Wirtschaftsanalyse eines "Biergeniessers".

F.Zboril —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 217.225.80.232 (talk) 18:40, 23 February 2007 (UTC).

Misleading
I have changed the first paragraph and info-box of the article as they stated that Budweiser Budvar (a pilsner style beer) has been brewed since 1265, which is untrue (after all, the pilsner style wasn't even invented until 1842). According to the brewery's website, the city has a brewing tradition going back to 1265, but this specific brewery was not opened until 1895, meaning that Budweiser could not be brewed until then (and also bringing it logically in line with the beer style). --MS
 * Not quite. THIS Budweiser could not be brewed until then, but "Budweiser" in general could. As indicated, Budweiser simply means "from Budweis". --84.46.9.161 13:40, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Budweiser Budvar


text:
Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality

The Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (uMasipala oMbaxa iNelson Mandela Bay; Nelson Mandelabaai Metropolitaanse Munisipaliteit) is one of eight metropolitan municipalities in South Africa. It is located on the shores of Algoa Bay in the Eastern Cape province and comprises the city of Gqeberha, the nearby towns of Uitenhage and Despatch, and the surrounding rural area.

The name "Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality" was chosen to honour former President Nelson Mandela.

History
Bricks used in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality around 1903-04 may have been made from parts of the holotype of the sauropod dinosaur Algoasaurus bauri.

Established on 5 December 2000, the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality was formed as an administrative area covering Port Elizabeth (Gqeberha), the neighbouring towns of Kariega (Uitenhage) and Despatch and the surrounding agricultural areas. Thus included the following cities/towns/villages:

Demographics and statistics
As of the census of 2011, there are 1,152,115 people and 324,292 households in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality.

In the 2007 census, 60.4% of respondents described themselves as Black African, 22.6% Coloured, 16.1% White and 0.9% Indian/Asian.

The largest religious groupings are Christian (89.4% of residents), no religion (6.1%), Muslim (1.5%), Jewish (0.4%) and Hindu (0.3%).

57.3% of the residents speak Xhosa as their mother tongue. Afrikaans is the mother tongue of 29.7%, and English, 12.1%.

 * 16.0% of all households are single-person.
 * The average household size is 3.86.
 * The median age is 26 years.
 * For every 100 females there are 91.2 males.
 * 28.2% of the population aged 15–65 is unemployed.
 * The median annual income of working adults aged 15–65 is ZAR 21 837 ($3,282).

According to the 2009 edition of the municipality's 2006–2011 Integrated Development Plan, manufacturing is the single largest contributor to the local economy (33%), followed by community services (27%). Tourism represents a key sector of the economy that has increasingly contributed to job creation in recent years, thanks in large part to the municipality's seaside location and its abundance of unspoiled beaches, of which four carry Blue Flag status.

100% of households have access to a source of water within a 200 m radius. 91% of households have access to a basic level of sanitation. 100% of households within the urban boundary have access to a basic level of solid waste removal, and 97% of households in formally demarcated municipal residential areas have access to a basic level of electricity. The municipality has 41 permanent and satellite clinics, 13 mobile clinics, eight hospitals, 22 libraries, 31 community and municipal halls, 79 sports facilities, 19 beaches, 18 pools, 273 schools, one university (the Nelson Mandela University), four technical colleges and two Further Education and Training institutions.

Main places
The censuses of 2001 and 2011 divided the municipality into the following main places:

Government
The municipal council consists of one hundred and twenty members elected by mixed-member proportional representation. Sixty councillors are elected by first-past-the-post voting in sixty wards, while the remaining sixty are chosen from party lists so that the total number of party representatives is proportional to the number of votes received. In the local government election of 1 November 2021, no party obtained a majority on the council again. The African National Congress managed to form a minority coalition government to govern the municipality. Former councillor and businesswoman Eugene Johnson of the ANC was elected mayor on 22 November 2021, in a coalition consisting of the parties: GOOD, AIM, UDM, DOP, Northern Alliance, Patriotic Alliance and the PAC. She won against the DA's mayoral candidate, Nqaba Bhanga, by 1 vote, as a DA councillor was absent.

During a council meeting on 21 September 2022, Johnson was removed as mayor through a vote of no confidence and succeeded by the DA's Retief Odendaal. Odendaal was, in return, removed as mayor in a vote of no confidence and replaced with council speaker Gary van Niekerk on 26 May 2023.

The following table shows the results of the 2021 municipal election.


text:
René Dubos

René Jules Dubos (February 20, 1901 – February 20, 1982) was a French-American microbiologist, experimental pathologist, environmentalist, humanist, and winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book So Human An Animal. He is credited for having made famous the environmental maxim: "Think globally, act locally." Aside from a period from 1942 to 1944 when he was George Fabyan Professor of Comparative Pathology and professor of tropical medicine at Harvard Medical School and Harvard School of Public Health, his scientific career was spent entirely at The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, later renamed The Rockefeller University.

Early life and education
Dubos was born in Saint-Brice-sous-Forêt, France, on February 20, 1901, and grew up in Hénonville, another small Île-de-France farming village north of Paris. His parents operated butcher shops in each of these villages. He attended high school and the National Institute of Agronomy in Paris, and he received a Ph.D. from Rutgers University in 1927.

Career
Dubos began his career in microbiology in 1927, when he joined Oswald Avery's laboratory at The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Avery was looking for a microbe that could break down the polysaccharide capsule of a deadly strain of bacterial pneumonia in the same way that soil bacteria digested decaying organic matter in the woods. Dubos identified a bacterium that secreted an enzyme that broke down polysaccharide. In 1939, with the help of Rockefeller Institute biochemist Rollin Hotchkiss, Dubos isolated the antibacterial agents tyrothricin and gramicidin from the bacterium Bacillus brevis that killed or inhibited Gram-positive bacteria and tested their bacterial, chemical, and clinical properties. These antibiotics remain in limited use today. In 1942, before antibiotics were in general use, Dubos warned that bacterial resistance should be expected.

Dubos devoted most of his professional life to the empirical study of microbial diseases and to the analysis of the environmental and social factors that affect the welfare of humans. His pioneering research in isolating antibacterial substances from certain soil microorganisms led to the discovery of major antibiotics. He performed groundbreaking research and wrote extensively on a number of subjects, including tuberculosis, pneumonia, and the mechanisms of acquired immunity, natural susceptibility, and resistance to infection.

In 1948, Dubos shared the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award with Selman Waksman for "their achievement in studies of the antibiotic properties of soil bacteria". He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1954 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960. A member of the National Academy of Sciences, he served as an editor of the Journal of Experimental Medicine from 1946 to 1972.

