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List of leaders of universities and colleges in the United States

This article contains a partial listing of leaders of American universities and colleges, who are usually given the title president or chancellor.

A

 * Abilene Christian University – Royce Money, Chancellor; Phil Schubert, President
 * Adams State University – David A. Tandberg, President
 * Adelphi University – Christine Riordan, President
 * Adrian College – Jeffrey R. Docking, President
 * Agnes Scott College – Leocadia I. Zak, President
 * Alabama A&M University – Daniel K. Wims, President
 * Alabama State University – Quinton T. Ross Jr, President
 * Alaska Pacific University – Bob Onders, President
 * Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences – T. Gregory Dewey, President
 * Albion College – Wayne Webster, President
 * Albright College – Jacquelyn S. Fetrow, President
 * Alderson Broaddus University – Andrea J. Bucklew, President
 * Alfred University – Mark Zupan, President
 * Allegheny College – Hilary L. Link, President
 * Alma College – Jeffrey Abernathy, President
 * Alvernia University – John R. Loyack, President
 * Alverno College – Andrea Lee, President
 * The American College – George Nichols III, President
 * American InterContinental University – John Kline, Chancellor and President
 * American University – Sylvia Mathews Burwell, President
 * Amherst College – Michael A. Elliott, President
 * Anderson University (South Carolina) – Evans P. Whitaker, President
 * Andover Newton Theological School – Martin B. Copenhaver, President
 * Antioch College – Jane Fernandes, President
 * Appalachian College of Pharmacy – Michael McGlothlin, President
 * Appalachian School of Law – B. Keith Faulkner, Dean
 * Appalachian State University – Sheri Everts, Chancellor
 * Arizona State University – Michael M. Crow, President
 * Arkansas Baptist College – Regina H. Favors, Interim President
 * Art Institute of Atlanta – David N. Pugh, President
 * The Art Institute of Virginia Beach – Charles Restivo, President
 * Atlantic University – Kevin J. Todeschi, CEO
 * Athens State University – Philip Way, President
 * Auburn University – Christopher B. Roberts, President
 * Augustana College – Steven C. Bahls, President
 * Austin College – Steven O'Day, President
 * Averett University – Tiffany M. Franks, President
 * Avila University – Ronald A. Slepitza, President

B

 * Bacone College – Ferlin Clark, President
 * Ball State University – Geoffrey Mearns, President
 * Bard College – Leon Botstein, President
 * Baylor College of Medicine – Paul Klotman, President and CEO
 * Baylor University – Linda Livingstone, President
 * Belmont Abbey College – William K. Thierfelder, President
 * Beloit College – Scott Bierman, President
 * Bemidji State University – Faith C. Hensrud, President
 * Bennett College – Suzanne Elise Walsh, President
 * Bentley University – E. LaBrent Chrite, President
 * Berea College – Cheryl L. Nixon, President
 * Bloomfield College – Marcheta P. Evans, President
 * Boise State University – Marlene Tromp, President
 * Boston College – William P. Leahy, President
 * Boston University – Robert A. Brown, President
 * Brandeis University – Ronald D. Liebowitz, President
 * Bridgerland Technical College – Chad K. Campbell, President
 * Brigham Young University – Kevin J Worthen, President
 * Brigham Young University–Hawaii – John S. K. Kauwe III, President
 * Brigham Young University–Idaho – Henry J. Eyring, President
 * Brown University – Christina Paxson, President
 * Bryn Mawr College – Kimberly Wright Cassidy, President
 * Bucknell University – John C. Bravman, President
 * Butler University – James Danko, President

C

 * California Institute of Technology (Caltech) – Thomas Felix Rosenbaum, President
 * California State University System – Steve Relyea, Acting Chancellor
 * California Maritime Academy – Thomas A. Cropper, President
 * California Polytechnic State University – Jeffrey Armstrong, President
 * California State Polytechnic University, Pomona – Soraya M. Coley, President
 * California State University, Bakersfield – Lynnette Zelezny, President
 * California State University, Channel Islands – Richard Yao, President
 * California State University, Chico – Gayle E. Hutchinson, President
 * California State University, Dominguez Hills – Thomas A. Parham, President
 * California State University, East Bay – Cathy Sandeen, President
 * California State University, Fresno – Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval, President
 * California State University, Fullerton – Framroze Virjee, President
 * California State University, Long Beach – Jane Close Conoley, President
 * California State University, Los Angeles – William A. Covino, President
 * California State University, Monterey Bay – Eduardo M. Ochoa, President
 * California State University, Northridge – Erika D. Beck, President
 * California State University, Sacramento – Robert S. Nelsen, President
 * California State University, San Bernardino – Tomás D. Morales, President
 * California State University, San Marcos – Ellen Neufeldt, President
 * California State University, Stanislaus – Ellen Junn, President
 * Humboldt State University – Tom Jackson Jr., President
 * San Diego State University – Adela de la Torre, President
 * San Francisco State University – Lynn Mahoney, President
 * San Jose State University – Mary Papazian, President
 * Sonoma State University – Judy K. Sakaki, President
 * Cameron University – John M. McArthur, President
 * Cardinal Stritch University – Daniel J. Scholz, Interim President
 * Carnegie Mellon University – Farnam Jahanian, Interim President
 * Case Western Reserve University – Eric Kaler, President
 * The Catholic University of America – John H. Garvey, President
 * Central College (Iowa) – Mark Putnam, President
 * Centre College – Milton C. Moreland, President
 * Chaminade University - Lynn Babington, President
 * Chapman University – Daniele C. Struppa, President
 * The Citadel– Glenn M. Walters, President
 * The City University of New York (CUNY) – Félix V. Matos Rodríguez, Chancellor
 * Baruch College – Mitchel B. Wallerstein, President
 * Borough of Manhattan Community College – Antonio Pérez, President
 * Bronx Community College – Thomas A. Isekenegbe, President
 * Brooklyn College – Michelle Anderson, President
 * City College of New York – Vincent Boudreau, Interim President
 * College of Staten Island – William J. Fritz, President
 * Graduate Center, CUNY – Chase F. Robinson, President
 * CUNY Graduate School of Journalism – Sarah Bartlett, Dean
 * CUNY School of Law – Mary Lu Bilek, Dean
 * CUNY School of Medicine – Maurizio Trevisan, Dean
 * CUNY School of Professional Studies – John Mogulescu, Dean
 * CUNY School of Public Health – Ayman El-Mohandes, Dean
 * Guttman Community College – Scott E. Evenbeck, President
 * Hostos Community College – David Gómez, President
 * Hunter College – Jennifer Raab, President
 * John Jay College of Criminal Justice – Karol Mason, President
 * Kingsborough Community College – Peter Cohen, President
 * LaGuardia Community College – Gail Mellow, President
 * Lehman College – José Luis Cruz, President
 * Medgar Evers College – Rudy Crew, President
 * New York City College of Technology – Russell K. Hotzler, President
 * Queens College, City University of New York – Félix V. Matos Rodríguez, President
 * Queensborough Community College – Diane B. Call, President
 * William E. Macaulay Honors College – Mary C. Pearl, Dean
 * York College, City University of New York – Marcia V. Keizs, President
 * Claremont McKenna College – Hiram Chodosh, President
 * Claremont Graduate University – Jacob Adams, President
 * Clarkson University – Marc P. Christensen, President
 * Clayton State University – Thomas "Tim" Hynes, President
 * Clemson University – James P. Clements, President
 * Coahoma Community College – Valmadge Towner, President
 * Colby College – David Greene, President
 * The College of New Jersey – R. Barbara Gitenstein, President
 * College of Charleston – Andrew Hsu, President
 * College of William and Mary – W. Taylor Reveley III, President
 * Colorado College – Jill Tiefenthaler, President
 * Colorado School of Mines – Paul C. Johnson, President
 * Colorado State University – Joyce E. McConnell, President
 * Columbia University – Minouche Shafik, President
 * Connecticut College – Leslie Wong, Interim President
 * Connecticut State University System – Mark E. Ojakian, President
 * Central Connecticut State University – Zulma R. Toro Ramos, President
 * Eastern Connecticut State University – Elsa Nuñez, President
 * Southern Connecticut State University – Joe Bertolino, President
 * Western Connecticut State University – John B. Clark, President
 * Cornell University – Martha E. Pollack, President
 * Curry College – Jay Gonzalez, President

D

 * Dartmouth College – Philip J. Hanlon, President
 * Davidson College – Carol Quillen, President
 * Davis & Elkins College – Chris Wood, President
 * Delaware State University – Harry Lee Williams, President
 * DePaul University – Robert L. Manuel, President
 * DePauw University – Mark McCoy, President
 * Dickinson College – Margee Ensign, President
 * Drew University – MaryAnn Baenninger, President
 * Drexel University – John Anderson Fry, President
 * Drury University – Timothy Cloyd, President
 * Duke University – Vincent Price, President
 * Duquesne University – Ken Gormley, President

E

 * East Carolina University – Cecil Staton, Chancellor
 * Eastern Michigan University – James M. Smith, President
 * Eastern New Mexico University – J.S. (Jeff) Elwell, President
 * Eastern Oregon University – Tom Insko, President
 * Edward Waters University – Nathaniel Glover, President
 * Elizabethtown College – Carl Strikwerda, President
 * Emmanuel College (Massachusetts) – Janet Eisner, President
 * Emory University – Claire E. Sterk, President

F

 * Fairmont State University – Stephen Jones, President
 * Ferris State University – David Eisler, President
 * Ferrum College – Jennifer Braatan, President
 * Fisk University – Kevin D. Rome, President
 * Florida A&M University – Larry Robinson, President
 * Florida Atlantic University – John W. Kelly, President
 * Florida Gulf Coast University – Mike Martin, President
 * Florida International University – Mark B. Rosenberg, President
 * Florida Memorial University – Jaffus Hardrick, President
 * Florida Southern College – Anne B. Kerr, President
 * Florida State University – John E. Thrasher, President
 * Fordham University – Tania Tetlow, President
 * Fort Valley State University – Paul Jones, President
 * Franklin & Marshall College – Daniel R. Porterfield, President
 * Furman University – Elizabeth Davis, President

