text:
James Pittendrigh Macgillivray

James Pittendrigh MacGillivray (1856 – 29 April 1938) was a Scottish sculptor. He was also a keen artist, musician and poet. He was born in Inverurie, Aberdeenshire, the son of a sculptor, and studied under William Brodie and John Mossman. His works include public statues of Robert Burns in Irvine, Lord Byron in Aberdeen, the 3rd Marquess of Bute in Cardiff, John Knox in Edinburgh's St Giles Cathedral, and William Ewart Gladstone in Coates Crescent Gardens, Edinburgh.

After training under Brodie in Edinburgh, Macgillivray worked for nine years in Glasgow as assistant to Mossman and James Steel. In 1894 he returned to Edinburgh, where he lived at "Ravelston Elms" on Murrayfield Road.

Macgillivray was a Scottish nationalist, and associated both with Patrick Geddes' Fin de Siècle Scottish cultural revival and Hugh MacDiarmid's later Scottish Renaissance movement. He contributed illustrations to the Spring and Autumn volumes of The Evergreen: A Northern Seasonal published by Patrick Geddes and Colleagues in Edinburgh in 1895. He became a member of the Scottish Arts Club in the late 1890s.

His work was influenced greatly by Pictish designs, and these are on display in Perth. Alloway village hall contains his sculpture of Robert Burns.

He became a member of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1901 and designed the Academicians' robes. He was appointed the King's Sculptor in Ordinary for Scotland in 1921. He was influential in the development of Arts teaching in Scotland, being associated with the establishment of Edinburgh College of Art. In 1904 he wrote a Special Report on the Schools of Art in Scotland and in 1906 a report on the creation of a Municipal Art School in Edinburgh, drawing on his knowledge of practice in Brussels, Berlin and Paris.

MacGillivray also published two volumes of poetry in Scots – Pro Patria in 1915 and Bog Myrtle and Peat Reek in 1922.

He was a member of Glasgow Art Club for over fifty years, closely associating himself with the Glasgow Boys. On the evening of 28 October 1932 the Club hosted a dinner in his honour (with fellow honoree fellow club member James B. Anderson ARSA.) He was also a co-founder with James Paterson, E.A. Hornel and George Henry of "The Scottish Arts Review".

He is buried in the tiny Gogar Kirkyard, close to the Royal Bank of Scotland headquarters at Gogarburn, with his wife Frieda who died in 1910. The grave is of his own design, depicting them side by side. Their daughters Ina MacGillivray (1887–1917) and Ehrna (1892–1966) are buried with them.

Pupils
Pupils include sculptor Ottilie Maclaren Wallace.

Notable works

 * Statue of David Livingstone in Cathedral Square, Glasgow (1875) as assistant to main sculptor:John Mossman
 * Statue of Thomas Campbell (poet) in George Square Glasgow (1875–77) still as assistant to John Mossman the main sculptor.
 * Portrait bust of Joseph Crawhall, one of the "Glasgow Boys" (1881)
 * Figures over the inner loggia (west) on Glasgow City Chambers (1886)
 * Monument to Peter Stewart, engineer, in Glasgow Necropolis (1887)
 * Monument to Alexander McCall in Glasgow Necropolis (1888)
 * Monument to Margaret and Annie Brown in Cathcart Cemetery, Cathcart, Glasgow (1888)
 * Bust of Rev James Shanks in Maryhill Parish Church (1889) (demolished 1998)
 * Typanum relief group on Anderson's Medical College, 56 Dumbarton Road, Partick (1889–1890) (commissioned by James Sellars its architect. This depicts the 16th century physician Peter Lowe with his students. plus a pair of winged figures.
 * Monument to Annie Greenhill in Glasgow Necropolis (1889)
 * Portrait bust of Thomas Carlyle (1889)
 * Monument to Sir James Robertson in Glasgow Necropolis (1889)
 * Figures of the Engineer and Shipwright on Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Office (1890)
 * Monument to James Sellars architect and his friend, Lambhill Cemetery, Glasgow (1890) his bronze relief portrait was sadly stolen.
 * Medallion of Peter Lowe in Glasgow Cathedral (1893)
 * Portrait bust in white marble of Saul Solomon, Cape Colony MP and businessman, in the Parliament of South Africa, Cape Town (1893)
 * Huge monument to Alexander Allan and his family, Glasgow Necropolis (1894–99) granite sections by Alexander McDonald of Aberdeen
 * Statue of Robert Burns in Irvine (1895)
 * Medallion of Edward Caird in Glasgow University (1897)
 * Bust of Prof David Masson, Old College, University of Edinburgh (1897)
 * Monument to James Hedderwick, Glasgow Cathedral (1901)
 * Livingstone Medal of Royal Scottish Geographical Society (1901)
 * Reclining marble effigy of James Francis Montgomery in St Mary's Episcopal Cathedral, Edinburgh (1902)
 * Statue of Lord Byron in Aberdeen (1902)
 * William Gladstone Memorial in Edinburgh (1902) assisted by William Shirreffs and (briefly) Louis Deuchars
 * Statue of John Knox in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh (1902)
 * Statue of the 3rd Marquess of Bute in Cardiff (1902)
 * Portrait medallion of Henry Drummond (evangelist) on the Henry Drummond Memorial Fountain at Kelvingrove Park Gates (1902...now lost)
 * Sculpted figures on Dumfries Public Library (1904)
 * Medallion of Henry Drummond (evangelist) in the Free Church College, Edinburgh (1905)
 * Portrait head in low relief of Margaret Oliphant (1828–1897) St Giles Cathedral (1908)
 * Grave for his wife Frieda in Gogar Churchyard (1910)
 * Robert Rowand Anderson, Scottish National Portrait Gallery (1921)

title: James Pittendrigh Macgillivray


text:
Edward Tryon

Edward P. Tryon (September 4, 1940 – December 11, 2019) was an American scientist and a professor emeritus of physics at Hunter College of the City University of New York (CUNY). He was the first physicist to propose that our universe originated as a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum.

Early life
Tryon was born and raised in Terre Haute, Indiana. He took his first physics course in his junior year at Wiley High School.

Academia and intellectual influences
Tryon entered Cornell University in 1958. He was influenced by Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe, who was one of his professors. He was especially affected by advice that Bethe gave him: "Our intuition is based on our experiences in the macroscopic world. There is no reason to expect our intuition to be valid for microscopic phenomena." He graduated from Cornell University in 1962, earning a bachelor's degree in physics. He would then go on to do his graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley. There he was very much influenced by Steven Weinberg. He took courses taught by Weinberg, who would later become a mentor to him. His doctoral thesis focused on the relationship between general relativity and quantum field theory and was titled: "Classical and Quantum Field-Theoretic Derivations of Gravitational Theory." He graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a PhD in physics in 1967.

Dennis Sciama and the idea that the universe is a vacuum fluctuation
In 1969, (some versions of this story say 1970), Tryon was at a lecture taking place at Columbia University being given by British cosmologist Dennis Sciama. And when Sciama paused for a moment in his speaking, Tryon suddenly said out loud: "Maybe the universe is a vacuum fluctuation?" Everyone laughed, assuming it was a joke. Embarrassed, he did not explain to anyone that this was not the case. Tryon says he only remembered this incident after he was reminded of it when he published a paper about this subject matter.