In later years, Dubos explored the interplay of environmental forces and the physical, mental and spiritual development of mankind. The main tenets of his humanistic philosophy were: global problems are conditioned by local circumstances and choices, social evolution enables us to rethink human actions and change direction to promote an ecologically balanced environment, the future is optimistic since human life and nature are resilient and we have become increasingly aware of the dangers inherent in natural forces and human activities, and we can benefit from our successes and apply the lessons learned to solving other contemporary environmental problems.

For the academic years 1963–1964 and 1964–1965, he was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies of Wesleyan University. He served as chairman of the trustees of the René Dubos Center for Human Environment, a non-profit education and research organization that was dedicated in his honor in 1980. The mission of the center, which was co-founded by William and Ruth Eblen, is to "assist the general public and decision-makers in formulating policies for the resolution of environmental problems and the creation of environmental values." Dubos remained actively involved with the Center until his death in 1982. He also served on the board of trustees of Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1949 to 1952.

Think Globally, Act Locally
Dubos is often attributed as the author of the popular maxim "Think Globally, Act Locally" that refers to the argument that global environmental problems can turn into action only by considering ecological, economic, and cultural differences of our local surroundings. This motto appeared for the first time in 1977, five years after Dubos served as advisor to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. In 1979, Dubos suggested that ecological consciousness should begin at home. He urged creation of a world order in which "natural and social units maintain or recapture their identity, yet interplay with each other through a rich system of communications". In the 1980s, Dubos held to his thoughts on acting locally, and felt that issues involving the environment must be dealt with in their "unique physical, climatic, and cultural contexts". Dubos' approach to building a resilient and constructive relationship between people and the Earth continues to resonate.

Death
He died February 20, 1982, his 81st birthday, due to heart failure. He was survived by his wife, Jean Porter Dubos, who died in 1988.

Legacy

 * In 1998, the René Dubos Center for Human Environments donated a large portion of its environmental library and archives to Pace University. The collection consists of works by Dubos as well as those of other leading environmental scholars, some of which have been annotated by Dubos himself. According to Robert Chapman, professor of philosophy and coordinator of Pace's Environmental Studies Program, "Pace now has many of Dubos's own research books from the Rockefeller University, and this means that we can not only look at his writing, but we can also do an analysis of where his ideas come from and what influenced him."
 * In 1979, the René Dubos Center purchased 30 acre of land in North Castle, New York, with donations from foundations. As a condition of the purchase it agreed to keep the property in a natural state.  Nevertheless, in 2002 it attempted to sell the land to developer Michael Cappelli, who planned to develop luxury homes there.  The Center filed legal action in 2007 to attempt to complete this transaction; however, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo opposed the move, and the State Supreme Court ruled against the Center in that year.  In 2009, the controversy was resolved when the Center agreed to sell the land to the village of Mount Kisco, New York.

Awards and honors

 * Recipient of the International Center in New York's Award of Excellence.
 * Winner of Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for So Human An Animal in 1969

Books

 * The Bacterial Cell in its Relation to Problems of Virulence, Immunity and Chemotherapy, 1945, Harvard University Press
 * Louis Pasteur, Free Lance of Science, 1950, 1960, Charles Scribner's Sons, Da Capo Press 1986 reprint of 1960 edition: ISBN 0-306-80262-7
 * The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society, 1952, Little, Brown, and Company, Rutgers University Press 1987: ISBN 0-8135-1224-7
 * Biochemical Determinants of Microbial Diseases, 1954, Harvard University Press
 * Man, Medicine, and Environment, 1968, Praeger
 * Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress & Biological Change, 1959, Rutgers University Press 1987: ISBN 0-8135-1260-3
 * Pasteur and Modern Science, 1960, Anchor Books, American Society of Microbiology edition with new chapter by Thomas D. Brock, 1998: ISBN 1-55581-144-2
 * The Dreams of Reason: Science and Utopias, 1961 George B. Pegram lectures, Columbia University Press
 * The Unseen World, 1962, The Rockefeller Institute Press
 * The Torch of Life: Continuity in Living Experience, 1962, Simon and Schuster, Touchstone 1970 reprint: ISBN 0-671-20469-6
 * Man Adapting, 1966, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-00437-0, enlarged edition 1980: ISBN 0-300-02581-5
 * So Human an Animal: How We Are Shaped by Surroundings and Events, 1968, Scribner Book Company, Transaction Publishers 1998 edition: ISBN 0-7658-0429-8 (won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for non-fiction)
 * Reason Awake, 1970, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-03181-5
 * Only One Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a Small Planet, 1972, coauthored with Barbara Ward and United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, W W Norton & Co, ISBN 0-393-06391-7
 * A God Within, 1973, Scribner, ISBN 0-684-13506-X
 * Of Human Diversity, 1974, Clark University Press, ISBN 0-914206-24-9
 * Beast or Angel: Choices That Make Us Human, 1974, Scribner, hardcover: ISBN 0-684-17608-4, paperback 1984: ISBN 0-684-14436-0
 * The Professor, the Institute, and DNA: Oswald T. Avery, His Life and Scientific Achievements, 1976, Paul & Company, ISBN 0-87470-022-1
 * The Wooing of Earth, 1980, Scribner, ISBN 0-684-16501-5
 * Quest: Reflections on Medicine, Science, and Humanity, 1980, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, ISBN 0-15-175705-4
 * Celebrations of Life, 1981, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-017893-3
 * The World of René Dubos: A Collection from His Writings, 1990, Henry Holt & Co, ISBN 0-8050-1360-1

As editor

 * LIFE Science Library, including authorship of one of its 26 volumes: Health and Disease (1965), with Maya Pines

Collected papers
The collected papers of Dubos from 1927–1982 including correspondence, lecture notes, book and article drafts, laboratory notebooks, photographs, audio and video cassettes, and films, are stored at the Rockefeller Archive Center.

title: René Dubos


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Philippe-Auguste Choquette

Philippe-Auguste Choquette (January 6, 1854 – December 20, 1948) was a Canadian Member of Parliament and Senator.

Biography
He was born on January 6, 1854, in Beloeil, Canada East to Joseph Choquette and Thaïs Audet. He studied at Université Laval and was admitted to the Quebec Bar in 1880 and to the King's Council in 1890.

After running unsuccessfully in the 1882 election, he was elected as a Liberal in the riding of Montmagny in the 1887 election. He was re-elected in 1891 and 1896. From 1898 until 1904, he was a Judge in the Quebec Superior Court, Arthabaska District. In 1904, he was appointed to the Senate representing the Senatorial division of Grandville, Quebec. He resigned in 1919. He also served as President of Quebec Bulldogs hockey club for several years, winning the Stanley Cup in 1912, and 1913.

He died on December 20, 1948.

