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Prestwich

Prestwich is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Bury, Greater Manchester, England, 3 mi north of Manchester, 3 mi north of Salford and 5 mi south of Bury.

Within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire, Prestwich was the seat of the ancient parish of Prestwich-cum-Oldham, centred around the Grade I listed Church of St Mary the Virgin. In recent times, it has grown in popularity as a commuter town of Manchester, being consistenly named one of the best places to live in the UK by The Sunday Times, and has been nicknamed the 'new Didsbury' in comparison with the affluent suburb in the south of the city.

The oldest part of Prestwich, around Bury New Road, is known as Prestwich Village. There is a large Jewish community in Prestwich which, together with neighbouring Whitefield, Broughton and Crumpsall, makes up the second largest Jewish community in the UK outside London.

Toponymy
Prestwich is possibly of Old English origin, derived from preost and wic, which translates to the priest's farm. Another possible derivation is priest's retreat. Wic was a place-name element derived from the Latin vicus, place. Its most common meaning is dairy-farm. The township was variously recorded as Prestwich in 1194, Prestwic in 1202 and Prestewic in 1203.

Early history
Bury New Road roughly follows the line of a Roman road connecting forts at Mamucium (Manchester) and Bremetennacum (Ribchester). It is possible that a Roman fort or encampment was built at "Castle Hill", near the Salford border, mirroring an encampment on Rainsough Hill equidistant from the Roman road. John Booker B.A., 19th century author and curate of the parish church, considered these were agrarian camps built to protect cattle kept in the woods of Broughton and Kersal. The camp was "just to the right of the old road to Bury, immediately beyond Singleton Brook, on the first field in the Parish of Prestwich, which was formerly known as Lowcaster". Roman coins have been found off Bury New Road, near Prestwich Golf Course and some in Prestwich Clough.

A hoard of 65 silver coins from the reign of King Stephen was found in the Sedgley Park area in 1972. The Prestwich manor emerged in the Middle Ages and in 1212 was assessed as four oxgang of land held by Adam de Prestwich whose father, Robert held it in 1193. The lord of the manor held the advowson for the church. Another Adam de Prestwich settled the manors of Prestwich, Alkrington and Pendlebury on his son John in 1297 but remarried and in 1313 settled the same manors on Thomas de Prestwich, his son by second wife. Thomas de Prestwich had daughters, Margaret who became a nun at Seaton Priory in 1360, but left the convent to marry Robert de Holland, and Agnes who married John de Radcliffe but died childless in 1362. Thomas de Prestwich granted his manors to Richard de Radcliffe for life and after that the manor was held by Richard de Langley. In 1371 Robert de Holland claimed the manor as the right of his wife. Roger de Langley was a minor and ward of the Duke of Lancaster in 1372 when Robert de Holland and a troop of armed men took possession of the manor by force and retained it until 1389. The Langleys regained the manor after 1403.

After Sir Robert Langley's death in 1561 the manor passed to his daughter Margaret, who married John Reddish. Their granddaughter Sarah married Clement Coke and the manor descended in the Coke family, until 1777, when Thomas William Coke, Coke of Norfolk, a leader in the agricultural revolution sold the land in Prestwich to increase his Norfolk estates. The manor was acquired by Peter Drinkwater of Irwell House in 1794 and it descended to his son Thomas who died in 1861. Irwell House and Drinkwater Park was sold to Salford Corporation and Prestwich Council. In 1561 other lands went to Sir Robert's other daughters. Polefield, on higher ground to the north of Prestwich, became a separate estate, with Polefield Hall coming in the 19th century to the Earls of Wilton.

In the hearth tax of 1666 there were 97 hearths in the township, the rector's house was the largest with ten. In the 17th and 18th centuries local government was based on the parish structure. The lord of the manor administered land tenure and inheritance, but law and order was kept by parish constables assisted by the church wardens. The local justices sat in the "Star Chamber" in the Ostrich Inn, now the Church Inn, close to the parish church where the justices' seat can still be seen. The village had stocks which remained in use until 1800.

Development
The settlement grew to serve the parish church making Church Lane the historic centre. In the late 18th century the area was mainly rural with scattered farms and small settlements grew at Great and Little Heaton. The population was estimated at 670. Rooden Lane which became part of Bury Old Road was a centre for hand loom weaving and at Simister and neighbouring Bowlee, silk weaving was established. During the 19th century another settlement grew around the junction of Fairfax Road and Bury New Road along with another village centre on Bury Old Road. The area between these centres remained rural, however, the arrival of the railway in 1881 encouraged affluent merchants from Manchester to build villas and move to the town.

Prestwich Hospital was built as an asylum in 1851 and by 1900 it had grown into the largest asylum in Europe. Sedgley Park Teacher Training College was established in Prestwich after the Faithful Companions of Jesus bought a house to accommodate it in 1903. When Mike Leigh was a lecturer at the Catholic women teachers' training college Sedgley Park he devised and directed two big-cast projects for the Manchester Youth Theatre: Big Basil and Glum Victoria and the Lad with Specs. The National Archives holds records relating to the college.

By 1912 the population had increased to 12,800, and from the 1930s onwards the remaining fields were developed and by 1961 the population reached 31,000 and Prestwich had become a suburb of Manchester.

Political representation
Prestwich, together with Whitefield and Radcliffe, is part of the marginal Bury South Parliamentary constituency, which has been represented by MP Christian Wakeford since 2019. Wakeford stood as a Conservative and gained the seat from the Labour Party by 402 votes, which at the time made it one of the most marginal seats in the country. However, he defected to Labour in January 2022.

On Bury Council, Prestwich is served by three wards, St Mary's, covering the western half of the town, Holyrood covering the north-east, and Sedgeley to the south. In previous years, they have been represented by all three major political parties, but since the 2023 local elections, all nine seats across the three wards are held by Labour.

Civic history
Historically, Prestwich was the ecclesiastical centre of Prestwich-cum-Oldham an ancient parish in the Salford Hundred of Lancashire. A Prestwich Poor Law Union was established in 1850, and later merged with the Manchester one in 1915 before being abolished in 1930.

In 1867 the Prestwich Local Board of Health was established which, as a result of the Local Government Act 1894, became Prestwich Urban District, to which parts of Great and Little Heaton townships were added. In 1903, Heaton Park was added to the City of Manchester, and in 1933, part of the urban district west of the Irwell was added to Swinton and Pendlebury Urban District. Prestwich became a municipal borough in 1939, with the council based at Prestwich Town Hall. Under the Local Government Act 1972 it became an unparished area in the Metropolitan Borough of Bury in Greater Manchester, taking effect on 1 April 1974.

Geography
Prestwich lies to the east of the River Irwell and is bounded on the north by Whitefield, on the east by Heaton Park, to the west by the Prestwich Forest Park and the Irwell Valley (Agecroft and Clifton) and to the south by the City of Salford. The two main north–south roads passing from central Manchester to Bury, Bury New Road (A56) and Bury Old Road, traverse the district.

The geology of the area is characterised by carboniferous coal measures of the Manchester Coalfield and sandstone appertaining to the Carboniferous Westphalian C geological age. This is overlain with quaternary glacial drift comprising sand, gravel and boulder clay.

Demography
The 2021 census estimated the population of Prestwich at 31,500.

Jewish community
Around 20% of the population of Prestwich is Jewish, and the area, along with neighbouring Whitefield, Broughton and Crumpsall, makes up the second largest Jewish community in the UK outside London.

The community is particularly concentrated around the Sedgley Park area in the South of Prestwich, which has several synagogues, as well as Jewish businesses, specialist shops and delicatessens along King's Road, Bury New Road and Bury Old Road.

Economy

The high street of Prestwich is centred around the Longfield Centre. The centre, which includes the now-closed Longfield Suite, local library and NHS drop-in centre, is due to be "regenerated" with £100m worth of development work starting in 2024. According to the Sunday Times, the area is an "interesting mix of old and new", with various more upmarket bars and restaurants alongside traditional venues. Many of the local pubs are run by Joseph Holt, and the brewery's first cask ale festival was hosted in the Woodthorpe pub in 2023.

In the Sedgley Park area, there are a number of kosher restaurants and delis.

Prestwich is now considered to be an affluent area and has been called the "Didsbury of North Manchester".

Transport
Public transport in Prestwich is coordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester. It has good transport links to Manchester city centre, Bury and other parts of Greater Manchester.

Prestwich is served by four tram stations on the Manchester Metrolink line from Manchester to Bury, at Besses o' th' Barn on the Whitefield border to the north, Prestwich in the centre of the village, Heaton Park in the centre-east and Bowker Vale on the Blackley border to the south-east. There are a number of parking spaces at the Besses and Prestwich, stops, however, the nearest dedicated park-and-ride station is at Whitefield with over 200 spaces. The metrolink line was originally a train line, with Prestwich station first built by Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in 1879.

Bury New Road is the main road through the centre of the town. Buses on the road operate between Prestwich and central Manchester and Bury, with high frequency services operated by Go North West Local bus routes link the village to northern areas of Salford including Pendlebury, Swinton, Monton and Eccles. The Lancashire Way and The Witch Way express services link Prestwich to Manchester, Burnley and Pendle. The road was first constructed by a turnpike trust in 1826.

