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Talk:Metronidazole

A note
The edit by Johnathonm is probably a copyright violation. It appears that it was copied from a numer of websites. --Clawed 09:47, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * (reverted to pre copyvio version--Duk 16:24, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC))

Internal vs External Application
Metronidazole appears to be prescribed for both internal and external conditions. The article should be edited (by someone more knowledgable than I) to indicate which side effects are related to which route of administration, as they sound likely to differ. 66.93.1.225 16:35, 11 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree, and I am not qualified to edit the article. I have Rozex, which is an external application of metronidazole. Do I still need to be wary of the alcohol issues? Anubis1975 05:40, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi Anubis, it doesn't look like you need to be concerned about the alcohol interaction. Here's some info on topical metronidazole . --Uthbrian (talk) 06:03, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

hi.. i guess someone here can help me.. i was just confused, does the intravenous metronidazole needs to be skin test first or no need already??! because the other day my sister was hospitalized and it was her second time to be given a metronidazole intravenously, the confusing part is that the first time she received metronidazole intravenously a year ago it was skin-tested first and after a (-) result it was given then and now on her second time it was no longer tested and given directly i ask the nurse why he'll give it when its not yet tested and he said there's no need because it actually doesn't need to be tested.. And though my sister was ok and there's no any reaction occurred i was still confused, which is really right. Does it need to be skin tested first or no need already? I'll wait for a reply and thanks much!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.71.45.66 (talk) 07:42, 21 August 2008 (UTC)

 * To the user who posted above me: please note that this is not a help forum. This is a talk page for the discussion of edits to the article for metronidazole. If you have a medical question, please seek professional help. 72.28.178.20 (talk) 18:58, 17 November 2010 (UTC)

Treatment for alcoholism?
I had a nasty experience with metronidazole when I foolishly drunk alcohol two days after finishing a course of the drug. The article mentions the nauseating effects of this combination but I've since heard that this effect used to prevent relapse in recovering alcoholics. Can anyone confirm this? --DrFod 18:17, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Yes, I gather metronidazole's effect with alcholol was used as a basis in the creation of the alcohol avoidence drug antabuse. David Ruben Talk 18:55, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Hmm, information at MedlinePlus recommends a waiting period of at least 3 days after finishing . Peculiarly, one case report suggests that a woman died from the reaction .  However, it's interesting to note that the link between metronidazole and disulfiram-like reactions is now being disputed .  --Uthbrian (talk) 04:40, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

I have been prescribed metronidazole for Crohn's disease, taking 400mg daily for nearly a year now. After avoiding alcohol for the first few months, I took my GE's advice and tried a couple of beers one night. There was no adverse effect. As the article states - the adverse interaction with alcohol is not automatic - in fact fairly unlikely. My GE put it at about 5% (chance of adverse interaction with alcohol). Have drunk alcohol as per usual ever since with no adverse effects. ````

Another Use
This drug is also used to treat Hexamita in fish.

Used on Dogs ?
I took my dog to the vet, were i was given this drug for him. The vet gave me 10 250mg pill's for my dog, after takeing 3 125mg dose's my dog has bumps over 30% of his body

Acne and metronidazole
Can metronidazole be used in treating acne?Misterx 14:48, 28 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, in the form of a gel. It's name brand is MetroGel. thomasc93 (talk) 18:50, 17 November 2010 (UTC)

It is used in Acne Rosecea not, as far as I know, in Acne Vulgaris.Alberich4 (talk) 23:00, 10 July 2021 (UTC)

Amoebic Dysentery from Giardia lamblia?
The article says "Amoebic dysentery due to Entamoeba histolytica or Giardia lamblia" is an indication for use, but (as I understand it) Giardia lamblia is not related to dysentery. Note that neither article references each other. I am not enough of an expert, however, to edit the article. Mike Connors - 17:12, 12 June 2007

 * Dysentry is just diarrhoea with blood. Amoebic dysentery is caused by Entamoeba histolytica. Giardia, whilst a protozoa, is not an amoeba. These are separate problems and the word "or" should be "and", i.e. "Amoebic dysentery due to Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia" - I'll have a go... David Ruben Talk 19:44, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

Please note that Flagyl (metronidazole) was originally produced and marketed by May & Baker Ltd not Pfizer as suggested in the introduction. I worked in the May & Baker research labs. from 1957 to 1972. During that time it came to our notice that an alcoholic sea captain had continued to drink alcohol whilst taking Flagyl. He suffered such a severe reaction that he (reportedly) never drank again. We considered marketing Flagyl as a cure for alcoholism but decided that if a warning was given the patient would choose not to take the medication but it would be unethical if we did not do so. So we dropped the idea. David Clark 11:34 22nd Oct. 2007. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.159.59.131 (talk) 08:36, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Extreme Foul Taste
This stuff tastes worse than anything I have ever tasted because the manufacturer is too cheap to coat the pill in sugar or something. Can we get some secondary sources on that? Agreed. The pills taste foul which could have some percussions on non-compliance.76.85.197.45 (talk) 17:18, 10 February 2008 (UTC)

Agreed! I'd rather chew 20 bayer aspirin than ever have to take this medication again! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.69.55.141 (talk) 06:02, 13 January 2010 (UTC)

nasty tasting Flagyl someone need to make it a 1 time dose!!!!!!!!!!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.2.153.90 (talk) 00:49, 23 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I fourth that notion; it's due to the fact that metronidazole contains nitrogen. Nitrogen/ammonium based antibiotics (or compounds in general) have a very bitter taste. thomasc93 (talk) 18:50, 17 November 2010 (UTC)

Agreed! needs to be Coated. thought about doubling up to get it over with, each dose nearly made me vomit from taste alone. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.179.140.109 (talk) 12:30, 28 August 2011 (UTC)

Can you mix this drug with illegal drugs?
Can you take this drug with chemical street drugs like MDMA? MDA? methamphetamine? Cocaine? LSD? etc.

Will the drug react badly to organic street drugs like Mushrooms, Marijuana?

I really wish they had that on the warning labels for the adverse reactions with other common drugs people use recreationaly. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Eugnie (talk • contribs) 14:40, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

they need to sell Flagyl chewable and with out a prescription! thx! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.2.153.90 (talk) 00:45, 23 April 2010 (UTC)

Mode of Action
Why is there no section on mechanism of action? is it unknown? there should be a section anyways, like on all other drugs here on wiki.MERRF (talk) 21:34, 23 July 2009 (UTC)

This is also good to know!
Found this on another website..

Removed copyrighted material. Invertzoo (talk) 02:34, 15 February 2011 (UTC)

 * NOTE that when it is in the gel form for acne treatment, it's brand name is MetroGel. I'm not familiar with a topical form of Flagyl for cellulitis treatment or something. 72.28.178.20 (talk) 18:55, 17 November 2010 (UTC)

No Mention of Veterinary Use?
This medication is often prescribed by vets to treat for various types of worms, yet this article makes no mention of this. Is there a reason? IndigoAK200 (talk) 16:15, 15 November 2010 (UTC)
 * If it is not clearly in the discussions here why it is excluded, then I would say, can you help us to add it? --Dirk Beetstra T  C 16:17, 15 November 2010 (UTC)
 * I have to admit that veterinary medicine is not my expertise and I usually try to stick to editing articles about topics I'm familiar with. That vets use this medication to treat worms is essentially the breadth of my knowledge on the subject. IndigoAK200 (talk) 16:21, 15 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Veterinary Use section added. Kerani (talk) 00:29, 5 March 2011 (UTC)

Metronidazole Anaerobex
Metronidazole is also manufactured as film-coated tablet (500 mg metronidazole/tablet, other contents: lactose monohydrate) under the brand name Anaerobex for per os. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.127.79.239 (talk) 13:39, 11 March 2011 (UTC)

AdamSEOWorks (talk) 11:08, 28 October 2015 (UTC)

Pregnancy + breast feeding
I removed the line in the header paragraph regarding early pregnancy or breast-feeding being an absolute contraindication because we don't consider this a contraindication in UK and do commonly use standard-dose regimes. I feel that this statement will unnecessarily frighten/confuse patients. I know it's considered an absolute contraindication in the US though. Happy to debate it if anyone has any compelling evidence either way. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.149.217.217 (talk) 11:52, 31 December 2016 (UTC)

Interesting news regarding cancer, bacteria, and metronidazole.
"Why Is This Bacterium Hiding in Human Tumors?" https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/23/health/bacteria-colon-cancer.html?mabReward=ART_CB1&recid=0wp9XL0Nvk8gRI5lMuR5pvAfGhU&recp=2 Thank you, Wordreader (talk) 02:00, 25 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Metronidazole


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Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Next next issue/Retrospective

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
USS Case

Two ships of the United States Navy have been named Case, in honor of Rear Admiral Augustus Case.

 * USS Case (DD-285), a Clemson-class destroyer, commissioned in 1919 and decommissioned in 1930.
 * USS Case (DD-370), a Mahan-class destroyer, commissioned in 1936 and decommissioned in 1945.

title: USS Case


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USS Champlin

USS Champlin may refer to the following ships of the United States Navy:

 * USS Champlin (DD-104), a Wickes-class destroyer launched in 1918 and decommissioned in 1922; sunk in tests 1936
 * USS Champlin (DD-601), a Benson-class destroyer launched in 1942 and decommissioned in 1946; scrapped in 1972

title: USS Champlin


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Staley Field

Staley Field in Decatur, Illinois, United States, was the home of the Decatur Staleys club of the American Professional Football Association in 1920, coached and managed by the young George Halas, who also played for the team.

The team was owned by the A. E. Staley Manufacturing Company, for which Staley Field was the company athletic field.

Staley Field was also used by the company baseball team during the summer months, and Halas also played on that team. The field was also used by the Decatur entry in the Three-I League in 1915 and 1922–23.

Although the Staley football team was popular in 1920, it struggled financially, partly due to Staley Field's 1,500 seating capacity. Fans were charged $1 to attend games and company employees received a 50 percent discount, which was not economically feasible for the Staleys and prompted Halas to move games to Cubs Park (now Wrigley Field) in Chicago.