G

 * Georgia Institute of Technology – G. P. "Bud" Peterson, President
 * George Mason University – Gregory Washington, President
 * George Washington University – Ellen Granberg, President
 * Georgetown University – John J. DeGioia, President
 * Gettysburg College – Robert Iuliano, President
 * Glenville State University – Mark Manchin, President
 * Grambling State University – Rick Gallot, President
 * Gratz College – Paul Finkelman, President
 * Grinnell College – Raynard S. Kington, President

H

 * Hamline University – Fayneese Miller, President
 * Hampshire College – Edward Wingenbach, President
 * Hampton University – William Harvey, President
 * Harris-Stowe State University – LaTonia Collins-Smith, President
 * Harrisburg University of Science and Technology – Eric Darr, President
 * Harvard University – Alan Garber, Interim President
 * Harvey Mudd College – Maria Klawe, President
 * Haverford College – Kimberly Benston, President
 * Hawaii Pacific University – John Y. Gotanda, President
 * High Point University – Nido Qubein, President
 * Hobart and William Smith Colleges – Mark Gearan, President
 * Hollins University – Mary Hinton, President
 * Howard University – Wayne A.I. Frederick, President

I

 * Idaho State University – Kevin Satterlee, President
 * Illinois College – Barbara Farley, President
 * Illinois Institute of Art - Chicago – Josh Pond, President
 * Illinois Institute of Technology – Alan Cramb, President
 * Illinois State University – Larry Dietz, President
 * Indiana Institute of Technology – Karl Einolf, President
 * Indiana University – Michael McRobbie, President
 * Indiana University East – Kathryn Cruz-Uribe, Chancellor
 * Indiana University Kokomo – Susan Sciame-Giesecke, Chancellor
 * Indiana University Northwest – William Lowe, Chancellor
 * Indiana University South Bend – Terry Allison, Chancellor
 * Indiana University Southeast – Ray Wallace, Chancellor
 * Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis – Nasser Paydar, Chancellor
 * Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne – Vicky Carwein, Chancellor
 * Indiana University - Purdue University Columbus – Reinhold Hill, Vice-Chancellor
 * Indiana State University – Daniel Barley, President
 * Iowa State University – Wendy Wintersteen, President
 * Ithaca College – Shirley Collado, President

J

 * Jackson State University – William Bynum, President
 * James Madison University – Jonathan Alger, President
 * Jarvis Christian University – Lester Newman, President
 * Jewish Theological Seminary of America – Arnold Eisen, Chancellor
 * Johns Hopkins University – Ronald J. Daniels, President
 * Johnson C. Smith University – Ronald L. Carter, President

K

 * Kalamazoo College – Jorge Gonzalez, President
 * Kansas State University – Richard Myers, President
 * Kean University – Dawood Farahi, President
 * Kent State University – Beverly J. Warren, President
 * Kent State University at Stark – Denise Seachrist, Dean
 * Kentucky State University – M. Christopher Brown II, President
 * Kenyon College – Julie Kornfeld, President
 * Kettering University – Robert McMahan, President

L

 * Lafayette College - Nicole Hurd, President
 * Lane College – Logan Hampton, President
 * Langston University – Kent Smith, President
 * Lawrence Technological University – Tarek Sobh, President
 * Lawrence University – Laurie Carter, President
 * LDS Business College – Bruce Kusch, President
 * Lehigh University – John Simon, President
 * Lewis & Clark College – David Ellis, President
 * Liberty University – Jerry Falwell Jr., Chancellor and President
 * Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) – Brenda Allen, President
 * Lincoln University of Missouri – Kevin Rome, President
 * Louisiana State University – William F. Tate IV, President
 * Loyola Marymount University – Timothy Law Snyder, President
 * Lubbock Christian University – L. Timothy Perrin, President

M

 * Manhattan College – Brennan O'Donnell, President
 * Massachusetts Institute of Technology – L. Rafael Reif, President
 * Merced College – Chris Vitelli, President
 * Miami Dade College – Eduardo J. Padrón, President
 * Michigan State University – Samuel L. Stanley, President
 * Michigan Technological University – Richard_J._Koubek, President
 * Miles College – George French, President
 * Mississippi State University – Mark E. Keenum, President
 * Montana State University – Waded Cruzado, President
 * Morehouse College – Harold Martin Jr., President
 * Morgan State University – David Wilson, President
 * Mount Holyoke College – Danielle Holley-Walker, President

N

 * New Saint Andrews College – Benjamin R. Merkle, President
 * New York University – Andrew D. Hamilton, President
 * New Mexico Tech - Mahyar Amouzegar, President
 * Niagara University – James J. Maher, President
 * North Dakota State University – Dean L. Bresciani, President
 * North Carolina Central University – Johnson Akinleye, Chancellor
 * Northern Arizona University – Rita Cheng, President
 * Northeastern University – Joseph E. Aoun, President
 * Northeastern State University – Steve Turner, President
 * Northwest Nazarene University – Joel Pearsall, President
 * Northwestern University – Morton O. Schapiro, President

O

 * Oakland University – Ora Hirsch Pescovitz, President
 * Oberlin College – Carmen Twillie Ambar, President
 * Occidental College – Jonathan Veitch, President
 * Oglethorpe University – Lawrence Schall, President
 * Ohio State University – Michael V. Drake, President
 * Ohio State University, Marion Campus – Gregory Rose, Dean/Director
 * Ohio State University, Lima Campus – Charlene Gilbert, Dean/Director
 * Ohio State University, Mansfield Campus – Stephen Gavazzi, Dean/Director
 * Ohio State University, Newark Campus – William MacDonald, Dean/Director
 * Ohio University – Duane Nellis, President
 * Oklahoma Baptist University – David W. Whitlock, President
 * Oklahoma City University – Robert Harlan Henry, President
 * Oklahoma State University - Oklahoma City – Scott Newman, President
 * Oklahoma State University - Stillwater – Kayse Shrum
 * Oklahoma State University - Tulsa – Pamela Martin Frye
 * Oral Roberts University – William Wilson, President
 * Oregon Health & Science University – Joseph Robertson, President
 * Oregon State University – Edward John Ray, President
 * Otterbein University – Kathy Krendl, President

P

 * Pace University – Marvin Krislov, President
 * Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education – Frank Brogan, Chancellor
 * Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania – Bashar Hanna, President
 * California University of Pennsylvania – Geraldine M. Jones, President
 * Cheyney University of Pennsylvania – Aaron Walton, President
 * Clarion University of Pennsylvania – Karen Whitney, President
 * East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania – Marica Welsh, President
 * Edinboro University of Pennsylvania – H. Fred Walker, President
 * Indiana University of Pennsylvania – Michael Driscoll, President
 * Kutztown University of Pennsylvania – Kenneth Hawkinson, President
 * Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania – Michael Fiorentino, Jr., President
 * Mansfield University of Pennsylvania – Scott Barton, President
 * Millersville University of Pennsylvania – John M. Anderson, President
 * Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania – Laurie Carter, President
 * Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania – Cheryl Norton, President
 * West Chester University – Christopher Fiorentino, President
 * Pennsylvania State University – Eric J. Barron, President
 * Pepperdine University – Andrew K. Benton, President
 * Pitzer College – Melvin L. Oliver, President
 * Pomona College –, President
 * Portland State University – Rahmat Shoureshi, President
 * Prairie View A&M University – Ruth Simmons, Interim President
 * Presbyterian College – Matthew vandenBerg, President
 * Princeton University – Christopher L. Eisgruber, President
 * Purdue University – Mung Chiang, President

Q

 * Quinnipiac University – Judy D. Olian, President

R

 * Reed College – Audrey Bilger, President
 * Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – Martin A. Schmidt, President
 * Rhode Island College – Jack R. Warner, President
 * Rhodes College – Jennifer Collins, President
 * Rice University – Reginald DesRoches, President
 * Rutgers University - Jonathan Holloway, President
 * Rochester Institute of Technology – David C. Munson, President

S

 * Saint Francis University – Malachi Van Tassell, President
 * St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe) – Nora Demleitner, Annapolis President; Mark Roosevelt, Santa Fe President
 * St. Lawrence University – William Fox, President
 * Saint Louis University – Fred Pestello, President
 * St. Mary's College of Maryland – Tuajuanda C. Jordan, President
 * Santa Clara University – Michael Engh, President
 * Savannah State University – Cheryl Davenport Dozier, President
 * Scripps College – Lara Tiedens, President
 * Seattle University – Stephen Sundborg, President
 * Seton Hall University – Mary Meehan, Interim President
 * Shimer College – Susan Henking, President
 * Shippensburg University – Laurie Carter, President
 * South Dakota State University – Barry Dunn, President
 * Southeastern Louisiana University – John L. Crain, President
 * Southern Illinois University – Randy Dunn, President
 * Southern Illinois University Carbondale – Carlo Montemagno, Chancellor
 * Southern Illinois University Edwardsville – Randall Pembroke, Chancellor
 * Southern Methodist University – R. Gerald Turner, President
 * Southern New Hampshire University – Paul J. LeBlanc, President
 * Southern Oregon University – Linda Schott, President
 * Southern Utah University – Scott L. Wyatt, President
 * Southern Virginia University – Reed N. Wilcox, President
 * Southwest Baptist University – C. Pat Taylor, President
 * Southwestern College – Bradley J. Andrews, President
 * Stanford University – Richard Saller, Interim President
 * State University of New York System – Kristina M. Johnson, Chancellor
 * University at Albany, SUNY – Havidan Rodriguez, President
 * Binghamton University – Harvey G. Stenger, President
 * University at Buffalo – Satish K. Tripathi, President
 * Stony Brook University – Samuel Stanley, President
 * Stetson University – Wendy B. Libby, President
 * Stevens Institute of Technology – Nariman Farvardin, President
 * Syracuse University – Kent Syverud, Chancellor

T

 * Taylor University – D. Michael Lindsay, President
 * Temple University – Jason Wingard, President
 * Tennessee State University – Glenda Basin Glover, President
 * Tennessee Technological University – Philip Oldham, President
 * Texas Christian University – Victor Boschini, Chancellor
 * Texas State University System – Brian McCall, Chancellor
 * Lamar University – Kenneth Evans, President
 * Sam Houston State University – Dana G. Hoyt, President
 * Sul Ross State University – William Kibler, President
 * Texas State University – Denise Trauth, President
 * Texas Tech University System – Tedd L.Mitchell, Chancellor
 * Angelo State University – Brian J. May, President
 * Texas Tech University – Lawrence Schovanec, President
 * Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center – Tedd L.Mitchell, President
 * Towson University – Kim Schatzel, President
 * Trevecca Nazarene University – Dan Boone, President
 * Trine University – Earl D. Brooks, President
 * Trinity International University – David Dockery, President
 * Trinity University (Texas) – Danny J. Anderson, President
 * Trinity Washington University – Patricia McGuire, President
 * Truman State University – Susan L. Thomas, President
 * Tufts University – Anthony Monaco, President
 * Tulane University – Michael Fitts, President