Bury New Road also intersects the M60 motorway at Junction 17, the Whitefield Interchange, a short distance north of the centre of Prestwich.

Parks
Richard Buxton (1786–1865), a shoemaker born at Sedgley Hall Farm published a botanical guide to the plants found around the Manchester area in 1849. In the early 20th century James Cosmo Melvill wrote that Kersal Moor, Prestwich Clough, Mere Clough, the Park and Hurst Clough were the homes of most of the interesting plants. Many other noted local botanists had studied the area including Leo Grindon and Thomas Rogers.

In 1906 9 acre of land were given to the Prestwich Urban District Council by William Gardner, a further 13 acre were purchased and the "sylvan and beautiful" Prestwich Clough was opened to the public as a place of recreation.

Prestwich Forest Park consists of 200 ha of land on the western side of Prestwich incorporating, Philips Park, Prestwich Clough, Mere Clough, Waterdale Meadow and Drinkwater Park.

Much of the area of the park was industrialised during the 18th and 19th centuries but has been reclaimed with extensive woodlands, reservoirs and grasslands. While this area has become a haven for wildlife, there are still remnants of the area's industrial past. Philips Park has been designated as a Local Nature Reserve (LNR) and Prestwich Clough as a Site of Biological Importance (SBI) due to the important contribution they make to the wildlife heritage of Greater Manchester. The Irwell Sculpture Trail, the Irwell Valley Way and a National Cycle Route all pass through the park. The "Friends of Prestwich Forest Park" and the BTCV co-ordinate volunteer activities and events such as the Prestwich Clough Centenary Celebrations. The renovated Philips Park Barn which has become a major environmental education and countryside centre for the borough and is used by a number of local groups.

Education
Prestwich has four secondary schools: The Heys School, St Monica's High School, Parrenthorn High School and Manchester Mesivta School. Two of these are faith schools, with St Monica's being Catholic and Mesivta Jewish. St Monica's featured a Sixth Form centre offering vocational courses from 2011 but the centre was closed down in 2017, so for both A-level and vocational studies the nearest tertiary education providers are both in Bury, Holy Cross College and Bury College.

Religion
The Parish Church of St Mary the Virgin is a Grade I listed building and was at the centre of the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich-cum-Oldham that extended beyond the township boundaries. It is known that it had a rector by 1200. Parts of the present building date from around 1500, although extensions were made at the end of the 19th century. For a time in the 19th century, the church was referred to as St Bartholomew's. The church wakes were traditionally held around St Bartholomew's Day. The living of Prestwich was suspended by the Diocese of Manchester in 2002. A priest-in-charge, The Revd. Bryan Hackett, residing in the rectory, was appointed.

The foundation stone of St Margaret's Church was laid near Heaton Park in 1849. Founded as a chapel of ease to the parish church, it became a parish church in its own right in 1885. The church was built as a Commissioners' Church to a design by Travis & Mangnall at a cost of £2,000 and was extended in 1863, 1871, 1884, 1888 and 1899. A feature of the church is the Arts and Crafts Movement oak carved reredos, choir stalls, rood screen, panelling, pulpit, bishop's chair and altar rails by Arthur Simpson of Kendal, widely believed to be the finest collection of his ecclesiastical work. Other Anglican churches in the area include churches dedicated to St Gabriel (built 1933–4, St Hilda (1903–04) and St George (1915).

The Roman Catholic Church had a resurgence in late Victorian times. Mass was celebrated in 1889 for the first time since the Reformation. The present Catholic church, dedicated to Our Lady of Grace, was opened in 1931 and consecrated in 1956.

There are two Methodist churches, Heaton Park Methodist Church and Prestwich Methodist Church. There are cemeteries at the parish church and St Margaret's. The Congregational Church on Bailey Street was originally based in a building designed by Alfred Waterhouse in 1864 and was joined by a school, also by Waterhouse, in 1865. In 2006, the Waterhouse church was redeveloped as flats and a new church (by Z Architecture and Design) was built on an adjacent site.

The migration of Jewish families, mainly from the nearby Cheetham area of Manchester and Broughton Park in Salford, and the later arrival of Muslims into this urban area, resulted in synagogues, such as Heaton Park Hebrew Congregation, and mosques being constructed alongside Christian places of worship. There are Jewish cemeteries at Philips Park Cemetery, Prestwich Village Cemetery was used from 1841 to 1951, and Rainsough Cemetery from 1923. According to Pevsner, the 1934 Holy Law Synagogue was the first "purpose-built" synagogue in Prestwich.

Sport
The most successful Association football team representing Prestwich is Prestwich Heys A.F.C., who play in the North West Counties Football League, level nine in the English football league system. Other local teams include Prestwich F.C., Prestwich Marauders F.C., and Bury Amateurs.

Prestwich Cricket, Tennis & Bowling Club is located near Prestwich Metrolink station. It is one of the oldest clubs in the Manchester area, and was the first multi-sports club in the UK to achieve Clubmark or equivalent accreditations in all its official sporting sections. The club has cricket, crown green bowling, tennis and football facilities and a clubhouse.

Golf is played at Prestwich Golf Club, and crown green bowling in St. Mary's Park. Both are also found at the nearby Heaton Park, where the bowling greens were built for the 2002 Commonwealth Games.

Culture and media
The Prestwich and Whitefield Guide and The Bury Times are sold in the locality. The Jewish Telegraph is produced and printed in Prestwich.

The Longfield Centre civic hall, which previously had one of the largest sprung floor ballrooms in the north-west of England, was permanently closed in 2021.

There are several private members' clubs in the town, including Prestwich Church Institute, the Carlton Club, and two political clubs - Prestwich Conservative Club and Prestwich Liberal Club.

Notable people

 * Celia Birtwell, textile and fashion designer and muse of David Hockney, was raised in Prestwich and attended St. Margaret's Primary School.
 * Jenny Frost, singer with the band Atomic Kitten and television presenter, grew up in Prestwich and attended the local Catholic high school, St Monica's.
 * Liam Frost, musician and singer, grew up in Prestwich.
 * Guy Garvey, lead singer of the band Elbow, lives in Prestwich.
 * Kevin Godley and Lol Creme of the band 10cc were from Prestwich.
 * Alan Haven, jazz organist, was born in Prestwich.
 * Howard Jacobson, author and Man Booker Prize winner, was born and raised in Prestwich.
 * Montagu Lomax, author of The Experiences of an Asylum Doctor, an exposé of conditions at the Prestwich Hospital
 * Abbie McManus, Manchester United and England footballer.
 * Arlene Phillips. choreographer, was born in Prestwich.
 * Mark E. Smith (1957–2018), lyricist and vocalist of The Fall.
 * Julie Stevens was born in Prestwich in 1936 and appeared in episodes of TV series The Avengers, Playschool and Playaway.
 * William Sturgeon (1783–1850), physicist and inventor, lived in Prestwich and is buried in St Mary's Cemetery. He created the first practical electric motor and electromagnetic solenoid.
 * Betty Tebbs, campaigner for women's rights and peace, lived in Prestwich.
 * Emma Jane Unsworth, author, grew up in Prestwich and has also lived there as an adult.
 * Dudley D. Watkins, cartoonist, who created Oor Wullie, The Broons and drew for The Dandy comic amongst others.
 * Victoria Wood, writer, comedian and actress, was born in Prestwich.

title: Prestwich


text: Category:Greek engineers

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Greek engineers


text: Category:Ancient Greek physicists

title: Category:Ancient Greek physicists


text: User talk:81.158.50.231

title: User talk:81.158.50.231


text:
Comecon (band)

Comecon was a Swedish death metal project founded in 1990. The band consisted of two guitarists, a drum computer and a session singer; a different one on each album. The debut album featured the Swede Lars-Göran Petrov, who was then dismissed from Entombed. Their second album was sung by Dutchman Martin van Drunen (Asphyx). German Marc Grewe, from Morgoth handled the vocals on their final album. All three albums were produced by Tomas Skogsberg.

Discography

 * Split album with Merciless (1991)
 * Megatrends in Brutality (1992)
 * Converging Conspiracies (1993)
 * Fable Frolic (1995)

Members

 * Rasmus Ekman – guitar, bass
 * Pelle Ström – guitar, bass
 * Lars-Göran Petrov – vocals (1992)
 * Martin van Drunen – vocals (1993)
 * Marc Grewe – vocals (1995)

title: Comecon (band)


text: Category:Greek physicists

title: Category:Greek physicists


text:
A Quick One, While He's Away

"A Quick One, While He's Away" is a 1966 song written by Pete Townshend and recorded by the Who for their second album A Quick One. The song also appears on the album BBC Sessions. In the performance on their Live at Leeds album Townshend calls the nine-minute "epic" track a "mini-opera" and introduces it as "Tommy's parents".

The song tell the story of an unnamed girl whose lover has been gone "for nearly a year". Her friends inform her that they "have a remedy"; the remedy comes in the form of Ivor the Engine Driver. When the lover returns, the girl confesses her infidelity, and she is ultimately forgiven.

