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Amusia

Amusia is a musical disorder that appears mainly as a defect in processing pitch but also encompasses musical memory and recognition. Two main classifications of amusia exist: acquired amusia, which occurs as a result of brain damage, and congenital amusia, which results from a music-processing anomaly present since birth.

Studies have shown that congenital amusia is a deficit in fine-grained pitch discrimination and that 4% of the population has this disorder. Acquired amusia may take several forms. Patients with brain damage may experience the loss of ability to produce musical sounds while sparing speech, much like aphasics lose speech selectively but can sometimes still sing. Other forms of amusia may affect specific sub-processes of music processing. Current research has demonstrated dissociations between rhythm, melody, and emotional processing of music. Amusia may include impairment of any combination of these skill sets.

Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of amusia are generally categorized as receptive, clinical, or mixed. Symptoms of receptive amusia, sometimes referred to as "musical deafness" or "tone deafness", include the inability to recognize familiar melodies, the loss of ability to read musical notation, and the inability to detect wrong or out-of tune notes. Clinical, or expressive, symptoms include the loss of ability to sing, write musical notation, and/or play an instrument. A mixed disorder is a combination of expressive and receptive impairment.

Clinical symptoms of acquired amusia are much more variable than those of congenital amusia and are determined by the location and nature of the lesion. Brain injuries may affect motor or expressive functioning, including the ability to sing, whistle, or hum a tune (oral-expressive amusia), the ability to play an instrument (instrumental amusia or musical apraxia), and the ability to write music (musical agraphia). Additionally, brain damage to the receptive dimension affects the faculty to discriminate tunes (receptive or sensorial amusia), the ability to read music (musical alessia), and the ability to identify songs that were familiar prior to the brain damage (amnesic amusia).

Research suggests that patients with amusia also have difficulty when it comes to spatial processing. Amusics performed more quickly than normal individuals on a combined task of both spatial and musical processing tasks, which is most likely due to their deficit. Normal individuals experience interference due to their intact processing of both musical and spatial tasks, while amusics do not. Pitch processing normally depends on the cognitive mechanisms that are usually used to process spatial representations.

Those with congenital amusia show impaired performance on discrimination, identification and imitation of sentences with intonational differences in pitch direction in their final word. This suggests that amusia can in subtle ways impair language processing.

Social and emotional
Amusic individuals have a remarkable sparing of emotional responses to music in the context of severe and lifelong deficits in processing music. Some individuals with amusia describe music as unpleasant. Others simply refer to it as noise and find it annoying. This can have social implications because amusics often try to avoid music, which in many social situations is not an option.

In China and other countries where tonal languages are spoken, amusia may have the more pronounced social and emotional impact of experiencing difficulty in speaking and understanding the language. However, context clues are often strong enough to determine the correct meaning, similarly to how homophones can be understood.

Related diseases
Amusia has been classified as a learning disability that affects musical abilities. Research suggests that in congenital amusia, younger subjects can be taught tone differentiation techniques. This finding leads researchers to believe that amusia is related to dyslexia and other similar disorders. Research has been shown that amusia may be related to an increase in size of the cerebral cortex, which may be a result of a malformation in cortical development. Conditions such as dyslexia and epilepsy are due to a malformation in cortical development and also lead to an increase in cortical thickness, which leads researchers to believe that congenital amusia may be caused by the identical phenomenon in a different area of the brain.

Amusia is also similar to aphasia in that they affect similar areas of the brain near the temporal lobe. Most cases of those with amusia do not show any symptoms of aphasia. However, a number of cases have shown that those who have aphasia can exhibit symptoms of amusia, especially in acquired aphasia. The two are not mutually exclusive and having one does not imply possession of the other. In acquired amusia, inability to perceive music correlates with an inability to perform other higher-level functions. In this case, as musical ability improves, so too do the higher cognitive functions which suggests that musical ability is closely related to these higher-level functions, such as memory and learning, mental flexibility, and semantic fluency.

Amusia can also be related to aprosody, a disorder in which the person's speech is affected, becoming extremely monotonous. It has been found that both amusia and aprosody can arise from seizures occurring in the non-dominant hemisphere. They can also both arise from lesions to the brain, as can Broca's aphasia come about simultaneously with amusia from injury. There is a relation between musical abilities and the components of speech; however, it is not understood very well.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of amusia requires multiple investigative tools all described in the Montreal Protocol for Identification of Amusia. This protocol has at its center the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA), which involves a series of tests that evaluate the use of musical characteristics known to contribute to the memory and perception of conventional music, but the protocol also allows for the ruling out of other conditions that can explain the clinical signs observed. The battery comprises six subtests which assess the ability to discriminate pitch contour, musical scales, pitch intervals, rhythm, meter, and memory. An individual is considered amusic if they perform two standard deviations below the mean obtained by musically competent controls.

This musical pitch disorder represents a phenotype that serves to identify the associated neuro-genetic factors. Both MRI-based brain structural analyses and electroencephalography (EEG) are common methods employed to uncover brain anomalies associated with amusia (See Neuroanatomy). Additionally, voxel-based morphometry (VBM) is used to detect anatomical differences between the MRIs of amusic brains and musically intact brains, specifically with respect increased and/or decreased amounts of white and grey matter.

Classifications
There are two general classifications of amusia: congenital amusia and acquired amusia.

Congenital amusia
Congenital amusia, commonly known as tone deafness or a tin ear, refers to a musical disability that cannot be explained by prior brain lesion, hearing loss, cognitive defects, or lack of environmental stimulation, and it affects about 4% of the population. Individuals with congenital amusia seem to lack the musical predispositions with which most people are born. They are unable to recognize or hum familiar tunes even if they have normal audiometry and above-average intellectual and memory skills. Also, they do not show sensitivity to dissonant chords in a melodic context, which, as discussed earlier, is one of the musical predispositions exhibited by infants. The hallmark of congenital amusia is a deficit in fine-grained pitch discrimination, and this deficit is most apparent when congenital amusics are asked to pick out a wrong note in a given melody. If the distance between two successive pitches is small, congenital amusics are not able to detect a pitch change. As a result of this defect in pitch perception, a lifelong musical impairment may emerge due to a failure to internalize musical scales. A lack of fine-grained pitch discrimination makes it extremely difficult for amusics to enjoy and appreciate music, which consists largely of small pitch changes.

Tone-deaf people seem to be disabled only when it comes to music as they can fully interpret the prosody or intonation of human speech. Tone deafness has a strong negative correlation with belonging to societies with tonal languages. This could be evidence that the ability to reproduce and distinguish between notes may be a learned skill; conversely, it may suggest that the genetic predisposition towards accurate pitch discrimination may influence the linguistic development of a population towards tonality. A correlation between allele frequencies and linguistic typological features has been recently discovered, supporting the latter hypothesis.

Tone deafness is also associated with other musical-specific impairments such as the inability to keep time with music (beat deafness, or the lack of rhythm), or the inability to remember or recognize a song. These disabilities can appear separately, but some research shows that they are more likely to appear in tone-deaf people. Experienced musicians, such as W. A. Mathieu, have addressed tone deafness in adults as correctable with training.

Acquired amusia
Acquired amusia is a musical disability that shares the same characteristics as congenital amusia, but rather than being inherited, it is the result of brain damage. It is also more common than congenital amusia. While it has been suggested that music is processed by music-specific neural networks in the brain, this view has been broadened to show that music processing also encompasses generic cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, and executive processes. A study was published in 2009 which investigated the neural and cognitive mechanisms that underlie acquired amusia and contribute to its recovery. The study was performed on 53 stroke patients with a left or right hemisphere middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarction one week, three months, and six months after the stroke occurred. Amusic subjects were identified one week following their stroke, and over the course of the study, amusics and non-amusics were compared in both brain lesion location and their performances on neuropsychological tests.

Results showed that there was no significant difference in the distribution of left and right hemisphere lesions between amusic and non-amusic groups, but that the amusic group had a significantly higher number of lesions to the frontal lobe and auditory cortex. Temporal lobe lesions were also observed in patients with amusia. Amusia is a common occurrence following an ischemic MCA stroke, as evidenced by the 60% of patients who were found to be amusic at the one-week post-stroke stage. While significant recovery takes place over time, amusia can persist for long periods of time. Test results suggest that acquired amusia and its recovery in the post-stroke stage are associated with a variety of cognitive functions, particularly attention, executive functioning and working memory.

Neuroanatomy
Neurologically intact individuals appear to be born musical. Even before they are able to talk, infants show remarkable musical abilities that are similar to those of adults in that they are sensitive to musical scales and a regular tempo. Also, infants are able to differentiate between consonant and dissonant intervals. These perceptual skills indicate that music-specific predispositions exist.

Prolonged exposure to music develops and refines these skills. Extensive musical training does not seem to be necessary in the processing of chords and keys. The development of musical competence most likely depends on the encoding of pitch along musical scales and maintaining a regular pulse, both of which are key components in the structure of music and aid in perception, memory, and performance. Also, the encoding of pitch and temporal regularity are both likely to be specialized for music processing. Pitch perception is absolutely crucial to processing music. The use of scales and the organization of scale tones around a central tone (called the tonic) assign particular importance to notes in the scale and cause non-scale notes to sound out of place. This enables the listener to ascertain when a wrong note is played. However, in individuals with amusia, this ability is either compromised or lost entirely.

