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Johann Wilhelm Meigen

Johann Wilhelm Meigen (3 May 1764 – 11 July 1845) was a German entomologist famous for his pioneering work on Diptera.

Early years
Meigen was born in Solingen, the fifth of eight children of Johann Clemens Meigen and Sibylla Margaretha Bick. His parents, though not poor, were not wealthy either. They ran a small shop in Solingen. His paternal grandparents, however, owned an estate and hamlet with twenty houses. Adding to the rental income, Meigen's grandfather was a farmer and a guild mastercutler in Solingen.

Two years after Meigen was born, his grandparents died and his parents moved to the family estate. This was already heavily indebted by the Seven Years' War, then bad crops and rash speculations forced the sale of the farm and the family moved back to Solingen.

Meigen attended the town school but only for a short time. He had learned to read and write on his grandfather's estate and he read widely at home as well as taking an interest in natural history. A lodger in the household, a state surveyor named Stamm gave Meigen instruction in mathematics. Another family friend a Reformed Church organist and teacher called Berger, gave him lessons from his 10th year on in piano, orthography, and calligraphy. Later on, in 1776, he also taught him French.

Meigen became Berger's assistant, going to Mülheim with him. There he saw for the first time a systematic collection of butterflies, and here he also learned how to collect and prepare insects.

In the autumn of 1779 he returned to Solingen to help his parents, at first by giving private lessons in French, but in the following year he started a French school that lasted until early in 1784. During his few free hours in this period he studied history from Charles Rollin's 15-volume Roman History and that author's four-volume Ancient History (both in French). The only entomological work in his possession at this time was Moder's (or Kleemann's) Caterpillar Calendar.

Later in 1784 he was recommended to Pelzer, a tradesman in Aachen, for the position of resident tutor. On taking up the post, he was treated as a family member. Pelzer had a cousin in Aachen by the name of Mathias Baumhauer (1759–1818), a wool merchant's son, who was a very able entomologist. Baumhauer had a butterfly collection including about 1200 species as well as numbers of insects of all other orders.

Early entomology
Meigen's first attempts to identify his collection which was mainly of Diptera were made with a two-volume work by Philipp Ludwig Statius Muller a German translation of Linnaeus's Natursystem published in the Netherlands by Houttyn. He soon made his first discovery. The Linnean genera were too inclusive and a better classification could be arrived at using wing venation. This conclusion had already occurred to both Moses Harris in England and Louis Jurine in Geneva but at the time Meigen was unaware of this. Sensing an important step forward he secured the works of Fabricius and from that time concentrated on Diptera.

He soon found that wing venation alone was not enough to classify the Diptera correctly and he began to make drawings of the antennae viewed under a 20-power wooden-framed microscope purchased at the fair in Aachen, This and also a lens of about 6-power, and his own very sharp eyesight and visual memory led him to the next important conclusion, that the Diptera could only be classified using character combinations; what is now known as an eclectic system.

Return to Solingen
In 1786 the Solingen organist, a younger brother of his former teacher Berger died in Solingen. That position, with a French school connected with it, was offered to Meigen and he went back to Solingen.

There he became closely acquainted with a man called Weniger, who shared his interests in botany and entomology. His enthusiasm for entomology and botany became broader and he decided to extend his studies to world species. Weniger felt likewise and they contacted the banker and collector Johann Christian Gerning in Frankfurt. Gerning wrote to his son in the Netherlands, who bought insect specimens for him. A Swiss, Count von Meuron, who was in the Dutch service and whose brother was governor of Trincomalee on Ceylon heard of their wishes and obtained for them the offer of positions as surgeons on an East Indiaman, with an additional stipend. This plan was given up when Meigen's mother opposed it.

To Burtscheid
In 1792 Meigen took instruction in drawing. Then he was offered a teaching position in Burtscheid near Aachen. However, he could not leave Solingen because it was occupied by the French army during the Battle of Jemappes. Only when the French withdrew after the Battle of Neerwinden was he able to leave for Burtscheid and Aachen, where he then taught as well as collecting assiduously.

In 1796, Meigen took a job teaching French in Stolberg, 2 hours from Aachen. Here he remained without further change of residence until his death. In Stolberg outside of school hours he taught drawing, geography, history and piano. He also met a brass-worker named J. A. Peltzer, who was a mathematician and owned a 60-power Tiedemann achromatic telescope. Soon Meigen was teaching astronomy as well.

In 1801 Meigen met the French naturalist Count Lacépède who had come to Stolberg to visit the brass works. They talked about natural history and Meigen showed Count Lacépède his drawings of Diptera. The following day Meigen was asked to visit Count Lacépède who asked him to join Capt. Baudin's voyage around the world as a botanist. Meigen declined.

In 1802 Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger who must have heard of Meigen from Count Lacépède and was at the baths in Aachen with Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg invited him to join them. Meigen took his drawings along, and made arrangements with Illiger and Hoffmannsegg for future work. Illiger had captured a new and unknown Dipteron and showed a pen drawing of it to Meigen, asking him how it should be classified. Meigen described it as Loxocera Hoffmannseggi. Illiger also agreed to proofread Meigen's first work on Diptera which was then published in 1804 by Reichard in Braunschweig.

Controversy
In 1804 the only classification of Diptera was that of Fabricius. Despite Meigen's more advanced, and more natural classification, Meigen's Die Fliegen found little favor with most entomologists, who were adherents of Fabricius, but that did not deflect Meigen.

In the same year Fabricius visited Paris and saw Meigen's work. On returning home, he wrote Meigen and arranged to meet him in Aachen. A few days later Fabricius came to Stolberg. Here he was shown all of Meigen's new genera in order that he might use them in the projected new edition of Systema Antliatorum. Fabricius criticized Meigen for his eclectic method, asserting that a classification should be based upon one part of the body, (mainly mouthparts) not on several different parts. Meigen pointed out that Fabricius himself did not consistently follow his own precepts but even so Fabricius refused to use the eclectic method.

Marriage
In 1801 Meigen married Anna, the sister of the Reverend Mänsse, a preacher at Hückelhoven near Linnich. Anna was clearly devoted to Meigen which was as well since hard times were ahead. Until 1808 the number of students of French steadily declined, resulting of course in a considerable reduction in Meigen's income. In this crisis, a merchant in Stolberg, one Adolf Pelzer, obtained for him the secretaryship for the Stolberg commercial committee, including keeping minutes of meetings and carrying on correspondence in both German and French. Then, in another reversal, he was replaced by a voluntary secretariat.

Coal fossils
In 1812 the French government provided Meigen with the job of finishing drawings of coal fossils. At this time his work day began usually at about 4 in the morning and lasted until late in the evening for 314 days of each year. All free time was spent with the study of entomology mostly Diptera, but also other orders. He also studied history and mathematics. At this time Meigen drew and colored many more species for Die Fliegen.

From 1812 to 1814 Meigen drew some maps for the municipality of Stolberg. He also corresponded again with Count von Hoffmannsegg, until the latter sold his collection to the Natural History Museum of Berlin.

Offer from Wiedemann
In 1815, Meigen received a letter from State Attorney (Justizrat) Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann asking if there was any prospect that his work begun in 1804 could be continued. He offered access to the Fabricius collection in the University of Kiel. Then in the summer of 1816 Wiedemann came to Stolberg and stayed 8 days to outline an ambitious project. He had material sent to Meigen from the Vienna Museum, from the Hoffmannsegg collection in Berlin, and from the Peter Simon Pallas collection. Meigen worked constantly and in 1818 the first volume of the new and enlarged edition of Die Fliegen came out, followed by the others until the 7th volume appeared in 1838. For this last volume Meigen had to make the lithographic plates himself to cut expenses. He also prepared 19 lithographic plates for Wiedemann's Aussereuropaische Zweiflugler. The first volumes of Die Fliegen were published by Meigen himself, but the costs were high, in spite of a considerable list of subscriptions. The Schulz bookdealers in Hamm took over the job with a sizeable honorarium.

