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TCP congestion control

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses a congestion control algorithm that includes various aspects of an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) scheme, along with other schemes including slow start and a congestion window (CWND), to achieve congestion avoidance. The TCP congestion-avoidance algorithm is the primary basis for congestion control in the Internet. Per the end-to-end principle, congestion control is largely a function of internet hosts, not the network itself. There are several variations and versions of the algorithm implemented in protocol stacks of operating systems of computers that connect to the Internet.

To avoid congestive collapse, TCP uses multi-faceted congestion-control strategy. For each connection, TCP maintains a CWND, limiting the total number of unacknowledged packets that may be in transit end-to-end. This is somewhat analogous to TCP's sliding window used for flow control.

Additive increase/multiplicative decrease
The additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) algorithm is a closed-loop control algorithm. AIMD combines linear growth of the congestion window with an exponential reduction when congestion occurs. Multiple flows using AIMD congestion control will eventually converge to use equal amounts of a contended link.

This is the algorithm that is described in for the "congestion avoidance" state.

Congestion window
In TCP, the congestion window (CWND) is one of the factors that determines the number of bytes that can be sent out at any time. The congestion window is maintained by the sender and is a means of preventing a link between the sender and the receiver from becoming overloaded with too much traffic. This should not be confused with the sliding window maintained by the sender which exists to prevent the receiver from becoming overloaded. The congestion window is calculated by estimating how much congestion there is on the link.

When a connection is set up, the congestion window, a value maintained independently at each host, is set to a small multiple of the maximum segment size (MSS) allowed on that connection. Further variance in the congestion window is dictated by an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) approach. This means that if all segments are received and the acknowledgments reach the sender on time, some constant is added to the window size. It will follow different algorithms.

A system administrator may adjust the maximum window size limit, or adjust the constant added during additive increase, as part of TCP tuning.

The flow of data over a TCP connection is also controlled by the use of the receive window advertised by the receiver. A sender can send data less than its own congestion window and the receive window.

Slow start
Slow start, defined by. is part of the congestion control strategy used by TCP in conjunction with other algorithms to avoid sending more data than the network is capable of forwarding, that is, to avoid causing network congestion.

Slow start begins initially with a congestion window size (CWND) of 1, 2, 4 or 10 MSS. The value for the congestion window size can be increased by 1 MSS with each acknowledgement (ACK) received, effectively doubling the window size each RTT.

The transmission rate will be increased by the slow-start algorithm until either a packet loss is detected, the receiver's advertised window (rwnd) becomes the limiting factor, or slow start threshold (ssthresh) is reached, which is used to determine whether the slow start or congestion avoidance algorithm is used, a value set to limit slow start.

If the CWND reaches ssthresh, TCP switches to the congestion avoidance algorithm. It should be increased by up to 1 MSS for each RTT. A common formula is that each new ACK increases the CWND by MSS * MSS / CWND. It increases almost linearly and provides an acceptable approximation.

If a loss event occurs, TCP assumes that it is due to network congestion and takes steps to reduce the offered load on the network. These measures depend on the exact TCP congestion avoidance algorithm used.

When a TCP sender detects segment loss using the retransmission timer and the given segment has not yet been resent, the value of ssthresh must be set to no more than half of the amount of data that has been sent but not yet cumulatively acknowledged or 2 * MSS, whichever value is greater.

 * TCP Tahoe
 * When a loss occurs, retransmit is sent, half of the current CWND is saved as ssthresh and slow start begins again from its initial CWND.

 * TCP Reno
 * A fast retransmit is sent, half of the current CWND is saved as ssthresh and as new CWND, thus skipping slow start and going directly to the congestion avoidance algorithm. The overall algorithm here is called fast recovery.

Slow start assumes that unacknowledged segments are due to network congestion. While this is an acceptable assumption for many networks, segments may be lost for other reasons, such as poor data link layer transmission quality. Thus, slow start can perform poorly in situations with poor reception, such as wireless networks.

The slow start protocol also performs badly for short-lived connections. Older web browsers would create many consecutive short-lived connections to the web server, and would open and close the connection for each file requested. This kept most connections in the slow start mode, which resulted in poor response time. To avoid this problem, modern browsers either open multiple connections simultaneously or reuse one connection for all files requested from a particular web server. Connections, however, cannot be reused for the multiple third-party servers used by web sites to implement web advertising, sharing features of social networking services, and counter scripts of web analytics.

Fast retransmit
Fast retransmit is an enhancement to TCP that reduces the time a sender waits before retransmitting a lost segment. A TCP sender normally uses a simple timer to recognize lost segments. If an acknowledgment is not received for a particular segment within a specified time (a function of the estimated round-trip delay time), the sender will assume the segment was lost in the network and will retransmit the segment.

Duplicate acknowledgment is the basis for the fast retransmit mechanism. After receiving a packet an acknowledgement is sent for the last in-order byte of data received. For an in-order packet, this is effectively the last packet's sequence number plus the current packet's payload length. If the next packet in the sequence is lost but a third packet in the sequence is received, then the receiver can only acknowledge the last in-order byte of data, which is the same value as was acknowledged for the first packet. The second packet is lost and the third packet is not in order, so the last in-order byte of data remains the same as before. Thus a Duplicate acknowledgment occurs. The sender continues to send packets, and a fourth and fifth packet are received by the receiver. Again, the second packet is missing from the sequence, so the last in-order byte has not changed. Duplicate acknowledgments are sent for both of these packets.

When a sender receives three duplicate acknowledgments, it can be reasonably confident that the segment carrying the data that followed the last in-order byte specified in the acknowledgment was lost. A sender with fast retransmit will then retransmit this packet immediately without waiting for its timeout. On receipt of the retransmitted segment, the receiver can acknowledge the last in-order byte of data received. In the above example, this would acknowledge to the end of the payload of the fifth packet. There is no need to acknowledge intermediate packets since TCP uses cumulative acknowledgments by default.

Algorithms
The naming convention for congestion control algorithms (CCAs) may have originated in a 1996 paper by Kevin Fall and Sally Floyd.

The following is one possible classification according to the following properties:

 * 1) the type and amount of feedback received from the network
 * 2) incremental deployability on the current Internet
 * 3) the aspect of performance it aims to improve: high bandwidth-delay product networks (B); lossy links (L); fairness (F); advantage to short flows (S); variable-rate links (V); speed of convergence (C)
 * 4) the fairness criterion it uses

Some well-known congestion avoidance mechanisms are classified by this scheme as follows:

TCP Tahoe and Reno
TCP Tahoe and Reno algorithms were retrospectively named after the versions or flavours of the 4.3BSD operating system in which each first appeared (which were themselves named after Lake Tahoe and the nearby city of Reno, Nevada). The Tahoe algorithm first appeared in 4.3BSD-Tahoe (which was made to support the CCI Power 6/32 "Tahoe" minicomputer), and was later made available to non-AT&T licensees as part of the 4.3BSD Networking Release 1; this ensured its wide distribution and implementation. Improvements were made in 4.3BSD-Reno and subsequently released to the public as Networking Release 2 and later 4.4BSD-Lite.

While both consider retransmission timeout (RTO) and duplicate ACKs as packet loss events, the behavior of Tahoe and Reno differ primarily in how they react to duplicate ACKs:

 * Tahoe: if three duplicate ACKs are received (i.e. four ACKs acknowledging the same packet, which are not piggybacked on data and do not change the receiver's advertised window), Tahoe performs a fast retransmit, sets the slow start threshold to half of the current congestion window, reduces the congestion window to 1 MSS, and resets to slow start state.
 * Reno: if three duplicate ACKs are received, Reno will perform a fast retransmit and skip the slow start phase by instead halving the congestion window (instead of setting it to 1 MSS like Tahoe), setting the ssthresh equal to the new congestion window, and enter a phase called fast recovery.

In both Tahoe and Reno, if an ACK times out (RTO timeout), slow start is used, and both algorithms reduce the congestion window to 1 MSS.

TCP New Reno
TCP New Reno, defined by (which obsolesces previous definitions in  and ), improves retransmission during the fast-recovery phase of TCP Reno.

During fast recovery, to keep the transmit window full, for every duplicate ACK that is returned, a new unsent packet from the end of the congestion window is sent.

The difference from Reno is that New Reno does not halve ssthresh immediately which may reduce the window too much if multiple packet losses occur. It does not exit fast-recovery and reset ssthresh until it acknowledges all of the data.

After retransmission, newly acknowledged data have two cases:

 * Full acknowledgments: The ACK acknowledges all the intermediate segments sent, the ssthresh can be not changed, cwnd can be set to ssthresh
 * Partial acknowledgments: The ACK does not acknowledge all data. It means another loss may occur, retransmit the first unacknowledged segment if permitted

It uses a variable called "recover" to record how much data needs to be recovered. After a retransmit timeout, it records the highest sequence number transmitted in the recover variable and exits the fast recovery procedure. If this sequence number is acknowledged, TCP returns to the congestion avoidance state.

A problem occurs with New Reno when there are no packet losses but instead, packets are reordered by more than 3 packet sequence numbers. In this case, New Reno mistakenly enters fast recovery. When the reordered packet is delivered, duplicate and needless retransmissions are immediately sent.

New Reno performs as well as SACK at low packet error rates and substantially outperforms Reno at high error rates.

TCP Vegas
Until the mid-1990s, all of TCP's set timeouts and measured round-trip delays were based upon only the last transmitted packet in the transmit buffer. University of Arizona researchers Larry Peterson and Lawrence Brakmo introduced TCP Vegas in which timeouts were set and round-trip delays were measured for every packet in the transmit buffer. In addition, TCP Vegas uses additive increases in the congestion window. In a comparison study of various TCP CCAs, TCP Vegas appeared to be the smoothest followed by TCP CUBIC.

TCP Vegas was not widely deployed outside Peterson's laboratory but was selected as the default congestion control method for DD-WRT firmware v24 SP2.

TCP Hybla
TCP Hybla aims to eliminate penalties to TCP connections that use high-latency terrestrial or satellite radio links. Hybla improvements are based on analytical evaluation of the congestion window dynamics.

TCP BIC
Binary Increase Congestion control (BIC) is a TCP implementation with an optimized CCA for high-speed networks with high latency, known as long fat networks (LFNs). BIC is used by default in Linux kernels 2.6.8 through 2.6.18.