Music-specific neural networks exist in the brain for a variety of music-related tasks. It has been shown that Broca's area is involved in the processing of musical syntax. Furthermore, brain damage can disrupt an individual's ability to tell the difference between tonal and atonal music and detect the presence of wrong notes, but can preserve the individual's ability to assess the distance between pitches and the direction of the pitch. The opposite scenario can also occur, in which the individual loses pitch discrimination capabilities, but can sense and appreciate the tonal context of the work. Distinct neural networks also exist for music memories, singing, and music recognition. Neural networks for music recognition are particularly intriguing. A patient can undergo brain damage that renders them unable to recognize familiar melodies that are presented without words. However, the patient maintains the ability to recognize spoken lyrics or words, familiar voices, and environmental sounds. The reverse case is also possible, in which the patient cannot recognize spoken words, but can still recognize familiar melodies. These situations overturn previous claims that speech recognition and music recognition share a single processing system. Instead, it is clear that there are at least two distinct processing modules: one for speech and one for music.

Many research studies of individuals with amusia show that a number of cortical regions appear to be involved in processing music. Some report that the primary auditory cortex, secondary auditory cortex, and limbic system are responsible for this faculty, while more recent studies suggest that lesions in other cortical areas, abnormalities in cortical thickness, and deficiency in neural connectivity and brain plasticity may contribute to amusia. While various causes of amusia exist, some general findings that provide insight to the brain mechanisms involved in music processing are discussed below.

Pitch relations
Studies suggest that the analysis of pitch is primarily controlled by the right temporal region of the brain. The right secondary auditory cortex processes pitch change and manipulation of fine tunes; specifically, this region distinguishes the multiple pitches that characterize melodic tunes as contour (pitch direction) and interval (frequency ratio between successive notes) information. The right superior temporal gyrus recruits and evaluates contour information, while both right and left temporal regions recruit and evaluate interval information. In addition, the right anterolateral part of Heschl's gyrus (primary auditory cortex) is also concerned with processing pitch information.

Temporal relations
The brain analyzes the temporal (rhythmic) components of music in two ways: (1) it segments the ongoing sequences of music into temporal events based on duration, and (2) it groups those temporal events to understand the underlying beat to music. Studies on rhythmic discrimination reveal that the right temporal auditory cortex is responsible for temporal segmenting, and the left temporal auditory cortex is responsible for temporal grouping. Other studies suggest the participation of motor cortical areas in rhythm perception and production. Therefore, a lack of involvement and networking between bilateral temporal cortices and neural motor centers may contribute to both congenital and acquired amusia.

Memory
Memory is required in order to process and integrate both melodic and rhythmic aspects of music. Studies suggest that there is a rich interconnection between the right temporal gyrus and frontal cortical areas for working memory in music appreciation. This connection between the temporal and frontal regions of the brain is extremely important since these regions play critical roles in music processing. Changes in the temporal areas of the amusic brain are most likely associated with deficits in pitch perception and other musical characteristics, while changes in the frontal areas are potentially related to deficits in cognitive processing aspects, such as memory, that are needed for musical discrimination tasks. Memory is also concerned with the recognition and internal representation of tunes, which help to identify familiar songs and confer the ability to sing tunes in one's head. The activation of the superior temporal region and left inferior temporal and frontal areas is responsible for the recognition of familiar songs, and the right auditory cortex (a perceptual mechanism) is involved in the internal representation of tunes. These findings suggest that any abnormalities and/or injuries to these regions of the brain could facilitate amusia.

Other regions of the brain possibly linked to amusia

 * Lesions in (or the absence of) associations between the right temporal lobe and inferior frontal lobe. In nine of ten tone-deaf people, the superior arcuate fasciculus in the right hemisphere could not be detected, suggesting a disconnection between the posterior superior temporal gyrus and the posterior inferior frontal gyrus. Researchers suggested the posterior superior temporal gyrus was the origin of the disorder.
 * Cortical thickness and reduced white matter – in a recent study, voxel-based morphometry, an imaging technique used to explore structural differences in the brain, revealed a decrease in white matter concentration in the right inferior frontal gyrus of amusic individuals as compared to controls. Lack of extensive exposure to music could be a contributing factor to this white matter reduction. For example, amusic individuals may be less inclined to listen to music than others, which could ultimately cause reduced myelination of connections to the frontal areas of the brain.
 * Involvement of the parahippocampal gyrus (responsible for the emotional reaction to music)

Treatment
Currently, no forms of treatment have proven effective in treating amusia. One study has shown tone differentiation techniques to have some success; however, future research on treatment of this disorder will be necessary to verify this technique as an appropriate treatment.

History
In 1825, Franz Joseph Gall mentioned a "musical organ" in a specific region of the human brain that could be spared or disrupted after a traumatic event resulting in brain damage. In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud described the first series of cases that involved the loss of music abilities that were due to brain injury. In 1878, Grant Allen was the first to describe in the medical literature what would later be termed congenital amusia, calling it "note-deafness". Later, during the late nineteenth century, several influential neurologists studied language in an attempt to construct a theory of cognition. While not studied as thoroughly as language, music and visual processing were also studied. In 1888–1890, August Knoblauch produced a cognitive model for music processing and termed it amusia. This model for music processing was the earliest produced.

While the possibility that certain individuals may be born with musical deficits is not a new notion, the first documented case of congenital amusia was published only in 2002. The study was conducted with a female volunteer, referred to as Monica, who declared herself to be musically impaired in response to an advertisement in the newspaper. Monica had no psychiatric or neurological history, nor did she have any hearing loss. MRI scans showed no abnormalities. Monica also scored above average on a standard intelligence test, and her working memory was evaluated and found to be normal. However, Monica had a lifelong inability to recognize or perceive music, which had persisted even after involvement with music through church choir and band during her childhood and teenage years. Monica said that she does not enjoy listening to music because, to her, it sounded like noise and evoked a stressful response.

In order to determine if Monica's disorder was amusia, she was subjected to the MBEA series of tests. One of the tests dealt with Monica's difficulties in discriminating pitch variations in sequential notes. In this test, a pair of melodies was played, and Monica was asked if the second melody in the pair contained a wrong note. Monica's score on this test was well below the average score generated by the control group. Further tests showed that Monica struggled with recognizing highly familiar melodies, but that she had no problems in recognizing the voices of well-known speakers. Thus, it was concluded that Monica's deficit seemed limited to music. A later study showed that not only do amusics experience difficulty in discriminating variations in pitch, but they also exhibit deficits in perceiving patterns in pitch.

This finding led to another test that was designed to assess the presence of a deficiency in pitch perception. In this test, Monica heard a sequence of five piano tones of constant pitch followed by a comparison sequence of five piano tones in which the fourth tone could be the same pitch as the other notes in the sequence or a completely different pitch altogether. Monica was asked to respond "yes" if she detected a pitch change on the fourth tone or respond "no" if she could not detect a pitch change. Results showed that Monica could barely detect a pitch change as large as two semitones (whole tone), or half steps. While this pitch-processing deficit is extremely severe, it does not seem to include speech intonation. This is because pitch variations in speech are very coarse compared with those used in music. In conclusion, Monica's learning disability arose from a basic problem in pitch discrimination, which is viewed as the origin of congenital amusia.

Research
Over the past decade, much has been discovered about amusia. However, there remains a great deal more to learn. While a method of treatment for people with amusia has not been defined, tone differentiation techniques have been used on amusic patients with some success. It was found with this research that children reacted positively to these tone differentiation techniques, while adults found the training annoying. However, further research in this direction would aid in determining if this would be a viable treatment option for people with amusia. Additional research can also serve to indicate which processing component in the brain is essential for normal music development. Also, it would be extremely beneficial to investigate musical learning in relation to amusia since this could provide valuable insights into other forms of learning disabilities such as dysphasia and dyslexia.

Notable cases
• Alfonso XIII of Spain

• Franz Boas

• William Lawrence Bragg

• Alfred Duff Cooper

• Charles Darwin

• John Dewey

• Pope Francis

• Ulysses S. Grant

• Che Guevara

• J. B. S. Haldane

• W. D. Hamilton

• Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester

• Isabel Paterson

• Theodore Roosevelt

• William Butler Yeats

In fiction

 * Horatio Hornblower
 * Grace from Home on the Range
 * James Fraser from Outlander by Diana Gabaldon
 * Rodrigo De Souza from Mozart in the Jungle

title: Amusia


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Polytree

In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a polytree (also called directed tree, oriented tree or singly connected network ) is a directed acyclic graph whose underlying undirected graph is a tree. In other words, if we replace its directed edges with undirected edges, we obtain an undirected graph that is both connected and acyclic.

A polyforest (or directed forest or oriented forest) is a directed acyclic graph whose underlying undirected graph is a forest. In other words, if we replace its directed edges with undirected edges, we obtain an undirected graph that is acyclic.

A polytree is an example of an oriented graph.

The term polytree was coined in 1987 by Rebane and Pearl.

Related structures

 * An arborescence is a directed rooted tree, i.e. a directed acyclic graph in which there exists a single source node that has a unique path to every other node. Every arborescence is a polytree, but not every polytree is an arborescence.
 * A multitree is a directed acyclic graph in which the subgraph reachable from any node forms a tree. Every polytree is a multitree.
 * The reachability relationship among the nodes of a polytree forms a partial order that has order dimension at most three. If the order dimension is three, there must exist a subset of seven elements $$x$$, $$y_i$$, and $$z_i$$ (for $i=0,1,2$) such that, for each $i$, either $$x\le y_i\ge z_i$$ or $$x\ge y_i\le z_i$$, with these six inequalities defining the polytree structure on these seven elements.
 * A fence or zigzag poset is a special case of a polytree in which the underlying tree is a path and the edges have orientations that alternate along the path. The reachability ordering in a polytree has also been called a generalized fence.

