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Korean architecture

Korean architecture (한국건축) refers to an architectural style that developed over centuries in Korea. Throughout the history of Korea, various kingdoms and royal dynasties have developed a unique style of architecture with influences from Buddhism and Korean Confucianism.

Having been deeply influenced by Chinese architecture, traditional Korean architecture can be mostly recognized by its sloping roofs.

Just like in the case of other Korean arts, Korean architecture is distinguished by its naturalistic tendencies, simplicity, economy of shape, and avoidance of extremes.

General characteristics
In Korean architecture, buildings are structured vertically and horizontally. A construction usually rises from a stone subfoundation to a curved roof covered with tiles, held by a console structure and supported on posts; walls are made of earth (adobe) or are sometimes totally composed of movable wooden doors. Architecture is built according to the kan unit, the distance between two posts (about 3.7 meters), and is designed so that there is always a transitional space between the "inside" and the "outside."

The console, or bracket structure, is a specific architectonic element that has been designed in various ways through time. If the simple bracket system was already in use under the Goguryeo kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD)—in palaces in Pyongyang, for instance—a curved version, with brackets placed only on the column heads of the building, was elaborated during the early Goryeo (Koryo) dynasty (918–1392). The Amita Hall of the Buseok temple in Yeongju is a good example. Later on (from the mid-Koryo period to the early Joseon dynasty), a multiple-bracket system, or an inter-columnar-bracket set system, was developed under the ancient Han dynasty in China influence during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). In this system, the consoles were also placed on the transverse horizontal beams. Seoul's Namdaemun Gate Namdaemun, Korea's first national treasure, is perhaps the most symbolic example of this type of structure.

In the mid-Joseon period, the winglike bracket form appeared (an example is the Yongnyongjon Hall of Jongmyo, Seoul), which, according to some authors, better suited the peninsula's poor economic situation that resulted from repetitive invasions. Only in buildings of importance like palaces or sometimes temples (Tongdosa, for instance) were the multicluster brackets still used. Korean Confucianism also led to more sober and simple solutions.

Prehistoric architecture
In the Paleolithic the first inhabitants of the Korean peninsula used caves, rockshelters, and portable shelters. The remains of a portable shelter dating to c. 30,000 BC were excavated at the Seokjang-ri site in South Chungcheong Province. The earliest examples of pit-house architecture are from the Jeulmun Pottery Period. Early pit-houses contained basic features such as hearths, storage pits, and space for working and sleeping.

Log houses were built by laying logs horizontally one on top of one another. The interstices between the logs were filled with clay to keep the wind out. Similar houses are still found in mountainous areas as like Gangwon-do province.

Elevated houses, which probably originated in the southern regions, are believed to have first been built as storage houses to store grains out of the reach of animals and to keep them cool. This style still survives in the two-story pavilions and lookout stands erected in melon patches and orchards around the countryside.

In the Mumun period buildings were pit dwellings with walls of wattle-and-daub and thatched roofs. Raised-floor architecture first appeared in the Korean peninsula in the Middle Mumun, c. 850–550 BC.

Megaliths, sometimes called dolmens, are the burials of important and prestigious persons of the Mumun Pottery Period (1500–300 BC). They have been found in great numbers and along with stone-cist burials, megaliths and are the main examples of mortuary architecture in the Mumun. There are three types of megaliths: (1) the southern type, which is low and often a simple slab with supporting stones, (2) the northern type, which is larger and shaped much like a table, and (3) the capstone type, which has a capstone with no supporting stones. The distribution of the dolmens would imply some relation to other global megalithic cultures.

Proto–Three Kingdoms period (c. 1st-2nd century BC to 2nd-3rd century AD)
It is a subdivision of what is traditionally called Korea's Three Kingdoms Period and covers the first three centuries of the Common Era. Archaeological evidence of ondol, the Korean floor panel heating system, was found in the architectural remains of early Protohistoric period.

According to Chinese text Sanguo Zhi, it recorded the existence of three types of prehistoric dwellings in Korea: pit houses, log houses and elevated houses. Only the remains of pit houses have been identified, however. Pit houses consisted of a 20–150 cm deep pit and a superstructure of grass and clay supported by a tripod-like frame made of timber to provide protection from the wind and rain. Pit houses of the Neolithic period had circular or oval pits about 5–6 meters in diameter with a hearth at the center. Most of the early ones were located on hills. As these dwellings moved down nearer to rivers, the pits became rectangular in shape as well as larger, with two separated hearths. In 108 BC, the Chinese commanderies was established after the destruction of Gojoseon. Official buildings of this period were built of wood and brick and roofed with tiles having the features of Chinese construction.

Common architecture
In the Three Kingdoms Period, some people lived in pit-houses while others lived in raised-floor buildings. For example, the Hanseong (, an eastern part of Seoul and western part of Hanam city in Gyeonggi Province) Baekje settlement of Seongdong-ri in Gyeonggi Province contained only pit-houses, while the Silla settlement of Siji-dong in Greater Daegu contained only raised-floor architecture.