In 1818, Meigen's longtime friend, the tireless collector, Baumhauer died in Paris. His widow brought his collection to Aachen and got Meigen to determine it. He took on the determination of at least 50,000 specimens from Germany, France, the Pyrenees, the Alps and northern Italy and worked on it for a year and a half. The collection was then sold for 1100 Dutch guilders, part of it going to Leiden and part to Liège (Lüttich).

These years were very certainly hard. Because of poor harvests in 1816 and 1817, food prices rose enormously. There were 7 children in his family at this time and his income was extremely low, there being now no demand for a French teacher, the French Empire having collapsed. Eventually, through the intervention of the inspector of water supply, he got a well paid contract for some map-drawing lasting a couple of years. Astronomy also brought him some map-work.

He was able, however to make a trip to the Siebengebirge chiefly for botany and Meigen made some drawings of plants for Prof. Johann Georg Christian Lehmann a Hamburg botanist.

In 1821, Meigen made the acquaintance of Professor Heinrich Moritz Gaede of Liège, whose name he gave to Trypeta gaedii and the tachinid genus Gaedia.

Wiedemann's second visit and a trip to Scandinavia
In 1822, Wiedemann made a second visit to Meigen, proposing that Meigen come to Kiel and revise the Fabrician collection, and offering to defray expenses. Meigen accepted, leaving for Hamburg on 23 June 1823. He was met in Hamburg by the entomologist Wilhelm Von Winthem, who invited him to stay at his home. Meigen, found himself in the house in which the great poet and dramatist Klopstock spent the last 30 years of his life and which Von Winthem's sister, Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, Klopstock's widow, then owned. Here he studied the Winthem collection which contained so much that Meigen had to leave a more careful review of it for his return trip. He went on to Kiel to meet Wiedemann, He also met Heinrich Boie in Kiel. Next Meigen and Wiedemann went to Copenhagen to visit Westermann and work on the Museum collection, postponing the main job on the Fabrician collection. Meigen was permitted to take all of the material away for examination. On 19 July, the two of them went to Lund, where both Prof. Carl Fredrik Fallén and Johan Wilhelm Zetterstedt met them. Meigen examined Fallén's and Zetterstedt's collections at length.

On 23 July, Wiedemann and Meigen returned to Copenhagen, where Meigen stayed. On 30 July they were back in Kiel, where everything in the collections of Fabricius and Westermann was carefully examined and compared and the unknown species drawn and described. After completing the research in Kiel, both left for Hamburg. There Meigen examined the Winthem collection, but there were so many new species in it that Winthem decided to send it all to Stolberg, where it could be worked on more conveniently. Also in Hamburg, Meigen met the entomologist Sommer from Altona and the botanist Johann Georg Christian Lehmann.

The trip to Denmark and Sweden lasted altogether 12 weeks, the result of which was a series of colored drawings of more than 400 species of insects, together with their descriptions and a large number of notes and corrections. Studies of his collection of the Diptera in Fabricius' collection led to a very substantial revision.

Last years
Soon after 1822, the French school closed down completely and Meigen took the unpaid position of organist for his parish but he wrote a choral book, for which the church board paid him well. Meigen continued in this capacity until 1831.

In 1825, Meigen made a translation of François Fénelon ‘s Telemachus, and in the same year he was enabled to attend a meeting of naturalists in Berlin. Meigen's expenses were organised by Nees von Esenbeck, and many to whom he was known through his works on Diptera. He also saw there again Wiedemann. He took advantage of this occasion to examine the collection of the Natural History Museum of Berlin and those of Ruthé and Bouché.

Von Winthem visited Meigen in 1826. Meigen also made a trip in that year to Crefeld and Düsseldorf. The following year, 1827, a Handbuch für Schmetterlingsliebhaber (Handbook for Butterfly Collectors) appeared under his name, and he also started a much larger work on Lepidoptera. This latter appeared in fascicles, each of 10 quarto plates lithographed by Meigen himself. It went as far as the Euphalaenae, where lack of funds brought it to a close. He colored the plates in a few copies. The figures, except a very few borrowed from other works, were drawn by Meigen from specimens, many from the collection of an old friend Seeger.

After discontinuance of the work on Lepidoptera and the completion of that on Diptera with its 6th volume, Meigen had Diptera sent to him for identification from many sources. Outstanding among them were contributions from Joseph Waltl and Heinrich Georg Bronn. These induced him to work up a supplementary volume, which was notable for the division of the genera Tachina, Musca and Anthomyia into a number of genera based upon more critical characters than those used by previous French and English workers.

At the same time Meigen worked industriously, on a Flora of Germany, which was not completed until a few years before his death. The last volume of this work, also containing numerous drawings made largely from nature by Meigen himself, appeared in 1842. It was his last work.

When the French dipterologist Justin Macquart visited him in 1839 to see his collection, Meigen also showed him two thick quarto volumes of drawings containing 300 plates of colored and mostly enlarged drawings of all the species that he had described. Macquart told Meigen that he would like to buy them, quoting a price of 1800 francs on behalf of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. He paid an additional 1200 francs for Meigen's collection of Diptera, which also went to Paris.In the 1970s the colour paintings were published as plates by Morge (selection shown immediately below).

Meigen then disposed of his library and the remainder of his collections. His books and fruit and plant collections were bought by the Verein für natürliche Wissenschaften und Gewerbe (Society for natural sciences and industry) in Aachen. All of his insects other than Diptera were bought by Arnold Foerster, along with a few manuscripts including colored drawings of Hymenoptera.

In 1839, the Crown-Prince of Prussia awarded Meigen a pension of 200 thalers a year.

On 3 May 1845 Meigen was presented with a doctor's diploma from the University of Bonn.

Meigen died in Stolberg near Aachen (=Aix-la-Chapelle), on 11 July 1845 at the age of 81.

Achievements
Meigen is universally recognized as the "father" of Dipterology. Aside from his beautifully executed drawings Meigen's great achievement was to employ combinations of morphological characters to work out his scientific classification. This was in contrast to his Swedish contemporary Carl Fredrik Fallén who had used mouthpart characters alone. Thus he had come to the same conclusion as Pierre André Latreille, Moses Harris and Louis Jurine though independently and an eclectic methodology was firmly established.

Meigen described a vast number of European Diptera (mostly valid) and his work laid the foundations of all later work on this important insect group.

Flies described by Meigen (not complete)
Meigen described over 3,000 taxa. Here is a list of a few well-known ones.
 * the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, which is a model organism in the study of genetics.
 * Tephritis neesii
 * Phormia regina
 * Lucilia silvarum
 * Criorhina berberina
 * Thaumatomyia notata
 * Lucilia sericata
 * Muscina pascuorum
 * genus Microdon
 * genus Ctenophora
 * genus Chrysops
 * genus Haematopota
 * family Culicidae

Works
Diptera The two major works are:
 * Meigen, J. W., 1804 Klassifikazion und Beschreibung der europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten in English, Classification and description of the European two-winged insects Reichard, Braunschweig.
 * Meigen, J. W., 1818-1838 Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten in English, Systematic description of the known European two-winged insects. This is a seven-volume work. The first volume was published in 1818, the last in 1838.

These masterworks were preceded by Nouvelle Classification is an octavo pamphlet of forty pages print dated both according to the French Revolutionary Calendar and according to the Christian Year as AN VIII (Year 8). Meigen's "Avant-Propos" (preface) is dated "le premier Germinal an 7" (21 March 1799) and Baumhauer's "Introduction" is dated "le 10 Messidor an 7" and so the work dates from early 1800. Nouvelle Classification is a "prodrome" (A prodromus is a preliminary publication intended as a basis for future work) to a planned larger work, following discussion. The Diptera are divided into 88 genera, each with a short diagnosis in French and the number of European species which Meigen recognised as belonging to each genus. No nominal species are cited. Of the 88 nominal genera, 25 had already been named by previous authors and 63 were new.
 * 1800 Nouvelle Classification des Mouches A Deux Ailes(Diptera L.)d'apres un plan tout nouveau (Paris, chez J. J. Fuchs, Librairie, Rue des Mathurins, No. 334. De I'lmprimerie de H. L. Perronneau/Rue du Battoir, No. 8).