Parts to the song
The song has six distinct movements. The brief harmonised a cappella intro is titled "Her Man's Been Gone". The "Crying Town" section is sung by Roger Daltrey in an atypical low register. Daltrey also sings "We Have a Remedy" in his more usual voice. John Entwistle plays "Ivor the Engine Driver" in that section. Then comes "Soon Be Home", another harmonised section. Finally, "You Are Forgiven" is sung by Pete Townshend – his only lead vocal on the album (except, on most versions of the album, a small part of "Heat Wave"). The Who wanted cellos at the final "mini"-movement, "You Are Forgiven", but producer and manager Kit Lambert could not afford it so they ended up saying "Cello, cello, cello".

This song is the Who's first publicised venture into the rock opera genre (although the songs "I'm a Boy" and "Disguises" were the result of Townshend's first delve into rock opera, entitled "Quads"), and a precursor to their later, more ambitious project Tommy. In addition to the studio recording on the A Quick One album, a live recording appears on Live at Leeds. When the song was performed live, instead of "girl", Townshend and Daltrey would make a point to sing "Girl Guide". A performance filmed for The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus in 1968 can be seen on that film (released in 1996) and on the 1979 documentary The Kids Are Alright. It also appears on both films' soundtrack albums. Another version recorded live at the Monterey Pop Festival can be found on the Monterey Pop Festival four-disk set and on another Who film, Thirty Years of Maximum R&B Live. A mixed studio and live version can be found on The Who's four disk set Thirty Years of Maximum R&B.

Another version of this song is available on the DVD, At Kilburn 1977 + Live at the Coliseum, with Townshend's long explanation of the song and constant humorous comments by Keith Moon. However, because of problems with the cameras, part of the performance is lost, and was replaced by stylised footage.

The Live at Leeds version of the song was used in the soundtrack of the movie Rushmore (though the Rock and Roll Circus version, specifically "You Are Forgiven", was used in the film). According to the commentary for the film, the Circus recording is owned as part of the package of Rolling Stones songs, and it was prohibitively expensive to include on the soundtrack album (which is, similarly, missing the Stones' song "I Am Waiting," used in the film).

A short tease of the final section, "You Are Forgiven", was used to end a concert at the Wembley Arena on 16 November 2000. That was the first time any part of the song was played live by The Who since 1970, until it was resumed in its entirety for the 2014 The Who Hits 50! tour. Pete Townshend played the song in its entirety on several dates of his 1993 PSYCHODERELICT solo tour.

The song was rehearsed for inclusion in The Who's 2006/2007 North American Tour, but was not part of any set list.

It is likely that the name of "Ivor the Engine Driver" was influenced by the UK TV series Ivor the Engine.

Background
As Pete Townshend showed producer Kit Lambert the songs he had demoed, one was a mock oratorio called "Gratis Amatis". Going from that, Lambert asked about a "pop opera" played more seriously, possibly inspired in the single "Happy Jack", so that it could fill the remaining space in the upcoming and lead into a quick release. Taking "quickly" as the primary order, Townshend came to the title A Quick One for the album and "A Quick One While He's Away" for a song he started to write inspired by his childhood experiences. Townshend reveals in his 2012 autobiography, Who I Am, that "A Quick One While He's Away" briefly refers to his molestation as a child, but not explicitly. "Ivor The Engine Driver" is said by Townshend to be a metaphor for the possible abuser. The "Her Man's Been Gone" section refers to Townshend's separation from his parents and spending time with his grandmother, Denny. The crying in the "Crying Town" portion is his own, for his parents to pick him up and to leave Denny, who is said by Townshend to have been the person who brought in unknown men into her home. The "little girl" referred to in his song is actually a make-believe "imaginary constant friend" and "twin girl who suffered every privation I suffered." The "You Are Forgiven" presents someone coming to Townshend's rescue: his mother. The lyric about sitting on Ivor the Engine Driver's lap "and later with him had a nap" also hints at what may have happened. The song ends with the verbal chant of "you are forgiven", which Townshend states that when The Who performed the song, he would always get into a frenzy. He states that those who were being forgiven was everyone referred to in the song's lyrics, including himself.

He told Mojo:
 * "The Who were not at their peak exactly, but with "the mini opera", we were just about starting to tap into something that became a complete obsession for me. Which was that when we played a hard-driving rock 'n' roll and brought in this slightly evangelical, hippy, spiritual thing – at the end of our piece, I'm shouting, "You are forgiven, you are forgiven, you are forgiven" – that there would be a kind of spiritual rush in the audience that was obviously there to be tapped into. Rock 'n' roll had always been below the belt stuff, and that was something else."

Live performance
The Who performed the song often after its release, but it was largely retired after 1970. Live versions of the song, such as that heard on the Live at Leeds album, contain some noticeable structural differences from the original. The second half of the "Ivor the Engine Driver" section ("better be nice to an old engine driver") was cut, and "Soon Be Home" was shortened substantially. The "You Are Forgiven" section, on the other hand, was extended, sometimes ending up as nearly half the song. Live, Townshend also frequently gave humorous introductions to the song.

Reception
Although never released as a single, "A Quick One, While He's Away" is widely regarded as one of the band's best songs. In 2012, Brian Tremml of Paste ranked "A Quick One, While He's Away" number seven on his list of the 20 greatest The Who songs, though a list of the 20 greatest The Who songs compiled by five Paste writers in 2023 did not include the song. In 2022, Rolling Stone ranked the song number four on their list of the 50 greatest The Who songs.

Covers
Graham Coxon performed the song in late 2004 at the Queens of Noize Christmas Party.

My Morning Jacket performed a cover of the song at the 2006 Bonnaroo Music Festival and on several European dates during their stint as an opening act for Pearl Jam in the same year, when the latter's frontman Eddie Vedder would join them on stage. One such occasion (9/19/06, PalaIsozaki, Torino) is documented as a bonus track on the DVD version of the Pearl Jam concert film Immagine in Cornice. My Morning Jacket covered the song again during the encore of night 4 of their 5-day concert series at New York City's Terminal 5 in 2010.

Islands song "In the Rushes" on their 2008 album Arm's Way includes the final section of the song.

Green Day recorded a cover that was included as a bonus track on deluxe editions of their album 21st Century Breakdown. They have also performed all six sections of the song at sound checks. The band performed the song in its entirety at their 28 July 2009 concert at New York City's Madison Square Garden, on 25 April 2010 at New York City's Bowery Electric as their side-project Foxboro Hot Tubs, on 24 August 2013 at the Leeds Festival and on 15 March 2014 at SXSW.

Saint Motel recorded a cover that was included on the 2014 album ''I Saved Latin! A Tribute to Wes Anderson''.

title: A Quick One, While He's Away


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Maya Island Air

Maya Island Air (also known as Maya Airways) is an airline with its head office on the second floor of Building #1 of Belize City Municipal Airport in Belize City, Belize. It operates regular scheduled flights to 11 destinations within Belize and chartered flights to Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. Its main base is the Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport.

History
The airline was formed and started operations in 1962 as Maya Airways. It was established to succeed the government-owned British Honduras Airways, a BWIA subsidiary, which had ceased operations in 1961. In December 1997 Maya Airways and Island Air merged to form Maya Island Air. In November 2007 all airlines from Belize lost their permission to land in Guatemala due to Guatemala's upgrade to category 1. Later on, Maya Island Air flew to Guatemala again. From July 8, 2009, to May 2011, it also flew Belize City-Cancun.

Destinations
Maya Island Air operates the following services (at November 2018):

 * Belize
 * Belize City (Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport and Belize City Municipal Airport)
 * Caye Caulker
 * Caye Chapel
 * Corozal
 * Dangriga
 * Placencia
 * Punta Gorda
 * San Pedro Town
 * Savannah Station (Stann Creek District)

Fleet
The Maya Island Air fleet consists of the following aircraft :
 * 3 Britten-Norman BN2A Islander
 * 1 Cessna 182S
 * 8 Cessna 208B Caravan
 * 1 Gippsland GA-8 Airvan

Accidents and incidents

 * December 4, 2007, a Maya Island Air Cessna 208B Caravan V3-HFS was taking off from Corozal Airport for a flight to San Pedro Airport, when the pilots aborted takeoff but were not able to stop the airplane on the remaining runway. The Grand Caravan struck a barbed wire fence and ran into several orange trees before coming to a halt some 520 feet beyond the runway. The undercarriage was sheared off and the airplane sustained substantial damage to the belly. None of the 12 passengers and crew were killed or injured in the accident.