Career
Tryon's specialization is in theoretical quark models, theoretical general relativity, and cosmology. In 1973, he proposed that the universe is a large-scale quantum fluctuation in vacuum energy. This is called vacuum genesis or the zero-energy universe hypothesis. He has been quoted as saying, "the universe is simply one of those things that happens from time to time."

In 1967, he began working at Columbia University as a research assistant. In 1968 he began working as an assistant professor and worked there until 1971.

Tryon left Columbia University in 1971 and began working at Hunter College of the City University of New York, where he spent the rest of his academic career teaching as a professor.

Is the universe a vacuum fluctuation?
In the early 1970s, most physicists believed that, within the boundaries of science, one could not speak about what came before the Big Bang. It was almost universally accepted that no scientist could explain why there is something and not nothing. This was the scientific climate as Tryon was settling into working at Hunter College. But soon after arriving he found himself in a writing project that he thought required him to do an exhaustive study of how modern science perceives our universe. In studying the many ways cosmologists see our universe, he thought he had discovered a totally new way that it might have come into existence. He then wrote his idea up as a scientific paper and tried to get it published. He submitted it to Physical Review Letters, but they rejected it. He then sent it to the British scientific journal Nature, hoping it might be accepted as a "letter to the editor". An editor from the journal did not just accept it, but decided to make it a feature article.

The paper appeared in Nature in December, 1973, with the title: "Is the Universe a Vacuum Fluctuation?" It proposed the idea that our universe had originated from a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum. The cosmologist Alexander Vilenkin said of the paper: "Now, what Tryon was suggesting was that our entire universe, with its vast amount of matter, was a huge quantum fluctuation, which somehow failed to disappear for more than ten billion years." Physicist Alan Guth made this comment about the paper: "In his controversial two-page paper, Tryon advanced the startling proposal that on rare occasions, whole universes might materialize from the vacuum, and our universe may have begun this way." This was the first time any scientist had used science to try to explain how our universe may have originated from nothing.

In his paper, Tryon first deals with the idea of how our universe could have come from nothing and yet respect the laws of physics. Following the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Tryon needed to assert that our universe could come from nothing without breaking this law of the conservation of energy. He theorized that all the positive energy from mass and all the negative energy from gravity cancel, giving a universe with zero energy. Tryon gives credit for learning this idea from the general relativist Peter Bergmann. The person who first proposed the idea that we might live in a universe with zero net energy because positive energy from mass cancels the negative energy from gravity was the physicist Richard C. Tolman. Because Tryon believed our universe has zero net energy, in his paper Tryon wrote: "If this be the case, then our Universe could have appeared from nowhere without violating any conservation laws."

Tryon then went on to describe how our universe could have come from a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum. He did this by simply applying the currently known scientific laws, including quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, to the era before our currently-known universe was present. Like many physicists he believed that a vacuum, or empty space, existed before our universe existed. According to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, an apparent vacuum with no matter can support vacuum fluctuations. At the quantum level, because of the uncertainty principle, the law of the conservation of energy can be broken for just a brief moment, causing virtual particles to pop in and out of existence. Tryon says virtual particles also existed in the vacuum that was here before our universe existed, and these quantum fluctuations from nothing (the vacuum) eventually led to one of these particles popping into existence and becoming our universe.

Tryon was not able to explain how one of these virtual particles grows to become a universe like ours, but he does say in his paper "that the laws of physics place no limit on the scale of vacuum fluctuations". He also mentions in his paper how "vacuum fluctuations of our Universe are probably quite rare".

Although Tryon was the first person to suggest that our universe developed from a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum, the German physicist Pascual Jordan was the first person to talk about how a star might be created from the vacuum by a quantum transition. In the 1930s a number of physicists were looking at how to explain how matter arose if we lived in a continual, eternal, universe. Jordan knew how a sun's mass positive energy could cancel out its gravitational negative energy, leaving a sun with zero energy. This led him to speculate what would prevent a quantum transition from the vacuum from creating a new sun. Jordan did not suggest that our universe could have come about by a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum, but rather how matter might be generated within an eternal universe.

In the early 1970s, the Ukrainian from Soviet Russia P. I. Fomin (Peter Ivanovych Fomin), seems to have independently come up with the idea that our universe could have arisen by a quantum process. However, he did not publish until 1975, almost two years after Tryon, so the scientific community gave Tryon credit for coming up with this idea first.

Tryon also believed that this quantum event had no purpose or cause. In essence, he was saying "that our universe could have originated in this way and emphasized such a creation event would not require a cause". This is why Tryon wrote: "In answer to the question of why it happened, I offer the modest proposal that our Universe is simply one of those things which happen from time to time".

Although Tryon's paper gives the impression that the mystery of where our universe originated is solved, it is not. His paper mentions how there is this "larger space in which our Universe is embedded," but this idea is given only a very vague and short description. Further, although Tryon proposed that our universe came into being from an accident allowed by the laws of physics, he does not indicate what created the laws of physics, leaving the mystery of the creation of the universe incompletely resolved.

Works

 * Tryon, Edward P. "Is the Universe a Vacuum Fluctuation?", in Nature, 246(1973), pp. 396–397.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edward Tryon


text:
Applied behavior analysis

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the science of behavior that incorporates the principles of respondent and operant conditioning (primarily) to change behavior of social significance with the aim to increase recipients' quality of life (QoL). ABA is the applied science of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism (or the philosophy of the science) and the experimental analysis of behavior (or basic experimental research).

The name applied behavior analysis has replaced behavior modification because the latter approach changed behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions and often relied on punishment-based techniques. In stark contrast, ABA supports contextually appropriate adaptive behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, known as the functional behavioral assessment. Further, the approach often seeks to leverage compassionate care to support socially acceptable alternatives for problem behaviors that adversely impact individuals' QoL. Although, service delivery providers commonly practice and implement empirically and socially validated intervention for individuals with autism, ABA is not solely intervention for individuals with autism. Notably, ABA has been applied to a wide range of other areas including space flight training, sports training, cancer detection and prevention, gun safety, diabetes research, environmental conservation, surgical skill training, neuroscience instruction, perspective-taking, problem solving, among others.

Traditional behavior modification has been criticized by individuals within the autism rights movement due to a perception that it emphasizes normalization instead of acceptance. Additionally, there is a history in some forms of behavior modification and its predecessors of using aversives, such as electric shocks. These practices do not align with the BACB Code of Ethics, which emphasizes dignity, respect, and the use of humane, evidence-based interventions. Such aversive methods are considered poor and inhumane practice, failing to uphold the ethical standards expected of modern applied behavior analysis.

Definition
ABA is an applied science devoted to developing procedures which will produce observable changes in behavior. It is to be distinguished from the experimental analysis of behavior, which focuses on basic experimental research, but it uses principles developed by such research, in particular operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behaviorism, treating thoughts, emotions, and other covert activity as behavior that is subject to the same rules as overt responses. This represents a shift away from methodological behaviorism, which restricts behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior modification.

Behavior analysts also emphasize that the science of behavior must be a natural science as opposed to a social science. As such, behavior analysts focus on the observable relationship of behavior with the environment, including antecedents and consequences, without resort to "hypothetical constructs".

History
The beginnings of ABA can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael's study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) that they published in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB). Ayllon and Michael were training the staff at a psychiatric hospital how to use a token economy based on the principles of operant conditioning for patients with schizophrenia and intellectual disability, which led to researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) in 1968.

