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Norm of reciprocity

The norm of reciprocity requires that people repay in kind what others have done for them. It can be understood as the expectation that people will respond to each other by returning benefits for benefits, and with either indifference or hostility to harms. The social norm of reciprocity may take different forms in different areas of social life, or in different societies. This is distinct from related ideas such as gratitude, the Golden Rule, or mutual goodwill. See reciprocity (social and political philosophy) for an analysis of the concepts involved.

The norm of reciprocity mirrors the concept of reciprocal altruism in evolutionary biology. However, evolutionary theory and therefore sociobiology was not well-received by mainstream psychologists. This led to reciprocal altruism being studied instead under a new social-psychological concept: the norm of reciprocity. Reciprocal altruism has been applied to various species, including humans, while mainstream psychologists use the norm of reciprocity only to explain humans.

A norm of reciprocity motivates, creates, sustains, and regulates the cooperative behavior required for self-sustaining social organizations. It limits the damage done by unscrupulous people, and contributes to social system stability. For more details, see the discussions in tit for tat and reciprocity (social psychology). The power and ubiquity of the norm of reciprocity can be used against the unwary, however, and is the basis for the success of many malicious confidence games, advertising and marketing campaigns, and varieties of propaganda in which a small gift of some kind is proffered with the expectation of producing in the recipient an eagerness to reciprocate (by purchasing a product, making a donation, or becoming more receptive to a line of argument).

For some legal scholars, reciprocity underpins international law "and the law of war specifically". Until well after World War II ended in 1945, the norm of reciprocity provided a justification for conduct in armed conflict. British jurist Hersch Lauterpacht noted in 1953 that "it is impossible to visualize the conduct of hostilities in which one side would be bound by rules of warfare without benefiting from them and the other side would benefit from rules of warfare without being bound by them."

Positive and negative
The norm of reciprocity has positive and negative aspects.

A positive norm of reciprocity is "the embedded obligations created by exchanges of benefits or favours among individuals. The recipient feels indebted to the favour or benefit giver until he/she repays". The positive reciprocity norm is a common social expectation in which a person who helps another person can expect positive feedback whether in the form of a gift, a compliment, a loan, a job reference, etc. In social psychology, positive reciprocity refers to responding to a positive action with another positive action (rewarding kind actions). This norm is so powerful, it may allow the initial giver to ask for something in return for what was given rather than having to wait for a voluntary reciprocal act. In some cases a person does not have to ask, because an expectation to return the favor is already implied. Reciprocity also works at the level of liking; We like people who help us, and dislike those who ask for help but never return it. Such disapproval is often enough to make people comply with the norm of reciprocity.

"A negative norm of reciprocity represents the means by which individuals act against unfavourable treatments, and functions to keep balance in social systems". In contrast to the positive reciprocity norm, the negative reciprocity norm emphasizes the return of unfavourable treatment as an appropriate response to a misdeed. The principle of this norm serves as a powerful deterrent for violent or symbolic mistreatment. Harming others invites anger and revenge; people receiving negative treatment are likely to retaliate angrily. People with a propensity towards anger may more strongly endorse the negative reciprocity norm as a justification for consummating their hostility by punishing the instigator of mistreatment. In one study, most college students believed that criminal punishment should be determined by the seriousness of the crime rather than by punishment's effectiveness in preventing similar crimes.

There are contrasting ways to differentiate negative and positive norms of reciprocity. "In contrast to a positive norm of reciprocity Gouldner (1960) also suggested a negative norm of reciprocity or sentiments of retaliation where the emphasis is placed not on the return of benefits but on the return of injuries". So the norm may be characterized primarily in either a positive or negative way. However "both positive and negative norms or reciprocity serve as starting mechanisms as well as stabilizing functions in that they help initiate and maintain equitable interpersonal exchanges in human evolution".

Sustainable Healthy Relationships (R-Model)
The R-Model was developed by Andrew Millward-Boyton as a theory sustainable healthy relationships with reciprocal elements at its core. The theory explains the need for reciprocity is necessary for the relationship to be sustainable and health. without reciprocity the relationship is considered less sustainable and less healthy. R-Model proposes the need for balance and alignment in a relationship, and with balance there can be even growth in the relationship.

Because reciprocation is essential for maintaining sustainable, healthy relationships. Reciprocation means that both parties in the relationship are giving freely. The reciprocal elements that are given freely, are offered without the expectation of reciprocation.

Whilst balance is required for health and sustainability, the R-Model theory proposes the need for "connected autonomy" and a focus on health, an example of how the R-Model could be used is to understand the nature of "tit for tat" games, and use the R_Model to break the cycle of "tit for tat" which requires conscious effort, self-awareness, and a commitment to improving the quality of your relationships. It often involves choosing compassion, consideration, and co-constructive communication over reactive and retaliatory behavior.

When used as a diagnostic tool, the R-Model offers a profound awareness of how withholding reciprocity as a form of punishment within a relationship can be inherently destructive. In the intricate web of human relationships, reciprocity plays a fundamental role in nurturing trust and maintaining equilibrium. When one party chooses to withhold reciprocity in response to perceived slights or transgressions, it sets off a chain reaction of negativity, eroding the very foundations (Vital-Base) of the relationship. This withholding not only perpetuates a cycle of resentment (Victim) and retaliation (Viciousness) but also obstructs Vitality being channeled into the co-constructive communication necessary for resolving conflicts and fostering growth. By highlighting the destructive nature of this behavior, the R-Model underscores the importance of Communication, Compassion, and constructive responses as alternatives to the detrimental path of negative reciprocity. It encourages individuals to recognise that withholding reciprocity often exacts a heavy toll on the well-being of a relationship, ultimately hindering its potential for mutual growth and connection.

The R-Model is a Biopsychosocial model, a class of trans-disciplinary models which look at the interconnection between biology, psychology, and socio-environmental factors. It was first developed to understand the nature of relationship in the environment and discipline of group therapy. The initial model was influenced by works from Eric Berne, John Bowlby and George Kohlrieser.

Private reciprocation
The norm of reciprocity is usually internalised. In addition, all major ethical and religious traditions include reciprocity as a rule of moral behaviour—from Jesus (“As you would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise.” to Confucius (“What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”). The moral character of the norm may encourage the sense that following it is an imperative rather than a choice, and failing to reciprocate should create feelings of self-reproach and guilt.

Public reciprocation
Another way to understand how the norm of reciprocity works is to understand that the initial favour and the following repayment unfold in a public way. The social rewards of sticking to the norm and the costs of breaching it are profound. People deny continued group membership to others who breach the norm.

The norm of reciprocity stipulates that the amount of the return to a favour is “roughly the same” as what had been received. Such idea of equivalence takes two forms;
 * Heteromorphic reciprocity : Things exchanged can be totally different, but they are equal in value, as defined by the stakeholders in the situation.
 * Homeomorphic reciprocity : Exchanges are identical in form, either with regard to the things exchanged or to the situations under which they are exchanged. Historically, the most significant expression of homeomorphic reciprocity is in the negative reciprocity norms; in retaliation, the focus is not on the return of benefits, but on the return of injuries.

However, Mark A. Whatley and colleagues found that people will give more favors, like a higher donation, if.

Significance to social system stability
Favours given are not immediately repaid; returning of favours may take a long time. The intervening time period is governed by the norm of reciprocity in two manners.
 * 1) The stakeholder is assembling, mobilizing, or liquidating resources or assets so as to make a suitable repayment.
 * 2) It is a time period in which the relevant party should not do harm to people who have given them benefits; such people are morally constrained to demonstrate gratitude towards or maintain peace with their benefactors. As such, outstanding obligations can thus contribute to the stabilising of social systems by encouraging mutually beneficial exchange and cooperative behaviours.

The merely "rough equivalence" of repayment suggests an important system-stabilising function. It introduces an element of ambiguity as to whether the indebtedness has been repaid fully, thus creating uncertainty about who the indebted parties are. The comparative indeterminancy then serves as a type of all-purpose moral cement; it keeps us mindful of our behaviours and induces cooperative action.

The norm of reciprocity also contributes to social stability even when there is a well-developed system of specific status duties. Status duties shape behavior as the status occupant believes them to be binding; they are expected to faithfully fulfill their responsibilities. Nonetheless, the general norm of reciprocity offers another source of motivation and moral sanction for conforming with specific status obligations. If other people have been fulfilling their status responsibilities to you, you then have a second-order obligation to fulfill your status responsibilities to them as well. The feeling of gratitude reinforces that of rectitude and contributes to conformity, thus social stability.

In organizational research
Perceived organizational support (POS) and perceived psychological contract violation (PPCV) are the two most common measures of the reciprocity norm in organizational research.

POS is the degree to which employees’ believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. It is the organization’s contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees, as employees tend to perform better as a way to pay back POS.

PPCV is a construct that regards employees’ feelings of disappointment (ranging from minor frustration to betrayal) arising from their belief that their organization has broken its work-related promises. It is the organization’s contribution to a negative reciprocity dynamic, as employees tend to perform more poorly to pay back PPCV.

David R. Hekman and colleagues found that professional employees, such as doctors and lawyers, are most likely to repay POS with better performance when they have high levels of organizational identification combined with low levels of professional identification. Professional employees are most forgiving of PPCV when they have high levels of organizational identification combined with low levels of professional identification.

The norms of reciprocity in interactions among employees underlie Adam Grant's distinction between "giver cultures" and "taker cultures" as two end-points of a scale, with "matcher cultures" in between.

In evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychologists have used the norm of reciprocity to explain altruism by emphasizing our expectations that “helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future.” The human desire to reciprocate kindness and to cooperate for survival value has enabled our continued existence in a hostile world. Thus, the norm of reciprocity ultimately has survival value. As this norm derives from our evolutionary history, adherence to it constitutes “natural” behavior whose neglect might cause a degree of dissonance. The norm of reciprocity is found in evolutionary psychology as reciprocal altruism, a concept coined by evolutionary biologist Robert Trivers. The rise of sociobiology was not well received by mainstream psychologists, and so reciprocal altruism was reinvented under the term "norm of reciprocity" in psychology. Study of the norm of reciprocity is arguably less scientifically advanced than that of reciprocal altruism, judging from the degree of research underneath the name "reciprocal altruism" as opposed to the name "norm of reciprocity".