Legacy
He is the father of Fernand Choquette, a Quebec MNA and judge of the Quebec Court of Appeal and Auguste Choquette.

title: Philippe-Auguste Choquette


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Molecular ecology

Molecular ecology is a field of evolutionary biology that is concerned with applying molecular population genetics, molecular phylogenetics, and more recently genomics to traditional ecological questions (e.g., species diagnosis, conservation and assessment of biodiversity, species-area relationships, and many questions in behavioral ecology). It is virtually synonymous with the field of "Ecological Genetics" as pioneered by Theodosius Dobzhansky, E. B. Ford, Godfrey M. Hewitt, and others. These fields are united in their attempt to study genetic-based questions "out in the field" as opposed to the laboratory. Molecular ecology is related to the field of conservation genetics.

Methods frequently include using microsatellites to determine gene flow and hybridization between populations. The development of molecular ecology is also closely related to the use of DNA microarrays, which allows for the simultaneous analysis of the expression of thousands of different genes. Quantitative PCR may also be used to analyze gene expression as a result of changes in environmental conditions or different responses by differently adapted individuals.

Molecular ecology uses molecular genetic data to answer ecological question related to biogeography, genomics, conservation genetics, and behavioral ecology. Studies mostly use data based on deoxyribonucleic acid sequences (DNA). This approach has been enhanced over a number of years to allow researchers to sequence thousands of genes from a small amount of starting DNA. Allele sizes are another way researchers are able to compare individuals and populations which allows them to quantify the genetic diversity within a population and the genetic similarities among populations.

Bacterial diversity
Molecular ecological techniques are used to study in situ questions of bacterial diversity. Many microorganisms are not easily obtainable as cultured strains in the laboratory, which would allow for identification and characterization. It also stems from the development of PCR technique, which allows for the rapid amplification of genetic material.

The amplification of DNA from environmental samples using general or group-specific primers leads to a mix of genetic material, requiring sorting before sequencing and identification. The classic technique to achieve this is through cloning, which involves incorporating the amplified DNA fragments into bacterial plasmids. Techniques such as temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, allow for a faster result. More recently, the advent of relatively low-cost, next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, such as 454 and Illumina platforms, has allowed exploration of bacterial ecology concerning continental-scale environmental gradients such as pH that was not feasible with traditional technology.

Fungal diversity
Exploration of fungal diversity in situ has also benefited from next-generation DNA sequencing technologies. The use of high-throughput sequencing techniques has been widely adopted by the fungal ecology community since the first publication of their use in the field in 2009. Similar to the exploration of bacterial diversity, these techniques have allowed high-resolution studies of fundamental questions in fungal ecology such as phylogeography, fungal diversity in forest soils, stratification of fungal communities in soil horizons, and fungal succession on decomposing plant litter.

The majority of fungal ecology research leveraging next-generation sequencing approaches involves sequencing of PCR amplicons of conserved regions of DNA (i.e. marker genes) to identify and describe the distribution of taxonomic groups in the fungal community in question, though more recent research has focused on sequencing functional gene amplicons (e.g. Baldrian et al. 2012 ). The locus of choice for a description of the taxonomic structure of fungal communities has traditionally been the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal RNA genes due to its utility in identifying fungi to genus or species taxonomic levels, and its high representation in public sequence databases. A second widely used locus (e.g. Amend et al. 2010, Weber et al. 2013 ), the D1-D3 region of 28S ribosomal RNA genes, may not allow the low taxonomic level classification of the ITS, but demonstrates superior performance in sequence alignment and phylogenetics. Also, the D1-D3 region may be a better candidate for sequencing with Illumina sequencing technologies. Porras-Alfaro et al. showed that the accuracy of classification of either ITS or D1-D3 region sequences was largely based on the sequence composition and quality of databases used for comparison, and poor-quality sequences and sequence misidentification in public databases is a major concern. The construction of sequence databases that have broad representation across fungi, and that are curated by taxonomic experts is a critical next step.

Next-generation sequencing technologies generate large amounts of data, and analysis of fungal marker-gene data is an active area of research. Two primary areas of concern are methods for clustering sequences into operational taxonomic units by sequence similarity and quality control of sequence data. Currently, there is no consensus on preferred methods for clustering, and clustering and sequence processing methods can significantly affect results, especially for the variable-length ITS region. In addition, fungal species vary in intra-specific sequence similarity of the ITS region. Recent research has been devoted to the development of flexible clustering protocols that allow sequence similarity thresholds to vary by taxonomic groups, which are supported by well-annotated sequences in public sequence databases.

Extra-pair fertilizations
In recent years, molecular data and analyses have been able to supplement traditional approaches of behavioral ecology, the study of animal behavior in relation to its ecology and evolutionary history. One behavior that molecular data has helped scientists better understand is extra-pair fertilizations (EPFs), also known as extra-pair copulations (EPCs). These are mating events that occur outside of a social bond, like monogamy and are hard to observe. Molecular data has been key to understanding the prevalence of and the individuals participating in EPFs.

While most bird species are socially monogamous, molecular data has revealed that less than 25% of these species are genetically monogamous. EPFs complicate matters, especially for male individuals, because it does not make sense for an individual to care for offspring that are not their own. Studies have found that males will adjust their parental care in response to changes in their paternity. Other studies have shown that in socially monogamous species, some individuals will employ an alternative strategy to be reproductively successful since a social bond does not always equal reproductive success.

It appears that EPFs in some species is driven by the good genes hypothesis, In red-back shrikes (Lanius collurio) extra-pair males had significantly longer tarsi than within-pair males, and all of the extra-pair offspring were males, supporting the prediction that females will bias their clutch towards males when they mate with an "attractive" male. In house wrens (Troglodytes aedon), extra-pair offspring were also found to be male-biased compared to within-offspring.

Without molecular ecology, identifying individuals that participate in EPFs and the offspring that result from EPFs would be impossible.

Isolation by distance
Isolation by distance (IBD), like reproductive isolation, is the effect of physical barriers to populations that limit migration and lower gene flow. The shorter the distance between populations the more likely individuals are to disperse and mate and thus, increase gene flow. The use of molecular data, specifically allele frequencies of individuals among populations in relation to their geographic distance help to explain concepts such as, sex-biased dispersal, speciation, and landscape genetics.

The Mantel test is an assessment that compares genetic distance with geographic distance and is most appropriate because it doesn't assume that the comparisons are independent of each other. There are three main factors that influence the chances of finding a correlation of IBD, which include sample size, metabolism, and taxa. For example, based on the meta-analysis, ectotherms are more likely than endotherms to display greater IBD.

Metapopulation theory
Metapopulation theory dictates that a metapopulation consists of spatially distinct populations that interact with one another on some level and move through a cycle of extinctions and recolonizations (i.e. through dispersal). The most common metapopulation model is the extinction-recolonization model which explains systems in which spatially distinct populations undergo stochastic changes in population sizes which may lead to extinction at the population level. Once this has occurred, dispersing individuals from other populations will immigrate and "rescue" the population at that site. Other metapopulation models include the source-sink model (island-mainland model) where one (or multiple) large central population(s) produces disperses to smaller satellite populations that have a population growth rate of less than one and could not persist without the influx from the main population.