A group of researchers at the University of Washington, including Donald Baer, Sidney W. Bijou, Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, Todd Risley, and Montrose Wolf, applied the principles of behavior analysis to manage the behavior of children and adolescents in juvenile detention centers and organize employees who required proper structure and management in businesses. In 1968, Baer, Bijou, Risley, Birnbrauer, Wolf, and James Sherman joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas, where they founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.

Notable graduate students from the University of Washington include Robert Wahler, James Sherman, and Ivar Lovaas. Lovaas established the UCLA Young Autism Project while teaching at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 1965, Lovaas published a series of articles that described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, and relied on the methods of errorless learning which was initially used by Charles Ferster to teach nonverbal children to speak. Lovaas also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life-threatening self-injury.

In 1987, Lovaas published the study, "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children". The experimental group in this study received an average of 40 hours per week in a 1:1 teaching setting at a table using errorless discrete trial training (DTT). The treatment is done at home with parents involved, and the curriculum is highly individualized with a heavy emphasis on teaching eye contact, fine and gross motor imitation, and language. The use of aversives and reinforcement were used to motivate learning and reduce non-desired behaviors. Early development of the therapy in the 1960s involved use of shocks and the withholding of food. By the time children were enrolled in this study, such aversives were abandoned, and a loud "no" or a slap to the thigh were used only as a last resort to reduce aggressive and self-stimulatory behaviors. The outcome of this study indicated 47% of the experimental group (9/19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis and were described as indistinguishable from their typical adolescent peers. This included passing education without assistance and forming and maintaining friendships. These gains were maintained as reported in the 1993 study, "Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment". Lovaas' work went on to be recognized by the US Surgeon General in 1999, and his research were replicated in university and private settings. The "Lovaas Method" went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI).

Over the years, "behavior analysis" gradually superseded "behavior modification"; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand the function of that behavior, what reinforcement histories (i.e., attention seeking, escape, sensory stimulation, etc.) promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior. This analysis is based on careful initial assessment of a behavior's function and a testing of methods that produce changes in behavior.

While ABA seems to be intrinsically linked to autism intervention, it is also used in a broad range of other situations. Recent notable areas of research in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis include autism, classroom instruction with typically developing students, pediatric feeding therapy, and substance use disorders. Other applications of ABA include applied animal behavior, consumer behavior analysis, forensic behavior analysis, behavioral medicine, behavioral neuroscience, clinical behavior analysis, organizational behavior management, schoolwide positive behavior support,   and contact desensitization for phobias.

Characteristics
Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA. It lists the following seven characteristics of ABA. Another resource for the characteristics of applied behavior analysis is the textbook Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures.
 * Applied: ABA focuses on the social significance of the behavior studied. For example, a non-applied researcher may study eating behavior because this research helps to clarify metabolic processes, whereas the applied researcher may study eating behavior in individuals who eat too little or too much, trying to change such behavior so that it is more acceptable to the persons involved. It is also based on trying to improve the everyday life of clients that are receiving it.
 * Behavioral: ABA is pragmatic; it asks how it is possible to get an individual to do something effectively. To answer this question, the behavior itself must be objectively measurable and observable. This is designed so that when someone is trying to determine a target behavior, it is able to be observed and understood by anyone. Verbal descriptions are treated as behavior in themselves, and not as substitutes for the behavior described.
 * Analytic: Behavior analysis is successful when the analyst understands and can manipulate the events that control a target behavior. This may be relatively easy to do in the lab, where a researcher is able to arrange the relevant events, but it is not always easy, or ethical, in an applied situation. In order to consider something to fall under the spectrum of analytic, it must demonstrate a functional relationship and it must be provable. Baer et al. outline two methods that may be used in applied settings to demonstrate control while maintaining ethical standards. These are the reversal design and the multiple baseline design. In the reversal design, the experimenter first measures the behavior of choice, introduces an intervention, and then measures the behavior again. Then, the intervention is removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured yet again. The intervention is effective to the extent that the behavior changes and then changes back in response to these manipulations. The multiple baseline method may be used for behaviors that seem irreversible. Here, several behaviors are measured and then the intervention is applied to each in turn. The effectiveness of the intervention is revealed by changes in just the behavior to which the intervention is being applied.
 * Technological: The description of analytic research must be clear and detailed, so that any competent researcher can repeat it accurately. The goal is to make sure that anyone can implement and understand what is being explained. Cooper et al. describe a good way to check this: Have a person trained in applied behavior analysis read the description and then act out the procedure in detail. If the person makes any mistakes or has to ask any questions then the description needs improvement.
 * Conceptually Systematic: Behavior analysis should not simply produce a list of effective interventions. Rather, to the extent possible, these methods should be grounded in the principles of applied behavioral analysis. This is aided by the use of theoretically meaningful terms, such as "secondary reinforcement" or "errorless discrimination" where appropriate.
 * Effective: Though analytic methods should be theoretically grounded, they must be effective. Interventions also must be relevant to the client and/or culture. An analyst must ask themselves if the intervention is working. The intervention must also contain a positive change. If an intervention does not produce a large enough effect for practical use, then the analysis has failed
 * Generality: Behavior analysts should aim for interventions that are generally applicable; the methods should work in different environments, apply to more than one specific behavior, and have long-lasting effects. This generalizability should be implemented from the very beginning of the intervention. When first starting a new intervention, it is a good idea for that to take place in a natural environment for the client.

Other proposed characteristics
In 2005, Heward et al. suggested the addition of the following five characteristics:
 * Accountable: To be accountable means that ABA must be able to demonstrate that its methods are effective. This requires the repeatedly measuring the effect of interventions (success, failure or no effect at all), and, if necessary, making changes that improve their effectiveness.
 * Public: The methods, results, and theoretical analyses of ABA must be published and open to scrutiny. There are no hidden treatments or mystical, metaphysical explanations.
 * Doable: To be generally useful, interventions should be available to a variety of individuals, who might be teachers, parents, therapists, or even those who wish to modify their own behavior. With proper planning and training, many interventions can be applied by almost anyone willing to invest the effort.
 * Empowering: ABA provides tools that give the practitioner feedback on the results of interventions. These allow clinicians to assess their skill level and build confidence in their effectiveness.
 * Optimistic: According to several leading authors, behavior analysts have cause to be optimistic that their efforts are socially worthwhile, for the following reasons:
 * The behaviors impacted by behavior analysis are largely determined by learning and controlled by manipulable aspects of the environment.
 * Practitioners can improve performance by direct and continuous measurements.
 * As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques with positive outcomes, they become more confident of future success.
 * The literature provides many examples of success in teaching individuals considered previously unteachable.

Use as therapy for autism
Although BCBA certification does not require any autism training, a large majority of ABA practitioners specialise in autism, and ABA itself is often mistakenly considered synonymous with therapy for autism. Practitioners often use ABA-based techniques to teach adaptive behaviors to, or diminish challenging behaviors presented by, individuals with autism.

Despite many years of research indicating that early intensive behavioral intervention—the traditional form of ABA that relies on discrete trial training—improves the intellectual performance of those with ASD,  most of these studies lack random assignment and there is need for larger sample sizes. A 2018 Cochrane review of five controlled trials found weak evidence indicating that ABA may be effective for some autistic children, noting a high risk of bias in the studies included in the review. The effectiveness of ABA therapies for autism may be overall limited by diagnostic severity, age of intervention, and IQ.