 * 1803 Meigen published Versuch einer neuen Gattungseintheilung der europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten. in Magazin für Insektenkunde (2: 259-281). This proposes a revised scheme. Meigen makes no reference to the 1800 Nouvelle Classification and only two of the new names proposed in 1800 are used. The total number of genera recognised in Gattungseintheilung der europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten is 114, each with a brief diagnosis, and each with one or more nominal species referred to it. This is the basic plan for the two later works.

In 1908 Hendel reintroduced Meigen's 1800 names and republished Nouvelle Classification des Mouches A Deux Ailes which had priority. This was controversial and in 1963 the 1800 names (and the publication) were suppressed by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

 * 1828-1830 Plates for Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann, Aussereuropäische Zweiflügelige Insekten / beschrieben von Christ. Rud. Wilh. Wiedemann; als Fortsetzung des Meigenischen Werkes. Hamm: in der Schulzischen Buchhandlung.

Lepidoptera
 * Systematische Beschreibung der Europäischen Schmetterlinge Aachen; Leipzig, [1827]-1829-32.pdf including colour plates

Collections
Most of the Meigen collection is in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. There are other specimens, including types in the Natural History Museum of Vienna. Because Meigen exchanged specimens, including types with other entomologists the collection in MNHN contains not only Meigen type material, but types of other authors as well (such as Carl Fredrik Fallén, Johan Christian Fabricius, Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann, and Pietro Rossi) and Meigen types are found in the collections of these authors of species names.

Sources and references

 * J.A. Förster (1974). On the life and influence of J.W. Meigen, Mosquito Systematics, 6 (2): 79-88.
 * Morge, G. 1975. Dipteren Farbtafeln nach den bisher nicht veroofentlichen Original Handzeichnungen Meigens. Tafel 1-80. Beitrage zur Entomologie 25: 383-500.
 * Morge, G. 1976 Dipteren Farbtafeln nach den bisher nicht veroofentlichen Original Handzeichnungen Meigens. Tafel 81-160. Beitrage zur Entomologie 26: 441.
 * Morge, G. 1976b. Dipteren Farbtafeln nach den bisher nicht veroofentlichen Original Handzeichnungen Meigens. Tafel 161-305. Beitrage zur Entomologie 26: 543.
 * Pont, A. 1986 A Revision of the Fanniidae and Muscidae described by J. W. Meigen (Insecta: Diptera) Ann. Natur hist. Mus. Wien 87 B 197-253 Wien, Mai pdf

title: Johann Wilhelm Meigen


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bhai

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Bhai
DicDef of a non-English word that has been Transwikied to Wiktionary. Kevin Rector (talk) 05:09, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC) Delete - "Bhai" is a Hindi word / also used in several languages of north India. As stated by User:Kevin Rector, this word has already been Transwikified to Wikitionary, and separate article is not required.--Bhadani 13:48, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
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Chilango

Chilango is a Mexican slang demonym for natives of Mexico City. The Royal Spanish Academy and the Mexican Academy of Language give the definition of the word as referring to something "belonging to Mexico City", in particular referring to people born in other cities who emigrated to the capital.

History of the term
There are many theories on the origin of the word "chilango". One of them is that it derives from the Nahuatl word Ixachitlān, that actually refers to the whole of the American continent. The word "shilango" has also been documented to have been used in the Veracruz area to mean people from central Mexico, and coming from the Maya "xilaan" meaning curly or frizzy haired. Yet another theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl "chilan-co", meaning where the red ones are, and referring to the skin, reddened by the cold, and used to refer to Aztecs by the Nahua people in the Gulf of Mexico

There is a popular phrase used by people outside Mexico City that says: "Haz patria, mata a un chilango" that means Be patriotic, kill a chilango. It's not intended to be used literally but with a mocking tone instead. The phrase, coined in the state of Sonora, reflects an attitude common in many states of the nation of disdain and rivalry against residents of Mexico City, that peaked in the 1980s. Then, as a response to this used phrase, Chilangos themselves began to add "Haz patria, educa a un provinciano", which means, Be patriotic, educate a rural person. People in Mexico City refer to people from the rest of the nation as "provinciano(a)"

Modern usage
"Chilango pride" has also led to the term "Chilangolandia" in reference to Mexico City. The embracing of this term also led to the start of the publication of Chilango in November 2003. It is a monthly humorous magazine parodying elements of Mexico City and outsiders' perspectives of it while also including articles about actual events. It included within its pages the Time Out city guide, but this was retired in early 2007. Chilango was described in the December 2004 version as:

About Chilango: First, it was Tenochtitlan. Then, Mexico City. Today, it's proudly called Chilangolandia, capital city of the IMECA empire.

[...] Chilango etymology refers, overall, to the hot sauce varieties in the central valley and it comes to the ending -ango making fun of the Nahuatl, always so toponymic as in "Tenango". Chilango does not refer neither [sic] to the city's name -because is the country's too- nor to the administrative DF, but that imaginative territory one doesn't know exactly its borders and where every vegetable becomes, sooner or later, a taco sauce [...]

Related terms
Two other terms used for a resident of Mexico City are Defeño (derived from D.F., Distrito Federal and not an official Spanish word) and Capitalino, which are also sometimes used both in a positive or a derogatory sense, although the latter is generally accepted as a neutral demonym. The terminology can also be used for a person born in the suburbs or surrounding areas of Mexico City who has moved to Mexico City. It has a negative connotation when used principally by someone in one of the States of Mexico.

title: Chilango


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bacalhoeiro

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Bacalhoeiro
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Edmé Bouchardon

Edmé Bouchardon (29 May 1698 – 27 July 1762) was a French sculptor best known for his neoclassical statues in the gardens of the Palace of Versailles, his medals, his equestrian statue of Louis XV of France for the Place de la Concorde (destroyed during the French Revolution); and for the Fountain of Four Seasons in Paris. He was also a draftsman and painter, and made celebrated series of engravings of working-class Parisians.

Biography
Bouchardon was born in Chaumont-en-Bassigny, the son of a sculptor and architect, Jean-Baptiste Bouchardon. He learned sculpture first in the studio of his father, and then with Guillaume Coustou. He won the Prix de Rome of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture in 1722, and as a consequence lived and worked in Rome from 1722 to 1732. He resisted the more ornate tendencies of the Rocaille style, and moved toward neoclassicism. While in Rome, he specialized in busts of distinguished patrons, including Pope Benedict XIII. In 1726 he also began a copy of the Barberini Faun, a Classical Hellenic sculpture from the Palazzo Barberini in Rome. His copy arrived in France in 1732, and was greatly admired, and aided the transition of French sculpture toward neoclassicism. In 1775 the Duke of Chartres bought it for his elaborate garden at Parc Monceau. It is now in the Louvre.

On his return to France, he was employed in the royal art workshops at the Palace of Versailles, working alongside his two brothers, he made statues for the gardens of Versailles, including the statue of Proteus in the Basin of Neptune. In his style, he resisted the flamboyant Rocaille style of his contemporaries, and tended toward more classical models. Bouchardon sculpted Cupid Fashioning a Bow out of the Club of Hercules, now in the Louvre, for the gardens of Versailles. It depicted a realistic, unidealized adolescent Cupid in a natural posture, which was completely in contrast with the classical ideals. He first presented the model in terra cotta at the 1739 Salon, then a full-scale model in 1746. He was commissioned to make a marble version, which he created between 1747 and 1750. The work established his reputation, and also his fortune; he was paid a remarkable 21,000 livres.

