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Nanna (Norse deity)

In Norse mythology, Nanna Nepsdóttir (Old Norse: ) or simply Nanna is a goddess associated with the god Baldr. Accounts of Nanna vary greatly by source. In the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Nanna is married to Baldr and the couple produced a son, the god Forseti.

Mythology
After Baldr's death, Nanna dies of grief. Nanna is placed on Baldr's ship with his corpse and the two are set aflame and pushed out to sea. In Hel, Baldr and Nanna are united again. In an attempt to bring back Baldr from the dead, the god Hermóðr rides to Hel and, upon receiving the hope of resurrection from the goddess Hel, Nanna gives Hermóðr gifts to give to the goddess Frigg (a robe of linen), the goddess Fulla (a finger-ring), and for others (unspecified). Nanna is frequently mentioned in the poetry of skalds and a Nanna, who may or may not be the same figure, is mentioned once in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources.

An account provided by Saxo Grammaticus in his 12th century work Gesta Danorum euhemerises Nanna as a human female, the daughter of King Gevar, and the love interest of both the demi-god Baldr and the human Höðr. Spurred by their mutual attraction to Nanna, Baldr and Höðr repeatedly do battle. Nanna is only interested in Höðr and weds him, while Baldr wastes away from nightmares about Nanna.

The Setre Comb, a comb from the 6th or early 7th century has runic inscriptions engraved, which may reference the goddess.

The etymology of the name Nanna is a subject of scholarly debate. Scholars have debated connections between Nanna and other similarly named deities from other cultures, and the implications of the goddess' attestations.

Etymology and place names
The etymology of the name of the goddess Nanna is debated: Some scholars have proposed that the name may derive from a babble word, nanna, meaning "mother". Scholar J. de Vries connects the name Nanna to the root *nanþ-, leading to "the daring one". Lindow (2001) theorizes that a common noun may have existed in Old Norse, nanna, that roughly meant "woman". McKinnell (2005) notes that the "mother" and *nanþ- derivations may not be distinct, commenting that nanna may have once meant "she who empowers".

Poetic Edda
In the Poetic Edda poem Hyndluljóð, a figure by the name of Nanna is listed as the daughter of Nökkvi and as a relative of Óttar. This figure may or may not be the same Nanna as Baldr's wife.

Prose Edda
In chapter 38 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the enthroned figure of "High" explains that Nanna Nepsdóttir (the last name meaning "Nepr's daughter") and her husband Baldr produced a son, the god Forseti.

Later in Gylfaginning (chapter 49), "High" recounts Baldr's death in Asgard at the unwitting hands of his blind brother, Höðr. Baldr's body is taken to the seaside and, when his body is placed unto his ship Hringhorni, Nanna collapses and dies of grief. Her body is placed upon Hringhorni with Baldr's, the ship is set aflame, and the god Thor hallows the pyre with his hammer Mjölnir.

Sent by Baldr's mother, the goddess Frigg, the god Hermóðr rides to the place Hel to resurrect Baldr. Hermóðr finally arrives in Hel to find Baldr in a hall, seated in the seat of honor and with his wife Nanna. Hermóðr bargains with the goddess Hel for Baldr's resurrection. Hel and Hermóðr come to an agreement and then Baldr and Nanna accompany Hermóðr out of the hall.

Baldr gives Hermóðr the ring Draupnir, which his father Odin had placed on Baldr's pyre, to return to Odin. Nanna presents to Hermóðr a series of gifts: A linen robe for Frigg, a golden ring for the goddess Fulla, and other unspecified items. Hermóðr returns to Asgard.

In the first chapter of the Prose Edda book "Skáldskaparmál", Nanna is listed among 8 goddesses attending a feast held in honor of Ægir.

In chapter 5 of "Skáldskaparmál", means of referring to Baldr include "husband of Nanna". In chapter 19, means of referring to Frigg include "mother-in-law of Nanna". In chapter 75, Nanna is listed among goddesses. In chapter 18, the skald Eilífr Goðrúnarson's work Þórsdrápa is quoted, which includes a kenning that references Nanna ("wake-hilt-Nanna" for "troll-wife").

Gesta Danorum
In book III of Gesta Danorum, Nanna is not a goddess, but rather a daughter of the mortal King Gevar. Nanna is attracted to her foster-brother Höðr (here, also a human), son of Hothbrodd, and "seeks his embraces". One day, Baldr, who Saxo describes as the son of the god Odin, witnesses Nanna bathing and lusts for her; "the sheen of her graceful body inflamed him, and her manifest charms seared his heart – for there is no stronger incitement to lust than beauty." Fearing that Höðr will be an obstacle for his acquisition of Nanna, Baldr resolves to slay Höðr.

While out hunting, Höðr loses his path in a mist and a group of forest maidens greet him by name. The maidens tell him that they are able to guide fate, and that they appear invisibly on battlefields, where they award victory or defeat at their whim. They inform Höðr that Baldr witnessed Nanna bathing, yet warn Höðr not to challenge Baldr to combat – no matter what he may do – for Baldr sprang from divine seed and is therefore a demi-god. The maidens and their dwelling vanish, and Höðr finds himself standing on an open plain. (Saxo explains that Höðr had been tricked by means of magic.)

When Höðr returns home he recounts to King Gevar that he had lost his path and been tricked by the forest maidens, and immediately asks King Gevar for his daughter Nanna's hand in wedlock. Gevar tells Höðr that he would most certainly approve of the marriage, but that Baldr had already requested Nanna's hand. Gevar says that he fears Baldr's wrath, for Baldr's body is infused with a holy strength, because his father Odin is a god, and hence Baldr cannot be harmed by steel. However, Gevar knows of a sword that can kill Baldr, and he explains that it is very well protected, and tells Höðr how to acquire the sword.

While Höðr is off on adventures, obtaining a sword to kill Baldr, Baldr marches armed into Gevar's kingdom and claims Nanna. Gevar tells Baldr to reason with Nanna, and Baldr does this with some diplomacy. Despite Baldr's careful efforts at wooing Nanna, he makes no progress; Nanna dodges his advances by arguing that due to their different natures, the offspring of a deity cannot marry a mortal.

Höðr learns of Baldr's actions, and joins forces with Helgi, together they battle with Baldr and his allied gods. The result is victory for Höðr's forces. After the victory, Höðr again asks Gevar for Nanna's hand and so wins Nanna's embraces. Höðr and Nanna go to Sweden and there Höðr becomes ruler.

In Sweden, Höðr is attacked by Baldr, and in this second engagement Höðr is defeated. He and Nanna flee together back to Denmark. Despite his ostensible victory, Baldr is tormented at night by vivid dreams of Nanna, that distraction from restful sleep results in Baldr's deterioration:
 * "[Baldr] was incessantly tormented at night by phantoms which mimicked the shape of Nanna and caused him to fall into such an unhealthy condition that he could not even walk properly. For this reason he took to travelling in a chariot or carriage."
 * "The violent passion that soaked his heart brought him almost to the verge of collapse. He judged that victory had yielded him nothing, since it had not won him Nanna as a prize."
 * "The violent passion that soaked his heart brought him almost to the verge of collapse. He judged that victory had yielded him nothing, since it had not won him Nanna as a prize."

Archaeological record
The Setre Comb, a comb from the 6th or early 7th century has runic inscriptions which may refer to the goddess. The comb is the subject of an amount of scholarly discourse as most experts accept the reading of the Germanic charm word alu and Nanna; whether the Nanna engraved on the comb is the same as the goddess Nanna from the Eddas is questioned by some scholars.

Theories
Some scholars have attempted to link Old Norse Nanna with the Sumerian name of the goddess Inanna or the Phrygian goddess Nana.