In 2018, a Cochrane meta-analysis database concluded that some recent research is beginning to suggest that because of the heterology of ASD, there are two different ABA teaching approaches to acquiring spoken language: children with higher receptive language skills respond to 2.5 – 20 hours per week of the naturalistic approach, whereas children with lower receptive language skills require 25 hours per week of discrete trial training—the structured and intensive form of ABA. A 2023 multi-site randomized control trial study of 164 participants showed similar findings.

Quality of evidence
Conflicts of interest, methodological concerns, and a high risk of bias pervade most ABA studies. A 2019 meta-analysis noted that "methodological rigor remains a pressing concern" in research into ABA's use as therapy for autism; while the authors found some evidence in favour of behavioral interventions, the effects disappeared when they limited the scope of their review to randomized controlled trial designs and outcomes for which there was no risk of detection bias.

One study revealed extensive undisclosed conflicts of interest (COI) in published ABA studies. 84% of studies published in top behavioral journals over a period of one year had at least one author with a COI involving their employment, either as an ABA clinical provider or a training consultant to ABA clinical providers. However, only 2% of these studies disclosed the COI.

Low-quality evidence is likewise a concern in some research reporting on the potential harms of ABA on autistic children.

Another concern is that ABA research only measures behavior as a means of success, which has led to a lack of qualitative research about autistic experiences of ABA, a lack of research examining the internal effects of ABA and a lack of research for autistic children who are non-speaking or have comorbid intellectual disabilities (which is concerning considering this is one of the major populations that intensive ABA focuses on). Research is also lacking about whether ABA is effective long-term and very little longitudinal outcomes have been studied.

Ethical concerns
Researchers and advocates have denounced the ABA ethical code as too lenient, citing its failure to restrict or clarify the use of aversives, the absence of an autism or child development education requirement for ABA therapists, and its emphasis on parental consent rather than the consent of the person receiving services. This emphasis on parental consent stems from ABA viewing the parent as the client, a stance which has been criticized for centering benefits to the parent, not the child, in behavioral interventions. Numerous researchers have argued that ABA is abusive and can increase symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in patients. Some bioethicists argue that employing ABA violates the principles of justice and nonmaleficence and infringes on the autonomy of both autistic children and their parents.

Two studies surveying autistic adults who went through ABA as children found that most participants perceived ABA to have a detrimental impact on their lives, although in common with most ABA research, the studies had methodological concerns and a risk of bias. Two 2020 reviews found that very few studies directly reported on or investigated possible harms; although a significant number of studies mentioned adverse events in their analysis of why people withdrew from them, there was no effort to monitor or collect data on adverse outcomes.

Justin B. Leaf and others examined and responded to several of these criticisms of ABA in three papers published in 2018, 2019, and 2022, respectively, in which they questioned the evidence for such criticisms, concluding that the claim that all ABA is abusive has no basis in the published literature. Others have published similar responses.

Use of aversives
Lovaas incorporated aversives into some of the ABA practices he developed, including employing electric shocks, slapping, and shouting to modify undesirable behavior. Although the use of aversives in ABA became less common over time, and in 2012 their use was described as inconsistent with contemporary practice, aversives persisted in some ABA programs. In comments made in 2014 to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a clinician previously employed by the Judge Rotenberg Educational Center claimed that "all textbooks used for thorough training of applied behavior analysts include an overview of the principles of punishment, including the use of electrical brain stimulation."

Early studies on gay conversion therapy
In 1974, Lovaas co-authored a study with George Rekers, who ran a gay conversion therapy clinic at UCLA, on The Feminine Boy project, which used early behavior modification techniques to target boys' gender identities. Critics have drawn parallels between gay conversion therapy and Lovaas' argument that ABA makes "autistic children indistinguishable from their normal friends." Social worker and researcher Jake Pyne has argued that ableism is the reason ABA continues to be practiced in some jurisdictions where conversion therapy is prohibited, despite the underlying similarities. The Association for Behavior Analysis International has denounced gay conversion therapy, and lecturers in the field of behavior analysis have called such comparisons harmful to both the autistic community and the LBGTIQA+ community.

Views of the autistic community
Proponents of neurodiversity dispute the value of eliminating autistic behaviors, maintaining that it forces autistic people to mask their true personalities and conform to a narrow conception of normality. Masking is associated with suicidality and poor long-term mental health. Some autistic advocates contend that it is cruel to try to make autistic people behave as if they were non-autistic without consideration for their well-being, criticizing ABA's framing of autism as a tragedy in need of treatment. Instead, these critics advocate for increased social acceptance of harmless autistic traits and therapies focused on improving quality of life. The Autistic Self Advocacy Network, for example, campaigns against the use of ABA in autism.

A 2020 study examined perspectives of autistic adults that received ABA as children and found that the overwhelming majority reported that "behaviorist methods create painful lived experiences", that ABA led to the "erosion of the true actualizing self", and that they felt they had a "lack of self-agency within interpersonal experiences".

Some behavior analysts have compared critiques of ABA from autistic people as being similar to discrimination against immigrants in the UK after World War II.

TEACCH
One more area of critique has been the "ideological warfare" surrounding ABA and TEACCH, despite the philosophies and practices of the two approaches not necessarily being in opposition. The rhetoric surrounding ABA was criticized by the British Institute of Learning Disabilities, including parents and professionals that claim that ABA "cured" their child's autism, like one parent who "claims that ABA had saved her children's lives, likening it to chemotherapy as a treatment for cancer."

Behavior
Behavior refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. Often, the term behavior refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a response is a single instance of that behavior. If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called a response class. Repertoire refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do.

Operant conditioning
Operant behavior is the so-called "voluntary" behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, operant conditioning refers to the three-term contingency that uses stimulus control, in particular an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stimulus (SD) that influences the strengthening or weakening of behavior through such consequences as reinforcement or punishment. The term is used quite generally, from reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to escape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good grades.

Respondent (classical) conditioning
Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on innate stimulus-response relationships called reflexes. In his experiments with dogs, Pavlov usually used the salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the dog to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response does not produce a reinforcer or punisher (e.g., the dog does not get food because it salivates).

Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and in most behavior change programs. It is the process by which behavior is strengthened. If a behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior, then the stimulus is a positive reinforcer. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement. There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior. "[H]e would get Beth to comply by hugging him and giving her food as a reward."

Punishment
Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out'). Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it. Someone who alleged that they had seen applied behavior analysis stated "he [the therapist] would use loud sounds of 100 decibels on two 5-year-old autistic twins."

Extinction
Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability—the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures.

Discriminated operant and three-term contingency
In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S–R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. This antecedent–behavior–consequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (SD). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control. More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event", "Establishing Operations", and "Motivating Operations" by various researchers in their publications.

Verbal behavior
B. F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner's system includes:
 * Tact – a verbal response evoked by a non-verbal antecedent and maintained by generalized conditioned reinforcement.
 * Mand – behavior under control of motivating operations maintained by a characteristic reinforcer.
 * Intraverbals – verbal behavior for which the relevant antecedent stimulus was other verbal behavior, but which does not share the response topography of that prior verbal stimulus (e.g., responding to another speaker's question).
 * Autoclitic – secondary verbal behavior which alters the effect of primary verbal behavior on the listener. Examples involve quantification, grammar, and qualifying statements (e.g., the differential effects of "I think..." vs. "I know...")