TCP CUBIC
CUBIC is a less aggressive and more systematic derivative of BIC, in which the window is a cubic function of time since the last congestion event, with the inflection point set to the window prior to the event. CUBIC is used by default in Linux kernels since version 2.6.19.

Agile-SD TCP
Agile-SD is a Linux-based CCA which is designed for the real Linux kernel. It is a receiver-side algorithm that employs a loss-based approach using a novel mechanism, called agility factor (AF). to increase the bandwidth utilization over high-speed and short-distance networks (low bandwidth-delay product networks) such as local area networks or fiber-optic network, especially when the applied buffer size is small. It has been evaluated by comparing its performance to Compound TCP (the default CCA in MS Windows) and CUBIC (the default of Linux) using NS-2 simulator. It improves the total performance up to 55% in term of average throughput.

TCP Westwood+
Westwood+ is a sender-only modification of TCP Reno that optimizes the performance of TCP congestion control over both wired and wireless networks. TCP Westwood+ is based on end-to-end bandwidth estimation to set the congestion window and slow-start threshold after a congestion episode, that is, after three duplicate acknowledgments or a timeout. The bandwidth is estimated by averaging the rate of returning acknowledgment packets. In contrast with TCP Reno, which blindly halves the congestion window after three duplicate ACKs, TCP Westwood+ adaptively sets a slow-start threshold and a congestion window that takes into account an estimate of bandwidth available at the time congestion is experienced. Compared to Reno and New Reno, Westwood+ significantly increases throughput over wireless links and improves fairness in wired networks.

Compound TCP
Compound TCP is a Microsoft implementation of TCP which maintains two different congestion windows simultaneously, with the goal of achieving good performance on LFNs while not impairing fairness. It has been widely deployed in Windows versions since Microsoft Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 and has been ported to older Microsoft Windows versions as well as Linux.

TCP Proportional Rate Reduction
TCP Proportional Rate Reduction (PRR) is an algorithm designed to improve the accuracy of data sent during recovery. The algorithm ensures that the window size after recovery is as close as possible to the slow start threshold. In tests performed by Google, PRR resulted in a 3–10% reduction in average latency and recovery timeouts were reduced by 5%. PRR is available in Linux kernels since version 3.2.

TCP BBR
Bottleneck Bandwidth and Round-trip propagation time (BBR) is a CCA developed at Google in 2016. While most CCAs are loss-based, in that they rely on packet loss to detect congestion and lower rates of transmission, BBR, like TCP Vegas, is model-based. The algorithm uses the maximum bandwidth and round-trip time at which the network delivered the most recent flight of outbound data packets to build a model of the network. Each cumulative or selective acknowledgment of packet delivery produces a rate sample that records the amount of data delivered over the time interval between the transmission of a data packet and the acknowledgment of that packet.

When implemented at YouTube, BBRv1 yielded an average of 4% higher network throughput and up to 14% in some countries. BBR has been available for Linux TCP since Linux 4.9. It is also available for QUIC.

BBR version 1 (BBRv1) fairness to non-BBR streams is disputed. While Google's presentation shows BBRv1 co-existing well with CUBIC, researchers like Geoff Huston and Hock, Bless and Zitterbart found it unfair to other streams and not scalable. Hock et al. also found "some severe inherent issues such as increased queuing delays, unfairness, and massive packet loss" in the BBR implementation of Linux 4.9. Soheil Abbasloo et al. (authors of C2TCP) show that BBRv1 doesn't perform well in dynamic environments such as cellular networks. They have also shown that BBR has an unfairness issue. For instance, when a CUBIC flow (which is the default TCP implementation in Linux, Android, and MacOS) coexists with a BBR flow in the network, the BBR flow can dominate the CUBIC flow and get the whole link bandwidth from it (see figure 16 in ).

Version 2 attempts to deal with the issue of unfairness when operating alongside loss-based congestion management such as CUBIC. In BBRv2 the model used by BBRv1 is augmented to include information about packet loss and information from Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN). Whilst BBRv2 may at times have lower throughput than BBRv1 it is generally considered to have better goodput.

Version 3 (BBRv3) fixes two bugs in BBRv2 (premature end of bandwidth probing, bandwidth convergence) and performs some performance tuning. There is also a variant, termed BBR.Swift, optimized for datacenter-internal links: it uses network_RTT (excluding receiver delay) as the main congestion control signal.

C2TCP
Cellular Controlled Delay TCP (C2TCP) was motivated by the lack of a flexible end-to-end TCP approach that can satisfy various QoS requirements for different applications without requiring any changes in the network devices. C2TCP aims to satisfy ultra-low latency and high-bandwidth requirements of applications such as virtual reality, video conferencing, online gaming, vehicular communication systems, etc. in a highly dynamic environment such as current LTE and future 5G cellular networks. C2TCP works as an add-on on top of loss-based TCP (e.g. Reno, NewReno, CUBIC, BIC, ...), it is only required to be installed on the server-side and makes the average delay of packets bounded to the desired delays set by the applications.

Researchers at NYU showed that C2TCP outperforms the delay and delay-variation performance of various state-of-the-art TCP schemes. For instance, they showed that compared to BBR, CUBIC, and Westwood on average, C2TCP decreases the average delay of packets by about 250%, 900%, and 700% respectively on various cellular network environments.

Elastic-TCP
Elastic-TCP was proposed in February 2019 to increase bandwidth utilization over high-BDP networks in support of cloud computing. It is a Linux-based CCA that is designed for the Linux kernel. It is a receiver-side algorithm that employs a loss-delay-based approach using a novel mechanism called a window-correlated weighting function (WWF). It has a high level of elasticity to deal with different network characteristics without the need for human tuning. It has been evaluated by comparing its performance to Compound TCP (the default CCA in MS Windows), CUBIC (the default for Linux) and TCP-BBR (the default of Linux 4.9 used by Google) using the NS-2 simulator and testbed. Elastic-TCP significantly improves the total performance in terms of average throughput, loss ratio, and delay.

NATCP
Soheil Abbasloo et al. proposed NATCP (Network-Assisted TCP) a TCP design targeting multi-access edge computing (MEC). The key idea of NATCP is that if the characteristics of the network were known beforehand, TCP would have been designed differently. Therefore, NATCP employs the available features and properties in the current MEC-based cellular architectures to push the performance of TCP close to the optimal performance. NATCP uses out-of-band feedback from the network to the servers located nearby. The feedback from the network, which includes the capacity of the cellular access link and the minimum RTT of the network, guides the servers to adjust their sending rates. As preliminary results show, NATCP outperforms the state-of-the-art TCP schemes.

Other TCP congestion avoidance algorithms

 * FAST TCP
 * Generalized FAST TCP
 * H-TCP
 * Data Center TCP
 * High Speed TCP
 * HSTCP-LP
 * TCP-Illinois
 * TCP-LP
 * TCP SACK
 * Scalable TCP
 * TCP Veno
 * Westwood
 * XCP
 * YeAH-TCP
 * TCP-FIT
 * Congestion Avoidance with Normalized Interval of Time (CANIT)
 * Non-linear neural network congestion control based on genetic algorithm for TCP/IP networks
 * D-TCP
 * NexGen D-TCP
 * Copa

TCP New Reno was the most commonly implemented algorithm, SACK support is very common and is an extension to Reno/New Reno. Most others are competing proposals that still need evaluation. Starting with 2.6.8 the Linux kernel switched the default implementation from New Reno to BIC. The default implementation was again changed to CUBIC in the 2.6.19 version. FreeBSD from version 14.X onwards also uses CUBIC as the default algorithm. Previous version used New Reno. However, FreeBSD supports a number of other choices.

When the per-flow product of bandwidth and latency increases, regardless of the queuing scheme, TCP becomes inefficient and prone to instability. This becomes increasingly important as the Internet evolves to incorporate very high-bandwidth optical links.

TCP Interactive (iTCP) allows applications to subscribe to TCP events and respond accordingly enabling various functional extensions to TCP from outside TCP layer. Most TCP congestion schemes work internally. iTCP additionally enables advanced applications to directly participate in congestion control such as to control the source generation rate.

Zeta-TCP detects congestion from both latency and loss rate measures. To maximize the goodput Zeta-TCP and applies different congestion window backoff strategies based on the likelihood of congestion. It also has other improvements to accurately detect packet losses, avoiding retransmission timeout retransmission; and accelerate and control the inbound (download) traffic.

Classification by network awareness
CCAs may be classified in relation to network awareness, meaning the extent to which these algorithms are aware of the state of the network. This consist of three primary categories: black box, grey box, and green box.

Black box algorithms offer blind methods of congestion control. They operate only on the binary feedback received upon congestion and do not assume any knowledge concerning the state of the networks which they manage.

Grey box algorithms use time-based measurement, such as RTT variation and rate of packet arrival, in order to obtain measurements and estimations of bandwidth, flow contention, and other knowledge of network conditions.

Green box algorithms offer bimodal methods of congestion control which measures the fair share of total bandwidth which should be allocated for each flow, at any point, during the system's execution.

Black box

 * Highspeed-TCP
 * BIC TCP (Binary Increase Congestion Control Protocol) uses a concave increase of the sources rate after each congestion event until the window is equal to that before the event, in order to maximize the time that the network is fully utilized. After that, it probes aggressively.
 * CUBIC TCP – a less aggressive and more systematic derivative of BIC, in which the window is a cubic function of time since the last congestion event, with the inflection point set to the window prior to the event.
 * AIMD-FC (additive increase multiplicative decrease with fast convergence), an improvement of AIMD.
 * Binomial Mechanisms
 * SIMD Protocol
 * GAIMD

Grey box

 * TCP Vegas – estimates the queuing delay, and linearly increases or decreases the window so that a constant number of packets per flow are queued in the network. Vegas implements proportional fairness.
 * FAST TCP – achieves the same equilibrium as Vegas, but uses proportional control instead of linear increase, and intentionally scales the gain down as the bandwidth increases with the aim of ensuring stability.
 * TCP BBR – estimates the queuing delay but uses exponential increase. Intentionally slows down periodically for fairness and decreased delay.
 * TCP-Westwood (TCPW) – a loss causes the window to be reset to the sender's estimate of the bandwidth-delay product (the smallest measured RTT multiplied by the observed rate of receiving ACKs).
 * C2TCP
 * TFRC
 * TCP-Real
 * TCP-Jersey

Green box

 * Bimodal Mechanism – Bimodal Congestion Avoidance and Control mechanism.
 * Signalling methods implemented by routers
 * Random Early Detection (RED) randomly drops packets in proportion to the router's queue size, triggering multiplicative decrease in some flows.
 * Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)
 * Network-Assisted Congestion Control
 * NATCP – Network-Assisted TCP uses out-of-band explicit feedback indicating minimum RTT of the network and capacity of the cellular access link.
 * The variable-structure congestion control protocol (VCP) uses two ECN bits to explicitly feedback the network state of congestion. It includes an end host side algorithm as well.