Enumeration
The number of distinct polytrees on $$n$$ unlabeled nodes, for $$n=1,2,3,\dots$$, is

Sumner's conjecture
Sumner's conjecture, named after David Sumner, states that tournaments are universal graphs for polytrees, in the sense that every tournament with $$2n-2$$ vertices contains every polytree with $$n$$ vertices as a subgraph. Although it remains unsolved, it has been proven for all sufficiently large values of $$n$$.

Applications
Polytrees have been used as a graphical model for probabilistic reasoning. If a Bayesian network has the structure of a polytree, then belief propagation may be used to perform inference efficiently on it.

The contour tree of a real-valued function on a vector space is a polytree that describes the level sets of the function. The nodes of the contour tree are the level sets that pass through a critical point of the function and the edges describe contiguous sets of level sets without a critical point. The orientation of an edge is determined by the comparison between the function values on the corresponding two level sets.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Polytree


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John Bernard (American politician)

John Toussaint Bernard (March 6, 1893 –August 6, 1983) was a United States representative from Minnesota.

Background
Bernard was born in 1893 in Bastia, Corsica, France. In 1907, he immigrated to the United States with his parents, who settled in Eveleth, Minnesota. He went to public schools in both France and in the U.S.

Career
Bernard worked as an iron-ore miner at the Spruce Mine from 1910 to 1916 or 1917.

In 1916 or 1917, Bernard enlisted in the Army and served on the Mexican border. During World War I, he served as an Army Corporal in the 125th Field Artillery. He then became a civilian employee in the Army and Navy Intelligence from 1917 to 1919. He served overseas fifteen months overseas.

After leaving the armed forces and returning home, Bernard found himself blacklisted on the Mesabi Iron Range because of earlier efforts to unionize workers. Instead, he became a city fireman from 1920 to 1936.

Politics and activism
Bernard served as a delegate to the Minnesota State Farmer-Labor Party conventions in 1936, 1938, and 1940. He was elected as a Farmer-Labor representative to the Seventy-Fifth U.S. Congress (January 3, 1937 - January 3, 1939).

He was the only U.S. Congressman, along with Jerry J. O'Connell, who visited the Second Spanish Republic in October 1937 to support the Soviet-backed Republican faction, which was fighting against the German- and Italian-backed Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War.

He ran unsuccessfully for reelection in 1938 to the Seventy-Sixth Congress and again unsuccessfully for election in 1940 to the Seventy-Seventh Congress.

Bernard became engaged as a labor organizer, legislative director, and civil rights activist. He had started working with the Steel Workers Organizing Committee of the CIO in 1937 and continued to 1942. He also worked with the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America from 1943 to 1954.

Personal life and death
Bernard met Josephine Dinois while working for the Office of Naval Intelligence in France. They married in 1928 and had at least one child, Marie.

Bernard moved to Long Beach, Calif., where he lived until his death there on August 6, 1983.

Communism
Bernard's single congressional term is notable for his casting the sole vote against an arms embargo against Spain during the Spanish Civil War:

Minnesota Congressman John T. Bernard fought throughout his life for working people against strong opposition. His outspoken and uncompromising views led him, on his second day in office, to cast the single "no" vote in Congress against the Spanish arms embargo. Bernard's vote proved farsighted as the Spanish Civil War became, in many ways, a "dress rehearsal" for World War II.

Less known years later were his strong support for the Communist-backed Popular Front:

"Bernard won election in the Farmer-Labor landslide of 1936 ... and quickly became the most enthusiastic and outspoken advocate of the Popular Front in Congress. Not even other Congressmen who sympathized with the Popular Front underlined their links to the Communist Party by inserting, as Bernard did, articles from the Communist Party's Daily Worker into the Congressional Record."

While in office (1937–1939), Bernard's personal secretary in Washington was Marion Bachrach, sister of John Abt, chief counsel of the Communist Party. Former Soviet GRU operative Whittaker Chambers named both Bacharach and Abt among others as members of the Ware Group (his first spy network) during his testimony under subpoena to HUAC on August 3, 1948. That testimony led to the Hiss Case during 1949 and Hiss' conviction in January 1950. Bernard also employed Herman Griffith on his congressional staff. Griffith was a leading Popular Front activist and self-announced CPUSA member.

In 1952, Bernard testified under subpoena before HUAC. For most questions, he asserted his Fifth Amendment privilege. He also asserted his loyalty to America and willingness to defend it.

In 1977, Bernard accepted membership in the Communist Party USA.

title: John Bernard (American politician)


text:
User:Nsh/Free nation/Census of 2005

The Census of 2005. Undertaken by the following people, at begun at the following times:
 * nsh 02:56, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)

The Citizenry of Our Nation
This is a list of all citizens, and the time of their commitment of citizenship:
 * nsh 02:56, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * Rama
 * Jeffarch

title: User:Nsh/Free nation/Census of 2005


text:
Victoria Zdrok

Victoria Nika Zdrok (Вікторія Здрок; born 3 March 1973 ) is a Ukrainian-American pornographic actress, author, and model. She is Playboy's Playmate for October 1994. In June 2002 she became Penthouse magazine's Pet of the Month, later being chosen as their 2004 Penthouse Pet of the Year. Zdrok is also a non-practicing attorney, a clinical psychologist and sex therapist.

Early life
Zdrok was born on March 3, 1973, in Kyiv, Ukrainian SSR. Zdrok did her undergraduate studies at West Chester University, obtained her J.D. from Villanova University School of Law, and her Ph.D. in psychology from Drexel University.

Career
Zdrok was crowned Philadelphia's "Best Beauty" in August 1994. In October of the same year, she became a Playboy centerfold.

Zdrok appeared in Penthouse as their June 2002 Pet of the Month. In 2004, at the age of 30, she was named Penthouse Pet of the Year. She is the second centerfold, after Linn Thomas, to be both a Playboy Playmate and a Penthouse Pet.

Zdrok has performed in adult films such as Lesbians in Lust, Assturbators 2, and The Best of Victoria Zdrok.

Filmography

 * 2009 — Guide to Great Sex
 * 2007 — Best of Facesitting POV 3
 * 2006 — Asses of Face Destruction
 * 2006 — Soloerotica 9
 * 2005 — For Your Ass Only
 * 2005 — Assturbators 2
 * 2005 — Three's Cumpany
 * 2004 — Lesbians in Lust
 * 2004 — Dark Side
 * 2003 — Temptation
 * 2003 — Soloerotica 4
 * 2002 — Bare-Skinned Captives
 * 2000 — Centerfold Coeds: Girlfriends — Вера
 * 1998 — Satin Smoke
 * 1998 — Star of Jaipur

Other work
Zdrok has written several books on sex, including The Anatomy of Pleasure and Dr. Z on Scoring: How to Pick Up, Seduce and Hook Up With Hot Women.

title: Victoria Zdrok


text:
Zapin

Zapin (Jawi: زافين) is one of the most popular dance and musical forms in traditional Malay performing arts. Dance movements are choreographed to melodies, which are performed using musical instruments such as the gambus (short-necked lute), accordion, and rebana. It is believed to have been introduced by Persian and Arab Muslim missionaries from the Middle East to the Malay Archipelago around the fourteenth century, where back then only males were allowed to perform; nowadays, female dancers are included. It used to be performed exclusively for religious ceremonies but through the years it has become a form of traditional entertainment, hence the participation of female dancers is allowed.

Instruments
The dancers usually perform in pairs and are accompanied by musicians playing the Accordion, Violin, Gambus, Gendang, Marwas/Marawis, and Rebana.

Distributions
Presently, zapin remains an integral part of the regional Malay performing arts scene, particularly in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia and Singapore. In Malaysia, Zapin is mostly associated with the Malaysian southern state of Johor. In Indonesia, Zapin is mostly associated and classified as part of Malay cultures especially in terms of traditional dances and traditions in Malay-populated areas in Sumatra, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung Islands, and Kalimantan.

