text:
Bryn, Greater Manchester

Bryn is a suburb of Ashton-in-Makerfield in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan in Greater Manchester, England. The population of the suburb at the 2011 census was 11,662. Served by Bryn railway station, Bryn is home to the Three Sisters Recreation Area which has been created from three large spoil tips which remain from Bryn's role in Lancashire's coal mining past.

Etymology
The name Bryn is most likely derived from Cumbric brïnn, meaning 'hill' (compare with modern bryn). Alternatively, the name may be derived directly from the Welsh equivalent, possibly reflecting Welsh settlement in the 12th century. A third explanation is that the name is derived from Old English bryne, 'burning, fire', suggestive of land cleared by burning.

History
The former Bryn (or Brynne) Hall was the seat of the Gerard family beginning in the thirteenth century or earlier. It was a "safe house" for the English Roman Catholic martyr and saint Edmund Arrowsmith and his hand was reportedly preserved there after his execution. The house, dating to the fourteenth century, has now completely collapsed and remaining stones have been cleared.

The Roman Catholic parish of Our Lady of Good Counsel was founded in 1896. In 1902 the foundation stone of the church was laid by the Bishop of Liverpool, Thomas Whiteside. The church, on Downall Green Road, opened on 21 October 1903. On 8 September 1955 the church was consecrated and the holy relics of two early Roman martyrs – Saints Speciosi and Fructuosi, were placed in the altar stone.

The Unitarian Park Lane Chapel in Wigan Road was built in 1697, though its congregation was founded in 1662. It is the oldest Non-conformist chapel and congregation in the whole district. By the nineteenth century Park Lane was only one of nine non-conformist chapels in the heavily recusant area.

title: Bryn, Greater Manchester


text:
Quebec Autoroute 5

Autoroute 5 (A-5, also known as the Autoroute de la Gatineau) is a short controlled-access Autoroute in the Outaouais region of western Quebec. It connects the central urban area of Gatineau (formerly Hull) with the recreational areas of Gatineau Park and the exurban rural areas of Chelsea and La Pêche. The southern terminus provides access to the Macdonald-Cartier Bridge, which continues into downtown Ottawa. The A-5 generally has four lanes of traffic (two per direction) with the exception of southernmost section across the Macdonald-Cartier Bridge where A-5 widens to six lanes (three per direction).

Part of Route 148 overlapped A-5 from Autoroute 50 to Boulevard Saint-Raymond until completion of Boulevard des Allumettières in 2007. With the completion of Boulevard des Allumettières, Route 148 was rerouted onto the southern leg of Autoroute 50 and then west towards Aylmer on Boulevard des Allumettières. Autoroute 5 is the only Quebec A-class Autoroute to have only 1 digit in its name.

Route description
Autoroute 5 begins at the Ontario-Quebec border on the MacDonald-Cartier Bridge, which is 6 lanes wide. Upon hitting land, Autoroute 5 loses 2 lanes and interchanges with Boulevard Maisonneuve/Boulevard Fournier and Autoroute 50 in quick succession. It then curves northwest, interchanging with Boulevard du Casino, providing access to Casino du Lac-Leamy. Autoroute 5 services Gatineau with two more interchanges before leaving the urban area, where a grass median forms. Autoroute 5 then interchanges with Chemin Old Chelsea and Chemin Scott, which provide access to Gatineau Park as well as Chelsea. The expressway then meanders through forested land, largely parallel to Route 105. At Exit 28, Route 105 joins Autoroute 5 in a concurrency until the end of Autoroute 5, which occurs 3.5 km later, bypassing the hamlet of Wakefield. Autoroute 5 gradually loses its median and center divider before ending at a T-intersection, where Route 105 continues east.

The speed limit on Autoroute 5 is 100 km/h north of Boulevard du Casino, and 70 km/h south of it.

History
Until October 2014 there had been two segments of A-5 for several years:

 * 1) The main segment was a freeway that continued for 21.5 km from the Macdonald-Cartier Bridge through the Hull sector of Gatineau to a short access road to Route 105 south of Wakefield.
 * 2) The second segment, built in 1993, was a short four-lane, at-grade expressway bypass of Wakefield, which overlapped Route 105 and Route 366. The MTQ plan to eliminate the discontinuity between the two segments was completed in October 2014. Further extensions of A-5 north of Wakefield have been deemed unnecessary given the current AADT on Route 105.

A 2.5 km extension of the southern segment past Tulip Valley, an area of Route 105 that has been the site of multiple fatal incidents in the past, was opened on 4 December 2009 following a $27 million (CA$) extension project. Another $115 million 6.5 km project began in 2010 to connect the south and north segments, completing the carriageway to Wakefield in October 2014.

Beginning in June 2008, the MTQ began replacing the concrete surface from Ottawa to Saint-Joseph Boulevard with asphalt after multiple incidents in which pieces of concrete broke out from the surface including one that struck the windshield of a vehicle, killing its driver in November 2007. Construction was completed by the end of 2008.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Quebec Autoroute 5


text:
Talk:Walloons

I'm confused ... if the Walloons are French-speaking, as this article says, then who speaks the Walloon language? — 84.248.81.201 24 Nov2005 19:22 (UTC) was neither signed nor dated

The Walloon language is a language which is neither used in the administration or the common television. The Walloon language is divided in several quite different dialects and is therefore only very locally understandable. Many educated walloons born after the 1970s do not even know more than some simple words or idioms and are not fluent at all in this language. As the common people language before WWII, the Walloon language is nevertheless an important part of the Walloon cultural identity (if there exists any). — 131.220.68.177 8 Aug2005 09:05 (UTC) was neither signed nor dated

 * Walloon language is spoken mainly by Walloons (from Wallonia, and from "French Wallonia", the French region around Givet), and some descendents of Walloons immigrants in Wisconsin, USA.
 * However, not all Walloons speak Walloon language; first, Walloon language doesn't cover all of Wallonia (look at the Walloon language for a linguistic map, see also how the French area around Givet (Djivet in Walloon) is part of the Walloon linguist area); there are people in Wallonia that speak German as official language (regional language is Ripuarian) in the East (in white in the map, with Deutsch. Gemeinschaft across it), and also in Luxembourgish language (cyan), Lorrain (brown), Champenois (orange) and Picard language (green)
 * On top of that, with the exception of the small region in the East where German is the official language, for the rest of Wallonia French is the only official language; and harsh policies against regional languages were carried in the past (including physical punishments for childrens speaking Walloon in school, and firing employees and civil servants speaking it with the public) which lead to a fading of its use. Despite all that, there still is a sizeable amount of people that speak Walloon, particularly in rural areas.
 * I put the map here, in full size:

 * In Sweden there was (16-17th century) a big immigration from Walloons, that created and develloped there the iron industry (in which Walloons where already very good at the time), several of them gained very high rankings in Swedish society; for some time they lived in their own villages and continued to speak Walloon language; but nowadays they all speak Swedish as they integrated fully in Swedish society (they just proudly remember their ancestry)
 * Probably the most known of them is Louis de Geer (en: wikipedia has an article on that name but featuring probably one of his descendants), known as "the father of swedish industry".
 * Peter Minuit, of Manhattan fame, was also a Walloon.
 * Srtxg 19:46, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Actually, Walloon integration in Sweden is so total that there's no longer any emotional value at all associated with it (pride or otherwise). This makes it a useful tool for anti-racism lectures:
 * Lecturer asks "Which of you have Walloon ancestors?"
 * Half of the audience members raise their hands.
 * Lecturer says "So, does this make you less Swedish?"
 * Audience laughs at the absurdity of the concept.
 * Bo Lindbergh (whose great-great-grandmother was named "Hubinette", which in turn is utterly irrelevant to daily life) 14:47, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Walloons


text:
Talk:Heart rate variability

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 23 August 2019 and 10 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jb6821.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 23:14, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

HRV and Exercise - External link, request for review
I added a section on: "Exercise training and HRV Exercise training may decrease cardiovascular mortality and sudden cardiac death. Regular exercise training is also thought to modify cardiac autonomic control. Individuals who exercise regularly have a 'training bradycardia' (i.e., low resting heart rate) and generally have higher HRV than sedentary individuals. Heart rate variability can be used to assess fatigue and recovery levels, especially for professional athletes. HRV scores drop significantly following intense training, and recover as the body repairs. This makes daily HRV measurements useful for determining the optimum times for training at different intensity levels. [21]"

Link referred to external source: Darrall-Jones, Josh. "Heart Rate Variability response to a single interval training session & planing training around HRV scores to maximise performance adaptation". iThlete. Retrieved 1 November 2012. http://myithlete.com/blog/2012/10/31/research-summary-heart-rate-variability-response-to-a-single-interval-training-session-similar-to-that-used-in-middle-distance-running-training-and-how-you-can-plan-training-around-your-hrv-scores-t/

This edit reverted 5th Nov. Can another editor please check and re-edit/re-add if appropriate.

JonRElder (talk) 17:39, 5 November 2012 (UTC)
 * The section still stands without citation. The link above is HTTP 404 now. Someone familiar with the subject please hunt one up, rewrite, or remove the section. —¿philoserf? (talk) 05:03, 26 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I found a list of heart rate variability and exercise related papers here as a head-start for any interested editor. firstbeat.com : science and physiology white papers and publications. While the first section will likely not be the kind of source we want the second sections looks useful. —¿philoserf? (talk) 06:22, 26 May 2020 (UTC)

high HRV indicates a healthy heart?
Altered the "A high HRV indicates a healthy heart, whereas a decreased HRV is associated with increased mortality"-part because this does not hold in full generality to my knowledge. Stressing the system by, say hypovolemia, can, at least initially, lead to an increase in some measures of HRV. HRV is also a function of system state as a whole, not of cardiac health alone. Yeteez 19:24, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Improvement Exercises
the section on Improvement Exercises feel weird. it has an informal style of writing and lacks substantiation.

links
Note: FirstBeat Technologies maintains interesting pages at www.firstbeat.com.