Scholar Simek (2007) opines that identification with Inanna, Nannar, or Nana is "hardly likely" since they were so widely separated in time and place. Davidson (2008) agrees by understating that while "the idea of a link with Sumerian Inanna, 'Lady of Heaven', was attractive to early scholars" the notion "seems unlikely".

title: Nanna (Norse deity)


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Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-04-25/Arbitration report

Personal attacks cases dominated Arbitration Committee proceedings this week. Progress on cases already accepted by the ArbCom continued this week; four of nine cases were concluded since the last report.

Cases Brought
A case regarding User:STP remained stuck in the petition phase as arbitrators apparently suffered disagreement as to whether or not the user in question should be blocked as a sockpuppet to another user, Alberuni, who was previously banned for anti-Wikipedian behavior. Arbitrator Grunt suggested an immediate ban, while Arbitrator David Gerard felt that insufficient evidence of sockpuppetry existed to provoke such a response. A decision should be forthcoming as Wikipedia's technical support advisors are consulted.

Another outstanding issue was that of Fadix and Coolcat, a personal attacks dispute that had embroiled five different users. Arbitrators are divided as to whether or not the case should be accepted; current votes are three to accept, two to reject and one abstention, a situation exacerbated by the confusing and rancorous exchange on the petition section. It is unclear whether a consensus is forthcoming, and at the moment it looks as though the case will be remanded back to lower levels of dispute resolution, as recommended by Arbitrator mav.

Cases Accepted and Cases in Evidence
The accepted case — after an unusual delay of several days for comment — was the matter of Instantnood, et al., a far-reaching dispute over the matter of China/Taiwan naming conventions. It marks the first ArbCom case in which both sides have sought AMA assistance: the petitioner, jguk (joined by Huaiwei and User:SchmuckyTheCat) has gained the representation of Snowspinner, while Instantnood has secured the services of Advocates Wgfinley and Wally. The case was brought and accepted conditional to a merger with another case on the same issue, brought by SchmuckyTheCat against Instantnood a week before that had stalled in the petition phase. The ArbCom has thus agreed to hear both complaints simultaneously, and began accepting evidence from all interested parties on 21 April.

The matter regarding Users Tkorrovi and Paul Beardsell remained in the evidence phase after its acceptance on 1 April. The case involves a dispute over the artificial consciousness page, and involves a number of alleged personal attacks. An injunction against edits by either users on the pages in question took effect 10 April.

Cases in Voting
Four cases remained in voting this week. The John Gohde case, a dispute over personal attacks and disruption, saw consensus over findings of principle but unresolved questions of fact and a total gridlock in attempts to remedy the situation, as the arbitrator discussion dissolved into piecemeal discussion. A lengthy ban does, however, seem likely. A dispute regarding William M. Connolley and Cortonin over a revert war had no such deadlock, and seemed on track towards a speedy conclusion upon further arbitrators' voting.

The second Netoholic case, meanwhile (about which an injunction was issued on 7 April), despite being an issue of nearly herculean complexity, seemed on track towards a settlement including a referral to the Developer Committee about the viability of meta-templates. The case, which saw several arbitrators in dispute about its acceptance and two recusals, includes several petitioners led by Snowspinner and Neutrality against Netoholic, represented by Advocate Wgfinley of the AMA.

The final case, involving a dispute about classicism centered around WHEELER, involved the usual allegations of incivility coupled with an interesting dispute upon the viability original research as well as the extent to which minority points-of-view ought to be given weight in an article — or even split off into their own. The proposed ruling, which would amount to essentially a slap on the wrist, has already garnered the necessary votes and the case remains only to be moved for closure.

Cases Closed and Moved to Closure
Progress on cases in arbitration continued this week, with a few cases reaching closure since that of Irate, reported upon last week. Motions to close were outstanding on cases regarding 172 and were opened on RJII and Rex071404 3 and his various surrogates. The first is likely to be dismissed, as 172 declared his intention to leave Wikipedia upon the initiation of action against him. The second had a motion to close opened as Arbitrator Grunt noted that significant improvements had occurred in the subject's behavior, as well as objecting to several proposed findings of fact offered by Arbitrator Fred Bauder as being "extraordinarily close to content decisions". In the final case, resolution is likely to involve official sanction of a self-imposed six-month ban, with additional restrictions placed thereafter.

Also this week: Editor's note — Papal scoop — Writing contest — T.R.O.L.L. — Features and admins — Press coverage — The Sanger memoirs | Newsroom

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:Social theory

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): EeveeLynn.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 09:40, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

The Grand Theory
SOCIAL PHENOMENA by Teng Wang

Anon edits/vandalism?
Recently some anon has done extensive edits: some look good, but he also removed a significant part of old material. Somebody should go over it and see what needs to be restored. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 13:23, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

Could the attention tag be made more specific? The article seems to perhaps suffer from a lack of referencing and some formatting problems, but otherwise seems to be a fairly accurate account of social theory defined in opposition to other areas of social studies. --Phnord 12:47, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

Social Theory vs. Sociological Theory
Is there such a distinction? If so what exactly is it?

Maybe a translation stemming from the German controversy of Theorie der Gesellschaft ("theory of society", mostly used for Marxist sociology) as against gesellschaftliche Theorie ("social theory", mostly used for 'bourgeois' sociology)? -- €pa 01:28, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

The latest I heard from an academic is that sociological theory used to be what theorising withing the field of sociology used to be at the time the discipline was attempting to establish itself as a separate entity. Today, however, it is going back towards opening up to various other disciplines and, hence, the preference of using social over sociological theory. :) Kaloyan* 09:11, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Social theory is an inter-disciplinary field that crosses over various disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, literature studies, cultural studies, history, etc. to name a few. In contrast, sociology is a specific discipline of the social sciences. Sociological theory is still quite distinct as an area and much new theory claims to be precisley sociological rather than general social theory. Although they have similarities they exist as separate bodies of knowledge. JenLouise 06:24, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I am inclined to disagree. Sociology might just be one of many social sciences in modern terms, but it is also irrefutably the social science in historical terms (assuming we categorise philosophy and political theory as different things). The Anglo-American umbrella term 'social science' arrived much later than the original continental sociologists and their attempts to establish, and consequently disestablish, the science of society. This umbrella term, which I think constitutes any casual differentiation between "sociological theory" and "social theory" today, owes to the attempt to inject anthropology and economics back into the mix at a later date. 'Social theory' is not really synonymous with 'social science' in general - it refers predominantly to the work which stems back to Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Simmel, Weber, and the others. It would be unfair for economists or communications theorists or cultural theorists to bandy-about terminology like "gemeinschaft" or "agency" or "instrumental action" as if these terms had always existed independent of everything. Most social theory is, above all else, sociological theory. --Tomsega (talk) 00:25, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I've recently attempted to clarify the distinction between social and sociological theories, you can see a dedicated section in the sociological theory article. Of course, social theory and social science are not the same. Social theory is subjective, values and judges. Sociological theory is more objective and scientific. Social science is the umberalla term, the counterpart to natural science. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 20:36, 2 March 2011 (UTC)

removal of "main" template
I removed the "main" template from the social theory and hard science section as the an article called Sociology versus social theory shouldn't contain information on hard or natural sciences and therefore would not be a more in-depth discussion of the section it was added to. I have also dropped the heading for that section down a level because it is part of social theory as a discipline. If someone feels strongly they may want to add sociology vs social theory as a second heading in this section and then link to the article. JenLouise 08:10, 2 January 2007 (UTC)ff

Post-modern social theory section
The Post-modern social theory section at the moment is just a see also list. Unless some content regarding the nature of post-modern social theory can be added (as per the commentary for Classical social theory, Modern social theory, etc), this section should be deleted with the 3 articles just appearing in the See Also section. JenLouise 06:27, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