Types
There are numerous types of Zapin, and each type varies by the movement and style of dance:
 * Zapin 12 Kuala Kampar (Pelalawan and Penyalai)
 * Zapin Api (Riau)
 * Zapin Anak Ayam (North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Arab (Pontianak and Johor)
 * Zapin Asli (North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Balumpa (South East Sulawesi)
 * Zapin Banjar (Banjarmasin)
 * Zapin Batuah (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Bedana (Lampung)
 * Zapin Bengkalis (Bengkalis, Riau)
 * Zapin Betawi (Jakarta)
 * Zapin Brunei (Brunei and North Borneo)
 * Zapin Bujang (Riau)
 * Zapin Bujang Marindu (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Carita (Banjarmasin)
 * Zapin Cek Esah (Riau Islands)
 * Zapin Dana (Jambi, South Sumatra and Bengkulu)
 * Zapin Dana-Dana (Gorontalo)
 * Zapin Dana-Dani (Nusa Tenggara)
 * Zapin Dana Sarah (Jambi)
 * Zapin Dara (Riau and West Sumatra)
 * Zapin Deli (Deli Serdang, North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Diang Marindu (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Dua Saudara (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Duo (Riau)
 * Zapin Empat-Empat (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Eroh (Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Galuh Langkar South Kalimantan
 * Zapin Gambus (Perak)
 * Zapin Genjoh (Mahakam)
 * Zapin Ghalet (Kedah)
 * Zapin Hadrah (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Istana (Siak)
 * Zapin Jambi (Jambi)
 * Zapin Kaltara (North Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Kamang (West Sumatra)
 * Zapin Kampong Bolak (Riau)
 * Zapin Kampung Manggis (Jambi)
 * Zapin Kasih dan Budi (South Sumatra and Riau)
 * Zapin Kepri (Riau Islands)
 * Zapin Kerinci (Kerinci, Jambi)
 * Zapin Keris (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Kinsat Suara Siam (North Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Kipas (West Kalimantan and Riau)
 * Zapin Kores (Johor)
 * Zapin Kuala (Banjar Kuala, South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Kute (Riau Islands)
 * Zapin Lancang Kuning (Riau)
 * Zapin Langkah (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Langkah Bujur Serong (Pontianak, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Langkah Penghibur Pengantin (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Langkah Simpang (Pontianak, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Lapis Batu Putih (Johor)
 * Zapin Lembut (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Lenga (Johor)
 * Zapin Lenggang Banua (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Lenggok Gambus (Pekan Labuhan, North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Mabuk Kepayang (North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Maharani (Pelalawan)
 * Zapin Mandiling (Bawean)
 * Zapin Massal (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Melayu (Riau)
 * Zapin Melayu Johor (Johor)
 * Zapin Melayu Pontianak (Pontianak)
 * Zapin Meskom (Bengkalis, Riau)
 * Zapin Nelayan (Riau)
 * Zapin Padang Changkat (Perak)
 * Zapin Padang Sari (Johor)
 * Zapin Palembang (Palembang)
 * Zapin Parit Lengkong (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Parit Mastar (Johor)
 * Zapin Pasanggrahan (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Pat Lipat (Johor)
 * Zapin Payung (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Pecah Dua Belas (Pelalawan)
 * Zapin Pekajang (Johor)
 * Zapin Pekan (Riau, Sumatra)
 * Zapin Penyengat (Penyengat)
 * Zapin Pesisir (Riau Islands)
 * Zapin Pintal Tali Sukadana (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Pisau (Pontianak, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Pulau (Johor)
 * Zapin Putar Alam (Johor)
 * Zapin Rantauan (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Rao (Rao, Pasaman, West Sumatra)
 * Zapin Rindu-Rindu (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Rotan (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Salor (Kelantan)
 * Zapin Sebat (Sarawak)
 * Zapin Seberang (Jambi)
 * Zapin Sekaki (North Sumatera)
 * Zapin Selat Panjang (Selat Panjang)
 * Zapin Selendang (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Sengarong (Sanggau, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Senggayong (North Kayong, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Sentak Kamang (Padangpanjang, West Sumatra)
 * Zapin Serdang (Serdang, North Sumatra)
 * Zapin Seri Bunian (Pekalongan and Johor)
 * Zapin Siak (Siak)
 * Zapin Siak Bermadah (Siak)
 * Zapin Siak Sri Indrapura (Siak)
 * Zapin Sigam (Sigam, South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Sindang (Sarawak)
 * Zapin Singapura (Singapore)
 * Zapin Sisit (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Susun Sirih (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tahtul (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tali (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tali Bui (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tamiang (Aceh Tamiang)
 * Zapin Tanjung Labuh (Johor)
 * Zapin Tembung (West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tembung Pendek (Pontianak, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tempurung (Melawi, West Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tenglu (Johor)
 * Zapin Tidung Ulu (Tana Tidung, North Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tuan Haji (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tuan Syarif (South Kalimantan)
 * Zapin Tongga (Minangkabau)

title: Zapin


text:
Dunsinane

Dunsinane may refer to:

 * Dunsinane (play), a 2010 play by David Greig
 * Dunsinane Curling Club, a curling club in Perthshire, Scotland
 * Dunsinane Hill, remains of two forts, mentioned in Shakespeare's Macbeth, near Collace, Perthshire, Scotland
 * Dunsinane Mountain, officially known as "Dunsinane", a summit in Colorado, U.S.
 * William Nairne, Lord Dunsinane, Scottish advocate and judge

title: Dunsinane


text:
Milton Transit

Milton Transit is the public transit system in the town of Milton, Ontario, Canada. Milton is in Halton Regional Municipality, part of the Greater Toronto Area.

Milton Transit began its present service on August 16, 2004 and expanded from 3 fixed routes to 5 fixed routes on September 5, 2005. It replaced the former dial-a-bus and GO Transit local connector, which used school buses. The fixed route service was operated in partnership with Oakville Transit, which, however, never provided services connecting the municipalities.

Oakville Transit also originally stored and maintained the buses at their garage. Buses were later stored and serviced at the Mississauga Truck and Bus Collision (MTB) facility, in Milton. That eliminated unnecessary travel to/from Oakville, as the buses previously had been deadheaded to and from Oakville each day. Prior to the agreement with MTB, Milton's buses were stored at GO Transit's Milton garage. The Town of Milton extended the contract for conventional transit services with Oakville Transit for a further three years, effective March 1, 2008.

In early 2010, the Town of Milton announced that it would be ending its agreements with Oakville Transit and Mississauga Truck and Bus, and that Pacific Western Transportation would be taking over all aspects of service beginning March 8, 2010.

Since the inauguration of the service, there have been major adjustments in order to connect with the growing population of this town, and to the Milton line commuter train and bus routes operated by GO Transit.

Connecting transit
Milton Transit connects with the following transit agencies:

 * Brampton Transit
 * GO Transit
 * MiWay (Mississauga Transit)

=== Regular ===

Drop-off service
As the last train from Union Station along the Milton line arrives at the Milton GO Station, drivers will create a routing based on passengers' destinations within the designated zone.

Trans-cab
Trans-cab is a supplementary service that replaces Route 1 between the Milton GO Station and the Milton Hwy 401 Park and Ride facility at Martin Street. Fares are the same as regular Milton Transit Fares, plus an additional 50 cents.

Access+
First Canada and A1 Taxi had the contract for accessible services which operate on demand until sometime in 2015. Pacific Western Transportation which also holds the contract for conventional service took over operations of Access+ using a Milton branded bus.

Roster
Milton Transit's fleet consists of 10 New Flyer D40LF - three purchased in 2009, two in 2010 and 5 used ones (ex-Orange County Transportation Authority and later Pacific Western) in 2014 and 2015, 3 New Flyer XD40's (purchased in 2012) and 3 Chevrolet Arboc SOM26D's in 2013 and two more in 2015, two 2016 Nova Bus LFS for service expansion along with three 2017 and one 2018 Nova Bus LFS. For a detailed fleet summary, see Milton Transit on the CPTDB Wiki.

Terminals

 * Milton GO Station
 * Regional Rd. 25/ Highway 401 Park-and-Ride

title: Milton Transit


text: File:Tc selftitle.png

title: File:Tc selftitle.png


text:
Kertok

Kertok is a type of musical ensemble that consists of the xylophone played in traditional Malay functions/an instrument. Kertok is from Malaysia. This is musical ensemble from Malay Peninsula that consists of xylophones played swiftly and rhythmically in traditional Malay Functions.

title: Kertok


text:
World Olympians Association

The World Olympians Association (WOA) is an independent association of Olympic Games competitors. Its stated objectives are to promote the Olympic ideals and fair play, advance environmental protection, educate against doping and drug use, supply educational resources, work against violence and intolerance, support diversity and equality, contribute to sport-related charities, host special hospitality centres, involve Olympians in social support, display positive role models, advance sport management and promote a culture of which sport is an important part.

An Olympian is any competitor who has competed in a Summer or Winter Olympiad. Olympians are WOA members through their local National Olympians Associations. Globally, there are over 100,000 Olympians.

IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch created the World Olympians Association following the Centennial Olympic Congress, Congress of Unity, held in Paris in 1994. Formally, the WOA was established during a meeting held in the Olympic Museum on 21 November 1995 by 25 founder members.

In November 2011, Joël Bouzou, an Olympic medalist from France, was elected president of the association. He is the founder of Peace and Sport and the secretary general of the International Modern Pentathlon Federation (UIPM). In January 2012, Prince Albert II of Monaco was announced as patron of the association. Both the Prince and his wife Princess Charlene of Monaco are Olympians. In 2015, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and International Olympic Committee President Thomas Bach attended the World Olympians Forum in Moscow, Russia.

OLY post-nominal letters
In November 2017 at the 8th International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Athletes’ Forum, the World Olympians Association announced the OLY post-nominal letters initiative. The initiative allows Olympians to use the OLY lettering on any official documentation after their name, much like when one gets a degree. The initiative is open to all athletes who have competed at the games and upholds the values and practices enshrined in the Olympic Charter and the World Olympians Association Code of Conduct. IOC president Thomas Bach was the first athlete to officially receive the initials.

Olympians for Life
The Olympians for Life project was created by the World Olympians Association in partnership with the IOC Department of Culture and Heritage. It was launched during the 2016 Summer Olympics with a physical display at the Olympians Reunion Centre during the games. The project celebrates Olympians who have left a positive legacy on the world both during and after their competitive days.

Presidents
People who have served as president of the Association :

Objectives

 * To encourage contact between Olympians, in support of Olympism and the Olympic Movement, as set forth in the Olympic Charter.
 * To educate Olympians to become good ambassadors of the Olympic Movement
 * To promote the establishment of National Olympians Associations.
 * To foster cooperation between National Olympians Associations, in furtherance of the objectives of the WOA
 * To support and represent the interests of Olympians and contribute to the enhancement of their quality of life.
 * To motivate Olympians towards active leadership in their respective local communities and countries of residence.
 * To support the participation of Olympians in activities where they can serve as role models who embody the Olympic ideals.
 * To implement development programs as appropriated.

title: World Olympians Association


text:
Commander-in-Chief, Ireland

Commander-in-Chief, Ireland, was title of the commander of the British forces in Ireland before 1922. Until the Act of Union in 1800, the position involved command of the distinct Irish Army of the Kingdom of Ireland.