The following algorithms require custom fields to be added to the TCP packet structure:
 * Explicit Control Protocol (XCP) – XCP packets carry a congestion header with a feedback field, indicating the increase or decrease of the sender's congestion window. XCP routers set the feedback value explicitly for efficiency and fairness.
 * MaxNet – Uses a single header field, which carries the maximum congestion level of any router on a flow's path. The rate is set as a function of this maximum congestion, resulting in max-min fairness.
 * JetMax, like MaxNet, responds only to the maximum congestion signal, but also carries other overhead fields.

Linux usage

 * BIC is used by default in Linux kernels 2.6.8 through 2.6.18. (August 2004 – September 2006)
 * CUBIC is used by default in Linux kernels since version 2.6.19. (November 2006)
 * PRR is incorporated in Linux kernels to improve loss recovery since version 3.2. (January 2012)
 * BBRv1 is incorporated in Linux kernels to enable model-based congestion control since version 4.9. (December 2016)

title: TCP congestion control


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Borislav Pekić

Borislav Pekić (Борислав Пекић, ; 4 February 1930 – 2 July 1992) was a Serbian and Yugoslav writer and political activist.

He was born in 1930, to a prominent family in Montenegro, at that time part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. From 1945 until his emigration to London in 1971, he lived in Belgrade. He was also one of the founding members of the Democratic Party in Serbia. He is considered one of the most important Serbian literary figures of the 20th century.

Early life and novels
Borislav Pekić spent his childhood in different cities of Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. He graduated from high school in 1948 in Belgrade and shortly afterward was arrested with the accusation of belonging to the secret association "Yugoslav Democratic Youth" and sentenced to fifteen years of prison. During the time in prison, he conceived many of the ideas later developed in his major novels. He was released after five years and in 1953 began studying experimental psychology at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy, although he never earned a degree.

In 1958 he married Ljiljana Glišić, the niece of Milan Stojadinović, Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (1935–1939) and a year later their daughter Aleksandra was born, who was later married to a German aristocrat, Baron Victor von Maltzahn. 1958 marked also the year when Pekić wrote his first of over twenty original film scripts for the major film studios in Yugoslavia, among which Dan četrnaesti ("The Fourteenth Day") represented Yugoslavia at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival.

For years Pekić had been working on several novels and when the first of them, Vreme čuda (1965), came out, it caught the attention of a wide reading audience as well as the critics. In 1976 it was published in English by Brace Harcourt in New York as The Time of Miracles. It was also translated into French in 1986, Polish in 1986, Romanian in 1987, Italian in 2004, and Greek in 2007. Pekić's first novel clearly announced two of the most important characteristics of his work: sharp anti-dogmatism and constant skepticism regarding any possible 'progress' mankind has achieved over the course of history.

During the 1968–1969 period, Pekić was one of the editors of Književne novine literary magazine. In 1970 his second novel, Hodočašće Arsenija Njegovana (The Pilgrimage of Arsenije Njegovan) was published, in which an echo of the students protests of 1968 in Yugoslavia can be found. Despite his ideological distance from the mainstream opposition movements, the new political climate further complicated his relationship with the authorities, who refused him a passport for some time. The novel, nevertheless, won the NIN award for the best Yugoslav novel of the year. An English translation The Houses of Belgrade appeared in 1978 and it was later published in Polish, Czech and Romanian.

Exile and further work
Following Pekić's emigration to London in 1971, the Yugoslav authorities still considered him persona non grata and for several years they prevented his books from being published in Yugoslavia. Finally, in 1975, Uspenje i sunovrat Ikara Gubelkijana ("The Rise and Fall of Icarus Gubelkian") appeared. It was later translated into Polish in 1980, Hungarian in 1982, Czech in 1985 and French in 1992.

In 1977 he sent the manuscript of Kako upokojiti Vampira ("How to Quiet a Vampire") to an anonymous literary competition. The Association of Yugoslav Publishers recognized it as the best novel of the year and promptly published it. Kako upokojiti Vampira was subsequently translated into Czech in 1980, Polish in 1985, and Italian in 1992, with an English translation finally appearing in 2005. Based in part on Pekić's own prison experiences, this novel offers an insight into the methods, logic and psychology of a modern totalitarian regime.

Odbrana i poslednji dani ("The Defense and the Last Days", 1977) was published in Polish and Hungarian in 1982, Czech in 1983, French in 1989 and Swedish in 2003. These three novels essentially dealt with contrasting types of collaboration in Yugoslavia at different levels during World War II.

In 1978, after more than two decades of preparation, investigation and study, the first volume of Zlatno runo ("The Golden Fleece", 1978–1986) was published, fully establishing Pekić as one of the most important Serbian authors. In 1987 he received Montenegrin Njegoš award for this work, marking it as one of the most important contemporary prose writings in Yugoslavia. The Golden Fleece prompted comparison by international critics to James Joyce’s Ulysses and its narrative patterns of classical myths, to Thomas Mann's Buddenbrooks and its long family history and evolution of pre-war society, and to Aldous Huxley's Point Counter Point and its inner tensions created through a maze of conflicting perspectives; yet The Golden Fleece was also hailed as unique. One of the novel’s obvious distinctions is its enormous scope and thematic complexity. The Golden Fleece describes the wanderings of generations of the Njegovans, and through them explores the history of the Balkans. The first, second and third volumes were published in French in 2002, 2003 and 2004. The fourth volume was published in 2008.

During the 1980s Pekić created something entirely new. He had been collecting material for a book about the lost island of Atlantis, with the intention to give “a new, although poetical, explanation of the roots, development, and the end of our civilization”. Despite the classical sources that inspired his anthropological interests, Pekić decided to project his new vision into the future and thus avoid the restrictions of the ‘historical models’, which he had inevitably had to confront in his earlier remakes of ancient myths. The result was three novels: Besnilo ("Rabies", 1983), Atlantida ("Atlantis", 1988) and 1999 (1984). The novel Rabies together with The Golden Fleece and The Years the Locusts Have Devoured, were selected by readers as the best novels in the years from 1982 to 1991. All of them were reprinted numerous times in Serbia. Rabies was published in Spanish in 1988, and Hungarian in 1994, and Atlantis in Czech in 1989. For Atlantis Pekić won the ‘Croatian Goran’ award in 1988. At the end of 1984 Pekić's twelve volume Selected Works appeared, winning him an award from the Union of Serbian Writers.

Godine koje su pojeli skakavci ("The Years the Locusts Have Devoured", in three volumes) was published between 1987 and 1990. Two parts of the 1st volume were translated into English and published in literary magazines. These are Pekić's memoirs with an account of the post-war days and the life and persecutions of the bourgeoisie under the communist rule. The account is not purely autobiographical in the classical sense, since Pekić also deals with life in general in Yugoslavia after the Second World War. He depicts prison life as a unique civilization and the civilization of ‘freedom’ as a special kind of prison. This trilogy was selected as the best memoir and received the ‘Miloš Crnjanski’ award.

The gothic stories Novi Jerusalim ("The New Jerusalem") were published in 1989, and Pekić accepted the Majska Rukovanja award in Montenegro in 1990 for his literary and cultural achievements. Two stories from the book were published in French, English and Ukrainian in different anthologies. 'Covek koji je jeo smrt' ("The man who ate death") from Novi Jerusalim ("The New Jerusalem") was translated into French in 2005, and won the French "Book Of The Day" award the same year.

Film, theater and radio
Pekić distinguished himself in the 1970s as one of the best Serbian contemporary dramatists. He regularly wrote radio-plays for Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Cologne, as well as Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart. Of the 27 plays written and performed in Serbia, 17 had their first production in Germany. Many of them were transformed into theatre and/or TV plays, and received a number of awards. Sixteen were published in his Odabrana dela (Selected works, 1984) and his play Generali ili srodstvo po oruzju (The Generals or Kinship-In-Arms, 1969) can be found in any anthology of Serbian contemporary drama. Pekić's theatre plays were widely acclaimed and popular, the most famous being Korešpondencija (Correspondence 1979), which was based on the fourth volume of the Golden Fleece and ran for 280 performances and 23 years at the Atelje 212 Theatre in Belgrade.

Throughout his career, Pekić worked on numerous films, writing more than twenty original screenplays and adapting some of his novels to the screen. The Time of Miracles was selected to represent Yugoslavia at the Cannes Film Festival in 1991, where it won an award, and later at film festivals in Glasgow and Montreal. The Devils Heaven (The Summer of White Roses) won an award at the film festival in Tokyo in 1989 and was selected the same year to represent Yugoslavia at film festivals in Montpellier (France), Pula (Croatia), San Sebastián (Spain), and Los Angeles and San Francisco (USA).

As a part-time commentator at the BBC World Service in London, (1986–1991) Pekić read his ‘Letters from London’ every week; these were subsequently printed in Yugoslavia as Pisma iz tuđine, Nova pisma iz tuđine, and Poslednja pisma iz tuđine (Letters From Abroad, 1, 2 &3, 1987–1991). Each book was made up of 50 letters with witty and inventive observations about England and the English people. The letters were also broadcast for listeners in Serbia, for whom Pekić particularly enjoyed making numerous humorous comparisons between the English and his fatherland's governments, country and people. For these books he received the Jaša Ignjatović award (Hungary) in 1991. Pekić also ran a series on the same program at the BBC about the history of Great Britain, which was published posthumously - Sentimentalna povest Britanskog carstva (A Sentimental History Of The British Empire, 1992), for which he received the Yearly ‘Bigz’ award. It was published several times enjoying a huge success.

End of life and posthumous texts
In 1989 he became one of the founding members of The Democratic Party in Serbia and in 1990 he became its vice president and one of the editors of the party's newspaper "Demokratija" ("Democracy"). Pekić was a member of the P. E. N. Association in London and Belgrade, and became Vice President of the Serbian P. E. N. Association between 1990 and 1992. He was elected to The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1985, and was made a member of the Advisory Committee to The Royal Crown in 1992.