title: Maya Island Air


text:
Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Disney fireworks

Disney fireworks

A little something I took at Disney- →Raul654 22:29, Apr 8, 2005 (UTC) +1 / -8 -- Solipsist 06:48, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Nominate and support. →Raul654 22:29, Apr 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose - blurry fireworks, mediocre composition. Lupin 00:24, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose Much too much camera movement. Denni ☯ 02:27, 2005 Apr 9 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Moving fireworks are likely to be blurry, but I would've liked to see at least the castle in focus. Mgm|(talk) 17:16, Apr 9, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose- Enjoyable pic but too much blur for Featured status - Adrian Pingstone 09:22, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose -- Just not striking enough. - Longhair | Talk 16:07, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose Not enough fire in the fireworks for my taste. TomStar81 05:10, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Mediocre photo, fireworks not in focus. - Sango  123  23:45, Apr 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Jonas Olson 20:28, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)


text: Category:Airlines of Belize

title: Category:Airlines of Belize


text:
Talk:Salon des Indépendants

stuff to add

 * founded by Odilon Redon, Paul Signac and Georges Seurat. I don't know when. --sparkit 03:31, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Redirect & merge this page
The Paris society of independant artists -Société des Artistes Indépendants- stages annual exhibitions since 1884. But these were never a Salon, though called so variously. There is a separate page for this society. Both should be merged, and the Salon ... deleted. There was no such thing. --R.P.D. 02:13, 6 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Content of this page is transfered and merged to Société des Artistes Indépendants, see discussion there. --RPD 20:53, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Salon des Indépendants


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Stoltenberg (surname)

Stoltenberg is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Gerhard Stoltenberg (1928–2001), German politician and prime minister of Schleswig-Holstein
 * Thorvald Stoltenberg (1931-2018), Norwegian diplomat and cabinet member
 * Jens Stoltenberg (born 1959; son of Thorvald), 13th Secretary General of NATO
 * Donald Stoltenberg (1927–2016), American artist, author and teacher
 * John Stoltenberg (born 1944), American radical feminist activist and writer
 * Jason Stoltenberg (born 1970), Australian tennis player
 * Robert Stoltenberg (born 1965), Norwegian comedian
 * Abdi Farah Mude Stoltenberg, Somalian politician

title: Stoltenberg (surname)


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Combat uniform

A combat uniform, also called field uniform, battledress or military fatigues, is a casual type of uniform used by military, police, fire and other public uniformed services for everyday fieldwork and combat duty purposes, as opposed to dress uniforms worn in functions and parades. It generally consists of a jacket, trousers and shirt or T-shirt, all cut to be looser and more comfortable than more formal uniforms. Design may depend on regiment or service branch, e.g. army, navy, air force, marines, etc. In the army branches, fabrics tend to come in camouflage, disruptive pattern or else green, brown or khaki monochrome, in order to approximate the background and make the soldier less visible in nature. In Western dress codes, field uniform is considered equivalent to civilian casual wear. As such, field uniform is considered less formal than service dress uniform, generally aimed at office or staff use, as well as mess dress uniform, and full dress uniform.

The British Indian Army in the mid 19th century were the first to use drab cotton uniforms for battle; they were first worn by the Corps of Guides in 1848 where the colour of drab light-brown uniform was called khaki by Indian troops. The first purpose-made and widely issued contemporary military camouflage fabric was for half-shelters by the Italian Army after the First World War. Germany was the first to use such shelter fabric for uniforms for their paratroopers, and by the war's end both various German as well as the older Italian fabric was widely used for camouflage uniforms. Most nations developed camouflage uniforms during the Second World War, initially only issued to "elite" units and then gradually to all armed forces.

Terminology
In British English, battledress is often the preferred name. In American English, the term fatigues has often been used by the Army, or "utilities" by the Marines, originally being a term for work uniforms. Now, the term BDUs ("battle dress uniforms") is the more often-used term.

Australia
Australia generally followed British-style uniforms for its Armed forces, however did not adopt British Battledress during World War II, unlike other Commonwealth countries. Instead Australia continued to use a slightly updated version of the uniform worn during World War I. This uniform was also worn into the Korean War. Following service with the 28th Commonwealth Division in Malaya and Borneo, Australia adopted "Jungle Greens" for all field wear eventually modifying the uniform during the Vietnam War with slanted pockets and with the blouse to be worn outside of the trousers, similar to U.S. "Jungle fatigues" (the forerunner of the U.S. Battle Dress Uniform) which also first appeared in Vietnam. The modified JGs were colloquially called the "Pixie suit." JGs were worn through the 1970s and until the adoption of Australia's own camouflage pattern called Disruptive Pattern Combat Uniform (more commonly called DPCU or Auscam) introduced from 1982. There was also multiple patterns based off DPCU, including the Disruptive Pattern Desert Uniform, and a red/white version for OPFOR teams during combat exercises

The Australian Defence Force has, as of 2014, introduced the Australian Multicam Camouflage Uniform (AMCU) for Army and Air Force personnel engaged in warlike activities, and for Air Force field exercises. There is two main variants of AMCU available to AA and RAAF troops, the Field Uniform, the standard uniform cut seen since LAND125 Phase 4. It features 2 breast pockets, an epaulette on the chest, a pocket on either upper sleeve (where a unit patch and flag are attached with hook and loop fasteners), two front trouser pockets, 2 side zip pockets and a pocket to slip in kneepads. The AMCU Field variant is worn by the army as barracks dress. The second variation is the AMCU Combat Uniform. It features a knitted section around the torso for breathability under body armour, and 2 slanted sleeve pockets along with reduced amounts of pockets on the trousers to increase dexterity and breathability.

Canada
The first true battledress adopted by Canada for standard issue across the board was the khaki field uniform known as Service Dress, adopted in 1907. This was of a separate pattern from the British Service Dress adopted after the Boer War, and marked a departure in Canadian uniforms in that it was distinct from the scarlet/blue/rifle green uniforms traditionally worn to that point, the latter of which became "ceremonial" dress for parades and other functions apart from field training.

Until well into the Cold War era, the Canadian Army had worn battle dress uniforms similar to their British and Commonwealth counterparts, though with different national identifiers and regimental accoutrements (with Khaki Drill uniforms being worn in the summer or in tropical regions). In the early 1950s, battle dress began to be replaced with lightweight uniforms, at first Bush Dress for summer wear, and in the 1960s with a new combat dress, a set of olive drab garments more similar to the American style of combat wear (i.e. made up of layers and solely for wear in the field as opposed to all-purpose wool Battle Dress).

Service Dress (1907–1940)
Canadian pattern Service Dress worn by other ranks did not stand up to the rigors of campaigning, however, and was widely replaced by British uniforms in France; some samples of Canadian pattern SD were retained in Canada, and after the war, surviving to be issued briefly in 1939.

Officers wore a distinctive pattern of Service Dress (as did Warrant Officers I Class), which was identical to that worn by British officers; they were privately purchased, and of better quality than other ranks uniform. In combat in France and Flanders, they were often replaced on an individual basis by other ranks' Service Dress, making the officer less conspicuous to enemy snipers and soldiers.

Khaki Drill (1900–1949)
Khaki Drill was a series of different uniform patterns of light khaki cloth, generally cotton, first worn by Canadian soldiers in the Boer War and reserved for summer training in Canada, or for employment in tropical climates. Canada developed its own pattern after the First World War, and the uniform was commonly worn in Canada, with officers again having the option of finer garments privately purchased. In the Second World War, Canadians serving in Jamaica and Hong Kong wore Canadian pattern KD; the I Canadian Corps troops in Italy wore KD supplied in theatre by the British, generally of British, Indian or US (War Aid) manufacture.

Worn in tropics far beyond 1949. KD was still in issue and worn with either short or long trousers as parade dress. Jacket was replaced with shirt for normal barrack dress wear. Worn by all British units in Kenya until Dec 1964. Also in issue and worn by British Honduras Garrison and attached Infantry Company Group until at least 1968.

Battle Dress (1939–1970)
In 1939, the Battle Dress uniform was adopted as a field uniform; made of wool and patterned after British BD, Canadian uniforms were darker in color with a distinctive green tinge to the dark khaki color. Officers had the option of having BD tailored from better material, but in the field most wore "off the rack" BD, perhaps with a modified open collar. Service Dress was worn in 1939 and into 1940 by soldiers in Canada as field dress, and afterward was no longer issued except to a select few. While a new pattern of Service Dress was introduced for Other Ranks in this period, it was reserved for dress wear only. Battle Dress completely replaced SD as a field uniform beginning in 1940 as enough of the new uniforms became available.

A new pattern of BD was introduced in 1949, with an open collar matching that of British Pattern 1949 BD. The garment was worn as a field dress throughout the Korean War, and into the 1960s until replaced by the Combat uniform. Some Militia units used BD as a dress uniform until the early 1970s.

The US Army produced its own version of the BD blouse for issue to soldiers in Europe. Although most of these were produced in England, they were of a dark green color, rather than khaki. Called the ETO (European Theater of Operations) jacket, American soldiers dubbed it the Ike Jacket, after General Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Bush Dress (1950–1960)
Bush Dress was a series of dark green cotton uniforms, similar to KD clothing, which replaced those uniforms just prior to the Korean War. Like KD, Bush Dress was worn primarily as a field uniform. It was replaced by the Combat uniform in the 1960s.

Combats (1960–2000)
The green combat uniform became universal battledress in the 1960s, and was designed to be worn in any environment (though a tan coloured "tropical" version was worn during Operation Desert Storm and by the Airborne in Somalia).

The Canadian pattern combat uniform had angled pockets, designed to take magazines from the FN C1A1 battle rifle; a truly poor design of infantry load bearing equipment inspired this design – the 1964 Pattern Web Equipment had no ammunition pouches. The angled pockets are repeated on the new CADPAT uniform, though they are enlarged and not intended for ammunition carriage.