Marshal of Ireland
The title Marshal of Ireland was awarded to William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke after the Norman conquest of Ireland and was inherited by his nephew John Marshal and descendants. This hereditary ceremonial title is latterly called Earl Marshal of Ireland to distinguish it from the later non-hereditary military appointment of Marshal of Ireland or Marshal of the Army. Holders of the latter appointment by letters patent included:

 * William Brereton (1540)
 * Sir Francis Bryan (November 1548)
 * Sir Nicholas Bagenal (March 1547–1553; October 1565–October 1590) In 1553 deprived by Mary I. In 1566 failed to sell the office to Thomas Stukley
 * Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex (1569 "high marshal"; 1576 "earl marshal" for life)
 * Henry Bagenal (from 24 October 1590) son of Nicholas, secured the succession in 1583
 * Sir Richard Bingham (1598)
 * Edward Conway, 2nd Viscount Conway (31 January 1640; patent 2 April 1640)
 * Sir Henry Tichborne (1660)

From 1700
In the 18th and 19th centuries the British forces in Ireland were commanded by the Commander-in-Chief, Ireland. In January 1876 a ‘Mobilization Scheme for the forces in Great Britain and Ireland’ was published, with the ‘Active Army’ divided into eight army corps based on the District Commands. 4th Corps was to be formed within Irish Command, based in Dublin. This scheme disappeared in 1881, when the districts were retitled ‘District Commands.

The 1901 Army Estimates introduced by St John Brodrick allowed for six army corps based on six regional commands. As outlined in a paper published in 1903, III Corps was to be formed in a reconstituted Irish Command, with HQ at Dublin. Field Marshal The Duke of Connaught was appointed acting General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOCinC) of III Corps in October 1901. The title was withdrawn in 1904.

Army Order No 324, issued on 21 August 1914, authorised the formation of a 'New Army' of six Divisions, manned by volunteers who had responded to Earl Kitchener's appeal (hence the First New Army was known as 'K1'). Each division was to be under the administration of one of the Home Commands, and Irish Command formed what became the 10th (Irish) Division. It was followed by 16th (Irish) Division of K2 in September 1914.

In the Republic of Ireland, the "supreme command of the Defence Forces" is formally vested in the President of Ireland under the Constitution. The Chief of Staff is the senior officer. In Northern Ireland from 1922 to 2009, the senior British military appointment was General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland.

Commanders-in-Chief, Ireland, 1700–1922
Holders of the post have included:
 * Lieutenant General Thomas Erle 1701–1705
 * Lieutenant General Lord Cutts 1705– January 1707;
 * Lieutenant General Richard Ingoldsby February 1707–January 1712;
 * General William Steuart 1711–1714
 * Lieutenant General Lord Tyrawley 1714–1721
 * Field Marshal Lord Shannon 1721–1740
 * Lieutenant-General Owen Wynne in 1728
 * General Gervais Parker 1740–1750
 * Field Marshal Viscount Molesworth 1751–1758
 * General Lord Rothes 1758–1767
 * Lieutenant General William Keppel 1773–1774
 * General George Augustus Eliott 1774–1775
 * General Sir John Irwin 1775–1782
 * Lieutenant-General John Burgoyne 1782–1784
 * Lieutenant-General Sir William Augustus Pitt 1784–1791
 * Lieutenant-General George Warde 1791–1793
 * General Robert Cuninghame 1793–1796
 * Lieutenant-General Lord Carhampton 1796–1797
 * Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby 1797–1798
 * Lieutenant-General Gerard Lake 1798
 * General Lord Cornwallis 1798–1801
 * General Sir William Medows 1801–1803
 * Lieutenant-General Henry Edward Fox 1803
 * Lieutenant-General Lord Cathcart 1803–1805
 * Lieutenant-General John Floyd 1805
 * General Lord Harrington 1805–1812
 * Lieutenant-General Sir John Hope 1812–1813
 * General Sir George Hewett 1813–1816
 * General Sir George Beckwith 1816–1820
 * General Sir David Baird 1820–1822
 * General Sir Samuel Auchmuty 1822
 * Field Marshal Lord Combermere 1822–1825
 * General Sir George Murray 1825–1828
 * Field Marshal Lord Strafford 1828–1831
 * Lieutenant-General Lord Vivian 1831–1836
 * Field Marshal Sir Edward Blakeney 1836–1855
 * Field Marshal Lord Seaton 1855–1860
 * General Sir George Brown 1860–1865
 * Field Marshal Lord Strathnairn 1865–1870
 * General Lord Sandhurst 1870–1875
 * Field Marshal Sir John Michel 1875–1880
 * General Sir Thomas Steele 1880–1885
 * Field Marshal Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar 1885–1890
 * Field Marshal Lord Wolseley 1890–1895
 * Field Marshal Lord Roberts 1895–1900
 * Field Marshal The Duke of Connaught 1900–1904
 * Field Marshal Lord Grenfell 1904–1908
 * General Sir Neville Lyttelton 1908–1912
 * General Sir Arthur Paget 1912–1914
 * Major-General Sir Lovick Friend 1914–1916
 * General Sir John Maxwell 1916
 * Lieutenant-General Sir Bryan Mahon 1916–1918
 * Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Shaw 1918–1920
 * General Sir Nevil Macready 1920–1922

title: Commander-in-Chief, Ireland


text:
User:ACodispo

Mostly a WP:WikiGnome.

List of my contributions

Currently working on improving Old School Revival:

 * Scratchpad for working on it: User:ACodispo/Old School Revival article improvement

Disclosure regarding the above: I'm a member of several forums dedicated to discussing old RPGs & styles of playing (Dragonsfoot, OD&D Discussion, etc). I don't consider the OSR to be formal enough to have members, but I am certainly part of the trend of people interested in this stuff.

title: User:ACodispo


text:
Sweeney Todd (band)

Sweeney Todd is a Canadian glam rock band formed in Vancouver in 1975. They released two albums, the first with original lead vocalist Nick Gilder, who soon left for a solo career, and the second with his 16-year-old replacement Bryan Adams, who later enjoyed international success as a solo artist.

Overview
The band, formed in Vancouver, British Columbia, originally consisted of vocalist Nick Gilder, guitarist Jim McCulloch, bassist Budd Marr, keyboardist Dan Gaudin and drummer John Booth. The single "Roxy Roller" became a No. 1 hit in Canada, holding the top position in the RPM national singles chart for three weeks beginning on June 26, 1976,  and winning a Juno Award for the band.

Gilder and McCulloch subsequently left the band to pursue solo careers. Gilder had hits with "Hot Child in the City", "Here Comes the Night" and "(You Really) Rock Me".

Clark Perry was brought in to replace Gilder on vocals, and Skip Prest replaced McCulloch on guitar. Though he did record a second version of "Roxy Roller", Perry did not work out, however, and was replaced within a few months by Bryan Adams, who was 16 at that time. That incarnation of Sweeney Todd also recorded a - third - version of "Roxy Roller".

The new lineup recorded Sweeney Todd's second album, If Wishes Were Horses. That album was unsuccessful and Adams left the band after less than a year. The band attempted to carry on with Chris Booth (John Booth's younger brother) on vocals (and Grant Gislason replacing Prest in 1978), but broke up before recording any further albums.

The band re-united in 2000 and began working on The Sweeney Todd LP. The band followed up the completion of the record with a cross-Canada tour.

In 2007, Sweeney Todd - along with ex-vocalist Nick Gilder - headlined the Golden Spike Days Festival in Port Moody, British Columbia. In 2008, they performed (again with Gilder) at the Merritt Mountain Musicfest in Merritt, British Columbia.

After the breakup
Nick Gilder left the band and pursued a solo career. He would score the hit Hot Child in the City in 1978.

Gilder would be replaced by Clark Perry, however, this only lasted a few months.

Perry would be replaced by a young Bryan Adams, then 16. He would leave the band to embark on a solo career with Jim Vallance; his most successful album to date is Reckless, having sold 12 million copies.

Adams would then be replaced by Christopher Saint Booth, then 17, however this did not last long, and the band then disbanded. Christopher then went into film scoring, including the pornographic film Angels of Passion, whose song "Ulterior Motives", a collaboration with his twin brother Philip, would become a notable example of Lostwave, when a viral internet search ensued on sites such as WatZatSong and Reddit in the early 2020s under the name "Everyone Knows That (Ulterior Motives)".

The band would reform in 2000 with original vocalist Nick Gilder. This continues to the present day.

Discography
Albums
 * Sweeney Todd (1975) (Canadian RPM Album chart: #3)
 * If Wishes Were Horses (1977) (Canadian RPM Album chart: #78)

Singles
 * "Sweeney Todd Folder" (1976) - Canada #36
 * "Roxy Roller" (1976) - Canada #1, U.S. #90
 * "Say Hello, Say Goodbye" (1976) - Canada #75
 * "If Wishes Were Horses" (1977) - Canada #59

title: Sweeney Todd (band)


text:
Religion in the Faroe Islands

Religion in the Faroe Islands is dominated by the Lutheran Christianity. Historically linked to both Norway and Denmark, the islands' religious evolution reflects a blend of Norse traditions and Danish influences. Although the Lutheran Church remains predominant, the islands also host an array of other religious groups, including smaller Protestant denominations, Catholics, and followers of non-Trinitarian religions.

After gaining religious independence in 2007, the Church of the Faroe Islands became the established religion. Before this shift, the Church of Denmark played a pivotal role in the spiritual life of the Faroese people. Notably, the religious fervor and observance in the Faroe Islands are considerably more intense than in Denmark, making it an essential facet of the Faroese cultural and social landscape.