In developmental psychology
Developmental psychologists have studied the norm of reciprocity and the development of this norm in children. Psychologists have found that children begin to show reciprocal behavior around the age of two, when they observe the behavior of others and begin to have their own relationships with peers.

One way that psychologists have been able to study the norm of reciprocity in children is by observing and experimenting on their toy sharing behaviour. Kristina R. Olson and Elizabeth S. Spelke conducted an experiment in which they used dolls to represent family members and friends and gave the child various items to distribute to the dolls after a series of situations were explained to the child. These situations represented private and public reciprocity and gave the child the choice of which dolls to share the items with. An example of a situation involves one of the dolls sharing with the rest of them. Olson and Spelke found that children will give to family and friends more than strangers, repay those who shared with them, and reward those who share with others, even if they do not receive the item.

Psychologists Ken J. Rotenberg and Luanne Mann also explored the development of the reciprocity norm of self-disclosure and its functions in children’s attraction to peers. The findings indicated that the norm of reciprocity is involved in attraction to peers only by sixth grade; children in that cohort showed such an effect by reporting greater affection towards others who reciprocated the same amount of intimacy than those whose intimacy level deviated from the initiator’s. According to Youniss's theory of social development, children's friendship during the early part of middle childhood (5–8 years) is based upon reciprocity of behaviour that suggests a "tit-for-tat" rule of exchange and interaction. During the later part of middle childhood (9–11 years) and beyond, children's friendship is based on the reciprocity of behaviour that suggests a mutually cooperative principle of exchange as well as an appreciation of reciprocity.

Studies
A study of 116 MBA students in the United States completed a series of self perception questions, which included the measure of the relational-self orientation, and then, six weeks later, completed a work relationship exercise during a class session. "In the exercise, participants read a vignette in which they were asked to imagine that they were the focal person in a reward allocation scenario at work." They were then told that they worked hard on the project together with a colleague, and made the same sort of effort and contribution to the project. Their supervisor then agreed to give them a $1000 reward. They were then given the following options on how to divide the money: (A) Your colleague will make a proposal as to how the money should be divided. (B) If you accept the proposal, then you will get what the colleague proposed to you. However, if you reject it, then the money will return to the company for future reward considerations. The results were positively and negatively skewed: If the two persons were close friends or colleagues the acceptance rate was 62% if the offer was 20% of the 1000 dollars, and 100% if the offer was 80% of the money. If the colleagues were distant then the rates were 20% for 20% of the money and 77% for 80% of the money.

title: Norm of reciprocity


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Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award

Created in 1998, the Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award is an award given out to the student filmmaker—or pair of student filmmakers as of 2017—who wins the annual Coca-Cola Refreshing Films contest. In the contest, current students or recent graduates from participating film schools across the United States submit entries of original scripts following specific themes provided each year by the contest organizers. However, all scripts are meant to highlight how Coca-Cola serves as an integral part of the movie-going experience. Fifteen semifinalist scripts are selected by a group of judges who then provide feedback, and the semifinalist teams rework their scripts and create storyboards. As of the 2022 edition of the contest, four finalist scripts are then chosen, and the student filmmakers receive $18,000 to produce their films along with behind-the-scenes footage. A panel of industry professionals known as the "Red Ribbon Panel" judge the films on the categories of creativity, entertainment value, and creative fit to theme and tone. The highest scoring film is declared the winner of the contest and is shown in select theater locations nationwide (specifically AMC and Cinemark locations as of the 2022 contest).

Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award Winners
Since its inception in 1998, twenty-two student filmmakers or pairs of student filmmakers have won the Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award (the number of winners is lower than the number of years since the beginning of the contest due to the absence of the contest in 2015 and 2021). Notable winners include bestselling author and director of Fanboys and Barely Lethal Kyle Newman and Emmy Award winning director Josh Greenbaum. Many winners have gone on to write, direct and produce feature films or series for major brands or platforms.

Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award Winning Schools
Students from ten different schools have won the Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award out of the twenty-two contests that have been held. The schools that have produced the highest number of winning films are the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Southern California. University of California, Los Angeles won in 2001 and 2008 in the Coca-Cola Refreshing Films competition and in 2012 and 2014 in the rebranded Sprite Films competition. University of Southern California won in 1999, 2007, 2009 and 2010. Two schools have managed to win the contest in two consecutive years: the University of Southern California in 2009 and 2010, and the Savannah College of Art and Design in 2019 and 2020. While Elon University won twice during the four-year period in which the program was renamed Sprite Films, it has not won during one of the contests labelled Coca-Cola Refreshing Films. The first ever winning school was the University of Southern California and the most recent winning school was Brigham Young University. The years in italics indicate a win during the period in which the program was renamed "Sprite Films."

Coca-Cola Refreshing Films Participating Schools
The 2022 edition of the contest features 40 total participating schools, including two schools (the New York Film Academy and Savannah College of Art and Design) which are participating with multiple different campuses. The initial application, including the first draft of the film's script and budget, was due on Friday, October 22, 2021, and participants were required to apply as a team of two students who were currently enrolled at one of the competing universities at the time of application or who graduated in December 2019 or later.

Previously Participating Schools
These are the schools that have previously participated in the contest but are not participating in the current edition.

Coca-Cola Regal Films 2016 Contest
For the first time since 2010, when it was rebranded as Sprite Films, the Coca-Cola Refreshing Films contest took place in 2016, now marketed as Coca-Cola Regal Films due to its new partnership with Regal Cinemas. The winner of the first contest after its relaunch was writer and director Ameer Kazmi from the School of Visual Arts in New York City, New York, giving the school its first ever win in the competition. Three finalists were chosen from over one hundred submitted scripts. The finalists each received $15,000 to produce their 30-second films celebrating the movie-going experience. The deadline for the final film submission was September 12, 2016, and the completed films were then judged by the Red Ribbon Panel of industry experts. Kazmi's winning film, "Blindfold," tells the story of an overwhelmed woman who is led to a movie theater by her two roommates while wearing a blindfold, and then relaxing while enjoying Coca-Cola. After being declared the contest winner, the film began screening on October 28, 2016, in 567 Regal locations nationwide.

Coca-Cola Regal Films 2017 Contest
In the 2017 edition of the contest, students from 25 film schools across the country were eligible to submit their scripts focusing on the movie-going experience and Coca-Cola's role in it. Unlike the 2016 contest, students were required to submit their applications in teams of two. Additionally, five finalists were chosen in this edition, instead of three like in the previous year. Each of the finalist teams received $15,000 to produce their films, which ran for 30 seconds along for an additional 5-second bumper. The Red Ribbon Panel, consisting of industry professionals such as actor Clark Gregg, actor Giovanni Ribisi and director Richie Keen, selected the winning film, which was announced during CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Nevada on March 27, 2017. The grand prize winners were Julian Conner and Tom Teller from Chapman University, whose film was shown in Regal locations nationwide beginning in May 2017. This was Chapman University's first win in the contest since Rosemary Lambert's "The Reel Monkey" in 2006, and its second win overall. The winning film, "Crunch Time," is about a robot who comes to life in a theater lobby and joins the human movie-goers to watch a film. RED Digital Cinema, the provider of professional technology for the contest, also awarded Conner and Teller with a SCARLET-W 5K camera package and Chapman University with a RED EPIC-X 6K camera package. In addition to "Crunch Time," Coca-Cola Regal Films also chose to air the finalist films "Coca-Cola Gaze" and "Just in Time" in theaters beginning in September 2017 due to the quality of the work put in by the student filmmakers.

Coca-Cola Regal Films 2018 Contest
In the 2018 edition of the contest, the number of participating schools was expanded from 25 to 29. Five finalist scripts that highlighted the movie-going experience and the significance of Coca-Cola Regal Cinemas popcorn in it were selected from the submitted applications. Each of the five finalists were given $15,000 to produce their 35-second films. Clara Montague and Eva Kirie from Ithaca College were announced as the winners of the contest at CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Nevada on April 25, 2018, marking Ithaca College's first ever win in the competition. First-year students Montague and Kirie, majoring in television and radio, originally entered the contest for a class assignment that required them to submit a script, budget and crew list. The duo ultimately worked with a crew from Park Productions and Park Media Lab director Carol Jennings to produce their film, which was filmed at Ithaca College and Regal Cinemas. The winning film, "The Library," showcases a group of students studying in a library who decide to take a trip to the movie theater together, and was screened in Regal Cinemas locations nationwide beginning in May 2018. Like in the previous contest, RED also awarded the winning filmmakers with a RED RAVEN camera kit worth a retail value $14,999.95 and Ithaca College with a RED EPIC-W 8K S35 worth $35,895.

Along with the main competition, this year the program partnered with Universal Pictures' film Blockers to introduce a brand new "Fan Favorite Award." Between March 9 and April 20, 2018, movie fans were able to vote for their favorite film out of the five finalists by sharing the film's personal hashtag on Twitter. Voters were also entered to win a year of free movies and concessions at Regal Cinemas in the Fan Favorite Sweepstakes. A controversy emerged during the voting period when professor Kathleen Stansberry from one of the finalist schools, Elon University, discovered an irregularity in the frequency of votes cast for the University of California, Los Angeles. Stansberry argued that bots were used to manipulate the voting in favor of Jessie Lee and Xinzhong "Golden" Zhao's film "Frozen in Time," which would be a violation of the contest's rules. The contest organizers were informed of the alleged vote manipulation and investigated the matter. Ultimately, the films of Elon University and University of California, Los Angeles were both shown in theaters nationwide. This marked Zhao's second contest in a row being a finalist, and also his second contest in a row having his film shown in theaters, despite not winning either contest.