The Canadian combat uniform had a high nylon content, which had the potential for producing significant burns.

CADPAT (2000–present)
In Canada, battledress is referred to officially as "No. 5 Operational Dress", and in general parlance as "combat uniform" or "combats". The new Canadian Disruptive Pattern uniform is commonly called "CADPAT" to diffentiate it from the previous uniform called "combat". The term combat now refers to the old monochrome (single color) combat uniform.

Currently, the Canadian Forces use the four-colour CADPAT design, a computer-generated pixelated pattern issued in TW (temperate woodland) and AR (arid region) colours. Camouflage cloth of CADPAT pattern was created and adopted in 1995, used for issue helmet covers in 1997 and trousers and blouses in CADPAT began to replace the olive green combat uniform from 2001 when Canadian forces joined the UN peacekeepers in Bosnia-Hercegovina. The AR version was introduced when Canadian troops were deployed to Afghanistan. Previously, a tan version of the olive combats had been used for tropical wear by soldiers deployed to the Middle East, particularly during Operation Desert Storm and were to be worn by the Canadian Airborne Regiment (Cdn Ab Regt) for the (subsequently canceled) deployment the Western Sahara in 1991. They were later worn by the Cdn Ab Regt during their deployment to Somalia. The TAN colored combat uniform was also issued to Canadian troops serving in the Western Sahara with the UN Mission (MINURSO) during 1992–1993.

Specialised clothing
Specialised battledress was developed primarily during the Second World War, including the Denison smock – originally for parachutists but also adopted by snipers. Specialized jump clothing was perpetuated by the Canadian Airborne Regiment who wore distinctive disruptive-pattern jump smocks from 1975 until disbandment in 1995.

The Canadian Army has made extensive use of plain coveralls as a field uniform, commonly using khaki coveralls in the Second World War to save wear and tear on wool BD. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Canadian military adopted black coveralls which were often worn as combat dress, replacing them in the 1970s with rifle green coveralls. These were worn in the field in Canada by units in training but are also evident in photos of men deployed to West Germany during the Cold War, as armoured and mechanized units sometimes preferred to wear coveralls when carrying out maintenance.

Special patterns of AFV uniform were also worn beginning in the Second World War, initially black coveralls, later khaki coveralls as well as the padded "Pixie suit". Olive drab tanker's uniforms were adopted with the combat uniform in the 1960s, including a distinctive padded jacket with angled front zip.

France
From the middle of the 19th century until the end of the Second World War, French field uniforms for dismounted troops were based on a kind of universal long coat called the capote and breeches, both made of woollen serge. For line infantry this greatcoat was worn buttoned back from the legs when on the march. Until the end of 1914 the capote was produced in dark blue cloth and the breeches were red (pantalon rouge). These highly visible uniforms were replaced in early 1915 by light blue/grey (bleu horizon) uniforms for metropolitan troops and khaki for colonial troops. In 1921, the French army decided to replace the bleu horizon with khaki. Because of large surplus stocks built up during the war, this measure was not fully effective until 1937. However, during the Phoney War of 1939-40 some third-line troops were still equipped with bleu horizon uniforms.

After the defeat, the French army went on wearing 1940 uniforms, in particular in the armée d'Afrique (Army of Africa). Some new equipment was introduced by Vichy for the "armistice army" limited to 100,000 soldiers on French soil. The old French uniforms were progressively replaced in the Free French forces by much more modern British or American uniforms, which were progressively withdrawn but still in use until the end of the fifties.

Cold War era
The first French battledress was introduced in 1945 and was made of a heavy cotton duck, sometimes taken from old German stocks and based on the same design as the British 1937 pattern.

The French army introduced a new woolen serge model in 1946 looking like the British 1937 pattern but with exposed buttons. Although it was intended to be a field uniform, it was mainly used as a winter walking-out uniform until the late 1950s. However, the armée de l'air used it in its dark blue version, until 2010.

A proper cotton combat uniform was introduced in 1947 (Modèle 47) based on a jacket inspired by the US 1943 pattern and loose trousers with two big cargo pockets on each side of the thighs. The same year, a special uniform, also called Modèle 47 was issued to airborne units composed of a large jacket with two breast and two hip cargo pockets. Originally, both "Modèle 47"s were issued in khaki. From 1951 on, the paratroopers' uniform and, in a lesser proportion, the standard Modèle 47 were issued in a three-colour camouflage pattern which gave the uniform the nickname tenue léopard (leopard uniform), but became better known as the TAP47 lizard pattern. It was issued in many colour variants (colourways), saw war service in Indochina and in North-Africa, and was frequently copied by nations in those areas.

The last official issue was the 1956 variant, but its use continued until the end of the war in Algeria. The tenue léopard was a symbol of elite units and was issued only to Foreign Legion and French airborne units. Therefore, it was withdrawn in 1962—officially, to give a standard uniform to the whole of the French army but, less officially, to punish those elite troops which had not behaved well during the conflict. The Modèle 1947 paratroopers uniform continued to be produced in grey-green material (water repellent and herringbone) until 1969, when it was replaced by the Modèle 1964. On another side, the camouflaged uniform was still in use by the French forces in overseas territories until the end of the 1980s; a huge quantity of them was then handed over to Portugal and Israel.

The French army received a new standard battle dress in 1964, roughly based on the principles of the 1947 pattern, but much closer to the body, with zipped breast pockets and made of water repellent grey-green infrared proof material called Satin 300 to protect soldiers against nuclear and chemical agents. Because of a budget shortage at the beginning of the 1980s, this uniform was made of much lighter but much more fragile herringbone material under the name F1. A new variant under the name F2 was introduced at the end of the eighties made of a much stronger material. F1 uniforms were mainly sent to overseas territories.

1990s to present
In the 1980s, research results were rejected, because of the similarity to German flecktarn. In 1994, a new four colour camouflage called "Camouflage Central-Europe" and close to the American woodland pattern was adopted and progressively introduced for troops in ex-Yugoslavia. F2 battle dress were produced in camouflaged water repellent or herringbone material from this instant on.

In 1990, desert camouflage was introduced during the Gulf War and F2 battle dress were produced in a hurried effort in a three-colour "Daguet" desert pattern.

In 2012 a redesigned Centre Europe version called T4 Serie 2 is slowly replacing the original F2 cut style. it keeps the same pattern and colors but has a wider cut for more comfort and ease of movements, it has improved pockets placement for body armor use and a more resistant fabric (Rip-Stop).The new uniform is planned in 2 different pattern : Centre Europe (Woodland) and Arid (Desert 'Daguet' style)

Germany
The feldgrau ("field grey") colouring was adopted by the German Empire in 1910.

World War II
Nazi Germany funded a great deal of research on camouflage uniforms, investigating many patterns including NIR camouflage. After much trial the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, in 1938, issued the basic four-colour "plane tree" pattern (Platanenmuster) of Schick and Schmid in the form of camouflage smocks to units of the Waffen SS. The three-colour disruptive Splittermuster, more commonly known in English as 'splinter pattern', was issued to the army beginning before the war, in the form of camouflaged tent quarters (zeltbahn) which was reversible, with a splinter pattern in dark colours on one side, and light coloured on the other.

From 1942, a year after the Luftwaffe started producing jump smocks in this pattern, a variety of helmet covers and camouflage smocks were adopted for the army. A distinctive variant of splinter pattern camouflage was introduced midway through the war, a blurry marsh pattern (Sumpfmuster) referred to as "tan water pattern" in English by collectors. During the war, additional SS variants including "palm", "smoke", and "oak leaf" were introduced, in spring and autumn colours. By 1944 the complex "peas" pattern (Erbsenmuster) was also used by the Waffen SS issued as standard, in tunic and trouser combinations, but never in smocks or caps. Initially, camouflage had been a sign of elite troops and the SS continued this differentiation by using its own distinctive patterns.

In 1941, during the winter on the Eastern Front, German troops were at a considerable disadvantage because they lacked winter camouflage. In 1945, a five-colour Leibermuster design was introduced. Intended to be used by all the armed forces, it was layered to improve effectiveness at distance, used a new print method to reduce obvious repetition, and included NIR protection. Due to the distribution situation, it was issued to eastern units only. After WW2, this became the standard camouflage pattern for the Swiss armed forces.

Post-war
In the 1950s, West Germany's Bundeswehr used two versions of the wartime "splinter", a four-colour pattern called BV-Splittermuster. Thereafter, from 1961 until 1990 they used the so-called olive-green battle dress. Following various trials, the dots-and-blotches five-colour Flecktarn pattern was chosen in 1976 and issued from the mid-1980s. Reserve forces remained in old olive-green battle dress as late as 1994.

East Germany's Nationale Volksarmee first pattern was the 1956 Russisches Tarnmuster based, as the name suggests, on the Soviet "amoeba" designs. It was soon replaced by the four-colour Flächentarnmuster pattern (sometimes called "potato" or "splotch"). In 1965, the dense straight-line two-colour Strichmuster pattern was introduced, sometimes called "ein Strich – kein Strich", it remained in use until reunification.

Flecktarn was made the pattern for the unified country in 1990. Tropentarn is the desert variant of Flecktarn.