His last completed major sculptural work was the Fontaine des Quatre-Saisons on the Rue de Grenelle in Paris, commissioned in 1739, and completed six years later in 1745. This work featured a classical colonnade, decorated with statuary. It was similar in its arrangement of statues made by Michelangelo in the Sagrestia Nuova in Florence. His sculpture was widely admired. It was featured, along with a fine engraving of the fountain, in the article on classical sculpture by Jacques-François Blondel in the French Encyclopédie of 1765. However, it also drew considerable criticism, the colossal sculptural work on a narrow street provided only a tiny trickle of water. The project was criticized by Voltaire in a letter to Anne Claude de Caylus in 1739, as the fountain was still under construction:

"I have no doubt that Bouchardon will make of this fountain a fine piece of architecture; but what kind of fountain has only two faucets where the water porters will come to fill their buckets? This isn't the way fountains are built in Rome to beautify the city.  We need to lift ourselves out of taste that is gross and shabby. Fountains should be built in public places, and viewed from all the gates.  There isn't a single public place in the vast faubourg Saint-Germain; that makes my blood boil. Paris is like the statue of Nabuchodonosor, partly made of gold and partly made of muck."

Bouchardon was commissioned to make one last major work, an equestrian statue of Louis XV for the Place Louis XV, to commemorate France's victory in the War of Austrian Succession. He died before the work was finished. It was completed by Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, but was destroyed during the French Revolution.

Jetons
Bouchardon also designed jetons or metal tokens, which were distributed by the King. The subjects and themes were chosen by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and passed through an elaborate process of critiques before approval, which involved the King himself. Drawings and counterproofs for these jetons are now held at various museums and collections around the world including the Institut de France, the Musée de la Monnaie, and the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

Family
Bouchardon's brother, Jacques-Philippe Bouchardon, was also a sculptor, who became first sculptor to the king of Sweden.

Drawings and etchings
Bouchardon was particularly skilled at drawing, and produced two series of drawings of working people in the streets of Paris. His drawings, made with sanguine or reddish chalk, were originally used to make a series of smaller ceramic sculptures of Parisian characters, such as street vendors (see gallery). Later they were made into a series of etchings by the historian and engraver Anne Claude de Caylus, under the title Studies made of the Lower Class or the Cries of Paris. These became a very valuable source of information for later social historians.

title: Edmé Bouchardon


text:
Bohain-en-Vermandois

Bohain-en-Vermandois (Bohain-in-Vérmindos) is a commune in the department of Aisne in Hauts-de-France in northern France.

It is the place where the painter Henri Matisse grew up.

Etymology
Formerly called Bohain, the town acquired its current name, Bohain-en-Vermandois, on 8 June 1956. Bohain was previously known as Buchammum (in Latin, attested 12th century) and Bohang (in Old French, attested 1138). Bohain derives from the anthroponym Bodo/Bolo, itself derived from a Germanic root, possibly Old Saxon bodo. The suffix -ain additionally points to a Germanic root -heim, which later transformed into either -ham and -hem. The suffix later developed into -ain (via -ham). William Robert Caljouw believes that this etymology is typically Saxon in origin, and possibly indicative of "Saxon colonisation" along the "coastal regions" of modern-day France.

History
Ownership of the territory changed frequently during the medieval period, and Bohain continued to find its lordship disputed in the wars of the early modern period. Traces of fortifications (ditches, cannonballs, bases of walls) can not only be found near to the primary school, but also in other spots of the town.

In its past, Bohain being unequivocally incorporated within France, industry and trading developed and the town became a major center for the textile industry. In parish records from the 17th century one of the most frequent occupations registered was that of "mulquinier", although the term is generally used to refer to fine fabrics craftworkers, it seems likely that in these very same records the term was also applied to anyone who worked at the weaver's trade. It is recorded that Napoleon ordered a Bohainais weaver to work for the Empress Joséphine. The old textile factories have closed one after another, but weaving is still considered as a local tradition.

It has been reported that the Lord (seigneur) of Bohain gave up Joan of Arc to the English during the Hundred Years' War.

title: Bohain-en-Vermandois


text:
Language police

Language police may refer to:

 * The Language Police, a book by Diane Ravitch
 * Office québécois de la langue française, a government office also known as the "Quebec language police"
 * Language commissioner (disambiguation)

title: Language police


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Crack whore

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. sjorford →•← 17:13, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

Crack whore
DicDef of a slang word that has been Transwikied to Wiktionary. Kevin Rector (talk) 05:14, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Firebug 06:58, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, already transwikid. Megan1967 08:24, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, I see no reason why a good history of crack whores cannot be written. Maccoinnich 13:17, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with crack. Radiant_* 14:02, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. 80,000+ Google hits, even has several web-pages. Also, Michael Jackson's publicist testified that Jackson's representatives wanted to paint the mother of the boy he's accused of molesting as a crack whore. Oh, and Norm McDonald had this bit about the world's worst job was not "crack whore", but rather "assistant crack whore." -- 8^D gab 02:11, 2005 Apr 28 (UTC)
 * Keep, pervasive stereotype. Kappa 18:02, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with crack. Examples of stereotypes are not independently encyclopedic.  They should be discussed in context.  Rossami (talk) 23:44, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge as per Rossami--nixie 04:03, 29 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Mike H 21:35, Apr 29, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Dictionary. Quale 04:56, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Tim Rhymeless (Er...let's shimmy)  09:35, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep crack whore is a very common term. there shouldnt be a concern as to the language, as this is a part of society's vocabulary. 68.190.40.38 01:56, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as per Kappa.   — P Ingerson - Talk - Contribs 02:07, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - this is more then just a slang term. It's a distinct concept. - Pioneer-12 09:05, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep SchmuckyTheCat 14:19, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * keep notable CoolGuy 20:26, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Bouchardon

Bouchardon is a French last name. Notable people with this last name include:
 * Edmé Bouchardon (1698–1762), French sculptor
 * Jean-Baptiste Bouchardon (1667–1742), French sculptor and architect

title: Bouchardon


text:
Trigo

Trigo may refer to:
 * Trigo (horse)
 * Trigo (company)
 * Trigo, Madera County, California
 * The ruler of the fictional Trigan Empire
 * Trigonometry
 * América del Pilar Rodrigo Trigo, Argentinian botanist
 * María Cristina Trigo (1935–2014), Bolivian writer and activist

title: Trigo


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of songs about body parts

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was NO CONSENSUS. Postdlf 04:41, 10 May 2005 (UTC)

List of songs about body parts
Come on. Rhobite 05:15, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep -- Wikipedia contains a lot worse. - Longhair | Talk 05:22, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete When a robber doesn't kill his victim we ought not to praise him because "bad guys could do a lot worse". Kevin Rector (talk) 05:27, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment -- the beauty of Wikipedia is that it won't steal from you, or attempt to harm you. You have the full right of way to steer clear of this article. Your analogy is flawed. - Longhair | Talk 08:53, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. It seems more like useless trivia to mention at a cocktail party than an encyclopedia. Zzyzx11 | Talk 05:31, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep – (Obviously, I started it) While it is bound to be generally vulgar, that is the nature of the songs. There are songs about non-sexual body parts. Bottom line, I think it is just as relavent as List of songs about masturbation and more so than List of Pearl Jam songs covered by others. —BenFrantzDale 05:32, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * You say just as relevant, I say just as useless. Tomato/Tomato let's call the whole thing off.Kevin Rector (talk) 05:36, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)