Coca-Cola Regal Films 2019 Contest
In the 2019 contest, teams of student filmmakers from 30 different schools were required to submit scripts highlighting the entertaining and relaxing aspects of the movie-going experience, and the significance of Coca-Cola and popcorn in it, by October 5, 2018. The five selected finalist teams out of roughly 500 submissions were given $15,000 to produce their 35-second films (including the 5-second bumper). The finalists were given access to RED camera equipment and Zeiss lenses during the production process, and also worked with professional colorists at Deluxe's EFILM during the post-production process. This year, director and actress Olivia Wilde partnered with Coca-Cola Regal Films to mentor the student filmmaker finalists, serve on the Red Ribbon Panel, and ultimately announce the winning film. Second-year director Devon Solwold and fourth-year producer Shayain Lakhani from the Savannah College of Art and Design were announced as the grand prize winners by Wilde on social media on April 4, 2019, and their film "Choose Happy" debuted at CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Nevada on the same day. Solwold and Lakhani were awarded a RED DSMC2 DRAGON-X camera kit and ZEISS cinema lenses, and their film began screening in Regal Cinemas locations nationwide in summer 2019, including during the opening weekend of Avengers: Endgame. This was the first win in the contest for Savannah College of Art and Design. "Choose Happy" was the only film of the five finalists to be led solely by students in each department during the production process. The winning film tells the story of a sad man with a rain cloud over his head who takes a trip to the movie theater. The rain cloud transforms into a miniature Sun and his spirits are lifted as he takes a sip of Coca-Cola before watching the movie.

This year also featured a new version of the Fan Favorite Award, now called the "Social Media Campaign Award." Finalist schools were required to submit a case study showcasing how they utilized social media to promote their film throughout the contest period. The winners of the award were Lily Campisi and Nicholle Peterson from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. This was the school's first time being selected as a finalist in the competition. Campisi and Peterson's film, "The Big Wish," follows a girl who discovers a genie in a thrift shop and wishes to go to her happy place, which is Regal Cinemas. Campisi and Peterson used official accounts from departments at University of Nevada, Las Vegas and the hashtag #RebelsBigWish in order to spread their film across social media. The actor for the genie in the film, Danny Shepherd, also had a large following on social media. A local NBC affiliate filmed a live broadcast during the shoot of "The Big Wish" at Regal Cinemas. Additionally, the Nevada Film Office, Fox 5 Morning Show, American Marketing Association's podcast, and the Review-Journal local newspaper showcased the film. "The Big Wish" was shown in Regal Cinemas locations nationwide from December 13, 2019, until February 1, 2020.

Coca-Cola Refreshing Films 2020 Contest
The 2020 edition of the contest marked the return of the title Coca-Cola Refreshing Films, after Coca-Cola's partnership with Regal Cinemas ended after the theater chain created a new partnership with PepsiCo, who became its sole non-alcoholic beverage provider. The number of participating schools in the contest was once again expanded, and students from 38 schools nationwide, including two different locations for the Savannah College of Art and Design, were eligible to enter in teams of two members. In this year's contest, at least one member of each team was required to be a student who identifies as female. Initial script applications were due October 10, 2019, and the assigned target audience was 18 to 19 year old movie-goers. From over 900 scripts, five finalists were chosen to produce their 35-second film (including the 5-second bumper) from January to April 2020 with $15,000 and additional resources from the program's partners RED Digital Cinema, ZEISS and Deluxe's EFILM. The winning filmmakers were Elina Itugot and Henry Zhinin from the Savannah College of Art and Design. This was the school's second consecutive win, making them the second school ever to do so after the University of Southern California's winning films in 2009 and 2010. Itugot and Zhinin received a RED DRAGON-X camera package, a ZEISS Milvus Superspeed lens kit and an additional $15,000 in prize money. Their film, "Let Loose," is about two college roommates who are looking for a break from their stress and boredom. The idea for the film came from Itugot's personal struggles with letting herself relax and let loose, and was written by her. Savannah College of Art and Design's entry was once again the only one to be produced with every department led only by students, and it was also the only entry this year to utilize both live-action and animation aspects.

Coca-Cola Refreshing Films 2022 Contest
The 2022 contest featured four finalist schools selected out of over 500 script submissions and 15 semifinalists.

The team for the Rochester Institute of Technology included the first deaf producer in the contest's history, Gabriel Ponte-Fleary. Rochester Institute of Technology got their first ever win in the contest on their debut with the film "Say Cheese" made by first-year grad student and producer Ponte-Fleary and second-year film production student and director Anna McClanahan. The pair wanted to create "something wholesome, nostalgic, and magical" for their film. The president of the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, Dr. Gerard Buckley, covered all interpreting costs for the film's production. The crew for "Say Cheese" consisted of both hearing and deaf members. It was filmed in February 2022 during two overnight shoots at the Pittsford Community Library and Cinemark Tinseltown theater.

"Say Cheese" was announced as the grand prize winner at CinemaCon in Las Vegas in April 2022. The judging panel included industry experts from Coca-Cola, Cinemark Theatres, and AMC Theatres. The film screened at Cinemark and AMC locations from July to September 2022. The prize for Ponte-Fleary and McClanahan also included ED KOMODO camera package and a ZEISS lens kit. The winning film tells a love story of cross-cultural communication, and Ponte-Fleary hopes that as a result viewers will "be inspired to learn American Sign Language and see Deaf people as equals."

Coca-Cola Refreshing Films 2023 Contest
The 2023 contest once again featured five finalist schools, including the first ever Canadian finalist school in Capilano University.

Coca-Cola Refreshing Films 2024 Contest
The 2024 contest was narrowed down to four finalist schools.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coca-Cola Refreshing Filmmaker's Award


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Beguinage

A beguinage, from the French term béguinage, is an architectural complex which was created to house beguines: lay religious women who lived in community without taking vows or retiring from the world.

Originally the beguine institution was the convent, an association of beguines living together or in close proximity of each other under the guidance of a single superior, called a mistress or prioress. Although they were not usually referred to as "convents", in these houses dwelt a small number of women together: the houses small, informal, and often poor communities that emerged across Europe after the twelfth century. In most cases, beguines who lived in a convent agreed to obey certain regulations during their stay and contributed to a collective fund.

In the first decades of the thirteenth century much larger and more stable types of community emerged in the region of the Low Countries: large court beguinages were formed which consisted of several houses for beguines built around a central chapel or church where their religious activities took place; these often included functional buildings such as a brewery, a bakery, a hospital, and some farm buildings. Several of these beguinages are now listed by UNESCO as World Heritage sites. Around the mid-thirteenth century, the French king Louis IX founded a beguinage in Paris, which was modeled on the court beguinages of the Low Countries.

Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary, citing Du Cange, gives the origin of the word "beguine" in the name of Lambert le Bègue, "Lambert the Stammerer", an early supporter of the movement who died around 1180.

Description
While a small beguinage usually constituted just one house where women lived together, a Low Countries court beguinage typically comprised one or more courtyards surrounded by houses, and also included a church, an infirmary complex, and a number of communal houses or 'convents'. From the twelfth through eighteenth centuries, every city and large town in the Low Countries had at least one court beguinage: the communities dwindled and came to an end, over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. They were encircled by walls and separated from the town proper by several gates, closed at night, but through which during the day the beguines could come and go as they pleased. Beguines came from a wide range of social classes, though truly poor women were admitted only if they had a wealthy benefactor who pledged to provide for their needs.

The understanding of women's motivations for joining the beguinages has changed dramatically in recent decades. The development of these communities is clearly linked to a preponderance of women in urban centers in the Middle Ages, but while earlier scholars like the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne believed that this "surplus" of women was caused by men dying in war, that theory has been debunked. Since the groundbreaking work of John Hajnal, who demonstrated that, for much of Europe, marriage occurred later in life and at a lower frequency than had previously been believed, historians have established that single women moved to the newly developed cities because those cities offered them work opportunities. has shown how the smaller beguinages as well as the court beguinages answered such women's social and economic needs, in addition to offering them a religious life coupled with personal independence, which was a difficult thing to have for a woman.

In Belgium

 * Aarschot
 * Anderlecht
 * Antwerp
 * Bruges‡
 * Brussels
 * Dendermonde‡
 * Diest‡
 * Diksmuide
 * Ghent:
 * Old Saint-Elisabeth
 * New Saint-Elisabeth in Sint-Amandsberg‡
 * Our-Lady Ter Hooyen‡
 * Hasselt
 * Herentals
 * Hoogstraten‡
 * Lier‡
 * Leuven:
 * Large‡
 * Small
 * Mechelen:
 * Large‡
 * Small
 * Kortrijk‡
 * Oudenaarde
 * Sint-Truiden‡
 * Turnhout‡
 * Tongeren‡

‡ marks the thirteen "Flemish Béguinages" listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites in 1998.

Other beguinages

 * Begijnhof, Amsterdam, Netherlands
 * Bagijnhof Delft, Netherlands
 * Begijnhof, Utrecht, Netherlands
 * Breda, Netherlands
 * Leeuwarden, Netherlands
 * Haarlem, Netherlands
 * Sittard, Netherlands
 * Béguinage de la rue Quentin-Barré, et al., Saint-Quentin, France
 * Béguinage de Saint Vaast, Cambrai, France
 * Béguinage, Valenciennes
 * Béguinage, Paris, France

title: Beguinage


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User:Wadems

I will not edit another thing on any Wikimedia page. Goodbye. ♫ ψadems ♫ (talk) 20:00, 21 April 2009 (UTC)

title: User:Wadems


text: User talk:84.66.246.129

title: User talk:84.66.246.129


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Army and navy

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE as related to deleted Republic_Of_Henderson_Island

Army and navy
See Votes_for_deletion/Republic_Of_Henderson_Island, this is the same deal. Solver 17:33, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment: This nomination was improperly placed. I'm just finishing the process. No vote at this time. —Markaci 2005-04-20 T 05:02 Z
 * Delete, fictional micronation forces, cruft. Megan1967 07:22, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. notability. nonverifiable. Mikkalai 07:33, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable, unable to verify, bad title. jni 11:19, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete micronationcruft. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 17:45, Apr 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete micronationhoax. Sjakkalle 07:55, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candy Girl