University A

 * University of Akron – Matthew J. Wilson, President
 * University of Alabama System – C. Ray Hayes, Chancellor
 * University of Alabama – Stuart R. Bell, President
 * University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) – Ray L. Watts, President
 * University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) – Robert Altenkirch, President
 * University of Alaska – James R. Johnsen, President
 * University of Alaska Anchorage – Sam Gingerich, Interim Chancellor
 * University of Alaska Fairbanks – Daniel M. White, Chancellor
 * University of Alaska Southeast – Rick Caulfield, Chancellor
 * The University of Arizona – Robert C. Robbins, President
 * University of Arkansas System – Donald R. Bobbitt, President
 * University of Arkansas – Joseph Steinmetz, Chancellor
 * University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff – Laurence B. Alexander, Chancellor

University C

 * University of California – Michael V. Drake, President
 * University of California, Berkeley – Carol T. Christ, Chancellor
 * University of California, Davis – Gary S. May, Chancellor
 * University of California, Irvine – Howard Gillman, Chancellor
 * University of California, Los Angeles – Gene D. Block, Chancellor
 * University of California, Merced – Dorothy Leland, Chancellor
 * University of California, Riverside – Kim A. Wilcox, Chancellor
 * University of California, San Diego – Pradeep Khosla, Chancellor
 * University of California, San Francisco – Sam Hawgood, Chancellor
 * University of California, Santa Barbara – Henry T. Yang, Chancellor
 * University of California, Santa Cruz – George Blumenthal, Chancellor
 * University of Central Florida – John C. Hitt, President
 * University of Central Missouri – Charles M. Ambrose, President
 * University of Central Oklahoma – Todd Lamb, President
 * University of Chicago – Robert J. Zimmer, President
 * University of Colorado System – Bruce D. Benson, President
 * University of Colorado Boulder – Phil DiStefano, Chancellor
 * University of Colorado Colorado Springs – Venkat Reddy, Chancellor
 * University of Colorado Denver – Dorothy Horrell, Chancellor
 * University of Connecticut – Radenka Maric, President
 * University of the Cumberlands – Larry L. Cockrum, President

University D

 * University of Dallas – Edward Burns, Chancellor; Thomas Keefe, President
 * University of Delaware – Dennis Assanis, President

University F

 * University of Florida – W. Kent Fuchs, President

University G

 * University of Georgia – Jere Morehead, President

University H

 * University of Hawaiʻi – David Lassner, President
 * University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo – Donald O. Straney, Chancellor
 * University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa – Robert Bley-Vroman, Chancellor
 * University of Hawaiʻi Maui College – Lui Hokoana, Chancellor
 * University of Houston System – Renu Khator, Chancellor
 * University of Houston – Renu Khator, President
 * University of Houston–Clear Lake – Ira K. Blake, President
 * University of Houston–Downtown – Juan Sánchez Muñoz, President
 * University of Houston–Victoria – Raymond V. Morgan, President

University I

 * University of Idaho – Chuck Staben, President
 * University of Illinois system – Timothy L. Killeen, President
 * University of Illinois at Chicago – Javier Reyes, Interim Chancellor
 * University of Illinois Springfield – Susan Koch, Chancellor
 * University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign – Robert J. Jones, Chancellor
 * University of Indianapolis – Robert Manuel, President
 * University of Iowa – Bruce Harreld, President

University K

 * University of Kansas – Douglas Girod, Chancellor
 * University of Kentucky – Eli Capilouto, President

University L

 * University of Louisiana System – Jim Henderson, President
 * University of Louisiana at Lafayette – E. Joseph Savoie, President
 * University of Louisiana at Monroe – Nick Bruno, President
 * University of Louisville – Gregory Postel, Interim President

University M

 * University of Maine System – James H. Page, Chancellor
 * University of Maine – Susan J. Hunter, President
 * University of Maine at Augusta – Rebecca Wyke, President
 * University of Maine at Farmington – Kathryn Foster, President
 * University of Maine at Presque Isle – Ray Rice, President
 * University of Maryland, College Park – Darryll J. Pines, President
 * University of Maryland Eastern Shore – Heidi M. Anderson, President
 * University of Massachusetts – Marty Meehan, President
 * University of Massachusetts Amherst – Javier Reyes, Chancellor
 * University of Massachusetts Boston – Marcelo Suárez-Orozco, Chancellor
 * University of Massachusetts Dartmouth – Mark A. Fuller, Chancellor
 * University of Massachusetts Lowell – Jacqueline Moloney, Chancellor
 * University of Massachusetts Medical School – Michael Collins, Chancellor
 * University of Memphis – M. David Rudd, President
 * University of Miami – Julio Frenk, President
 * University of Michigan – Santa Ono, President
 * University of Michigan–Dearborn – Daniel Little, Chancellor
 * University of Michigan–Flint – Susan E. Borrego, Chancellor
 * University of Minnesota – Eric Kaler, President
 * University of Minnesota Crookston – Mary Holz-Clause, Chancellor
 * University of Minnesota Duluth – Lendley C. Black, Chancellor
 * University of Minnesota Morris – Michelle Behr, Chancellor
 * University of Minnesota Rochester – Stephen Lehmkuhle, Chancellor
 * University of Mississippi – Glenn Boyce, Chancellor
 * University of Missouri – Mun Choi, Chancellor
 * University of Montana – Sheila Stearns, President

University N

 * University of Nebraska system – Walter E. Carter Jr., President
 * University of Nebraska at Kearney – Douglas Kristensen, Chancellor
 * University of Nebraska–Lincoln – Rodney Bennett, Chancellor
 * University of Nebraska Medical Center – Jeffrey P. Gold, Chancellor
 * University of Nebraska Omaha – Joanne Li, Chancellor
 * University of Nevada, Las Vegas – Keith Whitfield, President
 * University of Nevada, Reno – Brian Sandoval, President
 * University of New Hampshire – Mark Huddleston, President
 * University of New Mexico – Garnett S. Stokes, President
 * University of New Orleans – John Nicklow, President
 * University of North Carolina – Margaret Spellings, President
 * University of North Carolina at Asheville – Mary Grant, Chancellor
 * University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill – Carol Folt, Chancellor
 * University of North Carolina at Charlotte – Philip L. Dubois, Chancellor
 * University of North Carolina at Greensboro – Franklin Gilliam, Chancellor
 * University of North Carolina at Pembroke – Robin Cummings, Chancellor
 * University of North Carolina at Wilmington – Jose V. Sartarelli, Chancellor
 * University of North Dakota – Andrew Armacost, President
 * University of Notre Dame – John I. Jenkins, President

University O

 * University of Oklahoma – Joseph Harroz, President
 * University of Oregon – Michael H. Schill, President

University P

 * University of the Pacific – Pamela Eibeck, President
 * University of Pennsylvania – Amy Gutmann, President
 * University of Pittsburgh – Patrick D. Gallagher, Chancellor
 * University of Portland – Mark Poorman, President

University R

 * University of Rochester – Joel Seligman, President
 * University of Rhode Island – David Dooley, President

University S

 * University of South Carolina – Michael Amiridis, President
 * University of South Dakota – James W. Abbott, President
 * University of Southern California – C. L. Max Nikias, President
 * University of Southern Mississippi – Joseph S. Paul, President

University T

 * University of Tennessee system – Randy Boyd, President
 * University of Tennessee – Donde Plowman, Chancellor
 * University of Tennessee at Chattanooga – Steve Angle, Chancellor
 * University of Tennessee at Martin – Keith Carver, Chancellor
 * University of Texas System – James Milliken, Chancellor
 * University of Texas at Arlington – Vistasp Karbhari, President
 * University of Texas at Austin – Gregory L. Fenves, President
 * University of Texas at Dallas – Richard Benson, President
 * University of Texas at El Paso – Diana Natalicio, President
 * University of Texas Rio Grande Valley – Guy Bailey, President
 * University of Texas at San Antonio – Thomas Taylor Eignmy, President
 * University of Texas at Tyler – Michael Tidwell, President
 * University of Tulsa – Brad Carson, President

University U

 * University of Utah – David W. Pershing, President

University V

 * University of Vermont – E. Thomas Sullivan, President
 * University of Virginia – Teresa A. Sullivan, President

University W

 * University of Washington – Ana Mari Cauce, President
 * University of West Georgia - Brendan B. Kelly, President
 * University of Wisconsin System – Raymong W. Cross, President
 * University of Wisconsin–Madison – Jennifer Mnookin, Chancellor
 * University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee – Mark Mone, Chancellor
 * University of Wyoming – Laurie Nichols, President

U

 * Union College – David R. Harris, President
 * Ursinus College – Jill Leauber Marsteller, Interim President
 * Utah State University – Noelle E. Cockett, President
 * Utah Valley University – Astrid S. Tuminez, President

V

 * Vanderbilt University – Daniel Diermeier, Chancellor
 * Virginia Commonwealth University – Michael Rao, President
 * Virginia Tech – Timothy D. Sands, President
 * Virginia Wesleyan University – Scott D. Miller, President

W

 * Wabash College – Scott E. Feller, President
 * Wake Forest University – Susan Rae Wente, President
 * Washburn University – Jerry Farley, President
 * Washington and Lee University – William C. Dudley, President
 * Washington State University – Kirk Schulz, President
 * Washington State University, Vancouver – Mel Netzhammer, Chancellor
 * Washington University in St. Louis – Andrew D. Martin, Chancellor
 * Wayne State University – M. Roy Wilson, President
 * Wentworth Institute of Technology – Mark A. Thompson, President
 * Western New Mexico University – Joseph Shepard, President
 * Western Oregon University – Jay Kenton, Interim President
 * West Virginia State University – Ericke S. Cage, Interim President
 * West Virginia University – E. Gordon Gee, President
 * West Virginia University at Parkersburg – Christopher Gilmer, President
 * Wheaton College – Philip Ryken, President
 * Whittier College – Linda Oubré, President
 * Wilberforce University – Elfred Anthony Pinkard, President
 * Wichita State University – Richard Muma, President
 * Willamette University – Stephen E. Thorsett, President
 * William Woods University – Jeremy L. Moreland, President
 * Winston-Salem State University – Elwood Robinson, Chancellor