 * Come on indeed. It's articles like this take makes Wikipedia worthwhile. Keep.--Gene_poole 06:10, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, trivial. Megan1967 08:26, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * DeleteXmarkX 08:35, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete There is no way in hell this list could possibly be comprehensive or objective enough to be useful.--KASchmidt 08:55, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Oy vey, again with the lists of songs. --Angr/comhrá 10:51, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Another stupid list. Wile E. Heresiarch 13:31, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - I was thinking that I would go the other way if there was some way that the list could be limited to actual body parts instead of metaphorical body parts (i.e. excluding all those songs about broken hearts, which are not really about the blood-pumpung lump of flesh known as a heart)... but "songs about body parts" is not a particularly notable theme, nor is the list limited to notable songs. -- 8^D gab 14:15, 2005 Apr 26 (UTC)
 * Keep as clarified, refined and expanded. However, I contend that the AC/DC song, "Big Balls" is really just about large fancy parties. -- 8^D gab 03:40, 2005 Apr 28 (UTC)
 *  Weak Keep. I think I'm starting to like these lists. They're interesting.  And I think they add an element of fun to the Wikipedia.  I say we should keep these kinds of articles here to pull in otherwise disinterested potential editors so they can get their feet wet. —  Stevie is the man!  Talk 14:20, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Shrug — This list is too short by far; it doesn't even include Hot Legs. — RJH 15:43, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * It looks like Kappa fixed that omission. Give it time. The fact that humans write songs about pieces of themselves is interesting. If it doesn't grow much larger at a reasonable pace, then I'll stand corrected. —BenFrantzDale 16:06, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Shhh! Don't tell Everyking or he'll make it all about Pieces of Me. :) Seriously, keep. (Might have been a weak keep, if some admins didn't apparently count those as half a vote, which is not my intention.) Samaritan 17:37, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No, he'll make a new article List of body parts mentioned in Pieces of Me ;-). I think I'm still undecided on this debate, but i'll be watching it.--DropDeadGorgias (talk) 19:37, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Directly, the song mentions only the head, the face, and arms, but it also contains the phrases I hear you and I can hardly catch my breath, and it contains the word "bottom", but in the sense of being at the bottom of a long fall, rather than in the sense of being a person's bottom. I vote delete; not least because, despite the blurb at the top of the article, a lot of the songs aren't actually about body parts, they just mention them in the title (New Order's "Touched by the Hand of God" stands out in particular, not least because God doesn't have a body). This is Everything2 stuff, and I mean that in a good way.-Ashley Pomeroy 14:45, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete If somebody wishes to develop these retarded non-encyclopedic articles, they can do it on their user page. BTW, do only admin votes count? --Frenchman113 16:13, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No, all registered users (at least, with credible edit histories who aren't counted as sockpuppets.) Samaritan 07:30, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep per Stevie's thinking. Kappa 15:50, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Meelar (talk) 20:25, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * A list of songs about body parts that doesn't include the traditional children's song "Heads, Shoulders, Knees and Toes"? (I've added it).  Oh, just thought "Hokey-Cokey" (or "Hokey-Pokey" I believe for the Americans?  "left leg in" etc.)  A fairly poor list then.  Do we include a "list of songs in the first person" (not creating tempting link) in this list because "I" and "eye" are homonyms?  Was tempted to keep this at first but I've finally convinced myself: weak Delete (I think).  SteveW | Talk 20:56, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Listcruft.  No way this could be made even remotely complete. --Carnildo 22:18, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * The same was probably said of sexual slang at an early point. :) — Stevie is the man!  Talk 23:14, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as per Kappa. Klonimus 06:39, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as per Carnildo. Radiant_* 08:47, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Interesting, encyclopedic, and potentially useful. Lists of songs generally should be kept. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd  18:36, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep; I think songs about body parts are encyclopedically notable; and also, I kinda like songs like those. --SuperDude 01:38, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Naughty boy. :^P - Lucky 6.9 03:33, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. —Lowellian (talk) 07:41, Apr 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep muriel@pt 12:27, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as reasoned by others above. — Ливай | ☺ 05:02, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. as Zzyzx11 and others. Pavel Vozenilek 20:31, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Pointless listcruft, not helpful to readers. Clearly what wikipedia really needs is several thousand "List of songs about x" articles for all possible values of x. Quale 05:00, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Probably too hard to complete/maintain, and it's not necessary or particularly useful. If you want to read pointless song trivia, go to this site instead. --Idont Havaname 01:54, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - this is amusing trivia, but it is not a viable subcategory or alternate sorting method for songs. - Pioneer-12 09:10, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Useless. --Eleassar777 22:50, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

Clarification

 * Now that the page has grown, I see that yes, people like writing songs which fixate on body parts. However, the lack of clear criteria for exclusion was leading to an open-ended list. I've clarified those criteria and removed some songs that failed to pass. If the list remains ill-defined, then it doesn't belong here, but if it can solidify into a clear list, then I maintain my position. —BenFrantzDale 03:54, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Keep if the criteria for inclusion are clearly stated.  It is kind of fun! - Lucky 6.9 03:33, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * What, no Jim Stafford's "16 Little Red Noses and a Horse That Sweats?" Of course, the nature of this topic, as noted, is very plastic. You might as well do a comprehensive list of songs with cuss words in them, cross-referenced by severity of the swear. But then, when Bob Dylan said "goddamn" in 1964, it was a lot more scandalous that Ludicris dropping f-bombs every other word in 2005. So you'd have to take that into consideration as well. A thousand Wikipedians on a thousand computers could take a thousand years editing this topic and not see the end of it. The_Iconoclast 20:24, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * If one were to want to do something like that, the correct approach would be to have a database of lyrics and query it. It would certainly be an interesting resource. —BenFrantzDale 21:58, Apr 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Polly Frost

Polly Frost is a New York City-based writer, journalist, and playwright specializing in humor and erotic horror. Frost's current work can be seen performed by various NYC-based actors at the Cornelia Street Cafe. During her early journalistic days, Frost interviewed a variety of people, including Julia Child, Pauline Kael, and Winona Ryder.

Career
For the past two years, Frost has been touring the country performing her show "Bad Role Models and What I Learned from Them" and "How to Survive Your Adult Relationship with Your Family." Frost has been a freelance writer for over 30 years. Her work has appeared in The New Yorker, The Atlantic, The New York Times, Scene4 Magazine, Identity Theory, Exquisite Corpse, Art Design Cafe and Narrative Magazine. In 2010, Frost's humor collection With One Eye Open, was published. In 2007, her collection of satirical erotic horror and science fiction stories Deep Inside was published.

Books
Frost published a collection of essays, stories, and humor pieces in 2010 with the title With One Eye Open (Rapture House). She also co-wrote The Bannings (2012) with her husband Ray Sawhill. She is a contributing author for several other books, including Deep Inside: Extreme Erotic Fantasies and two collections of humor that were originally published in The New Yorker magazine: Fierce Pajamas and Disquiet, Please.

Family
Frost is married to Ray Sawhill.

title: Polly Frost


text:
User talk:Ochimaru

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome!
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

Zzyzx11 | Talk 05:18, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright tags
Thanks for uploading Image:Bobobogroup.gif. I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag.

Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you.

Thanks so much, Zzyzx11 | Talk 05:18, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ochimaru


text:
Pasumpahan

Pasumpahan is an island in the sub-district of Bungus, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia.

Located 200 meters from Sikuai Island, tourism sites in Pasumpahan include white sand beaches and coral reefs.

title: Pasumpahan


text:
List of Art Deco buildings in Melbourne

This page is a list of all historically significant Art Deco and Moderne buildings in the Melbourne metropolitan area.