The Staley company sold the team to Halas and his partners, who transferred the team to Cubs Park in 1921. As part of the deal, they operated under the "Staley" name for one more season. They proceeded to win the APFA championship that season. For 1922, they renamed themselves the Chicago Bears in order to associate themselves with their landlords.

Location
Michael Benson's Ballparks of North America locates the field at Eldorado and 22nd Streets. In fact, the Staley company's own address was 2200 East Eldorado Street. City directories and maps pinpoint the location more precisely, and the external link to the aerial photo places it in relation to the factory complex.

The 1921 city directory gives the location of "Staley Athletic Field" as "North 7th corner Wabash". Wabash, which was the second street north of Eldorado, teed into 7th from the east. The directory shows both A E Staley Mfg Co. and Staley Athletic Field on North Seventh Street. The next entity north is the Wabash Railroad shops. 7th ran along the east edge of the plant, and has since been renumbered to 25th Street. The Wabash Railroad tracks ran along the north edge of the plant, with the shops on the other side of the tracks. The eventual 22nd Street ran along the west edge of the plant.

The 1922 city directory gives the address of Staley Field as 521 North 7th. The 1927 directory says Eldorado corner 7th. By 1929, 7th has become 22nd and Staley Field is no longer listed.

As the data and the photograph indicate, Staley Field was on the east side of 7th (now 22nd), a short distance north of Eldorado. Home plate was in the southeast corner. The third base line paralleled Eldorado, and left field bordered 7th. Right field was a couple of block south of the railroad tracks.

title: Staley Field


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Staplehurst railway station

Staplehurst railway station is on the South Eastern Main Line in England, serving the village of Staplehurst, Kent. It is 41 mi down the line from London Charing Cross. The station and all trains that serve the station are operated by Southeastern.

The station opened in August 1842. It is well known for the Staplehurst rail crash on 9 June 1865 on which Charles Dickens was a passenger.

History
The station was opened by the South Eastern Railway on 31 August 1842, when the line was extended from Tonbridge to Headcorn. The platforms were widened in 1889. A footbridge over the platforms was installed in 1961, in preparation for the electrification of the South Eastern Main Line.

A coal depot was established at Staplehurst in September 1965. All goods facilities were withdrawn on 4 October 1971.

Facilities
Staplehurst is located in the north of the urban area on the A229 road which runs from Chatham to Hastings via Maidstone. The ticket office is located on the London-bound platform 1. A passenger-operated self-service ticket machine is located next to the station.

The station is used by commuters to London from Cranbrook, Sissinghurst and Hawkhurst, which have no stations of their own. Arriva Southern Counties bus 5 links these three settlements to the station.

Services
All services at Staplehurst are operated by Southeastern using EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:

 * 2 tph to London Charing Cross
 * 1 tph to Dover Priory
 * 1 tph to Ramsgate via Canterbury West

Additional services, including trains to and from London Cannon Street and Ramsgate via Deal call at the station during the peak hours.

Incidents
The stretch of line near the station which crosses the River Beult was the site of a fatal train accident on 9 June 1865, which killed ten people and injured forty. This accident is well known in literary circles as Charles Dickens was on the stricken train and survived. The accident left Dickens very anxious about rail travel.

On 15 September 1940, during the Battle of Britain, a Hurricane piloted by Belgian Georges Doutrepont crashed into the station. This also killed the 18 year old station clerk, Charles Ashdown.

On 21 January 1960, the up platform buildings were destroyed by fire. They were replaced by a modern construction.

On 14 September 1996, a train derailed at the station. The cause of the accident was excess speed.

title: Staplehurst railway station


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Ernest Dickerson

Ernest Roscoe Dickerson (born June 25, 1951) is an American director, cinematographer, and screenwriter of film, television, and music videos.

As a cinematographer, Dickerson is known for his frequent collaborations with Spike Lee ever since they were classmates at the Tisch School of the Arts and worked together on Lee's 1983 master's degree thesis student film, Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads, which ultimately won a Student Academy Award. Dickerson went on to shoot the Lee-directed films She's Gotta Have It (1986), School Daze (1988), Do the Right Thing (1989), Mo' Better Blues (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), and Malcolm X (1992).

As a director, Dickerson is known for crime thriller and horror films such as Juice (1992), Demon Knight (1995), Bulletproof (1996), Bones (2001) and Never Die Alone (2004). He has also directed several episodes of acclaimed television series, including Once Upon a Time, The Wire, Dexter, The Walking Dead, and Godfather of Harlem.

Early life
Dickerson was born in Newark, New Jersey. He studied architecture at Howard University, but also took a film class with Haile Gerima as he already was interested in movies. He later relocated to New York City to attend New York University's film program at the Tisch School of the Arts, where he met fellow student Spike Lee. His first feature film as director of photography was also Lee's first film, Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads (1983), filmed while both of them were still students. Lee kept Dickerson in mind and he returned to work on a few more films as Spike Lee's cinematographer.

Career
After graduating, Dickerson began his career as cinematographer on music videos for Bruce Springsteen, Anita Baker, and Miles Davis, and went on to film John Sayles' Brother from Another Planet (1984), his first professional film as a director of photography.

While working on the first two seasons of George Romero’s television series Tales from the Darkside, Dickerson was a cameraman on John Jopson's concert film One Night with Blue Note (1985) and was later contacted by Spike Lee, who had found the budget to shoot his movie She's Gotta Have It (1986). Dickerson continued his collaboration with Lee on five more films, including Do the Right Thing (1989). Their last collaboration was on Malcolm X in 1992, the same year Dickerson made his directing debut with the crime drama Juice. He also served as second unit director, cinematographer, and camera operator on Lee's 2008 war film Miracle at St Anna (2008).

For television, Dickerson has directed several episodes of acclaimed shows such as Once Upon a Time, Dexter, The Walking Dead and Treme. A long time horror movie fan, he has also worked with Mick Garris on both Masters of Horror and Fear Itself and directed Demon Knight and Bones (2001).

Dickerson has always wanted to make films, and being a director himself has always been a dream of his. In an interview with The New York Times, he says: "I love to shoot, but directing is all about telling stories," he says. "And there are so many stories out there I want to tell."

The Wire
Dickerson joined the crew of the HBO drama The Wire as a director for the series' second season in 2003. He directed the episode "Bad Dreams". Reviewers drew comparisons between Spike Lee's films and The Wire even before Dickerson joined the crew. "Bad Dreams" was submitted to the American Film Institute for consideration in their TV programs of the year award and the show subsequently won the award. Following this success Dickerson returned as a director for the third season in 2004. He directed the episode "Hamsterdam" and the season finale "Mission Accomplished". In 2006 he contributed a further two episodes to the show's fourth season: "Misgivings" and the season finale "Final Grades". The fourth season received a second AFI Award and Dickerson attended the ceremony to collect the award. Showrunner David Simon has said that Dickerson is the show's directorial work horse and that he knows the show as well as the producers; Simon has praised Dickerson's directing saying that he "delivers each time".

Dickerson returned for the series' fifth and final season in 2008 and directed the episode "Unconfirmed Reports".

Later work
He would later work with David Simon again, directing several episodes of the New-Orleans based drama Treme, including the season 2 finale "Do Watcha Wanna", which won Dickerson a NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series.

Dickerson also worked with Executive Producer and writer Eric Overmyer on both The Wire and Treme. Dickerson directed the episode "Fugazi" for Overmyer's series Bosch in 2014.

Cinematographer
Film

TV movie

TV series

Director
Film
 * Juice (1992) (Also writer)
 * Surviving the Game (1994)
 * Demon Knight (1995)
 * Bulletproof (1996)
 * Ambushed (1998)
 * Blind Faith (1998)
 * Bones (2001)
 * Never Die Alone (2004)
 * Double Play (2017)

TV movies
 * Futuresport (1998)
 * Strange Justice (1999)
 * Our America (2002)
 * Monday Night Mayhem (2002)
 * Big Shot: Confessions of a Campus Bookie (2002)
 * Good Fences (2004)
 * For One Night (2006)
 * Last Man Standing (2011)

TV series

title: Ernest Dickerson


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Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-04-25/In the news

Encarta pseudo-wiki debate continues
Discussion has continued this week about Encarta's recent announcement of a facility by which users can suggest additions and revisions to articles (see last week's story). Search engine website searchnews.com described the idea as "Wikipedia for wimps", and said that "Unlike Wikipedia's quasi-hippie vision of the Internet as a collaborative medium...for Microsoft it's all about the cost savings". The cost saving point was also noted by CNN, who noted that the extra cost involved in hiring fact checkers was offset by Microsoft's expectation that people would be offering their expert advice for free.

Microsoft's Encarta blog  saw further comment from users, who were generally unconvinced by what Encarta was offering. A couple of people said they had made suggestions: one to "an article that I have been trying to get encarta to correct for a couple years", and another to Encarta's entry on Karate, aimed at "fixing some of the most glaring problems". In response to a question from a Microsoft employee asking what would make people use the editing facilities, another user responded "Actually citing who's written the article, and a history of how it's been changed by in-house Encarta editors, would help. As it stands, with the articles completely uncited, Encarta possibly suffers from greater credibility problems than Wikipedia." .

Goverments should be more like wikis, suggests think tank
British think tank Demos this week published a paper looking at open source software, which included extensive analysis of Wikipedia, and why Wikipedia and Linux in particular are such successful examples of projects based on open source principles. The paper analysed the factors which make open source projects successful, and then suggested possible new applications for open source principles, including making laws open to public scrutiny during their drafting stages and setting up open learning collaborations.

The Guardian reported on the publication, and emphasised the possible applications of collaborative software in government. The paper speculated that lawmaking might eventually evolve to the stage where parliament is obliged to consider contributions made by an open system, but says that entirely open Wikipedia-style drafting may not be appropriate, and suggests that contributions could be categorised into those by academics, judges, politicians and others.

Wikis to supersede newspapers?
The rise of the new media and decline of the old raised comment this week, as Rupert Murdoch said that newspapers were often out of touch with their readers. The Economist reported that the media mogul had said that news outlets should become more interactive, and looked at phenomena such as blogs and wikis which enabled dialogue and collaboration on the Internet. Considering Wikipedia, the magazine said that while wikis might be expected to be "a recipe for anarchic chaos", Wikipedia was "growing dramatically richer by the day".