Skinner's use of behavioral techniques was famously critiqued by the linguist Noam Chomsky through an extensive breakdown of how Skinner's view of language as behavioral simply cannot explain the complexity of human language. This suggests that while behaviorist techniques can teach language, it is a very poor measure to explain language fundamentals. Considering Chomsky's critiques, it may be more appropriate to teach language through a Speech language pathologist instead of a behaviorist.

For an assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner's system, see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills.

Measuring behavior
When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus.

Repeatability
Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs.
 * Count is the number of occurrences in behavior.
 * Rate/frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time.
 * Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time.

Temporal extent
Schirmer, Meck & Penney explore the ‘timing’ of temporal information that seeks out the rhythm and duration of the behavior. Given the expressions of behavior, an emotional meaning is obtained through the duration in correspondence with body and vocal expressions. Using the striatal beat frequency (SBF) model, this highlights the essential role of the striatum’s timing that synchronizes cortical oscillations. At onset of the event, ventral tegmental inputs reset the cortical phase that initiates the timing. During the event, the oscillations are monitored by neurons which is an identifier of the unique phase patterns for different durations of behavior. And when finished, the striatum decodes the patterns to aid in memory storage and comparison of event durations. Researchers then have discovered socio-temporal processes that attach social meaning to time, allowing the social significance to impact the perception and timing of acts.

Temporal locus
Latency specifically measures the time that elapses between the event of a stimulus and the behavior that follows. This is important in behavioral research because it quantifies how quickly an individual may respond to external stimuli, providing insights into their perceptual and cognitive processing rates. There are two measurements that are able to define temporal locus, they are response latency and interresponse time.

 * Response latency in children, when being treated with morphine they exhibit a longer time to the response latency in delayed matching of a simple task, and these children seem to have a harder time with social ability. This means that these children require more time to remember things when given the stimulus.
 * Interresponse time refers to the duration of time that occurs between two instances of behavior, and it helps in understanding patterns and frequency of a certain behavior on a period of time. Use of psychiatric medications may reduce the rate of response, but on the other hand lengthen the duration of interresponse time. The usage of these medications effectively reduces interest as the reaction declines as well.

Derivative measures
Derivative measures are additional metrics derived from primary data, often by combining or transforming dimensional quantities to offer deeper insights into a phenomenon. Despite not being directly tied to specific dimensions, these measures provide valuable supplemental information. In applied behavior analysis (ABA), for example, percentage is a derivative measure that quantifies the ratio of specific responses to total responses, offering a nuanced understanding of behavior and assisting in evaluating progress and intervention effectiveness. Trials-to-criterion, another ABA derivative measure, tracks the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a set level of performance. This metric aids behavior analysts in assessing skill acquisition and mastery, influencing decisions on program adjustments and teaching methods. Applied behavior analysis relies on meticulous measurement and impartial evaluation of observable behavior as a foundational principle. Without accurate data collection and analysis, behavior analysts lack the essential information to assess intervention effectiveness and make informed decisions about program modifications. Therefore, precise measurement and assessment play a pivotal role in ABA practice, guiding practitioners to enhance behavioral outcomes and drive significant change.

Behavior analysts utilize a few distinct techniques to gather information. A portion of the ways of collect data information include:

Frequency
This technique refers to the times that an objective way of behaving was noticed and counted. In the published article On Terms: Frequency and Rate in Applied Behavior Analysis, the authors state that two major texts, one being the Behavior Analyst Certification Board pair the word "frequency" with two different words—one text pairing with "count" and the other "rate". Despite one major text using the word "count" interchangeably with "frequency", both texts advise readers they should not be using counts of behavior without referencing the time base of the observation. Additionally, when given that context of advice, the count and time information provide data rate. The authors of this article suggest that when looking at applied behavior analysis (ABA) and accessing behavior measurement, you should be using the term "rate" instead of "count" to reference frequency. Any references to counts without information about observation time should be avoided.

In Annals of Clinical Psychiatry article Applied Behavioral Analytic Interventions for children with Autism: A Description and Review of Treatment Research, they point out how frequency is used to keep track of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. By doing so, ABA therapists and clinicians are able to create a customized program for that patient. The author notes that tracking frequency, in cases specifically looking at frequency of requesting behaviors during play, language, imitation and socialization, can also be a variable to predict treatment outcome.

Rate
Same as frequency, yet inside a predefined time limit.

Duration
This estimation alludes to how much time that somebody participated in a way of behaving.

Fluency
Fluency, is a gauge on how smooth a behavior is performed. Fluency is associated with behaviors that we use over a long duration and be able to perform it with confidence. The three outcomes associated with fluency:

Fluency will increase the response speed and accuracy of a behavior. However, when introduced to a new stimulus different from their usual behavior, there will be a decrease in reaction time or increased response time but with more false alarms. Fluency relies on repeated action so the amount of required effort for the behavior is lessened to an extent where the individual could focus more on the other factors of the behavior.
 * The ability to retain the behavior or action
 * Maintain the behavior while there are disruptions
 * The ability to transfer the behavior to other applications

There are two types of approaches to fluency: The unassisted approach would need to perform their reached target behavior to someone. The assisted learning approach have a limitation that it would need an individual to assist them which could be time-consuming for both individuals
 * Unassisted approach - Individual practice of certain behavior. Set a target of response speed and accuracy under a timeframe and readjust accordingly depending on the difficulty.
 * Assisted approach - Behavior assisted by a teacher or an individual.

Response latency
Latency refers to how much time after a particular boost has been given before the objective way of behaving happens.

Experimental control
In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following:
 * At least one participant
 * At least one behavior (dependent variable)
 * At least one setting
 * A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data
 * At least one treatment or intervention condition
 * Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable may be quantitatively or qualitatively analyzed
 * An intervention that will benefit the participant in some way (behavioral cusp)

Task analysis
Task analysis is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught through the use of chaining: forward chaining, backward chaining and total task presentation. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals). Behavioral scripts often emerge from a task analysis. Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills. A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the direct instruction curriculum.

Chaining
The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc.

For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as dialectical behavior therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis, but is not philosophically behavior analytic.

There are two types of chain in the ABA world: forward chain and backward chain. Forward chain starts with the first step and continues until the final step, while backward chain begins with the last step and moves backward until the first step.

Prompting
A prompt is a cue that is used to encourage a desired response from an individual. Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). In order to minimize errors and ensure a high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically. During this process, prompts are faded as quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting.

Types of prompts
Prompters might use any or all of the following to suggest the desired response:
 * Vocal prompts: Words or other vocalizations
 * Visual prompts: A visual cue or picture
 * Gestural prompts: A physical gesture
 * Positional prompt: e.g., the target item is placed close to the individual.
 * Modeling: Modeling the desired response. This type of prompt is best suited for individuals who learn through imitation and can attend to a model.
 * Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the individual to produce the desired response. There are many degrees of physical prompts, from quite intrusive (e.g., the teacher places a hand on the learner's hand) to minimally intrusive (e.g., a slight tap).

This is not an exhaustive list of prompts; the nature, number, and order of prompts are chosen to be the most effective for a particular individual.

Fading
The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill.

One of the primary choices that was made while showing another way of behaving is the manner by which to fade the prompts or prompts. An arrangement should be set up to fade the prompts in an organized style. For instance, blurring the actual brief of directing a kid's hands might follow this succession: (a) supporting wrists, (b) contacting hands softly, (c) contacting lower arm or elbow, and (d) pulling out actual contact through and through. Fading guarantees that the kid does not turn out to be excessively subject to a specific brief while mastering another expertise.