Office buildings

 * Alkira House, 18 Queen Street, Melbourne
 * Australasian Catholic Assurance Building, 118-126 Queen Street, Melbourne
 * Australian Natives' Association Building, 28-32 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne
 * Buckley & Nunn, 310 Bourke Street, Melbourne
 * Carlow House, 289 Flinders Lane, Melbourne
 * Century Building, 133 Swanston Street, Melbourne
 * Coles Store No 12, 299-307 Bourke Street, Melbourne
 * Commercial Union Chambers, 411 Collins Street, Melbourne
 * Commonwealth Bank, 225 Bourke Street, Melbourne
 * Majorca Building, 55 Swanston St, Melbourne
 * Manchester Unity Building, 291 Swanston Street, Melbourne
 * Newspaper House, 247 Collins Street, Melbourne
 * McPherson's Building, 546 Collins Street, Melbourne
 * Mitchell House, 352-362 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne
 * Myer Emporium, 314-336 Bourke Street, Melbourne
 * Trustees Executors & Agency Company Building, 401 Collins Street, Melbourne
 * Yule House, 309-311 Little Collins Street

Apartment and residential buildings

 * Burnham Beeches, Sherbrooke Road, Sassafras
 * Glamis Towers, Loch Street, St Kilda
 * Holroyd court, St Kilda East
 * Harry Winbush's house at corner of Fletcher and Nicholson Streets, Essendon
 * Lissadurn (Australia) Lissadurn, Toorak Road, South Yarra
 * Coppin Court, Coppin Grove, Hawthorn

Cinemas and theatres

 * Capitol Theatre, Swanston Street, Melbourne
 * Her Majesty's Theatre (Interior Only), 199-227 Exhibition Street, Melbourne
 * Rivoli Cinemas, 200 Camberwell Road, Melbourne (also known as Rivoli Theatre)
 * Sun Theatre, Yarraville
 * Astor Theatre, St Kilda
 * Palais Theatre, St Kilda

Public buildings and facilities

 * Michael Tuck Stand, Glenferrie Oval
 * Shrine of Remembrance, St Kilda Road, Melbourne - although designed in a neo-classical style, the building possesses a number of distinctive Art Deco features.
 * Heidelberg Town Hall
 * Richmond Town Hall
 * Former Russell Street Police Headquarters, 336-376 Russell Street, Melbourne

Institutional buildings and facilities

 * Centenary Hall, 104-110 Exhibition Street, Melbourne
 * Freemasons' Hospital, 166 Clarendon Street, East Melbourne
 * Mac.Robertson Girls' High School, 350 Kings Way, Albert Park
 * Mercy Hospital, 159 Grey Street, East Melbourne
 * Newman College, University of Melbourne, Parkville
 * Repatriation Commission Outpatient Clinic, 310 St Kilda Rd, Southbank

Hotels and pubs

 * Prince of Wales Hotel, St Kilda

title: List of Art Deco buildings in Melbourne


text:
Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Hupa fisherman

Hupa fisherman
This photo is titled "A smoky day at the Sugar Bowl", and was taken by Edward S. Curtis, one of the masters of photography. It depicts a Hupa man with spear, standing on a rock midstream; in background, fog partially obscures trees on the mountainsides. It looks like a painting come to life. - brian0918  ™  05:20, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Nominate and support. - brian0918  ™  05:20, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Jonas Olson 10:50, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Could you provide a reason for opposing? Mgm|(talk) 10:52, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * I think at this point most of us aren't really taking his votes seriously. -- brian0918  ™  14:08, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Well you can speak for yourself, I don't see any reason why his votes shouldn't be respected, and either way, they still count. ed g2s  •  talk  16:27, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * So you do still frequent this page, eh? -- brian0918 ™  16:31, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Hmmm, our instruction do still suggest that an oppose should be followed by a reason, but perhaps this is one for the talk page. -- Solipsist 20:35, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I never thought of that, actually. I guess we all sometimes state our support or opposition without reasons. Should there really be a need for reasons all the time? You know, it's a matter of personal opinions, isn't it? As for this picture, I like it, I really do. It has a calm mood that I approve of, and the layered background in different shades of gray is nice. Yet, it simply didn't catch my eye as some other pictures do. By the way, feel free to take my votes seriously at any time! That's what I put them here for. Jonas Olson 22:04, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Taking your vote seriously is, at times, an exercise in patience because (through my eyes, anyway) you never seem to support any of the pictures placed here. Its gotten to the point where "Jonas Olson" and "oppose" are synonomous with one another. I grant you a point for not necicarily giving a reason for supporting a picture, but a reason — even a lousy one — for not supporting a picture would be apreciated, just so the nominator of the picture can get get a feel for the problem. TomStar81 04:49, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Beautifully put --Fir0002 08:21, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Ok, let's sort this out. My conception of WP:FP have been that it is a place where you end up only if you are a brilliant picture. Very few will therefore make it there, and there are a lot of pictures that are good, illustrative or interesting that won't. The default mode of any picture would therefore be not FP. With this approach, it feels natural to suggest that motivations should accompany support of a candidate, rather than opposition. Still, I would say, it is to a great deal a matter of opinions, which in many cases makes it hard to formulate reasons for either standpoint. And what to say if someone suddenly nominates just anything? Well, perhaps WP:FP really isn't compatible to these ideas of mine, and perhaps that's something I should already have realized. In that case I will not bother you anymore. Jonas Olson 09:03, 4 May 2005 (UTC)
 * By the way, having looked at this picture for a longer time now, I have actually changed my mind. Support. Jonas Olson 16:04, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Support. Has stunning atmosphere. Mgm|(talk) 10:52, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support --Soria 11:29, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - brilliant photograph. - Pioneer-12 23:08, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support -- Longhair | Talk 03:40, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support I really like the way the layers of different shades of grey show distance. --Fir0002 08:21, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. I was going to oppose and suggest one of Curtis' close-up portraits, such as Geronimo. This one looks a little odd in the thumbnail (possibly the vignetting), but the layering and detail is very nice in the full view. -- Solipsist 08:22, 3 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - The detailed version is really something special. Unfortunately the reduced size version most people is quite plain though. - Ian 08:30, 6 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Neutral. The image is worthy, but it only illustrates a substub.  Oddly enough, we don't seem to have an article on spear fishing, or I'd put it there. —Korath (Talk) 22:42, May 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * Good point. Meanwhile Native American is quite a lengthy article with hardly any illustrations. Is this because it is politically sensitive? Also, whilst Edward Curtis is well illustrated, it doesn't really show the much of photographs he is famous for. You could also consider the stub Salvage ethnography which I briefly considered for VfD the other day. Though a quick search showed not only was it a real term, but Curtis was considered a classic practioner of it. -- Solipsist 23:06, 7 May 2005 (UTC)
 * As luck would have it, Salvage ethnography is growing up quickly, so it is now illustrated with this photograph. -- Solipsist 20:14, 9 May 2005 (UTC)
 * +9 / -0 / 1 neutral -- Solipsist 22:48, 13 May 2005 (UTC)


text: Template:Ranks and insignia of NATO armies/OR/United Kingdom


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Condyle

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was merge/redirect. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 13:22, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

Condyle
DicDef of a piece of anatomy that has been Transwikied to Wiktionary. It's a bump on a bone. Unless more can be said about it, the Wiktionary entry should suffice. Kevin Rector (talk) 05:20, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep anatomical terms or merge with some kind of glossary. Wikipedia needs to explain the technical terms it uses, because wiktionary isn't necessarily going to be disributed with it. Kappa 15:46, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * By that logic Wiktionary and Wikipedia should be one project, but they are not and Wikipedia is not a dictionary or an anatomy glossary. Kevin Rector (talk) 16:47, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Whether or not wikipedia and wiktionary should be one project, wikipedia needs to be able to explain the technical terms it uses. Kappa 18:14, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Sure, and it can do so by linking to Wiktionary. Kevin Rector (talk) 20:36, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. Wikipedia is not a dictionary. --Carnildo 22:47, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to Bone. Megan1967 05:03, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep deletionists are boneheaded. Not you Megan1967, but in the abstract. Klonimus 06:53, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No personal attacks, Klonimus, not even abstract ones.
 * Merge to bone. Radiant_* 08:53, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep'. Perfectly good anatomy stub. --Tony Sidaway|Talk 19:23, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to bone. --InShaneee 19:27, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to Bone. Quale 05:16, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to Bone. --Eleassar777 23:01, 1 May 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Condyle


text:
Jean-Pierre Changeux

Jean-Pierre Changeux (born 6 April 1936) is a French neuroscientist known for his research in several fields of biology, from the structure and function of proteins (with a focus on the allosteric proteins), to the early development of the nervous system up to cognitive functions. Although being famous in biological sciences for the MWC model, the identification and purification of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the theory of epigenesis by synapse selection are also notable scientific achievements. Changeux is known by the non-scientific public for his ideas regarding the connection between mind and physical brain. As put forth in his book, Conversations on Mind, Matter and Mathematics, Changeux strongly supports the view that the nervous system functions in a projective rather than reactive style and that interaction with the environment, rather than being instructive, results in the selection amongst a diversity of preexisting internal representations.