Fortress architecture
Goguryeo, the largest kingdom among the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is renowned for its mountain fortresses built horizontally and vertically along the incline of slopes. One of the well-preserved Goguryeo fortresses is Baekam fortress (白巖城) constructed before 6th century in present-day South-West Manchuria. A Chinese historian noted, "The Goguryeo people like to build their palaces well." Patterned tiles and ornate bracket systems were already in use in many palaces in Pyongyang, the capital, and other town-fortresses in what now is Manchuria.

Religious architecture
The construction of Buddhist temples was undertaken after Buddhism was introduced in Korean Goguryeo in 372 by way of northern China. A series of excavations in 1936-1938 unearthed the sites of several major temples near Pyongyang, including those in Cheongam-ri, Wono-ri and Sango-ri. The excavations disclosed that the temples were built in a Goguryeo style known as "three Halls-one Pagoda," with each hall in the east, west and north, and an entrance gate in the south. In most cases, the central pagodas had an octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been arranged in this way as well.

Baekje was founded in 18 BC and its territory included the west coast of the ancient Korea. After the fall of Nangnang County under the Han dynasty in China, Korean Baekje established friendships with China and Japan. Great temples were built during this time. The earliest stone pagoda of the Mireuksa Temple in Iksan county is of particular interest because it shows the transitional features from a wooden pagoda to a stone one. Baekje assimilated diverse influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later, important elements of the architectural style of Baekje were adopted by Japan.

Baekje was heavily influenced by Goguryeo because the first King Onjo of Baekje was a son of the Goguryeo's first king Go Ju-mong as well as by southern China. As it expanded southward, moving its capital to Ungjin (current Gongju) in 475 and to Sabi (current Buyeo) in 538, its arts became richer and more refined than that of Goguryeo. Also characteristic of Baekje architecture is its use of curvilinear designs. Though no Baekje buildings are extant - in fact, no wooden structure of any of the Three Kingdoms now remains - it is possible to deduce from Horyuji temple in Japan, which Baekje architects and technicians helped to build, that Baekje's architecture came into full bloom after the introduction of Buddhism in 384. What remains in the building sites, patterned tiles and other relics, as well as the stone pagodas that have survived the ravages of time, testifies to the highly developed culture of Baekje.

The site of Mireuksa temple, the largest in Baekje, was excavated in 1980 at Iksan of Jeollabuk-do Province. The excavation disclosed many hitherto unknown facts about Baekje architecture. A stone pagoda at Mireuksa temple is one of two extant Baekje pagodas. It is also the largest as well as being the oldest of all Korean pagodas. Mireuksa temple had an unusual arrangement of three pagodas erected in a straight line going from east to west, each with a hall to its north. Each pagoda and hall appear to have been surrounded by covered corridors, giving the appearance of three separate temples of a style called "one Hall-one Pagoda." The pagoda at the center was found to have been made of wood, while the other two were made of stone. The sites of a large main hall and a middle gate were unearthed to the north and south of the wooden pagoda.

When the site of Jeongnimsa temple was excavated in 1982, which had also been the site of the other existing Baekje pagoda, the remains of a main hall and a lecture hall arranged on the main axis one behind the other were unearthed to the north of the pagoda. The remains of a middle gate, a main gate and a pond arranged on the main axis one in front of the other were also discovered to its south. It was found that the temple was surrounded by corridors from the middle gate to the lecture hall. This "one Pagoda" style was typical of Baekje, as the excavations of the temple site in Gunsu-ri and in Gumgangsa temple in Buyeo in 1964. The building sites of Gumgangsa temple, however, were arranged on the main axis going from east to west rather than from north to south.

Early Buddhism in Silla developed under the influence of Goguryeo. Some monks from Goguryeo came to Silla and preached among the people, making a few converts.

Silla was the last of the three kingdoms to develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Buddhist temples were built in Silla. One of the well known examples of Silla architecture is Cheomseongdae, said to be the first stone observatory in Asia. It was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632-646). The structure is known for its unique and elegant form.

One of the earliest Silla temples, Hwangnyongsa temple was systematically excavated and studied in 1976, and found to have been of considerable magnitude. It stood in a square walled area, the longest side of which was 288 meters. The area enclosed by corridors alone was about 19,040 square meters. The Samguk Sagi (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) records that there was a nine-story wooden pagoda built here in 645 that was about 80 meters high by today's scale. A large image of Sakyamuni Buddha is also recorded to have been enshrined in the main hall with the stone pedestal still remaining. Constructed in the middle of the 6th century, Hwangnyongsa temple flourished for more than 680 years during which time the halls were rearranged many times. In its prime, immediately before Silla's unification of the peninsula in 668, it was arranged in the "three Halls-one Pagoda" style, quite unlike the "one Hall-one Pagoda" style of Baekje's Mireuksa temple.

Another major Silla temple was Bunhwangsa, on the site of which still stands three stories of what is recorded to have been a nine-story pagoda. As the remains show, the pagoda was made of stones cut to look like bricks. A set of stone flagpole pillars in addition to other stone relics also remain.