I think you mean http://www.firstbeattechnologies.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.203.102.136 (talk) 02:31, 4 January 2008 (UTC)

Another site giving a lot of interesting information on HRV for professionals at www.biocomtech.com.

Yet another site has a lot of information useful for ordinary people at www.heartwizard.com. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Vpougatchev (talk • contribs) 01:56, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

clinical significance
So much "HRV analysis" methods and so little "clinical significance". What's the matter? These methods are methods of what? What is the purpose of these methods? What for are them? Analysis for analysis?! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Valery Mukhin (talk • contribs) 14:25, 28 June 2010 (UTC)

Physiological correlates of HRV Components
Sorry I'm new here, so I'm not sure if I'm doing this right. But that whole section entitled "Physiological correlates of HRV Components" is copied and pasted from this article: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/93/5/1043. That section.. should probably be redone..or at least cited. I'll cite it if I figure out how to and perhaps try rewriting it, but no promises. Drk7 (talk) 19:56, 16 June 2011 (UTC)

Mental and social aspects
What does "HF" stand for, in the mentioned section? This should be possible to discern without having to read the whole article. --Kebman (talk) 09:47, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

illustrations needed
Please add graphs of instantaneous HR, illustrations of HF and LF variability, pictures of related equipment, etc.-96.237.13.111 (talk) 19:02, 9 November 2011 (UTC)

bioforce: advertising?
Does the bioforce link in the final section constitute inappropriate advertising? My instinct is to say yes, since there's no indication of notability, empirical support, or relevance to the overall topic. I've removed it, but feel free to put it back if you think it's appropriate. Inhumandecency (talk) 01:18, 19 September 2012 (UTC)

Mental and Social Aspects
I feel that there is much more that needs to be added to this section. I propose to add a "Theoretical Framework" subsection in this section that will describe the two prevailing theories on how HRV relates to mental and social aspects: The Neurovisceral Integration Model and the Polyvagal Theory. Then in a second subsection, I propose to describe how the theories relate to the findings that are currently in the first paragraph of the "Mental and Social Aspects" section (how these theories relate to anxiety, PTSD, etc.) This will be a major edit to this section of the HRV page, so I'd like to get some feedback from anyone on these changes. S.Lall13 (talk) 15:24, 1 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Currently the references here and elsewhere on wiki to the Polyvagal Theory refer only to first party references i.e to Porges authored publications. There are no third party references.  I think this needs to be corrected. LookingGlass (talk) 18:59, 15 January 2014 (UTC)

RMSSD and SDSD are the same thing
The formulas are the same. Pentiu (talk) 01:50, 9 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Heart rate variability


text: File:MassiveAttackProtection.jpg

title: File:MassiveAttackProtection.jpg


text:
Old Mother Riley

Old Mother Riley is a fictional character portrayed from about 1934 to 1954 by Arthur Lucan and from 1954 to the 1980s by Roy Rolland as part of a British music hall act.

Old Mother Riley (full comedy name: Daphne Bluebell Snowdrop Riley) is an Irish washerwoman and charwoman character, devised by Lucan (born Arthur Towle). His wife Kitty McShane played Old Mother Riley's daughter, Kitty. It was essentially a drag act but also a double act. The couple played music halls, theatres, and broadcast on radio and appeared in films. Lucan was voted sixth biggest British box-office star by the Motion Picture Herald in 1943. In 1939, Jimmy Clitheroe appeared in an Old Mother Riley pantomime called The Old Woman who Lives in a Shoe, and then the following year had a part in the film, Old Mother Riley in Society. The Film Fun comic included an "Old Mother Riley" strip cartoon in the 1940s.

Old Mother Riley was the first and arguably the most influential drag act on stage and screen. Although nothing like the glamorous acts like Danny La Rue, Old Mother Riley proved that drag could be a smash hit with audiences and make you a star. The Old Mother Riley films also proved that drag could be an acceptable part of comedy and storytelling. Previous to Old Mother Riley, drag was a mixture of singing acts and short comedy sketches in music halls across the UK.

Roy Rolland was Lucan's understudy and stand-in, and after Lucan's death in 1954 he continued to play the Old Mother Riley character in pantomime, on television and in cabaret until the 1980s.

The character and show exist in a comic lineage that extends to Mrs. Brown's Boys.

Old Mother Riley films
Made on a minuscule budget, but extremely profitable, 16 of the 18 films made by Arthur Lucan featured him as Old Mother Riley:

 * Stars on Parade (1936)
 * Bridget's Night Out (1936)
 * Kathleen Mavourneen (1937)
 * Old Mother Riley (1937)
 * Old Mother Riley in Paris (1938)
 * Old Mother Riley, MP (1939)
 * Old Mother Riley Joins Up (1940)
 * Old Mother Riley in Society (1940)
 * Old Mother Riley in Business (1941)
 * Old Mother Riley's Circus (1941)
 * Old Mother Riley's Ghosts (1941)
 * Old Mother Riley Overseas (1943)
 * Old Mother Riley Detective (1943)
 * Old Mother Riley at Home (1945)
 * Old Mother Riley's New Venture (1949)
 * Old Mother Riley Headmistress (1950)
 * Old Mother Riley's Jungle Treasure (1951)
 * Mother Riley Meets the Vampire (1952) – co-stars Bela Lugosi.

At the time of Lucan's death he was scheduled to film Old Mother Riley's Trip to Mars.

title: Old Mother Riley


text:
Ubi pus, ibi evacua

Ubi pus, ibi evacua is a Latin aphorism or adage, often cited in medicine, meaning "where [there is] pus, there evacuate [it]". It refers to what clinicians should do when there is a collection of pus in the body; that is, to create an opening for it to evacuate. A contemporary expression of the same sentiment is also used: "if there's pus about, let it out".

Examples include what an otorhinolaryngologist will often do in case of a child with chronic recurring otitis media: Insert a grommet in the eardrum to help evacuate the excess fluid within. Antibiotics often have difficulties getting into an abscess, and do not work well because of a low pH; evacuation through a drainage-channel, on the other hand, will remove a large number of bacteria and thus greatly aid the resolution of the infection.

title: Ubi pus, ibi evacua


text:
International Policy Network

The International Policy Network (IPN) was a think tank based in the City of London, founded 1971, and closed in September 2011. It was a non-partisan, non-profit organization, but critics said it was a "corporate-funded campaigning group". IPN ran campaigns on issues such as trade, development, healthcare and the environment. IPN’s campaigns were pro-free market.

Vision
According to its website, "IPN aims to empower individuals and promote respect for people and property in order to eliminate poverty, improve human health and protect the environment. IPN promotes public awareness of the importance of this vision for all people, both rich and poor.

"IPN seeks to achieve its vision by promoting the role of market institutions in certain key international policy debates: sustainable development, health, and globalisation and trade. IPN works with academics, think tanks, journalists and policymakers on every continent."

History
IPN was founded as a UK charity by Sir Antony Fisher in 1971. The mission of this body is to "Promote the advancement of learning by research into economic and political science and the publication of such research". The charity’s original name was The International Institute for Economic Research, and now is The Atlas Economic Research Foundation (UK), but operates under the name International Policy Network.

IPN’s sister organization, International Policy Network US Inc., is a non-profit started in 2001.

Funding
IPN is funded entirely by voluntary, charitable gifts from foundations, individuals and businesses. IPN does not receive any funding from governments or political parties, and it does no contract work. IPN develops and implements a research and advocacy agenda that encompasses not one or a few, but many public policy issues.

IPN has received grants totaling hundreds of thousands of pounds from the multinational energy company ExxonMobil, although it has not received money from the energy sector for some years.

Programs
IPN undertakes ongoing work on public policy in the areas of health, environment, economic development, trade, creativity and innovation.

The Freedom to Trade Campaign is run in collaboration with the Atlas Global Initiative. The campaign joins 73 think tanks in 48 countries to support free trade and oppose protectionism.

IPN’s Bastiat Prize for Journalism was founded in 2002. The prize recognises and rewards journalists and commentators who support the free society. This year, IPN will award the first Bastiat Prize for Online Journalism.

Links to other organisations

 * The Institute of Economic Affairs
 * Atlas Economic Research Foundation
 * CriticalOpinion.org
 * Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development

IPN was founded by Antony Fisher in the UK as the International Institute for Economic Research (IIER) in 1971. Fisher went on to found the Atlas Economic Research Foundation in the US in 1981, and from this point the IIER traded as Atlas Foundation UK. The organisation underwent a further rebranding in 2001, when it changed its name to IPN. In the US, the Atlas Foundation also provides training and funding to start libertarian think tanks. Fisher founded the influential Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a classical liberal think tank based in London. The founding director of IPN, Julian Morris, was previously director of the IEA's Environment and Technology Programme.

Past notable trustees/directors

 * John Blundell

Past notable staff

 * Julian Morris, executive director
 * Roger Bate, director (left in 2003)

Some of IPN's partners

 * Institute of Public Policy Analysis, Nigeria
 * Inter Region Economic Network, Kenya
 * Free Market Foundation, South Africa
 * Africa Resource Bank
 * Action Research Community Health, India
 * Institute of Public Affairs, Australia
 * Making Our Economy Right, Bangladesh
 * Association for Liberal Thinking (Liberal Düşünce Topluluğu), Turkey
 * Timbro, Sweden
 * Liberty Institute, India
 * Centre for Civil Society, India
 * Institute of Economic Affairs
 * Montreal Economic Institute
 * Centro de Divulgacion del Conocimiento Economico, Venezuela
 * Libertad y Desarrollo, Chile
 * Fundacion Libertad Democracia y Desarrollo, Bolivia
 * Instituto de Libre Empresa, Peru
 * The Lion Rock Institute, Hong Kong
 * Instituto Liberdade, Brazil

title: International Policy Network


text:
Paul Joseph Barthez

Paul Joseph Barthez (11 December 1734 – 15 October 1806) was a French physician, physiologist, and encyclopedist who developed a take on the biological theory known as vitalism.