Biography
Changeux was born in Domont, France to Marcel Changeux and Jeanne Benoît. He entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1955, where he obtained a bachelor's degree (Licence) in 1957 and a master's degree (Diplome d'Études Supérieure) in 1958. He also received his agrégation in natural science the same year. He began his scientific career during his ENS years during summer internships in Banyuls-sur-Mer where he identified a new genus of parasitic Copepod. He pursued PhD studies at the Pasteur Institute under the direction of Jacques Monod and François Jacob, and gained his doctorate in 1964. Changeux then left France for postdoctoral studies first at the University of California Berkeley (1965–1966) then at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York (1967). He returned to France as attaché to the chair of Molecular Biology held by Jacques Monod. In 1972, he became director of the Unit of Molecular Neurobiology at the Pasteur Institute, where he received a professorship in 1975. In 1975, Changeux was elected professor at the Collège de France, chair of Cell Communications, position that he held until 2006. Changeux is author of more than 600 scientific articles and several books, technical or for general audience.

Scientific achievements
All his scientific career, Changeux has been faithful to a handful of scientific questions, at molecular, cellular and brain levels. If one needs to seek a unifying theme to all of them, it is the conviction that selection is the basis of life processes, rather than instruction. While started as separate lines of investigations, all the research threads were tied in the recent decades within the study of allosteric mechanisms as a basis of for the involvement of nicotinic receptors in cognitive functions.

Allostery
During his PhD studies in the laboratory of Jacques Monod and François Jacob, Changeux studied the allosteric regulations of enzymes, that is the modulation of their activity by compounds different from their substrates. This work led to the development of the model of concerted transitions for allosteric proteins. The main ideas behind this theory are: 1) proteins can exist under various conformations in thermal equilibrium in the absence of regulators. The allosteric regulators merely shift the equilibrium between the conformations, stabilizing the ones for which they display the highest affinity, and 2) all the subunits of a symmetrical multimeric protein exist in the same conformation, the transition taking place in a concerted fashion. The resulting model explains the observed cooperativity without a progressive change of biophysical parameters. This conceptual framework is still the principal model used to explain the function of cooperative proteins such as hemoglobin.

In his PhD thesis, Changeux suggested that the recognition and transmission of signals by membrane, and in particular by synapses, could use the same mechanisms as the allosteric regulation of enzymes. More than forty years of research would follow, mainly focussed on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (see below). In 1967, Changeux extended the MWC model to bi-dimensional lattice of receptors (an idea that would also be developed three decades afterward by Dennis Bray ). He then applied this idea to the post-synaptic membrane of electric organs (analog to striated muscle). His team demonstrated the existence of several interconvertible states for the nicotinic receptor, resting, open and desensitized, displaying different affinities for the ligands, such as the endogenous agonist acetylcholine. The transitions between the states followed different kinetics, and those kinetics plus the differential affinities sufficed to explain the shape of the post-synaptic potential. A full mechanistic model of the nicotinic receptor from striated muscle (or electric organ) was to be provided much later, when Changeux collaborated with Stuart Edelstein, another specialist of allostery, who worked decades on hemoglobin. In addition to the allosteric modulation of the channel gating by the agonists, many other regulations of the ligand-gated ion channels activity have since been discovered. The modulators bind to a variety of allosteric sites, whether on the agonist binding sites, other binding sites at the subunit interfaces, on the cytoplasmic part of the protein or in the transmembrane domain.

The concept of an allosteric pharmacology for ion channels was developed over the years. In addition to the well known GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators (such as benzodiazepines and barbiturate drugs), one can find antiparasitic drug such as ivermectin and glutamate receptor modulators used against Alzheimer's disease such as aniracetam.

Nicotinic receptor structure
In 1970, Changeux isolated the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of the eel electric organ, the first ever isolated membrane pharmacological receptor, that he was able to identify thanks to the properties of a snake toxin, which was purified by Taiwanese researchers CY Lee and CC Chang. The isolation of the receptor was also later reported by Ricardo Miledi. The improvements of purification methods developed in the group allowed the proposition that the receptor was a pentameric protein, a finding quickly confirmed by the team of Arthur Karlin. The group of Changeux was among the firsts to elucidate the primary structure of the subunits of the receptor, in parallel with the group of Shosaku Numa and Stephen Heinemann.

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, molecular biology technics were used to decipher the tertiary and quaternary structures of the receptor. The location of the ionic pore was identified, made up of the second transmembrane segment, as shown also later by the groups of Shosaku Numa and Ferdinand Hucho. The molecular basis of ionic selectivity were also identified in the transmembrane domain. The structure of the binding site for the acetylcholine and nicotine was located at the interface between adjacent subunits.

The quest of Changeux for the structure of the nicotinic receptor culminated with the publication of the structure, at atomic resolution, of a bacterial homolog in the open and resting conformations supporting the concept of a symmetrical concerted opening for channel gating, in agreement with molecular dynamics simulations.

Stabilization of synapses by neuronal activity
In 1973, together with Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin, Changeux proposed a model describing how, during development of the nervous system, the activity of a network could cause the stabilization or regression of the synapses involved and illustrated it with the neuromuscular junction. This model is effectively the precursor of the "neural Darwinism" theory further promoted by Gerald Edelman. Changeux later extended and illustrated further this idea. During the 1970s, he tried to document this phenomenon, either by studying mutant animals or by experimental denervation.

Nicotinic receptor function
While until the 1990s, Changeux's group studied the structure of the nicotinic receptor present in electric organs of electric eel and torpedo, the investigations of the physiological role of those receptors were mostly focussed on two model systems: the nicotinic receptors of the neuromuscular junction, the synapse linking the motorneuron to the skeletal muscle, and the nicotinic receptors of the brain, notably in relation with nicotine addiction.

From the mid-1980s, the group studied the compartimentalisation of the muscle cell upon development, as a model of synaptogenesis and in relation with the theoretical work on epigenesis. In particular, the group focussed on the accumulation of nicotinic receptors in the post-synaptic region upon development, concomitant to a switch of receptor identity. They were able to decrypt the different signalling pathways involved in the response to synaptic activity, showing that the accumulation resulted from an inhibition of gene transcription outside the synaptic region due to electrical activity triggering an uptake of calcium and activation of PKC,   and a stimulation of gene transcription at the synapse by the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) activating PKA   and the ARIA (heregulin) activating tyrosine kinase cascades.

The 1990s saw the progressive shift of interest of Changeux from the neuromuscular junction to the nicotinic receptors expressed in the brain. Among the notable achievements of the group is the discovery that neuronal nicotinic receptors are highly permeable to calcium – which explains the positive effect of nicotinic receptors on the release of many neurotransmitters in the brain.

The group also discovered that the nicotinic receptor is regulated by a variety of "allosteric modulators" such as: 1. calcium ions (This was also discovered independently by the group of John Dani ), which binding sites were later identified and localized in the extracellular domain, at the interface between subunits (Le Novère et al. 2002); 2. ivermectin which behaves as a potent positive allosteric modulator binding to a site present in the transmembrane domain (where general anesthetics also bind ); 3. phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain which regulate desensitization.

By the mid-1990s, Changeux concentrated most of his interest on the function of nicotinic receptors in the basal ganglia and in particular the mesencephalic dopaminergic system. Using mice deleted for nicotinic receptor genes, the group characterised the types of receptor subunits present in the dopaminergic cells  and identified the receptors mainly responsible of the dependence to nicotine, formed by the subunits α4, α6 and β2.