Royal architecture
Many palaces are recorded as having been built in Baekje. Some traces of them can be found at both Busosanseong, the third palace of this kingdom, and at the site of Gungnamji pond, which is mentioned in the Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms). Gungnamji means "pond in the south of the palace."

Tomb architecture
Three Kingdoms Period mortuary architecture was monumental in scale. For example, in Goguryeo two different types of mortuary architecture evolved during this period: one type of burial is a stepped pyramid made of stone, while another is a large earth mound form. The Cheonmachong mounded burial is an example of the monumental style of mortuary architecture in the ancient Silla capital at Gyeongju.

Murals in tombs dating from Goguryeo also reveal a great deal about the architecture of that period as many of them depict buildings which have pillars with entasis called baeheulimgidoong (배흘림기둥) in Korean. Many have capitals on top of them. The murals reveal that the wooden bracket structures and coloring on the timbers, all characteristic of later Korean structures, were already in use at that time.

Korea also has a rich architectural heritage of tombs and town-wall construction. The brick tomb of King Muryong (501–523 AD) is remarkable for its vaulted ceiling and arch construction.

North-South States period (698–926)
North South States Period (698–926) refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae coexisted in the southern and northern part of Korea, respectively.

Religious architecture
The plans of Buddhist temples were characterized by two pagodas in front of the central main hall in a symmetrical layout on the north–south axis with other buildings. Bulguksa Temple, built on a stone platform at the foothill of Mt. Toham near Gyeongju, is the oldest existing temple in Korea. The temple was first founded early in the 6th century and was entirely rebuilt and enlarged in 752. The original platform and foundations have remained intact to the present, but the existing wooden buildings were reconstructed during the Joseon dynasty.

The stone work of the two-story platform exhibits a superb sense of architectural organization and advanced building methods. Two stone pagodas stand in front of the main hall of the temple. The simpler Seokgatap located to the left of the court represents Buddha's manifestation in a transcendent calm. It has three stories with two pedestal layers and a total height reaching about twenty-five feet. The pagoda consists of simple undecorated pedestal slabs and three-story stupa each of which has five stepped eaves and truncated roofs. These characteristics constitute a typical form of the Korean stone pagodas. To the right of the court, the complex Dabotap represents Buddha's manifestation in a diversified universe, and is unique in Korea, further so in Asia. With a height of thirty-five feet, this pagoda has one pedestal with a staircase on each side, four main stories with balustrade and is characterized by the final crown-ball-and-plate sequence. The design motif of the lotus flower is apparent in mouldings and other details of the pagoda.

The rock cave shrine of Seokguram is located on the crest of Mt. Toham. It was built by the same master architect of Bulguksa Temple, and built around the same era. This cave shrine was artificially and skillfully constructed with granite blocks and covered with an earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape. The shrine boasts a rectangular anteroom lined with large stone slabs carved with the figures of the protectors of Buddhism on each side of the walls and at the entrance passageway to the main chamber. The circular main chamber covered by an elegant dome ceiling and surrounded by carved stone wall panels depicting Boddhisattvas and the ten disciples. The graceful statue of Buddha on a lotus pedestal in the center is the dominant feature of the chamber.

Rock cave shrines are not rare in Asia, but few of these shrines and sculptures reveal such high level of artistry. None are as religiously and artistically complete in overall design as those at Seokguram

Royal architecture
United Silla architecture is defined as from the 7th century to the 10th century. After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla, Korean Silla institutions were radically transformed. United Silla absorbed the fully matured culture of the Tang dynasty in China, and at the same time developed a unique cultural identity. New Buddhist sects were introduced from the T'ang and Buddhist art flourished. It was a period of peace and cultural advancement in all fields of the arts.

Architecture flourished in the royal capital of Gyeongju, though almost all traces of the former glory have vanished at the present time. The city had nearly 200,000 inhabitants at its peak, and was strategically located at the junction of two rivers and three mountains that encircle a fertile basin of about 170 km2 in area. The urban area of the city was developed and expanded in three stages. In the second stage, when Hwangnyongsa Temple was located in the center, the region was developed into a grid network of road patterns with wide streets.

One of the palace sites is marked by the artificial lake of Anapji with stone works of retaining walls delineating the former building location. The residential district of the nobles in the city was composed of great houses which were constructed conforming to the building code that granted privileges to the nobles, but forbidden to the commoners. Tiles from many ruins of the buildings were found everywhere. Of those that are still intact, show elegant and graceful design.

Balhae (698–926)
The composite nature of the northern Korean Kingdom of Balhae (698–926) art can be found in the two tombs of Balhae Princesses. Shown are some aristocrats, warriors, and musicians and maids of the Balhae people, who are depicted in the mural painting in the Tomb of Princess Jeonghyo, a daughter of King Mun (737-793), the third monarch of the kingdom. The murals displayed the image of the Balhae people in its completeness. The Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo (, Chinese: zhēnxiào gōngzhǔ mù; 贞孝公主墓), made in 793 by the people of the early Balhae kingdom, contains, among other things, the first complete discovered and detailed murals done by Balhae artists, and hence provides valuable insights to historians.