This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this  page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was no consensus. Tony Sidaway|Talk 23:38, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Candy Girl
Another SamuraiClinton special. The complete contents of the article (minus headers): "Candy Girl is a song from the 1960's. New Edition made a totally different song with the same title.  As of 2004 some rap/hip hop artist recorded a song that interpolated some lyrics and some sequence from the song.  (Pop culture occurences) In some commercial for Applebee's."  Pointless. Delete. -- Antaeus Feldspar 17:33, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep if it's a real song. Or is the author actually thinking of "Sugar, Sugar" by The Archies? Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd  18:56, Apr 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * It's a real song -- I believe the original referred to is by Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons, and I remember when the New Edition song of the same title came out, but does this mean that every song title belongs in Wikipedia if a) two or more songs with that title exist, b) "some rap/hip hop artist" samples it, and c) it gets used in "some commercial"? In my mind, that's just not enough to distinguish it. -- Antaeus Feldspar 19:12, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. ✏ Oven Fresh  ²  19:38, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons since they are the group most closely associated with the song and there really isn't enough here for a separate article. LevelCheck 20:05, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Either keep or merge and redirect to the album it's on. Meelar (talk) 20:37, Apr 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * merge and redirect to artist or album. -Avocado 20:59, Apr 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * RaD Man's argument has changed my mind. keep and disambig.  Avocado 22:20, Apr 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete SamuraiClintocruft. Where would it possibly be merged and redirected to?  RickK 21:23, Apr 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete on general principle. There isn't anything here to keep, merge or anything.  I've left a stern note on Samurai's talk page.  I'm going on record right here and say that if this user leaves just one more of these diddlysquat articles, I'm going to pursue other solutions to this problem. - Lucky 6.9 22:59, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * What "other solutions"? That he needs to get permission from someone else before creating a new article? That's the only thing I can think of that would stop him. Firebug 01:59, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I admit I like that idea. Sorry I wasn't clear, though.  What I meant was, I'm considering opening an arbitration case against SamuraiClinton if this keeps up. - Lucky 6.9 07:29, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete — Unless there is something even mildly interesting about these two songs besides having the same title... — RJH 00:40, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect. The original version (Frankie Valli & Four Seasons) is reasonably well known and is played all the time on the oldies stations, so it deserves a redirect. SamuraiClinton should have made this a redirect, not an article. Firebug 01:59, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Frankie Valli. SamuraiClinton is rather fond of these individual-song nanostubs; I would suggest foregoing the VfD process on any more of these creations and just redirecting to the relevant artist, as I have done with Jump Around. It'll save a lot of work for the admins. android↔talk 02:25, Apr 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to Frankie Valli. Megan1967 05:09, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * My initial reaction was to suggest a redirect, but given that two different artists have released a song by the same name, my vote is to keep and disambiguate. Redirection is not in the best interest of the prospective reader.  —RaD Man (talk) 23:28, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Luis Manuel Rodríguez

Luis Manuel Rodríguez (17 June 1937 – 8 July 1996) was a Cuban professional boxer. Known as "El Feo", he began his career in pre-Castro Havana. In Cuba, he twice defeated the ill-fated future welterweight champion Benny Paret. He held the WBA, WBC, and lineal welterweight titles in 1963, and challenged once for the WBA, and WBC middleweight titles in 1969.

After the Cuban Revolution, Rodríguez campaigned in the United States. Fighting out of Miami, Rodriguez decisioned top welterweights such as Virgil Akins and Rudell Stitch.

Professional career
He was unbeaten in 36 fights before losing a split decision to Emile Griffith in a 1960 non-title fight. In 1963, Rodriguez and Griffith fought twice for the lineal welterweight title. Rodriguez defeated Griffith by a unanimous decision to win the title, but Griffith regained it three months later with a split decision. Their fourth and final meeting came in 1964, with Griffith retaining the welterweight title with a split decision.

Rodriguez was trained by Angelo Dundee at the old 5th Street Gym in Miami Beach alongside Ralph Dupas, Willie Pastrano, Florentino Fernández and Pinklon Thomas.

Rodriguez was ringside and provided ancillary television commentary for the nationally televised Thursday night, 21 March 1963 Dodger Stadium featherweight championship bout between reigning champ Davey Moore and Sugar Ramos, won after ten rounds by technical knockout (TKO) by Ramos and resulting within the hour in a comatose state for Moore, and ultimately his death on 25 March. He had just beaten Griffith (who had himself fought Benny Paret in another tragic fight) for the world Welterweight title in the same program. Moore's death was memorialized by recording artist Bob Dylan in his long-unreleased (but widely bootlegged) song, "Who Killed Davey Moore?" (the complete telecast of the fight is available on YouTube, as are several of Dylan's various performances of the song.)

In November 1969, Rodriguez challenged Nino Benvenuti in Rome, Italy, for the middleweight world title. In the eleventh-round, slightly ahead on points but tiring and badly cut, Benvenuti suddenly landed a perfect left hook that left Rodriguez on the floor for 5 minutes.

Rodriguez retired in 1972. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1997.

In 2009 The Ring magazine ranked Rodriguez as the third-greatest Cuban boxer of all time, behind Kid Gavilán and Kid Chocolate.

Eastern Airlines Flight 202
Rodriguez and his trainers were among 33 passengers on Eastern Airlines flight 202 from Miami to Dallas, Texas, when that flight got hijacked and taken to Cuba on July 24, 1961. Rodriguez was fearful for his life since he had escaped from Cuba recently. However, Cuban authorities allowed the plane and its passengers to return to the United States without further incident. Rodriguez was on his way to a fight versus Curtis Cokes, which he eventually lost by split decision some days later, on August 3.

title: Luis Manuel Rodríguez


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Vilnius Region

Vilnius Region is the territory in present-day Lithuania and Belarus that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time.

The territory included Vilnius, the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lithuania, after declaring independence from the Russian Empire, claimed the Vilnius Region based on this historical legacy. Poland argued for the right of self-determination of the local Polish-speaking population. As a result, throughout the interwar period the control over the area was disputed between Poland and Lithuania. The Soviet Union recognized it as part of Lithuania in the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, but in 1920 it was seized by Poland and became part of the short-lived puppet state of Central Lithuania, and was subsequently incorporated into the Second Polish Republic.

Direct military conflicts (Polish–Lithuanian War and Żeligowski's Mutiny) were followed up by fruitless negotiations in the League of Nations. After the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, as part of the Soviet fulfilment of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the entire region was occupied by the Soviet Union. About one-fifth of the region, including Vilnius, was ceded to Lithuania by the Soviet Union on 10 October 1939 in exchange for Soviet military bases within the territory of Lithuania as part of the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty. The remaining part of the region was given to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The conflict over Vilnius Region was settled after World War II when both Poland and Lithuania were in the Eastern Bloc, as Poland was the Soviet satellite state of the Polish People's Republic and Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, and Poles were repatriated to Poland. From the late 1940s to 1990, the region was divided between the Lithuanian SSR and Byelorussian SSR, and since 1990 between modern-day independent Lithuania and Belarus.

Territory and terminology
Initially, the Vilnius Region did not possess exact borders per se, but encompassed Vilnius and the surrounding areas. This territory was disputed between Lithuania and Poland after both countries had successfully reestablished their independence in 1918. Later, the western limit of the region became a de facto administration line between Poland and Lithuania following Polish military action in autumn 1920. Lithuania refused to recognize this action or the border. The eastern limit was defined by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. The eastern line was never turned into an actual border between states and remained only a political vision. The total territory covered about 32250 km2.

Today the eastern limit of the region lies between the Lithuanian and Belarusian border. This border divides the Vilnius Region into two parts: western and eastern. The Western Vilnius Region, including Vilnius, is now part of Lithuania. It constitutes about one-third of the total Vilnius Region. Lithuania gained about 6880 km2 on October 10, 1939, from the Soviet Union and 2650 km2 (including Druskininkai and Švenčionys) on August 3, 1940, from the Byelorussian SSR. The Eastern Vilnius Region became part of Belarus. No parts of the region are in modern Poland. None of the countries have any further territorial claims.

The term Central Lithuania refers to the short-lived puppet state of the Republic of Central Lithuania, proclaimed by Lucjan Żeligowski after his staged mutiny in the annexed areas. After eighteen months of existing under Poland's military protection, it was annexed by Poland on 24 March 1922 thus finalizing Poland's claims over the territory.

Vilnius dispute

In the Middle Ages, Vilnius and its environs had become a nucleus of the early ethnic Lithuanian state, the Duchy of Lithuania, also referred to in Lithuanian historiography as a part of the Lithuania Propria, that became Kingdom of Lithuania and later Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

After the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century it was annexed by the Russian Empire which established the Vilna Governorate there. As a result of World War I, it was seized by Germany and given to the civilian administration of the Ober-Ost. With the German defeat in World War I and the outbreak of hostilities between various factions of the Russian Civil War, the area was disputed by the newly established Lithuanian, Polish and Belarusian states.

Poles based their claims on demographic grounds and pointed to the will of the inhabitants. Lithuanians used geographical and historical arguments and underlined the role Vilnius played as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to Lithuanian national activists, Poles and Belarusians of the region were "Slavicized Lithuanians". Their view is confirmed by both Polish and Lithuanian research.

The Vilnius Conference of September 1917, organized by Lithuanian activists under German auspices, elected a council of Lithuania, and an Act of Independence of Lithuania proclaimed an independent Lithuanian state with its capital in Vilnius. The Lithuanian government, however, failed to recruit soldiers among the Vilnius area inhabitants and was unable to organize the defence of the region against the Bolsheviks. During November and December 1918, local Polish self-defence formations were created in Vilnius and many surrounding localities. They were formally included into the Polish Army by the end of the year. The Lithuanian Taryba left Vilnius together with the German garrison at the start of January 1919, when the first Polish-Soviet military clashes occurred east of the city.

After the outbreak of the Polish–Soviet War, during the summer offensive of the Red Army, the region got under Soviet control as the part of planned Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Litbel). Following Lithuanian–Soviet War, Bolshevik Russia signed the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty with Lithuania on 12 July 1920. According to it, all area disputed between Poland and Lithuania, at the time controlled by the Bolsheviks, was to be transferred to Lithuania. However, the actual control over the area remained in the Bolsheviks' hands. After the Battle of Warsaw of 1920 it became clear that the advancing Polish Army would soon recapture the area. Seeing that they could not secure it, the Bolshevik authorities started to transfer the area to Lithuanian sovereignty. The advancing Polish Army managed to retake much of the disputed area before the Lithuanians arrived, while the most important part of it with the city of Vilnius was secured by Lithuania.