Modeling cognition
From the mid-1990s, Changeux developed an activity of computational modeling in order to investigate the neuronal bases of cognitive functions. This research was mainly performed in collaboration with Stanislas Dehaene, now leading the INSERM-CEA Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit. They notably modeled the acquisition of song recognition in birds and the development of numerical abilities. More recently, Dehaene and Changeux developed a neuronal model for access to consciousness based on a brain-wide recruitment of networks of neurons with long-range axons, referred to as the global neuronal workspace. The model might have clinical applications for instance for understanding the mechanism of coma, the action of general anesthetics or drug addiction

Professional and non-scientific activities
The publication of his book Neuronal Man: The Biology of The Mind in 1985 brought Changeux celebrity status to the wider public. Since then, he authored or co-authored several other books inspired by his teaching at the College de France: notably, Conversations on Mind Matter and Mathematics with the mathematician Alain Connes (1998), What Makes Us Think with the philosopher Paul Ricoeur (2002) and the Physiology of truth (2002) that are acknowledged as having initiated an instructive dialogue between the two often-hostile disciplines of neuroscience and philosophy. He has also been concerned by the relationships between aesthetic experience and the brain in Raison & Plaisir (1994), The true the good the beautiful: a neurobiological approach (2012) and recently Les neurones enchantés. (2014) where he debates the issue of artistic creation with the music composers Pierre Boulez and Philippe Manoury. Changeux received the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, Rockefeller University, New-York, 2005.

Changeux has also been the curator of three major exhibitions on Art and Science: De Nicolo dell'Abate à Nicolas Poussin: aux sources du Classicisme 1550-1650 Musée Bossuet Meaux in 1988, L'Âme au Corps, Arts et Sciences, 1793-1993 (with Gérard Régnier) Galeries nationales du Grand Palais Paris in 1993-1994 and La lumière au siècle des Lumières et aujourd'hui. Art et science : de la biologie de la vision à une nouvelle conception du monde Galeries Poirel Nancy in 2005. Changeux has also chaired the inter-ministry commission for the conservation of the French artistic heritage since 1989, and has been member of the scientific council of the International Agency of museums since 2007.

Last, throughout his career, Changeux has been concerned by the ethical consequences for the city and for the society in general of the recent progress in the Neuroscience. Changeux has headed the National Advisory Committee on Bioethics in France from 1992 to 1998. He organised a scientific conference on the topic, that led to a book he edited, fondements naturel de l'ethique. He is presently the co-chairman of the Ethics and Society division of the European Human Brain Program (since 2013).

He is also on the Board of Scientific Governors of The Scripps Research Institute, an independent not-for profit biomedical research institute.

Main scientific prizes and awards

 * 1978: Gairdner Foundation International Award
 * 1982: Wolf Foundation Prize in Medicine
 * 1982: Richard Lounsbery Award of the US Academy of Sciences and the French Academy of Sciences
 * 1991: Carl-Gustav-Bernhard medal of the Swedish Academy of Science
 * 1992: CNRS Gold medal.
 * 1993: Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine
 * 1994: Goodman and Gilman Award in drug receptor pharmacology
 * 1995: Max Delbrück Medal
 * 1998: Prize Emanuel Merck in Chemistry, Darmstadt
 * 2001: Balzan Prize for Cognitive Neurosciences
 * 2002: American Philosophical Society's Karl Spencer Lashley Award in neuroscience
 * 2005: Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science
 * 2005: Golden Eurydice Award
 * 2007: NAS Award in the Neurosciences from the National Academy of Sciences
 * 2012: Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) award for eminent scientists
 * 2016: International research award from the Olav Thon Foundation (Oslo)
 * 2018: Albert Einstein World Award of Science conferred by the World Cultural Council
 * 2018: Goldman-Rakic Prize for Outstanding Achievement in Cognitive Neuroscience

Academic memberships and honorary degrees
Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina zu Halle (Pharmacology), 1974 ; Académie de Médecine de Turin, 1976 ; National Academy of Sciences, Washington (US) (foreign associate), 1983 ; Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, (Sweden) (foreign member), 1985 ; Académie des Sciences, Paris, 1988 ; Académie Royale de Médecine de Belgique (Bruxelles) (foreign honorary member), 1988 ; Academia Europaea (founding member), 1988 ; American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, (US) (foreign member), 1994 ; Romanian Academy of Medical Sciences, Bucarest (foreign member), 1996 ; Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, Washington, (US) (foreign associate), 2000 ; Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere Ed Arti, Venezia (Italy), 2001 ; Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest (foreign member associate), 2004 ; European Academy of Sciences, Bruxelles (member), 2004 ; International Academy of Humanism; Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres & des Beaux-Arts de Belgique (foreign member), 2010; Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, (Italy) (foreign member), 2010.

Doctor honoris causa : Universities of Torino, Italy, 1989 ; Dundee, Scotland, 1992 ; Geneva, Switzerland, 1994 ; Stockholm, Sweden, 1994 ; Liège, Belgium, 1996 ; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale of Lausanne, Switzerland, 1996 ; University of Southern California, Los Angeles, US, 1997 ; Bath, UK, 1997 ; Montréal University, Canada, 2000 ; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, 2004 ; Ohio State University, Columbus, US, 2007; University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2010.

Honorary member of Neurosciences Research Program, MIT and Rockefeller University (US), since 1984; Honorary member of the Japanese Biochemical Society, Sendai, Japan, 1985 ; Honorary member of the American Neurology Association, 1988 ; Honorary member of University College London, 1990 ; Membre d'honneur à titre étranger de la Société Belge de Neurologie, Bruxelles, 1991 ; Member of European Molecular Biology Organization.

Non-scientific honors
Grand Croix dans l'Ordre de la Légion d'Honneur, 2010; Grand-Croix dans l'Ordre National du Mérite 1995 ; Commandeur dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, 1994.

Scientific publications of historical significance

 * (in which Jacques Monod, Jeffries Wyman and Jean-Pierre Changeux presented the concerted model of allosteric transitions, that explained the cooperativity exhibited by many allosteric proteins, such as hemoglobin)

 * Changeux J.-P., Kasai M., Huchet M., Meunier J.-C. (1970). Extraction à partir du tissu électrique de gymnote d'une protéine présentant plusieurs propriétés caractéristiques du récepteur physiologique de l'acétylcholine. C. R. Acad. Sci. 270D: 2864–2867. (the first purification of a neurotransmitter receptor. Since the article is in French, most people quote the description of the toxin that allowed the receptor to be identified:

 * (In which the authors develop a formal model of synapse selection, precursor of the "neural darwinism". This is the original work, although most people quote the subsequent review [better suited to a non-specialist audience and presenting the biological context]: Changeux JP, Danchin A (1976) Nature, 264 (1976) 705–712.)

Books by Jean-Pierre Changeux

 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre. (2008) Du vrai, du beau, du bien : Une nouvelle approche neuronale
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Stuart Edelstein. (2004) Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors: From Molecular Biology to Cognition
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre. (2002) L'homme de verite (2004 The physiology of truth)
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Paul Ricœur. (1998) Ce qui nous fait penser (2002 What Makes Us Think. A Neuroscientist and a Philosopher Argue About Ethics, Human Nature, and the Brain )
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre. (1994) Raison et plaisir
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Alain Connes. (1989) Matière à pensée (1995 Conversations on Mind, Matter and Mathematics)
 * Changeux, Jean-Pierre. (1983) L'homme neuronal (1985 Neuronal Man: The Biology of Mind)

title: Jean-Pierre Changeux


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Namos in April 1940

Namos in April 1940
Delete - Redirect of an unlikely misspelling. -- Egil 05:22, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirects should be tagged with rfd and listed on Redirects for deletion. RickK 05:39, Apr 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Done. Can someone with sufficiently high level of wizardom get rid of this one, then? (I.e. the page Votes for deletion/Namos in April 1940? -- Egil 08:08, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)