Merge from Social thought
It seems to me that Social thought is a poor fork of this article. It should be merged here, and either redirected, or turned into a disambig between social theory and social science. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 20:34, 2 March 2011 (UTC)

I don't know enough about Wikipedia to take a view on redirect vs disambig, and I don't know enough about social theory to handle the proposed merge - but I have read enough social theory to feel confident in agreeing with Piotrus that a merge of the Social thought page with this one would be a good plan. Doctor Girl (talk) 15:42, 30 September 2012 (UTC)

Since I don't see any disagreement, I copied and pasted everything from Social thought into this page, as step one of Merge. It recommends "do any necessary copyediting and rearranging in a separate, second edit rather than when you first paste the moved text." I agree with User:Bgwhite that this article needs some post-merge editing to merge stuff into a single References section, a single External links section, etc. It appears that we disagree on the relative importance of the essays WP:NORUSH vs WP:OWNFEET, but I still hope we can work together to make an excellent article by building from the best parts of both articles that were merged into it. --DavidCary (talk) 14:24, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

Awkward phrase in the lede
The final sentence in the lede states "With this in mind it is easy to link social theory to deeper seated philosophical discussions to assure the responsibility in every human also." There are a number of problems with this sentence. First, ending a sentence with an adverb like "also" is grammatically non-standard. Second, the premise would tend to be contradicted by much of social theory, with its close ties to post-structuralism, which tends to diminish agency. Third, I don't see how "it is easy to link social theory to deeper seated philosophical discussions", nor am I sure what distinguishes average philosophical discussions from "deeper seated" examples of the same. Can anyone explain? Bricology (talk) 16:37, 30 January 2016 (UTC)

Social Theory Expansion
The section containing Marxism could be expanded a little more, or have a general overview of his ideas of socioeconomic status and class struggle. The section does not really explain what his theories were so if anyone felt inclined to it could use some work. Also there could also be a link to the Marxism article. MaggieGore (talk) 02:38, 20 September 2016 (UTC)

Small Editing Plans
Hello! Over the next few weeks I plan on trying to improve this article through a few organizational and wording edits. I noticed this article was tagged for being written like a personal or opinion essay, so I am hoping to re-word the things that come off as opinionated to sound more unbiased and informational. The information is all very good, just a few wording choices could be changed to make it sound more like it is written from a neutral point of view. As far as organizational edits I plan on trimming down the lead description to be more concise, then relocating the rest of the information that is currently in the lead description into its appropriate subsection. Of course if anyone has any additional thoughts, suggestions, or objections- please chime in! I would love to get some other opinions, these are just the things I though could be improved after reading the tags and what had been discussed on the talk page previously! EeveeLynn (talk) 16:40, 26 February 2018 (UTC)EeveeLynn

title: Talk:Social theory


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User:Judea~enwiki

We will take back our lands.

Sockpuppet created to violate 3RR. Blocked indefinitely. SlimVirgin (talk) 06:09, Apr 22, 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Judea~enwiki


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Talk:USB mass storage device class/Archive 1

New wishes for an editor to volunteer near here
From offline: "Edifying. Now, I know what BBB is, and that BOT and BBB are interchangeable, a point that" had "completely escaped me ..."

Please do now proceed to answer:

Q: What were the uses of the obsolete bits?

A (draft two):

Command queueing.

The obsolete bCSWStatus value originally let the device say it had discarded a CBW, rather than acting on it.

The obsolete bmCBWFlags bit originally let the host ask the device to discard every CBW queued after a CBW that failed. The idea was, set the bit, queue a lot of traffic, hope it passes. If it all passes, no worries. But if anything does fail, then the host and the device resynchronise by the device discarding all CBW with the bit set until finally the host tries a CBW with the bit clear. Ordinarily, that first following CBW with the bit clear would be an auto sense CBW, sent by the host in response to the failure.

Merge from USB mass storage rationale
See also USB Mass Storage Rationale, which claims it should be merged with USB Mass Storage.

 * Made this merge now. Nixdorf 06:46, 2005 Apr 22 (UTC)

Copy of discussions from USB mass storage rationale
Hey wow, this page still exists, though the original authors seemingly have stalled out. [This page didn't obviously still exist because the links into this wiki are case sensitive (!).]

Another, perhaps equally abortive, try at structuring this info in a way that fits into wikipedia is: Mass Storage. However, beware, that's not the same as Mass storage, so presumably someone capable will rename it to some other more appropriate name.

---

Intended Audience
Ignorant people suddenly tasked with implementing either the host half or the device half of USB Mass Storage, for example having to discover the unwritten truth that bCSWStatus = x01 means autosenseable.

Alternate Table of Contents
From Alan Stern we have the suggestion:

 * Generic USB, including the notions of device classes, descriptors, and interfaces (doesn't need to be very extensive since we can refer to the article on USB);

 * Generic USB Storage, including the concepts of transport and protocol, maybe also Command/Data/Status phases;

 * Generic SCSI, including the concepts that are relevant for USB Storage (so Success-Failure-Error would be a subtopic here, as would AutoSense, Residue, READ(6) vs. READ(10), etc.);

 * USB Mass Storage protocols (= SubClass), with subtopics for Transparent SCSI, UFI, and any others you want;

 * USB Mass Storage transports (= Protocol), with subtopics for BBB, CBI, and CB;

 * Miscellaneous.

Links
Linux usb-storage has advice on composing this page, in such places as:

 * "2nd from: Alan Stern"
 * "1st from: Alan Stern"

 * "1st from Pete Zaitcev"

[To be deleted!]

Meta-discussion
Please help us restyle the article, in accord with such guidance for newbie Wikipedians as:

 * neutral point of view
 * your first article
 * tutorial

Please consider contributing and cross-link relevant articles that do not yet exist, such as:

 * Generic USB Storage
 * Transparent SCSI
 * Pass or Fail or Other
 * Auto Sense

I began this article as parts of my blog plavarre "SCSI pass thru".

VfD (Vote for Deletion)
Undecided

This article was proposed for deletion January 2005. The discussion is archived at Votes for deletion/USB Mass Storage Rationale. Joyous 02:36, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)

Con

This article should be deleted. The page is the result of using Wikipedia as a sandbox for committe discussion and not encyclopedic. The facts are presented as a protocol from a committe and has no value to the reader of an encyclopedia. If anything is to be merged into the USB mass storage device class article, it will have to be rewritten from scratch anyway. Nixdorf 06:38, 2005 Apr 22 (UTC)

I think the Nixdorf paragraph above came from a context which argued that the Rationale article should be deleted - not an argument to delete [USB mass storage device class | USB Mass Storage device class].

Pro

Newbies arrive feeling the pain of not understanding this topic from time to time. Where better than an Encyclopedia to tell them to go? The committees involved in specifying the USB Mass Storage device class have no direct interest in helping the newbie: their participation is largely paid by companies with no interest in creating more competition. Some of the people who know this stuff are happy to help the newbies, but they have no place to do so, and little to zero experience of Wikipedia's neutral point of view.

We're not using Wikipedia as a "sandbox for committee discussion" - we're using Wikipedia as a sandbox for discussion that the committee is likewise disinclined to host. We have people asking questions, and people willing to answer. What we're missing is someone with the skills of an editor - someone to suggest an appropriately encyclopedic structure for this available and often sought, but never yet published, information.

Free blogging exists elsewhere on the web - hosting the discussion here is not important. The discussion came here because this looks like a good place to create the answer, that's all. Rather than posting answers to be told, please delete them, we were hoping to connect somehow with someone helpful who knows much of the art Editing Encyclopedic Articles.