Multitarn
In 2016, tests were conducted by the Research Institute of materials and property of the Bundeswehr (Wehrwissenschaftliche Institut für Werk- und Betriebsstoffe – WIWeB) on a new pattern designated Multitarn as a potential replacement for flecktarn. The pattern is a six-color fleck pattern with similar colors to Crye Precision MultiCam which has seen widespread adoption by many international special forces including the Bundeswehr Kommando Spezialkräfte (KSK).

The pattern is intended as a multi-terrain pattern, initially for use only by German special forces. The Bundeswehr initially expressed plans for adoption by multiple divisions of the Bundeswehr to complement existing flecktarn patterns but as of 2022 this has not occurred. Unlike with its previous Flecktarn patterns the Bundeswehr has taken strict measures over its property rights and distribution control to prevent unauthorized and illegal production of the pattern outside the Bundeswehr's authorized contractors.

Indonesia
In the Indonesian National Armed Forces, the combat uniform is known as "PDL" (Pakaian Dinas Lapangan; translated as Field uniform), and is categorized into five types, PDL I (No. 1), PDL II (No. 2), PDL II A (No. 2A), PDL III (No. 3), and PDL IV (No. 4). The general combat uniform of the Indonesian National Armed Forces uses the Disruptive Pattern Material (DPM), which was adopted in 1984. This pattern is sometimes called "Loreng Malvinas". Aside from general combat uniforms of the national armed forces, each branch also has its own specific camouflage pattern. Around the middle of 2011, the navy adopted a new camouflage design for ship crews. The design is known locally as Loreng Layar, or "sailing camouflage". The Air Force officially adopted a pixelated camouflage design utilizing black, grey, off-white, blue-grey and medium blue, on 5 October 2015, to mark the service's anniversary. It also incorporates (non-pixelated) images of aircraft into the pattern. On 2 March 2022, the army unveiled its combat uniform with a new camouflage pattern, called Loreng Angkatan Darat (Army camo pattern).

Units and formations within the armed forces such as the Kopassus, Raider Infantry, Kostrad, Marine Corps, Kopaska and Paskhas have their own distinctive camouflage pattern designs for their field uniforms which resemble their identity, but are only worn during special occasions such as military parades. Members of the armed forces who are assigned to the Garuda Contingent wear a desert variant of the DPM camouflage pattern.

Iran
There's an arctic blue camo for the Army air force, and a green and brown forest camo with splotches of electric blue for the Army Air Defence Force.

Italy
The Italian Army used grigio-verde in the Alps from 1906 and across the army from 1909. In 1929, the country was the first to mass-produce camouflage fabric, the three-colour telo mimetico pattern. It was initially used as shelter halves, and not issued as uniform until 1942.

The pattern remained in use after the war, moving through several colour variations. The marines adopted a complex five-colour "Mediterranean spray" pattern in the 1980s. In 1990, a new army pattern was introduced, a four-colour named "Vegetata"; a desert version was also issued from 1992.

Japan
The Japanese tried monochrome green during the 1905 conflict with Russia, but entered World War II with monochrome mustard khaki uniforms. Some were fitted with special loops to aid the attachment of natural vegetation.

The Japan Self-Defense Forces did not issue a pattern until the 1980s, choosing a four-colour green-and-brown design, sometimes called "fang". It was succeeded in 1991 by a dot pattern close to flecktarn, while during the Gulf War a six-colour pattern similar to the United States Desert Battle Dress Uniform was used.

New Zealand
Being of a Commonwealth country New Zealand's armed forces generally followed British-style uniforms for most of the 20th century, with New Zealanders adopting British Battledress during World War II and Korea, and British "Jungle Greens" in Malaya and Borneo while serving in the 28th Commonwealth Infantry Brigade. During the Vietnam War New Zealand forces wore Australian Jungle Greens. NZ Special Air Service (NZSAS) troopers wore U.S-issue BDUs in ERDL camouflage during Vietnam and thereafter until the adoption of camouflage for all branches of service in 1980.

British Disruptive Pattern Material camouflage was the basis of what eventually evolved into New Zealand disruptive pattern material which became the standard camouflage pattern for the New Zealand Defence Force from 1980 until 2013 when it was replaced by a New Zealand-only digital camouflage called New Zealand Multi Terrain Camouflage (NZMTP) by Canadian company Hyperstealth Biotechnology Corp. The pattern has since been officially replaced with Multi-Terrain Pattern by Crye Precision. Crye Precision's off-the-shelf Multicam pattern from which MTP is derived was used by NZ SAS forces in Afghanistan.

The cut of the New Zealand combat uniforms is similar to the modern U.S. Army Combat Uniform which entered into service in 2008.

Imperial era
The Imperial Russian Army fought mostly in dark green colours (introduced by Peter the Great in 1700), even if several branches (Life Guards regiments, dragoons, hussars and uhlans) dressed in distinctive and colourful attire. Cossack regiments were reported to use basic camouflage patterns and techniques during the Crimean War. Duller colours were used unofficially in the 1880s and again in 1905. The whole army began using khaki for field dress from 1908 on.

Soviet era
In the early 1930s, the Soviet Union developed one-piece coveralls and two-piece suits with a disruptive pattern of big amoeba-like spots, which, in conjunction with the baggy shape of the suit itself, were very effective in breaking the outline of the human silhouette. The two-piece suits were made to be worn over the uniform and gear, which could be accessed through the special slots (a design feature later employed by the Germans). The limited use of a two-colour disruptive "amoeba" pattern began in 1938. The "amoeba" remained in use until the 1950s.

The Soviet Union issued all-white winter camouflage in 1938. During World War II, other designs were tried, including "leaf" (1940) and the jagged three-colour "TTsMKK" (1944). Most troops remained in a monochrome brown.

Post-war Soviet camouflage remained a sign of elite units. A two-colour "sun-ray" pattern was used by paratroopers from 1969 and two- or three-colour versions were issued to Spetsnaz, KGB and MVD troops into the 1980s. The KLMK pattern was the first "digital" camouflage and it was issued to Spetsnaz troops and some Border guards units.

In the early 1980s a new brown and green pattern was introduced, the 3-TsV series, more commonly referred to as TTsKO. It was intended for the Soviet airborne and land forces, and remained in service until after the end of the Soviet Union. It was not seen by the west until 1985 during a military parade.

Modern Russia era
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a new pattern was developed as the standard field uniform. Issued from 1993, the three-colour green-brown-tan design in a vertical orientation was called VSR, or "Schofield" in the West. This was quickly superseded by the same basic pattern in a horizontal orientation, called 'flora', in 1998. Other widely used patterns in the 1990s were inspired by Western designs, notably the British DPM influenced the 'Smog' pattern, and U.S. Woodland pattern influenced the 'les' pattern. The elite forces maintain different patterns; MVD troops began using the four-colour "SMK" pattern in 1992 and other units wear a distinctive "reed" pattern. Versions of the "woodland" pattern also remain in use. In 2008, the Russian Armed Forces introduced a pixelated camouflage design intended to replace the VSR and Flora patterns. Officially called единая маскировочная расцветка (Edinaya maskirovochnaya rascvetka) or EMR, translating roughly as Unified Camouflage Coloration (in this sense the word "unified" refers to the fact that it is common to all the armed forces of Russia). The pattern is often referred to as Tsifra, Tetris or "digital flora." Several variations of this pattern have been produced, the most common of which is the leto (summer) variant incorporating tiny pixels of black, reddish-brown and foliage green on a pale green background. Other versions include sever (northern regions), zima (winter), and gorod (urban). Full-scale adoption began in 2011.

United Kingdom
From the late 17th century to the late 19th century, most British soldiers (red coats) fought in scarlet tunics. The adoption of scarlet was mainly for economic reasons. When Oliver Cromwell initially started forming the New Model Army, red was the cheapest dye available. Toward the end of the 19th century, however, as the nature of warfare moved away from close formation fighting to more individual fighting, it began to be recognised that this colour stood out too much. The move towards camouflage began in India, and khaki was used during the Indian rebellion of 1857. It became standard in India in 1885, for all foreign postings in 1896, and was adopted throughout the army in 1902 during the Second Boer War.

World War I

In 1902, the British Army introduced a khaki serge uniform known as Service Dress, featuring a pair of straight leg trousers and a jacket, featuring a stand-and-fall collar and four pockets, each secured by a single, usually brass, button. This was subtly altered in 1907, 1914 as well as during the inter-war period. In addition, a version existed for wear with sporrans, was cut away at the front. A separate version was used by officers, which had an open collar and was worn with a shirt and tie. Service Dress continued to be worn throughout the inter-war period and into the earlier part of the Second World War, when it was superseded by Battledress.

World War II
Battledress (BD), later called "No.5 Dress", was the official name for the standard working and fighting uniform worn by the British Army and the armies of other Imperial and Commonwealth countries in temperate climes from 1937 to the late 1960s. It was a pair of trousers and a close fitting short jacket Blouse made of khaki-coloured woollen cloth. Air force blue battledress was worn by the Royal Air Force, and Royal Navy shore parties wore a navy blue version. Camouflage dress was hand-painted for some specialists.