History
The Færeyinga saga is often cited with respect to the early spread of Christendom in the islands. The saga states that the king of Norway told Sigmund to go by ship to the Faroe Islands with orders from the King. Sigmund's orders were clear: he was supposed to make the 18 small islands Christian, which is what he did, according to the saga. This event is believed to have taken place around 1000, but the Faroese did not establish an organised congregation of the Catholic Church before around 1100, so there do appear to be some inconsistencies in the saga.

The islands, initially under Norwegian governance, transitioned to Danish jurisdiction in 1523. During this period, significant religious changes occurred. Ámundur Ólavsson, the last Catholic Bishop of the Faroe Islands, was succeeded by Jens Gregersøn Riber, the first Lutheran bishop, marking the transition to Lutheranism in 1540.

Demographics
The religious demographics of the Faroe Islands are dominated by Christianity.

According to the 2011 Census: there were 33,018 Christians (95.44%), 23 Muslims (0.07%), 7 Hindus (0.02%), 66 Buddhists (0.19%), 12 Jews (0.03%), 13 Baháʼís (0.04%), 3 Sikhs (0.01%), 149 Others (0.43%), 85 with more than one belief (0.25%) and 1,397 with no religion (4.04%).

The Catholic Church has around 270 adherents, representing 0.8% from Faroe population. There are also small groups of Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Ahmadi Muslims and followers of the Baháʼí Faith in the country.

title: Religion in the Faroe Islands


text: User talk:68.5.96.75

title: User talk:68.5.96.75


text:
Peter Masniuk

Peter Paul Masniuk (February 17, 1920 in Morweena, Manitoba – October 21, 1995) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He was a Progressive Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1966 to 1969, and a federal Progressive Conservative member of the House of Commons of Canada from 1972 to 1979.

The son of Paul Masniuk and Anne Fediuk, Masniuk was educated at public school in Narcisse, Manitoba. He was a section foreman with the Canadian National Railway before entering politics, and was a Union contact at Lodge 308 from 1955 to 1966. He served in the armoured car division of the 12th Manitoba Dragoons from 1942 to 1945, and was later president of Branch No. 158 of the Royal Canadian Legion from 1960 to 1965. In 1947, Masniuk married Rose Kowalchuk.

He was elected to the Manitoba legislature in the 1966 provincial election in the riding of Fisher, defeating former NDP MLA Peter Wagner by 112 votes. He was not appointed to cabinet, and did not seek re-election in 1969 after the abolition of his riding. He was known for bringing a union perspective to the PC caucus.

He moved to federal politics in the 1972 Canadian election, and was elected for the riding of Portage, defeating his nearest opponent by more than 2,000 votes. He was returned in the 1974 election, but lost his seat to New Democratic Party challenger Terry Sargeant in the 1979 election, in the redistributed riding of Selkirk—Interlake. This loss occurred just as the Progressive Conservatives formed a minority government under the leadership of Joseph Clark.

Masniuk returned to his job as a CNR foreman after his defeat. He later served as reeve of Armstrong from 1985 to 1992, and was a housing officer with the Manitoba Housing Authority. He died suddenly while dancing at a community event in Arborg, celebrating fifty years of his contributions to the Legion.

title: Peter Masniuk


text:
Talk:Neural network (biology)

graphic list of neural networks

 * https://towardsdatascience.com/the-mostly-complete-chart-of-neural-networks-explained-3fb6f2367464

with explanations of each, could be used to illustrate this article

 Bluerasberry  (talk)  17:04, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

Merge? (again)
This article seems to deal with very similar content with Artificial Neural Network. I'm new to this discussion and couldn't find any ongoing or archived decisions on the content of these pages. But, I do feel uncomfortable with having two pages deal with the same content since it should be centralized. too_muchcuriosity (talk) 05:04, 15 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I strongly agree. I'm quite surprised, looking at these talk page archives, that nothing of the sort has happened yet.  It seems like opponents of past merges want to avoid having ANNs treated as the only/main kind of NNs, but that's not an argument to keep separate articles for NN and ANN that cover the same content.  It looks like some have suggested making NN more of a disambiguation page, which seems like the best solution to me.  But as you say, none of those discussions seem to have come to actual decisions.  I would support anyone who wants to just start gutting this page and transplanting content to ANN.  If no one does, I'll give it a go when I have the time and see if anyone complains.  Justin Kunimune (talk) 20:23, 11 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I guess I'll save you the trouble. In my opinion, there's a fundamental difference between a network formed by real neurons in an actual nervous system, and a theoretical model constructed on a computer. And I would say that, if anything, the page here comes closer to being the primary topic. I can accept that there is duplicated content that does not need to be duplicated, and can be pruned from the less appropriate page, but that doesn't mean that there should be a merge. The main problem with this page in its current form is that it says that it's about "biological neural networks" and then goes on to have large amounts of content that should be at the other page. But that's a problem with how this page was written (or copy-pasted), not with the existence of a notable standalone topic. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:38, 11 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Agreed on the difference between ANNs and biological neural circuitry. But, that's really why I suggested merging. I haven't encountered any neuroscience research that uses the term "neural network" or "biological neural network". From what I've seen, it just doesn't seem to be a common used term or concept that is differentiated from that neural circuit page. Is there research you're aware of that makes biological neural networks" notable and differentiate them from the neural circuit page? too_muchcuriosity (talk) 03:17, 12 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I think the idea of this being related to neural circuit is one that is worth pursuing. Please give me a little time to get those sources, but I did want to say that for now. --Tryptofish (talk) 19:21, 12 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your help! And no rush, this change doesn't feel like a huge priority. too_muchcuriosity (talk) 21:28, 12 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I've looked into this some more. I'll start with the question of how this relates to neural circuits. I think there's a progression of increasing complexity, that goes from neural pathways to neural circuits to biological neural networks. In other words, a circuit can include multiple pathways. Reflex circuits, for example, can include both an afferent sensory pathway and an efferent motor pathway. A biological network, in turn, can be made up of multiple circuits. For these reasons, I'm thinking that we should continue to keep these pages separate.
 * Now as for biological versus artificial networks, it's definitely true that there are a lot more publications about the artificial kind. But I also think that there's enough source material out there to justify keeping this page as a standalone page (albeit one that needs a lot of improvement). Here's a fairly recent review article that explicitly treats them as separate ideas: . One can see that the source also treats the biological networks as informing the artificial ones, and that's a theme I keep seeing across multiple sources. Here's a recent research article that does that: . Historically, the phrase "neural network" has been used to describe networks in the brain, as in this older book: . Likewise in invertebrate nervous systems: . There's source material on integrating prosthetic devices with biological networks: . And here are some more books over a period of time, where biological systems are treated as informing artificial ones:, , and . Even when sources cover both categories, they seem to consistently treat them as two distinct things. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:19, 13 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I'll just note when I studied the literature would use a terminology of either "ANNs" and "BNNs" or else "neural networks" and "neuronal networks", in cases where both biological and artificial neural nets were discussed (which seemed still common for models in the late 2000s/early 2010s at least?). At the time "neural network" could mean a computational NN, a biological NN, or a theoretical model of either (such as a spin glass) or even just something neat with matrices (such as a Hopfield net). I don't know if any of this parlance is still used since a lot of these models are obsolete or turned out to be dead ends, but it's something to ask where there's still interdisciplinary work. SamuelRiv (talk) 07:25, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for looking into that, Tryptofish! I'll admit I don't know anything about BNNs.  When I suggested merging, it was under the assumption that BNNs are already covered at Neural circuit.
 * If BNNs are really distinct from NCs, then I would suggest instead creating a new page at Biological neural network (which currently redirects to Neural circuit), and putting all of the BNN-specific information from this page there. Neuronal network also redirects to Neural circuit, so that should be redirected to BNN.  In my view, given the similarity of the terminology, this page should just be a disambiguation page, possibly with a high-level conceptual overview of the difference between ANNs and BNNs.  All technical content should be moved to either ANN or BNN.
 * Justin Kunimune (talk) 13:05, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you SamuelRiv and Justin for adding to the discussion and thank you Tryptofish for the research!
 * I agree with Justin that having a disambiguation page with a high level overview might make the most sense. I do wonder where we should add comparative discussions between the two concepts. Any thoughts? too_muchcuriosity (talk) 19:07, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks, everyone. I can see a lot of potential moving parts here. First, I want to point out that there is currently a discussion about possibly redirecting neural circuitry at Redirects for discussion/Log/2024 January 12. I'm pointing that out particularly because, when I think about what might be the most general term for disambiguating these various topics, neural circuitry could be a good candidate. All of these things we are discussing are forms of neural circuitry (but not of neural circuits, which are a subset thereof). Alternatively, we already have Neural network (disambiguation). I definitely agree that neuronal network should not redirect to neural circuit, but instead to either neural network or biological neural network. My next thought is that I'm ambivalent about whether we should title the page neural network and have biological neural network redirect to that, or the other way around. BNN is more precise, but probably a less common search term. As for disambiguation, our options are (1) a true disambiguation page, (2) a summary style page that provides an overview of the different concepts (but in text form instead of in list form), or (3) just having disambiguation at each page, whether via hatnotes, see also sections, or the main text. As I say, I think there are a lot of moving parts here, and I'm not yet sure which way is best. --Tryptofish (talk) 21:39, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * If there's not enough content for coverage of NNs as a (historical? needs a current expert in the field to weigh in imo) unified concept, then I'd support a summary-style page.
 * (Maybe I should rant for a policy change on the VP, but I hate disambig pages for especially technical articles. If someone is looking up the WP article for "neural network", they won't have any idea which to click on between "neural circuit", ANN, etc, no matter how good a one-sentence description one writes.) SamuelRiv (talk) 04:36, 15 January 2024 (UTC)
 * So as a starting point, would anyone object to me taking material relevant to ANNs and moving it to the ANN page? Probably a lot of it is already duplicated there and can be deleted.  Once this is reduced to just BNN-relevant content we can decide what to do with it, but it's sounding to me like putting it at BNN and making NN a summary-style page is a good option. Justin Kunimune (talk) 00:17, 18 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I think moving material to ANN and deleting the duplicated parts is fine. I'm not yet sure what I think is best to do after that, but we can certainly take things one step at a time. Thanks. --Tryptofish (talk) 18:47, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