X

 * Xavier University (Ohio) – Colleen Hanycz, President
 * Xavier University of Louisiana – Reynold Verret, President

Y

 * Yale University – Peter Salovey, President
 * Yeshiva University – Ari Berman, President
 * York College of Pennsylvania – Thomas Burns, President
 * Youngstown State University – Helen Lafferty, President


text:
List of Canadian university leaders

Since the development of the university sector in Canada a small number of Vice Chancellors (President/Principal) have served for 15 years or more. They include:

38 years: Sir John Dawson CMG (McGill 1855-93);

34 years: Cecil Jones (New Brunswick 1906-40);

33 years: Jasper Nicolls (Bishop's 1845-78);

32 years: John McCaul (Toronto 1848-80);

31 years: Edwin Jacob (New Brunswick 1829-60);

26 years: John Forrest (Dalhousie 1885-1911), Arthur McGreer (Bishop's 1922-48), David Johnston CC (Waterloo 1999-2010, McGill 1979-94);

25 years: Artemas Sawyer (Arcadia 1869-96), George Grant CMG (Queen's 1877-1902), Sir Robert Falconer KCMG (Toronto 1907-32), Leonard Klinck (British Columbia 1919-44), Frederic Patterson (Arcadia 1923-48);

24 years: William Jack (New Brunswick 1861-85), Sir William Peterson KCMG (McGill 1885-1919);

23 years: Frank James (McGill 1939-62);

22 years: James Ross (Dalhousie 1863-85);

21 years: John Strachan (Toronto 1827-48), Thomas Harrison (New Brunswick 1885-1906), James MacLean (Manitoba 1913-34);

20 years: Henry Tory (Alberta 1908-20), Arthur McKenzie (Dalhousie 1911-31), Sherwood Fox (Western Ontario 1927-47), George Hall (Western Ontario 1947-67), Paul Davenport OC (Western Ontario 1994-2009, Alberta 1989-94);

19 years: Albert Hatcher (Memorial 1933-52), Roger Guindon (Ottawa 1965-84);

18 years: Norman MacKenzie CC CMG (British Columbia 1944-62);

17 years: James Somerville (New Brunswick 1811-28), Henry Hicks CC (Dalhousie 1963-80), Ross Paul CM (Windsor 1998-2008, Laurentian 1991-98);

16 years: Watson Kirkconnell OC (Arcadia 1948-64), Hugh Saunderson (Manitoba 1954-70);

15 years: Robert Wallace CMG (Queen's 1936-51), Howard Petch OBC (Victoria 1975-90), George Pedersen OC (Western Ontario 1985-94, British Columbia 1983-85, Simon Fraser 1979-83), Gerald Kelly (MacEwan 1981-96), Peter George CM (McMaster 1995-2010).

This list of Canadian university leaders includes the chancellors and vice-chancellors of Canadian universities. In most cases, the chancellor is an outside ceremonial head, while the vice-chancellor is the on-site academic leader. The vice-chancellor usually holds the position of president.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of Canadian university leaders


text:
Hillcrest Lutheran Academy

Hillcrest Lutheran Academy is a private Christian school in Fergus Falls, Minnesota. Established in 1916, Hillcrest is affiliated with the Church of the Lutheran Brethren of America.

Hillcrest's mission is "to equip students in a Christ-centered Bible-based environment for a life of eternal significance."

Hillcrest holds accreditation as a non-public high school through Cognia (formerly AdvancED) and the Minnesota Nonpublic School Accrediting Association (MNSAA).

Campus
Hillcrest Lutheran Academy (HLA) occupies an historic building constructed in 1901 by the Norwegian Lutheran Synod to house the Park Region Luther College. The four-story red brick and sandstone building, located on a hilltop overlooking the city, is in the Romanesque Revival style and was designed by Twin Cities architects Omeyer and Thori, who also designed educational buildings at St. Olaf College, courthouses in Windom and Ada, and the E.J. Webber house and Ole Hagen's Autograph Block in Fergus Falls. Its construction, supervised by contractor John Lauritzen, required all of the brick masons available in the area. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Park Region Luther College operated on the site until 1932, when the synod decided to concentrate its academic efforts on Concordia College in Moorhead. Three years later, the campus was sold to the Church of the Lutheran Brethren, which operates Hillcrest Lutheran Academy.

Hillcrest served as the high school department of Lutheran Brethren Schools from its founding until 2003, when it was incorporated as a separate school directly under the Church of the Lutheran Brethren, with its own president and school board. Hillcrest continued to share the campus with Lutheran Brethren Seminary, the theological training institute of the Church of the Lutheran Brethren. That was until in 2015, the seminary building was given to Hillcrest, which was renovated to the new Student Union, and the seminary moved across the street to a new addition attached to The Church of the Lutheran Brethren synod offices.

In 2020 Hillcrest Lutheran Academy merged with Morning Son Christian School to become one school: Hillcrest Lutheran Academy with a classical Christian education for students in preschool through 12th grade.

Athletics
Hillcrest won the Minnesota 9-Man State Football Title in 2001 under Head Coach Richard Risbrudt and participating at the state level in basketball and soccer as well. Coach Risbrudt is also enshrined in the Minnesota High School Football Coaches Association Hall of Fame. Hillcrest's mascot is Winkey the Comet and the school colors are red and white.

International partnerships
For the last three decades, Hillcrest has had a partnership with the Lutheran high school Danielsen Videregående Skole (Danielsen High School) in Bergen, Norway. Each year, 25 to 30 Norwegian students attend Hillcrest as juniors. In recent years, many international students have attended HLA as well.

Notable alumni
Hillcrest has had some notable alumni including former Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army, General Gaylord T. Gunhus and aviation and construction pioneer Elling Halvorson who constructed a 13.5 mile water pipeline through the Grand Canyon in the 1960's and founder of Papillion Airways.

title: Hillcrest Lutheran Academy


text: User talk:69.173.102.151

title: User talk:69.173.102.151


text:
Charro!

Charro! is a 1969 American Western film starring Elvis Presley, shot on location at Apacheland Movie Ranch and Old Tucson Studios in Arizona. This was Presley's only film in which he did not sing on-screen; the film featured no songs at all other than the main title theme, which was played over the opening credits. It was also the only movie in which Presley wore a beard. The film was novelized by Harry Whittington.

Ina Balin, Victor French, Barbara Werle, and Solomon Sturges co-starred. It was the final film for director Charles Marquis Warren, who also produced and wrote it. It was also the only Presley film distributed by National General Pictures. The film made a profit but was not a runaway success, and remains one of Presley's least-seen films despite being regarded among his best in terms of his acting (as opposed to his singing).

Plot
Jess Wade, a former member of a gang of outlaws led by Vince Hackett, is led to believe that an old flame, Tracy Winters, wants to meet him in a seedy Mexican saloon. Jess sees Billy Roy Hackett, Vince's younger brother, summoning Vince and the other members of the gang into the saloon, and realizes he has been set up. Jess orders the bar patrons to leave before a shootout ensues. Making a break for the door, Jess is stopped by Gunner, another gang member, and is forced to relinquish his gun and to go with them to their hideout in the mountains. Vince later tells him that the gang has stolen a gold-plated cannon that was used by Emperor Maximilian in his ill-fated fight against popular Mexican leader Benito Juárez. Vince informs him that a wanted poster has been produced: it says that Jess is in the gang who stole the cannon and has sustained a neck wound as a result of being shot by one of the guards. Ordering his men to subdue Jess on the ground, Vince uses a branding iron to burn his neck. They take his horse, leaving him stranded. He captures a wild horse in the desert and saddle-breaks it. The gang's motive is to force a ransom from the town they stole the cannon from, but the gang also use the cannon to hold the townspeople at bay. Only Jess can save the people from his former gang.

Cast

 * Elvis Presley as Jess Wade
 * Ina Balin as Tracey Winters
 * Victor French as Vince Hackett
 * Barbara Werle as Sara Ramsey
 * Solomon Sturges as Billy Roy Hackett
 * Lynn Kellogg as Marcie
 * Paul Brinegar as Opie Keetch
 * Harry Landers as Heff
 * Tony Young as Lt. Rivera
 * James Almanzar as Sheriff Ramsey
 * James Sikking as Gunner

Background
The role of Jess Wade was originally offered to Clint Eastwood, who turned it down. The budget for the movie was estimated at $2.5 million. Working titles for the film included Jack Valentine, Johnny Hung, and Come Hell or Come Sundown. Presley signed up to the project with high hopes after reading the serious, song-free script, but was left disappointed when he arrived for his first day of shooting on July 22, 1968, to find that the script he had originally signed up for had been changed beyond recognition., although Elvis ensured the main characters name of Jesus Wade was changed to Jess Wade.

The original opening scene, which was to feature female nudity, was dropped in favor of a more gentle bar scene. Frederick Louis Fox's original story for Charro! contains many violent scenes that were dropped from the film altogether. Harry Whittington based his novelization of Charro! on Fox's story, and included the scenes that Warren deemed too violent for the film. A scene featuring a nude Ina Balin climbing from a bath was also removed, although this scene has been restored in the complete unedited version. Location scenes were shot at Apache Junction and the Apacheland Movie Ranch in Arizona.

Proud of his work in Charro!, Elvis said this was one of his favorite films.

Reception
The film, although successful, was not received as well as Presley's previous films. Many of Presley's fans were put off by the lack of songs, and critics were generally unimpressed with the film as a whole. Despite this, the film made a good profit and Presley received $850,000 for his work.