Active both as an author and a public figure until his last day, Pekić died of lung cancer at his home in London on 2 July 1992. He was laid to rest at the famous 'Alley of Distinguished Citizens' ('Aleja zaslužnih građana') in Belgrade together with other distinguished figures from the social, political and cultural echelons of society. Posthumously, in 1992, Crown Prince Alexander of Yugoslavia awarded Pekić the Order of the White Eagle, being the highest honour bestowed by Yugoslavian Royal Family.

A large body of his work was, and continues to be, published posthumously: Vreme reči ("The Time of Words"), 1993; Odmor od istorije ("A Break from History"), 1993; Graditelji ("The Builders"), 1994; Rađanje Atlantide ("The Birth of Atlantis"), 1996; Skinuto sa trake ("Transferred from Tapes"), 1996; U traganju za Zlatnim runom ("In Search of the Golden Fleece"), 1997; Izabrana pisma iz tuđine ("Selected Letters from Abroad"), 2000; Političke sveske ("Political Notebooks"), 2001; Filosofske sveske ("Philosophical Notebooks"), 2001; Korespondencija  kao  život, 1&2 ("Correspondence as a Life"), 2002–2003; Sabrana pisma iz tuđine ("Collection of letters from abroad"), 2004, Roboti i sablasti ("Robots and Wraiths", collection of unpublished plays), 2006, Izabrane drame ("Selected plays"), 2007, Izabrani eseji ("Selected essays"), 2007, Moral i demokratija ("Moral and democracy", a collection of interviews and essays), 2008, Marginalije i moralije (collected thoughts from published and unpublished work), 2008.

On 1 and 2 July 2000 the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Belgrade held a symposium with the theme: ‘Literary work of Borislav Pekić on the occasion of the 70th anniversary of his birth’. The essays from that symposium were published in 2003. In 2006, his wife Ljiljana, credited with the abovementioned posthumously published work, started the Borislav Pekic blog where one can find published as well as yet unpublished works of Pekic. Pekić has left a vast corpus of high literary quality characterized by following traits: narrative structures of growing complexity that, in the case of The Golden Fleece cross the fuzzy bounds of the post-modern novel and can be best described by the author's sub-title "Phantasmagoria" (this mammoth work is more than 3,500 pages long); the presence of autobiographical thread one can detect in all major Pekić's works, but especially in his vivid and unsentimental memoirs on his years as a political prisoner and essayist books on life in Britain; obsession with the theme of personal freedom crushed by the impersonal mechanism of the totalitarian power.

Views
Pekić never took British citizenship during his life in exile in the United Kingdom. He considered himself a Serb and a Serbian writer and wanted to stay that way for the rest of his life, with which his wife and daughter showed solidarity.

In correspondence with friends, he stated that "no one wants him in Serbia", as well as that Serbs blamed him for not being a Serb enough in public appearances and that Montenegrins blamed him for "not standing up for their fictional nation".

Works available in English translation
In chronological order of translation:

 * The Time of Miracles, translated by Lovett F. Edwards, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976, ISBN 0-15-190464-2.
 * The Houses of Belgrade, translated by Bernard Johnson, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, ISBN 0-15-142183-8.
 * The Generals or Kinship-in-Arms, play, translated by Vidosava Janković, "Scena" 13 (1990), pp. 143–53.
 * Megalo Mastoras and His Work 1347 A.D., translated by Stephen M. Dickey and Doc Roc in The Prince of Fire: An Anthology of Contemporary Serbian Short Stories, edited by Radmila J. Gorup and Nadežda Obradović, Pittsburgh (PA): University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998.
 * How to Quiet a Vampire, translated by Stephen M. Dickey and Bogdan Rakić, Evanston (IL): Northwestern University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8101-1720-7 and ISBN 0-8101-1719-3 (cloth text).
 * The Apology and the Last Days, translated by Bojan Mišić, Evanston (IL): Northwestern University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0810128231

Bibliography in Serbian
In square brackets the title in Cyrillic and its literal translation.

 * Vreme čuda [Време чуда, "The Time of Miracles"], novel, Belgrade: Prosveta, 1965. Translated in English with the title The Time of Miracles.
 * Hodočašće Arsenija Njegovana [Ходочашће Арсенија Његована, "The Pilgrimage of Arsenij Njegovan"], novel, Belgrade: Prosveta, 1970. Translated as The Houses of Belgrade.
 * Uspenje i sunovrat Ikara Gubelkijana [Успење и суноврат Икара Губелкијана, "Rise and fall of Icarus Gubelkijan"], novel, Belgrade: Slovo Ljubve, 1975.
 * Kako upokojiti vampira, [Како упокојити вампира, "How to Quiet a Vampire"], Belgrade: BIGZ, Rad, Narodna knjiga, 1977. Translated as How to Quiet a Vampire.
 * Odbrana i poslednji dani, [Одбрана и последњи дани, "The Defense and the Last Days"], novel, Belgrade: Slovo Ljubve, 1977. Translated as The Apology and the Last Days.
 * Zlatno runo [Златно руно, "The Golden Fleece"], novel in 7 volumes, Belgrade: Prosveta, 1978 (vol. I & II), 1980 (vol. III & IV), 1981 (vol. V), 1986 (vol. VI & VII).
 * Besnilo [Беснило, "Rabies"], novel, Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada Liber, 1983.
 * 1999, novel, Ljublijana, Zagreb: Cankarjeva založba and Belgrade: Književni glasnik, NIN, 1984.
 * Godine koje su pojeli skakavci ["The Years the Locusts have Devoured"], memories, Belgrade: BIGZ, 1987 (Vol. 1), 1989 (Vol.2), 1990 (Vol. 3).
 * Pisma iz tuđine ["Letters from abroad"], Zagreb: Znanje, 1987.
 * Novi Jerusalim [Нови Јерусалим, "The New Jerusalem"], short stories, London: Gotska hronika and Belgrade: Nolit, 1988.
 * Atlantida [Атлантида, "Atlantis"], novel, 2 Vol., Zagreb: Znanje, 1988.
 * Nova pisma iz tuđine ["New Letters from Abroad"], Zagreb: Mladost, 1989.
 * Poslednja pisma iz tuđine ["Last Letters from Abroad"], Belgrade: Dereta, 1991.
 * Sentimentalna povest britanskog carstva [Сентиментална повест британског царства, "Sentimental History of the British Empire"], essay, Belgrade: BIGZ, 1992.
 * Vreme reči ["The Time of Words"], edited by Božo Koprivica, Belgrade: BIGZ; Srpska književna zadruga, 1993.
 * Odmor od istorije ["A Pause in History"], edited by Radoslav Bratić, Belgrade: BIGZ, 1993.
 * Graditelji ["The Builders"], Belgrade: BIGZ, 1995.
 * Rađanje Atlantide ["The Birth of Atlantis"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Belgrade: BIGZ, 1996.
 * Skinuto sa trake ["Transferred from Tape"], edited by Predrag Palavestra, Belgrade: Narodna knjiga, 1996.
 * U traganju za Zlatnim runom ["In Search of the Golden Fleece"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Belgrade: BIGZ, 1997.
 * Političke sveske ["Political Notes"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Solaris and Stylos, 2001.
 * Filosofske sveske ["Philosophical Notes"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Stylos, 2001.
 * Korespondencija kao život ["Correspondence as a Life"], letters, edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Solaris, 2002 (vol. I), 2003 (vol. II).
 * Roboti i sablasti ["Robots and Wraiths], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Solaris, 2006.
 * Demokratija i nacija ["Democracy and the Nation"], 2006.
 * Izabrani eseji ["Selected Essays"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad; Solaris, 2007.
 * Izabrane drame ["Selected Plays"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Solaris, 2007.
 * Moral i demokratija ["Moral and Democracy"], 2008.
 * Marginalije i moralije ["Marginals and Morals]"], edited by Ljiljana Pekić, Novi Sad: Solaris, 2008.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Borislav Pekić


text:
Daibhidh Ó Duibhgheannáin

Dáibhídh Ó Duibhgeannáin (fl. 1651–1696), also known as Dáibhídh mac Matthew Glas Ó Duibhgeannáin or Dáibhídh Bacach ("lame David"), was a scribe, compiler and poet who was active between the years 1651 and 1696. In the earliest of his known works, Royal Irish Academy Ms. 24.P.9., he writes on page 238: "sguirim go ttrasada ar Loch Mesg dam a ttigh Thaidgh Oig Ui Fhlaibhertaigh 1 die Aprilis 1651, Dauid Duigenan qui scripsit/I stop now, and I on Loch Mask in the house of Tadhg Og O Flaherty, April 1st, 1651, David Duigenan who wrote this." A later entry specifies the place as Oileán Ruadh, or Red Island.

There is a slight chance that he may have been the (or an) intermediary responsible for presenting Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh with "Volume C" of the original four volumes of the autograph of the Annals of the Four Masters, covering the period AM 2242 to AD 1171. Peregrine O'Duignan, one of the four main responsible for compiling the book, was a kinsman of Dáibhídh's. However, an idea proposed by the writer of this article that Dáibhídh was MacFhirbhisigh's mysterious amanuensis cannot be sustained, as a comparison of their handwriting bears no resemblance to each other.

Throughout his life, he transcribed such works as "Suibhne Gelt/The Frenzy of Sweeney", "The Adventures of the Two Idiot Saints", "The Battle of Magh Rath", and "The Banquet of Dun na Gedh.". He is believed to have lived his final years in Shancough, Tirerrill, County Sligo, where he lived with his wife, a Mac Con Midhe. He died in 1696.

title: Daibhidh Ó Duibhgheannáin


text:
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975

The Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 is a New Zealand drug control law that classifies drugs into three classes, or schedules, purportedly based on their projected risk of serious harm. However, in reality, classification of drugs outside of passing laws (such as this one), where the restriction has no legal power, is performed by the governor-general in conjunction with the Minister of Health, neither of whom is actually bound by law to obey this restriction.

In December 2018 it was amended to permit terminally ill patients to use marijuana without risk of prosecution.

Legislative history
The Misuse of Drugs Act was passed by the New Zealand Parliament into law in 1975.

On 11 December 2018, the Labour-led Coalition Government passed the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Act, which amended the existing law to permit terminally ill patients to use marijuana without risk of prosecution.

On 18 December 2018, the Government announced that it would also hold a referendum on legalizing recreational cannabis during the 2020 general election.