The mausoleum originally had a funerary pagoda made from brick and stone slabs, in addition to a tumulus. Only the pagoda's foundations remain, which show that it was originally square, measuring 5.50x5.65 m. Below the funerary pagoda and tumulus, the princess' burial comprised an entry passage, tomb entrance, internal passage, and burial chamber. The burial chamber is underground, and was excavated in October 1980. The burial chamber measured 2.10x3.10 m and was built from bricks, with stone slabs forming the roof. The mounds of earth lined with stones demonstrate the continuance of Goguryeo-style tomb but the formal clothing shows Tang style, which implies that Korean Balhae actively accepted the Chinese Tang culture. There were originally 12 murals depicting people on the rear walls of the internal passage and north, east, and west walls of the burial chamber. The chamber is surrounded by four murals on each wall, depicting thirteen people in action, such as warriors (3), chamber attendants, musicians, and maids, wearing red, blue, yellow, purple, and brown robes. The murals displayed the image of the Balhae people in its completeness for the first time.

Goryeo dynasty (918–1392)
Goryeo architecture is defined as the period between the 10th century and the 14th century. Much of the architecture in this period was related to religion and influenced by political power/ kingdom. Many buildings such as magnificent Buddhist temples and pagodas were developed based on religious needs, as Buddhism played an important role in the culture and society at the time. It is unfortunate that little has survived to the present day, since most of the architecture from this period was built of wood. Also, the capital of the Goryeo dynasty was based in Kaesong, a city in modern-day North Korea. Its location has made it difficult for many historians in South Korea to study and analyze the architecture of this era.

Few remaining wooden structures from the late Goryeo period in South Korea show us significantly simpler bracketing than those from the 'Choson' period architecture. Bright and soft coloring of these structures had been further developed since the Three Kingdoms era.

Joseon dynasty (1392–1910)

Joseon architecture is defined as from the 14th century to the beginning of 20th century. The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 brought to power like-minded men steeped in the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism, which had slowly percolated into Korea from China in the 14th century. This ushered in a new environment that was relatively hostile to Buddhism, causing the state to gradually shift its patronage from Buddhist temples to Confucian institutions. Throughout the early dynasty, the impetus to reform society along Neo-Confucian lines led to the construction of hyanggyo (local schools) in Seoul and numerous provincial cities. Here, sons of the aristocracy prepared for civil service careers in an atmosphere of Confucian learning. Although these institutions endured through the end of the dynasty, they began to fall out of favor in the mid-16th century for a variety of reasons. Among these, the rise in population made it the prospects of a civil service career less likely than in earlier years. Also, as the yangban aristocracy matured in its understanding of Neo-Confucianism, they grew more selective in the quality and type of instruction they favored for their sons. As a result, private Confucian academies (seowon) gradually supplanted hyanggyos and became a staple of rural aristocratic life until the end of the dynasty.

Neo-Confucianism inspired new architectural paradigms. Jaesil, or clan memorial halls, became common in many villages where extended families erected facilities for common veneration of a distant ancestor. Jongmyo, or memorial shrines, were established by the government to commemorate exceptional acts of filial piety or devotion. Even beyond these archetypes, the aesthetics of Neo-Confucianism, which favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature, forged a consistent architectural style throughout Korean society.

The most famous town walls are those of Seoul and Suwon. The capital's stone wall, constructed in 1396 and rebuilt in 1422, was more than 18 kilometers long (16 kilometers of which remain or were restored) and had eight gates (including Namdaemun, the South Gate); Suwon's town wall, completed in 1796, was a model of construction methods in Asia at that time, as it benefited from Western influence and techniques.

Colonial period architecture
During the Japanese occupation in the Colonial Korea era from 1910 to 1945, there was an attempt by the colonial government of the Empire of Japan to replace Korean architecture with Japanese architectural traditions. Significant structures of Korean imperial palace compounds and their traditional Korean gardens were demolished. Important landscape elements were removed and sold or taken for use in Japan. Ancient bunjae trees were taken for replanting as bonsai in Japanese gardens. Also during Japanese occupation, the construction of traditional Korean religious buildings (Buddhist or Confucian) was discouraged, as well as adaptations in Christian churches. Some Korean people resisted the Japanese nationalist agenda by building traditional Korean hanok homes, such as the houses of Jeonju village. The colonial disregard for Korean architecture and its history left important Korean landmarks neglected and unmaintained, and the deterioration or demolition of significant examples of architecture resulted. Some historic buildings were also redecorated using Japanese ornamentation methods.

Meanwhile, the Japanese government and private citizens worked to study, restore, and preserve Korean architecture. The restoration of Bulguksa Temple in 1918 and Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda in 1915 are one example.

Japanese Colonial architecture was first introduced to Colonial Korea via transportation infrastructure-building programs. New railway lines had Japanese-type railway stations and hotels. The Japanese also built new city halls, post offices, barracks and military bases, jails and prisons, and police stations and police boxes (koban). Having prohibited the use of the Korean language in the media and education, Japan built new schools for the Japanese education of Koreans.