The Battle Dress design at the start of the war was the (19)37 Pattern. In 1942 it was replaced with the simpler made (19)40 Utility Pattern. This omitted finer details such as pleating on pockets. In both cases the blouse came in two forms, the ordinary ranks with closed neck and the officers open neck which exposed their shirt and tie. From 1942, the camouflaged Denison smock, originally issued to the Airborne forces to be worn over the BD, was issued more widely.

Tropical uniforms
In the early campaigns in North Africa and the Mediterranean theatre, British troops wore khaki drill (KD) shorts or slacks with long sleeved Aertex shirts. The paler shade of KD was more suited to desert or semi-desert regions than the dark khaki serge used in Battle dress. When the Allies moved up through Italy, however, two-piece khaki denim battledress overalls were increasingly preferred. By 1943, the KD shirt began to be replaced by a more durable cotton KD bush jacket. In the Far East, the British found themselves at war with the Japanese while equipped with the impractical KD uniform. Shirts and trousers had to be dyed green as a temporary expedient until more suitable jungle clothing became available. A new tropical uniform in Jungle Green (JG) was quickly developed – a JG Aertex battledress blouse, a JG Aertex bush jacket (as an alternative to the blouse) and battledress trousers in JG cotton drill. In the hot and humid conditions of Southeast Asia, JG darkened with sweat almost immediately.

Post-war
When the war in Europe was over, a new jungle uniform began to be produced for troops posted to the Far East. It was based on the U.S. Army Pacific theatre field uniform, with Aertex being rejected in favour of cotton drill. Although the jacket was similar to the U.S. design, the trousers maintained the battledress design, but with some features copied from American olive drab (OD) herringbone twill trousers. Newly available synthetic materials were utilised in one version of the new Olive Green (OG) uniform, as it was called.

The khaki Battledress was used until the late 1960s, and various uniform items in KD, JG and OG remained on issue to soldiers serving in the Mediterranean, Middle East or tropics after the war. By the end of the 1940s, however, stocks were becoming depleted, and a new 1950-pattern tropical uniform was made available in both KD. Shorts were worn with a bush jacket. Eventually the much more practical Gurkha regiments’ JG shirt was copied, replacing the 1950-pattern bush jacket. All the same, troops still sought out the older, wartime, issues of the better KD, JG and OG kit. While serving during the Korean War (1950–53), troops had found the existing combat uniform inadequate: It was too hot in the summertime, and not warm enough during the harsh Korean winters. Soldiers were at first issued JG for hot weather, and battledress in the wintertime, but this had to be augmented with additional warm clothing (often from the U.S. Army) as well as caps with ear flaps and fur linings. A solution was rapidly pursued, and towards the end of the Korean War a windproof and water-repellent gabardine combat uniform was issued. The trousers followed the tried and tested battledress design, while the bush jacket had several pockets inside and out, closing with zips and buttons, a hip length skirt with draw-strings to keep out the wind, and a similar arrangement at the waist. The uniform was produced in a greyish green colour (OG), similar to the U.S. Army OD.

With the end of National Service in 1961, the Army looked for a new uniform: Something that was smarter than battledress, but also more comfortable, while still having a military air about it. Using the Korean War combat clothing as a basis, various new items of field wear were developed for the 1960-pattern Combat Dress, which was well made, with a lining above the waist and reinforced elbows. The 1960s was a period of transition for the Army, and this was reflected in the changes that were taking place in soldier's uniform.

Formally classified as "No. 5 Dress", the 1949 pattern battledress began to be withdrawn from British Army use from 1961 on. With the general issue of the new service dress uniform for parade and off-duty ('walking out") wear, battledress was relegated to barracks wear from about 1962 and thereafter disappeared within individual units as stocks were used up. One final appearance was in Northern Ireland as a cold weather dress by the Gloucestershire Regiment in the winter of 1970.

DPM
The new, smaller, all-volunteer Army could also now afford to equip every soldier with his own camouflaged uniform, and following work at the Army Personnel Research Establishment (APRE) a four-colour camouflage pattern was designed in 1960. From 1969 it was issued in limited quantities on 1960-pattern jackets and trousers. Known as “Pattern 1960 DPM” (Disruptive Pattern Material), these items were soon superseded by the '68-Pattern, which had a very slightly revised camouflage design on a new uniform, featuring minor changes over the preceding 1960/66-Pattern kit, most notably: a full lining for jacket and trousers. It became official issue only in 1972.

The temperate clothing was followed by a DPM jungle combat uniform which, due to the use of different (i.e. polycotton) material, had a slightly different colourway.

The underlying pattern has remained through various different patterns of clothing but has differed in detail of the pattern and the colourway depending on the material and manufacturer. The DPM uniform was overhauled with the introduction of the Combat Soldier 95 system (CS95) in the mid 90s, which combined lightweight polycotton shirts and trousers similar to the old jungle uniforms with a combat jacket and breathable waterproof clothing.

Prior to the Gulf War, the stock of uniform in four-colour desert DPM of browns and tans had been sold to Iraq therefore a two-colour DPM version (light brown on tan) was issued to UK forces.

MultiCam
Since 2010 the British armed forces began phasing out DPM in favour of Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP). This pattern is based on the technology developed by Crye called MultiCam, which was rejected by the US Army in favour of the controversial ACU, but kept elements of the DPM pattern to create a more British Army look. MTP was brought in as a response to the Green Zone in Helmand, Afghanistan, where troops could move between typical desert conditions like those found in Iraq to lush green countryside during a routine patrol. The initial run of MTP was produced in CS95 cut and material, but the second run was produced in the new Personal Clothing System (PCS), closer to that used in the American ACU.

United States
The United States Armed Forces have adopted a variety of combat uniforms throughout their history, including the plain olive green OG-107. In the 1980s the OG-107 was replaced with the camouflaged Battle Dress Uniform (BDU). During that decade the Desert Battle Dress Uniform (DBDU) was introduced and remained until it was replaced in the 1990s by the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU).

Pixelated camouflage uniforms were introduced in the 2000s, including Airman Battle Uniform, Army Combat Uniform, Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform and the Navy Working Uniform. These replaced the BDU and the DCU.

title: Combat uniform


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Initiative for Policy Dialogue

The Initiative for Policy Dialogue (IPD) is a non-profit organization based at Columbia University in the United States.

IPD was founded in July 2000 by Joseph E. Stiglitz, with support of the Ford, Rockefeller, McArthur, and Mott Foundations and the Canadian and Swedish government, to enhance democratic processes for decision making in developing countries, to ensure that a broader range of alternative are on the table and more stakeholders are at the table.

The organization is a global network of more than 250 leading economists, political scientists, civil society representatives, and practitioners from all over the world with diverse backgrounds and views. IPD intends to help countries find solutions to pressing problems, and strengthen their institutions and civil societies.

Description
IPD helps developing countries explore the full range of economic solutions and move beyond the narrow range of policy alternatives currently at the center of international debate. The organization's approach is based on the recognition that all economic policies entail trade-offs that benefit some groups more than others, and there is no one set of policies that is best for all countries. IPD analyzes the trade-offs associated with different policies and provides governments and civil society with a framework for analysis. The programs improve the information available to the policy community, but leave the final decisions to the country's political process.

IPD emphasizes diverse participation and broad civic involvement in economic policymaking, and facilitates a more democratic discussion of development around the world. The organization's accessibly written publications, research, and public conferences enable more stakeholders to participate effectively in policy debates. IPD encourage public participation and improved access to information by webcasting many of their conferences, inviting civil society and local media, and training journalists in economics reporting. The programs facilitate the exchange of ideas, resulting in more informed dialogue and, they hope, improved economic policymaking.

IPD’s primary vehicles for outreach and collaboration are its task force, country dialogue, and journalism training programs.

Task forces
IPD task forces convene experts to study and write policy-oriented publications on complex, controversial economic issues such as transparency, governance, poverty, and environmental economics. IPD has launched over 20 task forces to date. The task forces are in the process of publishing overview chapters written for policymakers as part of a book series with Oxford University Press and Columbia University Press.

Country dialogues
IPD country dialogues allow IPD to bring its task force work directly to developing countries. Country dialogues foster an open and inclusive dialogue by convening diverse stakeholders such as senior government officials, opposition parties, NGO representatives, and academics to discuss economic policy options in the host country and improve the quality of official decision-making on economic policy issues.

Journalism training
The IPD journalism program helps strengthen journalists' economic literacy and equips them to report and write about the major economic issues confronting developing economies. With enhanced reporting and information, civil society is able to participate more effectively in the policymaking process.

IPD book series
IPD books delve deeper into alternatives for prevailing issues by examining the central issues in contention, as well as the impacts on different groups, the risks associated with each alternative, and an analysis and interpretation of the experiences of those who have tried each. These books are unique in that they are geared toward policymakers and civil society and are written as part of a collaborative process, bringing in voices from both the North and South. The books lay out policy options including the risks and trade offs inherent in each that allow for a more meaningful discourse.