Copy of Q & A from USB mass storage rationale

 * There was a merger tag here proposing a merge with USB mass storage device class, but that has now been done - the following relates to that merger tag.

The USB Mass Storage Rationale is the why behind the what that is USB Mass Storage. This rationale was a merely verbal tradition first made available in writing and from a neutral point of view by Wikipedia.

USB divides the self-description of all devices into a sparsely populated three byte space named: b...Class ...SubClass ...Protocol. The x 08 XX XX space is Mass Storage. The x 08 XX 50 space is the generic USB Mass Storage space, also known as BBB. First to ship into that space was the x 08 06 50 Iomega Zip 100 of November 1998. Microsoft now recommends the x 08 06 50 space for all removable and detachable flash, at least up to 32 GiB/disc.

Back in 1998, USB first defined the x 08 XX (00|01) CBI/CB space. Experience in that space rapidly motivated the design of the superseding BBB standard, conceived in the summer of 1998, reduced to practice by autumn, and published in the following autumn of 1999.

Alphabet soup?
The BBB, CBI, and CB acronyms refer to the USB "transfer type" chosen to transport the command, data, and status that make up each mass storage transaction (read, write, or other).

 * CBI transports command, data, and status by Control, Bulk, and Interrupt pipes. CBI/CB means bInterfaceProtocol x00 or x01, CB/I means bInterfaceProtocol x01 or x00.

 * BBB transports command, data, and status by Bulk, Bulk, and Bulk pipes, only and always. USB never got around to defining BBB formally, having chosen instead to publish the document defining BBB but labeled BOT = Bulk Only Transport.

 * CB actually does not transport passed status, instead choosing to transport only failed status by refusing the next try to transport a command.

Choosing BBB over CBI/CB transport fundamentally delivers improved USB thruput by sharply reducing implicit latencies:

 * Transport by Control in USB 1 FS implied a min latency, in Wintel UHCI, of one CDB per three frames (i.e. per three milliseconds), whoops.

 * Transport by Interrupt in USB 1 FS implied a minimum latency of a thousand microseconds, and a typical latency of more, whoops. Transport by Interrupt also requires an Interrupt pipe, less commonly available than two Bulk pipes.

 * Neglecting to transport all status provoked many hosts to poll for status with op x03 "REQUEST SENSE", easily adding as much as three thousand microseconds of latency.

Specifically in practice, choosing BBB raised max theoretical thruput to 19 * 64 = 1216 bytes/ms, up maybe 5X from the floppy-like maximums seen with CBI/CB.

Generic in what sense?
Microsoft Windows since XP/ 2K/ ME connects generically to x 08 (06|05|02) 50 Mass Storage devices.

People who make other kinds of USB Mass Storage devices have to ask their customers to add software else pay Microsoft to connect.

People say Mac and Linux connect generically to more Mass Storage, like maybe the entire standard space that was x 08 (06|05|04|03|02|01) (50|01|00) However, USB has since officially obsoleted and restricted the x 08 XX (01|00) "CB/CBI"  space to USB 1 FS FDD.

Why is "September 31, 1999" the date of the BBB title page?
That's a joke. That date does not exist, except as an alias of October 1, 1999.

Why enumerate x 00 01 50 rather than x 00 01 02?
USB defines the Mass Storage bInterfaceProtocol values x 00 01 50, not x 00 01 02.

Why not x02?

Because the x50 = ASCII 'P' stands for "Pat", one of authors, who signed for the group, unusual in an otherwise faceless industry. The first x 08 XX 50 devices shipped in autumn of 1998, ten months before the merely public standard appeared. At the time, more people thought the BBB standard would be defined incompatibly with the early proprietary devices and given the code x02. Pat chose x50 as an alternative to the xFF reserved to mean proprietary forever, a number found far separated from x00, x01, x02, a number familiar to those of the P people who keep ASCII and Unicode memorised. The July 1999 meeting of USB changed the final standard to agree with the shipped product and to continue use of the x50 code.

Why enumerate only six flavours of SCSI?
Why does the bInterfaceSubClass enumeration of SCSI standards stop at x06?

Some BBB people saw that enumeration as a CBI/CB mistake, redundant (and therefore potentially in disagreement) with the more significant op x12 "INQUIRY" data, such as byte 0 mask x1F PDT ("peripheral device type").

The x06 Transparent SCSI code means look to SCSI "INQUIRY" for SCSI Inquiry data, not to USB.

Nobody's bother to define any new codes, since.

What are the true names of the bCSWStatus values?
The standard says Passed, Failed, and Phase Error.

The English inside the standard can be more incisively summarised as: Passed, Autosenseable, and Other. [Somebody write a wikipedia article on that distinction!]

What were the obsolete uses of the reserved bits?
Command queueing. (Somebody say more!)

weird meta-text
"The USB mass storage rationale is an interpretation of how the USB mass storage device class should be properly implemented in devices and operating systems. This rationale was a merely verbal tradition first made available in writing and from a neutral point of view by Wikipedia, where Wikipedia was used as a sandbox by the developers of the rationale."

 * Huh??? What does wikipedia have to do with USB classes? - Omegatron 02:11, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Hlslaughter

New here... testing 1...2...3

title: User talk:Hlslaughter


text:
Saul Teukolsky

Saul Arno Teukolsky (born August 2, 1947, Johannesburg, South Africa) is a theoretical astrophysicist and a professor of Physics and Astronomy at Caltech and Cornell University. His major research interests include general relativity, relativistic astrophysics, and computational astrophysics.

Biography
After matriculating from Selborne College (East London, South Africa) in 1964, Teukolsky received a Bachelor of Science in Honors Physics and Honors Applied Mathematics from the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa in 1970. He went on to be a graduate student under Kip Thorne at Caltech where he received his Ph.D. in 1973.

He joined Cornell University as an Assistant Professor of Physics and Astronomy in 1974 after serving as the Richard Chace Tolman Research Fellow for one year at Caltech. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 1977 and Full Professor in 1983. In 1999 he was named the Hans A. Bethe professor of physics and astrophysics, a position which he still holds. In 2017 he was also appointed as Robinson Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics at Caltech.

Teukolsky is one of the pioneers of numerical relativity: the subject that deals with equations involving general relativity using supercomputers. He is a coauthor of the Numerical Recipes series of books on scientific computing. Today his research group works on numerical relativity calculations to predict signals from the LIGO and LISA experiments.

Awards

 * Alfred P. Sloan Fellow, 1973
 * John Simon Guggenheim Fellow, 1981
 * Forefronts of Large-Scale Computing Award, 1990
 * Fellow of the American Physical Society, 1994
 * Fellow of the American Astronomical Society.
 * Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996
 * Member of National Academy of Sciences, 2003
 * Dirac Medal of the ICTP, 2021
 * Einstein prize of APS (joint with Clifford Will), 2021.

title: Saul Teukolsky


text:
Spectacled thrush

The spectacled thrush, bare-eyed thrush, or yellow-eyed thrush (Turdus nudigenis), is a resident breeding bird in the Lesser Antilles and in South America from Colombia and  Venezuela south and east to northern Brazil. In Trinidad and Tobago, this thrush is also known as big-eye grieve.

The similar but allopatric Ecuadorian thrush was formerly considered a subspecies of the bare-eyed thrush and named T. n. maculirostris; it is now normally considered as a separate species T. maculirostris. It has a narrower eyering and is only found in forest and woodland in western Ecuador and northwestern Peru.

Description
The spectacled thrush is 23–24 cm long and weighs 60 g. It is plain olive-brown above and paler brown below. The throat is brown-streaked off-white, and the lower belly is whitish. It has a prominent yellow eye ring which gives rise to its English and scientific names.