Metapopulation structure and the repeated extinctions and recolonizations can significantly affect a population's genetic structure. Recolonization by a few dispersers leads to population bottlenecks which will reduce the effective population size (Ne), accelerate genetic drift, and deplete genetic variation. However, dispersal between populations in the metapopulation can reverse or halt these processes over the long term. Therefore, in order for individual sub-populations to remain healthy, they must either have a large population size or have a relatively high rate of dispersal with other subpopulations. Molecular ecology focuses on using tests to determine the rates of dispersal between populations and can use molecular clocks to determine when historic bottlenecks occurred. As habitat becomes more fragmented, dispersal between populations will become increasingly rare. Therefore, subpopulations that may have historically been preserved by a metapopulation structure may start to decline. Using mitochondrial or nuclear markers to monitor dispersal coupled with population Fst values and allelic richness can provide insight into how well a population is performing and how it will perform into the future.

Molecular clock hypothesis
The molecular clock hypothesis states that DNA sequences roughly evolve at the same rate and because of this the dissimilarity between two sequences can be used to tell how long ago they diverged from one another. The first step in using a molecular clock is it must be calibrated based on the approximate time the two lineages studied diverged. The sources usually used to calibrate the molecular clocks are fossils or known geological events in the past. After calibrating the clock the next step is to calculate divergence time by dividing the estimated time since the sequences diverged by the amount of sequence divergence. The resulting number is the estimated rate at which molecular evolution is occurring. The most widely cited molecular clock is a ‘universal’ mtDNA clock of approximately two percent sequence divergence every million years. Although referred to as a universal clock, this idea of the "universal" clock is not possible considering rates of evolution differ within DNA regions. Another drawback to using molecular clocks is that they ideally need to be calibrated from an independent source of data other than the molecular data. This poses a problem for taxa that don't fossilize/preserve easily, making it almost impossible to calibrate their molecular clock. Despite these inconveniences, the molecular clock hypothesis is still used today. The molecular clock has been successful in dating events happening up to 65 million years ago.

Mate choice hypotheses
The concept of mate choice explains how organisms select their mates based on two main methods; The Good Genes Hypothesis and Genetic Compatibility. The Good Genes Hypothesis, also referred to as the sexy son hypothesis, suggests that the females will choose a male that produce an offspring that will have increased fitness advantages and genetic viability. Therefore, the mates that are more 'attractive" are more likely to be chosen for mating and pass on their genes to the next generation. In species which exhibit polyandry the females will search out for the most suitable males and re-mate until they have found the best sperm to fertilize their eggs. Genetic compatibility is where mates are choosing their partner based on the compatibility of their genotypes. The mate which is doing the selecting must know their own genotype as well as the genotypes of potential mates in order to select the appropriate partner. Genetic compatibility in most instances is limited to specific traits, such as the major histocompatibility complex in mammals, because of complex genetic interactions. This behavior is potentially seen in humans. A study looking at women's choice in men based on body odors concluded that the scent of the odors were influenced by the MHC and that they influence mate choice in human populations.

Sex-biased dispersal
Sex-biased dispersal, or the tendency of one sex to disperse between populations more frequently than the other, is a common behavior studied by researchers. Three major hypotheses currently exist to help explain sex-biased dispersal. The resource-competition hypothesis infers that the more philopatric sex (the sex more likely to remain at its natal grounds) benefits during reproduction simply by having familiarity with natal ground resources. A second proposal for sex-biased dispersal is the local mate competition hypothesis, which introduces the idea that individuals encounter less mate competition with relatives the farther from their natal grounds they disperse. And the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis suggests individuals disperse to decrease inbreeding.

Studying these hypotheses can be arduous since it is nearly impossible to keep track of every individual and their whereabouts within and between populations. To combat this time-consuming method, scientists have recruited several molecular ecology techniques in order to study sex-biased dispersal. One method is the comparison of differences between nuclear and mitochondrial markers among populations. Markers showing higher levels of differentiation indicate the more philopatric sex; that is, the more a sex remains at natal grounds, the more their markers will take on a unique I.D, due to lack of gene flow with respect to that marker. Researchers can also quantify male-male and female-female pair relatedness within populations to understand which sex is more likely to disperse. Pairs with values consistently lower in one sex indicate the dispersing sex. This is because there is more gene flow in the dispersing sex and their markers are less similar than individuals of the same sex in the same population, which produces a low relatedness value. FST values are also used to understand dispersing behaviors by calculating an FST value for each sex. The sex that disperses more displays a lower FST value, which measures levels of inbreeding between the subpopulation and the total population. Additionally, assignment tests can be utilized to quantify the number of individuals of a certain sex dispersing to other populations. A more mathematical approach to quantifying sex-biased dispersal on the molecular level is the use of spatial autocorrelation. This correlation analyzes the relationship between geographic distance and spatial distance. A correlation coefficient, or r value, is calculated and the plot of r against distance provides an indication of individuals more related to or less related to one another than expected.

Quantitative trait loci
A quantitative trait locus (QTL) refers to a suite of genes that controls a quantitative trait. A quantitative trait is one that is influenced by several different genes as opposed to just one or two. QTLs are analyzed using Qst. Qst looks at the relatedness of the traits in focus. In the case of QTLs, clines are analyzed by Qst. A cline (biology) is a change in allele frequency across a geographical distance. This change in allele frequency causes a series of intermediate varying phenotypes that when associated with certain environmental conditions can indicate selection. This selection causes local adaptation, but high gene flow is still expected to be present along the cline.

For example, barn owls in Europe exhibit a cline in reference to their plumage coloration. Their feathers range in coloration from white to reddish-brown across the geological range of the southwest to the northeast. This study sought to find if this phenotypic variation was due to selection by calculating the Qst values across the owl populations. Because high gene flow was still anticipated along this cline, selection was only expected to act upon the QTLs that incur locally adaptive phenotypic traits. This can be determined by comparing the Qst values to Fst (fixation index) values. If both of these values are similar and Fst is based on neutral markers then it can be assumed that the QTLs were based on neutral markers (markers not under selection or locally adapted) as well. However, in the case of the barn owls the Qst value was much higher than the Fst value. This means that high gene flow was present allowing the neutral markers to be similar, indicated by the low Fst value. But, local adaptation due to selection was present as well, in the form of varying plumage coloration since the Qst value was high, indicating differences in these non-neutral loci. In other words, this cline of plumage coloration has some sort of adaptive value to the birds.