Thinning a reinforcement schedule
Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. Periodic thinning that produces a 30% decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management and token economy systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis).

Generalization
Generalization is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or school and generalize the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization.

Shaping
Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then they could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which they touch the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and extinction. Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks.

One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior.

Another example of shaping is when a toddler learns to walk. The child is reinforced by crawling, standing, taking a few steps, and then eventually walking. When a child is learning to walk, they are praised by a lot of claps and excitements.

Interventions based on an FBA
Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is an individualized critical thinking process for tending to address problem behavior. An evaluation is led to distinguish the reason or capability of a problem behavior. This evaluation interaction includes gathering data about the ecological circumstances that go before the issue conduct and the resulting rewards that reinforce the way of behaving. The data that is collected is then used to recognize and execute individualized interventions pointed toward lessening issue ways of behaving and expanding positive ways of behaving.

Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core. This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of change (see Behavioral change theories). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain) and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule-governed behavior. Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies.

Major journals
Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals. Some examples of "core" behavior analytic journals are:
 * 1) Applied Animal Behaviour Science
 * 2) Behavioral Health and Medicine
 * 3) Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice
 * 4) Behavior and Philosophy
 * 5) Behavior and Social Issues
 * 6) Behavior Modification
 * 7) Behavior Therapy
 * 8) Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
 * 9) Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim: Treatment and Prevention
 * 10) Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports, Health, Fitness, and Behavioral Medicine
 * 11) Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science
 * 12) Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Interventions
 * 13) Journal of Organizational Behavior Management
 * 14) Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions
 * 15) Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
 * 16) Perspectives on Behavior Science (formerly The Behavior Analyst until 2018)
 * 17) The Behavioral Development Bulletin
 * 18) The Behavior Analyst Today
 * 19) The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy
 * 20) The Journal of Behavioral Assessment and Intervention in Children
 * 21) The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis
 * 22) The Psychological Record

Other species
ABA has been successfully used in other species. Morris uses ABA to reduce feather-plucking in the black vulture (Coragyps atratus).

title: Applied behavior analysis


text:
Talk:Akhil Reed Amar

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Akhil Amar. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added tag to http://www.wclibrary.org/pdf/WCLF_3.13.06.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081024234436/http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/23376 to http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/23376

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 02:15, 29 June 2017 (UTC)

Requested move 15 September 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved to Akhil Reed Amar. No such user (talk) 12:19, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

Akhil Amar → Akhil Reed Amar – The article was most recently renamed "Akhil Amar" in 2015 due to "common usage". From 2006-11 it was "Akhil Reed Amar", 2011-13 "Akhil Amar", 2013-15 with "Reed" again, and finally "Akhil Amar" since 2015. However, "Akhil Reed Amar" is the more common name; it has nearly 272,000 google results compared to "Akhil Amar" with only 39,000. Additionally, all of his books include his middle name in the author field. Arbor to SJ (talk) 03:11, 15 September 2021 (UTC) The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Support per nom. Far more commonly cited using his full name. Station1 (talk) 04:25, 16 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Akhil Reed Amar


text: User talk:213.47.152.21

title: User talk:213.47.152.21


text:
Monterey Bay Academy Airport

Monterey Bay Academy Airport is a small daytime only airfield located near the city of Watsonville in Santa Cruz County, California, United States. This private-use airport is owned by the Seventh-day Adventist Church and is located on the campus of Monterey Bay Academy, previously the military installation Camp McQuaide. The grass airfield is currently managed by AirSpace Integration. Prior permission for use is required from the airport owner.

History
Improvements and management of the airstrip were previously directed by Ocean Shore Aviation. The group restored the dirt strip, converting it from dirt into a grass runway. The group also secured a parking/tie-down area (paved with concrete), and has added a picnic area within walking distance to the parking/tie-down area overlooking the Pacific Ocean.

In the 1940s, a small aircraft landing strip was built at Camp McQuaide so airplanes could drop targets into the ocean. After the end of the war, in 1948, it was converted to the private boarding school Monterey Bay Academy.

Between 1980 and 1984 the airport was home to Pterodactyl Limited, which manufactured ultralight aircraft.

title: Monterey Bay Academy Airport


text:
User:Blah(de)

If I made a mistake at a english word or sentence, please let me know. (Even that sounds wrong). But I think your german isn't much better. ;)

my userpage in german wikipedia

title: User:Blah(de)


text:
ESPN The Magazine

ESPN The Magazine was an American monthly sports magazine published by the ESPN sports network in Bristol, Connecticut. The first issue was published on March 11, 1998. Initially published every other week, it scaled back to 24 issues a year in early 2016, then became a monthly in its later days.

The main sports covered include Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, National Football League, National Hockey League, college basketball, and college football. The magazine typically took a more lighthearted and humorous approach to sporting news compared with competitors such as Sports Illustrated and, previously, the Sporting News.

On April 30, 2019, ESPN announced that it would cease paper publishing in September of that year. A multiplatform monthly story called ESPN Cover Story was launched to continue the magazine's legacy featuring a digital poster-style cover and profile in cover story fashion, including the continuation of NEXT Athlete proclamations and The Body Issue, but these two features did not return.

Departments
Some of the regular departments, in their magazine order:

 * Two Way: Stuart Scott answered questions from readers, giving his own opinions.
 * The Biz: Peter Keating writes about the business side of sports and its effect on the sporting world.
 * The Post: Looking back at the previous edition of the magazine with some of the readers' comments and updates on past stories.
 * Zoom: One large "image of the week," occupying two pages.
 * The Jump: A mix of different regular features, offering an alternative and usually humorous take on the current sporting scene.
 * Outtakes: A transcript of an interview from The Dan Patrick Show with a sport star mostly talking about non sports issues. Kenny Mayne succeeded Patrick in this regular feature.
 * The Life of Reilly: Former Sports Illustrated columnist Rick Reilly gives his opinions on the sports world, and reports upon various "special interest" stories in sports.
 * NEXT Athlete: Yearly award given out to young rising star athletes.
 * Athlete X: a feature that ran in the late 2000s where an anonymous athlete from various sports (MLB, NFL, and NASCAR) offered an insider's perspective.

Most of these departments and features were dropped after a 2011 editorial change. By 2016, only Zoom and The Biz still appeared regularly. There is also a recurring column that focuses on Sabermetrics, as well as The Truth, a back-page editorial that focuses on controversial topics. The Big Ticket, similar to The Jump, was introduced when ESPN Mag became a monthly in Fall 2018.

The Body Issue
The annual "Body Issue", which debuted in 2009 as its answer to the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, features naked and scantily-clad athletes. The "Body Issue" addresses the physical structure of the most popular athletes to show what parts of their body they see as almost "perfect".

title: ESPN The Magazine


text:
User:Fuzzyonion

= Me = I'm still pretty new to Wikipedia so I'm not working on a whole lot right now.