Life
He was born at Montpellier, educated at Narbonne and Toulouse, and began the study of medicine at Montpellier in 1750, taking his doctor's degree in 1753. In 1756, he obtained the appointment of physician to the military hospital in Normandy attached to the army of observation commanded by Marshal d'Estrées, but a severe attack of hospital fever compelled him to leave this post. In 1757, his services were required in the medical staff of the army of Westphalia, where he had the rank of consulting physician, and on his return to Paris he acted as joint editor of the Journal des savants and the Encyclopédie méthodique. In 1759 he obtained a medical professorship at Montpellier, and in 1774 he was created joint chancellor of the university.

In 1778, he published his most famous work, Nouveaux élémens de la science de l'homme, in which he employs the expression "vital principle" as a convenient term for the cause of the phenomena of life, without committing himself to either a spiritualistic or a materialistic view of its nature. Taking the degree of doctor of civil law in 1780, he secured the appointment of counsellor to the Supreme Court of Aids at Montpellier, but he soon took up his residence in Paris, having been nominated consulting physician to the king. In 1784, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Paul Joseph Barthez was called upon to edit or contribute several entries in the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and d’Alembert.

On the outbreak of the French Revolution he lost much of his fortune, but was much esteemed and honoured by Napoleon. He retired to Carcassonne, where he devoted himself to the study of theoretical medicine. It was from this retreat that he gave to the world his Nouvelle mécanique des mouvemens de l'homme et des animaux, which appeared in 1798. In 1802 he published his Traitement des maladies goutteuses, and he afterwards occupied himself in preparing for the press a new edition of his Élémens de la science de l'homme, of which he just lived to see the publication. His health had been declining for some years before his death, which took place soon after his removal to Paris.

He bequeathed his books and manuscripts to J. Lordat, who published two volumes of his Consultations de médecine in 1810. His Traité du beau was also published posthumously in 1807.

title: Paul Joseph Barthez


text:
House of Dadiani

The House of Dadiani (დადიანი ), later known as the House of Dadiani-Chikovani, was a Georgian family of nobles, dukes and princes, and a ruling dynasty of the western Georgian province of Mingrelia.

The House of Dadiani
The first data about the family dates back to 1046 AD. Presumably, the Dadiani descended from a certain Dadi, of the House of Vardanisdze. Appointed as hereditary eristavi (dukes) of Odishi (Samegrelo) in reward for their military services, the family had become the most powerful feudal house in western Georgia by the 1280's. At that time, the branches of the family governed also Svaneti, Guria, and Bedia.

In 1542 AD, Duke Levan I Dadiani became hereditary Prince (mtavari) of Mingrelia and established himself as an independent ruler. His descendant Prince Levan III Dadiani was forced to abdicate in 1691 AD and Dadiani’s relatives from the House of Chikovani, hitherto Princes of Salipartiano, inherited the title of Princes of Mingrelia and the surname of Dadiani. The original dynasty of Dadiani thus went extinct into what genealogists have termed the House of Dadiani-Chikovani. Accepting Russian sovereignty in 1802, the Dadiani were elevated to the dignity of Prince of the Russian Empire (Дадиани) and enjoyed significant independence in their home affairs. Russia made a de facto annexation of Samegrelo in 1857, but Samegrelo remained nominally in existence until January 4, 1867, when Niko Dadiani, the last Prince of Samegrelo, was deposed and the principality was abolished. Prince Niko Dadiani officially renounced his rights to the throne in 1868.

Dukes (eristavi) and Princes (mtavari) of Mingrelia

 * Vardan I Dadiani (c. 1180s – 1190s)
 * Shergil Dadiani (c. 1220s – 1240s)
 * Vardan II Dadiani (c. 1240s – 1250s)
 * Tsotne Dadiani (c. 1260s)
 * Bedan Dadiani (c. 1270s – c. 1290s)
 * Giorgi I Dadiani (c. 1293 – 1323)
 * Mamia I Dadiani (1323–1345)
 * Giorgi II Dadiani (1345–1384)
 * Vameq I Dadiani (1384–1396)
 * Mamia II Dadiani (1396–1414)
 * Liparit I Dadiani (1414–1470)
 * Shamadavle Dadiani (1470–1473)
 * Vameq II Dadiani (1474–1482)
 * Liparit II Dadiani (1482–1512)
 * Mamia III Dadiani (1512–1533)
 * Levan I Dadiani (1533–1546)
 * Giorgi III Dadiani (1546–1573, 1574–1582)
 * Mamia IV Dadiani (1574, 1582–1590)
 * Manuchar I Dadiani (1590–1611)
 * Levan II Dadiani (1611–1657)
 * Liparit III Dadiani (1657–1658)
 * Vameq III Dadiani (1658–1661)
 * Levan III Dadiani (1661–1681)
 * Levan IV Dadiani (1681–1691)
 * Giorgi IV Dadiani (Lipartiani) (1700–1704, 1710–1714)
 * Katsia I Dadiani (1704–1710)
 * Bezhan I Dadiani (1714–1728)
 * Otia I Dadiani (1728–1758)
 * Katsia II Dadiani (1758–1788)
 * Grigol I Dadiani (1788–1791, 1794–1802, 1802–1804)
 * Manuchar II Dadiani (1791–1793)
 * Tariel Dadiani (1793–1794, 1802)
 * Levan V Dadiani (1804–1840)
 * David I Dadiani (1840–1853)
 * Niko I Dadiani (1853–1857)

Heads of the Princely House of Mingrelia

 * Niko I Dadiani (1857–1903)
 * Niko II Dadiani (1903–1919)
 * Shalva Dadiani (1919–1959)
 * Archil Dadiani (1959–1976)
 * Niko III Dadiani (1976–present)

Other members of the family

 * Mariam Dadiani, a 17th-century princess
 * Constantine Dadiani, a 19th-century poet and general of Russian army
 * Andria Dadiani (1850-1910), chess player and tournament patron
 * Ekaterine Dadiani (1816-1882), Regent Princess of Mingrelia
 * Salome Dadiani (1848-1913), wife of Prince Achille Murat
 * Shalva Dadiani (1874-1959), prominent writer and dramatist
 * Eleesa Dadiani (born 1988), art gallery owner

title: House of Dadiani


text:
Encyclopaedia of Islam

The Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI) is a reference work that facilitates the academic study of Islam. It is published by Brill and provides information on various aspects of Islam and the Islamic world. It is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. The first edition was published in 1913–1938, the second in 1954–2005, and the third was begun in 2007.

Content
According to Brill, the EI includes "articles on distinguished Muslims of every age and land, on tribes and dynasties, on the crafts and sciences, on political and religious institutions, on the geography, ethnography, flora and fauna of the various countries and on the history, topography and monuments of the major towns and cities. In its geographical and historical scope it encompasses the old Arabo-Islamic empire, the Islamic countries of Iran, Central Asia, the Indian sub-continent and Indonesia, the Ottoman Empire and all other Islamic countries".

Reception
EI is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. Each article was written by a recognized specialist on the relevant topic. However, unsurprisingly for a work spanning 40 years until completion, not every one of them reflects recent research.

"The most important, authoritative reference work in English on Islam and Islamic subjects. Includes long, signed articles, with bibliographies. Special emphasis is given in this (EI2) edition to economic and social topics, but it remains the standard encyclopedic reference on the Islamic religion in English." "The most important and comprehensive reference tool for Islamic studies is the Encyclopaedia of Islam, an immense effort to deal with every aspect of Islamic civilization, conceived in the widest sense, from its origins down to the present day... EI is no anonymous digest of received wisdom. Most of the articles are signed, and while some are hardly more than dictionary entries, others are true research pieces – in many cases the best available treatment of their subject." "This reference work is of fundamental importance on topics dealing with the geography, ethnography and biography of Muslim peoples."

Historian Richard Eaton criticised the Encyclopaedia of Islam in the book India's Islamic Traditions, 711–1750, published in 2003. He writes that in attempting to describe and define Islam, the project subscribes to the Orientalist, monolithic notion that Islam is a "bounded, self-contained entity".

Editions
The first edition (EI1) was modeled on the Pauly-Wissowa Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. EI1 was created under the aegis of the International Union of Academies, and coordinated by Leiden University. It was published by Brill in four volumes plus supplement from 1913 to 1938 in English, German, and French editions.

An abridged version was published in 1953 as the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (SEI), covering mainly law and religion. Excerpts of the SEI have been translated and published in Turkish, Arabic, and Urdu.

The second edition of Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI2) was begun in 1954 and completed in 2005 (several indexes to be published until 2007); it is published by the Dutch academic publisher Brill and is available in English and French. Since 1999, (EI2) has been available in electronic form, in both CD-ROM and web-accessible versions. Besides a great expansion in content, the second edition of EI differs from the first mainly in incorporating the work of scholars of Muslim and Middle Eastern background among its many hundreds of contributors:

"EI1 and SEI were produced almost entirely by European scholars, and they represent a specifically European interpretation of Islamic civilization. The point is not that this interpretation is 'wrong', but that the questions addressed in these volumes often differ sharply from those which Muslims have traditionally asked about themselves. EI2 is a somewhat different matter. It began in much the same way as its predecessor, but a growing proportion of the articles now come from scholars of Muslim background. The persons do not represent the traditional learning of Qom and al-Azhar, to be sure; they have been trained in Western-style universities, and they share the methodology if not always the cultural values and attitudes of their Western colleagues. Even so, the change in tone is perceptible and significant."