Meanwhile, Alexa.com noticed via a circuitous route that Wikipedia has now overtaken the New York Times on the Alexa traffic rankings. A graph uploaded to Flickr by Fuzheado shows the relative traffic of the two sites, and Geoffrey Mack of Alexa.com chanced across the graph while searching for Alexa on TagCentral, which he had found via del.icio.us. Writing on the Alexa blog, Mack wondered if the new media would eventually become like the old, and if the "fun and interesting" sites like Wikipedia would ever start charging for their content, but said that for the moment they were "making the Internet exciting again, like the early days".

It's not all onward and upward progress for the new media though: Wired News this week took a look at some of the teething problems faced by Wikipedia's sister project Wikinews. While the project is gaining new users faster than Wikipedia at the moment, according to the article, some commentators suggested that at the moment it quotes from other news sources too frequently. "After seeing the third quote that is attributed to AP, I'm going to probably click through and read the AP article", said one media observer.


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Paul-Louis Couchoud

Paul-Louis Couchoud (July 6, 1879, in Vienne, Isère – April 8, 1959, in Vienne) was a French philosopher, a graduate from the prestigious École Normale Supérieure in Paris, a physician, a man of letters, and a poet. He became well known as an adapter of Japanese haiku into French, an editor of Reviews, a translator, and a writer promoting the German thesis of the non-historicity of Jesus Christ.

Education in philosophy
In 1898, Paul-Louis Couchoud entered the École Normale Supérieure (at 45, rue d'Ulm, Paris, called "ENS rue d'Ulm"), a special college-level institute in Paris for French elite students in arts and sciences selected every year through a national competition. He graduated in 1901 as an “agrégé” (lecturer) in philosophy. The French degree is not directly comparable to an American one, as it is granted to a few dozens of top-ranked students in a national competition held once a year.

Visit to Japan and interest in Japanese poetry
Couchoud obtained a scholarship from the banker Albert Kahn. This grant allowed Couchoud to visit Japan (September 1903 – May 1904), a country which became a passion. During a trip on French canals by barge (1905), Couchoud and his two friends, sculptor Albert Poncin and painter André Faure, composed haiku in French. They published their work anonymously in a limited edition (30 copies) of Au fil de l'eau (Along the waterways), a collection of free-verse tercets which was well received. It still is considered one of the most successful adaptations of haiku in French. Couchoud also studied and translated Japanese Haijin (Yosa Buson in particular) in Les Épigrammes lyriques du Japon (Lyrical Epigrams of Japan, 1906).

Couchoud made later two more trips to Japan and China, from which resulted his collection Sages et poètes d’Asie (published as Japanese Impressions, 1920). In 1955, Marguerite Yourcenar wrote: "I have never met P. L. Couchoud, but one of his books, Sages et poètes d’Asie, which I still have in a hardback edition on my bookshelves in Northeast Harbor, may have been the first work through which I encountered Asian poetry and thought. I was fifteen then, and I still know by heart some haiku translated or adapted by him; this exquisite book was for me the equivalent of a half-open door. It has never closed. How much would I have loved to go and visit P. L. Couchoud with you, and thank the sick poet for all what he made me feel or resonate".

Friendship with the writer Anatole France
In 1907, Couchoud became acquainted with the famous French writer Anatole France (1844–1924), becoming his friend and confidante until A. France's death in 1924. The French writer was famous as being the model of the ideal French man of letters. He was a passionate critic of the Catholic Church, and an avowed opponent of the clerical political factions. He supported the Jew Alfred Dreyfus in the world-famous Dreyfus Affair. He received the Nobel Prize for literature in 1921, and in 1922 all his books were placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum of the Vatican.

Couchoud took part in the sessions of the "Salon" organized by Leontine Lippmann, Anatole France's friend and "muse", known after her marriage as "Madame Arman de Caillavet".

Couchoud became Anatole France's doctor, and, upon the death of Leontine Lippmann (1910), he paid regular visits to A. France at the Villa Saïd, in his quality of physician, and also as a friend, to bring him consolation during his mourning. He convinced A. France to go on another journey in Italy to overcome his grief. Couchoud acted as witness at the wedding of Anatole France and Emma Laprévotte (October 1920). After France's death, Couchoud said of him: "For more than twenty years I have known him as if he were a gentle father, always ready to listen and guide you".

Becoming a doctor in medicine
In the mid 1900s, Couchoud decided to study medicine. At the same time, Albert Schweitzer was making the same choice in Germany after his studies in theology. After an internship at the "Maison nationale" of Charenton, Couchoud became an intern in the asylum system of the Paris administration. He worked at the "Maison Blanche Asylum" as an assistant of Marc Trénel (May 1909 – April 1910). Trenel entered a very complimentary appraisal of his assistant in his file (December 1909): "High intelligence, encyclopedic knowledge, highly sophisticated mind. His future will be extraordinary ". This assessment was confirmed by Albert Paraz who said of him: "... a man of amazing culture, reading all the ancient languages. He was so aggrieved when I confessed that I didn’t understand them that, in the end, I made him believe that I could at least speak Latin and Greek ..."

Couchoud presented in Paris his doctorate thesis on primitive asthenia (1911). He became director of a health center in Saint-Cloud, where he took care of Anatole France, a center owned by Anthippe Sevastos, the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle's sister-in-law, whom Couchoud ended up marrying (May 1918). In 1922, Couchoud became a doctor at the leading Cochin hospital in Paris.

When the French writer Jules Romains started conducting experiments on "extra-retinal vision" (1917), criticisms of this pseudo-science obliged him to interrupt his "research" until 1922. One such session took place at Anatole France's home, which was witnessed by co-signing doctors, including Couchoud, who at the time offered his own home for another session (December 1922).

Encountering the "German thesis"
Couchoud became intrigued by the German Christ Myth Theory after reading Orpheus (1909), a history of religions by Salomon Reinach (1858–1932), another graduate of the "ENS". Jacques Chevalier, a close friend of Couchoud since their time at the "ENS" as students in philosophy, was reported describing Couchoud's decisive encounter with the new ideas: "[A]fter attending Loisy's lectures at the Collège de France, Couchoud became convinced by a German thesis denying the historicity of Jesus. Which did not prevent him from using some poetic language when discussing Christianity, for instance in The Enigma of Jesus (1924) and The God Jesus (1951)".

Editor of reviews on religions
In the 1920s and 1930s, Couchoud became an editor of major media projects on the history of religions. "Archibald Robertson" wrote that "[T]he works of Paul Louis Couchoud are such a joy to read that their style alone must have made many converts."

Introduction by James G. Frazer
Couchoud presented his thesis in a first article published in the literary review Mercure de France: "The Enigma of Jesus", (March 1923), and developed it in his first book, The Enigma of Jesus (1923), which carried an introduction by the Scottish anthropologist James G. Frazer, the famous author of The Golden Bough (1890), a pioneering study of primitive mythology and comparative religion. Frazer had initially strongly rejected the Jesus myth thesis, but he modified his original view while giving credit to Couchoud for his calm and reasoned analysis without adopting his hypothesis: "[W]hether Dr. Couchoud be right or wrong [in denying the historicity of Jesus]...he appears to have laid his finger on a weak point in the chain of evidence on which hangs the religious faith of a great part of civilized mankind." Frazer's contribution and more open stance gave a marked credibility to Couchoud.

Jesus, a divine product of his cult
Couchoud rejects Robertson's hypothesis of a pre-Christian cult of Joshua, for which he finds no evidence. He presents his thesis in his article in the following terms: "Jesus is an unknown historical figure. It is possible that he may have lived, since millions of people have lived without leaving a trace. It is not enough to declare 'We know nothing about Jesus, except that he existed'. On the contrary, we must boldly assert that 'We do not know anything about him, not even whether he existed'. In historical research, only the strictest accuracy permits us to say anything more. However, the very document which would positively prove the existence of Jesus is missing...Jesus belongs to history thanks to his name and the cult built around him, but he is not a historical figure. He is a divine being, whose knowledge was slowly developed by Christian minds. He was begotten in faith, in hope and in love. He was shaped by emotional fervor. He has been given changing figures by various forms of worship. He was born the moment he got his first believer... His only reality is spiritual. Everything else is phantasmagoria."

Critics
In the Creation of Christ (1939), they will be pushed to a later date, around 135–140. Couchoud was countered by articles written by the Jesuit Léonce de Grandmaison, and the Protestant Maurice Goguel also in Le Mercure de France.

Other early Christian documents confirm Paul's doctrine
Couchoud continued exposing his thesis in a series of lectures to a cultural association, the Union pour la Vérité ("Union for Truth") in early 1924. He published a second article, "The Mystery of Jesus" (March 1924), after having presented the proofs for inspection to A. France, assuring him that "You know that I have given you my heart". Couchoud produced a second book of the same title as the article, to complete his exposé, The Mystery of Jesus (March 1924). In this second book, Couchoud reproduced his two articles of the Mercure de France, adding three more chapters. "At the origin of Christianity there is, if I am right, not a personal biography, but a collective mystical experience, sustaining a divine history mystically revealed." (p. 117) He attempted to show that the study of the Apocalypse (Revelation of John) and of the non-Pauline epistles confirmed the conclusions drawn from the Pauline epistles. Only the testimony of Paul of Tarsus is valid. The docetic form of Christianity should be the orthodox one, if Paul is defined as the true founder of Christianity.

No ordinary man becoming deified
As a first step, Couchoud argued that it is impossible to assume that Jews would have deified a mere man. The methodology followed by contemporary historians, from Ernest Renan to Alfred Loisy, in trying to understand the figure of Jesus and the origins of Christianity, faced two major obstacles: One cannot accept that after one generation or even less, an ordinary man could be deified, and, second, that Jesus's life could have escaped the attention of historians: there is no documentation of it. Couchoud believes that the entire "Testimonium Flavianum" (the famous passage in Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews, III, iii, 3 which mentions of Jesus "He was the Christ") is an interpolation. Everything in the Talmud concerning Jesus is derived from Christian sources. Of the three Roman "witnesses" (Suetonius, Pliny the Younger and Tacitus) Suetonius only mentions a Jewish agitator named Chrestos. Couchoud considers the Christ mention in the Tacitus passage genuine. But these Roman "witnesses" only testify to the existence of a Christian movement, and concerning the origin of this movement, they only repeated Christian beliefs.