There are two poorly defined subspecies, differing mainly in the darkness of the plumage. Sexes are similar, but young birds are flecked above and spotted below, and have a thinner eye ring.

The song is a musical warble, slower and lower pitched than that of the cocoa thrush (T. fumigatus), and it also produces a cat-like queeoow call and, when uncomfortable, emits a kereel.

Ecology
The habitat of this large thrush is open woodland, forest clearings and cultivation. The bare-eyed thrush mainly feeds on or near the ground on fruit, berries and some insects and earthworms. It is a shy species, but on Trinidad and Tobago it is much tamer, and will come to feeders and take food from tables.

The nest is a lined bulky cup of twigs low in a tree. The two to three reddish-blotched deep-blue eggs are incubated by the female alone.

title: Spectacled thrush


text: User talk:141.150.240.226

title: User talk:141.150.240.226


text:
Talk:Cacademons

On 2 Apr 2005, this article was nominated for deletion. See Votes for deletion/Cacademons.

title: Talk:Cacademons


text:
Talk:The Blue Danube

Lyrics
I have just inserted the rest of the words. But it has been over 40 years since I last seriously tried to speak German, so there may yet be some transcription errors; in particular, the copy I worked from came from a printshop that did not have "ß", so in some places I had to guess whether "ß" or "ss" was meant. I also did the best I could to provide a working English translation, but I had to use translate.google.com, and then edit it as best I could. If someone who is fluent in both languages could tackle it, that would be a Good Thing. John W. Kennedy (talk) 22:02, 12 May 2010 (UTC)

Recording
The article needs a better copy of the piece—with better sound quality and with the complete composition. Noz92 (talk) 00:39, 10 October 2008 (UTC)

Columbus restaurant

 * "The Blue Danube is also the name of a popular restaurant near the Ohio State University campus. It was established in 1940."

I've already reverted a similar para a while back, so I won't do so again...without justifying myself: I don't believe this restaurant is noteworthy enough to be encyclopedic. A google gives this info:"This campus haunt dishes up greasy delights like cheese bread, burgers, gyros, open-faced turkey sandwiches and french fries doused with gravy, all in a famously smoky atmosphere (enjoy it while you can). The Blue Danube is sure to satisfy your late-night cravings, whether it’s a night you won’t forget or one you won’t be able to remember." Did Hemingway hang there? No, but Zachery Allen Starkey does, apparently. Joestynes 05:50, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC) I'm actually looking for an article about the history of this place. It does have a long history. http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/business/2010/06/29/tradition-thrives.html Purplerhinoceros (talk) 01:04, 18 January 2015 (UTC)

Changing some years
I think the years for both of these Looney Tunes episodes are wrong. The first links to the Wikipedia article on the episode which lists Sept 25, 1943 for the original air date. I will change this one to agree with that. As for the second one the site lists the original air date as Dec 03, 1960. I have changed both years on this page and listed the old and new versions of this part below. It may be a good idea to check the years for some of the other shows listed.

Old Text:
 * In a 1942 Warner Bros. cartoon, A Corny Concerto, starring Daffy Duck.

 * In a 1942 Warner Bros. cartoon, High Note.

New Text:
 * In a 1943 Warner Bros. cartoon, A Corny Concerto, starring Daffy Duck.

 * In a 1960 Warner Bros. cartoon, High Note.

--AndrewBuck 20:15, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

Split Page -- The Blue Danube in popular culture?
Looks like the pop culture references are in danger of taking over the article. The work itself deserves more of the spotlight. What's the current sentiment in creating these "in pop culture reference" articles? This is certainly one of the most pop-culture-referenced pieces of classical music. DavidRF 22:26, 7 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Indeed. The song is so frequently used that a list of every reference to it in popular culture would be ever-growing, unmaintainable, and of little encyclopedic value.  I have removed it altogether. —Psychonaut 13:58, 11 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, but I came to this page specifically looking for a list of popular cultural uses of the piece! There was a discussion of the 2001 film and talk of where else it had been used, and ... disappointment at wikipedia not having the answer! jlang 13:02, 14 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Perhaps more spefically - this piece has been used quite frequently when it comes to 'space' themes. I don't see why this should not be allowed to be noted ZeBoxx 18:10, 11 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Well the pop culture references are relevant, and the portion of the article that deals with it as it is is professional and clean and there is no reason that it shouldn't be included. It isn't such a large list that it takes away from the relevance of the piece (and even if it does, that should not be a concern for Wikipedia). If it becomes a problem in the future, it can be cleaned up.

--Anon. 18:42, 11 November 2007 (UTC) Curleylocks74 04:31, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

How come there is mention of the piece being in another game, but not any sign of Elite, one of the more well-known uses of it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.105.240.61 (talk) 22:34, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

I came to this page looking for to this song specifically. For an english paper would have been nice to include info about its pop culture relevence. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.77.151.206 (talk) 15:49, 27 October 2008 (UTC)

 * I am going to add a in popular culture section as the consensus appears to be that there should be one. I also came here to find out which major things it had been used in. KlickingKarl (talk) 10:57, 1 October 2010 (UTC)
 * In fact I have reinserted fragments of the whole section removed by Psychonaut in 2007. I have simplified the list to the most notable or longest use of the pieces, with a slight bias towards including other musical uses, as this seems more relevant to the content. I think this list can be maintained. Someone could put a tag on the edit screen saying don't just include any simple use (I don't know how to do this).KlickingKarl (talk) 11:22, 1 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I reverted that, because I agree with the sentiment that popular culture references shouldn't outweigh the material about the article itself. Is there any reason why the use of a piece of classical music should be so notable? A list of people complaining that they would like to know where it was used does not confer such notability. WikiuserNI (talk) 14:35, 1 October 2010 (UTC)

I think that within this thread, generally more people are in support of having an 'in popular culture' section, than those who aren't (my count at 5 to 3). I don't think that the small section of cultural references that I reverted can be considered to outweigh the article material itself. I would argue it is notable as a piece of classical music, as it has appeared in so much media, even if people didn't know what it was called, the sound is familiar to people. Logic being that people would try to find out what it is, this is surely where wikipedia comes in, as a place for people to learn things? From Wikipedia:"In popular culture"; "In determining whether a reference is notable enough for inclusion, one helpful test can be to look at whether a person who is familiar with the topic only through the reference in question has the potential to learn something meaningful about the topic from that work alone." The popular culture section surely is included within this remit? I would like some other opinions here too. KlickingKarl (talk) 22:57, 1 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I reverted the edits, because I got no further comments and for the reasons explained above. These were removed on the on the grounds that it was uncited (fair point, I should have done that) and wikipedia asks us not to start lists of trivia. Unless I'm mis-understanding something here, I thought I found on wiki where it said that the stuff is worth including under "In popular culture". Please could people comment here. I really think this should be in the article in an organised way, which wont dominate the other content.KlickingKarl (talk) 13:30, 3 November 2010 (UTC)
 * If something has had a genuine significant impact on culture (popular or otherwise) it will most likely be mentioned in another third party, reliable source. WikiuserNI (talk) 14:46, 3 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Check the history of the article. There used to a "pop culture" section back in 2007 or so, but it was removed.  Generally, once these sections are created for these types of ubiquitous musical pieces (e.g. Beethoven's Ninth, Pachelbel's Canon, 1812 Overture, etc) they tend to grow out of control because everyone wants to add some particular movie, television commercial or video game that uses the piece and there have been countless such references.  So, as a general rule, the editors at WP:CM avoid these types of sections.  There have been been attempts to fork off the pop culture references into child articles (e.g. something like The Blue Danube in pop culture).  That would eliminate the problem that WP:CM has with pop culture references taking over the article... limiting its exposure here to a single link at the bottom of the page, but those child articles always get deleted on WP:TRIVIA grounds.DavidRF (talk) 16:12, 3 November 2010 (UTC)

I suggest Paul Shaffer's comments be added
Paul Shaffer called it a "piece of crap" recently on The Late Show With David Letterman. I don't know the date it aired, but I'm sure the episode will repeat soon due to the writer's strike.