Due to Polish-Lithuanian tensions, the allied powers withheld diplomatic recognition of Lithuania until 1922. Since the two states were not at war, diplomatic negotiations were begun. The negotiations and international mediation led to nowhere and until 1920 the disputed territory remained divided into a Lithuanian and a Polish part.

In the 1920s, League of Nations twice attempted to organise plebiscites, although neither side was eager to participate. After a staged mutiny by Lucjan Żeligowski Poles took control over the area, and organised elections, which were boycotted by most Lithuanians, but also by many Jews and Belarusians because of strong Polish military control.

The Polish government never acknowledged the Russo-Lithuanian convention of July 12, 1920, that granted the latter state territory seized from Poland by the Red Army during the Polish–Soviet War, then promised to Lithuania as the Soviet forces were retreating under the Polish advance; particularly as the Soviets had previously renounced claims to that region in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In turn, the Lithuanian authorities did not acknowledge the Polish–Lithuanian border of 1918–1920 as permanent nor did they ever acknowledge the sovereignty of the puppet Republic of Central Lithuania.

In 1922 the Republic of Central Lithuania voted to join Poland and the choice was later accepted by the League of Nations, The area granted to Lithuania by the Bolsheviks in 1920 continued to be claimed by Lithuania, with the city of Vilnius being treated as that state's official capital and the temporary capital in Kaunas, and the states officially remained at war. It was not until the Polish ultimatum of 1938, that the two states resolved diplomatic relations.

Some historians speculated, that the loss of Vilnius might have nonetheless safeguarded the very existence of the Lithuanian state in the interwar period. Despite an alliance with the Soviets (Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty) and the war with Poland, Lithuania was very close to being invaded by the Soviets in the summer of 1920 and having been forcibly converted into a socialist republic. They believe it was only the Polish victory against the Soviets in the Polish–Soviet War (and the fact that the Poles did not object to some form of Lithuanian independence) that derailed the Soviet plans and gave Lithuania an experience of interwar independence.

In 1939, the Soviets proposed to sign the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty. According to this treaty, about one-fifth of the Vilnius Region, including the city of Vilnius itself, was returned to Lithuania in exchange for stationing 20,000 Soviet troops in Lithuania. Lithuanians at first did not want to accept this, but later the Soviet Union said that troops would enter Lithuania, anyway, so Lithuania accepted the deal. 1/5 of the Vilnius region was ceded, even though the Soviet Union always recognised the whole Vilnius region as part of Lithuania previously. Vilnius Region was under Lithuanian administration unitl June 1940, when the entire Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union was awarded the Vilnius region during the Yalta Conference, and it subsequently became part of the Lithuanian SSR. About 150,000 of the Polish population was repatriated from Lithuanian SSR to Poland.

Ethnography
The area was originally inhabited by Lithuanian Balts. It was subjected to East Slavic and Polish cultural influences and settlement, which led to its gradual Ruthenization and Polonization. According to Polish historian Norman Davies, Vilnius was culturally Polish by the 17th century. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the city was almost completely surrounded by Slavs, while the Vilnius region became exceptionally ethnically diverse Belarusian-Polish-Lithuanian territory. The Belarusian population moved into the areas devastated by wars of the 17th and the early 18th centuries (Northern Ashmyany, Trakai, Švenčionys and Vilnius counties) and only a few Lithuanian settlements remained there. According to the Russian census of 1897 (which studied the linguistic situation, but didn't include the category of ethnic affiliation)) the Vilna Governorate was occupied predominantly by Belarusian speakers (56,05%), while Polish speakers amounted to only 8,17% of the population. The Russians maintained that the local Polish population consisted mainly of nobles, while the region's peasantry could not be Polish. The later German (1916) and Polish (1919) censuses showed that Vilnius and its environs had a Polish majority. Vilnius at that point was divided nearly evenly between Poles and Jews, with Lithuanians constituting a mere fraction (about 2–2.6%) of the total population. These censuses and their organisation were heavily criticized by contemporary Lithuanians of the region as biased.

At the end of the First World War, 50% of the Vilnius inhabitants were Polish and 43% were Jewish. According to E. Bojtar, who cites P. Gaučas, the surrounding villages were mainly inhabited by Belarusian speakers who considered themselves Poles. There was also a large group who chose their self-declared national identification in accordance with the particular political situation. According to the 1916 census conducted by the German authorities Lithuanians constituted 18.5% of the population. However, during this census the Vilnius region was expanded greatly and ended near Brest-Litovsk, and included the city of Białystok. Due to the addition of further Polish regions, the percentage of the Lithuanian population was diluted. The questioned by Lithuanian side post-war Polish censuses of 1921 and 1931, found 5% of Lithuanians living in the area, with several almost purely Lithuanian enclaves located to the south-west, south (Dieveniškės enclave), east (Gervėčiai enclave) of Vilnius and to the north of Švenčionys. The majority of the population was composed of Poles (roughly 60%) according to the latter three censuses. The results of Polish censuses were questioned by some Lithuanian historians and the Lithuanian government claimed that the majority of local Poles were in fact Polonised Lithuanians. Today, the Po prostu dialect is the native language for Poles in Šalčininkai District Municipality and in some territories of Vilnius District Municipality; its speakers consider themselves to be Poles and believe Po prostu language to be purely Polish. The population, including those of "the locals" (Tutejshy) who live in the other part of Vilnius region that was occupied by the Soviet Union and passed on to Belarus, still has a strong presence of Polish identity. Despite the fact, that this language is the uncodified Belarusian vernacular with substrate relics from Lithuanian language, its speakers consider themselves to be Poles and believe Po prostu dialect to be purely Polish. The population, including those of "the locals" (Tutejszy) who live in the other part of Vilnius region that was occupied by the Soviet Union and passed on to Belarus, still has a strong presence of Polish identity.

title: Vilnius Region


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Bruce Borland

Bruce Borland (November 4, 1958 – October 25, 1999) was an American golf course designer who worked for Jack Nicklaus. He died in the 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash on October 25, 1999, while traveling with golf Hall of Famer Payne Stewart.

Early life and education
Borland was raised in the Peoria, Illinois, area. He took a fascination with golf at an early age, building and maintaining a putting green in his parents' backyard, tending to it meticulously. Borland went on to graduate from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, with a degree in Landscape Architecture.

Career
After graduation, he moved to the Chicago area and began designing golf courses for several firms.

In 1989, Borland opened his own design firm, ProDesign, just a year later he was offered a design position with Jack Nicklaus at Golden Bear International. Borland worked on many of the famous Jack Nicklaus "Signature" golf courses, as well as other stateside and Indonesian courses.

Over his career, Borland designed or worked on several golf courses.

Death
In 1999, Borland was killed in a Learjet 35 with Payne Stewart while flying from Orlando, Florida, to Dallas, Texas, before the Tour Championship. He died of hypoxia, a lack of oxygen, before the plane crashed.

title: Bruce Borland


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Borislav Stanković

Borislav "Bora" Stanković (Борислав "Бора" Станковић; 9 July 1925 – 20 March 2020) was a Serbian basketball player and coach, as well as a longtime administrator in the sport's various governing bodies, including FIBA and the International Olympic Committee. He played 36 games for the Yugoslavian national basketball team internationally.

Stanković was pivotal in the FIBA decision to allow players from the National Basketball Association to compete at the Summer Olympics. In 1989, he introduced a resolution to amend FIBA regulations that had previously allowed players only from professional leagues other than the NBA to enter, and the subsequent vote passed 56–13. For his contributions to the game of basketball, Stanković was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991. He was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2000 and the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2007.

Biography
Simultaneous to his studies, Stanković played professionally for Crvena zvezda (1946–1948), Železničar Beograd (1948–1950), and Partizan (1950–1953), and was on the senior Yugoslav national basketball team for five years, in the early 1950s. After retiring from competitive basketball, he coached OKK Beograd for ten consecutive seasons (1953–1963), and for a season in 1965. Stanković then moved on to the Italian club Pallacanestro Cantù, spending three seasons as its head coach (1966–1969).

Throughout his lengthy involvement with basketball, Stanković was a part of the Yugoslav Olympic Committee, the International Olympic Committee, and the Board of Trustees at the Basketball Hall of Fame. He served as FIBA's second Secretary General from 1976 to 2002.

From the beginning of his tenure as Secretary General, Stanković wanted FIBA to make NBA players eligible for international competitions, especially the Olympics. At the FIBA Congress in Madrid in 1986, his attempt to pass that resolution narrowly failed by a vote of 31–27. Undeterred, he continued to campaign for the idea, and at the 1989 FIBA Congress in Munich, his resolution overwhelmingly passed by a vote of 56–13. Beginning with the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, NBA players began competing at all of FIBA's international competitions.

Other than Serbian, Stanković fluently spoke six other languages. He was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991, as a contributor. He was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2000. In 2007, he was enshrined as a contributor into the FIBA Hall of Fame. FIBA named the annual international basketball cup the "FIBA Stanković Continental Champions' Cup".

Personal life
Stanković was born in Bihać, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina). Early in his life, he moved to Novi Sad, and then to the Syrmian town of Ledinci, during World War II. After the war, Stanković went to Belgrade, where he graduated from the University of Belgrade, with a degree in veterinary medicine. In 1966, he pledged his efforts to basketball full-time, ending a 10-year career as a veterinary inspector for meat control in Belgrade.

Stanković died on 20 March 2020 in Belgrade. He had one daughter, two granddaughters and two great-grandchildren.

Orders and special awards
The following is a selected list of orders and special awards:
 * Olympic Order (1987)
 * Order of Merit of FR Germany (1987)
 * 🇸🇳 National Order of the Lion (1999)
 * 🇫🇷 Knight of the Legion of Honour (2001)
 * Order of Merits of FR Yugoslavia (2002)
 * Order of Honor of Republika Srpska (2010)
 * FIBA Order of Merit (2015)

In popular culture
Stanković is portrayed by Aleksandar Radojičić in the 2015 Serbian sports drama We Will Be the World Champions and the 2016 Serbian TV series The World Champions.

title: Borislav Stanković


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Fission Chicken

Fission Chicken is a comic book and webcomic character created by John Patrick (J.P.) Morgan (1957–2010). Fission Chicken is a short-tempered superhero chicken with the ability to fly, possesses supernatural strength, bulletproof durability, and can project power bolts from his hands.