Western 'Euro-American' Revival architectural styles were used for some new buildings important to the Japanese occupation in Korea. An example is the Neoclassical style Japanese General Government Building (1926), the Seoul Station (1925), and the Seoul City Hall (1926).

Materials for building construction in Korea were in short supply. The Korean old-growth forests and particularly large cypress logs were under Japanese logging operations and shipped to Japan, along with other exportable building materials.

The Japanese occupation blocked 20th century Western design movements, including Art Deco and Modernist architecture, from reaching Colonial Korea. Korean architecture with 20th-century influences did not develop until after Korean independence in 1946.

Post-war period and Korean War architecture
After the Surrender of Japan in 1945, American architecture assumed supremacy. Under Douglas MacArthur, who set Korean domestic and political policy from the Supreme Command of the Allied Powers headquarters in Tokyo. Korean architecture by Koreans began once again in domestic areas, with extensive repair of the missionary churches being given priority funding. Essential repair to infrastructure followed, more patch-work than new projects, and block-built hospitals, schools, industries began simple construction under military supervision.

Seoul had survived much of World War II but during the Korean War (1950–1953), many buildings were destroyed, with the city changing command between North Korean and South Korean powers five times. Street-to-street fighting and artillery barrages levelled much of the city, as well as the bridges over the Han River. Important architectural sites were overrun and burnt by invading armies, looting was extensive, and the urban landscape suffered with little money for repairs.

With the armistice, and distinct architectural styles determined by foreign governments began a long period of development.

In the north, Stalinist and absolutist, often brutalist architecture, was championed. North Korean architects studied in Moscow or Soviet satellites, and brought back socialist worker styles and huge celebratory people's architecture on a grand and massively impressive scale. City-dwellers and bureaucrats lived in Soviet-style apartment blocks, farmers and rural workers lived in traditional houses as they always had; urbanization did not occur until fairly recently. Grand buildings and huge public squares were developed in Pyongyang as architectural showpieces. Formal processional landscapes accompanied these sites. Nearly all architecture was government sponsored, and maintained great homogeneity of function and style.

In the south, American models defined all new Korean buildings of any importance, with domestic architecture both civil and rural keeping to traditional buildings, building techniques, and using local materials, and local vernacular styles. The pragmatic need to rebuild a country devastated by genocide, then a civil war, led to ad hoc buildings with no particular styles, extended repeatedly, and a factory system of simple cheap expendable buildings. As few Korean cities had a grid-system, and were often given limits by mountains, few if any urban landscapes had a sense of distinction; by the mid-1950s, rural areas were underfunded, urban areas overfilled, and urban sprawl began with little money to build distinctive important buildings.

Buildings tended to be built quickly with little regard for local identity. As the need for housing for workers increased, traditional hanok villages were razed, hundreds of simple cheap apartments were put up very fast, and bedroom communities on the periphery of the urban centres grew, built and financed as company housing.

Sports architecture
South Korea was selected to host the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Olympic games, which spurred waves of new building activity. To market the country globally, international architects were encouraged to submit designs, introducing alternative concepts for modern architecture that began to put style and form ahead of spartan practicality. Historically, sports architecture has occupied the most money and the greatest expression of form identity within Korea. Hundreds of billions of won have been spent on defining Korea as a sports mecca with the architecture leading the way.

Most of the largest projects in the South, as in the North, were government sponsored works: but instead worked in confined, rather than open spaces, and worked with huge amounts of enclosed space, primarily in the state subsidized hugely expensive sports architecture. Korea since the 1990s had its most notable architectural works driven by sports: the two times which the country has hosted the Asian Games (1986 and 2014), the 1988 Summer Olympics, the 2018 Winter Olympics 2003 Summer Universiade and 2015 Summer Universiade. The country also hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup, as well as great support being given by the chaebols such as the Samsung Group which itself owned the sports teams for marketing purposes.

Important architects at this time and their works, often led by the atelier-style architectural co-operative Space Group of Korea, were:

 * Park Kil-ryong
 * Jungup Kim or Kim Chung-up - Trained in France and designed the Olympic Memorial Gate/World Peace Gate, 1988.
 * Jongseong Kim – Weight Lifting Gymnasium, Olympic Park, 1986.
 * Kim Swoo Geun who trained in Tokyo - Olympic Stadium. 1984. Its total area is 133,649 square metres, with 100,000 seats. It is 245×180 m diameter and 830 m in perimeter.
 * Kyu Sung Woo – Olympic Village, 1984.

Post-modern Korean architecture
It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that an entirely new generation of Korean architects had the freedom and the financing to build Korean architecture in a distinct Korean manner. This was a result of architects studying and training in Europe, Canada, and even in South America, and seeing the need for more of a sense of unique style, and more sophisticated materials. There was a new determination that nationalistic architectural elements had to be revived and refined. Buildings had to mean something within their cultural context.

Post-modern Korean architecture is defined as from 1986 to 2005. Cultural and museum buildings have followed; with city halls and buildings for the civil service appearing generally in a New York/Chicago style rather than following London or Paris trends.