I have moved all ANN content to Artificial neural network. Depending on what we decide to do with Neural network, a small amount of it might be moved back later. However, I think for now it's best to remove it, since the article as it was was very confusing to read, due to how it mixed together information about ANNs and BNNs. The question now is whether the BNN content that's now here should be moved a new page called Biological neural network, moved to an existing page like Neural circuit, or left here (in which case this article would have to be reworded to clarify that it's just about BNNs). Justin Kunimune (talk) 15:31, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

 * So what's the next step here? After skimming some of the literature, I think neural networks and neural circuits are actually the same thing.  Some sources try to maintain a distinction where circuits are smaller than networks, but others just use them interchangeably.  At least, this article seems to be about the same thing as Neural circuit.  So my vote is to move this content to Neural circuit and redirect Neural network to Neural network (disambiguation). I agree that the disambiguation page should be fleshed out to be more descriptive.  I have a draft of how that could look here. Justin Kunimune (talk) 17:54, 27 January 2024 (UTC)
 * No, circuits and networks are two different things. --Tryptofish (talk) 00:44, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay, in that case my vote is to move this to Biological neural network. In my opinion Neural network should redirect to the disambiguation page since someone searching the term could conceivably be looking for either type. Justin Kunimune (talk) 19:55, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I just happened upon Nervous system network models, which I didn't previously know existed, but it adds a further complication. --Tryptofish (talk) 00:24, 2 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh my, that's quite the article. It sounds from the lede like it provides some broad overview of the relationship between ANNs and BNNs, but the structure and voice of the text violates so much of the manual of style that I hesitate to use any of it.  I say just leave it be.  Maybe someday someone will clean it up and we can link it more deliberately to and from other NN-related articles, but I for one don't want to be that person.
 * On that note, do you (or anyone else here) have thoughts about moving this page to Biological neural network? I suspect that many if not most people searching for Neural network are looking for ANNs, not BNNs.  Moreover, there seems to be support for a broad summary comparing ANNs and BNNs, and Neural network is the most logical place to put that.  Thus, I think it would benefit many readers if upon arriving at Neural network they saw a summary that links to both, instead of just the BNN article.  Indeed, it seems that was the original intent of Neural network before it became overwhelmed by ANN-specific content. Justin Kunimune (talk) 18:10, 3 February 2024 (UTC)
 * About that network models page, I thought I would post here in case someone felt there was something worth merging. But I share your opinion that it's a mess. I'm thinking about taking it to WP:AfD. About NN versus BNN, I've been going back and forth in my mind. I won't say that I'm exactly opposed to taking the path you suggest, but I'm leaning more towards keeping the current organization where BNN redirects here and this page explains things. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:50, 3 February 2024 (UTC)
 * What would you say are the arguments in favor of the current organization? Justin Kunimune (talk) 20:48, 4 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I'll start by agreeing with you in part, by noting that the strongest argument in favor of the change is that there are a lot more sources about ANNs than about BNNs. (Without veering into original research, I cannot say why that is. Is it because ANN is really the primary topic, or because there are more primary sources where somebody wrote a paper about something they thought up for a computer program, than there are where somebody did a detailed experimental biological study?) What gives me pause is that BNN is a much less common term used in sources, than is NN. For me, that's an argument that BNN should be a redirect to NN, where the distinction between BNN and ANN is explained. And that's what we have now. I also feel that the sources tell us that NN started out as a term for BNN, and that ANNs are based upon BNNs, rather than the other way around. Thus ANN is a topic that grew out of BNN, whereas BNN is not a topic that grew out of ANN. So I'm uncomfortable about reading the sources as telling us that ANN should be the primary topic. So if a reader comes here looking for ANN, they will be taken right where they want to go. If a reader comes here looking for NN, with ANN the topic they are thinking of, they will easily find it one click away. If a reader comes here looking for NN, with BNN the topic they are thinking of, they come directly to the right place (and if they search for BNN, they get redirected here). If we have NN as some sort of DAB page, then nobody coming to that page will come directly to the page that they are ultimately looking for. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:57, 5 February 2024 (UTC)
 * To address your specific concerns, both BNNs and ANNs are simply called NNs in their respective fields, so that doesn't strongly favor one over the other. It is true that ANNs came from BNNs, but historical age by itself doesn't make a topic primary if the newer topic has become more prominent.
 * To test their relative prominence I tried searching "neural network" on DuckDuckGo. In my first three pages of results, which I think are the same as for everyone, I counted 64 pages about ANNs, 2 pages about BNNs (one of which was this Wikipedia article), and 1 about the journal Neural Networks (which covers both).  Some of the ANN pages mention the term "artificial neural network", but others only use "neural network".  So this makes me confident that the majority of people coming to neural network are looking for ANNs.
 * That said, I don't think ANN should be the primary topic because, as SamuelRiv alluded to, I think there are many readers who aren't familiar enough with either concept to know which one they're looking for, and for whom a multi-sentence disambiguating comparison/summary would be useful. So I still think a DAB page is worthwhile, even if it requires one more click of some users. I have an updated draft here of what I think that could look like.  Justin Kunimune (talk) 02:46, 6 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I appreciate the thoughtful way you are approaching this, and I'll say again that I keep going back-and-forth in my mind about this. Perhaps some additional editors will comment here, and that could well sway my (wavering) opinion. I've looked at your sandbox draft of an overview page, and I agree that it would be the way to go, if we go that way. If I try to track where you and I agree, we agree that neither topic is really the primary topic, more like two coequal topics. We agree that a lot of readers will arrive here looking for NN as the search term, even when they are actually looking for one or the other. I'm leaning toward agreeing that, of those readers, a majority will be looking for ANN, not BNN. I'm not very bothered by an extra click for some readers, but I do think we should seek to minimize the need to click through, if we can. I'm also hesitating because BNN just isn't a widely used term. One idea that I just thought of while writing this reply is that maybe we could do it the way you suggest, but not call the page "Biological neural network". Instead, it could be "Neural network (biological)" (which is currently a redirect to "Neural network"). So there would be an overview page at Neural network (along with the DAB page at Neural network (disambiguation)), and two pages that link from that: Artificial neural network and Neural network (biological), with Biological neural network a redirect to the latter. I'd like to hear more opinions, but I think I could warm to that. --Tryptofish (talk) 22:52, 6 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Wow lots of interesting discussion! Sorry for jumping in after a bit of a hiatus.
 * Regarding the redirect/DAB discussion, I agree with Justin that "neural networks" is the WP:COMMONNAME of ANNs. From my perspective neural networks seems so commonly used for ANNs, that "Artificial Neural Network" feels like an unnatural disambiguation since it is rarely qualified as "artificial" in the computer science world. So, I'm personally comfortable with a redirect to the ANN page, but adding "not to be confused with" header on the ANN page.
 * I'd also support a DAB page, but prefer my previous suggestion. I do think it's important to make them coequal topics, but I wonder if common usage is more important criteria in this case.
 * Regarding naming, perhaps pages with the titles:
 * - "Neural network (machine learning)"
 * - "Neural network (biology)"
 * Although unnatural, this naming choice recognizes that the terms are used in an unqualified manner in their respective fields. Let me know what you think!
 * On the Nervous system network models page, woof, what an eyesore. That being said, does it contain the information we'd want to include on a BNN page? If so, that might be a helpful starting point given that the current page has little content discussing BNNs. too_muchcuriosity (talk) 16:16, 8 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I agree with a lot of that, except that, even if "neural networks" is the COMMONNAME of ANNs, it is likewise the COMMONNAME of BNNs. I think I would be OK with your proposed pagenames, because it allows us to treat them both as a "Neural network...". That would also work well in the search box. --Tryptofish (talk) 00:00, 9 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I added a note on Talk:Nervous_system_network_models about the discussion here. I may work on seeing if content can be consolidated. After that, should we open a discussion a potential page move to "Neural networks (biology)"? (I am open to opening the discussion now, but I think it may be worth getting our ducks in a row first.) too_muchcuriosity (talk) 15:24, 9 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for doing that. I think it's a good idea to start by seeing if anything on the network models page can be merged into this page (with preservation of edit history). After that, I'm thinking that AfD of that page is probably more trouble than it's worth, and the page can simply be blanked and made into a redirect to whatever we end up calling this page. It would probably be best to give a bit of time to see whether any other editors have opinions one way or the other about the possible new pagenames. Personally, the more I think about it, the more I like your proposal using parentheses. --Tryptofish (talk) 21:36, 9 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I think the parenthetical page names are an excellent idea. I'm fully in support of moving this page to Neural network (biology) and Artificial neural network to Neural network (machine learning), but I'm also happy to wait and give others a chance to comment.  Justin Kunimune (talk) 22:19, 9 February 2024 (UTC)

Summing up
I believe that we have allowed plenty of time for anyone else to comment, and that it's now reasonable to start the process of making the improvements that we have been discussing. There are an awful lot of moving parts, so I'm going to use this subsection to try to get everything summed up. (I hope I don't miss anything, but I might!)