= Works in Progress =
 * Liriel Domiciano - Brazilian Singer

$$ s=\frac{1}{\text{Area}}\left(\sum_{w=0}^{r}H(w)\right)\sqrt[3]{5} $$

title: User:Fuzzyonion


text:
Computer Graphics (newsletter)

Computer Graphics was a publication of ACM SIGGRAPH. It served as its newsletter, and has published the yearly SIGGRAPH Conference Proceedings up to 2003, as well as a variety of papers on a quarterly basis. The last edition was published in 2011.

title: Computer Graphics (newsletter)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hellmouth band

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 04:43, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

Hellmouth band, Brother's keeper management
band vanity Brother's keeper management is vanity related to hellmouth band
 * moved Brother's keeper management here with a redirect. Might as well kill both in one vote! Master Thief Garrett 22:59, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Delete -- illiterate band vanity. "This one time, at band vanity ..." Ben-w
 * Delete. Vanity and almost impossible to read. Linuxbeak 20:49, Apr 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as gibberish. I think I lost a few IQ points trying to comprehend this. - Lucky 6.9 21:39, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, HUGELY vain, note the use of "we". VERY badly written, useless to any visitors. They "had" four record deals and lost them? That's pretty bad odds. Usually if you get a deal in the first place the company thought you good enough to stay with them for the duration... come on, these people can't even find the Shift key!!! And obviously I'm not the only one to wound my psyche with that one... I think I need a coffee now... Master Thief Garrett 22:59, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: File:What do you know deutschland.jpg

title: File:What do you know deutschland.jpg


text:
User:Chad1m

Contact me
There are two ways to contact me: Either way is fine for me.
 * Openly, on my talk page
 * Privately, via e-mail

title: User:Chad1m


text:
Domenico Ferrata

Domenico Ferrata JUD (4 March 1847 – 10 October 1914) was an Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal who spent most of his career in the diplomatic service of the Holy See and in the Roman Curia.

Life
Ferrata was born in Gradoli, near Viterbo to Giovan Battista and Maria Antonuzzi Ferrata, who had a small farm. He had a brother, Angelo, who later became procurator general of the Augustinians.

He first attended a local municipal school run by canon D. Collarini. Then he went to the Jesuit School of Orvieto. With the expulsion of the Jesuits from Orvieto, he spent the year 1860-61 in Gradoli, continuing however to study privately with Don GB Polverini. He then attended the Seminary of Montefiascone. Ferrata was appointed canon of the college of Gradoli. He took his degree in theology at La Sapienza in Rome, where he studied scripture under Tommaso Martinelli. Ferrata was Ordained a priest in 1869.

Career
After ordination, Ferrata studied canon law at S. Apollinare. He earned doctorates in both theology and civil and canon law. He then apprenticed at the Congregation of the Council. When Martelli became a cardinal in 1873, he made his former student his secretary. In January 1874 Ferrata was appointed procurator at the Sacred Congregation of Rites.

In 1876, he taught canon law at the Pontifical Roman Major Seminary, and the following year was made deputy chair of ecclesiastical history at Propaganda Fide. In April 1877, he was appointed to the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which handled diplomatic relations between the Holy See and foreign governments. When in 1879 the secretary of the congregation, Włodzimierz Czacki was appointed nuncio to France, he took Ferrata along as auditor. He returned to Rome in 1883 and was sent to Switzerland to resolve problems with the diocese of Basel. In 1884 he was made president of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy, the training school for the diplomatic corps.

Consecrated a bishop in 1885, he served as nuncio to Belgium. He served as Secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs from 20 April 1889 to 23 June 1891, when he was named nuncio to France. He was elevated to Cardinal by Pope Leo XIII in the consistory of 22 June 1896 with the titular of Santa Prisca, Rome.

He spent the early part of his cardinalate in positions such as Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for Indulgences and Sacred Relics. He was named Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship.

In 1900, he was named prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Rites which handled the process for canonizations. In that capacity he oversaw much of the procedure regarding the cause of Joan of Arc. He participated in the conclave of 1903, which elected Pope Pius X. In 1901 he was sent as nuncio to Paris by Pope Leo XIII with the mission to work for the reconciliation with the third French Republic.

As papal legate, he presided over the 1905 Canonical coronation of the image of the Immaculate Conception of Cospicua in Malta. Ferrata played an important part in the preparation of Quam singulari the 1910 decree concerning the admittance of children to communion. In 1913 he was named Archpriest of the patriarchal Lateran basilica. In the same year, he was appointed the Cardinal Legate for the XXIV International Eucharistic Congress in Malta. In January 1914 Pope Pius X named him to succeed Mariano Cardinal Rampolla, who had died on 13 December 1913, as Secretary of the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office.

Pope Pius X died on 20 August 1914. Ferrata opened the conclave opened on August 31, 1914, celebrating the Mass of the Holy Spirit in the Pauline Chapel. The newly elected Pope Benedict XV appointed Ferrata Secretary of State, in place of Rafael Merry del Val. However, Ferrata was already in ill health and died the month after his appointment at age seventy. He was buried in Gradoli.

title: Domenico Ferrata


text:
Talk:Grand Lake (Colorado)

Untitled
The current article for Grand Lake describes the Colorado/Big Thompson project as "the first of many diversions of water from the Colorado River Basin between Colorado and the Gulf of California." The article must mean first in terms for furthest upstream, since many other diversions came earlier in terms of date of construction. The Grand Ditch, which diverts water from the upper Colorado River drainage across the Continental divide at Poudre Pass, is both further upstream and was constructed earlier than the Colorado/Big Thompson project.

Image
I got that image of what you say is Granby Reservoir from, so they (or the photographer) must have gotten it wrong. Good thing you were able to recognize it.  howch e  ng  {chat} 06:33, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, I figured that happened and looked over at byways and confirmed it. No worries. The picture on this page WAS on the Grand Lake, Colorado (the town) page. When I reused it here, I decided we needed a town photo there. Byways proved useful for that! Note: I spotted the Lake Granby in the first scene (the ad filming scene, if you've seen it) of John Sayles' Silver City. John (Jwy) 17:59, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

Another Image
I removed http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grand_Lake,_Colorado.jpg 'cause it was also of Granby Reservoir and Shadow Mountain Lake. Cool aerial photo, though. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 171.65.1.208 (talk) 19:57, 23 March 2009 (UTC)
 * You are right. You can't really SEE Grand Lake! (John User:Jwy talk) 20:06, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Grand lackes,colrado
it is the bom th bom —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.57.122.8 (talk) 14:54, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

Is the water in Grand Lake drinkable???
The article doesn't say, but is the lake water drinkable??? Or does it have to be boiled, etc? Thanks to anybody who knows.109.154.20.139 (talk) 10:21, 9 November 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Grand Lake (Colorado). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20041108171207/http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/html/cbt.html to http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/html/cbt.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120413170203/http://www.grandlakechamber.com/index.html to http://www.grandlakechamber.com/index.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070205102713/http://www.stanwyck.com/cogenweb/cocounties.html to http://www.stanwyck.com/cogenweb/cocounties.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:19, 22 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grand Lake (Colorado)


text:
User:Pbfurlong

Just little old me, slowly (and timidly) making a few changes here and there.

The first article that I have created is one on my home church, Trinity-St. Stephen's United Church.

Born in Amherst, Nova Scotia, living in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. I hope to contribute to the Batman sections soon.

Check out my The Dark Knight, my out-of-date yet popular Batman website.

If you have an issue with my user page, please leave me a message.

title: User:Pbfurlong


text:
Oium

Oium was a name for Scythia, or a fertile part of it, roughly in modern Ukraine, where the Goths, under a legendary King Filimer, settled after leaving Gothiscandza, according to the Getica by Jordanes, written around 551.

It is generally assumed that the story reproduced by Jordanes contains a historical core, although several scholars have suggested that parts of it are fictional.