Starting in 1987, Fission Chicken appeared in numerous stories published in the comic book Critters, published by Fantagraphics Books, as well as his own 4-issue series from the same publisher. This was originally intended to be an 8-issue series, with a fifth cover having been already prepared, but was ended due to low sales.

Other appearances over the years include Plan Nine from Vortox (MU Press), as well as in Furrlough (Radio Comix), Valiant Varmints and SFA Spotlight #14 (Shanda Fantasy Arts). Varmints was a 1998 anthology comic in which Fission Chicken teamed up with other creators' anthropomorphic characters. Many of these were associated with the furry fandom, such as Beatrix Farmer, created by Steve Gallacci and Taral Wayne.

Pages by J.P. Morgan can also be read on the Fission Chicken website.

Fission Chicken ("Fish" for short) fights a continuing battle against weird monsters and cultural brain death. Notably, he has battled the mind control attempts of Vortoxians (a malevolent race of alien marketing experts), the Ditsy entertainment empire (a parody of The Walt Disney Company), and Video Zombies. Some unusual opponents he has fought include the Ether Bunny (a rabbit bank-robber who uses airborne incapacitating agents on his victims), Percival Ulmer "P.U." Evolcraft (a somewhat deranged occultist and a satire on H. P. Lovecraft), ambulatory living toilets, the movie monster Ferdie Cruller (a pun on Freddy Kruger), the Dero (a subterranean race), an army of incompetent and dull-witted invaders from the planet "Ineptune", and his own evil duplicate. Other characters in the series include Monica Fether (his beautiful girlfriend—who can also fire energy bolts), Skip Squirrelhard (his P.I. friend, who aspires to be a children's book author), Dr. Lawrence Livergut and Crouton (a scientist and his assistant who often inadvertently create extra problems for our hero), and Norman Gnu (AKA Normannu the Gnostic Gnu, a free-spirited mystic who travels through time).

Unlike most superhero characters, Fission Chicken does not use an alias to hide his identity, and simply goes by the name "Fission Chicken". Several episodes reveal that his base of operations is an apartment in an unnamed city in New Jersey (creator J.P. Morgan was a resident of Keansburg, NJ), and his friend Skip Squirrelhard is his upstairs neighbor.

"Fission Chicken" creator John Patrick Morgan died December 30, 2010, at the age of 53. His final online strip, the conclusion of a story arc, had appeared on Christmas Eve that year.

Characters
Source:

 * Fission Chicken (Critters #15, August 1987)
 * Fuzzy Cutekins (Critters #15, August 1987): Hated by Fission Chicken, a celebrity who makes a living from vapid and bottomless cuteness.
 * Boogog (Critters #15, August 1987): A giant spider monster bent on eating Fission Chicken and Fuzzy Cutekins.
 * Vortoxians (Critters #19, December 1987): Evil marketing geniuses from space, the PlanetCorp Vortox. They have made themselves into plastic robots in order to better conquer other worlds.
 * Lomax Lizard (Critters #19, December 1987): An acquaintance of Fission Chicken who attempts to convince him to monetize himself through toys, comic books, and cartoons, all of which Fission Chicken rejects violently.
 * Destructo Dog (Critters #19, December 1987): A B-List superhero who is targeted for Lomax Lizard's cash grabs after Lizard was rejected by Fission Chicken.
 * Skip Squirrelhard (Critters #19, December 1987): Fission Chicken's upstairs neighbor, private investigator and aspiring children's book author. Frequently assists in fighting evil, mainly the Vortoxians.
 * Selmor-99 (Critters #20, January 1988)
 * Kikbak-72 (Critters #21, February 1988)
 * P.U. Evolcraft (Critters #23, April 1988)
 * Dr. Frankenstang (Critters #27 August 1988)
 * "Strep" O'Coccus (Critters #27 August 1988)
 * Walt Ditsy (Critters #28 September 1988)
 * Steven Spielbird (Critters #30 November 1988)
 * Michael Jukeson (Critters #30 November 1988)
 * Dickey Mouse (Critters #30 November 1988)
 * Dr. Livergurt (Critters #32 January 1989)
 * Crouton (Critters #32 January 1989)
 * Nuke Rooster (Critters #32 January 1989)
 * The Dero (Critters #35 April 1989)
 * Ayn Rant (Critters #35 April 1989)
 * Livergut Labs Toilet (Critters #38 July 1989)
 * Middle-Aged Generic Mutant Tortoises (Critters #39 July 1989)
 * Ether Bunny (Fission Chicken #1)
 * Nathrax, Lepsyro, and Flatucelen (Fission Chicken #1)
 * K'CelBoo (Fission Chicken #1)
 * Stu Dinerdud (Fission Chicken #2)
 * Ferdie Cruller (Fission Chicken #2)
 * Russ Cavern (Fission Chicken #2)
 * Vid-Citizens (Fission Chicken #4)
 * President Kingoff (Fission Chicken #4)
 * Cyber-Republicans (Fission Chicken #4)

title: Fission Chicken


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Impure Blood

Impure Blood (Нечиста крв, Nečista krv) or Sophka is a novel written by Borisav Stanković. It is concerned with themes of the Serbian south, during the reforming in the late 19th century.

Synopsis
The novel is set in Vranje, at the end of the 19th century. The main character is Sofka, a 26-year-old beautiful virgin from a čorbadžija family. However, after the fall of the Sanjak of Niš to Serbia and the following social turmoil, her family loses most of their fortune, forcing her father, Efendi Mita, to have her married off to Tomča, the 12-year-old son of gazda Marko. Marko however actually wanted Sofka for himself, to give him healthy and beautiful children. During Sofka's wedding night, Sofka locks herself and Tomča in the bedroom to avoid Marko, who beats his wife and begs Sofka to let him in. Suddenly, Marko, scared from the desire he has for Sofka, leaves to go and fight in the war against the Albanians, in which he dies. After his death, Sofka and Tomča live happily, and Tomča grows into an attractive man. However, Mita arrives to demand the money he was promised by Marko. Tomča, devastated to learn that Sofka was bought by his father, starts to abuse her daily. She starts drinking and having children, who are mostly born pale and ill, due to the curse of the 'impure blood' that had begun a long time ago, with Sofka's ancestors. She loses her beauty and becomes old and quiet, uninterested in anything but drinking and sitting in silence. At the end of the novel, Sofka is sitting near the fireplace with no fire in it, only ashes. She is seen going through the ashes with a stick while her children are running around the house.

Film adaptations
1948 film Sofka by Radoš Novaković and starring Vera Gregović is the first cinematic adaptation of the novel. In 1991, it was made into a film starring Maja Stojanović and released in 1997 as Impure Blood. A miniseries related to this adaptation and titled Tajna nečiste krvi was aired in 2012. A prequel film, titled Impure Blood: The Ancestral Sin, was released on August 26, 2021.

title: Impure Blood


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Kurt Herbert Adler

Kurt Herbert Adler (April 2, 1905 – February 9, 1988) was an Austrian-born American conductor and opera house director.

Biography
Adler was born in Vienna, Austria, to a Jewish family; his mother, Ida Bauer, was one of the first patients of Sigmund Freud. His work in the field of music led him to become the assistant to Arturo Toscanini at the Salzburg Festival in 1936 and he also worked in Italy. Following the Nazi occupation of Austria in 1938, as a Jew he was forced to leave and went to the Chicago City Opera Company as assistant chorus director where he worked for five years.

Gaetano Merola, then General Director of the San Francisco Opera, heard of him and, over the telephone, invited him to the San Francisco Opera in 1943 as chorus director.

In the following ten years, he took on more and more administrative details as Merola's health and energy diminished. While Adler was not the Board's natural choice to replace Merola at the time of his death in 1953, after three months of acting as artistic director and with the help of its president, Robert Watt Miller, Adler was confirmed as General Director.

Adler's aims in taking over the company were several. One was to expand the season and, by the 1969 season, eleven operas were given five or six performances each on average while the season ran to late November. He was tireless in seeking out up-and-coming new singers, whether American or European, by attending performances in both major and minor opera houses. Thirdly, his interest in developing stronger connections to opera stage directors in an attempt to strengthen the dramatic and theatrical elements of the works, led to a long relationship with Jean-Pierre Ponnelle.

Other innovations included the Merola Opera Program named after the founder of the San Francisco Opera, and "Opera in the Park", which the latter, from 1973, has been an annual free concert in Golden Gate Park on the Sunday following opening night of the fall season (which was televised on KQED and simulcasted in stereo on their radio station KQED-FM). The first of those concerts featured tenor Luciano Pavarotti and soprano Licia Albanese.

He was not always regarded as an easy person to work for, but his principal achievements in San Francisco were to greatly raise the standards of the opera company and "to attract a stunning galaxy of European stars, some at the beginning of their careers, to a small city at the other end of the world, often at significantly lower salaries than New York or Chicago would offer".

He retired in late December 1981 and continued to conduct and be involved with music until his death in Ross, California in 1988.

The Adler Fellowship program was started in his name by Terence A. McEwen to support young singers managed by the San Francisco Opera.