Spike Jones
Spike Jones did a parody version... AnonMoos (talk) 00:55, 12 September 2009 (UTC)

Joseph Lhevinne
May be i mispelled name. Blue Danube, beautiful Strauss waltz, joseph lhevinne played it in the 1940's, do we have article covering his version, its supreme piano playing, others tried to cover but not as well! What's link to Joe's, if blue danube is missing, make sure it's there!
 * Update, I mastered Lhevinne's style, after a month of notes research!

popularity
"The piece's popularity has been bolstered, as it became famous for its prominent use in the highly influential Stanley Kubrick film 2001: A Space Odyssey. In the movie, the piece is used to accompany a lengthy scene in which a Pan Am spaceplane is seen docking with a space station, as well as its trip to the Moon."

I think this should be taken away. This was one of the absolute most famous classical pieces long before it was part of this film. It would be like saying that the musical "mama mia" helped make the abba hits famous....

Translation
The translation of the text is pretty poor. Unfortunately my German, while good enough for me to see some errors, is not good enough for me to correct them with confidence. I hope someone can lend a hand.88.167.22.75 (talk) 16:04, 19 May 2013 (UTC)

Small doubt related to the story of Johannes Brahms autographing with measures from the "Blue Danube"
Which of the 2 stories below is true? (If uncertain, maybe the two women/references should be mentioned!?)

From The_Blue_Danube: "When Strauss's stepdaughter, Alice von Meyszner-Strauss, asked the composer Johannes Brahms to sign her autograph-fan, he wrote down the first bars of The Blue Danube, but adding 'Leider nicht von Johannes Brahms' (Alas! not by Johannes Brahms).The Blue Danube"

From Johann_Strauss_II: "A story is told in biographies of both men that Strauss's wife Adele approached Brahms with a customary request that he autograph her fan. It was usual for the composer to inscribe a few measures of his best-known music, and then sign his name. Brahms, however, inscribed a few measures from the 'Blue Danube', and then wrote beneath it: 'Unfortunately, NOT by Johannes Brahms.' Johann_Strauss_II"

 * The story is much beloved, but I'm not sure I've seen anything like solid evidence, so I am starting to wonder whether it's apocryphal. FWIW, I've heard the first of the above two versions, not the second.--108.16.230.212 (talk) 22:32, 23 July 2021 (UTC)

Cymbal crashes?
The text says that Waltz 5B is"punctuated by cymbal crashes" yet the instrumentation list (which agrees with the score I have) does not list cymbals --- just triangle and various drums.Musanim (talk) 00:52, 17 August 2016 (UTC)
 * I was too lazy to look up the full score, but there is a cymbal player in view in from the Vienna Philharmonic under Franz Welser-Möst from 2011 at 6:25. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 07:44, 17 August 2016 (UTC)

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Hesitations
I have heard this piece as a piano reduction, it is played with a small hesitation in the central melodic figure instead of smooth waltz-time. Why? --2001:44B8:3102:BB00:DCF1:E512:E2B3:1D24 (talk) 23:32, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Blue Danube


text:
Substance dependence

Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A drug addiction, a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An addictive drug is a drug which is both rewarding and reinforcing. ΔFosB, a gene transcription factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions,  but not dependence.

The International Classification of Diseases classifies substance dependence as a mental and behavioural disorder. Within the framework of the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), substance dependence is redefined as a drug addiction, and can be diagnosed without the occurrence of a withdrawal syndrome. It was described accordingly: "When an individual persists in use of alcohol or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Compulsive and repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This, along with Substance Abuse are considered Substance Use Disorders." In the DSM-5 (released in 2013), substance abuse and substance dependence were eliminated and replaced with the category of substance use disorders. This was done because "the tolerance and withdrawal that previously defined dependence are actually very normal responses to prescribed medications that affect the central nervous system and do not necessarily indicate the presence of an addiction."

Withdrawal
Withdrawal is the body's reaction to abstaining from a substance upon which a person has developed a dependence syndrome. When dependence has developed, cessation of substance-use produces an unpleasant state, which promotes continued drug use through negative reinforcement; i.e., the drug is used to escape or avoid re-entering the associated withdrawal state. The withdrawal state may include physical-somatic symptoms (physical dependence), emotional-motivational symptoms (psychological dependence), or both. Chemical and hormonal imbalances may arise if the substance is not re-introduced. Psychological stress may also result if the substance is not re-introduced.

Infants also experience substance withdrawal, known as neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), which can have severe and life-threatening effects. Addiction to drugs such as alcohol in expectant mothers not only causes NAS, but also an array of other issues which can continually affect the infant throughout their lifetime.

Dependence potential
The dependence potential or dependence liability of a drug varies from substance to substance, and from individual to individual. Dose, frequency, pharmacokinetics of a particular substance, route of administration, and time are critical factors for developing a drug dependence.

An article in The Lancet compared the harm and dependence liability of 20 drugs, using a scale from zero to three for physical dependence, psychological dependence, and pleasure to create a mean score for dependence. Selected results can be seen in the chart below.

Capture rates
Capture rates enumerate the percentage of users who reported that they had become dependent to their respective drug at some point.

Psychological dependence
Two factors have been identified as playing pivotal roles in psychological dependence: the neuropeptide "corticotropin-releasing factor" (CRF) and the gene transcription factor "cAMP response element binding protein" (CREB). The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) is one brain structure that has been implicated in the psychological component of drug dependence. In the NAcc, CREB is activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) immediately after a high and triggers changes in gene expression that affect proteins such as dynorphin; dynorphin peptides reduce dopamine release into the NAcc by temporarily inhibiting the reward pathway. A sustained activation of CREB thus forces a larger dose to be taken to reach the same effect. In addition, it leaves the user feeling generally depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for another dose.

In addition to CREB, it is hypothesized that stress mechanisms play a role in dependence. Koob and Kreek have hypothesized that during drug use, CRF activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) and other stress systems in the extended amygdala. This activation influences the dysregulated emotional state associated with psychological dependence. They found that as drug use escalates, so does the presence of CRF in human cerebrospinal fluid. In rat models, the separate use of CRF inhibitors and CRF receptor antagonists both decreased self-administration of the drug of study. Other studies in this review showed dysregulation of other neuropeptides that affect the HPA axis, including enkephalin which is an endogenous opioid peptide that regulates pain. It also appears that μ-opioid receptors, which enkephalin acts upon, is influential in the reward system and can regulate the expression of stress hormones.

Increased expression of AMPA receptors in nucleus accumbens MSNs is a potential mechanism of aversion produced by drug withdrawal.

Physical dependence
Upregulation of the cAMP signal transduction pathway in the locus coeruleus by CREB has been implicated as the mechanism responsible for certain aspects of opioid-induced physical dependence. The temporal course of withdrawal correlates with LC firing, and administration of α2 agonists into the locus coeruleus leads to a decrease in LC firing and norepinephrine release during withdrawal. A possible mechanism involves upregulation of NMDA receptors, which is supported by the attenuation of withdraw by NMDA receptor antagonists. Physical dependence on opioids has been observed to produce an elevation of extracellular glutamate, an increase in NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A, phosphorylated CaMKII, and c-fos. Expression of CaMKII and c-fos is attenuated by NMDA receptor antagonists, which is associated with blunted withdrawal in adult rats, but not neonatal rats While acute administration of opioids decreases AMPA receptor expression and depresses both NMDA and non-NMDA excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the NAC, withdrawal involves a lowered threshold for LTP and an increase in spontaneous firing in the NAc.