In March 2019, the Misuse of Drugs Amendment Bill was introduced. This added AMB-FUBINACA and 5F-ADB as Class A drugs; but most comment was around the phrase "affirm the existing discretion to prosecute", with lawyers and others saying that this would effectively mean an end to prosecution for mere possession of any drug. It was passed and became effective in August 2019.

In December 2020, the Act was amended by the Drug and Substance Checking Legislation Act 2020. This Act temporarily legalised drug checking in New Zealand. In November 2021, this change was made permanent by the Drug and Substance Checking Legislation Act 2021 making New Zealand the first nation to explicitly legalise drug checking.

Class A
First Schedule: Very high risk of harm and illegal:
 * Cocaine
 * Heroin
 * LSD
 * Mescaline
 * Methamphetamine
 * Phencyclidine (PCP)
 * Psilocin and psilocybin

Class B
Second Schedule: Very high risk of harm and on prescription:
 * Amphetamine
 * Cannabis (hashish, cannabis oil, or other preparation)
 * Ephedrine
 * GHB
 * Hydromorphone
 * Hydrocodone
 * MDMA (ecstasy)
 * Methadone
 * Methylphenidate
 * Morphine
 * Opium
 * Oxycodone
 * Pethidine
 * Pseudoephedrine

Class C
Third Schedule: Moderate risk of harm:
 * Barbiturates (phenobarbital, barbital, etc.)
 * Benzodiazepines (diazepam, alprazolam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, etc.)
 * Benzylpiperazine (BZP)
 * Cannabis (plant, leaf, fruit or seeds)
 * Codeine
 * Zopiclone
 * Zolpidem
 * Pentobarbital, secobarbital and amobarbital are subject to more legal restrictions and tougher penalties than are other Class C substances.

 * Temazepam and flunitrazepam are subject to more legal restrictions and tougher penalties than are other Class C substances.

Fourth Schedule
Precursor substances.

Conventions
The Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD) makes scheduling decisions, based on scientific and medical evidence and/or international treaty obligations. New Zealand is a party to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

National Drug Policy New Zealand notes, "The Conventions place certain obligations on signatory countries. When the UN classifies (or re-classifies) a substance under one of the above Conventions, it requires signatory countries to amend their domestic legislation to ensure consistency with the UN's amendment. Accordingly, the impetus for some of the drugs to be considered by the EACD will originate from decisions made at the UN".

title: Misuse of Drugs Act 1975


text: Talk:History of technology

title: Talk:History of technology


text:
South Wales Valleys

The South Wales Valleys (Cymoedd De Cymru) are a group of industrialised peri-urban valleys in South Wales. Most of the valleys run north–south, roughly parallel to each other. Commonly referred to as "The Valleys" (Y Cymoedd), they stretch from Carmarthenshire in the west to Monmouthshire in the east; to the edge of the pastoral country of the Vale of Glamorgan and the coastal plain near the cities of Swansea, Cardiff, and Newport.

History
Until the mid-19th century, the South Wales valleys were sparsely inhabited. The industrialisation of the Valleys occurred in two phases. First, in the second half of the 18th century, the iron industry was established on the northern edge of the Valleys, mainly by English entrepreneurs. This made South Wales the most important part of Britain for ironmaking until the middle of the 19th century. Second, from 1850 until the outbreak of the First World War, the South Wales Coalfield was developed to supply steam coal and anthracite.

The South Wales Valleys hosted Britain's only mountainous coalfields. Topography defined the shape of the mining communities, with a "hand and fingers" pattern of urban development. There were fewer than 1,000 people in the Rhondda valley in 1851, 17,000 by 1870, 114,000 by 1901 and 153,000 by 1911; but the wider impact of urbanisation was constrained by geography—the Rhondda remained a collection of villages rather than a town. The population of the Valleys in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was disproportionately young and male; many of them were migrants drawn from other parts of Wales or from further afield. The new communities had extremely high birth rates—in 1840, more than 20 per cent of Tredegar's population was aged under seven, and Rhondda's birth rate in 1911 was 36 per thousand, levels usually associated with mid-19th century Britain.

Merthyr Tydfil, at the northern end of the Taff valley, became Wales's largest town thanks to its growing ironworks at Dowlais and Cyfarthfa. The neighbouring Taff Bargoed Valley to the east became the centre of serious industrial and political strife during the 1930s, especially in and around the villages of Trelewis and Bedlinog, which served the local collieries of Deep Navigation and Taff Merthyr. The South Wales coalfield attracted huge numbers of people from rural areas to the valleys; and many rows of terraced housing were built along the valley sides to accommodate the influx. The coal mined in the valleys was transported south along railways and canals to Cardiff, Newport and Swansea. Cardiff was soon among the most important coal ports in the world, and Swansea among the most important steel ports.

Decline
The coal mining industry of the Valleys was buoyed throughout World War II, though there were expectations of a return to the pre-1939 industrial collapse after the end of the war. There was a sense of salvation when the government announced the nationalisation of British coalmines in 1947; but the following decades saw a continual reduction in the output from the Welsh mines. The decline in the mining of coal after World War II was a country-wide issue, but South Wales was more severely affected than other areas of Britain. Oil had superseded coal as the fuel of choice in many industries, and there was political pressure influencing the supply of oil. Of the few industries that still relied on coal, the demand was for quality coals, especially coking coal, which was required by the steel industry. Fifty percent of Glamorgan coal was now supplied to steelworks, with the second biggest market being domestic heating, in which the "smokeless" coal of the southern Wales coalfield again became fashionable after the Clean Air Act of 1956 was passed. These two markets now controlled the fate of the mines in Wales, and as demand from both sectors fell, the mining industry contracted further. In addition exports to other areas of Europe, traditionally France, Italy and the Low Countries, experienced a massive decline: from 33% around 1900 to roughly 5% by 1980.

The other major factor in the decline of coal was the massive under-investment in Welsh mines over the past decades. Most of the mines in the valleys were sunk between the 1850s and 1880s, so they were far smaller than most modern mines. The Welsh mines were comparatively antiquated, with methods of ventilation, coal-preparation and power supply all of a decades-earlier standard. In 1945 the British coal industry as a whole cut 72% of its output mechanically, whereas in the south of Wales the figure was just 22%. The only way to ensure the financial survival of the mines in the valleys was massive investment from the National Coal Board, but the "Plan for Coal" drawn up in 1950 was overly optimistic about the future demand for coal, which was drastically reduced following an industrial recession in 1956 and an increased availability of oil. From 15,000 miners in 1947, Rhondda had just a single pit within the valleys producing coal in 1984, located at Maerdy.

In 1966, the village of Aberfan in the Taff valley suffered one of the worst disasters in Welsh history, referred to today as the Aberfan disaster. A mine waste tip on the top of the mountain, which had been developed over a spring, slid down the valley side and destroyed the village junior school, killing 144 people, 116 of them children.

In 1979, Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Her policies of free market economics soon clashed with the loss-making, government-owned National Coal Board. In 1984 and 1985, after the government announced plans to close many mines across the UK, mineworkers went on strike. This strike, and its ultimate failure, led to the virtual destruction of the UK's coal industry over the next decade, although arguably costs of extraction and geological difficulties would have had the same result, perhaps a little later. No deep coal mines are left in the valleys since the closure in 2008 of Tower Colliery in the Cynon Valley. Tower had been bought by the workers in 1994, despite government attempts to close it.

By 2002, the unemployment rates in the Welsh valleys were among the highest in the whole United Kingdom since the 1980s, and have been seen as a major factor in the rise in drug abuse in the local area, which was highlighted in the national media during the autumn of 2002 and largely linked to drug dealing gangs from Birmingham and Bristol.

More recently however employment levels have risen significantly in the area, including growing faster than elsewhere in Wales. This has been driven by billions of pounds of investment into the valleys from EU structural funds, UK government and Welsh government. Significant further investments in the area are also planned to go ahead.

Present day
The Valleys are home to around 30% of the Welsh population, although this is declining slowly because of emigration, especially from the Upper Valleys. The area has a relatively high proportion of residents (over 90% in Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil) born in Wales.

The Valleys have the highest percentage of Welsh identifying population in all of Wales. Merthyr Tydfil reported the highest rate of Welsh identifying, with 70.0%. They also had the highest rates of reporting themselves to have 'No religion'. The Valleys as a whole do suffer from a number of socio-economic problems however. A high proportion of people report a limiting long-term health problem, especially in the Upper Valleys. In 2006, only 64% of the working age population in the Heads of the Valleys was in employment compared with 69% in the Lower Valleys and 71% across Wales as a whole.

A relatively large number of local people are employed in manufacturing, health and social services. Fewer work in managerial or professional occupations, and more in elementary occupations, compared to the rest of the country. A large number of people commute to Cardiff, particularly in Caerphilly, Torfaen and Rhondda Cynon Taf. Though the rail network into Cardiff is extensive, train times and frequencies beyond Caerphilly and Pontypridd impede the development of a significant commuter market to city centre jobs.

Although the housing stock is not of significantly worse quality than elsewhere in Wales, there is a lack of variety in terms of private dwellings. Many homes are low-priced, older and terraced, concentrated in the lowest Council Tax bands; few are higher-priced detached homes. A report for the Welsh Government concluded that the Valleys is "a distressed area unique in Great Britain for the depth and concentration of its problems". However, the area does benefit from a local landscape described as "stunning", improving road links such as the upgraded A465, and public investment in regeneration initiatives.

Following devolution in the late 2000s, powers over the Wales and Borders rail franchise are now held by the Welsh Government. As a result, financing has been advanced through the Cardiff City Deal for a South Wales Metro. The metro will consist of route electrification, new Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles trains manufactured at Llanwern for use in 2023, new stations, more frequent services, and faster journey times across most valleys. The first major improvement is the re-opening of services between Ebbw Vale and Newport (via the Gaer Tunnel) which is projected to be completed by 2021.

Culture
The South Wales Valleys contain a large proportion of the Welsh population and remain an important centre of Welsh culture, despite the growing economic dominance of Cardiff. The UK Parliament's first Labour Party MP, Keir Hardie, was elected from the area, and the Valleys remain a stronghold of Labour Party power. Rugby union is very popular, and pitches can be seen along the valley corridors.

The geographical shape of the valleys has its effect on culture. Roads stretch along valleys and connect the different settlements in the valley, whereas neighbouring valleys are separated by hills and mountains. Consequently, the towns in a valley are more closely associated with each other than they are with towns in the neighbouring valley, even when the towns in the neighbouring valley are closer on the map.