Fixation indices
Fixation indices are used when determining the level of genetic differentiation between sub-populations within a total population. FST is the script used to represent this index when using the formula:
 * $$ F_{ST} = \frac{ H_{T} - H_{S} } { H_{T} } $$

In this equation, HT represents the expected heterozygosity of the total population and HS is the expected heterozygosity of a sub-populations. Both measures of heterozygosity are measured at one loci. In the equation, heterozygosity values expected from the total population are compared to observed heterozygosity values of the sub-populations within this total population. Larger FST values imply that the level of genetic differentiation between sub-populations within a total population is more significant. The level of differentiation is the result of a balance between gene flow amongst sub-populations (decreasing differentiation) and genetic drift within these sub-populations (increasing differentiation); however, some molecular ecologists note that it cannot be assumed that these factors are at equilibrium. FST can also be viewed as a way of comparing the amount of inbreeding within sub-populations to the amount of inbreeding for the total population and is sometimes referred to as an inbreeding coefficient. In these cases, higher FST values typically imply higher amounts of inbreeding within the sub-populations. Other factors such as selection pressures may also affect FST values.

FST values are accompanied by several analog equations (FIS, GST, etc.). These additional measures are interpreted in a similar manner to FST values; however, they are adjusted to accompany other factors that FST may not, such as accounting for multiple loci.

Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is the reduced fitness and survival of offspring from closely related parents. Inbreeding is commonly seen in small populations because of the greater chance of mating with a relative due to limited mate choice. Inbreeding, especially in small populations, is more likely to result in higher rates of genetic drift, which leads to higher rates of homozygosity at all loci in the population and decreased heterozygosity. The rate of inbreeding is based on decreased heterozygosity. In other words, the rate at which heterozygosity is lost from a population due to genetic drift is equal to the rate of accumulating inbreeding in a population. In the absence of migration, inbreeding will accumulate at a rate that is inversely proportional to the size of the population.

There are two ways in which inbreeding depression can occur. The first of these is through dominance, where beneficial alleles are usually dominant and harmful alleles are usually recessive. The increased homozygosity resulting from inbreeding means that harmful alleles are more likely to be expressed as homozygotes, and the deleterious effects cannot be masked by the beneficial dominant allele. The second method through which inbreeding depression occurs is through overdominance, or heterozygote advantage. Individuals that are heterozygous at a particular locus have a higher fitness than homozygotes at that locus. Inbreeding leads to decreased heterozygosity, and therefore decreased fitness.

Deleterious alleles can be scrubbed by natural selection from inbred populations through genetic purging. As homozygosity increases, less fit individuals will be selected against and thus those harmful alleles will be lost from the population.

Outbreeding depression
Outbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in the offspring of distantly related parents. The decline in fitness due to outbreeding is attributed to a breakup of coadapted gene complexes or favorable epistatic relationships. Unlike inbreeding depression, outbreeding depression emphasizes interactions between loci rather than within them. Inbreeding and outbreeding depression can occur at the same time. Risks of outbreeding depression increase with increased distance between populations. The risk of outbreeding depression during genetic rescue often limits the ability to increase a small or fragmented gene pool's genetic diversity. The spawn of an intermediate of two or more adapted traits can render the adaptation less effective than either of the parental adaptations. Three main mechanisms influence outbreeding depression; genetic drift, population bottlenecking, differentiation of adaptations, and set chromosomal dissimilarities resulting in sterile offspring. If outbreeding is limited and the population is large enough, selective pressure acting on each generation may be able to restore fitness. However, the population is likely to experience a multi-generational decline of overall fitness as selection for traits takes multiple generations. Selection acts on outbred generations using increased diversity to adapt to the environment. This may result in greater fitness among offspring than the original parental type.

Conservation units
Conservation units are classifications often used in conservation biology, conservation genetics, and molecular ecology in order to separate and group different species or populations based on genetic variance and significance for protection. Two of the most common types of conservation units are: Conservation units are often identified using both neutral and non-neutral genetic markers, with each having its own advantages. Using neutral markers during unit identification can provide unbiased assumptions of genetic drift and time since reproductive isolation within and among species and populations, while using non-neutral markers can provide more accurate estimations of adaptive evolutionary divergence, which can help determine the potential for a conservation unit to adapt within a certain habitat.
 * Management Units (MU): Management units are populations that have very low levels of gene flow and can therefore be genetically differentiated from other populations.
 * Evolutionarily significant units (ESU): Evolutionarily significant units are populations that show enough genetic differentiation to warrant their management as distinct units.

Because of conservation units, populations and species that have high or differing levels of genetic variation can be distinguished in order to manage each individually, which can ultimately differ based on a number of factors. In one instance, Atlantic salmon located within the Bay of Fundy were given evolutionary significance based on the differences in genetic sequences found among different populations. This detection of evolutionary significance can allow each population of salmon to receive customized conservation and protection based on their adaptive uniqueness in response to geographic location.

Phylogenies and community Ecology
Phylogenies are the evolutionary history of an organism, also known as phylogeography. A phylogenetic tree is a tree that shows evolutionary relationships between different species based on similarities/differences among genetic or physical traits. Community ecology is based on knowledge of evolutionary relationships among coexisting species. Phylogenies embrace aspects of both time (evolutionary relationships) and space (geographic distribution). Typically phylogeny trees include tips, which represent groups of descendent species, and nodes, which represent the common ancestors of those descendants. If two descendants split from the same node, they are called sister groups. They also may include an outgroup, a species outside of the group of interest. The trees depict clades, which is a group of organisms that include an ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. The maximum parsimony tree is the simplest tree that has the minimum number of steps possible.

Phylogenies confer important historical processes that shape current distributions of genes and species. When two species become isolated from each other they retain some of the same ancestral alleles also known as allele sharing. Alleles can be shared because of lineage sorting and hybridization. Lineage sorting is driven by genetic drift and must occur before alleles become species specific. Some of these alleles over time will simply be lost, or they may proliferate. Hybridization leads to introgression of alleles from one species to another.

Community ecology emerged from natural history and population biology. Not only does it include the study of the interactions between species, but it also focuses on ecological concepts such as mutualism, predation, and competition within communities. It is used to explicate properties such as diversity, dominance, and composition of a community. There are three primary approaches to integrating phylogenetic information into studies of community organizations. The first approach focuses on examining the phylogenetic structure of community assemblages. The second approach focuses on exploring the phylogenetic basis of community niche structures. The final way zones in on adding a community context to studies of trait evolution and biogeography.

Species concepts
Species concepts are the subject of debate in the field of molecular ecology. Since the beginning of taxonomy, scientists have wanted to standardize and perfect the way species are defined. There are many species concepts that dictate how ecologists determine a good species. The most commonly used concept is the biological species concept which defines a species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Mayr, 1942). This concept is not always useful, particularly when it comes to hybrids. Other species concepts include phylogenetic species concept which describes a species as the smallest identifiable monophyletic group of organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent. This concept defines species on the identifiable. It would also suggest that until two identifiable groups actually produce offspring, they remain separate species. In 1999, John Avise and Glenn Johns suggested a standardized method for defining species based on past speciation and measuring biological classifications as time dependent. Their method used temporal banding to make genus, family and order based on how many tens of millions of years ago the speciation event that resulted in each species took place.