His son Ronald H. Adler is an opera director and has been artistic director at the Bavarian State Opera (2001–08) and the Berlin State Opera (2008–11).

title: Kurt Herbert Adler


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Bora Stanković

Bora Stanković may refer to:

 * Borisav Stanković (1875–1927), Serbian writer
 * Borislav Stanković (1925–2020), basketball official and long-time president of FIBA

title: Bora Stanković


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Talk:Lemma (mathematics)

Term also used in linguistics
the term lemma is apparently also used in linguistics (meaning a word item in the mental lexicon?) (80.109.255.5 17:40, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC))

Etymology
I think the Greek word you are referring to is "λείμμα". minatsu

 * Could you tell us why you believe so? Both λεμμα and λείμμα exist. -- Jitse Niesen (talk) 13:43, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I guess we were both wrong. I did a little bit of research and found out that the correct word is "λήμμα" (which you already have fixed). Yet I have to verify the original root of the word with some of my scholar friends. I can assure you that the current word used in Greek is "λήμμα" (which I guess you already know). Nevertheless here is a good search tool for you to use in the future for Greek words:

http://www.in.gr/dictionary/lookup.asp?Word=%EB%DE%EC%EC%E1&TranslateButton2=%CC%E5%F4%DC%F6%F1%E1%F3%E7

Regards

minatsu

 * Another source says Greek "lemma" means shell. I recall having heard it means horn (as in dilemma: two horns). Does it really mean gift/bribe? --LA2 16:47, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

Lemma vs. theorem
"There is no inherent distinction between a lemma and a theorem."

That's true in a formal sense, but in practice the two terms are used with significantly different semantics. One is rarely in doubt about which label to apply to a new result. Thoughts? Arvindn 01:39, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Current wording is good: "no formal distinction" clarifies that the formal content of the word is identical, though the semantic use of the word is distinctive.--165.196.163.22 (talk) 19:02, 1 December 2009 (UTC)

 * My suggestion: People who just want to use a theory should need to look only at its theorems (and corollaries), while developpers of the theory will need to look also at its lemmas. An analogy could be made to the area of software engineering: a proposition is labelled "theorem" in order to put it in the "export interface" of the theory, while an auxiliary proposition to be hidden is labelled "lemma". Of course, labelling is largely a subjective decision, but there are criteria for good interfaces (simplicity, generality, etc.). A famous proposition called "lemma" would then be a result of an interface design flaw. Jochen Burghardt (talk) 18:52, 22 May 2013 (UTC)

 * Uh, utter nonsense? Why do you have to over-complicate things, Jochen? Just take things for what they are. Lemmas and theorems have nothing to do with concealing anything. The analogy is wrong. The difference between lemmas and theorems is relational and conventional/axiological: a lemma is a theorem which is used to prove another theorem. In deductive sciences, one begins with principles or axioms and through syllogistic reasoning, derives all of the consequences which are entailed by those axioms. All propositions derived form axioms are theorems. One theorem is another's lemma, though the mathematical language applies a nomenclature that generally tends to call only some things lemmas and others theorems by convention, or, because the word "theorem" is used when referring to more important or valuable theorems while lemmas are seen as less theorems which support more important theorems. A better analogy would be that between genus and species. Truly, the distinction is relative: if A is a species of B and B is a species of C, then C is the genus of A. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.34.227.5 (talk) 14:04, 4 August 2014 (UTC)

Couchman's lemma
I can't find this by Google. Now, there are loads of things I can't find by Google, but not if it is "one of the most powerful mathematical results" as claimed. So, I'm calling shenanigans. Feel free to add back with link. --174.119.186.126 (talk) 00:42, 25 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Consider the source of the contribution. The edit was made on August 24, 2009, from the IP address 210.84.58.243. There were four contributions made from this address, all on the same date. Two were to the Tom Bosley article, where the contribution was "Tom Bosley likes all the sausage.", later amended to "Tom Bosley gets all the sausage." The third was to the Modular Arithmetic article, and was "All your congruence are belong to us." The final contribution was the "Couchman's lemma" sentence in this article. While it's entirely possible for someone to make a genuine contribution to an article in addition to trolling/vandalizing Wikipedia in other articles, it's highly unlikely.--Chuckhoffmann (talk) 11:22, 30 October 2013 (UTC)

Gauss's lemma
Which of Gauss's lemmas is intended? The link leads to a disambiguation page. 202.36.179.68 (talk) 01:09, 22 July 2011 (UTC)

Bold lemma
Removed the bold format in the list of lemmas. I could find no explanation for why some were bold and others were not. If you want to restore the bold formatting please explain what it means, clearly and prominently. Thanks Nick Beeson (talk) 23:13, 26 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lemma (mathematics)


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User:DaxisMarr

I began contributing to Wikipedia on the 16th April 2005.

I might add more to this later.

title: User:DaxisMarr


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RAF North Luffenham

Royal Air Force North Luffenham or more simply RAF North Luffenham is a former Royal Air Force station in Rutland, England. It is near to the villages of Edith Weston and North Luffenham.

Second World War
The station was built as a training airfield, opening in 1940. It was later taken over by 5 Group of RAF Bomber Command as a heavy bomber base, and was expanded by the building of concrete runways later in the war.

Post war
In 1951, the station was transferred to the Royal Canadian Air Force to become the temporary home of 1 Fighter Wing, the first Canadian NATO base in Europe. 1 Wing moved to Marville, France in 1955.

In late 1955, No. 228 Operational Conversion Unit, temporarily renamed No. 238 OCU, was detached to North Luffenham from RAF Leeming which was having its runways extended to 7000 ft to accommodate Gloster Javelins. The OCU remained for over a year before returning to Leeming.

From 1959 to 1963, North Luffenham was the base for PGM-17 Thor intermediate range ballistic missiles, operated by No. 144 Squadron RAF. The Thor missile site was listed as a Grade II* building in 2011.

In mid-1964 No. 3 Ground Radio Servicing Squadron was transferred from RAF Norton, Sheffield, Yorkshire. No. 3GRSS was responsible for the third-line maintenance repair of all ground radar and radio communication/navigational and landing aids located at airfields throughout Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

In 1963 the RAF Aviation Medical Training Centre (AMTC) moved from its original location at RAF Upwood to RAF North Luffenham. The Centre was commanded by a senior RAF Medical Officer who with his medical and technical team were responsible for fitting and instructing aircrew in the use of flying protective clothing and equipment, including partial pressure suits, which kept the pilot conscious in the event of loss of cabin pressure at high altitude. Instruction in medical aspects of high performance aviation included experience of hypoxia and exposure to sudden explosive decompression of an aircraft cabin. This was carried out in a complex of RAF Mark V decompression chambers installed on the site for aircrew training and research purposes. Many of the aircrew medical monitoring techniques, oxygen systems and items of aircrew protective flying clothing developed at the RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine, Farnborough, were assessed by staff of AMTC.From 1965 to 1997 part of the Joint Services Language School was based here. Primary languages taught included Russian and Mandarin. Russian-language graduates of the school were employed at radio monitoring stations located close to the USSR border mostly in Gatow, Berlin, in order to monitor Russian air-to-ground radio voice traffic during airborne interception/ border incursion etc. Some also were stationed at Digby, and some were sent on airborne duties, variously stationed including Wyton, Cyprus etc. Most of the Chinese graduates were officers and stationed in Hong Kong. Most of the teachers were emigres or ex-Russian military. A plaque to commemorate the Language School was unveiled in 2005 by Air Commodore Bruce Benstead, the last Station Commander at RAF North Luffenham. Recruits from RAF Swinderby completed their fieldcraft training at this base in the 80s and early 90s.

Notable former rugby players from RAF North Luffenham include Sir Augustus Walker (RAF & England), Peter Larter (Northampton & England) and Martin Whitcombe (Leicester Tigers & England 'B' international).

When the RAF vacated the base, the gates from the main entrance were donated to the village of North Luffenham. The gates which bear the station badge were later erected at the entrance to the village's recreation ground.

The station was taken over by the British Army and renamed St George's Barracks in 1998.

Units
The following units were here at some point: • No. 61 Squadron RAF between 17 July and September 1941 with the Avro Manchester

• No. 111 Squadron RAF between 19 February and 18 June 1958 with the Hawker Hunter F.6

• Detachment of No. 408 Squadron RCAF between December 1941 and September 1942 • No. 12 (Pilots) Advanced Flying Unit RAF
 * Units:

• No. 17 Elementary Flying Training School RAF

• No. 21 Heavy Glider Conversion Unit RAF

• No. 29 Operational Training Unit RAF

• No. 73 Base RAF

• No. 102 Flying Refresher School RAF

• No. 151 (Air Defence Missile) Wing RAF

• No. 151 (SAM) Servicing Wing RAF

• No. 151 (Surface to Air Missile) Wing RAF

• No. 240 Operational Conversion Unit RAF

• No. 1382 (Transport) Conversion Unit RAF

• No. 1653 Heavy Conversion Unit RAF

• No. 2749 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2797 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2899 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2952 Squadron RAF Regiment

• All Weather and Night Fighter Operational Conversion Unit

• Flying Training Command Instructors School

• Heavy Glider Conversion Unit RAF

• Midland Radar (1966-12 January 1990)

title: RAF North Luffenham


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Middle Persian literature

Middle Persian literature is the corpus of written works composed in Middle Persian, that is, the Middle Iranian dialect of Persia proper, the region in the south-western corner of the Iranian plateau. Middle Persian was the prestige dialect during the era of Sasanian dynasty. It is the largest source of Zoroastrian literature.

The rulers of the Sasanian Empire (224–654 CE) were natives of that south-western region, and through their political and cultural influence, Middle Persian became a prestige dialect and thus also came to be used by non-Persian Iranians. Following the Arab conquest of the Sassanian Empire in the 7th century, shortly after which Middle Persian began to evolve into New Persian, Middle Persian continued to be used by the Zoroastrian priesthood for religious and secular compositions. These compositions, in the Aramaic-derived Book Pahlavi script, are traditionally known as "Pahlavi literature". The earliest texts in Zoroastrian Middle Persian were probably written down in late Sassanid times (6th–7th centuries), although they represent the codification of earlier oral tradition. However, most texts, including the Zend commentaries and translations of the Zoroastrian canon, date from the 9th to the 11th century, when Middle Persian had long ceased to be a spoken language, so they reflect the state of affairs in living Middle Persian only indirectly. The surviving manuscripts are usually 14th-century copies.

Other, less abundantly attested varieties of Middle Persian literature include the 'Manichaean Middle Persian' corpus, used for a sizable amount of Manichaean religious writings, including many theological texts, homilies and hymns (3rd–9th, possibly 13th century). Even less-well attested are the Middle Persian compositions of Nestorian Christians like Mar Mana, evidenced in the Pahlavi Psalter (7th century); these were used until the beginning of the second millennium in many places in Central Asia, including Turfan (in present-day China) and even localities in Southern India.