Couchoud and the French rationalists
Couchoud's Mystery of Jesus was a slim volume, not impressive by scholarly standards, but, in the France of 1924, it packed a lot of weight. Couchoud became de facto the leader of French rationalists on the subject of religion from 1924 to 1939. He was chief editor for a series of publications on religion and free thinking: "Christianity" (which lasted ten years, 1923–1932, publishing 42 works), "Judaism", and "Myths and Religions", amounting to some 100 works.

Couchoud was made editor of a new section, "Chronicle of Ideas" in the magazine "Europe" (Jan. 1927). The magazine published various articles popularizing Couchoud's thesis that Jesus was not a historic figure—to the objection of the French writer Romain Rolland. But after 1928, the Couchoud faction lost some of its influence with the publisher. Europe published Couchoud's last article, "Le problème de Jésus", in June 1934.

Jésus, Le Dieu fait homme (1937), or The Creation of Christ (1939)
The original French title was Jésus, Le Dieu fait homme ("Jesus: The God made man", 1937). Challenged and criticized from all sides in France, Couchoud published his book as a public answer. Couchoud had the advantage of the advanced research published by three elite scholars: the independent historian Charles Guignebert, the Protestant theologian Maurice Goguel, and the excommunicated critic of the Catholic Church Alfred Loisy.

Couchoud displayed no acrimony against Christianity, and always showed respect and appreciation for it, occasionally using poetic language to describe Jesus and his influence. He dedicated the book "to the memory of that most noble man", John Mackinnon Robertson (1856–1933), accepting his idea that a myth and a cult must have preceded the development of the figure of Christ and of the Christian religion.

Couchoud did not believe that a human Jesus had existed. Couchoud believed that the figure of Jesus Christ had been originally conceived by Jews as a purely 'heavenly Man' who announced a cosmic transformation. This heavenly Jesus was amplified and diffused through the mystery books ("apocalypses"). "It was only much later that he was made flesh and blood [in the Gospels] on paper. Thus Christ was created", as a "literary creation".

In The Creation of Christ, Couchoud told a story in which Marcion wrote the first gospel, followed by Basilides, Mark, Matthew, John and Luke; Mark knew Paul's theology; the Acts of the Apostles is a thoroughly reliable historical source; and Clement of Rome is the likely author of the Gospel of Luke.

The book of 459 pages was published in two slim volumes. It consists of three parts, with 22 chapters and 2 Appendices:
 * Part 1 THE APOCALYPSES (168 B.C. – A.D. 40), 7 chapters - "Appearance of secret and mysterious books": Daniel, Enoch, Moses.
 * Part 2 THE PROPHETS (A.D. 40–130), 5 chapters - The eruptive and anarchic activity of Christian prophets.
 * Part 3 THE GOSPELS (A.D. 130–150), 10 chapters - Books that "fix and regulate the faith".
 * Appendix I: The Gospel According to Marcion
 * Appendix II: The Historicity of Jesus (Response to Loisy in Hibbert Journal )

Reception and criticisms
Couchoud's thesis was received with passionate reactions in France, a culture traditionally dominated by Catholicism, and he became subjected to a wave of criticisms from various quarters.

Léonce de Grandmaison, Jesus in history and in mystery (1924)
Léonce de Grandmaison (1868–1927), a priest of the Society of Jesus, founder of the magazine Research in Religion science, also answered Couchoud's 1923 article in the Mercure de France (August 1923) with his own article, "Jesus in History", which became the basis for his book, Jesus in history and in mystery (1924). He claimed that Couchoud's work was the "dream of a poet rather than the work of an historian". He followed with an article "Recent French discussion of the Historical Existence of Jesus Christ." Couchoud's policy was to make no formal response to criticisms.

Maurice Goguel's response, Jesus of Nazareth: Myth or History? (1925)
The debate of the historicity of Jesus (Goguel) against the denial of historicity (Couchoud) unfurled in Paris during 1923–1925. Maurice Goguel (1880–1955) was a professor at the Faculty of Protestant Theology and the Sorbonne University in Paris. Representing a group of liberal exegetes, he responded to Couchoud's first article (1923), with an article also published in the Mercure de France (June 1923), entitled "About the Enigma of Jesus". To better criticize Couchoud's ideas, he also joined the discussions of "The Union for Truth". Finally, he tackled the whole issue of Couchoud's non-historicity thesis in his Jesus of Nazareth: Myth or History? (1925, transl. 1926).

Charles Guignebert, Jesus (1933)
The liberal historian Charles Guignebert (1867–1939), professor of "History of ancient and medieval Christianity" at the Sorbonne University, had been raised without any religious education, and studying Christianity as a professional historian free of religious bias and apologetics, as shown in his The Jesus Problem (1914). He defended the historicity of Jesus in an article in the Review of History of Religions (1926), then with his book Jesus (1933), criticizing the historicity denial of the major advocates of the time: Paul-Louis Couchoud, William Benjamin Smith, John M. Robertson, Peter Jensen, Albert Kalthoff, and Arthur Drews. On the other hand, however, he considered that research from Catholic circles was tainted with dogmatic bias. Like Alfred Loisy, Guignebert objected to the apologetic use of historical criticism, as it tends to confuse history with theology, a literary genre characterizing the works of a whole group of French Catholic writers carefully identified in his book.

The Jesuit Joseph Huby published his book, The Mythomaniacs of the Rationalist Union (1933) as a rebuttal to The Question of Jesus and the Origins of Christianity (1932), jointly published by P. L. Couchoud, Prosper Alfaric, and Alfred Loisy, a book already condemned and placed on the Index by the Vatican (June 1933).

Alfred Loisy's History and Myth of Jesus (1938)
Loisy had remained silent when Couchoud published The Mystery of Jesus (1924), refusing to make any public commentary. In addition, Couchoud, had been using Loisy's scholarship, considering his own thesis as a logical continuation of Loisy's analysis. in a spirit of friendship, Couchoud had organised Loisy's jubilee celebration (1927). Their relationship had created the public impression that Loisy was agreeing with Couchoud.

In his book, La Naissance du Christianisme (1933), transl. The Birth of the Christian Religion, (1948), Loisy had expressed doubts about "the noisy conjectures...[which] seem to me somewhat fragile. These conjectures arise generally from persons who have arrived late at the problem of Jesus, and who have not previously made any profound study of the history of Israel and of Christianity...With us P.L Couchoud... postulating a pre-Christian myth of the Suffering Jahve, which a vision of Simon Peter suddenly transformed into a living religion." (p. 6). In his Memoirs Loisy later wrote that he had worried about giving Couchoud too much publicity. He had taken note that Couchoud was close to former radical priests who had also been excommunicated), including Joseph Turmel—sufficient grounds to arouse Loisy's distrust. Loisy, after a long silence, felt the need to speak out publicly in an article in the Hibbert Journal, "Was Jesus a Historical Person?", then in his book History and Myth of Jesus (1938), attacking Couchoud's non-historicity. He dismissed "Couchoud's central point being the metamorphosis into history, through the initiative of Marcion, of a myth that sprang from Jewish apocalyptic."

Couchoud's response to Loisy, "The Historicity of Jesus" (1939)
Couchoud was extremely hurt by Loisy's publication, whom he counted as a friend and ally. He wrote to Loisy:

"A friend told me that you have devoted the contents of a whole booklet against my last book. I will not read it, because I have learnt at the same time that it is insignificant in its criticism, and noteworthy only for the hatred it manifests. I'm rather proud of the hatred that I have inspired in you through the help I have given you. One must have enemies: it keeps you warm. I regret, poor man, that after having held you in some esteem, I now have to despise you to such a degree." (June 4, 1938).

Couchoud responded to Loisy with an article in the same Hibbert Journal. He attached this response as appendix II to The Creation of Christ. He summarized the confrontation: "The historicity of Jesus is an article of faith." (Appendix II, p. 447). However, Couchoud reiterated his affirmation of the power of the spiritual figure of the Heavenly Christ. "[It] has no relation to the conception of a man elevated to divinity nor to that of the anthropomorphic God, both of which were familiar to the religion of antiquity. It is an intimate and unique synthesis in which God retains his glory in its fullness and man his mortal destiny in its bitterness, without change of God into man or of man into God. It was a new idea, and it was by this new idea that the world was conquered."

"Myth" versus "religious conception"
Couchoud explained his own use of the word myth. A "myth" is a narrative aiming at shaping beliefs. A religious conception animates rites, rituals and behaviors: "I am concerned [with] the history of a religious conception." Myth is easily derogatory; it explains a natural fact, a rite, or an idea as a "narrative", to help the mind grasp, and remember rules or beliefs. A "religious conception", is "simpler and deeper, far more unsophisticated and fertile. Its relation to rites and myths is primordial. Zeus is a religious conception. The punishment of the Danaids is a myth."

The Heavenly Christ is such a "religious conception": "I regard it as philosophically impossible that the conception of the God-Man, the Saviour of the world, can have originated in any event of history...[I]t is a great religious creation which arose in the context of the mystery cults and was founded on earlier conceptions and vitalized by mystic illuminations. Its consequences were developed slowly and in sequence."

George Santayana – Saving the "Idea of Christ"
George Santayana (1863–1952) was an agnostic strongly influenced by Charles Darwin's evolution, who admired Lucretius and Spinoza. He had a soft attitude to religion, calling it the "Spiritual Life", and, as an "aesthetic Catholic", valuing the poetic and aesthetic benefits of belief to consciousness. He was sensitive to the major dilemma between accepting the skeptical findings of historical criticism (Jesus Christ was a myth), and saving the "spiritual" value of the "Idea of Christ". He thus shared some of Couchoud's dual ideas towards Christianity, and even some of Drews, who had claimed that the ideal Christ was a better object of cult for Christianity than a historic Christ.