DSM classification
"Substance dependence", as defined in the DSM-IV, can be diagnosed with physiological dependence, evidence of tolerance or withdrawal, or without physiological dependence. DSM-IV substance dependencies include:
 * 303.90 Alcohol dependence
 * 304.00 Opioid dependence
 * 304.10 Sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic dependence (including benzodiazepine dependence and barbiturate dependence)
 * 304.20 Cocaine dependence
 * 304.30 Cannabis dependence
 * 304.40 Amphetamine dependence (or amphetamine-like)
 * 304.50 Hallucinogen dependence
 * 304.60 Inhalant dependence
 * 304.80 Polysubstance dependence
 * 304.90 Phencyclidine (or phencyclidine-like) dependence
 * 304.90 Other (or unknown) substance dependence
 * 305.10 Nicotine dependence

Management
Addiction is a complex but treatable condition. It is characterized by compulsive drug craving, seeking, and use that persists even if the user is aware of severe adverse consequences. For some people, addiction becomes chronic, with periodic relapses even after long periods of abstinence. As a chronic, relapsing disease, addiction may require continued treatments to increase the intervals between relapses and diminish their intensity. While some with substance issues recover and lead fulfilling lives, others require ongoing additional support. The ultimate goal of addiction treatment is to enable an individual to manage their substance misuse; for some this may mean abstinence. Immediate goals are often to reduce substance abuse, improve the patient's ability to function, and minimize the medical and social complications of substance abuse and their addiction; this is called "harm reduction".

Treatments for addiction vary widely according to the types of drugs involved, amount of drugs used, duration of the drug addiction, medical complications and the social needs of the individual. Determining the best type of recovery program for an addicted person depends on a number of factors, including: personality, drugs of choice, concept of spirituality or religion, mental or physical illness, and local availability and affordability of programs.

Many different ideas circulate regarding what is considered a successful outcome in the recovery from addiction. Programs that emphasize controlled drinking exist for alcohol addiction. Opiate replacement therapy has been a medical standard of treatment for opioid addiction for many years.

Treatments and attitudes toward addiction vary widely among different countries. In the US and developing countries, the goal of commissioners of treatment for drug dependence is generally total abstinence from all drugs. Other countries, particularly in Europe, argue the aims of treatment for drug dependence are more complex, with treatment aims including reduction in use to the point that drug use no longer interferes with normal activities such as work and family commitments; shifting the addict away from more dangerous routes of drug administration such as injecting to safer routes such as oral administration; reduction in crime committed by drug addicts; and treatment of other comorbid conditions such as AIDS, hepatitis and mental health disorders. These kinds of outcomes can be achieved without eliminating drug use completely. Drug treatment programs in Europe often report more favorable outcomes than those in the US because the criteria for measuring success are functional rather than abstinence-based. The supporters of programs with total abstinence from drugs as a goal believe that enabling further drug use means prolonged drug use and risks an increase in addiction and complications from addiction.

Residential
Residential drug treatment can be broadly divided into two camps: 12-step programs and therapeutic communities. 12-step programs are a nonclinical support-group and spiritual-based approach to treating addiction. Therapy typically involves the use of cognitive-behavioral therapy, an approach that looks at the relationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviors, addressing the root cause of maladaptive behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy treats addiction as a behavior rather than a disease, and so is subsequently curable, or rather, unlearnable. Cognitive-behavioral therapy programs recognize that, for some individuals, controlled use is a more realistic possibility.

One of many recovery methods are 12-step recovery programs, with prominent examples including Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, and Pills Anonymous. They are commonly known and used for a variety of addictions for the individual addicted and the family of the individual. Substance-abuse rehabilitation (rehab) centers offer a residential treatment program for some of the more seriously addicted, in order to isolate the patient from drugs and interactions with other users and dealers. Outpatient clinics usually offer a combination of individual counseling and group counseling. Frequently, a physician or psychiatrist will prescribe medications in order to help patients cope with the side effects of their addiction. Medications can help immensely with anxiety and insomnia, can treat underlying mental disorders (cf. self-medication hypothesis, Khantzian 1997) such as depression, and can help reduce or eliminate withdrawal symptomology when withdrawing from physiologically addictive drugs. Some examples are using benzodiazepines for alcohol detoxification, which prevents delirium tremens and complications; using a slow taper of benzodiazepines or a taper of phenobarbital, sometimes including another antiepileptic agent such as gabapentin, pregabalin, or valproate, for withdrawal from barbiturates or benzodiazepines; using drugs such as baclofen to reduce cravings and propensity for relapse amongst addicts to any drug, especially effective in stimulant users, and alcoholics (in which it is nearly as effective as benzodiazepines in preventing complications); using clonidine, an alpha-agonist, and loperamide for opioid detoxification, for first-time users or those who wish to attempt an abstinence-based recovery (90% of opioid users relapse to active addiction within eight months or are multiple relapse patients); or replacing an opioid that is interfering with or destructive to a user's life, such as illicitly-obtained heroin, dilaudid, or oxycodone, with an opioid that can be administered legally, reduces or eliminates drug cravings, and does not produce a high, such as methadone or buprenorphine – opioid replacement therapy – which is the gold standard for treatment of opioid dependence in developed countries, reducing the risk and cost to both user and society more effectively than any other treatment modality (for opioid dependence), and shows the best short-term and long-term gains for the user, with the greatest longevity, least risk of fatality, greatest quality of life, and lowest risk of relapse and legal issues including arrest and incarceration.

In a survey of treatment providers from three separate institutions, the National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors, Rational Recovery Systems and the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, measuring the treatment provider's responses on the "Spiritual Belief Scale" (a scale measuring belief in the four spiritual characteristics of AA identified by Ernest Kurtz); the scores were found to explain 41% of the variance in the treatment provider's responses on the "Addiction Belief Scale" (a scale measuring adherence to the disease model or the free-will model of addiction).

Behavioral programming
Behavioral programming is considered critical in helping those with addictions achieve abstinence. From the applied behavior analysis literature and the behavioral psychology literature, several evidence based intervention programs have emerged: (1) behavioral marital therapy; (2) community reinforcement approach; (3) cue exposure therapy; and (4) contingency management strategies. In addition, the same author suggests that social skills training adjunctive to inpatient treatment of alcohol dependence is probably efficacious. Community reinforcement has both efficacy and effectiveness data. In addition, behavioral treatment such as community reinforcement and family training (CRAFT) have helped family members to get their loved ones into treatment. Motivational intervention has also shown to be an effective treatment for substance dependence.

Alternative therapies
Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, are used by some practitioners to alleviate the symptoms of drug addiction. In 1997, the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted, as policy, the following statement after a report on a number of alternative therapies including acupuncture: "There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies." In addition, new research surrounding the effects of psilocybin on smokers revealed that 80% of smokers quit for six months following the treatment, and 60% remained smoking free for 5 years following the treatment.

Treatment and issues
Medical professionals need to apply many techniques and approaches to help patients with substance related disorders. Using a psychodynamic approach is one of the techniques that psychologists use to solve addiction problems. In psychodynamic therapy, psychologists need to understand the conflicts and the needs of the addicted person, and also need to locate the defects of their ego and defense mechanisms. Using this approach alone has proven to be ineffective in solving addiction problems. Cognitive and behavioral techniques should be integrated with psychodynamic approaches to achieve effective treatment for substance related disorders. Cognitive treatment requires psychologists to think deeply about what is happening in the brain of an addicted person. Cognitive psychologists should zoom in to neural functions of the brain and understand that drugs have been manipulating the dopamine reward center of the brain. From this particular state of thinking, cognitive psychologists need to find ways to change the thought process of the addicted person.