Publication of the Third Edition of EI (EI3) started in 2007. It is available online, printed "Parts" appearing four times per year. The editorial team consists of twenty 'Sectional Editors' and five 'Executive Editors' (i.e. editors-in-chief). The Executive Editors are Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer (Free University, Berlin), Everett Rowson (New York University), John Nawas (Catholic University of Leuven), and Denis Matringe (EHESS, CNRS). The scope of EI3 includes comprehensive coverage of Islam in the twentieth century; expansion of geographical focus to include all areas where Islam has been or is a prominent or dominant aspect of society; attention to Muslim minorities all over the world; and full attention to social science as well as humanistic perspectives.

1st edition, EI1

 * 1913–38. 4 vols. and Suppl.
 * Vol.1. A–D, M. Th. Houtsma, T. W. Arnold, R. Basset eds., 1913.
 * Reprint A-Ba, Ba-Bu
 * Vol.2. E–K, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, T. W. Arnold eds., 1927.
 * Reprint Itk-Kan
 * Vol.3. L–R, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, E. Levi-Provençal eds., 1934.
 * Reprint L-M, Morocco-Ruyan
 * Vol.4. S–Z, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, H. A. R. Gibb, eds., 1936.
 * Reprint S, T-Z, Supplement
 * Suppl. No.1. Ab-Djughrafiya, 1934.
 * Suppl. No.2. Djughrafiya-Kassala, 1936.
 * Suppl. No.3. Kassala-Musha'sha', 1937.
 * Suppl. No.4. Musha'sha'-Taghlib, 1937.
 * Suppl. No.5. Taghlib-Ziryab, 1938.
 * M. Th. Houtsma, R. Basset et T. W. Arnold, eds., Encyclopédie de l'Islam: Dictionnaire géographique, ethnographique et biographique des peuples musulmans. Publié avec le concours des principaux orientalistes, 4 vols. avec Suppl., Leyde: Brill et Paris: Picard, 1913–1938. (French)
 * M. Th. Houtsma, R. Basset und T. W. Arnold, herausgegeben von, Enzyklopaedie des Islām : Geographisches, ethnographisches und biographisches Wörterbuch der muhammedanischen Völker, 5 vols., Leiden: Brill und Leipzig : O. Harrassowitz, 1913–1938. (German) – vol. 1, vol. 3, vol. 4
 * M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 8 vols. with Supplement (vol. 9), 1993. ISBN 90-04-09796-1

SEI

 * H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers eds. on behalf of the Royal Netherlands Academy, Shorter Encyclopäedia of Islam, Leiden: Brill, 1953. ISBN 90-04-00681-8
 * M. Th. Houtsma et al. eds., İslâm Ansiklopedisi : İslâm âlemi coğrafya, etnografya ve biyografya lûgati, 13 in 15 vols., İstanbul: Maarif Matbaası, 1940–1988. (Turkish)
 * أحمد الشنتناوي، إبراهيم زكي خورشيد، عبد الحميد يونس، دائرة المعارف الإسلامية: اصدر بالألمانية والإنجليزية والفرنسية واعتمد في الترجمة العربية على الأصلين الإنجليزي والفرنسي، الطبعة ٢، القاهرة: دار الشعب، -۱۹٦۹ (Arabic)
 * محمود الحسن عارف، مختصر اردو دائرۀ معارف اسلامیه، لاهور: دانشگاه پنجاب، ۲۵ ج.ها، ۱۹۵۹-۱۹۹۳ (Urdu)

2nd edition, EI2

 * Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al., Encyclopædia of Islam, 2nd Edition., 12 vols. with indexes, etc., Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005
 * Vol. 1, A – l–B, Edited by an Editorial Committee Consisting of H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. Lévi-Provençal, J. Schacht, Assisted by S. M. Stern (pp. 1–320); – B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht, Assisted by C. Dumont and R. M. Savory (pp. 321–1359). 1960. ISBN 90-04-08114-3
 * Vol. 2, C–G, Edited by B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht. Assisted by J. Burton-Page, C. Dumont and V.L. Ménage., 1965. ISBN 90-04-07026-5
 * Vol. 3, H–Iram Edited by B. Lewis, V.L. Ménage, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht, Assisted by C. Dumont, E. van Donzel and G.R. Hawting eds., 1971. ISBN 90-04-08118-6
 * Vol. 4, Iran–Kha, Edited by E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by C. Dumont, G.R. Hawting and M. Paterson (pp. 1–256); – C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by C. Dumont and M. Paterson (pp. 257–768); – Assisted by F. Th. Dijkema, M., 1978. ISBN 90-04-05745-5
 * Vol. 5, Khe–Mahi, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema and S. Nurit., 1986. ISBN 90-04-07819-3
 * via Google Books
 * Vol. 6, Mahk–Mid, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema and S. Nurit. With B. Lewis (pp. 1–512) and W.P. Heinrichs (pp. 513–1044)., 1991. ISBN 90-04-08112-7
 * Vol. 7, Mif–Naz, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema (pp. 1–384), P. J. Bearman (pp. 385–1058) and Mme S. Nurit, 1993. ISBN 90-04-09419-9
 * Vol. 8, Ned–Sam, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs and G. Lecomte, Assisted by P.J. Bearman and Mme S. Nurit., 1995. ISBN 90-04-09834-8
 * Vol. 9, San–Sze, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs and the late G. Lecomte, 1997. ISBN 90-04-10422-4
 * Vol. 10, Tā'–U[..], Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2000. ISBN 90-04-11211-1
 * Vol. 11, V–Z, Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2002. ISBN 90-04-12756-9
 * Vol. 12, Supplement, Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2004. ISBN 90-04-13974-5
 * Glossary and index of terms to v. 1–9, 1999. ISBN 90-04-11635-4
 * Index of proper names v. 1–10, 2002. ISBN 90-04-12107-2
 * Index of subjects, fasc. 1, compiled by P. J. Bearman, 2005. ISBN 90-04-14361-0
 * Glossary and index of terms to v. 1–12, 2006. ISBN 90-04-15610-0
 * An Historical Atlas of Islam, ed., William C. Brice, 1981. ISBN 90-04-06116-9
 * E. van Donzel, Islamic desk reference: compiled from The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994. ISBN 90-04-09738-4 (an abridged selection)

3rd edition, EI3

 * Edited by Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett K. Rowson, Encyclopædia of Islam, 3rd Edition., available online, printed "Parts" appearing four times per year, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2007–.

Urdu
It was translated into Urdu in 23 volumes named Urdu Daira Maarif Islamiya, published by University of the Punjab.

title: Encyclopaedia of Islam


text:
Ronald Fogleman

Ronald Robert Fogleman (born January 27, 1942) is a retired United States Air Force general who served as the 15th Chief of Staff of the Air Force from 1994 to 1997 and as Commanding General of the United States Transportation Command from 1992 to 1994.

Air Force career
A 1963 graduate from the United States Air Force Academy, he holds a master's degree in military history and political science from Duke University. A command pilot and a parachutist, he amassed more than 6,800 flying hours in fighter, transport, tanker and rotary wing aircraft. He flew 315 combat missions and logged 806 hours of combat flying in fighter aircraft. Eighty of his missions during the Vietnam War were as a "Misty FAC" in the F-100F Super Sabre at Phù Cát Air Base, South Vietnam between 25 December 1968 and 23 April 1969.

Fogleman was shot down in Vietnam in 1968, while piloting an F-100. He was rescued by clinging to an AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter that landed at the crash site.

In early assignments he instructed student pilots, performed combat duty as a fighter pilot and high-speed forward air controller in Vietnam and Thailand, taught history at the Air Force Academy and conducted flight operations in Europe—including duty as an F-15 Eagle aircraft demonstration pilot for international airshows. He commanded a USAF wing, an air division, a numbered air force, a major command and a unified combatant command.

Fogleman was the first graduate of the United States Air Force Academy to advance to Chief of Staff of the Air Force. During his tenure, he introduced a simplified code of conduct for airmen, which remains in use today. Called the "Air Force Core Values", the code demands "Integrity First, Service Before Self, and Excellence in All We Do."

During the Bosnian War, Fogleman was - in his position as Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force - involved in the planning of a rescue operation of Scott O'Grady, an American pilot who got shot down by Serbian forces in June 1995. Fogleman's decision to share news of the signals that O'Grady had allegedly sent before the rescue operation was complete, led to criticism at the time. Despite Fogleman releasing this "extremely sensitive piece of information", O'Grady was rescued.

In 1996 Fogleman created the Chief of Staff of the US Air Force (CSAF) Professional Reading Program in order to "develop a common frame of reference among Air Force members -- officers, enlisted, and civilians -- to help each of us become better, more effective advocates of air and space power." The list has been enhanced by subsequent CSAF's and includes books by Rolf Dobelli, Simon Sinek, and Victor Davis Hansen.

Fogleman said in a December 1997 interview—published by Aerospace Power Journal in the spring of 2001—that his retirement was to allow the Secretary of Defense to make a decision on the future of Brigadier General Terryl J. Schwalier, the senior officer in Riyadh at the time of the Khobar Towers bombing, on the merits and facts of the case rather than in response to a perceived protest by a service chief. He did not resign in protest over policy; this would have encroached on civilian control of the military.