Roads
The A470 from Cardiff is, as far as its junction with the A465 Heads of the Valleys road, a dual-carriageway providing direct access to Taff's Well, Pontypridd, Abercynon and Merthyr Tydfil. It links with the A4059 from Abercynon, Aberdare and Hirwaun; the A472 from Ystrad Mynach and Pontypool, and the A4054 from Quakers Yard.

Public transport
Stagecoach in South Wales provides bus services linking many towns and villages directly to Cardiff city centre. Many settlements in the Valleys are served by the Valley Lines network, an urban rail network radiating from Cardiff which links them to the city's stations, principally Cardiff Queen Street and Cardiff Central, with connections onto the South Wales Main Line. There are six main lines from Central Cardiff to the Valleys:
 * Valley Lines via Cardiff Queen Street
 * Rhondda Line to Pontypridd to Treherbert
 * Merthyr Line to Pontypridd and Abercynon continuing to either Aberdare or Merthyr Tydfil, plus the freight-only section beyond Aberdare to Hirwaun
 * Rhymney Line to Rhymney, plus the freight-only line from Ystrad Mynach to Cwmbargoed.
 * Routes via the South Wales Main Line
 * Maesteg Line to Bridgend and Maesteg
 * Ebbw Valley Railway to Ebbw Vale
 * Welsh Marches Line to Abergavenny continuing to North Wales and North West England

Listed from west to east

 * Gwendraeth valley
 * Loughor Valley
 * Amman Valley
 * Swansea Valley (Tawe Valley)
 * Dulais Valley
 * Vale of Neath
 * Afan Valley
 * Llynfi Valley
 * Garw Valley
 * Ogmore Valley
 * Rhondda Valley
 * Cynon Valley
 * Aber Valley
 * Ely Valley
 * Taff Valley
 * Taff Bargoed Valley
 * Rhymney Valley (forms the historic boundary between Glamorgan and Monmouthshire)
 * Sirhowy Valley
 * Ebbw Valley
 * Ebbw Fach Valley
 * Llwyd Valley

title: South Wales Valleys


text:
Victorian Women's Football League

The Victorian Women's Football League (VWFL) was the oldest and largest Australian rules football league for women in the world, consisting of 47 clubs from Victoria, Australia across seven divisions with a total of over 1,000 players.

Early years
The Victorian Women's Football League was formed in 1981 with four teams competing at open level.

In 1995, Sal Rees caused controversy when she nominated for the 1995 AFL Draft: the nomination was subsequently voided, with the AFL amending its Draft rules to prevent any repeat of this incident.

The VWFL grew quickly, increasing dramatically the number of players and participating teams with a Division 3 added in 2001.

In 2002, VWFL player Debbie Lee made headlines for pushing to play against men in the made-for-television team the Hammerheads. She has commented, "My whole idea with the Hammerheads was to promote women's football. At no point in time did I really think I was going to play against the men, and frankly it wouldn't really have been smart for me to do that. My whole idea was to cause a bit of activity."

An U17 Youth Girls Competition was established by Football Victoria in 2004, primarily to provide a pathway to the VWFL. This was following legal action having been taken against them in the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (following a complaint to the Equal Opportunity Commission) by junior players Penny Cula-Reid, Emily Stayner, and Helen Taylor.

In May 2004, the first VWFL game was played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), with the Melbourne Uni Mugars defeating St Albans Spurs on Mother's Day. A second game was played at the MCG later in the same year, featuring the Mugars and St Kilda Sharks reserves teams.

A quarter-century of competition
In 2005, the VWFL celebrated its 25th season, and created a reserves competition for Division 1.

In 2006, the league posted a $6000 loss, however this was turned around in 2007 with a $19000 profit being posted at the end of 2007. 2007 saw five divisions (Premier seniors & reserves, North West, South East & Country) and 27 teams (from 20 clubs), and culminated in an Australian crowd record for women's Australian rules football at the 2007 Grand Final held on 19 August at the Preston City Oval in Melbourne. Two finals matches were also held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground for the first time.

The work done by the VWFL Media Manager Leesa Catto was instrumental in increasing media coverage across the competition. A significant partnership was negotiated with the Leader News group and weekly coverage was captured across the Melbourne Metropolitan area. Events like the participation of two VWFL players Shannon McFerran and Daisy Pearce in the E. J. Whitten Legends Game also helped lift the profile of the league.

The VWFL integrated into AFL Victoria in 2013.

Dissolution
At the end of the 2016 season, it was announced that the VWFL would be dissolved, with the forty-seven clubs and sixty teams of the VWFL joining ten Victorian community leagues in 2017, along with additional clubs and teams from a further eighty clubs that had expressed interest in joining women's Australian football competitions. AFL Victoria would retain management of the ten-team VFL Women's league, with the remainder of the expected 150 teams to play in regional leagues.

Division One/Premier Division
Source:

Premiers: Country Conference
2007 Melton Centrals 2006 Geelong Cheetahz

VWFL Life Members
2009 Leesa Catto

2009 Bron McGorlick

2008 Kerryn Stephen

2006 Chyloe Kurdas

2005 Di Smith

2004 Belinda Bowey

2003 Sally Rees, Rohenna Young

2002 Debbie Lee, Kerry Saunders

2001 Nicole Graves

2000 Lisa Hardeman

1999 Ann Rulton

1998 Julie Allen

1997 Dianne Vaux

1996 Bernadette Marantelli

1995 Coral White

1990 Jan Wilson, Janet Graham

1983 Helen Lambert

250 Games (as at end of 2011)
Debbie Lee (East Brunswick Scorpions/Sunshine YCW/St Albans Spurs)

Kerry Saunders (Darebin Falcons/St Kilda City)

Belinda Bowey (St Kilda Sharks/Keysborough)

title: Victorian Women's Football League


text:
Template talk:CzechRepublic-geo-stub

This page was protected: Repeated reverts of this and related categories and templates by two new Wikipedians - one possibly a sockpuppet of the other - against previously agreed consensus for naming of this category and general mood regarding related template on tfd.

For further history of the dispute, see the page history and tfd. Grutness|hello? 13:45, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * After discussion on tfd, a compromise template name that avoided bioth the words "Czech" and "Czechia" was found... there's still the problem with the categories, though... Grutness|hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|25px|]] 23:45, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Template talk:CzechRepublic-geo-stub


text: Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-04-04

title: Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-04-04


text:
Category talk:Czech Republic geography stubs

Untitled
Repeated reverts of this and related categories and templates by two new Wikipedians - one possibly a sockpuppet of the other - against previously agreed consensus for naming of this category and general mood regarding related template on tfd.

For further history of the dispute, see the page history and tfd. Grutness|hello? 13:45, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Neither of which are at all easy to find! I'm interested to read this dispute, as I guess it was something to do with the name "Czechia", but don't have a clue where to find the relevant bit of TFD, at least without slogging through log after log after log day by day. 86.132.141.152 02:50, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * mmm. good point, at this distance in time. The history is easy enough, just click on the history link at the top. That should also give you an indication of when it was dealt with at TFD. From memory, it was to do with the name - two opposing groups of editors editwarring both the category and the template, one preferring the word Czechia, the other preferring Czech Republic. In hindsight Czech Republic may have been better, but the majority opinion was for Czechia. Since repeated editing of heavy-use templates is bad for the servers (which at the time were overstrected and frequently failing) it was thought better to pick one and stick with it. The template was changed to a neutral Cz-geo-stub, and Czechia narrowly won out as far as the category was concerned. Note that - as I said - this is from memory, so may not be entirely accurate. Grutness...wha?  03:14, 14 June 2006 (UTC)


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Phase-change Dual

Phase-change Dual (or Phase-change Disc) is a rewritable optical disc and a standard for it, developed by Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. in April 1995.

It has a capacity of 650 MB on one side, and the size of the disc is 12 cm in diameter (5 inches) similar to a general CD or DVD, and it is used in a state where it is housed in a square cartridge. The phase change recording technology using red laser light is adopted, and about 500,000 times of rewriting is possible.

The built-in PD drive and the external type are sold, respectively, and both of them can read the CD-ROM. Both drive and media, most of which are manufactured by Matsushita Electric Appliances only, the company also released a notebook PC with a 650 MB auxiliary storage device and a 4× CD-ROM drive, a PRONOTE PD (August 1996).

CD-RW can be cited as a re-writable medium at the same time, but it is characterized by being able to write and delete on a file basis, which is close to the feeling of handling CD-RW and floppy disk using packet write system. Also, due to the characteristics contained in the cartridge, it does not touch the recording surface directly, so it is resistant to dust and scratches and is relatively reliable. CD-R and CD-RW were not so popular at the time, and there were instabilities such as many write failures. Although the writing speed of PD is not fast, it is about to be faster than writing to floppy, but at the time of sale, it was not a speed that made it so difficult.

Meanwhile, MO, ZIP drive, SyQuest, etc. existed as re-writable media close to the feeling of handling floppy disks, but the advantage that the PD drive can be read by the CD-ROM was merit compared with those. At that time the CD-ROM drive was becoming an essential peripheral device, but it was not necessarily built in every PC yet, desktop machines that were mainstream at that time had many models with only one drive bay. In such an environment, a PD capable of serving as both a CD-ROM drive and a large capacity (then) auxiliary storage device was advantageous both in terms of cost and installation.

DVD-RAM appeared as a successor technology in April 1997, DVD-RAM adopts a cartridge similar to PD, and the 2.6 GB version 1.0 standard, which has just one side capacity equal to 4 times the PD, DVD - It was possible to read and write PD in the RAM drive. However, in the summer of 2000, compatibility with PD was not taken into consideration when creating DVD-RAM version 2.0, which has the same with 4.7 GB standard capacity as other DVDs. At this point PD drives and media effectively disappeared from the market.

title: Phase-change Dual


text:
Talk:R1 (New York City Subway car)

Untitled
Anyone have any opinions on splitting this article into 3 articles accessible from a dis-ambiguaiton page?? Georgia guy 13:45, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * That would be fine with me. I've been linking to R1 (New York City Subway car) for a while, to make the eventual split easier. --SPUI (talk) 14:35, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I finally moved the page and made a dis-ambiguation page. I put the info on the motorcycle into its own article as well, but the third use I don't see enough info for it to get its own article, and so I just left the substubby info on the dis-ambiguation page. Georgia guy 23:59, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks - looks good. --SPUI (talk) 00:06, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)

See discussion at: Category talk:New York City Subway passenger equipment

I have been editing to the best of my ability many of the pages regarding the various types of NYC subway equipment, inserting additional information as well as correcting that which I know to be personally wrong (I have been the NY Division Bulletin News Editor for the ERA for over 20 years.) With this category, I see a problem as this particular type is broken up into 5 or 6 contracts on different pages. It would be cumbersome and frankly unnecessary to insert the same information on each of those pages. Much of the technical information applies to the entire fleet and they were run as a unified fleet, broken up by assignments not necessarily according to contracts. Having them broken up on different pages by contracts makes as much sense to me as breaking up the A/B Standards by 2000's, 2100's, 2200's, etc., or the Low-V's by 1916, 1917, 1924, 1925 groups, when each of them were basically the same mechanically and operationally.