Cognitive approach
There are two routes typically applied to a cognitive approach to substance abuse: tracking the thoughts that pull patients to addiction and tracking the thoughts that prevent them if so from relapsing. Behavioral techniques have the widest application in treating substance related disorders. Behavioral psychologists can use the techniques of "aversion therapy", based on the findings of Pavlov's classical conditioning. It uses the principle of pairing abused substances with unpleasant stimuli or conditions; for example, pairing pain, electrical shock, or nausea with alcohol consumption. The use of medications may also be used in this approach, such as using disulfiram to pair unpleasant effects with the thought of alcohol use. Psychologists tend to use an integration of all these approaches to produce reliable and effective treatment. With the advanced clinical use of medications, biological treatment is now considered to be one of the most efficient interventions that psychologists may use as treatment for those with substance dependence.

Medicinal approach
Another approach is to use medicines that interfere with the functions of the drugs in the brain. Similarly, one can also substitute the misused substance with a weaker, safer version to slowly taper the patient off of their dependence. Such is the case with Suboxone in the context of opioid dependence. These approaches are aimed at the process of detoxification. Medical professionals weigh the consequences of withdrawal symptoms against the risk of staying dependent on these substances. These withdrawal symptoms can be very difficult and painful times for patients. Most will have steps in place to handle severe withdrawal symptoms, either through behavioral therapy or other medications. Biological intervention should be combined with behavioral therapy approaches and other non-pharmacological techniques. Group therapies including anonymity, teamwork and sharing concerns of daily life among people who also have substance dependence issues can have a great impact on outcomes. However, these programs proved to be more effective and influential on persons who did not reach levels of serious dependence.

Vaccines

 * TA-CD is an active vaccine developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of cocaine, making it suitable for use in treatment of addiction. It is created by combining norcocaine with inactivated cholera toxin.
 * TA-NIC is a proprietary vaccine in development similar to TA-CD but being used to create human anti-nicotine antibodies in a person to destroy nicotine in the human body so that it is no longer effective.

History
The phenomenon of drug addiction has occurred to some degree throughout recorded history (see "Opium"). Modern agricultural practices, improvements in access to drugs, advancements in biochemistry, and dramatic increases in the recommendation of drug usage by clinical practitioners have exacerbated the problem significantly in the 20th century. Improved means of active biological agent manufacture and the introduction of synthetic compounds, such as fentanyl and methamphetamine, are also factors contributing to drug addiction.

For the entirety of US history, drugs have been used by some members of the population. In the country's early years, most drug use by the settlers was of alcohol or tobacco.

The 19th century saw opium usage in the US become much more common and popular. Morphine was isolated in the early 19th century, and came to be prescribed commonly by doctors, both as a painkiller and as an intended cure for opium addiction. At the time, the prevailing medical opinion was that the addiction process occurred in the stomach, and thus it was hypothesized that patients would not become addicted to morphine if it was injected into them via a hypodermic needle, and it was further hypothesized that this might potentially be able to cure opium addiction. However, many people did become addicted to morphine. In particular, addiction to opium became widespread among soldiers fighting in the Civil War, who very often required painkillers and thus were very often prescribed morphine. Women were also very frequently prescribed opiates, and opiates were advertised as being able to relieve "female troubles".

Many soldiers in the Vietnam War were introduced to heroin and developed a dependency on the substance which survived even when they returned to the US. Technological advances in travel meant that this increased demand for heroin in the US could now be met. Furthermore, as technology advanced, more drugs were synthesized and discovered, opening up new avenues to substance dependency.

Demographics
Internationally, the U.S. and Eastern Europe contain the countries with the highest substance abuse disorder occurrence (5-6%). Africa, Asia, and the Middle East contain countries with the lowest worldwide occurrence (1-2%). Across the globe, those that tended to have a higher prevalence of substance dependence were in their twenties, unemployed, and men. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reports on substance dependence/abuse rates in various population demographics across the U.S. When surveying populations based on race and ethnicity in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that American Indian/Alaskan Natives were among the highest rates and Asians were among the lowest rates in comparison to other racial/ethnic groups. When surveying populations based on gender in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that males had a higher substance dependence rate than females. However, the difference in the rates are not apparent until after age 17. '' !Age !Male !Female Alcohol dependence or abuse rates were shown to have no correspondence with any person's education level when populations were surveyed in varying degrees of education from ages 26 and older. However, when it came to illicit drug use there was a correlation, in which those that graduated from college had the lowest rates. Furthermore, dependence rates were greater in unemployed populations ages 18 and older and in metropolitan-residing populations ages 12 and older. The National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago reported an analysis on disparities within admissions for substance abuse treatment in the Appalachian region, which comprises 13 states and 410 counties in the Eastern part of the U.S. While their findings for most demographic categories were similar to the national findings by NSDUH, they had different results for racial/ethnic groups which varied by sub-regions. Overall, Whites were the demographic with the largest admission rate (83%), while Alaskan Native, American Indian, Pacific Islander, and Asian populations had the lowest admissions (1.8%).
 * +Substance Use in Different Genders w/ Respect to Age
 * 12 and older
 * 10.8%
 * 5.8%
 * 12-17
 * 5.3%
 * 5.2%
 * 18 or older
 * 11.4%
 * 5.8%
 * }
 * 11.4%
 * 5.8%
 * }

Legislation
Depending on the jurisdiction, addictive drugs may be legal, legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess.

Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, anesthetics, hallucinogenics, derivatives and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs. Unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence.

Although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.

It is unclear whether laws against illegal drug use do anything to stem usage and dependency. In jurisdictions where addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by drug dealers, who are often involved with organized crime. Even though the cost of producing most illegal addictive substances is very low, their illegality combined with the addict's need permits the seller to command a premium price, often hundreds of times the production cost. As a result, addicts sometimes turn to crime to support their habit.

United States
In the United States, drug policy is primarily controlled by the federal government. The Department of Justice's Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) enforces controlled substances laws and regulations. The Department of Health and Human Services' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) serve to protect and promote public health by controlling the manufacturing, marketing, and distribution of products, like medications.

The United States' approach to substance abuse has shifted over the last decade, and is continuing to change. The federal government was minimally involved in the 19th century. The federal government transitioned from using taxation of drugs in the early 20th century to criminalizing drug abuse with legislations and agencies like the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) mid-20th century in response to the nation's growing substance abuse issue. These strict punishments for drug offenses shined light on the fact that drug abuse was a multi-faceted problem. The President's Advisory Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse of 1963 addressed the need for a medical solution to drug abuse. However, drug abuse continued to be enforced by the federal government through agencies such as the DEA and further legislations such as The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984, and Anti-Drug Abuse Acts.

In the past decade, there have been growing efforts through state and local legislations to shift from criminalizing drug abuse to treating it as a health condition requiring medical intervention. 28 states currently allow for the establishment of needle exchanges. Florida, Iowa, Missouri and Arizona all introduced bills to allow for the establishment of needle exchanges in 2019. These bills have grown in popularity across party lines since needle exchanges were first introduced in Amsterdam in 1983. In addition, AB-186 Controlled substances: overdose prevention program was introduced to operate safe injection sites in the City and County of San Francisco. The bill was vetoed on September 30, 2018, by California Governor Jerry Brown. The legality of these sites are still in discussion, so there are no such sites in the United States yet. However, there is growing international evidence for successful safe injection facilities.

title: Substance dependence