"Your letter, accompanying Robertson's Jesus-Myth or History, certainly represents just what I think on that subject, and I am pleased to see how clearly you put it. But there is the other side of the question, the positive history and appeal of the Idea of Christ, which Couchoud feels much more adequately than Robertson, and I was a bit disappointed in finding that Robertson had nothing to add in that direction; nor do the other recent writers he mentions seem to have any new lights. Couchoud is warmer; but on the other hand he does not inspire any confidence, whereas Robertson at least is cautious and reasonable in his conclusions. If I were younger, I should be tempted to write a companion volume, or counterblast, to my Idea of Christ in the Gospel, in the form of Probabilities about Jesus in the Real World. There is hardly any evidence, but there are suggestions that could be sifted and combined, to make a tragic picture. Somebody will doubtless do it some day: but will he be able to be both critical and inspired?"

Jean Guitton's testimony after Couchoud's death
Couchoud, as a psychiatrist, accepted the idea that a religious movement could originate with psychological events such as visions, interpreted by imagination, very close to the symptoms of some psychiatric diseases. As a matter of psychiatric interest, he wanted to visit a French female "mystic" (mystique), Marthe Robin (1902–1981), not far from Vienne, where he had retired. She was a female peasant, paralyzed since 1928 following undocumented mental traumas, and spending her life in bed, in a dark room, reportedly without food. She had claimed visions of the Virgin Mary, and having received the stigmata in 1930.

Jean Guitton (1901–1999) was also a philosophy graduate of the ENS, like Couchoud, and a disciple of Henri Bergson (yet another philosophy graduate of the ENS, and a 1927 Nobel Prize for Literature, 1859–1941). Guitton was a French Catholic philosopher interested in mysticism, and a friend of Couchoud. Guitton interceded with the local archbishop to overcome the resistance of the mystic's Catholic priest who was her "spiritual director" and allow visits by Couchoud. Guitton described his last conversation with Couchoud, discussing the mystic on the quay of the Vienne train station, when Couchoud recited a short poem about the mystic.

Reported deathbed conversion of Couchoud
Guitton later reported in his book, 26 years after Couchoud's death, that "a quarter of an hour before his death, Couchoud received by chance the visit of a priest. He died "in the faith" [il mourut dans la foi], as I had the opportunity to say it at his funeral." This "testimony" by Jean Guitton became the source of a French legend that Couchoud would have "converted" on his deathbed, spread in print by most French publications.

The reliability of this account has been disputed by those who doubt that the philosopher/psychiatrist, who had been an admirer of Spinoza, a skeptical rationalist all his life, and a standard-bearer of the Christ Myth thesis, would have reversed his lifetime convictions during a short unverified conversation on his deathbed.

The value of a deathbed conversion is that it saves a soul from hell, in a Christian perspective. It also gives ammunition to believers for undermining the integrity of a Jesus's existence denier.

Predominance of the historicity thesis in French scholarship
The thesis denying the historicity of Jesus has been abandoned by French academic studies since 1933, thanks to the critical work of the secular historian Charles Guignebert. Daniel Marguerat, a Swiss Protestant, former professor of NT at the University of Lausanne, wrote that: "We are no longer in the age when Bruno Bauer (1840), or P. L. Couchoud (1937) went to great lengths to deny that Jesus had existed: Nowadays the debate is about the meaning of his actions, not his existence. Hermann Reimarus is the first source of doubts on the reliability of the Gospels' information on Jesus's life."

Étienne Trocmé, a Protestant, President of the Un. of Humanities in Strasbourg, said that "these brilliant ideas of Couchoud’s have been easily refuted by Maurice Goguel ... and Alfred Loisy... They face two insurmountable difficulties: the absence of any denial of the existence of Jesus in ancient times—even among the opponents of Christianity and among those heretics that were the most eager to get rid of the humanity of Jesus — and then the Jewish and specifically Palestinian characteristics that abound in the Synoptic Gospels and make it impossible for them to be the belated creation of a largely Hellenized church. We wish the present epigones of Couchoud and Alfaric would stop rehashing arguments so entirely discredited, that even Soviet historians themselves do not support them any more".

A review of the French ideas about Jesus denial (French mythisme) was presented by Charles Maignial, "Quick remarks on mythicism in the history of religions and of faith."

The question of the "historical Jesus" eclipsed by the "Jesus of faith"
A reviewer of Stéphane's book (1962), asked: "Should we conclude that the question [of historicity] is no longer actual?... some argue that 'doubts about this matter do not deserve one word of rebuttal.'...[E]vidence of 'historical type' gives way to 'psychological' arguments... 'of sympathy': Is it necessary or not, to assume at the origin of all and every religion a historical figure?...[T]he question.. becomes 'placed in parenthesis,' which leads exegetes... to push the Jesus of history back into the shadows while vigorously spotlighting the Jesus of faith."

Key works

 * L'énigme de Jésus (Mercure de France, 1923); transl. Winifred Stephens Whale, The Enigma of Jesus, (Watts, 1924)
 * Le mystère de Jésus ("The Mystery of Jesus") (F. Rieder, 1924). No English translation
 * La Sagesse Juive: Extraits des livres sapientiaux ("Jewish Wisdom: Excerpts from the Wisdom books") (Payot, 1930)
 * Apocalypse (Rieder, 1930); transl. Charles B. Bonner, The Book of Revelation : A Key to Christian Origins, (Watts, 1932)
 * Premiers écrits du christianisme ("Early Christian Writings") by G.A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, Robert Stahl, and P.L. Couchoud (F. Rieder, 1930)
 * Le problème de Jésus et les origines du christianisme ("The Problem of Jesus and the Origins of Christianity"), by Prosper Alfaric, P.L. Couchoud, Albert Bayet, (1932)
 * Jésus : Le Dieu fait homme ("God made man"), (Rieder, 1937); transl. Charles B. Bonner, The Creation of Christ: An Outline of the Beginnings of Christianity (2 vol., Watts, 1939) vol. 1 and vol. 2.

Other works

 * Benoit de Spinoza (Thesis, Alcan, 1902; 2nd ed. 1924)
 * Au fil de l'eau (Along the Waterways); followed by Haïkaïs: the first French haïku, 1905–1922 (re-ed., Éric Dussert; 2011)
 * Sages and Poets of Asia (Calmann-Levy, 1916, 4th ed. 1923)
 * Japanese Impressions, with a note on Confucius (transl. Frances Rumsey, John Lane, 1921)
 * La Vérité sur Jésus: Jésus est-il un Personnage Historique ou un Personnage Légendaire? ("The Truth About Jesus: Is Jesus a Historical Figure of a Legendary Figure?"), a public debate (Conflans-Honorine, 1926)
 * L'Evangile de Marc A-t-il Eté Ecrit en Latin? ("Was the Gospel of Mark Written in Latin?" 1926). German trans. Frans-Joris Fabri, Das Markusevangelium Ist in Lateinischer Sprache Verfasst Worden (2007); Klaus Schilling's English summary
 * Jubilé Alfred Loisy (Paris 1927), by P.L. Couchoud & Alfred Firmin Loisy. Congrès d'histoire du christianisme. (Published under direction of P.-L. Couchoud, Rieder, 1928)
 * La Première Edition de St Paul ("The First Edition of St. Paul"), (1928). German trans. Frans-Joris Fabri, Die Erstausgabe der Paulusbriefe (2001). English trans. Frans-Joris Fabri and Michael Conley The First Edition of the Paulina (2002).
 * "Jésus Barabbas" (by P.L. Couchoud & R. Stahl), in Premiers écrits du Christianisme (1930), pp. 139–161. German transl. Frans-Joris Fabri, "Jesus Barabbas" (2007)
 * "Le Problème de Jésus", Europe, No. 138, June 15, 1934, p. 268-273.
 * "Jésus, Dieu ou homme?" ("Jesus: God or Man?"), (NRF, No. 312, Sept. 1, 1939, 26 p.)
 * Histoire de Jésus ("History of Jesus") (PUF, 1944)
 * Spinoza. Pensées et règles de vie, (J. Haumont, 1944).
 * "Hymne à Déméter", transl. (1946)
 * Le Dieu Jésus : essai ("The God Jesus: An Essay") (Gallimard, 1951) (excerpts online)
 * Une réponse inédite à Loisy sur l'historicité de Jésus ("Response to Loisy on Jesus Historicity") (1970)

title: Paul-Louis Couchoud


text:
Laurent Belissen

Laurent Belissen (also Bellissen; 8 August 1693 – 12 February 1762) was a French Baroque composer. He was born in Aix-en-Provence and may have been among the last students of Guillaume Poitevin, then maître de musique at the choir school of the Aix Cathedral.

By 1722 Belissen settled in Marseille, where he succeeded Antoine Blanchard as maître de musique of the Abbey of St. Victor, which was then rapidly declining in importance—but he also secured a position directing the city's Académie de Concerts. Belissen remained in Marseilles until his death.

Much of Belissen's music is either lost or remains uncatalogued. His four grands motets adopt a style radically different from what contemporary Versailles composers used: Belissen uses four voices instead of five, and his style successfully combines Italian and French traits. One mass survives incomplete, and at least two more are presumed lost, similarly to other grands motets, Magnificat settings, Lamentations, etc.

title: Laurent Belissen


text:
Headcorn railway station

Headcorn railway station is on the South Eastern Main Line in England, serving the village of Headcorn, Kent. It is 45 mi down the line from London Charing Cross. The station and all trains that serve the station are operated by Southeastern.

Headcorn was, until January 1954, the northern terminus of the Kent & East Sussex Railway although their platform was named Headcorn Junction.

History
Headcorn station was opened on 31 August 1842 as part of the extension of the South Eastern Railway's (SER) main line from Tonbridge. In common with other SER stations outside the London area, staggered platforms and a simple single-storey wooden clapboard station building were provided at Headcorn. The SER's line was opened to Ashford by December 1842, to Folkestone by December 1843 and finally to Dover by February 1844. A bridge between Headcorn and Staplehurst was the scene of an accident in 1865 involving Charles Dickens; a rail had been removed by a ganger mistaken as to the day, and the Staplehurst rail crash resulted.

In 1905, the station became the northern terminus of Colonel Stephens' Kent & East Sussex Railway, the KESR's tracks entering Headcorn via a siding on the Ashford side of the station. The KESR had its own long platform to the rear of the Up main line platform, and a corrugated iron building was moved here from the KESR's Tenterden Town station. The station, known as Headcorn Junction by the KESR, was remodelled between 1924 and 1930 by the Southern Railway (SR), with the addition of two new fast lines through the station. This involved the demolition of the main line Up platform, its reconstruction opposite the Down platform, and the moving of the KESR's connection to the main line to the west side of the station. A new concrete KESR platform was provided here facing on a curved alignment.