Individuality and experimentation became the new cause for young architects, however the country as a whole was slow to move from the old traditions into seeing good architecture aesthetics as being important to the sense of a village, town, or city. Change was forced at times against intense resistance, and new buildings evolved at great cost to the architects and builders and within a great tension.

Much of the growth of new architecture came from retail stores, clothing shops, bistros, cafes, and bars; and the underside of architectural commissions, rather than from major government contracts or the financial and corporate community. Foreign corporations setting up Korean headquarters also brought in an entirely new spirit of architecture to define their own visions.

In recent years a number of large and iconic modernist projects have been developed in Seoul such as the 2008 Dominique Perrault building at Ewha Womans University, the 2012 Seoul City Hall extension by iArc and the large Dongdaemun Design Plaza designed by Zaha Hadid and opened in 2014.

Important architects at this time include:

Today's Architecture and Terrain Utilization
South Korea's distinct historical progression and its predominantly mountainous terrain have played crucial roles in shaping the architectural landscape of the nation. Approximately 70% of South Korea is covered with mountains, a geographical feature that has profoundly influenced both traditional and contemporary building practices. This rugged terrain required innovative architectural solutions to address the challenges posed by limited flat land available for construction projects. The rapid modernization that South Korea underwent in the late half of the 20th century further accelerated the evolution of its architecture. Post-war economic development, particularly from the 1960s onwards, saw South Korea transforming from a predominantly agricultural society to a technologically advanced urban society. This transition demanded new types of buildings, from residential complexes to commercial and industrial facilities, all designed to maximize the efficient use of space.

Historical Influence on Contemporary Architecture
Today’s Korean architecture can be traced back to historical periods such as the Three Kingdoms period, where they constructed royal palaces, temples, and fortresses. It can also be connected to Chinese architecture with sloping roofs, Modern day Korean wooden-frame architecture is a major example of this that is still prevalent today. This technique was introduced to Korean architects during the Han dynasty. In Seoul, buildings like the British legation and new Korean palace halls in Gyeongungung have a strong resemblance to architecture from the nineteenth century Chinese open ports. These buildings were almost identical to the buildings by the architects from China (Nate et al., 2019) Skyscrapers, malls, and high-rise apartments can be seen all over South Korea. Architects have been incorporating traditional Korean elements into these structures that focus on sustainability, and community engagement.

Maximizing Terrain Utilization
South Korea is a predominantly a mountainous country, with mountains covering approximately 70% of its territory (R. Adam Dastrup, 2020). This challenging terrain has required the development of unique architectural techniques to optimize land use while accommodating a dense population. One such technique is the construction of terraced buildings, also known as terraced housing. These structures share side walls and are built over multiple levels, allowing a greater number of residents to occupy a smaller footprint of land, while maintaining privacy and a comfortable home environment. Korean architects have not only adapted but excelled in designing structures on steep slopes, transforming previously uninhabitable mountainous areas into viable residential and commercial spaces. Unlike larger countries with a vast amount of flat land who might avoid such complex constructions, South Korea has embraced these challenges. Techniques like slope stabilization are frequently employed to prevent erosion and maintain the structural integrity of hillside constructions. This method involves various engineering practices such as retaining walls, terracing, and the use of vegetation to bind the soil, all of which are crucial in preventing landslides and other forms of land degradation. The integration of modern engineering with traditional Korean architectural elements, like the efficient use of space and harmony with the natural environment, is evident. The incorporation of advanced technologies and sustainable building practices reflects South Korea's commitment to innovation and environmental integrity in architecture. This approach not only enhances the aesthetic value of the buildings but also ensures their sustainability and resilience against the unique challenges posed by the country's rugged landscape.

title: Korean architecture


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Talk:Flanders Field American Cemetery and Memorial

Source
Cut 'n' paste from []. Since this is a U.S. government site, is it PD? --Wtshymanski 03:54, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

It only has information about American soldiers buried there. I think there were other countries involved in WWI too. --RACETRAITOR 06:10, 15 May 2006 (UTC)RACETRAITOR 0607, 15 MAY 2006 (UTC)

Memorable
I wouldn't neccassarily say that Flanders Field is "the most memorable war poem ever written", sure its famous and all, but I say that such poems as "Bring the Boys Back Home" (Pink Floyd, off of the album The Wall) is far more memorable. Zombiebaron 16:45, 9 April 2006 (UTC)

If you take into account the entire western world, Flanders Fields probably has more influence in most countries. --RACETRAITOR 06:10, 15 May 2006 (UTC)RACETRAITOR 0607, 15 MAY 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't agree. Flanders Fields is known in the English speaking world, and "heard of" in Flanders, but I don't believe it has any influence in the other parts of the western world.
 * Pink Floyd's song is only known within a specific sub-culture. --LucVerhelst 06:56, 15 May 2006 (UTC)
 * The Pink Floyd was a joke (if you check, I'm an uncyclopedian terrorist, that's what we do). I merely included it to point out how wrong the statement is, or at least it has bias. Zombiebaron 02:41, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * D*mn. I'll consider myself as "being had". :-) --LucVerhelst 10:36, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Not "had" just wrong. :P Zombiebaron 03:58, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Poem
The poem was inspired and written in 1915. The article appears to be about an American cemetary. The U.S. did not enter the War until 1917 so the author did not have any U.S. Casulties in mind when he wrote the poem. Having THAT much content about the poem in this particular article doesn't make a lot of sense. Although a "See Also" link may be valid as the poem has gone on to become a memorial statement about all who went and did not return. Fair Deal 19:55, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

--

From The Royal Canadian Legion;

The person, who more than any other, that was responsible for the adoption of the poppy in Canada was a Canadian Medical Officer during the First World War. This person was Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae of Guelph, Ontario.