Roger Greenspun of The New York Times wrote of Presley's performance, "He treats his part rather as a minor embarrassment, and he seems determined not to push himself in a role that could have used a stronger personality to fill the lapses in the story and the wide open spaces in the dialogue." Variety wrote that "Presley strolls through a tedious role that would have driven many another actor up the wall ... Even more at fault than Presley, who has occasionally responded in the past to the demands of a good director, is Charles Marquis Warren, who takes credit (or blame?) for the script, the direction, and even part of the production." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that in the film Presley "sings nary a note, which is too bad. A song or two, though arguably inappropriate, would have helped to relieve the tedium of this trite low-budget Western that has quick-sale-to-TV stamped all over it." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it "the least kinesthetic Western I've ever seen," which "seems to have conceived for the small screen. A plot that might suffice for 30 minutes of restless entertainment has been stretched to a somnambulent 98 minutes." Allan Eyles of The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Unfortunately, Charro is fatally undermined by the slack staging of its action highlights and by a plot riddled with irrational behaviour and dialogue ... As if to compensate for the film's lack of impact, Hugo Montenegro's lively but over-attentive score does too much underlining of mood and character."

Soundtrack
In June 1968, Presley had already completed the sequences and recorded the songs for what would be his comeback television special and its attendant album, Elvis, that put his musical talents back on display after the long slog of the soundtrack years. During the special, Presley erroneously states that he had made twenty-nine '"pictures" up to that time. The actual tally was twenty-eight at taping. Charro would be the twenty-ninth. By the time the special aired in December, 1968, Presley had completed his thirtieth film, The Trouble with Girls (and How to Get into It).

His confidence and enthusiasm restored, Presley turned to his musical obligations for Charro! Appropriately for a Western, the studio hired Hugo Montenegro to produce the two songs intended for the film. The recording session took place at Samuel Goldwyn Studio in Hollywood, California on October 15, 1968. The title song appeared in the movie during the opening credits, and was released commercially on February 25, 1969, as the b-side to RCA 47-9731 "Memories," which had also appeared on the TV special and album. The other song recorded for the film, but not used, "Let's Forget About the Stars", appeared on the budget album Let's Be Friends in 1970. This song is erroneously referred to in some sources as an outtake from the soundtrack of the later Presley film Change of Habit.

Personnel

 * Elvis Presley - vocals
 * Sue Allen, Sally Stevens, Allan Capps, Loren Faber Ronald Hicklin, Ian Freebairn Smith, Robert Zwirn - backing vocals
 * Howard Roberts, Tommy Tedesco, Ralph Grasso - electric guitar
 * Don Randi - piano
 * Max Bennett - bass guitar
 * Ray Brown - double bass
 * Cubby O'Brien - drums
 * Emil Radocchia - percussion
 * unknown horns and strings

Film music track listing

 * 1) "Charro" (Billy Strange and Mac Davis)
 * 2) "Let's Forget About the Stars" (A.L. Owens) (Recorded for the film, but unused)

Home media
Charro! was released on Video CD in 1996. Charro! was released to DVD in the summer of 2007. It marked the very first time that an uncut release of the film was presented to the retail market, and in its original wide-screen letterbox format. This DVD version underwent an extensive re-mastering process to restore the original 35mm film-print quality. Previous VHS issues of the film, notably the 1990 Warner Home Video release, were of an inferior standard, mainly due to poor picture quality and minor edits throughout the movie. An oddity concerning Charro! is the film's classification. Despite containing violence and partial nudity (the latter a scene in which Ina Balin's character is shown exiting a bath tub), it was released with an MPAA G rating, even though other Presley films from the 1968-69 period carry PG ratings. These latter releases are somewhat less 'adult' than Charro!.

title: Charro!


text:
User:Jacobolus/sandbox

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title: User:Jacobolus/sandbox


text:
Southfork Ranch

Southfork Ranch is a conference and event center in Parker, in the US state of Texas, 25 mi north of Dallas. It includes the Ewing Mansion, the setting for the television series Dallas.

History
The house was built in 1970 by Joe Duncan and was known as Duncan Acres, named after his family. The property was originally 200 acre in size. The "mansion" at Southfork Ranch is a 5900 sqft house with a 957 sqft enclosed garage that was turned into a den/card room.

The ranch appears in the television series Dallas. Exterior shots were filmed on location from 1979 until 1989, though Lorimar Productions also made a studio mock-up of the ranch's exterior (complete with swimming pool) in California in 1979 for use when the weather made it impractical to film on location in Texas. From 1989 the series' production shifted entirely to the California studio set. The reunion movies J.R. Returns (1996) and War of the Ewings (1998) returned to the ranch, as did the non-fiction special The Return to Southfork (2004). War of the Ewings, in 1998, was the only time filming was done inside the real ranch for dramatic purposes. Southfork was again used for the new Dallas series. Some scenes in the prequel, Dallas: The Early Years, were filmed there in November 1985.

In 1993–94 the ranch was featured in the Little Texas music video "God Blessed Texas".

The ranch is now an event and conference center, owned by Forever Resorts. It was home to the KLTY-FM radio Christian concert Celebrate Freedom, held annually during the Independence Day celebration, and hosted the 4 July 2009 "America's Tea Party", which an organizer said drew an estimated crowd of 25,000–35,000.

In December 2012 a memorial service was held at the Southfork Ranch after the death of actor Larry Hagman, who starred as J.R. Ewing in the series. A memorial book for fans to sign was set up in the "J.R. Ewing room".

Tour Packages and Requirements
Southfork Ranch offers a range of tour packages and experiences that allow visitors to immerse themselves in the iconic world of Dallas. Visitors can choose a package from the following packages:

 * Live Like a Ewing: Enjoy a VIP steak dinner, trail ride, and private tour of the Ewing Mansion, with optional add-ons like a helicopter ride and limousine service. ($325-$295 per person)

 * Live and Dream Like a Ewing: Spend the night$295 per person) in the world-famous mansion, complete with access to the entire estate, a private tour, and gourmet dining. ($1,978 for two, plus additional guests)

 * Chuckwagon Dinner: Gather your group of 20+ for a classic BBQ feast with a singing cowboy greeter and optional add-ons like J.R.'s Steak Dinner and a tour of the Ewing Mansion. ($70-$60 per person)
 * Day on the Ranch: Enjoy a full day of horse education, trail riding, and a tour of the Ewing Mansion, complete with lunch. ($325-$155 per person)
 * Equestrian Day: Learn the ins and outs of horse care and riding with our comprehensive package, featuring educational instruction and a trail ride. ($295 per person)

Requirements

 * Reservations must be made at least 48 hours in advance and are subject to availability and weather conditions.
 * Visitors must have confirmation email and present it at check-in.
 * Payment is due upon booking.
 * Riders must arrive 30 minutes prior to ride time for check-in.
 * Our wranglers reserve the right to reschedule trail rides due to weather, equine health, or safety issues.
 * The Equestrian Day package is non-refundable. If you must cancel, we will allow you to reschedule your reservation for a different date within one year, with at least 24 hours' notice. Failure to provide 24 hours' notice will result in a $50 rescheduling fee.
 * Our wranglers reserve the right to reschedule trail rides due to weather, equine health, or safety issues.
 * The Equestrian Day package is non-refundable. If you must cancel, we will allow you to reschedule your reservation for a different date within one year, with at least 24 hours' notice. Failure to provide 24 hours' notice will result in a $50 rescheduling fee.

See also
 * Texas Music Revolution

title: Southfork Ranch


text:
Euphorbia helioscopia

Euphorbia helioscopia, the sun spurge or madwoman's milk, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae. It is a herbaceous annual plant, native to most of Europe, northern Africa, and eastward through most of Asia.

Additional folk names include wart spurge, summer spurge, umbrella milkweed, and wolf's-milk.

Description
Euphorbia helioscopia is an annual plant growing in arable land and disturbed ground. It grows to 10–50 cm tall, with a single, erect, hairless stem, branching toward the top. The leaves are oval, broadest near the tip, 1.5–3 cm long, with a finely toothed margin. The flowers are small, yellow-green, with two to five basal bracts similar to the leaves but yellower. Flowering lasts from mid-spring to late summer.

Similar species include Euphorbia rhabdotosperma, having the appearance of E. helioscopia with smaller parts and differing seed surface (Iran, North Caucasus, Transcaucasus, Turkey, Turkmenistan).

Uses
Active ingredients extracted from Euphorbia helioscopia are used in pharmaceutical industry. The plant is used in Chinese traditional medicine.

Its extract has been found to inhibit hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo in mice.

Chemistry
Euphorbia helioscopia contains toxic diterpenes and diterpenoids and phorbol esters. These substances are the major skin irritants found in the plant. The plant is considered poisonous when eaten raw. Nausea, allergic reactions, skin irritation, vomiting may occur after eating.

A number of tannins can be found in E. helioscopia. Helioscopinin-A shows anti-allergic and anti-asthmatic activities in guinea pigs. It is suggested that this compound exerts its activities through antagonism on leukotriene D4-induced responses.

title: Euphorbia helioscopia


text:
Reproduction (economics)

In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processes. Michel Aglietta views economic reproduction as the process whereby the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created. Marx viewed reproduction as the process by which society re-created itself, both materially and socially.

Economic reproduction involves:
 * the physical production and distribution of goods and services,
 * the trade (the circulation via exchanges and transactions) of goods and services,
 * the consumption of goods and services (both productive or intermediate consumption and final consumption),
 * the reproduction of voluntary and involuntary social relations, involving competition and cooperation (including the social relations of the class hierarchy).

Karl Marx developed the original insights of Quesnay to model the circulation of capital, money, and commodities in the second volume of Das Kapital to show how the reproduction process that must occur in any type of society can take place in capitalist society by means of the circulation of capital.

Marx distinguishes between "simple reproduction" and "expanded (or enlarged) reproduction". In the former case, no economic growth occurs, while in the latter case, more is produced than is needed to maintain the economy at the given level, making economic growth possible. In the capitalist mode of production, the difference is that in the former case, the new surplus value created by wage-labour is spent by the employer on consumption (or hoarded), whereas in the latter case, part of it is reinvested in production.

Ernest Mandel additionally refers in his two-volume Marxist Economic Theory to contracted reproduction, meaning production on a smaller and smaller scale, in which case business operating at a loss outnumbers growing business (e.g., in wars, depressions, or disasters). Reproduction in this case continues to occur, but investment, employment, and output fall absolutely, so that the national income falls. In the Great Depression of the 1930s, for example, about one-quarter of the workers became unemployed; as a result of the 2008–9 slump, the unemployed labour force increased by about 30 million workers (a number approximately equal to the total workforce of France, or Britain).