Landscape genetics
Landscape genetics is a rapidly emerging interdisciplinary field within molecular ecology. Landscape genetics relates genetics to landscape characteristics, such as land-cover use (forests, agriculture, roads, etc.), presence of barriers, and corridors, rivers, elevation, etc. Landscape genetics answers how landscape affects dispersal and gene flow.

Barriers are any landscape features that prevents dispersal. Barriers for terrestrial species can include mountains, rivers, roads, and unsuitable terrain, such as agriculture fields. Barriers for aquatic species can include islands or dams. Barriers are species specific; for example a river is a barrier to a field mouse, while a hawk can fly over a river. Corridors are areas over which dispersal is possible. Corridors are stretches of suitable habitat and can also be man-made, such as overpasses over roads and fish ladders on dams.

Geographic data used for landscape genetics can include data collected by radars in planes, land satellite data, marine data collected by NOAA, as well as any other ecological data. In landscape genetics researchers often use different analyses to attempt to determine the best way for a species to travel from point A to point B. Least cost path analysis uses geographic data to determine the most efficient path from one point to another. Circuit scape analysis predicts all the possible paths and the probability of each path's use between point A and point B. These analyses are used to determine the route a dispersing individual is likely to travel.

Landscape genetics is becoming an increasingly important tool in wildlife conservation efforts. It is being used to determine how habitat loss and fragmentation affects the movement of species. It is also used to determine which species need to be managed and whether to manage subpopulations the same or differently according to their gene flow.

title: Molecular ecology


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User talk:Benmcq

Welcome!

'''Hello,, Welcome  to Wikipedia! '''I hope you like working here and want to continue. If you need help on how to name new articles, look at Naming Conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the Manual of Style. If you need general help, look at Help and the FAQ, and if you can't find your answer there, check the Village pump (for Wikipedia related questions) or the Reference Desk (for general questions). There's still more help at the Tutorial and the Policy Library. Also, don't forget to visit the Community Portal — and if you have any more questions after that, feel free to post them on my New-Users' Talk Page.'''

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Happy editing! Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 22:04, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Comics Collaboration of the Fortnight
As a member of WikiProject Comics, I thought you might be interested in the Comics Collaboration of the Fortnight we have set up. Please feel free to vote on the articles listed, although bear in mind that a vote for a particular article means you are pledging to help improve the article. The goal of the collaboration is to improve articles to Featured Article status, as we feel Comics is under-represented in that area. Thanks for your help. Steve block talk 15:17, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:VCThomasWilliamHolmesGrave.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:VCThomasWilliamHolmesGrave.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me. Thank you. Dethomas 00:43, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

Respect Thread Conversions
I'm looking for folks to help convert Respect Threads to wiki formatting on Project Fanboy: WikiFans. Respect Threads, showcase scans of feats performed by comic book characters and have gained an audience on several comic book message boards. A few other wiki editors and myself are trying to convert them from the unprofessional look of a bunch of posts on a message board to the formatting common with WikiMedia wiki's. To view an example of what we're doing, here is a link to Respect Silver Surfer.

I was wondering if you might have time to contribute your comic book knowledge and/or scans of comic book characters performing feats, and help us out with our Respect Articles project?Millennium Cowboy (talk) 02:14, 27 July 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Benmcq


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Category:Irish explorers

This category lists explorers who were born in Ireland.

title: Category:Irish explorers


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Mesic

Mesic may refer to:

 * Mesic, North Carolina, a town in the United States
 * Mesic habitat, a type of habitat
 * Mesić (disambiguation), a South Slavic surname and toponym
 * Mešić, a South Slavic surname

title: Mesic


text:
Meatpacking District, Manhattan

The Meatpacking District is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan that runs from West 14th Street south to Gansevoort Street, and from the Hudson River east to Hudson Street. The Meatpacking Business Improvement District along with signage in the area, extend these borders farther north to West 17th Street, east to Eighth Avenue, and south to Horatio Street.

Pre-colonial
A Lenape trading station called Sapohanikan was on the riverbank, which, accounting for landfill, was located about where Gansevoort Street meets Washington Street today. The footpath that led from Sapohanikan inland to the east became the foundation for Gansevoort Street, which by accident or design aligns, within one degree, so that the Manhattanhenge phenomenon, where the setting sun crosses the horizon looking down the street, occurs at the spring and autumnal equinoxes. In recognition of this history, petitions were made to call the 14th Street Park "Saphohanikan Park", although it appears no formal recognition was given.

Initial development
The earliest development of the area now known as the Meatpacking District came in the mid-19th century. Before that it was the location of Fort Gansevoort and of the upper extension of Greenwich Village, which had been a vacation spot until overtaken by the northward movement of New York City. The irregular street patterns in the area resulted from the clash of the Greenwich Village street system with that of the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which sought to impose a regular grid on the undeveloped part of Manhattan island.

Construction of residences in the neighborhood – primarily rowhouses and town houses, some of which were later converted into tenements – began around 1840, primarily in the Greek Revival style which was prominent at the time. By mid-century, with Fort Gansevoort replaced by freight yards of the Hudson River Railroad, a neighborhood developed which was part heavy industry and part residential – a pattern which was more typical of an earlier period in the city's history but which was becoming less usual, as industry and residences began to be isolated in their own districts. In the western portion of the neighborhood, heavy industry such as iron works and a terra cotta manufacturer could be found, while lighter industry such as carpentry and woodworking, lumber yards, paint works, granite works and a plaster mill blended into the residential area. At the time of the Civil War the part of the district west of Ninth Avenue and Greenwich Street and above 10th Street was the location of numerous distilleries making turpentine and camphene, a lamp fuel.

After the Civil War
When development began again after the war in the 1870s, the tenor of the neighborhood changed. Since it was no longer considered a desirable area to live in, construction of single-family residences was replaced with the building of multiple-family dwellings, and the continued internal industrialization increased. In addition an elevated railroad line had been constructed through the neighborhood along Ninth Avenue and Greenwich Street, completed in 1869. Additional development began in the 1880s when two new markets began operating in the area. On the old freight yards, the Gansevoort Market (originally the "Farmer's Market"), an open-air space for the buying and selling of regional produce started in 1879, and the West Washington Market, 10 brick buildings used for meat, poultry and dairy transactions, relocated to the river side of West Street in 1884. By 1900 the area was home to 250 slaughterhouses and packing plants, and by the 1920s, what had been a neighborhood based on mixture of marketplaces became more tightly focused on meatpacking and related activities. Other industries continued to be located there, some of which included cigar-making, transportation-related businesses such as automobile repair, express services and garages, import-export firms, marine supplies, cosmetics, and printing. After decades of debate, the High Line elevated freight line was authorized in 1929 as part of the "West Side Improvement Plan", and the New York Central Railroad completed construction, passing through the neighborhood, in 1934.