Post-Air Force career
After his retirement, Fogleman was named to the Boards of Directors of Alliant Techsystems, AAR Corporation, Mesa Air Group, Inc., Tactical Air Support, Inc., World Air Holdings, Inc., and the Tauriga Sciences Inc.'s Business Advisory Board and to the board of advisors of the Code of Support Foundation, a nonprofit military services organization. On November 11, 2009, Fogleman was appointed Chairman of the Board of Directors at Alliant Techsystems Inc., following the retirement of ATK Chairman and CEO Dan Murphy.

As a Boeing consultant, Fogleman said that the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II will not be a combat proven aircraft until it receives the Block 3F software in the early 2020s.

In 2018, Fogleman was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio.

As of 2024, Fogleman serves on the advisory board of the National Security Space Association.

Awards and decorations
In 2013 he was inducted into the Airlift/Tanker Hall of Fame.

title: Ronald Fogleman


text:
Category talk:Female heads of government

Confusing
It is confusing to search Female Heads of State and not find Margaret Thatcher, Indira Gandhi, etc. on the list. For clarity the better-organized Heads of State page should include Heads of Government, as this is a subset of Heads of State. If no disagreement in 1 week I will add Female Heads of Government to Female Heads of State list and add a column of other indicator for Head of State. --Skates61 (talk) 14:04, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Mary Robinson was added to this category but I've removed her because she was a ceremonial head of state rather than an active head of government. If non-executive heads of state are to be included this article should be renamed to something like Category:Female national leaders. Iota 19:33, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * There's already Category:Women rulers, although it's a bit unclear to me exactly where the line lies and whether there should be three categories (heads of government, national leaders, rulers/monarchs) or two or...? Thayvian 11:09, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Acting heads of government?
Should this category include people who were head of government only for short transitional periods, serving as acting President/Prime Minister/whatever? Specifically, I'm thinking of Nyam-Osoryn Tuyaa, who was acting Prime Minister of Mongolia for about a week. On the one hand, such people haven't actually been appointed to actual leadership (just interim caretakership). On the other hand, they're still holding the reins of power, and carrying out the job's functions. Thoughts? -- Vardion 05:50, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This category is missing Indira Ghandi. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 141.140.121.96 (talk • contribs) 21:16, 25 March 2006  (UTC)
 * Someone (accidentally?) deleted much of the end of the article Indira Gandhi, and so the categories were also deleted. The mistake has been reverted. Shenme 21:59, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

Kim Campbell
Does Kim Campbell fit in here?

Tarja Halonen
Where's Tarja Halonen in this category?

Monarchs?
Should this category include monarchs? The first paragraph does not exclude them, but AFAICS the only monarchs in this category are Azarmidokht and Borandukht who are also listed in Category:Queens regnant.--87.162.60.187 (talk) 17:52, 2 April 2008 (UTC)

Indicate nation?
Could we add some immediately visible indication of the nation and time period each woman ruled, so that one doesn't have to click on each link to get an idea of the context? (I'm not sure how to code this in a way that would be nice to look at - suggestions from someone more senior?) Artemick1 22 April 2009


text:
Josephine Butler

Josephine Elizabeth Butler (13 April 1828 – 30 December 1906) was an English feminist and social reformer in the Victorian era. She campaigned for women's suffrage, the right of women to better education, the end of coverture in British law, the abolition of child prostitution, and an end to human trafficking of young women and children into European prostitution.

Grey grew up in a well-to-do and politically connected progressive family which helped develop in her a strong social conscience and firmly held religious ideals. She married George Butler, an Anglican divine and schoolmaster, and the couple had four children, the last of whom, Eva, died falling from a banister. The death was a turning point for Butler, and she focused her feelings on helping others, starting with the inhabitants of a local workhouse. She began to campaign for women's rights in British law. In 1869 she became involved in the campaign to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts, legislation that attempted to control the spread of venereal diseases—particularly in the British Army and Royal Navy—through the forced medical examination of alleged prostitutes, a process she described as surgical or steel rape. The campaign achieved its final success in 1886 with the repeal of the Acts. Butler also formed the International Abolitionist Federation, a Europe-wide organisation to combat similar systems on the continent.

While investigating the effect of the Acts, Butler had been appalled that some of the prostitutes were as young as 12, and that there was a slave trade of young women and children from England to the continent for the purpose of prostitution. A campaign to combat the trafficking led to the removal from office of the head of the Belgian Police des Mœurs, and the trial and imprisonment of his deputy and 12 brothel owners, who were all involved in the trade. Butler fought child prostitution with help from the campaigning editor of The Pall Mall Gazette, William Thomas Stead, who purchased a 13-year-old girl from her mother for £5. The subsequent outcry led to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 which raised the age of consent from 13 to 16 and brought in measures to stop children becoming prostitutes. Her final campaign was in the late-1890s, against the Contagious Diseases Acts which continued to be implemented in the British Raj.

Butler wrote more than 90 books and pamphlets over the course of her career, most of which were in support of her campaigning, although she also produced biographies of her father, her husband and Catherine of Siena. Butler's Christian feminism is celebrated by the Church of England with a Lesser Festival, and by representations of her in the stained glass windows of Liverpool's Anglican Cathedral and St Olave's Church in the City of London. Her name appears on the Reformers Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery, London, and Durham University named one of their colleges after her. Her campaign strategies changed the way feminist and suffragists conducted future struggles, and her work brought into the political milieu groups of people that had never been active before. After her death in 1906 the feminist leader Millicent Fawcett hailed her as "the most distinguished Englishwoman of the nineteenth century".

Early life; 1828–1850
Josephine Grey was born on 13 April 1828 at Milfield, Northumberland. She was the fourth daughter and seventh child of Hannah ( Annett) and John Grey, a land agent and agricultural expert, who was a cousin of the reformist British Prime Minister, Lord Grey. In 1833 John was appointed manager of the Greenwich Hospital Estates in Dilston, near Corbridge, Northumberland, and the family moved to the area, where John acted as Lord Grey's chief political agent in Northumberland. In this role John promoted his cousin's political opinions locally, including support for Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, the repeal of the Corn Laws and reform of the poor laws. Josephine was taught at home before completing her schooling at a boarding school in Newcastle upon Tyne which she attended for two years.

John treated his children equally within the home. He educated them in politics and social issues and exposed them to various politically important visitors. John's political work and ideology had a strong influence on his daughter, as did the religious teaching she received from her mother; the family background and the circles in which she moved formed a strong social conscience and a staunch religious faith.

At about the age of 17 Grey went through a religious crisis, which probably stemmed from an incident in which she discovered the body of a suicide while out riding. She became disenchanted with her weekly church attendance, describing the local vicar as "an honest man in the pulpit ... [who] taught us loyally all that he probably himself knew about God, but whose words did not even touch the fringe of my soul's deep discontent". Following her crisis, Grey did not identify with any single strand of Christianity, and remained critical of the Anglican church. She later wrote that she "imbibed from childhood the widest ideas of vital Christianity, only it was Christianity. I have not much sympathy with the Church. She began to speak directly to God in her prayers:

"I spoke to Him in solitude, as a person who could answer. ... Do not imagine that on these occasions I worked myself up into any excitement; there was much pain in such an effort, and dogged determination required. Nor was it a devotional sentiment that urged me on. It was a desire to know God and my relation to Him."

In mid-1847 Grey visited her brother in County Laois, Ireland. It was at the height of the Great Famine and the first time she had come into contact with widespread suffering among the poor; she was deeply affected by her experiences and later recalled that "As a young girl, I had no conception of the full meaning of the misery I saw around me, yet it printed itself upon my brain and memory."

Early married life; 1850–1864

By 1850 Grey had grown close to George Butler, a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, whom she had met at several of the balls hosted around County Durham. By October that year George was sending her self-penned poems; the couple were engaged in January 1851 and married in January 1852. The Butlers set up home at 124, High Street, Oxford. George was a scholar and cleric and shared with his wife a commitment to liberal reforms and a love of Italian culture. The couple also both had a strong Christian belief and Josephine Butler later wrote of her husband that they often "prayed together that a holy revolution might come about and that the Kingdom of God might be established on the earth".

In November 1852 the Butlers had a son, George Grey Butler, followed by a second, Arthur Stanley—known as Stanley—in May 1854. Butler's later memories of Oxford were of a closeted and misogynist community lacking in family life; she was often the only female at social gatherings and would listen in anger to what her biographer Judith Walkowitz describes as "the open acceptance of the double standard by the gentlemen of the university". Butler was offended by a discussion regarding the publication in 1853 of Elizabeth Gaskell's novel Ruth in which the heroine is seduced by a man of means and subsequently abandoned. Butler saw that the male conversationalists considered it natural that a "moral lapse in a woman was spoken of as an immensely worse thing than in a man"; she decided not to voice her feelings on the point but "to speak little with men, but much with God". As a more practical measure she—and George—began to help many of the fallen woman of Oxford and invited some to live in their house. One case in which they were involved concerned a young woman serving a prison sentence at Newgate Prison. She had been seduced by a university don who had subsequently abandoned her; the woman had murdered her baby in despair. The Butlers contacted the governor of Newgate to arrange for her to stay in their house at the end of her sentence.

In 1856 Butler's health began to suffer from Oxford's damp atmosphere, which exacerbated a long-standing lesion on her lung; her doctor informed her that to remain in Oxford could be fatal. As an immediate step George purchased a house in Clifton, near Bristol, where their third son, Charles, was born in 1857. The same year, as a longer-term measure, George took the position of vice-principal at Cheltenham College and they moved to a local house. They continued their support for liberal causes, including that of the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi, although their sympathy for the Union side in the American Civil War led to social ostracism; Butler considered that the resultant feeling of social isolation "was often painful ... but the discipline was useful".