Theoretical approach
As an approach to studying economic activity, economic reproduction contrasts with equilibrium economics, because economic reproduction is concerned not with statics or with how economic development gravitates towards an equilibrium, but rather with dynamics—that is, the motion of an economy. It is not concerned with the conditions of a perfect match between supply and demand under ideal conditions but rather with the quantitative proportions between different economic activities or sectors that are necessary in any real economy so that economic activity can continue and grow. It is concerned with all the conditions for that, including the social and technical conditions necessary for the economic process. Reproduction economics does not assume that society is kept in balance by market mechanisms.

Wassily Leontief developed Marx's idea further in his input-output economics (see also input-output model). However, there is a major difference between Leontief and Marx. By treating gross profit as a "factor input" as well as a factor output, the respective total values of the input and output in Leontief's model are always exactly equal. In Marx's model, the output in an accounting period is normally always higher in value than the input. This is what Marx believed capitalists to be in business for: to produce a product sold at a higher value than the sum of input costs, thus generating profit. The profit in Marx's theory is not an "input" (it is not part of the capital advanced), but a business result, the yield of capital on an investment.

In Marx's view, economic reproduction in any society has five main features:

 * the production of reproducible products (goods or services) replacing, maintaining, or adding to the stock of society's physical assets
 * the physical maintenance of the (working) population and their dependents through household consumption
 * the reproduction and growth of the total population, including procreation and childrearing
 * the reproduction, enforcement, and maintenance of social relations, in particular the relations of production that characterize the social hierarchy, and property rights
 * the maintenance and reproduction of trading and distribution relations (the systems, institutions, and organizations enabling market trade and non-market allocation of resources)

What is specific to capitalist society is that these reproduction processes are accomplished primarily via the intermediary of commercial trade; that is, they are mediated by the market. Reproduction on a larger and larger scale becomes conditional on successfully making money. It means that these processes tend to be increasingly reorganized to bring them in line with the requirements of the accumulation of capital.

Marx's argument is that by producing an output value the equivalent to their own labor cost plus a surplus value (or gross profit) appropriated by capitalists, waged workers accomplish many of the processes involved at the same time. Part of the role of the state is to secure those general (collective) conditions for the reproduction and maintenance of society that individuals and private enterprise cannot secure by themselves for one reason or another (e.g., because they transcend competing interests, because they are too costly for private agencies, because it is technically not possible to privatize them, or because they are not sufficiently profitable or too risky). Ecologists would nowadays probably add as a "reproduction condition" good stewardship for the physical environment. Sustainable development cannot occur if the natural environment is constantly depleted without being restored. The recycling of wastes and waste materials can be considered as a necessary and integral part of society's reproduction process.

Each of these six features is the subject of much political controversy in society. Many different opinions exist about their relative importance and their effects on each other. Economists and businesspeople are often primarily concerned with the economic effects, but other intellectuals and workers are often more concerned with the non-economic effects for the health, security, and well-being of citizens. Thus, governments usually have both economic policies and social policies, population policies, environmental policies, and so on.

Economic reproduction in capitalism
According to Marx, in a capitalist society, economic reproduction is conditional on capital accumulation. If workers fail to produce more capital, economic reproduction begins to break down. Therefore, economic reproduction in capitalist society is necessarily expanded reproduction and requires market growth. Capital must grow, otherwise the whole process breaks down. Thus, economic growth is not simply desirable but also necessary in capitalism, not just because of population growth, but for commercial reasons.

In this light, the ecological vision of a "zero-growth society" appears rather utopian; or, at the very least, its achievement would require the abolition of capitalism. Some would argue that population growth makes economic growth absolutely necessary. Others argue that population growth must be restricted with birth control methods because otherwise there will be too many people for the available resources. The real argument, though, is not about growth or the lack thereof, but rather about the kind of growth that is best for the (enlarged) reproduction of the human species as such. Ecologists may validly argue that some types of growth undermine important conditions for human survival in the longer term without invalidating other kinds of growth that are beneficial. However, there is much dispute about which kinds of economic growth are beneficial or harmful.

Capital accumulation (the amassing of wealth in the form of capital assets) can occur either by producing a net addition to the stock of capital assets or by transferring wealth from one owner to another. In the former case, the total stock of capital grows. In the latter case, the accumulation of one owner occurs at the expense of the other, there is no net growth. These two ways are usually combined, meaning that all or most owners make gains, but in unequal amounts. In considering the economic reproduction process as a whole, one therefore has to consider both the production of new resources and the transfer (distribution) of resources. As a corollary, supposing that there is no net growth of output and capital, capital accumulation can continue only if some people and organizations get richer while other people and organizations get poorer. Typically, if output growth slows down, socio-economic inequality (as measured, e.g., by the Gini coefficient) increases.

Nine factors not theorized by Marx
There were nine main factors that Marx disregarded in his construction of reproduction schemes when he modelled the circulation of capital (through the constant transformations of money-capital into production-capital and commodity-capital and vice versa). These omissions have been noted by various Marxist and non-Marxist authors.

 * The sphere of consumption. Marx did not go into detail about how capitalist business reshapes, reorganizes, and restructures the mode of consumption so that it becomes more profitable. He concerned himself primarily with the capitalist mode of production, not with the capitalist mode of consumption.

 * Unproductive accumulation. Through successive cycles of economic reproduction, more and more capital assets are created that exist outside the sphere of capitalist production. These capital assets include residential housing; improved and unimproved land; publicly owned physical assets including offices, hospitals, schools, roads, installations, parks, vehicles, equipment, and infrastructural works; consumer durables; and all kinds of financial assets. These assets can also yield profits, income gains, or capital gains insofar as they are tradeable goods or rented out. For example, there is nowadays a large trade in used cars, second-hand equipment, and housing, as well as in financial assets. In fact, in developed capitalist countries, the capital directly tied up in private-sector means of production (i.e., the productive investment capital of private enterprises) is nowadays only the minor part of the total physical capital assets of society (i.e., a quarter or one-fifth); if financial assets are included, the proportion of this part shrinks even more (to one-sixth to one-eighth of the total capital).

 * Human capital and labour markets. Marx did not analyze the effects of human capital—that is, the skills and knowledge lodged in the physical bodies of workers, and the very large sums of money invested into education systems. He was aware of the idea of human capital, but he regarded it as a fictitious, reified notion that, he argued, would imply that workers were really capitalists. Nevertheless, the stock of skills and knowledge in the economy can represent a very large tradable value, which can profoundly influence economic relationships, insofar as workers can increase their income because they possess specialized skills and knowledge. Considerable money is spent on education and research and development in developed capitalist countries. Marx intended to write a separate study about the labour market, considering the different forms that wages could take, but he never did.

 * Rent seeking. Marx did not analyze the effects of "rent-seeking" for economic reproduction. In conventional economics, the term "rent-seeking" was coined in 1974, and refers mainly to a form of parasitism or economic opportunism by government bureaucrats in a privileged position (though sometimes it is applied to firms and business managers). Definitions of "economic rent" are much disputed in economic theory, but in radical theory they refer to an unearned income (which may be conceptualized as being not a true "factor-income" but rather an income in excess of factor-income) that derives from a favorable trading position or from the monopolization of a resource. Marx only considered the special case of land rent ("ground rent"), but modern theorists argue that the scope of economic rents has become much larger. If investors can earn rents simply by capitalizing on the ownership or use of a resource (and make money simply by trading in the ownership of assets, which may themselves be borrowed assets), then, if this sort of activity makes more profit faster, with less risk and lower tax than investing in production, capital will shift more and more to trade in already existing assets. If there exist plenty of such assets, a very large trade in such assets can develop, causing speculative bubbles. The result is that output growth is curbed and may even turn negative. Thus, the relative proportions of industry profits, interest, and rent income in total surplus value have a decisive effect on the ability of the economy to grow. The more the interest and rent that must be paid for production to occur, the more this becomes a constraint for expanding production. If the population increases, output, investments, and jobs necessarily have to grow to keep up with it; but in a complex system of financial intermediation involving rent seeking, economic growth may fail to occur on a sufficient scale, and in that case, some groups can only improve their economic position at the expense of others. This argument, however, is also disputed by many theorists; the objection is simply that well-developed capital and money markets ensure that the finance exists to develop production, and that without a strong financial sector, production would be starved of funds.

 * Non-capitalist economic areas. In his theory of capital, Marx failed to consider the importance and weight of the non-capitalist production activities that must occur to sustain capitalist production (a significant component of which is household labour; see below). He was primarily concerned to show that the reproduction of society as a whole could in principle be accomplished by means of the accumulation of capital. All the activities of economic production can, Marx argued, in principle be organized in a capitalist way (according to commercial logic). It supplied proof that the capitalist mode of production could exist as an historically distinctive world system, completely dominated by the requirements of capital, without quickly breaking down. But this idea was strongly criticized, especially by German Marxist authors such as Rosa Luxemburg and Fritz Sternberg. They argued that capital accumulation proceeds only by constantly drawing upon a non-capitalist "hinterland" or region. That is, markets can expand only if there are new, non-capitalist areas to expand into; but inversely, these non-capitalist areas could actually support the capitalist economy well in advance of becoming thoroughly organized according to commercial principles. Many Marxists have demonstrated the mistake(s) of Luxemburg in misunderstanding Marx's reproduction Schema. In Limits to Capital and In Nature, Difference and the Geography of Justice, David Harvey finds that a closed capitalist system could balance the various factors of production and successful expanded reproduction (without recourse to non-capitalist, or other "outside" factors)is possible. Whilst rejecting the necessity of expanding into non-capitalist areas for successful accumulation to take place, Harvey does recognize that in neoliberalism the privatization of the public sector, including partial privatization via P3s, as well as outsourcing, subcontracting, giving away new science to private firms etc. constitutes a new kind of "accumulation by dispossession" . Lewis in his Nobel prize winning Theory of Economic Growth and model of economic development argued the opposite – that the capitalist sector raises wages, drawing unproductive labour out of the non-capitalist sector, creating a self-sustaining process of economic development.