First, I want to note that we need to be careful about preserving page editing histories. WP:Copying within Wikipedia needs to be followed.

So, for the main issue here, it seems to me that we have consensus to have two pages:
 * Neural network (biology), for BNNs, and
 * Neural network (machine learning), for ANNs.

The (biology) page will contain what is now at this page, and maybe some content merged from Nervous system network models (personally, I don't relish deciding what to merge from it). The (machine learning) page will start out as a new pagename for what is now Artificial neural network.

 * Neural network will become a broad overview page, that links near the beginning to both of the pages listed just above, and will start out based on User:Justinkunimune/sandbox. Over time, it will be revised to include the relationship to Neural pathway, Neural circuit, Large-scale brain network, and probably some other things (what else?).

 * Neural network (disambiguation) will have to be updated to reflect the changes.

 * Biological neural network and Nervous system network models will become redirects to Neural network (biology).
 * Artificial neural network will become a redirect to Neural network (machine learning).

What else have I left out? --Tryptofish (talk) 22:15, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

 * That sums it up for me! I think it's worth noting that we don't have to do this all at once; in particular, merging Nervous system network models will require more work than the rest.  We should start by moving this page and Artificial neural network to the parenthetical pagenames, and then work on extracting content from Nervous system network models after that.  Do you think it's fair to just do that first part, since we've already discussed it, or would you rather open a formal move discussion? Justin Kunimune (talk) 23:32, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree with all of that. I see no need for a formal move discussion, given the discussion we've already had here. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:33, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * But as soon as those moves are made, the redirects are going to have to be retargetted, and the DAB page updated. --Tryptofish (talk) 23:36, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Alright, I made the move and updated the redirects and DAB page. I don't have time to do more than that for now but I'll help out with the other tasks later this week. Justin Kunimune (talk) 22:47, 17 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Great work, thanks so much! --Tryptofish (talk) 23:44, 17 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you! too_muchcuriosity (talk) 02:10, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

Top image
The output layer should have more than one node, or else it's incapable of serving the purpose of most NNs. 106.184.139.134 (talk) 01:51, 25 April 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Technical Writing
— Assignment last updated by RoeJogan712 (talk) 22:08, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Neural network (biology)


text: User talk:64.75.162.162

title: User talk:64.75.162.162


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Super Eurobeat

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 18:00, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Super Eurobeat
Wikipedia is not a directory. However, I know that Super Eurobeat is quite an important music record from AVEX Records (See Eurobeat). Delete page but leave redlink stand. SYSS Mouse 03:11, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep we have thousands of album pages, this is just like a merger of several of them. Kappa 03:16, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, pointless list, trivial. Megan1967 07:58, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, this is the AVEX compilation. Not sure if we want to have the lists all in the same article or what. --SPUI (talk) 08:33, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep --Fuzzball! (talk) 09:08, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * While it is good to have lots of album pages, I don't see what's so encyclopedic about album compilations like the 'best songs in and '. As such, delete. Radiant_* 09:10, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * In this case, the compilations seem to be better known than the original albums, assuming they even exist. --SPUI (talk) 09:35, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes as I see it, basically these compilations are the most important part of the genre. Kappa 11:35, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Really? How odd. Well, I admit I'm not very familiar with the genre, so abstain. Radiant_* 12:39, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * keep this as well Yuckfoo 01:40, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Rewrite RadioActive 17:58, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Paul Peek

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 18:13, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Paul Peek
GRider marked this vfd on March 14, but never made a subpage or listed it on vfd. I'm just bringing it here for resolution; do not consider this a vote. —Korath (Talk) 03:12, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * Is this encyclopedic? Does this increase the sum of human knowledge?  Discuss.  Seriously, strong keep.  Discussion over. - Lucky 6.9 05:53, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * May a point to Banning_policy about mocking banned users? Anyway, notability is established, so keep the article, but cleanup as well. Sjakkalle 13:20, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * You're absolutely right. My apologies.  Rider, if you're out there, love you, man.  No offense intended. - Lucky 6.9 17:47, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Salon profile. The sixth person in the world to be inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. Lots more here. Samaritan 06:05, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Meets Wikimusic Project guidelines as being a member of a notable group namely Gene Vincent's backing band. Being a member of the Rockabilly Hill of fame should count for something too. Capitalistroadster 07:17, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep: Notable.  --Fuzzball! (talk) 09:22, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 12:48, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:1 E+13 m²

Untitled
This page is freaking awesome. Thank you. -Brian and Mark — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.188.131.233 (talk) 03:13, 13 April 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:1 E+13 m²


text:
Coal Harbour

Coal Harbour is a section of Burrard Inlet lying between Vancouver's Downtown Peninsula and the Brockton Point of Stanley Park. It has also now become the name of the neighbourhood adjacent to its southern shoreline.

Neighbourhood
Coal Harbour is used to designate the relatively new official neighbourhood of the City of Vancouver bounded by roughly Burrard Street and Pender near the Financial District to West Georgia Street near the West End in the south to Stanley Park in the north. The neighbourhood consists of numerous high-rise residential apartment and condominium towers with luxury townhome podiums.

Features
The northwestern section near Stanley Park features picturesque parkland, private marinas, several rowing and boating clubs, high-end shops and restaurants, and a community centre designed by architect Gregory Henriquez. To the east is Deadman's Island, the site of the naval station and museum HMCS Discovery, where the harbour itself opens up to the Burrard Inlet. Towards the Financial District in the southeast, the neighbourhood is dominated by high-rise office buildings, hotels and numerous apartment towers. Immediately south lies Vancouver's Luxury Zone along Alberni Street.

Coal Harbour is home to Vancouver Harbour Water Aerodrome, located a few blocks from Canada Place and the Vancouver Convention Centre. Within the harbour is a floating gas station for marine vessels. The 2010 Winter Olympics cauldron is installed at Jack Poole Plaza.

History
The discovery of coal in the harbor in 1862 inspired the name. In the days when the area along West Pender Street was an upper-class residential district, Coal Harbour was known as Blueblood Alley because of the many large mansions along it.

Notable inhabitants and developments in Coal Harbour's past include:
 * Squamish settlements, notably on Deadman Island, Brockton Point and Lumberman's Arch.
 * In 1862 minor exploration began of the visible coal seams on the flank of the bluff overlooking the harbour, first noted by Captain Vancouver. This bluff was approximately where most of West Hastings Street is today.  The coal was low-grade, but its occurrence in clays similar to porcelain-making clays of the English Midlands led to the staking of what is known as the Brickmaker's Claim by the Three Greenhorns.  The Brickmaker's Claim is now the West End.  No clay was ever mined nor porcelain ever made, but one of the Greenhorns was the developer of the clay mine and brickworks at Clayburn on Sumas Mountain near Abbotsford.
 * A settlement of Kanakas (Hawaiians) near today's Bayshore Inn and the eastern end of Lost Lagoon was known as the Kanaka Rancherie, or the Cherry Orchard due to its many cherry trees. The area is now called Devonian Harbour Park, and memorial cherry trees have been planted there in memory of AIDS victims, a poignant tribute connected to the work of AIDS Vancouver organization.
 * The Vancouver Boating Club, now Vancouver Rowing Club, from 1887 (originally at the bottom of the bluff at the foot of Howe Street)
 * The Pacific Lumber Mill Company in the late 19th century
 * The Royal Vancouver Yacht Club (their first clubhouse floated in Coal Harbour at the foot of Cardero street in 1903)
 * Denman Arena was built in 1911 to house the Vancouver Millionaires professional ice hockey club on the Kanakas Ranch site at Georgia and Denman. The Arena would host the only victory by a Vancouver team of the Stanley Cup in 1915. The Denman Auditorium was built adjacent to the Arena in 1927 for concerts and smaller events. The Arena was destroyed by fire in 1936. The Auditorium remained in use until its demolition in 1959.
 * Boeing Canada's Seaplane and Boat Factory beginning in the 1910s; (they purchased the Hoffar-Beeching Shipyard at 1927 West Georgia in 1929)
 * William Boeing's yacht, the superb Taconite, was built at Hoffars in 1931.
 * The Vancouver Shipyards through the 1930s
 * The CP Rail Station & Canadian Pacific Steamships passenger terminal/dock
 * The Royal Canadian Air Force began work on a seaplane base and reconnaissance station at Coal Harbour in 1940. As part of the war effort, the RCAF turned over its direction finding and intercept facility to the Royal Canadian Navy. Due to an organizational change in 1942, the RCN ratings stationed at Coal Harbour and the ones from Ucluelet were withdrawn and moved to Gordon Head near Victoria.
 * Harbour Ferries, a tour-boat and water-taxi service, continues to operate from docks in Coal Harbour
 * Howard Hughes, who resided in the top two floors of the Bayshore Inn (now The Westin Bayshore) for 5 months and 28 days in the 1970s (6 months would have triggered Canadian residency and taxation issues for Mr. Hughes).
 * Denman Arena, an indoor ice arena that stood from 1911 to 1936.
 * Trader Vic's, for many years held to be Vancouver's best night-out, was launched in a tiki-style hut next to the Bayshore.
 * HMCS Discovery, a naval base on Deadman Island.
 * In 1993 Vancouver City Council froze applications for the development of the Marathon Realty lands between Canada Place and The Westin Bayshore. The company was required to reach an agreement with The First Narrows Floating Co-op, representing floating home and live-aboard boat residents in pre existing marinas, for their inclusion in the redevelopment of the waterfront. Negotiations concluded with the guarantee of space for residents in Coal Harbour Marina on extended leases.

title: Coal Harbour