Name etymology
Jordanes does not give an etymology, but many scholars interpret this word as a dative plural to a noun, widespread in the Germanic languages, whose Proto-Germanic reconstruction is *awjō and which means 'well-watered meadow' or 'island'. (The same noun is also found in Scatinauia, the Latinised name of an island in Northern Europe mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Naturalis historia, from which the names of Scandinavia and Scania originate.) This noun is generally derived from the Proto-Germanic word *ahwō 'water; stream, river' (whence Gothic aƕa 'river'), which is cognate with Latin aqua 'water'. This is seen as consistent with the description Jordanes gave of the Goths delight in this region's fertility.

As mentioned for example by Dennis H. Green Jordanes describes another place with a similar name — the place where the Goths' relatives the Gepids lived:
 * XVII (96) These Gepidae were then smitten by envy while they dwelt in the province of Spesis on an island surrounded by the shallow waters of the Vistula. This island they called, in the speech of their fathers, Gepedoios [emphasis added]; but it is now [in the 6th century] inhabited by the race of the Vividarii, since the Gepidae themselves have moved to better lands. The Vividarii are gathered from various races into this one asylum, if I may call it so, and thus they form a nation. (97) So then, as we were saying, Fastida, king of the Gepidae, stirred up his quiet people to enlarge their boundaries by war. He overwhelmed the Burgundians, almost annihilating them, and conquered a number of other races also.

Chronology
A problem with Jordanes' account is that he dates the arrival of the Goths in Oium well before 1000 BCE (approximately 5 generations after 1490). Historians who accept Jordanes' account as partially reflecting real events do not accept this aspect.

Jordanes
Mierow's translation of the one short passage in Getica IV, which mentions Oium is as follows:
 * [...] But when the number of the people increased greatly and Filimer, son of Gadaric, reigned as king — about the fifth since Berig — he decided that the army of the Goths with their families should move from that region.
 * (27) In search of suitable homes and pleasant places they came to the land of Scythia, called Oium in that tongue. Here they were delighted with the great richness of the country, and it is said that when half the army had been brought over, the bridge whereby they had crossed the river fell in utter ruin, nor could anyone thereafter pass to or fro.
 * For the place is said to be surrounded by quaking bogs and an encircling abyss, so that by this double obstacle nature has made it inaccessible. And even to-day one may hear in that neighborhood the lowing of cattle and may find traces of men, if we are to believe the stories of travellers, although we must grant that they hear these things from afar.
 * (28) This part of the Goths, which is said to have crossed the river and entered with Filimer into the country of Oium, came into possession of the desired land, and there they soon came upon the race [gens] of the Spali, joined battle with them and won the victory. Thence the victors hastened to the farthest part of Scythia, which is near the sea of Pontus; for so the story is generally told in their early songs, in almost historic fashion. Ablabius also, a famous chronicler of the Gothic race, confirms this in his most trustworthy account.
 * (29) Some of the ancient writers also agree with the tale. [...]

The place where they first arrived is thus described not as the whole of Scythia, which Jordanes describes in the subsequent chapter (V), but a remote and isolated part of it, where the Spali lived. The Goths coming from the Baltic crossed a bridge to get there, but when it broke, it became impossible to cross back and forth anymore. Returning to his narrative, Jordanes described the area where Filimer subsequently moved his people and settled as being near the Sea of Azov, noting that there are verbal legends around about Gothic origins, but that he prefers to trust what he reads:
 * (38) We read that on their first migration the Goths dwelt in the land of Scythia near Lake Maeotis [the Sea of Azov; the Latin calls it a marsh, not a sea or lake: paludem Meotidem]. On the second migration they went to Moesia, Thrace and Dacia, and after their third they dwelt again in Scythia, above the Sea of Pontus.
 * [...]
 * Of course if anyone in our city says that the Goths had an origin different from that I have related, let him object. For myself, I prefer to believe what I have read, rather than put trust in old wives' tales.
 * (39) To return, then, to my subject. The aforesaid race of which I speak is known to have had Filimer as king while they remained in their first home in Scythia near Maeotis. In their second home, that is in the countries of Dacia, Thrace and Moesia, Zalmoxes reigned, whom many writers of annals mention as a man of remarkable learning in philosophy.

According to Jordanes, the Goths left Oium in a second migration to Moesia, Dacia and Thrace, but they eventually returned, settling north of the Black Sea. Upon their return, they were divided under two ruling dynasties. The Visigoths were ruled by the Balþi and the Ostrogoths by the Amali.

The identified places
Jordanes himself understands Oium to be near the Sea of Azov, which was understood to be a marshy area in this period. Wolfram (p. 42) for example interprets Jordanes in a straightforward way to be referring to a place on the shore of the Sea of Azov.

The Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA) article on Oium, for example, proposes, based upon a proposal by Herwig Wolfram, that the uncrossable river with a broken bridge might be the Dnieper. The bridge story itself can not be taken literally as bridges crossing major rivers were not known in this area more than 1000 years BCE. It can therefore only refer to events in a much later period. Both Herwig Wolfram and Walter Goffart see the bridge story as likely to be symbolic.

Based upon a proposal by Norbert Wagner, the RGA suggests that the marshes surrounding Oium could be the Pripyat or Rokitno marshes in the area of the modern border of Belarus and Ukraine. This is to the west of the Dnieper, and not near Southern Russia where Wagner believed Oium was, and so Wagner saw this area, which contains the Pripyat River, as representing the "river" which needed to be crossed en route to Oium.

Jordanes' sources
As explained above, Jordanes represented his story as being consistent with history-like Gothic songs, and the lost work of Ablabius. He also specifically expressed his preference for written sources in defending this Oium account against legends he had encountered in Constantinople. Concerning the larger work where this story appears, the Getica, Jordanes also explained in his prefaces to it and his other surviving work, the Romana, that he had started the work with the aim of summarizing a far larger work written by Cassiodorus, which has not survived.

According to some historians, Jordanes' account of the Goths' history in Oium was constructed from his reading of earlier classical accounts and from oral tradition. According to other historians, Jordanes' narrative has little relation to Cassiodorus's, no relation to oral traditions and little relation to actual history.

Archaeology
Historians such as Peter Heather, Walter Goffart, Patrick Geary, A. S. Christensen and Michael Kulikowski have criticized the use of the Getica as a source for details about real Gothic origins.

Archaeologically, the Chernyakhov culture, which is also called the Sântana de Mureș culture, contained parts of Ukraine, Moldova and Romania and corresponds with the extent of Gothic-influenced Scythia as known from 3rd and 4th century contemporaries.

For archaeologists who subscribe to the proposal that Jordanes' account of migration from the Vistula can be seen in archaeological evidence, the Vistula archaeological culture which is proposed to represent the earlier Goths is the Wielbark culture. The account of Jordanes fits with the interpretation of the Wielbark and Chernyakhov cultures, in which Germanic peoples from the Vistula Basin, moved towards, influenced, and began to culturally dominate, peoples in Ukraine. Some of the historians who agree with this scenario, such as Herwig Wolfram, propose that this did not require significant amounts of people to move.

Norse mythology
In The origin of Rus', Omeljan Pritsak connects the Hervarar saga with its account of Gothic legendary history and of battles with the Huns, with historical place names in Ukraine from 150 to 450 AD, This places the Goths' capital Árheimar, on the river Dniepr (Danpar). The connection to Oium was made by both Heinzel and Schütte. However the attribution of places, people, and events in the saga is confused and uncertain, with multiple scholarly views on who, where, and what real things the legend refers to.

title: Oium