 * Population growth. Marx failed to systematically theorize the impact of demographic effects on economic reproduction, except that he studied the reserve army of labour and criticized the "overpopulation" theories of Thomas Malthus. Malthus was anxious that population growth would outstrip the capacity of the economy to sustain all the new people. Marx replied that the very idea of "overpopulation" was an anti-human ideological fiction, since it really meant "overpopulation" only relative to the requirements of capital accumulation. If resources were appropriately allocated, there was enough for everybody to have a decent life. The real point was that capital could not achieve that goal. Capital accumulation necessitated a "relative surplus population", which tended to grow in size. Nevertheless, since population trends are not simply determined by economic factors, population movements can exert an important independent effect on economic reproduction. In China population growth has been curbed by deliberate government policy to restrict the number of births per couple, using birth control methods. Another aspect about which there is much controversy is the emigration of workers and refugee populations, whether they are an asset for, or a drain on, economic growth. Capitalists are generally in favor of the free international movement of capital, but they are much more cautious about freedom of movement for workers, depending on whether that movement is profitable to them or whether it is a cost or a political threat.

 * Public finance. Marx did not analyze in any detail the effect of taxation and state expenditures on the reproduction process. In his time, state taxes and expenditures were comparatively small (5%–10% of gross product), but since that time they have risen to 30%–40% or more of gross product in many countries. They enable the state to intervene directly in the process of social and economic reproduction, and to alter its course within certain limits. Because of the size of state funds and the fact that taxes must be paid irrespective of productive performance, the state can borrow large sums and use them, together with legislation, to influence economic growth and social relations. In addition, the state nowadays also employs a very large number of people earning incomes from activity that is often or mostly not oriented to profit making, analogous to a non-profit sector sustained by subsidies, grants, and donations, as well as some income-generating activity. The state is the largest sponsor and purchaser of the military industry supplying the armed forces.

 * Ecology. Although he did refer to it, Marx did not analyze in detail the depletion of natural resources by capitalist production, where the depletion involves non-reproducible goods, or living organisms that are wiped out. If land is exhausted or becomes infertile, or if it is devastated by a natural disaster, or if the yield of mines, forests, and fisheries becomes too low, production can no longer continue. After a series of cycles of capitalist reproduction, environments may emerge that are no longer inhabitable by human beings because they are incapable any longer of sustaining life.

 * International division of labor. Through mechanization and productivity increases achieved by capitalist production, the allocation of human labour between agriculture, manufacturing industries, and services (the so-called primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors of the economy) is altered nationally and internationally. In developed capitalist countries, the agricultural labour force has shrunk to only a tiny fraction of the total workforce, and manufacturing industries remain only as a minor part of total production; the large majority of workers are employed in service industries. This contrasts with less-developed countries, which retain a large agricultural workforce, and newly industrializing countries, which feature a large manufacturing workforce. Marx did not analyze the implications of these long-term effects of the expansion of production by means of capital accumulation.

In assessing the effect of these "omissions", one ought to keep in mind that when Marx discussed the intertwining of the circulation of capital with the reproduction processes that occur in any kind of society, he was primarily concerned with the functional requirements of the capitalist mode of production and not with the reproduction of the whole of society. At any time, a fraction of the population is not working or "economically active" (children, students, the sick and disabled, the unemployed, volunteer workers, housewives, pensioners, idlers, etc.), and assets are maintained or accumulated that are unrelated to the sphere of production. These were generally outside the scope of Marx's analysis, even if he occasionally mentioned them.

Economic reproduction, economic equilibrium, and economic crises
Marx's models of economic reproduction in capitalism have often been interpreted as stating the conditions for economic equilibrium, or balanced economic growth. After all, there are certain "necessary proportions" between different branches of production, which have to adjust their output levels to each other. If those proportions do not reach a minimum acceptable level, then products remain unsold or producers cannot obtain the inputs they require, in which case production begins to slow down or break down. So there are necessary proportions between production, distribution, and consumption that must be maintained if society is to survive and grow. In this sense, Marx distinguishes between the production of means of production, consumer goods, and luxury goods, and he considers the commercial interactions between the sectors producing them.

If the growth of different sectors of production occurs very unevenly, bottlenecks can occur, so that a supply or demand cannot be met. In the worst case, an interruption in the normal reproduction process triggers a sequence of disturbances, a chain reaction, which spreads from some branches of production to the whole economy, meaning that products are left unsold and that producers receive insufficient income to pay their bills. The result is rising unemployment, idle productive capacity, and a drop in output and productive investment. This in turn means lower economic growth.

 * Disproportionality theories. This idea was the basis for numerous Marxist crisis theories devised in the first three decades of the 20th century, most famously by Rudolf Hilferding, Rosa Luxemburg, Nikolai Bukharin, Otto Bauer, and Henryk Grossmann. The argument is that balanced economic growth is only a temporary phenomenon, because a private enterprise economy is incapable of sustaining the necessary proportionalities required. It cannot do so because there is no overall, conscious coordination of production activities in an economic system in which producers compete to cut costs, increase sales, and increase profits. There has been much dispute about which disproportionalities exactly are of decisive importance and why those specific disproportionalities would occur and recur, but all these theorists agree that some disproportionalities must necessarily occur, making recurrent crises inevitable.
 * Uneven development theories. Other theorists such as Ernest Mandel and Roman Rosdolsky argued that capitalist economic development is always an "imbalanced" rather than "balanced" development in space and time. At most, an approximate balance of supply and demand is achieved in particular areas. In that case, an economic equilibrium never exists in reality; it is only a theoretical abstraction. There are constant market fluctuations as producers adjust to each other without being able to determine how much others will produce for sale. At most, one could say that in times of strong economic growth, when markets strongly expand, all producers can make gains from increasing output, even if the gains are unequal. But after a certain time, productive investment will "overshoot" a now saturated market demand, causing the economy to spiral into crisis again.

 * The basis for this alternative interpretation is that as long as simple reproduction is at least accomplished, expanded reproduction permits considerable variations, possibilities, and flexibilities (elasticities); the gross profit income of enterprises can, within certain limits, be used or reinvested in many different ways without causing any critical disturbance of the economic reproduction process as a whole. The higher labor productivity is and the larger the surplus product, the more discretionary wealth exists. The less that basic necessities (food, clothing, housing, cellphones, etc.) cost as a fraction of the disposable household budget, the more funds are available to be spent optionally or saved. In addition, the extension of credit can compensate for temporary supply-demand imbalances. So while certain minimal quantitative conditions do exist for the proportionalities of outputs among different branches of production, these proportionalities can be maintained, even if the output growth rate per year drops, say from 4% to 2%. Provided that the capitalist relations of production are stable and secure, capital accumulation will continue, despite constant market fluctuations, at a slower or faster pace. Society will reproduce itself anyway, but at a lower or higher standard of living.

In this case, models of economic reproduction are not a useful guide to understanding economic crises because, it is argued, Marx only intended them to show how it was possible for the whole economic reproduction process to be accomplished on the basis of the circulation of capital, by stating the minimum requirements (not the equilibrium conditions) for it. If certain quantitative assumptions are made about the growth rates of different sectors and about capital compositions, it can be proved that certain disproportions must necessarily develop. But in reality, the economic reproduction process could be interrupted or break down for all kinds of reasons (including non-economic causes, such as wars or disasters). And if disproportions occur, the economic system can also adjust to them, within certain limits. If vastly more capital assets are created than are invested in production, one cannot explain economic crises simply in terms of disproportionalities in the sphere of production; one has to look at the process of capital accumulation as a whole, which includes the financial system, non-productive assets, and real estate. This becomes particularly important when large debt crises occur. These debt crises signal that serious misallocations of capital have occurred, which impact negatively on economic reproduction.

 * Financialization theories. A third, more recent interpretation is that the reproduction process (both the material reproduction processes and the reproduction of capital) has become completely dominated by capital finance. Hence, to explain economic crises, critical disproportions between the developments of branches of production, or unutilized capacity ought to be viewed as emerging out of specific financial and monetary regimes pursued by financial institutions and the state. The large funds commanded by these organizations are thought to shape the whole character of the reproduction process. As analysts like Michael Hudson like to point out, ordinary consumers in developed countries today have little in common anymore with how economists portray them in their models, because in reality consumers are using the majority of what they earn to pay interest, premiums, rent and debt principal to the financial industry (finance, insurance and real estate). Consumers spend less than a quarter or less than 20% of their earnings on actual goods and services. Just as Marx noted a progression from natural economy to a "money-economy" and then a "credit economy", it is argued that the reproduction process has now become dominated by the supply, demand, or withdrawal of credit-money. However, there is much theoretical controversy about exactly how the relationship between the "real economy" (the direct involvement with the production and consumption of goods and services) and the "financial economy" (the circuit of trade in financial claims) should be understood. There is not much consensus about the effects of different financial policies by government and business on the economy, or how one could prove what the effects are.

Arguably, much of the confusion in the debates about economic reproduction is attributable to two basic errors:

 * Definition of capitalism. Scholars often confuse Marx's idea about what is required for the reproduction of the capitalist mode of production (bringing together the factors of production to make money) with what is required for the reproduction of capitalist society as a whole. Abstractly, it is assumed that the economy consists only of capitalist production and that the capitalist economy is equal to capitalist society. But in reality this is not the case. Capitalist society contains all sorts of non-economic processes and non-capitalist processes as well. It remains a society of human beings, who have certain requirements or needs that cannot easily be met through a commercial business. And the majority of capital assets in developed capitalist countries are, even though they attract profit, not physical means of production, but financial assets or non-productive physical assets such as real estate or durables. This can be easily verified from national capital stock and asset inventory data (provided in national accounts or flow of funds tables).
 * Physical/social distinction. Scholars often conflate the (expanded) physical reproduction of goods and services necessary for human survival with the (expanded) reproduction of capital. They assume that a certain market balance or market proportionality is essential for an equilibrium growth path. In fact, Marx never argued that capitalist society is "held together" or "balanced out" by the market itself, and he denied that equilibrium ever existed anywhere, other than as a momentary coincidence. Instead, "what held society together" was the compulsion to produce and reproduce for a living, given a system of property rights enforced by the state. Marxists call this viewpoint Marx's historical materialism.

Once the basic needs of all could be met and organized capitalistically, the further development of capital accumulation could take directions quite unrelated to the direct requirements of economic reproduction. Indeed, this was also part of Marx's critique of capitalism: significant funds could be invested in ways that did not benefit society at all, with the effect that activities and assets essential to maintain society's well-being might be starved of funds. That is, within certain absolute limits, the requirements for physical reproduction and for capital accumulation might not be the same at all. Capital would be invested for profit, but basic necessities might be ignored. An example might be the 2007–2008 world food price crisis, which indicates that insufficient capital has been invested in food production.