Recent books

 * Stability with Growth ISBN 0-19-928814-3
 * Fair Trade for All: How Trade Can Promote Development ISBN 0-19-929090-3
 * Economic Development and Environmental Sustainability: New Policy Options ISBN 0-19-929800-9

title: Initiative for Policy Dialogue


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Seliger

Seliger is a name meaning "blessed man" in German and Yiddish. It may refer to:
 * Lake Seliger, Russia
 * Seliger Forum, a yearly Russian youth forum/camp at Lake Seliger
 * Seliger Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH (Berthold Seliger research and development society)
 * Seliger Rocket

Surname

 * Berthold Seliger, German rocket technical designer
 * Dirk Seliger, German author, illustrator and comic artist
 * Howard Harold Seliger (1924–2012), American physicist and biologist
 * Kel Seliger (born 1953), Texas state senator
 * Marc Seliger (born 1974), German ice hockey goaltender
 * Max Seliger (1865–1920), German painter

title: Seliger


text: User:SteveW/Desk

title: User:SteveW/Desk


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Cornus nuttallii

Cornus nuttallii, the Pacific dogwood, western dogwood, or mountain dogwood, is a species of dogwood tree native to western North America. The tree's name used by Hul'q'umi'num'-speaking nations is Kwi’txulhp.

Description
It is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, reaching 6–23 m tall, often with a canopy spread of 6 m. Its habit varies based on the level of sunlight; in full sun it will have a short trunk with a crown as wide as it is tall, while under a canopy it will have a tapered trunk with a short, slender crown. The trunk attains 15-30 cm in diameter. The bark is reddish brown.

The branches have fine hairs and the young bark is thin and smooth, becoming scale-like with ridges as it ages.

The leaves are opposite, simple, oval, 5-13 cm long, and 3.8-7.1 cm broad. They are green with stiff, appressed hairs on top, and hairier and lighter on the bottom. They turn orange to purplish in autumn.

The flowers are individually small and inconspicuous, 2-3 mm across, produced in a dense, rounded, greenish-white flower head 2 cm in diameter; the 4–8 large white 'petals' are actually bracts, each bract 4-7 cm long and broad, creating the appearance of a larger flower head. The flowers commonly bloom twice per season, once in the spring and again in late summer or early fall.

The fruit is a compound pink-red or orange drupe about 1-1.5 cm long, in clusters containing 20–40 drupelets, each of which contains two seeds. They appear in September or October.

Similar species
The eastern United States' Cornus florida (flowering dogwood) is similar in appearance and possibly in chemical composition. Cornus canadensis has similar blossoms but grows as a groundcover.

Etymology
In 1806, Meriwether Lewis noted that the species is similar in appearance to C. florida. However, when Scottish botanist David Douglas encountered C. nuttalli on his expedition to the Pacific Northwest in the 1820s, he mistook it for C. florida and did not send seeds back to England.

English botanist Thomas Nuttall was the first to describe the species for science while staying at Fort Vancouver in the autumn of 1834. It was named nuttallii after him by his friend John James Audubon.

The common names comes from that of Cornus sanguinea, the hard wood of which Northern Europeans used to make nails ("dags") during the medieval era.

Distribution and habitat
It occurs from the lowlands of southern British Columbia to the mountains of southern California. There exists an inland population in central Idaho, where it is considered critically imperiled. It occurs predominantly below 1500 m in elevation.

Cultivated examples are found as far north as Haida Gwaii.

It has high flood tolerance, and is common along streams with moist but well-drained soils, often on gentle slopes. Soil composition can range from clay to sandy loam, and it prefers a high humus content, moderate to high nutrient levels, and acidic soils with a pH from 5.5 to 6. It has low frost tolerance, and is usually found in low-elevation temperate or mesothermal climates. It is hardy to USDA zone 7.

Value to animals
New sprouts are good browse for both wild and domesticated ungulates, especially after a recent fire, but the mature foliage is usually ignored by all species except slugs.

The fruit are eaten by deer mice, pileated woodpeckers, the band-tailed pigeon, and bears.

It provides habitat and cover to small birds such as Wilson's warbler, and small mammals including the red tree vole.

Diseases
Like the related Cornus florida, it is very susceptible to dogwood anthracnose, a disease caused by the fungus Discula destructiva. Fungal activity is greatest from May to July, although it can be active any time conditions are moist and the plant is growing. Infected leaves become blotched and drop, and defoliation can be extreme. Twigs and leaf buds are also impacted. This has killed many of the larger plants in the wild and has also restricted its use as an ornamental tree, to the point where it is considered threatening to the species in its native range.

Successional status
It is present in all stages of both primary and secondary succession – from new colonization on glacial outwash or areas destroyed by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, to late seral and even climax communities. It is shade tolerant but prefers sunlight in sufficiently humid conditions.

It is adapted to a wide variety of fire regimes, with intervals ranging from just one year on dry sites, to 500 years or more in moist, riparian zones. The tree can survive low severity wildfires which are not hot enough to kill buds protected by bark. After being severely burned, Cornus nuttali typically resprouts from the root crown – however, the resulting shoots are so palatable to mule deer that they are at risk of being killed by over-browsing.

Uses
Some Plateau Indian tribes such as the Nlaka'pamux used the bark as a brown dye. Those groups also used the bark for medicinal purposes as a blood purifier, lung strengthener, stomach treatment, laxative, and emetic.

The berries are edible by humans, though not very palatable.

It is mostly prized as a cultivated ornamental.

Culture
It has been the provincial flower of British Columbia since 1956. It was once protected by law in the province (in an act which also protected Rhododendron macrophyllum and Trillium ovatum), but this was repealed in 2002.

title: Cornus nuttallii


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USS McCormick

USS McCormick (DD-223/AG-118) was a Clemson-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War II. She was named for Lieutenant, junior grade Alexander McCormick, Jr.

Construction and commissioning
McCormick was laid down 11 August 1919 by William Cramp & Sons; launched 14 February 1920; sponsored by Miss Katherine McCormick, sister of Lieutenant (jg.) McCormick; and commissioned 30 August 1920.

Service history
Following shakedown, McCormick served a year with Destroyer Squadron 5, Pacific Fleet. She then returned to the United States East Coast for deployment with Destroyer Detachment, U. S. Naval Forces in European Waters. There she served in a quasi-diplomatic capacity in the eastern Mediterranean until the spring of 1924, after successful negotiations for a peace treaty between the Allies and Turkey.

The following year, she was assigned to the Asiatic Fleet. Operating from Cavite, she served as flagship for DesDiv 39, later 14, in support of the Yangtze River Patrol and South China Patrol until 1932. On 15 March she was ordered back to the United States and home ported at San Diego, where she decommissioned 14 October 1938.

World War II
The following year, as hostilities in Europe broke out; McCormick was brought out of the Inactive Reserve. Recommissioned 26 September 1939, she was assigned to Neutrality Patrol in the Atlantic. The entry of the U.S. into the worldwide conflict brought only an increase in antisubmarine activities for the destroyer as she continued her voyages to Iceland and across the Atlantic.

Through the end of 1942, McCormick plied the North Atlantic on runs to Halifax, NS Argentia, and Londonderry Port. Shifting southward, 7 February 1943, she escorted convoys bound for Casablanca. On 12 July, on a return voyage, USS Santee (CVE-29), providing air cover for the convoy, was relieved by USS Core (CVE-13). But before Santee departed the area, four U-boats were discovered in the convoy's vicinity. For the next 4 days, planes from the carriers scouted and destroyed all four: Santee, USS Hovey (DD-208) GS U-160 (1941) on the 14th and GS U-509 on the 15th; Core, GS U-487 on the 13th and GS U-67 (1940) on the 16th. On the last date, McCormick picked up three survivors from U-67 for later transferral.

McCormick returned to New York 24 July and continued to escort convoys until 5 December. She then joined USS Croatan (CVE-25), TG 27.4, for a quick voyage to Casablanca and back, before overhaul at New York.

The destroyer's next assignment sent her to Natal, Brazil, and then Casablanca, escorting USS Albemarle (AV-5). On 1 April 1944, she was ordered to Boston, Massachusetts to resume escort and antisubmarine patrol duties. In May, McCormick returned to transatlantic convoy duty with a run to North Africa. During the next 4 months, she touched at various ports, including Bizerte, Oran, Cherbourg, Falmouth, Belfast, and Milford Haven. Upon her return to Boston, 1 October, she spent 3 months in convoy and patrol operations off the U.S. East Coast and in the Caribbean before shifting back to the Casablanca run in January 1945.

Auxiliary service
On 31 March, McCormick departed Norfolk for temporary duty with SubRon 3 at Balboa, Panama Canal Zone. On 30 June 1945, she was reclassified miscellaneous auxiliary, AG-118, while at the Canal Zone. Two weeks later, she got underway for overhaul at Boston, arriving 21 July. Still undergoing repairs when peace came, McCormick decommissioned 4 October 1945. Her name was struck from the Navy list 24 October 1945 and her hulk was sold for scrapping to Boston Metals Company, Baltimore, Maryland, 15 December 1946.

As of 2005, no other U.S. Navy ship has been named McCormick. The USS Lynde McCormick DDG(8), a Charles F. Adams-Class destroyer was commissioned June 3, 1961. It was named after Admiral Lynde D. McCormick.

title: USS McCormick