The remodelling included a footbridge across the station and new signal box for the main line and an SR signal for the KESR branch. A connection was also provided between KESR metals and the SR Up loop line on the London side of Headcorn station, the KESR's facilities consisting by now of two loops and a siding.

Following a decline in passenger and freight traffic, the KESR between Headcorn and Tenterden was closed to all traffic in January 1954. Goods facilities were withdrawn from Headcorn in 1962, and the goods yard became a car park. The SER's original buildings however survived until 1988 when they were swept away by British Rail as part of a modernisation scheme. A new red-brick station building was officially opened on 11 May 1989 by Ann Widdecombe, then MP for Maidstone and The Weald constituency; shelters were provided for the platforms. In 1994, a new freight loop was built for Channel Tunnel freight services.

Services
All services at Headcorn are operated by Southeastern using EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:

 * 2 tph to London Charing Cross
 * 1 tph to Dover Priory
 * 1 tph to Ramsgate via Canterbury West

Additional services, including trains to and from London Cannon Street and Ramsgate via Deal call at the station during the peak hours.

title: Headcorn railway station


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dirtblonde

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. CDC  (talk)  22:33, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Dirtblonde
Band vanity, yet to release a single, let alone an album, delete--nixie 10:01, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Not particularly notable, but then so are most of Category:Rock_music_groups, they have had some coverage in the UK music press - I've wikified it and made it a bit more neutral. A weak keep. Anilocra 10:18, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * thank you Anilocra for wikifying article. Its much better now. According to Nixie, it sounds like "vanity" just because the band has yet to release a single. Well, according to Wikipedia "An article should not be dismissed as "vanity" simply because the subject is not famous. Furthermore, an article is not "vanity" simply because it was written by its subject. Articles about existing books, movies, games, and businesses are not "vanity" so long as the content is kept to salient material and not overtly promotional." Anilocra rectified the tone of the whole thing, it sounds RIGHT now, and the band has been given consistent press-coverage from some papers for months now, just for the record: Neston News, Ellesmere Port Standard, Ellesmere Port Pioneer, Wirral Globe, Liverpool Daily Post. The band has done radio shows in Brazil (Garagem, one of the most popular shows on one of Sao Paulo's biggest stations,Brasil 2000 FM) and they were played on BBC Radio by Steve_Lamacq as well. I say, just leave it. Given time, it'll naturally grow, its not Vanity. Starcrossed

 * Weak keep, well according to their website they did a national tour of Brazil, have some press coverage, and have recorded three tracks in the can so far. The single "Hangmen" is being released next Mondaywith artwork by Jamie Reid who did the covers for the Sex Pistols albums. This is borderline. If it wasn't the BBC and Channel 4 coverage this would probably have been a delete. Megan1967 12:49, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, national tour, coverage in music media etc. Kappa 21:17, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak keep as per Megan1967 —Wahoofive | Talk 21:41, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * If they have toured Brazil, then they meet one of the criteria under WikiProject Music/Notability and Music Guidelines. Can this tour be verified?  Was it a national tour, or just one or two venues?  allmusic and artistdirect never heard of them.  Google indicates they are apparently unsigned to a label.  Iff their tour of Brazil is real, then I'll vote a very weak keep'.  RickK 21:46, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, IMO the lack of an allmusic.com or artistdirect.com entry for most bands would have seen a delete vote, however the BBC and Channel 4 coverage at least verifies their existance and some degree, albeit small, of notability. Megan1967 05:52, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Dirtblonde played, over a few months, in five venues in Brazil. Were interviewed for O GLOBO newspaper, one of the biggest newspapers in that country (which, of course, is the biggest country in Latin America)See interview HERE . They were special guests on the GARAGEM radio show, one of the most popular rock radio shows in Sao paulo, the largest city in Latin America. See link HERE . Other guests in this show included Ian McCulloch of Echo & the Bunnymen, Mudhoney, Superchunk. This entry might be borderline case, but this definitely isn't a pub band vanity thing, is it! Starcrossed
 * Keep. Tour included visits to Sao Paolo and Rio de Janeiro but pretty good for an unsigned British band. The BBC link shows gigs in London and Manchester. Album coming out shortly. It seems that they are more than just a pub band. Capitalistroadster 00:52, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, notable enough for me. --Myles Long 15:51, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Their musical contribution might not be notable, but they've been in the papers because of the Zanzibar incident, and were featured on TV - that's notable enough for me. - Marcika 23:17, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Regina Halmich

Untitled

 * She also participated in the reality show series "Boxkampf", which featured her during training prior to a fight.

Really? I couldn't find anything about this show. Could you possibly provide a source? --Nikai 10:01, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

She also recorded the single "She's Like Thunder" renamed "We're Like Thunder" in duet with german female rock singer Doro Pesch. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.18.173.71 (talk) 18:26, 13 May 2010 (UTC)

Sho was not champion in amateur boxing as it can easily be understood looking at from her homepage, but in kickboxing. The first official competitions in amateur boxing for women in Germany helt place in 1995, the first championchip in women´s amateur boxing came up in 2003. 84.189.117.228 (talk) 17:40, 4 February 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Regina Halmich


text: Category:Transport in Essex

title: Category:Transport in Essex


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SVF

SVF or SvF can refer to:
 * Serial Vector Format, used in boundary scan tests of electronics
 * Shree Venkatesh Films, an Indian media and entertainment company headquartered in Kolkata, West Bengal
 * Södra Vätterbygdens folkhögskola
 * Squamish volcanic field
 * State variable filter
 * Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, a commonly cited philosophical reference, edited by Hans Friedrich August von Arnim
 * Stromal vascular fraction
 * SVF Foundation

title: SVF


text:
Pluckley railway station

Pluckley railway station is on the South Eastern Main Line in England, serving the village of Pluckley, Kent, which is approximately 1.2 mi to the north. It is 50 mi down the line from London Charing Cross. The station and all trains that serve the station are operated by Southeastern.

Facilities
The station features staggered platforms, whereby the 'up' (London-bound) platform is mostly west of the eastbound platform (on which the station buildings are situated). A footbridge links the platforms.

The ticket office is staffed only part-time; at other times a ticket vending machine is available.

History
The station opened with this section of the line by the South Eastern Railway on 1 December 1842, when the line was extended from Headcorn to Ashford. The first train passed through the station on this date at 12.05pm to cheers from the local crowd. It was originally built to serve Pluckley Brick & Tile Works to the west of the station, and subsequently used as a freight depot for the Southwark Manure Company, transporting horse manure from London to use on Kent farms.

Goods services closed on 20 September 1965, and the signal box was taken out of service on 17 December 1967. The station buildings have mostly survived unaltered from their original construction.

Services
All services at Pluckley are operated by Southeastern using EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:

 * 1 tph to London Charing Cross
 * 1 tph to Ramsgate via Canterbury West

Additional services, including trains to and from London Cannon Street, Dover Priory and Ramsgate via Deal call at the station during the peak hours.

title: Pluckley railway station


text: Template:User sv

title: Template:User sv


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USS Coghlan

Two ships of United States Navy were named USS Coghlan for Joseph Bulloch Coghlan:

 * USS Coghlan (DD-326), was a destroyer commissioned in 1921 and decommissioned in 1930.
 * USS Coghlan (DD-606), was a destroyer, commissioned in 1942 and decommissioned in 1947.

title: USS Coghlan


text: User talk:80.177.74.82

title: User talk:80.177.74.82


text:
User:Qazzx

Please go to ja:&

title: User:Qazzx


text:
Talk:Spice trade

A Deafening Silence
Trade is normally a two-way or multi-directional phenomenon. There is a deafening silence in the article on what, if anything, was traded from West to East. Did European and other countries bordering the Mediterranean simply pay (gold and silver) for everything imported? Norvo (talk) 20:31, 8 January 2020 (UTC)
 * I know I'm very late to your question, but I might have a partial answer. During the times when the Dutch East-India Company (VOC) controlled the trade, silver was taken from Western Europe and brought to India, where it was traded for Cloth, Yarn, Silk, Indigo and Pepper. Some of these wares were then brought to other nearby territories (Japan, China, modern day Indonesia and Sri Lanka), where it was traded for spices, ivory, wood, gems, precious metals, etc. These wares were then transported back to Western Europe from Batavia (Jakarta) and Galle. Hopefully this helps clarify! --TimTheDragonRider (talk) 11:20, 4 February 2022 (UTC)

Yes, Western Europe paid mostly silver from the mines of Germany, Greece, etc for the spices and other luxury goods of Asia. When maritime technology brought easier shipping by sea, it also brought the conquest of Peru and Mexico and their silver mines. Minted into Spanish dollars this silver paid for Spain's wars in Italy and the Netherlands, and from there some of it flowed to East Asia in the spice trade. The resulting inflation in East Asia became more severe when the Manila galleon trade got underway. Jim.henderson (talk) 14:21, 16 February 2022 (UTC)

 * Makes you wonder why they tell them that they had to take the Hajj, just like trying to prove to be able to walk land and seas alike. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4DD7:A13:0:843D:27B6:EE6C:C385 (talk) 05:05, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

Update
Would anyone happen to have pointers for how to improve this article? --TimTheDragonRider (talk) 11:52, 4 February 2022 (UTC)

Please delete paragraph without valid source or international jurnal
Many of paragraphs in this article is without valid source and international journals. Yukiaika3 (talk) 10:24, 19 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Can you explain what the problem is? Your English makes it hard to understand. Also . Invasive Spices (talk) 22 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spice trade


text:
Western Colorado Botanical Gardens

The Western Colorado Botanical Gardens and Butterfly House is located at 15 acres cite on the bank of Colorado River at the southern end of 7th Street in Grand Junction, Colorado, United States. Garden is connected with Colorado River Trails system via walkways.

History
The Gardens was developed on reclaimed site previously filled with thousands of used tires, junk car parts, and dead batteries. Founded in 1994, The Gardens have been increasing in size of the facility since 2003. It is managed by a non profit organization known as STRIVE.