John McCrae was a tall, boyish 43-year-old member of the Canadian Medical Corps. He was an artillery veteran of the Boer War in South Africa and was described as a person with the eye of a gunner, the hand of a surgeon, and the soul of a poet when he went into the line at Ypres on the 22nd of April 1915.

April 22 was the first time that the enemy used poison gas but the first attack failed and so did the next wave and the next. In fact, for 17 days and nights the allies repulsed wave after wave of the attacking enemy. McCrae wrote - "One can see the dead lying there on the front field. And in places where the enemy threw in an attack, they lie very thick on the slopes of the German trenches."

Lieutenant-Colonel McCrae, worked from a dressing station on the bank of the Yser Canal, dressing hundreds of wounded and never removed his clothes for the entire 17 days. At times the dead and wounded actually rolled down the bank from above his dugout. At other times, while awaiting the arrival of batches of wounded, he would watch the men at work in the burial plots which were quickly filling up. In time, McCrae and his unit were relieved and he wrote home " We are weary in body and wearier in mind. The general impression in my mind is one of a nightmare".

Lieutenant-Colonel McCrae came away from Ypres with 13 lines scrawled on a scrap of paper. The lines were a poem which started: "In Flanders fields the poppies blow..."

These were the lines which are enshrined in the innermost thoughts and hearts of all soldiers who hear them. John McCrae was their voice. The poem circulated as a folk song, by word of mouth and all who hear it are deeply touched. In the United States for example, the poem inspired the American Legion to also adopt the poppy as the symbol of Remembrance.

In Canada, the poppy was officially adopted by the Great War Veterans Association in 1921 on the suggestion of a Mrs. E. Guerin, a French citizen. But there is little doubt that the impact of John McCrae's poem influenced this decision.

The poem speaks of Flanders fields, but the subject is universal - the fear of the dead that they will be forgotten, that their death will have been in vain. Remembrance, as symbolized by the poppy, is our eternal answer which belies that fear.

Sadly, Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae died of pneumonia at Wimereux near Boulogne, France on the 28th of January 1918 when he was 44 years old.

24.66.94.140 20:19, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

Is this really accurate?
Should the article under the title 'Flanders Field' not talk of the history of the field and its significance in World War One rather than talk of the American memorial?

Should the memorial not be a separate article of part of a larger one on the field?

Flanders Field
I don't think that "Flanders Field" refers to this particular cemetery. It is certainly wrong to crossreference "Flanders Fields" to the cementary wikipedia article. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Podmok (talk • contribs) 01:47, 24 April 2007 (UTC).

 * I agree entirely. It's spurious borrowed interest. Unless someone can up with very good reasons to refrain, I plan to de-reference the two in the next couple of days. I also think the cemetery article should have more encyclopedic content and less Purple prose. Roger 06:17, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

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text:
Lockport Cave

The Lockport Cave can refer to one of two caverns beneath the city of Lockport, New York. One of the caves formed naturally in the underlying dolomite and limestone bedrocks, whereas the other is a hydraulic raceway (water tunnel) constructed in the nineteenth century.

Historical and recent accounts of attempted exploration of the natural cave system exist, although the cave has been sealed since 1886. The true size of the cave remains a mystery, although it is speculated to have an area of several square miles. The Lockport Cave Company was formed in 1883 to explore and remove mud from the cave, however little progress was made because of inadequate funding and frequent flooding.

The man-made hydraulic raceway, often called "The Lockport Caves" by locals, was constructed between 1858 and 1900. The raceway supplied water to local industries for decades, and now contains a tourist attraction, the Lockport Cave and Underground Boat Ride.

The canal received national attention in 2023 when a tour boat capsized, killing one person and injuring several; this incident has led officials to explore regulation of this kind of attraction.

title: Lockport Cave


text:
ESB Business School

The ESB Business School (formerly ESB Reutlingen) is Reutlingen University's business school founded in 1971 and based in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Since 2008, the school is responsible for all business and production management related degree programs of the university. The school offers 17 undergraduate and graduate programs as well as double degree programs in cooperation with numerous other business schools from around the world. The ESB Business School ranks among the top business schools in Germany and belongs to the five percent of all business schools worldwide who have earned the AACSB accreditation.

Single degree programs

 * Bachelor of Science (Wirtschaftsingenieurwesen - Sustainable Production and Business) in 3 1/2 years
 * Bachelor of Science (Internationales Wirtschaftsingenieurwesen - Operations) in 3 1/2 years

Bachelor of Science in International Management Double Degree
Bachelor of Science in International Management and a second bachelor's degree of a partner university within the International Partnership of Business Schools in 4 years.