In May 1859 Butler gave birth to her final child, a daughter, Evangeline Mary, known as Eva. In August 1864 Eva fell 40 ft from the top-floor banister onto the stone floor of the hallway in her home; she died three hours later. Butler was distraught at the loss and had disturbed sleep for several years; she was unable to write about the circumstances until 30 years later. The subsequent inquest gave a verdict of accidental death.

In October 1864 Stanley contracted diphtheria while Butler was still grieving for Eva. She was suffering from depression and was in poor health. After the worst of Stanley's ailment passed, Butler decided to take him to Naples for them both to rest and recuperate. The ship in which they travelled down the west coast of Italy faced rough weather, and Butler had a physical breakdown on board from which she nearly died.

Liverpool and the start of reform work; 1866–1869
In January 1866 George was appointed headmaster of Liverpool College, and the family moved to premises in the Dingle area. Despite the new surroundings, Butler continued to mourn for Eva but focused her feelings on helping others; she later wrote that she "became possessed with an irresistible urge to go forth and find some pain keener than my own, to meet with people more unhappy than myself. ... It was not difficult to find misery in Liverpool." She made regular visits to the workhouse at Brownlow Hill, an institution that could hold 5,000 individuals. She would sit with the women in the cellars—many of whom were prisoners—and pick oakum with them, while discussing the Bible or praying with them.

Just as they had done in Cheltenham, the Butlers began providing shelter in their own home for some of the women, often prostitutes in the terminal stages of venereal disease. It soon became clear that there were more women in need than they could provide for, so Butler set up a hostel, with funds from local men of means. By Easter 1867 she had established a second, larger home, in which more appropriate work was provided, such as sewing and the manufacture of envelopes; the "Industrial Home", as she called it, was funded by the workhouse committee and local merchants.

Butler campaigned for women's rights, including the right to the vote and to have a better education. In 1866 she was a signatory on a petition to amend the Reform Bill to widen the franchise to include women. The petition, which was supported by the MP and philosopher John Stuart Mill, was ignored and the bill became law.

Butler considered the Liverpool hostels a stop-gap; women would continue to struggle to find employment until they had been better educated. In 1867, with the suffragist Anne Clough, she established the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, which aimed to raise the status of governesses and female teachers to that of a profession; she served as its president until 1873. A series of lectures, initially in towns in the north of England, began under James Stuart, a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Although it was thought thirty students would sign up, three hundred joined. In 1868 Butler published "The Education and Employment of Women", her first pamphlet, in which she argued for access to higher education for women, and more equal access to a wider range of jobs. It was the first of 90 books and pamphlets she wrote. That May she petitioned the senate of the University of Cambridge to provide examinations for women; the Cambridge Higher Examination for women was introduced the following year. Jordan notes that "much of the credit for this should go to Anne Clough, but ... Butler played a very influential part ... of the campaign."

At the time British law relating to marriage was based on the legal doctrine of coverture, in which a woman's legal rights and obligations were subsumed by those of her husband upon their matrimony. By law a woman had no separate legal existence, and all her property became her husband's; divorce initiated by a woman was difficult and complicated. In April 1868 Butler and fellow suffragist Elizabeth Wolstenholme set up and became joint secretaries of the Married Women's Property Committee to pressure parliament into changing the law. Butler remained on the committee until the campaign was successful, with the passing into law of the Married Women's Property Act 1882.

First attempt to repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts; 1869–1874

In 1869 Butler became aware of the Contagious Diseases Acts. They had been introduced in 1864, 1866 and 1869 to regulate prostitution in an attempt to control the spread of venereal diseases, particularly in the British Army and Royal Navy. The Acts authorised the police to detain women in specific areas considered to be prostitutes—no evidence was needed, other than the police officer's word. If a magistrate agreed, women were given genital examinations. If women were suffering from sexually transmitted diseases, they were held in a lock hospital until the condition was cured. If they refused to be examined or hospitalised they could be imprisoned, often with hard labour.

Units of plain-clothed policemen specialised in arresting suspected prostitutes; according to Jordan, the officers were "hated for their surveillance and harassment of prostitutes and working-class women ... who they treated with little regard for their legal rights". Women who were subjected to the examination found their names and reputations affected and, according to the historian Hilary Cashman, "the Acts had the effect of turning them to prostitution by barring respectable ways of life to them".

In September 1869 Wolstenholme met Butler in Bristol to discuss what could be done about the Acts. The National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts was founded that October, but excluded women from its membership. In response, Wolstenholme and Butler formed the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts (LNA) before the end of the year. The organisation published a Ladies Manifesto, which stated that the Acts were discriminatory on grounds of both sex and class; the Acts, it was claimed:

"not only deprived poor women of their constitutional rights and forced them to submit to a degrading internal examination, but they officially sanctioned a double standard of sexual morality, which justified male sexual access to a class of 'fallen' women and penalised women for engaging in the same vice as men."

On 31 December 1869 the Ladies National Association published a statement in The Daily News that it had "been formed for the purposes of obtaining the repeal of these obnoxious Acts". Among the 124 signatories were the social theorist Harriet Martineau and the social reformer Florence Nightingale.

Butler toured Britain in 1870, travelling 3,700 miles to attend 99 meetings in the course of the year. She focused her attention on working-class family men, the majority of whom were outraged at the description Butler gave of the examination women were forced to undergo; she called the process surgical or steel rape. Although she persuaded many members of her audiences, she faced significant opposition, which put her in danger. At one meeting pimps threw cow dung at her; at another, the windows of her hotel were smashed, while at a third, threats were made to burn down the building where she was hosting a meeting.

At the 1870 Colchester parliamentary by-election the LNA fielded a candidate against the Liberal Party candidate Sir Henry Storks, a supporter of the Acts, who had implemented a similar regime when he commanded the British army in Malta. Butler held several local meetings during the campaign; during one, she was chased by a group of brothel owners. The presence of the LNA candidate split the Liberal vote and allowed the Conservative Party candidate to win the seat; Butler considered that "it proved to be somewhat of a turning-point in the history of our crusade". Because of Stork's loss at the by-election the Home Secretary, Henry Bruce, announced a Royal Commission to examine the situation. One MP told Butler that

"Your manifesto has shaken us very badly in the House of Commons; a leading man in the House remarked to me, "We know how to manage any other opposition in the House or in the country, but this is very awkward for us—this revolt of the women. It is quite a new thing; what are we to do with such an opposition as this?""

The commission began work in early January 1871 and spent six months taking evidence. After Butler testified on 18 March, a member of the committee, Liberal MP Peter Rylands, stated: "I am not accustomed to religious phraseology, but I cannot give you an idea of the effect produced except by saying that the spirit of God was there". Nevertheless, the commission's report defended the one-sided nature of the legislation, saying "... there is no comparison to be made between prostitutes and the men who consort with them. With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain; with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse." The report accepted the findings that the sexual health of men in the 18 areas covered by the Acts had improved. In relation to the compulsory examinations, the commission was swayed by the descriptions of "steel rape", and suggested it should be voluntary not compulsory. The commission heard significant evidence that many prostitutes were as young as 12 and recommended that the age of consent should be raised from 12 to 14. Bruce took no action on the recommendations for six months.

In February 1872 Bruce proposed a bill that took some of the commission's recommendations, but widened the geographical scope from the 18 military centres to the whole of the UK. Although the LNA's initial stance was to accept some of the bill's clauses and try and change others, Butler rejected it in its entirety and published The New Era, a 56-page pamphlet attacking the legislation; the pamphlet was re-published in serial form in The Shield. It was the first split in the repeal movement and she lost many personal supporters because of her stance. The bill faced too much opposition from the parliamentary supporters of the Contagious Diseases Acts, and was withdrawn.

Two months after the withdrawal of Bruce's bill, a ministerial by-election in Pontefract in 1872 gave the LNA an opportunity for further action. Although they did not field a candidate, Butler attended meetings in the town. At one LNA meeting the floor of the room had been liberally sprinkled with cayenne pepper by her opponents, making speaking difficult. After it was cleared away, her opponents set bales of straw alight in a storeroom below, which led to smoke rising through the floorboards; two members of the Metropolitan Police—specially drafted into the town for the by-election—looked on but took no action. Although the incumbent Liberal candidate, Hugh Childers, was returned, there were heavy abstentions, and his vote was reduced by around 150 (from an electorate of 2,000). In December 1872 Butler met the Prime Minister, William Gladstone, when he visited Liverpool College. Although he supported the aims of the LNA, he was politically unable to back the LNA publicly, and had supported Bruce's bill.

European pressure and the white slave trade; 1874–1880

The fall of the Liberal government in 1874, and its replacement with Benjamin Disraeli's Conservative administration meant that the repeal campaign stalled; Butler called it a "year of discouragement" when there was "deep depression in the work". Although the LNA kept up the pressure, progress in persuading Liberal MPs to oppose the Contagious Diseases Acts was slow, and the government was implacable in its support of the measures.

At a meeting of regional LNA branches in May, one speech focused on legislation in Europe; the meeting resolved to correspond with sister organisations on the continent. At the start of December 1874 Butler left for Paris and a tour that covered France, Italy and Switzerland, where she met with local pressure groups and civic authorities. She encountered strong support from feminist groups, but hostility from the authorities. She returned from her travels at the end of February 1875.

As a result of her experiences, in March 1875 Butler formed the British and Continental Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution (later renamed the International Abolitionist Federation), an organisation that campaigned against state regulation of prostitution and for "the abolition of female slavery and the elevation of public morality among men". The Liberal MP James Stansfeld—who wished to repeal the Acts—became the federation's first general secretary; Butler and her friend, the Liberal MP Henry Wilson, became joint secretaries.

In 1878 Butler wrote a biography of Catherine of Siena, which Glen Petrie—her biographer—thought was probably her best work; Walkowitz considers the work provided a "historical justification for her own political activism". Another biographer, Helen Mathers, believes that "in emphasising that she and Catherine were born to be leaders, of both men and women, ... [Butler] made a profound contribution to feminism".