Decline and resurgence
The area's decline began around the 1960s as part of the general decline of the waterfront area. Containerization of freight; the advent of supermarkets which changed the distribution pattern for meat, dairy and produce from a locally or regionally based system to a more national one; and the development of frozen foods and refrigerated trucks to deliver them were all factors in this, but meatpacking continued to be the major activity in the neighborhood through the 1970s. At the same time, a new "industry" of nightclubs and other entertainment and leisure operations catering to a gay clientele, began to spring up in the area.

In the 1980s, as the industrial activities in the area continued their downturn, it became known as a center for drug dealing and prostitution. Concurrent with the rise in illicit sexual activity, the sparsely populated industrial area became the focus of the city's burgeoning BDSM subculture; over a dozen sex clubs – including such notable ones as The Anvil, The Manhole, the Mineshaft, and the heterosexual-friendly Hellfire Club – flourished in the area. Many of these establishments were under the direct control of the Mafia or subject to NYPD protection rackets. In 1985 the Mineshaft was forcibly shuttered by the city at the height of AIDS preventionism.

Beginning in the late 1990s, the Meatpacking District went through a transformation. High-end boutiques catering to young professionals and hipsters opened, including Diane von Fürstenberg, Christian Louboutin, Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney, Barbour, Rubin & Chapelle, Theory, Ed Hardy, Puma, Moschino, ADAM by Adam Lippes, and an Apple Store; restaurants such as Pastis—which closed in 2014 —and 5 Ninth; and nightclubs such as Tenjune. In 2004, New York magazine called the Meatpacking District "New York’s most fashionable neighborhood".

A catalyst for even greater transformation of the area was the opening in June 2009 of the first segment of the High Line linear park. A former elevated freight railroad built under the aegis of Robert Moses, it opened to great reviews in the District (and in Chelsea to the north) as a greenway modeled after Paris's Promenade Plantée. Thirteen months earlier, the Whitney Museum of American Art had announced that it would build a second, Renzo Piano-designed home at 99 Gansevoort Street, just west of Washington Street and adjacent to the southernmost entrance to the High Line; and on May 1, 2015, the museum opened at this site. These were turning points in the changes experienced by the neighborhood over the first two decades of the 21st century, transforming it from a gritty manufacturing district into a bustling high-end retail, dining, and residential area, as documented by photographer Brian Rose in his 2014 book Metamorphosis.

Preservation
In September 2003 the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) established the Gansevoort Market Historic District, and in 2007 New York State Parks Commissioner Carol Ash approved adding the entire Meatpacking District, an area which included both the Gansevoort Market Historic District and the neighborhood's waterfront, to the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places. The state district was listed on the National Register on May 30, 2007 and included 140 buildings, two structures, and one other site.

title: Meatpacking District, Manhattan


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Ahmed Zaki (actor)

Ahmed Zaki Metwally Abdelrahman Badawi (أحمد زكي متولي عبد الرحمن بدوي; 18 November 1949 – 27 March 2005), usually known as Ahmed Zaki (أحمد زكي), was an Egyptian film actor. He was characterized by his talent, skill, and ability in impersonating. He was also famous for his on-screen intensity. Though he first appeared in a small role in a comedy play, he is widely regarded as one of the most talented male actors, especially in dramatic and tragic roles. Zaki has worked in six films that have been listed in the Top 100 Egyptian films.

Early days
Ahmed Zaki was born in the city of Zagazig, about 50 mile north of Cairo, Egypt. He graduated from Zagazig's Crafts School in 1967 and then traveled to Cairo to study cinema before he graduated from the Cairo Higher Institute for Drama Studies in 1974.

Highlights
Many of his films were written by screenwriter Wahid Hamed and had a strong political message that exposed governmental and police corruption. He also starred in the famous 1985 television comedy musical series Howa wa Heya with actress Soad Hosny. Zaki also starred in a series of successful action movies during the mid-and late-1990s.

Two of his greatest successes were playing Egypt's presidents in two popular movies that became landmarks of Arabic cinema. He played presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser in Nasser 56 (1996), a movie that centered on the fateful summer of 1956 when then-President Nasser nationalizing the Suez Canal, and Anwar Sadat in the movie The Days of Sadat (2001) with director Mohamed Khan which he also produced. The movie depicted 40 years of the late president's life. He also had plans to play President Hosni Mubarak in a third movie. In the 1980s, Zaki had the chance to act alongside Salah Zulfikar, the two starred together in two movies. He was also known for portraying prominent figures in Egyptian history like Taha Hussein.

Zaki was seen as an icon and spokesperson for the average Egyptian youth; he was also considered the heir to Farid Shawki, the two starred together in two movies several years earlier. He was a known heavy smoker. Zaki had been in intensive care at Dar Al Fouad Hospital in Sixth of October City, just outside Cairo, and died of lung cancer complications, after president Hosni Mubarak offered to send him to France for medical treatment at the government's expense and granted him the Order of Merit for his work in over 50 movies.

A book about Zaki has been released under the title of Ahmad Zaki wa Symphoniet Ibda (Ahmad Zaki: A Symphonic Innovation Masterpiece). The book features details of his acting career and includes a compilation of articles by different critics, including Tarek El Shennawi, Mohammad Al Shafe’ee, and Waleed Saif.

Legacy
On November 18, 2020, Google celebrated his 71st birthday with a Google Doodle, which included boxing gloves to refer to Al Nimr Al Aswad (The Black Tiger), a crab for Kaboria (The Crab), a camera for Edhak El-Sora Tetlaa’ Helwa (Smile, the Picture Will Come Out Fine), and the animals from Arba’a Fi Muhimma Rasmiya (Four on an Official Mission).