There are other contract groupings involving almost exactly similar cars that should be combined as well, but the problem that I am outlining with the R-1/9 series is more serious, and I feel that it needs to be looked at if more editing is to be done. As there is very little except for the most minor differences between each contract group, and the bulk of the information would apply to the entire fleet, I am herein requesting that an all-encompassing page for R-1/9 cars be set up, so that this work may properly be facilitated. The same then might ultimately be considered for such groups as R-12/14, R-17/21/22, R-26/28, R-29/33/36, R-62/62A, and on the other division, R-27/30, R-68/68A.

Please let me hear from someone in this regard. I hope that I am using the right format for this request.Alger3041 (talk) 01:49, 17 April 2021 (UTC)Alger3041

title: Talk:R1 (New York City Subway car)


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Surnia

Surnia is a genus of owl that contains a single living species, the northern hawk-owl (Surnia ulula).

Two fossil species are known as well; Surnia capeki and Surnia robusta, both from the Plio-Pleistocene of Europe.

title: Surnia


text:
User:Cybertaur1

Cybertaur1 is a registered Wikipedia contributor.

title: User:Cybertaur1


text:
Talk:Calvin Bridges

Untitled
Reverted copyvio from --nixie 13:49, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calvin Bridges


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Talk:Physical paradox

Afraid of saying the word "paradox"?
"A physical paradox is an apparent contradiction relating to physical descriptions of the universe." If this is so, why then, on this page and others (e.g. I followed a link here from Black hole information paradox), do we keep putting scare-quotes around the word, and say things like "so-called paradox", "seeming paradox", "apparent paradox", and so on? So is an "apparent paradox" then an "apparent apparent contradiction relating to physical descriptions of the universe"? -Dan 22:35, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Where in this article? Harald88 22:44, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Oh, almost right off the bat! First section ("paradoxes relating to false assumptions"), caption to the image on the right: "The Twins paradox is an apparent paradox that shows that there is no absolute time." Text of section: "Certain physical paradoxes seem to defy common sense predictions [...] and thus appear superficially to be paradoxical [...] Other so-called paradoxes that appear at first glance to contradict common sense are Babinet's paradox and the Gibbs paradox [...]"
 * In "Observational paradoxes", section text: "A further set of physical "paradoxes" are based on sets of observations [...] In some sense, these may not be paradoxes at all [...]"

 * I think I've listed all of them. (I've also added "seem to defy common sense" and such to my objections. I'd say they do defy common sense, no?) -Dan 04:13, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, I agree about paradox, especially as it's immediately pointed out in the intro. "at first glance appear" is obviously overdone -- a bit like "I would like to ask you if I can come in" could be replied with, technically, "OK, you may ask"! But "defy common sense" isn't good, as paradoxes that are solved by explanation only defy the common sense of those who don't understand yet; thus expressions like "seem to" or "may at first seem to" are required. -- happy editing! :-) Harald88 12:54, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I can see that in some cases intuition might be satisfied by explanation, but in general explanations only work on a rational level. It is quite common for people to call results "unintuitive" or the like, even when they understand it perfectly well. This article even asserts that the Twin's and ladder paradoxes do defy common sense. -Dan 15:04, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Really? Such assertions are POV; for me the solutions to those two paradoxes make perfect sense (but I must admit that I studied them for years...) Harald88 00:04, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

Crank warning
Someone added a link to quantum Smarandache paradoxes. Someone should carefully check this out because [[Florentin Smarandache] and/or some Romanian fans have been enthusiastically adding references to his often bizzare ideas in WP. See this Romanian website, [[Neutrosophy]], Dezert-Smarandache theory, etc. ---CH 07:31, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

Crank warning 2
The book mentioned at the bottom of this page probably does not warrant a mention. It looks like some random obscure German physicist's pet theory to me, and possibly is self-promotion. Some of the Amazon description sounds like word salad. I would suggest deletion. 27chaosmosis (talk) 19:05, 6 July 2016 (UTC)

Since nobody has said anything to me about this, I am going to go ahead and delete what I believe to be either a crank doing something or someone doing self-promotion. Yell at me if this is inappropriate, but I need to get my feet wet somehow. 27chaosmosis (talk) 20:41, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

GA Re-Review and In-line citations
Members of the WikiProject Good articles are in the process of doing a re-review of current Good Article listings to ensure compliance with the standards of the Good Article Criteria. (Discussion of the changes and re-review can be found here). A significant change to the GA criteria is the mandatory use of some sort of in-line citation (In accordance to WP:CITE) to be used in order for an article to pass the verification and reference criteria. Currently this article does not include in-line citations. It is recommended that the article's editors take a look at the inclusion of in-line citations as well as how the article stacks up against the rest of the Good Article criteria. GA reviewers will give you at least a week's time from the date of this notice to work on the in-line citations before doing a full re-review and deciding if the article still merits being considered a Good Article or would need to be de-listed. If you have any questions, please don't hesitate to contact us on the Good Article project talk page or you may contact me personally. On behalf of the Good Articles Project, I want to thank you for all the time and effort that you have put into working on this article and improving the overall quality of the Wikipedia project. Agne 00:15, 26 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I've delisted this from GA as it still lacks inline citations. I'll add in to our unreferenced GA task force.  Once sufficient references are added hopefully it can easily regain GA status. --jwandersTalk 11:05, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Physical paradox


text:
File:Rendez-Vous Jarre Album.jpg

Summary
The album cover for Jean-Michel Jarre's Rendez-Vous.

title: File:Rendez-Vous Jarre Album.jpg


text:
Christopher Aponte

Christopher Aponte is an American classical ballet dancer. Aponte was born in the borough of Manhattan, then moved, at the age of three, to live in the Bronx.

Aponte attended the High School of Performing Arts and received a scholarship to the National Academy of Ballet. Upon graduation, Aponte was enrolled on scholarship to the trainee program of the Harkness Ballet School. He made his dance debut in a public performance at the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park.

Shortly after his debut, Aponte entered the Harkness Ballet Company and rose to become principal dancer. He has traveled extensively with his partner, Gelsey Kirkland. Aponte has performed as principal dancer with the American Ballet Theatre, New York City Ballet, Boston Ballet, and Alvin Ailey Company, and was artistic director of the Spokane Ballet. Aponte has choreographed over forty ballets and is especially known for his interpretation of Ravel's Boléro.

title: Christopher Aponte


text:
List of fusion experiments

Experiments directed toward developing fusion power are invariably done with dedicated machines which can be classified according to the principles they use to confine the plasma fuel and keep it hot.

The major division is between magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. In magnetic confinement, the tendency of the hot plasma to expand is counteracted by the Lorentz force between currents in the plasma and magnetic fields produced by external coils. The particle densities tend to be in the range of $11 MW$ to $$ and the linear dimensions in the range of $m^{−3}$. The particle and energy confinement times may range from under a millisecond to over a second, but the configuration itself is often maintained through input of particles, energy, and current for times that are hundreds or thousands of times longer. Some concepts are capable of maintaining a plasma indefinitely.

In contrast, with inertial confinement, there is nothing to counteract the expansion of the plasma. The confinement time is simply the time it takes the plasma pressure to overcome the inertia of the particles, hence the name. The densities tend to be in the range of $0.1 m$ to $$ and the plasma radius in the range of 1 to 100 micrometers. These conditions are obtained by irradiating a millimeter-sized solid pellet with a nanosecond laser or ion pulse. The outer layer of the pellet is ablated, providing a reaction force that compresses the central 10% of the fuel by a factor of 10 or 20 to 103 or $m^{−3}$ times solid density. These microplasmas disperse in a time measured in nanoseconds. For a fusion power reactor, a repetition rate of several per second will be needed.

Magnetic confinement
Within the field of magnetic confinement experiments, there is a basic division between toroidal and open magnetic field topologies. Generally speaking, it is easier to contain a plasma in the direction perpendicular to the field than parallel to it. Parallel confinement can be solved either by bending the field lines back on themselves into circles or, more commonly, toroidal surfaces, or by constricting the bundle of field lines at both ends, which causes some of the particles to be reflected by the mirror effect. The toroidal geometries can be further subdivided according to whether the machine itself has a toroidal geometry, i.e., a solid core through the center of the plasma. The alternative is to dispense with a solid core and rely on currents in the plasma to produce the toroidal field.

Mirror machines have advantages in a simpler geometry and a better potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. They generally require higher magnetic fields than toroidal machines, but the biggest problem has turned out to be confinement. For good confinement there must be more particles moving perpendicular to the field than there are moving parallel to the field. Such a non-Maxwellian velocity distribution is, however, very difficult to maintain and energetically costly.

The mirrors' advantage of simple machine geometry is maintained in machines which produce compact toroids, but there are potential disadvantages for stability in not having a central conductor and there is generally less possibility to control (and thereby optimize) the magnetic geometry. Compact toroid concepts are generally less well developed than those of toroidal machines. While this does not necessarily mean that they cannot work better than mainstream concepts, the uncertainty involved is much greater.

Somewhat in a class by itself is the Z-pinch, which has circular field lines. This was one of the first concepts tried, but it did not prove very successful. Furthermore, there was never a convincing concept for turning the pulsed machine requiring electrodes into a practical reactor.

The dense plasma focus is a controversial and "non-mainstream" device that relies on currents in the plasma to produce a toroid. It is a pulsed device that depends on a plasma that is not in equilibrium and has the potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. Experiments are ongoing to test relatively new theories to determine if the device has a future.

Toroidal machine
Toroidal machines can be axially symmetric, like the tokamak and the reversed field pinch (RFP), or asymmetric, like the stellarator. The additional degree of freedom gained by giving up toroidal symmetry might ultimately be usable to produce better confinement, but the cost is complexity in the engineering, the theory, and the experimental diagnostics. Stellarators typically have a periodicity, e.g. a fivefold rotational symmetry. The RFP, despite some theoretical advantages such as a low magnetic field at the coils, has not proven very successful.