Butler became aware of the slave trade of young women and children from England to mainland Europe in 1879. Young girls were considered "fair game", according to Mathers, as the law allowed them to become prostitutes at the age of 13. After playing a minor role in starting an investigation into an accusation of trafficking, Butler became active in the campaign in May 1880, and wrote to The Shield that "the official houses of prostitution in Brussels are crowded with English minor girls", and that in one house "there are immured little children, English girls of from twelve to fifteen years of age ... stolen, kidnapped, betrayed, got from English country villages by every artifice and sold to these human shambles". She visited Brussels where she met the mayor and local councillors and made allegations against the head of the Belgian Police des Mœurs and his deputy as to their involvement in the trade. After the meeting she was contacted by a detective who confirmed that the senior members of the Police des Mœurs were guilty of collusion with brothel keepers. She returned home and filed a deposition containing a copy of the statement from the detective and sent them to the Procureur du Roi (Chief Prosecutor) and the British Home Secretary. Following an investigation in Belgium, the head of the Police des Mœurs was removed from office, and his deputy was put on trial alongside 12 brothel owners; all were imprisoned for their roles in the trade.

Second attempt to repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts; 1880–1885
The 1880 general election had removed Disraeli's Conservative party from office; they were replaced by Gladstone's second ministry containing a high proportion of MPs who wanted to repeal the Acts. As Prime Minister, Gladstone had the power to nominate candidates to vacant positions within the Church and, in June 1882, he offered George Butler the position of canon of Winchester Cathedral. George had been considering retirement, but he and Josephine were concerned about their finances, as much of their income had been spent on the LNA and other causes Josephine supported. George accepted the appointment, and they moved into a grace and favour home near the cathedral. Josephine Butler set up another hostel for women near their home.

Political pressure from Liberal backbenchers, particularly Joseph Chamberlain and Charles Hopwood, led to increasing opposition to the Acts. In February 1883 Hopwood tabled a resolution in parliament: "That this House disapproves of the compulsory examination of women under the Contagious Diseases Acts", which was debated in April. MPs voted by a majority of 72 to suspend the inspections; three years later the Acts were formally repealed.

Child prostitution and Eliza Armstrong; 1885–1887
In 1885 Butler met Florence Soper Booth, the daughter-in-law of William Booth, who founded the Salvation Army. The meeting led to Butler's involvement in the campaign to expose child prostitution in Britain and its associated trade. Along with Booth, Benjamin Scott the City Chamberlain and several supporters from the LNA, she persuaded the campaigning editor of The Pall Mall Gazette, William Thomas Stead, to help their cause.

Stead considered the best way to prove that the purchase of young girls for prostitution took place in London, was to buy a girl himself. Butler introduced him to a former prostitute and brothel owner who was staying in her hostel. In a slum in Marylebone, Stead purchased a 13-year-old girl from her mother for £5, and took her to France. In July 1885 Stead began the publication of a series of articles entitled "The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon", exposing the extent of child prostitution in London. In the first article—which covered six pages of the Gazette—Stead recounted an interview he had with Howard Vincent, the head of the Criminal Investigation Department:

""But", I said in amazement, "then do you mean to tell me that in very truth actual rapes, in the legal sense of the word, are constantly being perpetrated in London on unwilling virgins, purveyed and procured to rich men at so much a head by keepers of brothels?" "Certainly", said he, "there is not a doubt of it." "Why", I exclaimed, "the very thought is enough to raise hell." "It is true", he said; "and although it ought to raise hell, it does not even raise the neighbours.""

On 16 July—ten days after the article was published—Butler gave a speech at a meeting at London's Exeter Hall calling for increased protection for the young and the raising of the age of consent. The following day she and George left for a holiday in Switzerland and France. While they were away, a moribund parliamentary bill from 1883 dealing with the age of consent   was re-debated by MPs; the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 was passed on 14 August 1885. The Act raised the age of consent from 13 to 16 years of age, while the procurement of girls for prostitution by administering drugs, intimidation or fraud was made a criminal offence, as was the abduction of a girl under 18 for purposes of carnal knowledge. The police investigated Stead's purchase, and Butler was forced to cut her holiday short to return for questioning. Although she avoided all charges, Stead was imprisoned for three months.

The passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act led to the formation of purity societies, such as the White Cross Army, whose aims were to force the closure of brothels through prosecution. The societies widened their remit to suppress what they considered indecent literature—including information on birth control—and the entertainment provided by the music halls. Butler warned against the purity societies because of their "fatuous belief that you can oblige human beings to be moral by force, and in so doing that you may in some way promote social purity". Her warnings went unheeded by other suffragists, and some, such as Millicent Fawcett—who was later Butler's biographer—continued to combine their activities in the feminist movement with the work for the purity societies.

India, Empire and the final years; 1897–1906

Although the Contagious Diseases Acts had been repealed in the UK, the equivalent legislation was active in the British Raj in India, where prostitutes near the British cantonments were subjected to regular forced examinations. The relevant law was contained in the Special Cantonments Acts which had been put on to a practical footing by Major-General Edward Chapman, who issued standing orders for the inspection of prostitutes, and the provision of "a sufficient number of women, to take care that they are sufficiently attractive, to provide them with proper houses".

Butler began a new campaign to have the legislation repealed, comparing the girls to slaves. After the campaign put pressure on MPs, the widespread publication of Chapman's orders led to what Mathers describes as "outrage across Britain". In June 1888 the House of Commons passed a unanimous resolution repealing the legislation, and the Indian government was ordered to cancel the Acts. To circumvent the order, the India Office advised the Viceroy of India to instigate new legislation ensuring that prostitutes suspected of carrying contagious diseases had to undergo an examination or face expulsion from the cantonment.

Towards the end of the 1880s George's health began to decline, and Butler spent increasing time looking after him. They holidayed in Naples in 1889, but George contracted influenza in the 1889–90 pandemic. They returned to Britain but George died on 14 March 1890; Butler suspended campaigning in the aftermath of his death. Soon after, she left Winchester, and moved to a house in Wimbledon, London, which she shared with her eldest son and his wife.

Butler, at 62, felt she was too old to travel to India, but two American supporters visited on her behalf and spent four months building a dossier showing that the lock hospitals, compulsory examination and use of underage prostitutes—some as young as 11—were all continuing to operate. The campaign in Britain pushed again for changes, and Butler spoke at meetings, published pamphlets and wrote to missionaries in India.

Although many of Butler's friends and supporters of shared causes spoke out against British Imperial Policy, Butler did not. She wrote that because of the work Britain had undertaken in making slavery illegal, "[w]ith all her faults, looked at from God's point of view, England is the best, and the least guilty of the nations". During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), Butler published Native Races and the War (1900), in which she supported British action and its imperialist policy. In the book she took a strong line against the casual racism inherent in her countrymen's dealings with foreigners, writing:

"Great Britain will in future be judged, condemned or justified, according to her treatment of those innumerable, coloured races, heathen or partly Christianized, over whom her rule extends ... Race prejudice is a poison which will have to be cast out if the world is ever to be Christianized, and if Great Britain is to maintain the high and responsible place among the nations which has been given to her."

From 1901 Butler began to withdraw from public life, resigning her positions in the campaign organisations and spending more time with her family. In 1903 she moved to Wooler in Northumberland, to live near her eldest son. On 30 December 1906 she died at home and was buried in the nearby village of Kirknewton.

Approach, analysis and legacy
In 1907 Josephine Butler's name was added to the south side of the Reformers' Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery, London. The memorial was erected for those "who had defied custom and interest for the sake of conscience and public good". She is celebrated in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 May, and represented in a stained glass window in Liverpool's Anglican Cathedral, All Saints' Church, Cambridge and St Olave's Church in the City of London.

Her connections to Liverpool were memorialised in a more secular fashion. A building in the Faculty of Business and Law at Liverpool John Moores University was named "Josephine Butler House". The building, originally the first Radium Institute in the UK, in the Cultural Quarter in Hope Street, was built in 1867 and demolished in 2013 when the site became a car park and subsequently student housing which opened in 2015.

In 1915 the LNA merged with the International Abolitionist Federation to form the Association of Moral and Social Hygiene, which changed its name to the Josephine Butler Society in 1953. As at 2017 the society still operates; it campaigns for the protection of prostitutes and provides "protection for women and children who are criminally detained, violently abused or exploited by others who profit from their prostitution".

In 2005 Durham University named Josephine Butler College after her, reflecting her and George's connection to the area and the university. The Women's Library, at the London School of Economics, holds a number of collections related to Butler. They include papers from the Ladies' National Association; more than 2,500 letters in the Josephine Butler Letter Collection; and the Josephine Butler Society Library consisting of books and pamphlets collected by the society. In 2001 English Heritage placed a blue plaque on her former residence in Wimbledon; her former house in Cheltenham was demolished in the 1970s, but in 2002 the Cheltenham Civic Society placed a plaque on the building which now occupies the site.

Butler was not only a staunch feminist but a passionate Christian, whose favourite phrase was "God and one woman make a majority". Although staunchly liberal, she felt constant tensions between her liberal and feminist philosophies. According to the feminist historian Barbara Caine, "Liberalism provided the framework for Butler's whole social and political approach. It was an integral part of her feminism", although it was in conflict with the liberal approach to sexuality and desire. Butler resolved the conflict through her religion.

According to Walkowitz, Butler "pushed liberal feminism in new directions, developing theories and methods of political agitation that directly affected future campaigns for the emancipation of women". She developed new approaches to campaigning and moved the debate beyond discussions in middle-class houses to the public forum, bringing into the political debate women who had never been involved before. Butler's campaigning, says Walkowitz, "not only reshaped gender, class, and sexual subjectivities in late Victorian Britain but also informed national political history and state-building".