Filmography

 * 1974: Abnaa Al-Samt (The Children of Silence) – Mahmoud
 * 1978: El Omr Lahza (Life is a Moment)
 * 1979: Alexandria... Why? – Ibrahim
 * 1979: Shafika and Metwali
 * 1980: Al Batneyya – Safrot
 * 1981: Maowid ala ashaa – Shukri
 * 1981: Ana La Aktheb Wlakenani Atajaml – Ibrahim
 * 1981: Taer ala el tariq – Fares
 * 1981: Oyun la tanam
 * 1982: El-akdar el-damia – Kher
 * 1982: Al-Awwama rakm 70
 * 1983: Darb El Hawa – Abdel Aziz
 * 1983: El Ehteyat Wageb – Hassan
 * 1983: Al modmen
 * 1984: The Black Tiger – Muhammed Hassan
 * 1984: El-Raqesah wa el-Tabbal – Abdo
 * 1984: El Lela AL Mawooda – Fathi
 * 1984: The Prince – Prince Yousef Othman Basha
 * 1984: Al-Takhshiba – Majdy El Douski
 * 1985: Saad El Yateem – Zakaria
 * 1985: Howa wa heya (Him & Her) (TV Mini-Series) – Afifi Abu Al Naja / Mahrous Al Dishnawi Shawqi / Moonis Khalil / Majdi / Metwalli / Nader / Khaled / Medhat / Jalal
 * 1986: Shader al-samak – Ahmad Abu Kamel
 * 1986: Love on the Pyramids Plateau
 * 1986: Al Bedaya (The Beginning)
 * 1986: The Innocent – Ahmad Saba' Al Layl
 * 1987: Arba’a Fi Muhimma Rasmiya – Anwar
 * 1987: Al Makhtufa – Hussien
 * 1987: The Wife of an Important Man – Hesham
 * 1987: El Beih El Bawwab – Abdulsamee
 * 1988: Al-Darga Al-Thalitha (The third Class) – Sorour
 * 1988: Dreams of Hind and Camilia – Eid
 * 1989: Those Guys – Zaki Al Humsani
 * 1990: One Woman Is Not Enough – Hussam
 * 1990: Kaboria – Hassan Hudhud
 * 1990: El-Baydha Wal Hagar – Mustataa
 * 1990: Al Embrator – Zeinhom Abdel-Haq
 * 1990: Al Beh Al bawab (The Rich guard)
 * 1991: Escape – Montaser Abdel Ghafour
 * 1991: Al-Ra'i wal Nisaa (The Shepherd and the Women)
 * 1992: Dhid el hokouma – Mustafa Khalaf
 * 1992: Al Basha – Hazem El Shennawy
 * 1993: Sawwaq el hanem – Hamada
 * 1993: Mr Karate
 * 1994: Al ragol al talet
 * 1996: Esstakoza – Abbass
 * 1996: Abo Dahab – Abo Dahab
 * 1996: Nasser 56 – President Gamal Abdel Nasser
 * 1996: Nazwa
 * 1996: Hysteria
 * 1997: Hassan Ellol (Hassan) – Hassan
 * 1998: El Batal (The Hero)
 * 1998: Edhak El-Sora Tetlaa’ Helwa (Smile to make the photo looks good, Sherif Arafa) – Sayed Gharib
 * 2000: Ard el khof (The Land of Fear) – Yehia
 * 2001: Ayyam El Sadat (The Days of Sadat, Mohamed Khan) – President Anwar Sadat
 * 2003: Ma'ali al Wazir – Ra'fat Rostom
 * 2005–2006: Halim (directed by Sherif Arafa) – Abdel Halim Hafez (final film role)

title: Ahmed Zaki (actor)


text:
Prosecution history estoppel

Prosecution history estoppel, also known as file-wrapper estoppel, is a term used to indicate that a person who has filed a patent application, and then makes narrowing amendments to the application to accommodate the patent law, may be precluded from invoking the doctrine of equivalents to broaden the scope of their claims to cover subject matter ceded by the amendments. Although primarily a U.S. term, questions of whether, or the extent to which the prosecution history should be relevant for determining the extent of protection of a patent also arise outside the U.S.

Canada
On December 13, 2018, new section 53.1 of the Patent Act makes prosecution history evidence admissible before the Court for the purposes of claim construction.

Patents in Canada are subject to a purposive construction, which relies on reading both the claims and the specifications to determine the scope of a patent, and extrinsic evidence is not permitted. Therefore, the Canadian courts emphatically reject what they refer to as "file wrapper estoppel". No distinction is drawn between cases involving allegations of literal infringement and those involving substantive infringement, which means that the negotiations that have taken place between the patentee and the Patent Office cannot be used in order to establish a particular equivalent. Similarly, a patentee is barred from using any previous negotiations with the Patent Office in order to determine the scope of the claims of the patent (i.e. the negotiations cannot be used by the patentee or against the patentee in determining the scope of the claims within the patent).

This is one of the significant differences that exist between Canadian and US patent jurisprudence, which leads some legal commentators to state that Canada is more friendly for rights holders in pursuing patent claims.

Germany
The German Federal Court of Justice ruled in 2002 that "issues derived from prosecution history cannot be taken into account in the assessment of the scope of protection of a patent, even with regard to the requirement of legal certainty". More than a decade later, the Federal Court of Justice ruled on 14 June 2016 that statements made during prosecution may indicate how the skilled person construes a patent. At the same time, the Federal Court of Justice set forth that such indications must not readily be relied on as the sole basis of claim construction.

Ireland
The Irish Supreme Court has ruled that "evidence from the file which reflects the views of the patentee as to the construction of the claims is inadmissible".

Netherlands
The Dutch Supreme Court has effectively come to the opposite conclusion to most other countries in Europe. The Dutch Supreme Court has stated that where "a third party invokes the examination file in the course of confirming the interpretation defended by him of a patent, it cannot be seen that that requirement [the reasonable doubt threshold] would force any restriction on involving public data from the examination file with the interpretation of the patent".

United Kingdom
The UK courts have ruled that use of the examination file in aiding construction of a patent should be discouraged except where that file includes "objective information about and commentary on experiments".

United States
The defining case on prosecution estoppel in the United States is Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co..

Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit Holding
In November 2000, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit set a complete bar rule. This complete bar rule completely prohibited a patent owner from asserting the doctrine of equivalents for certain elements of her claim in instances where, during her patent prosecution she files:
 * 1) an amendment that narrows the scope of a claim for any reason related to the statutory requirements for a patent will give rise to a complete bar with respect to the amended claim element;
 * 2) a "voluntary" claim amendment that narrows the scope of the claim for a reason related to the statutory requirements for a patent will give rise to prosecution history estoppel as to the amended claim element; and
 * 3) an amendment and fails to explain the reasons for the amendment during prosecution of her patent.

Supreme Court reversal
The United States Supreme Court in their opinion Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co., 535 U. S. 722 (2002), citing the instruction in Warner-Jenkinson Company, Inc. v. Hilton Davis Chemical Co., finding that "courts must be cautious before adopting changes that disrupt the settled expectations of the inventing community", overturned the complete bar issued by the Federal Circuit. It also acknowledged that while any narrowing amendment made for a reason related to patentability could give rise to prosecution history estoppel, inventors who amended their claims under the previous case law had no reason to believe that they were conceding all equivalents of amended elements when responding to a rejection. Had they known, the Court stated, they might have appealed the rejection.

With this policy in mind, the Court stated that it preferred a presumptive bar approach to the doctrine of equivalents. This presumptive bar approach holds that where claims are amended, "the inventor is deemed to concede that the patent does not extend as far as the original claim" and the patentee has the burden of showing that the amendment does not surrender the particular equivalent. To succeed, then, the patentee must establish that:
 * 1) the equivalent was unforeseeable at the time the claim was drafted;
 * 2) the amendment did not surrender the particular equivalent in question; or
 * 3) there was some reason why the patentee could not have recited the equivalent in the claim.

title: Prosecution history estoppel