Magnetic mirror

 * Tabletop/Toytop, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
 * DCX/DCX-2, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
 * OGRA (Odin GRAm neitronov v sutki, one gram of neutrons per day), Akademgorodok, Russia. A 20-meter-long pipe
 * Baseball I/Baseball II Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
 * 2X/2XIII/2XIII-B, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
 * TMX, TMX-U Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
 * MFTF Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
 * Gas Dynamic Trap at Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Akademgorodok, Russia.

Toroidal Z-pinch

 * Perhapsatron (1953, USA)
 * ZETA (Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly) (1957, United Kingdom)

Reversed field pinch (RFP)

 * ETA-BETA II in Padua, Italy (1979–1989)
 * RFX (Reversed-Field eXperiment), Consorzio RFX, Padova, Italy
 * MST (Madison Symmetric Torus), University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States
 * T2R, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
 * TPE-RX, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan
 * KTX (Keda Torus eXperiment) in China (since 2015)

Spheromak

 * Sustained Spheromak Physics Experiment

Field-reversed configuration (FRC)

 * C-2 Tri Alpha Energy
 * C-2U Tri Alpha Energy
 * C-2W TAE Technologies
 * LSX University of Washington
 * IPA University of Washington
 * HF University of Washington
 * IPA- HF University of Washington

Other toroidal machines

 * TMP (Tor s Magnitnym Polem, torus with magnetic field): A porcelain torus with major radius $$, minor radius $0.625 m$, toroidal field of $0.13 m$ and plasma current $1 T$, predecessor to the first tokamak (1955, USSR)

Plasma pinch

 * Trisops – 2 facing theta-pinch guns
 * FF-2B, Lawrenceville Plasma Physics, United States

Levitated dipole

 * Levitated Dipole Experiment (LDX), MIT/Columbia University, United States

Z-pinch

 * Z Pulsed Power Facility
 * ZEBRA device at the University of Nevada's Nevada Terawatt Facility
 * Saturn accelerator at Sandia National Laboratory
 * MAGPIE at Imperial College London
 * COBRA at Cornell University
 * PULSOTRON
 * Z-FFR (Z(-pinch)-Fission-Fusion Reactor), a nuclear fusion–fission hybrid machine to be built in Chengdu, China by 2025 and generate power as early as 2028

Inertial electrostatic confinement

 * Fusor
 * List of fusor examples
 * Polywell

Magnetized target fusion

 * FRX-L
 * FRCHX
 * General Fusion – under development
 * LINUS project

title: List of fusion experiments


text:
Kosher salt

Kosher salt or kitchen salt (also called cooking salt, rock salt, kashering salt, or koshering salt) is coarse edible salt usually without common additives such as iodine,  typically used in cooking and not at the table. It consists mainly of sodium chloride and may include anticaking agents.

Etymology
Coarse edible salt is a kitchen staple, but its name varies widely in various cultures and countries. The term kosher salt gained common usage in the United States and refers to its use in the Jewish religious practice of dry brining meats, known as kashering, and not to the salt itself being manufactured under any religious guidelines. Some brands further identify kosher-certified salt as being approved by a religious body.

General cooking
Due to the lack of metallic or off-tasting additives such as iodine, fluoride or dextrose, it is often used in the kitchen instead of additive-containing table salt. Estimating the amount of salt when salting by hand can also be easier due to the larger grain size. Some recipes specifically call for volume measurement of kosher/kitchen salt, which for some brands weighs less per measure due to its lower density and is therefore less salty than an equal volume measurement of table salt; recipes which call for a specified weight of salt are more consistent. Different brands of salt vary dramatically in density; for one brand the same volume measure may contain twice as much salt (by mass) as for another brand.

Brining or kashering meat

The coarse-grained salt is used to create a dry brine, which increases succulence and flavor and satisfies some religious requirements, sometimes with flavor additions such as herbs, spices or sugar. The meat is typically soaked in cool water and drained and then completely covered with a thin layer of salt—and then allowed to stand on a rack or board for an hour or more. The larger salt granules remain on the surface of the meat, for the most part undissolved, and absorb fluids from the meat, which are then partially reabsorbed with the salt and any added flavors, essentially brining the meat in its own juices. The salt rub is then rinsed off and discarded before cooking.

Cleaning
Due to its grain size, the salt is also used as an abrasive cleaner for cookware such as cast iron skillets. Mixed with oil, it retains its abrasiveness but can be easily dissolved with water after cleaning, unlike cleansers based on pumice or calcium carbonate, which can leave a gritty residue if not thoroughly rinsed away.

Manufacturing
Rather than cubic crystals, kosher salt has a flat plate-like shape and for some brands may also have a hollow pyramidal shape. Morton Salt produces flat kosher salt while Diamond Crystal produces pyramidal. The flat form is usually made when cubic crystals are forced into this shape under pressure, usually between rollers. The pyramidal salt crystals are generally made by an evaporative process called the Alberger process. Kosher salt is usually manufactured with a grain size larger than table salt grains. Diamond Crystal salt is made by Cargill in St. Clair, MI and Morton Salt is from Chicago, IL.

title: Kosher salt


text:
Wayne Ferreira

Wayne Richard Ferreira (born 15 September 1971) is a South African tennis coach and a former professional tennis player.

Junior career
As a junior player, Ferreira was ranked world No. 1 junior doubles player and No. 6 junior singles player. He won the junior doubles title at the US Open in 1989.

Professional career
Ferreira turned professional in 1989. He won his first ATP doubles title in Adelaide in 1991.

1992 was Ferreira's breakthrough year on the tour. He started out by reaching the semifinals of the Australian Open. In June he won his first ATP singles title at Queen's Club, London. His second singles title came just a few weeks later at Schenectady, New York. He also teamed-up with compatriot Piet Norval to win the men's doubles silver medal for South Africa at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Ferreira was defeated in the second round in the Olympic singles that year.

After a quieter year in 1993 in which he didn't win any singles titles, Ferreira came back strongly in 1994 to win a career-best five singles titles. He then won another four events in 1995. He competed at the Olympics again in 1996, reaching the quarterfinals in both men's singles and men's doubles, with Ellis Ferreira as his partner. (The two Ferreiras are not related. )

The biggest titles of Ferreira's career came at Toronto in 1996 and Stuttgart in 2000 (both Tennis Masters Series events).

Ferreira teamed-up with Amanda Coetzer in 2000 to win the Hopman Cup for South Africa. He played in his third and final Olympic tournament that year; this time, competing only in singles and being defeated in the first round.

Ferreira is the former record-holder for the most consecutive Grand Slam tournament appearances in men's tennis, having participated in 56 consecutive slams between the 1991 Australian Open and the 2004 US Open. Ferreira's best Grand Slam results came at the Australian Open – where he reached the semi-finals twice in 1992 and 2003.

During his career, Ferreira won 15 top-level singles titles and 11 doubles titles. His career-high rankings were world no. 6 in singles (in May 1995) and world n. 9 in doubles (in March 2001). His career prize-money earnings totalled $9,969,617.

Though Ferreira retired from the professional tour in 2005, he still plays on the Outback Champions Series senior tour. He finished both 2006 and 2007 fourth on points in that series. He is now residing in Lafayette, California. Ferreira is currently president and CEO of EcoloBlue, Life and Energy, an environmental and renewable resources corporation based in Miami, Florida, and Lafayette, California.

Ferreira is known for regularly causing upsets against top players. He is one of the few players with a positive record against 20 time Grand Slam champion, Roger Federer. Ferreira teamed up with Federer in the men's doubles at Wimbledon in 2001. They got to the third round and were due to face Donald Johnson and Jared Palmer (the eventual champions) before Federer withdrew to focus on his singles campaign. In addition, Ferreira has a 5-6 head-to-head record against 14 time Grand Slam champion Pete Sampras, with Sampras breaking the tie by winning their final match at the 2002 Canadian Masters. He also holds a positive head-to-head record against multiple Grand Slam champions and former world no. 1 ranked players, including Patrick Rafter, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, John McEnroe, Ivan Lendl and Björn Borg.

Coaching
He is currently coaching Jack Draper on a trial basis.

Starting in 2020, Ferreira was the coach of Frances Tiafoe and became his primary coach, replacing coach Zack Evenden, until the end of the 2023 season when they split.

Endorsements
Ferreira played with and endorsed rackets made by Slazenger early in his career. He switched to Dunlop Sport very early in his career and stayed with them, using the 200G racket, until the end of his ATP career.

Olympic games

 * Finals: 1 (1 silver medal)

Singles performance timeline
1Held as Stockholm Masters until 1994, Essen Masters in 1995, Stuttgart Masters 1996–2001, Madrid Masters from 2002–08.

Senior Tour championships

 * 2007– defeated Jim Courier 2–6, 6–3, [11–9] in the Stanford Championships
 * 2007– defeated Aaron Krickstein 6–3, 6–3 in The Oliver Group Champions Cup

title: Wayne Ferreira


text: Template:User ro

title: Template:User ro


text:
User:Pleep

pleep is I, a pleep. pleep likes sleep, pleep likes sheep, pleep likes to keep, pleep will weep. pleep likes you, do you like pleep?

pleep has no friends, but that's okay, because pleep doesn't want friends. pleep has his sheep.

pleep likes music, pleep plays music, but pleep doesn't let you hear his music, pleep is a secret music!

pleep pleep! fart tacos are his favorite food!!!

title: User:Pleep


text:
Lupus (disambiguation)

Lupus commonly refers to many lupus erythematosus autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus. See lupus erythematosus for links to the many Wikipedia articles.

Lupus may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Lupus, a character in The Roman Mysteries
 * Lupus, a dog in the video game Jet Force Gemini
 * "Lupus", in Trash: Short Stories by Dorothy Allison

People

 * Lupus (name), a given name and a family name
 * Pen name of Wulfstan (died 956), Archbishop of York
 * Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester, nicknamed Lupus (wolf) for his ferocity
 * Lupus of Troyes, 5th-century bishop and saint

Other uses

 * Lupus (constellation)
 * Lupus (journal), a journal in the field of rheumatology
 * Lupus, Missouri, a US city
 * Lupus vulgaris, cutaneous tuberculosis
 * Latin word for wolf

title: Lupus (disambiguation)