The Gardens now have butterfly house and adjacent 4000 sqft greenhouse with  indoor tropical rain forest. It is featuring over 600 orchids and other tropical plants from around the world.

A variety of outdoor gardens have been developed and/or planned, including a Cactus and Succulent Garden, Children's Secret Garden, Harmony In Color Garden, International Garden, Native Garden, Seasonal Xeric Garden, and Sensory Garden.

Native Garden
The Native Garden is a miniature replica of Colorado's Grand Valley, including the Grand Mesa, the Colorado National Monument and Mount Garfield, with plantings related to the 13 geological zones of Western Colorado.

Cactus and Succulent Garden
The Cactus and Succulent Garden displays native cactus species, as well as other cold-hardy cactus and succulent plants.

title: Western Colorado Botanical Gardens


text:
Enoshima Electric Railway

The Enoshima Electric Railway or Enoshima Dentetsu Line (江ノ島電鉄), also known by the abbreviation Eno-den (江ノ電), is a Japanese railway which connects Kamakura Station in Kamakura with Fujisawa Station in Fujisawa, Kanagawa. Stations en route include Hase, the stop closest to Kōtoku-in, the temple with the colossal outdoor statue of Amida Buddha. The railway is fully owned by the Odakyu Group of companies.

Route and operations
The route is 10 km long and has a rail gauge of. It is single-track; however, five of the route's fifteen stations are equipped with passing loops, allowing for the operation of bi-directional traffic. Included in the route is a short (450 m) section of street running between Koshigoe and Enoshima stations. However, the entire line is governed under the Railway Business Act (鉄道事業法) of the Japanese government, being granted an exception to allow for street running (the only other examples of street-running 'railways' being the Keihan Keishin Line, Keihan Ishiyama-Sakamoto Line and the Kumamoto Electric Railway). Trains are electrically powered from 600 V DC overhead lines. The section from Kamakura Station to Koshigoe is in the city of Kamakura; that from Enoshima to Fujisawa Station is in the city of Fujisawa.

Stations
The entire line is in Kanagawa Prefecture

Rolling stock
, Enoden operates a fleet of 15 two-car electric multiple unit (EMU) train types as shown below.

Former rolling stock

 * 500 series

Buses
Enoden also operates bus service in the area.

History
The original Enoshima Electric Railway opened the line on 1 September 1902.

The company subsequently went through a series of ownership changes: Yokohama Electric Railway Co. in 1911, Tokyo Electric Power Co. in 1921, (second) Enoshima Electric Railway Co. in 1926, Tokyu Corporation in 1938, Enoshima Kamakura Tourist Co. in 1949, and Odakyu Electric Railway Co. in 1953. The (third) Enoshima Electric Railway Co. was formed on 1 September 1981 as a subsidiary of Odakyu.

Popular culture
Gokurakuji Station is one of the settings for the 2015 film Our Little Sister.

Japanese alternative rock band Asian Kung-Fu Generation's fifth studio album, Surf Bungaku Kamakura (released 2008), had each track named after a stop on the railway line starting with Fujisawa and ending with Kamakura. The band has since announced a continuation of this album for the rest of the stations that did not originally have a song, starting withYanagikōji Parallel Universe releasing as a B-side track in 2022.

Anime
The Enoshima Electric Railway and its rolling stock painted in the company's green-and-yellow colours have made numerous appearances in Japanese animated series, including those adapted from manga and light novel series such as:
 * Slam Dunk (1993)
 * Sweet Blue Flowers (2009)
 * A Channel (2011)
 * Tsuritama (2012)
 * Tari Tari (2012)
 * Ping Pong: the Animation (2014)
 * Hanayamata (2014)
 * Myriad Colors Phantom World (2016)
 * Minami Kamakura High School Girls Cycling Club (2017)
 * Rascal Does Not Dream of Bunny Girl Senpai (2018)
 * Super Cub (2021)

Video games

 * Enoden's railway line was entirely simulated in a train simulator Densha de Go! Ryojōhen.

title: Enoshima Electric Railway


text:
Talk:Petty kingdom

[Untitled]
''In Sweden the issue is not as straightforward as in Norway's case. ''

Norway was not straight forward either. The kingdoms were united and de-united at frequent intervals, etc. I have just listed the petty kingdoms I know have existed. The articles for each kingdom may have more information as to when they existed, their rulers etc. -- Egil 10:18, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This article does not define what a petty kingdom is, in opposition to a nation state I suppose. UnHoly 20:50, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * The article is much better now! Thanks to Caerwine. UnHoly 14:08, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

geographic scope
Nowhere does it seem to suggest that this article is applicable for anyone but Western Europeans. --Dpr 15:52, 18 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Since this is the English Wikipedia, it stands to reason that it would have a Eurocentric bent. Dpodoll68 (talk) 21:42, 11 March 2009 (UTC)

"In the parallel Southeast Asian political model, petty kingdoms were known as Mueang." - not in English, only in Thai. Deipnosophista (talk) 14:14, 11 November 2015 (UTC)

Northumbria
The article lists Northumbria as being in England, but Northumbria was divided between Scotland and England. The northern parts of Northumbria are now Lothian and Borders in Scotland. Scots invasions reduced Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Humber to the Tweed because in 1018 Malcolm II brought the region as far as the River Tweed under Scottish rule. Thus this petty kindom didn't unite with others, the Northumbrians territory was invaded and occupied by both Scotland and England. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.162.71.130 (talk • contribs) 06:59, 6 March 2007

 * Irrelevant. Northumbria was an anglo-saxon kingdom, and therefore part of England, regardless of where the borders of England and Scotland may now lie. 91.109.147.190 (talk) 01:39, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

 * I added "present-day" to the wording about Scotland. That should clarify things a bit. davidwr/  (talk)/(contribs)/(e-mail)  02:15, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

Kingdoms in general
I would like to see an article on kingdoms in general. Topics could include, what makes up a kingdom, how is it defined? And the many different types of kingdoms throughout history. There are already articles on different types of governments and different countries, as well as economic theories. Am I looking for "monarchy"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.99.28.223 (talk) 19:17, 14 February 2010 (UTC)

Who says kinglet means kingdom?
Could there be a citation for kinglet meaning kingdom? Is it's usage common? The Oxford English Dictionary version 2 has kinglet as a petty king, mostly contemptuous and also as a kind of wren. I haven't found mention of kinglet meaning kingdom. 'Petty kingdom' should be used if there is no common usage of kinglet meaning kingdom--Fodbynag (talk) 03:41, 6 June 2010 (UTC)

Possible contradiction
I believe it should read

...but the ruling families were *not* considered morganatic for marriage considerations, and ranked equal to royal families in society. OR ...but the ruling families were considered morganatic for marriage considerations, and ranked *not* equal to royal families in society. OR ...but the ruling families were considered morganatic for marriage considerations, *but* ranked equal to royal families in society.

Morganatic marriage = mariage with a lower ranking wife => not equal to royal families

84.137.111.143 (talk) 17:41, 7 August 2010 (UTC)

 * In Germany, the former ruling houses of the mediatized states continued to be eligible for (non-morganatic) royal marriages. I agree with the first option, inserting not. —Tamfang (talk) 23:49, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

dictdef
"petty kingdom" is just a subjective term, it isn't a topic in its own right. It is used of minor kingdoms when viewed in the context of the rise or decline of a larger, unified kingdom or empire. In the same way, "petty king" or kinglet is a subjective or contemptuous term for a (comparatively) unimportant king. Cæsar termeth all the Lordes [...] to be Kinglets, or petie-kings. --dab (𒁳) 14:24, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

Harald Fairhair
Harald Fairhair certainly did not unite all the petty kingdoms listed in the article (for that matter, the term "petty kingdom" suggests greater internal cohesion than most of the mentioned entities ever possessed). Questionable 19th/early 20th century "nation-building" accounts tended to suggest he united most of them, but less romantic contemporary scholars generally agree that Harald only ever ruled Western Norway and small chunks of land in Eastern Norway directly and merely formed loose alliances with other petty kings. As a further caveat, "ruled" in this context basically meant "ran a successful long-term protection racket". Maitreya (talk) 11:56, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

"Petty kingdom": possible topic for a quaint blog, but not for Wikipedia
Meaningless, ludicrous article. While the expressions "petty state" "petty kingdom", "petty ruler" etc. do exist, it certainly does not justify creating articles around those expressions. It only mean states or kingdoms that are small, which, BTW, is a very SUBJECTIVE term. I suppose that for Americans, Belgium is petty kingdom, while Belgians may look at Tonga as a petty kingdom.....

If this page is justified, then I could find justification to create articles for "small village" "big tree" "petty leader" "petty argument" "medium-size kingdom" "king-size kingdom" "petty republic' "petty duchy" "average country" etc. etc.

For all I know, maybe such articles already exist because pretty much anything goes in the petty kingdom of Wikipedia. --Lubiesque (talk) 14:36, 1 July 2020 (UTC)

 * raised this point above. Perhaps you should PROD or AFD it. Srnec (talk) 01:18, 12 July 2020 (UTC)
 * The article rightly consentrates on medieval and earlier states, where the term is still in current use by historians, & has meaning. We shouldn't be talking about modern member-states of the UN. Johnbod (talk) 16:01, 12 July 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Petty kingdom


text:
File:Robertmitchum.JPG

Robert Mitchum from Cape Fear

screen shot from DVD

Fair use rationale for use in the article Robert Mitchum
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It is an image of a notable individual who is deceased.
 * 2) It is of much lower resolution than the original (copies made from it will be of very inferior quality)
 * 3) The image is only being used for informational purposes.
 * 4) Its inclusion in the article adds significantly to the article because it shows the subject of this article.

Fair use rationale for use in the article Cape Fear (1962 film)
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It is of much lower resolution than the original (copies made from it will be of very inferior quality)
 * 2) The image is only being used for informational purposes.
 * 3) Its inclusion in the article adds significantly to the article because it shows the subject of this article.