This might seem strange, since food is a basic requirement of human life. But, as Marx would presumably argue, what makes a profit is not necessarily what people really need, and therefore the possibility exists that profit making may undermine the most basic conditions for economic reproduction, including the supply of food and clean water, sanitation, adequate shelter, schooling, health care, and the like. These conditions are undermined not because capitalists dislike investing in these things—they might love to invest in them, if they could—but rather because it is difficult to make a secure profit from doing so. The required investments may be very large and long term, tying up capital for many years, but either there is no possibility for profit or it is uncertain whether a sufficient profit can and will be made. If, for example, foreign investors invested in a country's essential infrastructure, a falling currency exchange rate some years later might wipe out the profits they could get. Therefore, such investments could occur only if foreign or local government authorities (and ultimately taxpayers) subsidized them (or at any rate, if they acted as a guarantor for the investments), or if financial institutions could find sufficient financial insurance to protect the value of investment capital through terms that reduce financial risk to investors.

Reproduction of labor power
Reproduction can also refer to the worker's daily reproduction of his or her own labor power. This consists of the tasks of everyday existence—food preparation, laundry, and so forth—that maintain the worker and his or her ability to work. Since roughly the 16th century, much of this domestic labor has been made the responsibility of women, through various developments put in motion by powerful institutions in the transition period from feudalism to capitalism. Adding to the process of social degradation of women in that period was the devaluation of the reproduction of labor. As Silvia Federici notes, "In the new monetary regime, only production-for-market was defined as value-creating activity, whereas the reproduction of the worker began to be considered as valueless from an economic viewpoint and even ceased to be considered as work". Thus it is of particular interest in feminist economics. For example, it was reported in 1988 that the paid work done by both men and women outside the home in West Germany totalled 55,000 million hours a year, earning them a total of $335 billion; but housework done by women inside the home totalled 53,000 million hours a year, which earned them no salary at all.

One of the principal inventors of modern national accounts, Simon Kuznets, did at one time suggest that the value of household labour should be estimated as a standard measure, even just for the sake of objectivity about the economy, but that argument was rejected. He stated: "'The productive activities of housewives and other family members, rendered within the family circle…are an important complement to the market-eventuating process in supplying goods to ultimate consumers, and should be considered in any attempt to evaluate the net product of the social system in terms of satisfying wants with scarce means.'"

Later, the economist Robert Eisner tried to estimate the value of "non-market outputs". His calculations suggested that in the United States, the value of unpaid household work declined from about 45% of conventional Gross National Product in 1945 to about 33% in 1981.

title: Reproduction (economics)


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A trilobite fossil photographed by DanielCD on 4/22/05. Species: Phacops rana.

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Neil Ruddock

Neil "Razor" Ruddock (born 9 May 1968) is an English former professional footballer and television personality who is a club director at Enfield.

As a player he was a central defender from 1986 to 2003, and was voted the 17th "hardest footballer of all time". He made his debut at Millwall, having been associated with the club since the age of 13, and also represented Tottenham Hotspur, Southampton, Liverpool, West Ham United, Crystal Palace, Queens Park Rangers and Swindon Town during a professional career spanning 17 years. He was capped once by England, in 1994.

Ruddock came out of retirement in 2015, aged 46, to play for United Counties League side Wellingborough Whitworth. He has since appeared on a variety of television shows including I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! and Celebrity MasterChef.

Early career
Ruddock began his career at Millwall, before signing for Tottenham Hotspur in 1986. He broke his leg on his Tottenham debut against Liverpool and made only 11 appearances for Spurs, his only goal coming in a 2–1 defeat to third tier Port Vale in the 1987–88 FA Cup. In the summer of 1988 Ruddock rejoined Millwall.

Southampton
Ruddock joined Southampton in February 1989, in a £200,000 transfer from Millwall. A rugged, uncompromising defender, he soon became popular with the Southampton fans especially after confidently scoring a penalty against Newcastle United on 1 April in only his sixth game for the club, thus helping the "Saints" earn their first victory in 18 matches and start Southampton on a climb away from the relegation zone. His goal celebration after the 89th-minute penalty became known as the "Ruddock stomp". Ruddock missed his next two penalties, allowing Matt Le Tissier to take over for the following season.

Despite early disciplinary problems at The Dell, Ruddock's talents as a confident, left-footed defender earned him England Under-21 honours. Powerful in the air, he could tackle strongly but was also able to bring the ball forward out of defence.

In the 1991–92 season, Ruddock was a member of the Southampton side that reached the final of the Zenith Data Systems Cup, where they were beaten in extra time 3–2 by Nottingham Forest.

After three years on the south coast, he was enticed back to Tottenham by Terry Venables in May 1992, with the tribunal setting the transfer fee at a "ridiculous" £750,000.

Liverpool
In July 1993, Ruddock was signed by Liverpool from Tottenham Hotspur on a £2.5 million transfer. While at Liverpool, he was involved in an on-field scuffle with Manchester United player Eric Cantona. Ruddock responded to Cantona's taunts about his weight by turning down the Frenchman's collar. In 1993, he was absolved of fracturing Peter Beardsley's jaw with an elbow in a testimonial match. Beardsley contemplated legal action on the grounds that Ruddock acted deliberately, but later decided to withdraw charges. In 1996, Ruddock's tackle on Andy Cole of Manchester United in a reserve game at Anfield left the player with two broken legs, and Ruddock claimed innocence, while Cole said he believed Ruddock did not intend harm. However, in a 2010 interview with Talksport, he jokingly refers to the incident as "not big, and not clever", adding "but it was great", and that "I didn't mean to break both of his legs if I'm honest, I only meant to break one".

At Liverpool, Ruddock was part of the squad of the 1990s under Roy Evans, known as the "Spice Boys", that included David James, Robbie Fowler, Jamie Redknapp, Jason McAteer, Steve McManaman and Stan Collymore, but left in 1998 when new coach Gérard Houllier joined.

West Ham United
In July 1998, Ruddock moved to West Ham United for a fee of £300,000 making his debut on 15 August 1998 in a 1–0 away win against Sheffield Wednesday. In October 1999 whilst playing for West Ham, Ruddock was also involved in a bust-up with Arsenal's Patrick Vieira, with Vieira receiving a six-match ban and a £30,000 fine after spitting at Ruddock after some verbal sparring between the two.

In 56 games for West Ham, he scored three goals, was booked 14 times and sent-off once, in December 1998, in a 4–0 away defeat to Leeds United, for a dangerous tackle on Harry Kewell. The Hammers finished fifth in the Premier League that season – their highest finish for 13 years – and qualified for the UEFA Cup to end a 19-year absence from European competitions.

Swindon Town
In 2000, Ruddock moved to Crystal Palace on a free transfer, spending one season there before signing for Division Two side Swindon Town. He was also accused by Crystal Palace chairman, Simon Jordan in November 2005, of "taking the team out and getting them wasted when we were fighting relegation". He scored twice for Swindon, with goals against Colchester in the league and Hartlepool in the FA Cup. Relations turned sour when Ruddock refused to quit after being advised to do so by a specialist; during a period of time where the club was in serious financial difficulties. The club responded by appointing Steve Coppell as assistant manager and taking Ruddock's coaching duties away. The board eventually stopped paying Ruddock's wages in an attempt to drive him out. He took the club to an employment tribunal and in December 2002, received £57,000, representing money lost in wages and loyalty payments, with an agreement to terminate his contract as player/coach.

Wellingborough Whitworth
In January 2015, Ruddock came out of retirement at the age of 46 years, to sign for United Counties League side Wellingborough Whitworth.

Coaching career
In August 2018, Ruddock joined the coaching team of Essex Senior League side Enfield. In June 2020 he became a club director.

International career
Ruddock won four caps for the England Under-21 squad and one in 1994 for England B when he captained the team against Ireland B at Anfield. On 16 November 1994, he won his only senior cap for England, playing in a friendly against Nigeria when Terry Venables was the national team's coach.

Television career
In 2004, he appeared on the third series of I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. After his appearance, he recorded a charity single, a version of "Jungle Rock", with fellow contestants Lord Brocket, Peter Andre and Mike Read, performing as the Jungle Boys.

In 2006, he was involved in the television programme Razor Ruddock's Pass & Move Soccer School where children released by academies were coached by Ruddock.

In 2007, he appeared in Celebrity Wife Swap UK (Series 10 Episode 1), going to live with English singer and television personality Pete Burns, while wife Leah went to live with Burns' partner Michael Simpson.

In 2006, Ruddock helped produce Football Saved My Life a reality sports TV show for Bravo which attempted to change the lives of 15 dysfunctional men through their involvement with football.

In November 2011, he appeared in James May's Man Lab on BBC Two, coaching James May on how to score a penalty kick in front of 20,000 Germans at Veltins-Arena, Gelsenkirchen. James May missed the penalty. He appeared again in April 2013 as a member of the Manlab team representing China at the Rock, Paper, Scissors world championships. In 2019 Ruddock appeared on BBC's Celebrity Masterchef Series 14 where he reached the final three.

In 2019 and 2020, Ruddock featured in both seasons of ITV show Harry's Heroes, which featured former football manager Harry Redknapp attempting to get a squad of former England international footballers back fit and healthy for a game against Germany legends.

Personal life
Ruddock was given the nickname "Razor" by teammates after they claimed to have seen the unrelated boxer Donovan Ruddock billed as "Razor Ruddock" in a boxing match at White Hart Lane; however, Donovan Ruddock never boxed at White Hart Lane during his career.

In 2011, Ruddock declared bankruptcy. On 25 September 2014, he was featured in an episode of the Channel 5 programme Can't Pay? We'll Take It Away! where he was approached by High Court enforcement agents who were seeking to collect an alleged unpaid bill to a dog kennel of £3,000. During the encounter, Ruddock's wife used expletives while throwing water on the enforcement agents.

In 2020, Ruddock confirmed that he had been fitted with a pacemaker.

Club
Source:

Honours
Southampton
 * Full Members Cup runner-up: 1991–92

Liverpool
 * Football League Cup: 1994–95

West Ham United
 * UEFA Intertoto Cup: 1998–99

title: Neil Ruddock