"Pahlavi" literature
"Pahlavi literature traditionally defines the writings of the Zoroastrians in the Middle Persian language and Book Pahlavi script which were compiled in the 9th and the 10th centuries CE."

The literary corpus in Middle Persian in Book Pahlavi consists of: These divisions are not mutually exclusive. Several different literary genres are represented in Pahlavi literature.
 * translations and commentaries (zand) of the Avesta.
 * other exegetical compositions on religious subjects.
 * compositions on non-religious subjects.

The zand corpus include exegetical glosses, paraphrases, commentaries and translations of the Avesta's texts. Although such exegetical commentaries also exist in other languages (including Avestan itself), the Middle Persian zand is the only to survive fully, and is for this reason regarded as 'the' zand.
 * Zand texts

With the notable exception of the Yashts, almost all surviving Avestan texts have their Middle Persian zand, which in some manuscripts appear alongside (or interleaved with) the text being glossed. These glosses and commentaries were not intended for use as theological texts by themselves but for religious instruction of the (by then) non-Avestan-speaking public. In contrast, the Avestan language texts remained sacrosanct and continued to be recited in the Avestan language, which was considered a sacred language.

The corpus of medieval texts of Zoroastrian tradition include around 75 works, of which only a few are well known:
 * Other exegetical works
 * the Denkard, "Acts of Religion", is an encyclopedic compendium of Sassanid era beliefs and customs.
 * the Bundahishn, "Original Creation", is an important source of information on Zoroastrian cosmogony.
 * Manushchihr's Dadestan i Denig ("Religious Decisions") and Epistles
 * the Vichitakiha i Zatsparam, the "Treatises of Zatsparam", by Manushchihr's brother Zatsparam.
 * the Arda-Viraf Namag relates the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian (the 'Viraf' of the story) through the next world.
 * the Daedestan i Menog-i Khrad, "Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom", is an andarz text (a class of Iranian wisdom literature) in which a figure named Danag (lit: "wise, knowing") participates in a question-and-answer dialog with Menog-i Khrad, the Spirit of Wisdom.
 * the Jamasp Namag, "Book of Jamaspi", also known as the Ayadgar i Jamaspig "(In) Memoriam of Jamasp", is a compendium of essential doctrine, together with basic myth, legend, history, and some pseudo-prophetic matters cast as a series of revelations by Jamasp through the model of a question-and-answer dialog with Vishtasp.
 * the Zand-i Wahman yasn is another pseudo-prophetic text, in this case cast as a question-and-answer dialog between Zoroaster and Ahura Mazda, in which the latter gives his prophet the ability to see into the future.
 * the Shikand-gumanic Vichar, a partly apologetic and partly polemic review of other religions.
 * the Shayast ne-shayast, "(on what is) Proper and Improper", a compilation of miscellaneous laws and customs regarding sin and impurity, with other memoranda about ceremonies and religious subjects in general.
 * the Zaratosht-nama, an epic poem about the life of Zarathustra.
 * the Wizidagiha-i Zadspram, a text on the creation of the world, life of Zoroaster, and the eschatological end

A manuscript known as the "miscellaneous codex" or MK (after Mihraban Kaykhusrow, the Indian Zoroastrian (Parsi) copyist who created it), dated to 1322 but containing older material, is the only surviving source of several secular Middle Persian works from the Sassanian period. Among the texts included in the unique MK are:
 * Secular compositions
 * the Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan is a hagiography of Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanid dynasty
 * the Ayadgar-i Zariran, the "Memorial or Zarer", is the only surviving specimen of Iranian epic poetry composed in Middle Persian.
 * the Shahrestaniha i Eranshahr, is a catalogue of the four regions of the Sassanid empire with mythical and/or historical stories related to their founding.
 * several andarz texts, the Iranian type of wisdom literature containing advice and injunctions for proper behavior.
 * the Wizarishn i Chatrang, "Explanation of Chess", also known as the Chatrang Namag, is a humorous story of how an Indian king sent a game of chess to the Sassanid court to test Iranian wits, in response to which a priest invented backgammon to challenge the Indian king.
 * the Drakht i Asurig, "the Assyrian tree", is an originally Parthian poem recast into Book Pahlavi but retaining many Parthian phrases and idioms.
 * the Abdih ud Sahigih i Sagistan is a description of the "Wonders and Remarkable Features of Sistan".
 * the Khusraw va Redag, "Khusraw and the Page", is an account of a conversation between the king and a young boy who would like to be a page. This work is a source of information on the sensual delights of the Sassanian court.
 * the Mah farvardin Ruz khordad is a book that described all the events which historically or mythically occurred on the 6th day of the Persian month of Farvardin.

Especially important to cultural and law historians is the Madayan i Hazar Dadestan, "Book of a Thousand Judgements", a 7th-century compilation of actual and hypothetical case histories collected from Sassanian court records and transcripts. Only a single manuscript of this unique text survives.

Scribes also created several glossaries for translating foreign languages. Of these, two have survived:
 * Frahang-i Pahlavig, a glossary of common Aramaic heterograms (huzvarishn) used in written Middle Persian.
 * Frahang-i Oim-evak, a dictionary of Avestan words and phrases.

Several other works, now lost, are known of from references to them in other languages. Works of this group include:
 * in about the 5th century, priests attached to the Sassanid court began to compile an immense chronicle, the Khwaday Namag ("Book of Kings"), a legendary genealogy of the Sassanid kings in which the Sassanians were dynastically linked to Vishtaspa, i.e. Zoroaster's patron and the legendary founder of the mythological Kayanian dynasty. The original Middle Persian version of the chronicle has been lost, and the contents survive only through Arabic translations and in a versified New Persian version, the Shahnameh by Firdausi, finished around 1000 CE.
 * the Kalile va Demne, a Middle Persian translation of the Indian Panchatantra. The Middle Persian work survives only as a translation into Syriac and two centuries later into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa.
 * the Letter of Tansar, a rationale for Ardashir's seizure of the throne. The letter was translated into Arabic in the 9th century by Ibn al-Muqaffa, and from Arabic into New Persian in the 13th century History of Tabaristan by Ibn Isfandiar.
 * the Ayyatkar-i Anushirvan, which has survived as an Arabic translation in a section of Ebn Meskavayh's Tajarib al-Umam.

Full texts

 * Avesta-Zoroastrian Archives, includes Middle Persian writings in English translation
 * Scholar Raham Asha's website, includes many texts in original and English translation (some also on the
 * parsig.org)
 * A Large Online Pahlavi Library, contains pdfs of many Pahlavi manuscripts in its original script, many with transcriptions and translations.
 * Kassock Pahlavi Reproductions, a small company that provides many reprints of Pahlavi books and manuscripts. Kassock also writes guides for students learning Pahlavi for select books.

title: Middle Persian literature


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Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Alan Moore/archive1

Alan Moore
A great article, easily a candidate for FA status! Gkhan 17:42, Apr 16, 2005 (UTC)

 * object a) no photo of Alan (if available) b) no references section and c) not possible to tell which reference would cover which area of facts so not verifiable d) within the limits of fair use, or even better, with specific permission it would be good to show a development of his style in drawings, not just cover art. e) parts are a bit over-wikified for my taste, might be better to reduce some of the less directly relevant / instersting links such as anarchist f) there are some single sentence paragraphs which could easily be joined to other paragraphs to make easier reading.  Mozzerati 19:53, 2005 Apr 16 (UTC)
 * Object. Good article, needs references though. BLANKFAZE | (что??) 03:21, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)


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2005 Tippeligaen

The 2005 Tippeligaen was the 61st completed season of top division football in Norway. The season began on 10 April 2005, and was concluded with the last of 26 rounds played on 29 October. 3 points were given for wins and 1 for draws.

Vålerenga, the winner of this year's season entered the second round of next year's Champions League qualification, while the runners-up (Start), number 3 (Lyn) and the Norwegian Cup winners enter the UEFA Cup qualification round. The top four teams qualified for the 2004–05 Royal League.

1,726,145 people attended the matches, a new record for the Tippeligaen and 300,000 more than the previous year. It is also more than twice as many as in 1995, when only 841,717 attended the matches during the whole season. The 2005 season was, as of 2019, the last season where all the teams in the division played on natural turfs only.

Summary
The greatest surprises of the 2005 season were the great performance of Start, promoted to the Tippeligaen in the 2004 season and ended up winning silver, and the disappointing performance of Rosenborg which fought against relegation from the top division after winning it for 13 straight seasons.

The season ended on a sad note as Fredrikstad's Dagfinn Enerly got a serious neck injury in the last round match against Start on 29 October 2005, which made him a paraplegic. Start lost the game 1–3 which meant that Vålerenga secured their fifth league title with a 2–2 draw against Odd Grenland in Skien.

Number thirteen (Aalesund) and fourteen (Bodø/Glimt) were relegated to 1. divisjon, while number twelve (Molde) had to play a two-legged play-off (home and away) against Moss, third-place finisher in Adeccoligaen, for the last spot in next year's season. Molde won the play-off matches 5–2 on aggregate and remained in Tippeligaen.

Teams and locations
Fourteen teams competed in the league – the top twelve teams from the previous season, and two teams promoted from 1. divisjon.

 * ''Note: Table lists in alphabetical order.

Relegation play-offs
Molde won the two-legged play-offs against Moss 5–2 on aggregate and avoided relegation.

Molde won 5–2 on aggregate and remained in Tippeligaen.

International

 * Vålerenga goes to 2006–07 UEFA Champions League qualification round
 * Start (2nd), Lyn (3rd) and Molde (Norwegian Cup winner) go to 2006–07 UEFA Cup qualification round
 * Vålerenga (1st), Start (2nd), Lyn (3rd) and Lillestrøm (4th) qualify for 2005–06 Royal League

Player

 * Most yellow cards: 7
 * 🇳🇴 Runar Berg (Bodø/Glimt)
 * 🇳🇴 Simen Brenne (Fredrikstad)
 * Most red cards: 1
 * 19 players

Club

 * Most yellow cards: 47
 * Odd

 * Most red cards: 3
 * Rosenborg
 * Tromsø

title: 2005 Tippeligaen