Numerous historians consider the success of the campaign to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts to be a milestone in the history of female emancipation. According to the political historian Margaret Hamilton, the campaign showed that "attitudes toward women were changing". The feminist scholar Sheila Jeffreys says that Butler is "one of the bravest and most imaginative feminists in history", while Fawcett wrote that she was "convinced that ... [Butler] should take the rank of the most distinguished Englishwoman of the nineteenth century". Her unnamed obituarist in The Daily News considered that Butler's name

"will always rank amongst the noblest of the social reformers, the fruit of whose labours is the highest inheritance that we have. She fought with enormous courage and self-sacrifice in a battlefield where she was subjected to the fiercest antagonism ... She never faltered in her task, and it is to her in supreme that the English statute book owes the removal of one of the greatest blots that ever defaced it. Her victory marked one of the great stages of progress of woman to that equality of treatment which is the final test of a nation's civilization."

title: Josephine Butler


text:
WXYC

WXYC (89.3 FM) is an American radio station broadcasting a college radio format. Licensed to Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States, the station is run by students of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The station is owned by Student Educational Broadcasting, Inc. The station operates with an effective radiated power of 1,100 watts from an antenna height above average terrain of 147 m.

The station broadcasts 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Its signal has been simulcast on the Internet by ibiblio since November 1994 and is credited as having performed the first Internet radio broadcast in the world. It can also be found on iTunes, where, based on listener feedback, it would appear to enjoy some popularity in the UK and the American Northeast among Internet listeners.

The station is known for an eclectic variety of content, including: jazz, blues, rock, hip hop, zydeco, metal, electronic music, folk music, bluegrass, country, traditional Asian music, traditional African music, calypso, samba, tejano, mariachi, Latin American music, funk, electroclash, synthpop, pop, cajun, doo wop, reggae, dance hall, classical, classic rock, and almost any other type of music.

There is a stated emphasis on music from the 20th century onwards (as opposed to classical), though classical music is played from time to time. Furthermore, there is a conscious attempt to give artists from North Carolina (especially the greater Chapel Hill area) more air time, but local artists do not dominate the content. There are also specialty talk shows that highlight sports, news, and student government at UNC. Specialty music shows exhibit material from UNC's Southern Folklife Collection, music usually considered too erratic, abrasive, or lengthy for regular radio play (even by WXYC's permissive standards), local music, newly released music, and electronic/dance. Additionally, every Thursday night there is a three-hour theme show. The theme of this show changes every week, but a few examples include: songs about chickens, music from Mexico, Swing music from occupied Europe, the northern England electronic scene, batucada, music performed by convicted criminals, and Carolina Soul of the 1960s through 1980s.

WXYC's offices and studios are located in the Frank Porter Graham Student Union on the campus of the University of North Carolina. WXYC's transmitter is located on Jones Ferry Road in Chatham County, North Carolina.

WXYC is known for putting on dances throughout the year with various themes, including the 80s, the early 1990s, and the best music released in the past year.

History
Prior to 1977, WXYC was a carrier current AM station known as WCAR.

Until 1970, several UNC residence colleges had their own carrier current stations. Morrison Dormitory had WMO, Ehringhaus had WSTD, Granville Towers had WILD and Hinton James also had its own station. In the fall of 1969, Hinton James joined Ehringhaus to form WRSC (Radio South Campus). Meanwhile, Morrison and Granville Towers formed WCAR which broadcast from the basement of Granville West. In January 1970, all of these stations consolidated into WCAR. The WCAR studios were located in the basement of Ehringhaus Dormitory and broadcast to every other dorm via AM frequency 550 kHz. The management of WCAR planned to upgrade the service with the hope of eventually getting an FM license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). At that time, it was anticipated that the station would serve as a training ground for future broadcasters and not act solely an outlet for what was called at the time "progressive rock."

In order to achieve their ambitious plans, many WCAR staff members ran for Student Legislature (SL). In 1972, a running joke around campus was that the SL was made up of three parties, the liberals, the conservatives, and WCAR. Through the shrewd use of political power, WCAR was allocated the funds necessary to move its studios and offices to the Frank Porter Graham Student Union in 1973. UNC students Jim Srebro, Gary Rendsburg, Jim Bond, Bob Heymann, Randy Wolfe, Monte Plott, and George Frye were all instrumental in the upgrading of facilities and doing the preliminary engineering and legal work in order to be licensed as an FM station. A student referendum was held in 1973 to allocate the necessary funds to formally apply for and build an FM station. Through the work of WCAR volunteers, the referendum passed.

In 1974, WCAR received its construction permit from the FCC to begin building its FM station. When the UNC administration realized that this "new" FM station would be licensed with over 10,000 watts of power and therefore could be clearly heard in Raleigh and by members of the North Carolina General Assembly, it pulled its support for the entire project. The FCC subsequently canceled the construction permit.

In response, WCAR's management formed a not-for-profit corporation, Student Educational Broadcasting, Inc., which would become the new licensee of WXYC. Jim Srebro served as the first Chairman of Student Educational Broadcasting, Inc. In the intervening time, however, other new FM stations were licensed by the FCC in North Carolina which limited WXYC to only 400 watts of power when it went on the air in March 1977. In 2009 the station relocated its transmitter facilities and increased power to 1,100 watts.

In 1994 WXYC disc jockey Michael Shoffner set up the station's Internet radio broadcast, which runs to this day and is widely considered to be the first such broadcast.

North Carolina Public Radio (WUNC) is also affiliated with the university.

Alumni

 * Mary Lattimore
 * Rick Dees
 * Peter Gammons, Boston Globe sportswriter
 * Stuart Scott, deceased, coanchor of ESPN SportsCenter
 * Ken Lowe, President and CEO of E.W. Scripps Co., who was known in the early 1970s by his WKIX air name of Steve Roddy
 * Peyton Reed, director of The Weird Al Show and other films
 * Kevin M. Kruse, historian
 * Jim Bond, Washington D.C. retired broadcasting consultant, Bond and Pecaro
 * Bob Heymann, former NBC and CBS radio announcer and current national radio and TV station broker at Media Services Group
 * Randy Wolfe, CBS News producer
 * John Altschuler, executive producer and writer for King of the Hill
 * Deborah Potter, President and Executive Director of NewsLab, and a former correspondent for CBS and CNN, was station manager of WCAR in the early 1970s
 * Scott Jacobson, TV writer for Bob's Burgers, formerly Saturday Night Live, The Daily Show
 * Tom Maxwell, former member of the Squirrel Nut Zippers
 * Dave Brylawski, former Polvo guitarist
 * Colin Soloway, Newsweek reporter
 * Brant Hart, Operations Manager at GHB Broadcasting in Charlotte. Hosted "The Unoriginal Sunday Night Hall of Fame" on WCAR 1971-73 as Brian Lee.

title: WXYC


text:
Aspen/Snowmass

Aspen Snowmass is a winter resort complex located in Pitkin County in western Colorado in the United States. Owned and operated by the Aspen Skiing Company it comprises four skiing/snowboarding areas on four adjacent mountains in the vicinity of the towns of Aspen and Snowmass Village. The four areas collectively form one of the most famous winter resorts in the world and are annually the destination for visitors from all over the world. The four ski areas of the complex are:
 * Aspen Mountain, the oldest of the four areas, located on Bell Mountain and the Aspen Mountain above the town of Aspen.
 * Aspen Highlands, located on Highland Peak and Loge Peak just north of Aspen.
 * Buttermilk, a low altitude family-oriented ski area just north of Aspen Highlands, but also known for its world class terrain park, host of the X Games.
 * Snowmass, the largest of the four areas (bigger than the other three combined), located near Snowmass Village.

title: Aspen/Snowmass


text:
User:Mia-Cle

Miami-Cleveland

title: User:Mia-Cle


text:
Atter

Atter is an older germanic term for "poisonous bodily fluid", especially venom of a venomous animal, such as a snake, dragon or other reptile, but also other vile corrupt or morbid substance from the body, such as pus from a sore or wound, as well as bitter substance, such as bile. Figuratively, it can also mean moral corruption or corruptness; noxious or corrupt influence, poison to the soul, evil, anger, envy, hatred; as well as destruction and death.

Today, atter is commonly associated with the Norse mythology, where it plays an important role in various contexts – see subsequent section:.

Etymology
Atter is derived from ātor and ăttor, which in turn derives from ĕttar, which stems from a aitrą (“poison, pus”), which stems from a Proto-Indo-European: *h₂eyd-ro-m, from a *h₂eyd- (“to swell; swelling, tumour, abscess”), related to οἶδος (“swelling, tumour, abscess, produced by internal action”). It is directly cognate with eitr and its derivatives eitur, eiter, etter, edder, as well as Eiter and etter, all with similar meaning. Forms of the word also exist in Scots and a variety of other regional and minority languages in Europe.

While mostly archaic or archaized in English, the word lives on with some strength in other languages. The Icelandic form eitur is the common word for “poison”, while the Swedish form etter is a word for “venom”, as well as the full poetic meaning in dialectal and archaized language. The German form Eiter and the Dutch form etter are the common word for “pus”.

In Norse mythology
In Norse mythology, “atter” (eitr) plays an important role in various contexts. In one instance in Gylfaginning, atter is dripped on Loki by a venomous snake placed above him by Skaði. In another, it is blown by the worm Jörmungandr during Ragnarök, leading to the death of Thor. Also in Gylfaginning, atter is described as forming in Ginnungagap, which gave rise to the primordial being Ymir, as described by the jötunn Vafþrúðnir in Vafþrúðnismál:

title: Atter