Fair use rationale for use in the article Max Cady
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It illustrates an educational article about the character.
 * 2) The image is used as the primary means of visual identification of the article topic.
 * 3) The use of the image will not affect the value of the original work or limit the copyright holder's rights or ability to distribute the original. In particular, copies could not be used to make illegal copies of the film.
 * 4) It is a low resolution image.
 * 5) The image is only a small portion of the commercial product.
 * 6) It does not limit the copyright owner's rights to sell, produce, or advertise the film in any way.

title: File:Robertmitchum.JPG


text:
Hong Kong Bar Association

The Hong Kong Bar Association (HKBA) is the professional regulatory body for barristers in Hong Kong. The Law Society of Hong Kong is the equivalent association for solicitors in Hong Kong.

Victor Dawes SC is the current chairman of the Council of the HKBA.

History
According to its website, the Hong Kong Bar Association was founded in 1949. However, a newspaper advertisement from March 1948 records the foundation of the association on 12 March 1948 with Mr Eldon Potter KC being elected President, Mr H.D. Sheldon KC being elected chairman and Mr Percy Chen being elected Secretary Treasurer. The offices of the Association were located in the offices of Mr Chen in Prince's Building, Hong Kong.

Role
The objects of the Hong Kong Bar Association are generally to consider and to take proper action on all matters affecting the legal profession and the administration of justice. These include:

 * the maintenance of the honour and independence of the Bar;
 * the improvement of the administration of justice in Hong Kong;
 * the prescribing of rules of professional conduct, discipline and etiquette;
 * furtherance of good relations and understanding within the legal profession.

Like other professional bodies, the HKBA has the authority to take disciplinary action to the members who breach the Code of Conduct of the Association. The Law Society of Hong Kong is the equivalent association for solicitors in Hong Kong.

Route to entry
Students must first complete a basic degree in law, such as the Bachelor of Laws (LLB), Juris Doctor (JD) or convert from another first degree with the Common Professional Examination (CPE).

They must then complete the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws (PCLL) at The University of Hong Kong, the City University of Hong Kong or The Chinese University of Hong Kong. From 2008 onwards, all overseas applicants to the PCLL must satisfy each element of the PCLL conversion programme.

After finishing PCLL, prospective barristers will enter pupillage with a pupilmaster for a year; after half a year they will gain rights of audience in court.

Overseas barristers may, having at least three years' experience, take the Barristers Qualification Examination to officially become a Hong Kong barrister.

Additionally, lawyers of at least three years' qualified experience may apply to switch membership of either the HKBA or The Law Society of Hong Kong. However, one may not enjoy membership of both entities at once. For example, the No. 1 ranked barrister in seniority in 2007, Sir John Swaine SC, switched to become a solicitor in 2002, but switched back in 2004. Solicitors seeking to qualify as barrister are required to do pupillage, however, the period may be shortened for those with substantial advocacy experience.

Number of practising barristers
As of September 2023, there were 106 Senior Counsel (93 male, 13 female), and 1,550 (1,068 male, 482 female) junior barristers in practice at the private bar in Hong Kong. There were 84 pupil barristers of whom 49 were male and 35 female.

Senior Counsel
After gaining ten years' experience as a barrister or government counsel in Hong Kong, a barrister admitted in Hong Kong may apply to become a Senior Counsel (SC) (資深大律師). Time in practice as a barrister or lawyer in another jurisdiction or as a solicitor in private practice in Hong Kong does not count. The Law Society of Hong Kong has called for this to be changed, so that solicitors may also be appointed Senior Counsel.

In colonial Hong Kong before 1997, the title was instead Queen's Counsel (QC) (御用大律師). After the transfer of sovereignty, Queen's Counsel who had been appointed QC in HK or British Queen's Counsel who had been admitted to practice in Hong Kong generally prior to the handover became Senior Counsel automatically.

Admission of overseas counsel for Jimmy Lai
In September 2022, the HKBA (along with the Secretary for Justice) opposed an application by Jimmy Lai to hire a King’s Counsel in the UK to represent him in his trial in Hong Kong, stating that "the well established criteria for admitting overseas counsel on an ad hoc basis are not met."

In November 2022, after the Court of Final Appeal ruled to allow Tim Owen KC to be admitted as an overseas counsel on an ad hoc basis, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, John Lee, made a request to the NPCSC for an interpretation of the national security law over whether overseas counsel are allowed to take part in national security cases.

The HKBA chairman Victor Dawes SC said at a media briefing that "the national security law is a relatively new piece of legislation and we hope that any ambiguity can be clarified by our courts in the future and the power to interpret… be exercised sparingly" whilst noting that "I do understand the government's position and the reasoning given by the chief executive." He dismissed suggestions that disallowing overseas barristers in national security cases would undermine defendants' rights and freedom in legal representation, saying there are sufficient lawyers in the city to handle such cases. Referring to Lai's case, Dawes claimed that an overseas lawyer would not contribute much. Dawes also said that the incident would not damage Hong Kong's judicial independence.

Tanya Chan
In April 2023, the HKBA censured former barrister and Legislative Council member Tanya Chan over her involvement in the Umbrella Movement. The complainant was anonymous.

National security law judges
In May 2023, the HKBA expressed "grave concerns" over the US Congressional-Executive Commission on China, which asked for judges in national security cases to be sanctioned. The HKBA said "The Bar stresses once again that there is no basis at all to call into question the integrity and independence of Hong Kong judges..." and that calls to do so "must be sternly deplored and condemned."

In September 2023, Victor Dawes said in a legal forum that Hong Kong had a "strong, independent" legal profession; in 2022, at the same event, multiple questions were raised about the Chief Executive handpicking judges for national security cases, and the lack of a jury for those cases.

Glory to Hong Kong
In May 2024, after a court banned the distribution of Glory to Hong Kong, Victor Dawes said that people should respect the court's decision.

Resignations of foreign judges
In June 2024, after two foreign judges on the Court of Final Appeal resigned, the HKBA said "the Bar strongly believes that their resignations will not affect the ability of our apex court in discharging its judicial functions and has every confidence in the independence of our judicial system." In contrast, one of the judges who resigned said that judges' freedoms had been "severely limited" and that "The rule of law is profoundly compromised in any area about which the government feels strongly."

title: Hong Kong Bar Association


text:
Royal Moroccan Rugby Federation

The Royal Moroccan Rugby Federation (Fédération Royale Marocaine de Rugby) is the governing body for rugby union in Morocco. It is affiliated with the International Rugby Board and is responsible for the Moroccan national team and the Moroccan Rugby Championship.

History
Morocco has never qualified for the Rugby World Cup; their best result is 16-all draw with Namibia in 1994 in the last stages of 1995 World Cup qualifying.

Morocco lost the qualifying process for the 2007 Rugby World Cup. They were the winner of group ("B") with Uganda and Ivory Coast, but lost both the home and away games against the winner of group A Namibia. They lost twice with Portugal in January 2007, for a berth in the Rugby World Cup as Repechage 1.

title: Royal Moroccan Rugby Federation


text:
Westenhanger railway station

Westenhanger railway station is on the South Eastern Main Line in England, serving the villages of Westenhanger and Stanford, and was near the now-closed Folkestone Racecourse, in Kent. It is 64 mi down the line from London Charing Cross. The station and all trains that call are operated by Southeastern.

History
The station was built by the South Eastern Railway (SER). The line through the station opened on 28 June 1843, before construction had started. It was announced on 28 November 1843 and was planned to be the station serving Hythe; the SER Chairman Joseph Baxendale hoped to stand as a candidate in the next general election for that constituency. It opened on 7 February 1844 along with the extension from Folkestone Central to Dover Priory. An inn was built next to the station in September.

The station became a junction when the SER's branch line to Sandgate opened on 10 October 1864. However, it was inconveniently placed, and the SER considered closing it and building a station somewhere else. Ultimately, the station was not closed and Sandling railway station opened.

British Rail proposed the closure of the station as from 3 February 1969. Objections were made which were considered by a Transport Users' Consultative Committee, after which the Minister of Transport decided against closure.

In 2017, Shepway District Council announced plans to build a garden town next to the station, with around 12,000 new homes.

Plans for the Otterpool garden town were approved by Folkestone and Hythe District Council in April 2023.

Racecourse station
In 1898, a station about 250 metres west of Westenhanger was built to serve the adjacent Folkestone Racecourse. It was only used on race days. It closed in the 1960s.1976 As in 2022 the majority of the disused platforms were still in situ.

Facilities
The station is unstaffed and facilities are limited.

There is a self-service ticket machine at the station entrance and passenger help points located on each of the platforms. There is also a small (free) car park at the station entrance.

The station has step-free access available to the London bound platform although the Dover bound platform can only be reached via the footbridge meaning step-free access is not possible.

Services
All services at Westenhanger are operated by Southeastern using EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 * 1 tph to London Charing Cross via Tonbridge
 * 1 tph to Dover Priory

Additional services, including trains to and from London Cannon Street and Ramsgate via Deal, and to London Victoria call at the station during the peak hours.

title: Westenhanger railway station


text: Category:241 BC births

title: Category:241 BC births


text:
Oikos (journal)

Oikos is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research in the field of ecology. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Nordic Society Oikos.

History
The journal was established in 1949 as Oikos: Acta Oecologica Scandinavica, together with the Nordic Society Oikos, to provide a vehicle for publishing in the growing field of ecology. The journal content would have no preference with regard to taxonomic group. In the 1970s, the scope was narrowed to studies with relevance to the progress of theory in ecology.

From 1949 to 1977, the journal appeared in one volume of three issues per year. From 1977 to 1987, two volumes per year were produced, and three volumes from 1987. In addition, from 1949 to 1975, a number of supplements were published at irregular intervals.

Per Brinck Oikos Award
Between 2007 and 2014, the subject editors made nominations for an annual award given to a world-leading ecologist. The following persons have received this awards:
 * 2008: Hal Caswell
 * 2009: John Norton Thompson
 * 2010: Hanna Kokko
 * 2011: Michel Loreu
 * 2012: Tim Coulson
 * 2013: Sharon Strauss
 * 2014: Robert D. Holt

Editors-in-chief
The following persons have been editor-in-chief:
 * 2011–present: Dries Bonte, Ghent University
 * 2010–2011: Tim Benton, Leeds
 * 2004–2010: Per Lundberg, Lund
 * 1989–2004: Nils Malmer, Lund
 * 1965–1989: Per Brinck, Lund
 * 1949–1965: Christian Overgaard Nielsen, Copenhagen

title: Oikos (journal)