Bachelor of Science in International Business
The International Business (IB) program, offers students the possibility of acquiring within only four years the degrees Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Business Administration (MBA) or another master's degree (MSc/MA). Students complete three and a half academic years at Reutlingen University, including a practical internship and a study abroad semester.

Master of Science in International Accounting, Controlling and Taxation
This Master of Science program prepares students for a management career in accounting, finance and controlling with an international focus. Usually, all semesters of the program are spent at the ESB Reutlingen.

Master of Science in International Business Development
This program focuses on the transfer of practice-oriented, detailed knowledge to the development of new business ideas.

Master of Science in Global Management and Digital Competencies
The ESB also offers a one-year Master of Science in Global Management and Digital Competencies. One semester of the program is spent at the ESB in Reutlingen, the other semester at one of four international partner schools from the International Partnership of Business Schools (IPBS) network.

Master of Science in Operations Management
ESB currently offers a two-year MSc program: Master of Science in Operations Management, with its main focus on the interface of business and technology.

Master of Science in Digital Industrial Management and Engineering
The MSc Digital Industrial Management and Engineering is the ESB's research master's program.

Master of Arts in European Management Studies
A trilingual (German, French, English) Master of Arts in European Management Studies is offered. In this two-year program students spend one year in Reutlingen and one year in Strasbourg at the Ecole de Management de Strasbourg and receive two master's degrees.

MBA
The ESB offers a full-time and part-time MBA program focused on International Management.

The MBA program can be completed full-time in two semesters (full-time program) or five semesters (part-time program).

History
In 1971, the faculty of Foreign Economics was founded at Reutlingen University from which the faculties School of International Business (SIB) and Production Management (initially: the Manufacturing Department) derived. The Manufacturing Department commenced in 1973. The European School of Business (ESB) was founded as an independent faculty by Prof. Dr. Hans Tümmers with the goal of internationalising and renewing the German Management qualification. The first partner universities were the Reims Management School in Reims (France), as well as the Middlesex University in London (United Kingdom.)

On 1 June 2008, the business faculties School of International Business (SIB), Production Management and the European School of Business of Reutlingen University were united as the new ESB Business School.

title: ESB Business School


text:
List of Tulane University people

This is a list of notable individuals affiliated with Tulane University, including alumni of non-matriculating and graduates, faculty, former faculty and major benefactors. Some especially notable individuals also are listed in the main university article.

Individuals are sorted by category and alphabetized within each category. For alumni, the degree and year of graduation are noted when available.

Academia

 * Ian Bremmer, political scientist
 * Cleanth Brooks, literary critic
 * Winston Chang, president of Soochow University
 * John R. Conniff, New Orleans and Baton Rouge educator; president of Louisiana Tech University 1926–1928
 * Light Townsend Cummins, Bryan Professor of History at Austin College in Sherman, Texas and former official State Historian of Texas
 * James H. Dillard, professor and early advocate for education of African-Americans
 * Edward F. Fischer, M.A. and Ph.D, Professor of Anthropology at Vanderbilt University
 * Mary Lynne Gasaway Hill, American poet, writer, professor at St. Mary's University, Texas and Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
 * James (Mac) Hyman, applied mathematician at Los Alamos National Laboratory in the United States
 * T.R. Kidder, archaeologist
 * Sang-don Lee, South Korean legal scholar
 * Sarah Miller, health economist and winner of the 2022 ASHEcon medal
 * John Mosier, historian
 * Bradley Peterson, neuroscientist
 * Blake Simmons, chemical engineer
 * Frank Vandiver, Civil War scholar, acting president of Rice University 1969–1970, president of Texas A&M University 1981–1988
 * Linda Wilson, 1957, former president of Radcliffe College

Architecture

 * Robert Ivy, CEO AIA
 * Richard Koch, first graduate of the Tulane School of Architecture, architectural preservationist
 * Albert C. Ledner, designer of National Maritime Buildings in New York City and many other commercial and residential projects
 * Edward F. Neild, architect of the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and many buildings in his native Shreveport and Louisiana
 * Henry Hobson Richardson, inventor of Richardsonian Romanesque architecture
 * Leonard Spangenberg, architect and apprentice of Frank Lloyd Wright
 * A. Hays Town, architect

Film and television

 * Marion Abramson, founder of WYES-TV
 * Bryan Batt, BA 1985, actor
 * Les Blank, BA 1958, MFA 1960, documentary filmmaker
 * Marshall Colt, Class of 1970, psychologist and former actor
 * Doug Ellin, A&S 1990, television writer/director, creator of HBO's series Entourage
 * Evan Farmer, actor
 * Paul Michael Glaser, BA 1966, actor, TV's Starsky and Hutch
 * Carlin Glynn, NG-N ’61, actress, Tony award winner
 * Lawrence Gordon, 1958, producer of popular films such as Predator and Die Hard
 * Karen Grassle, actress
 * Robert Harling, movie screenwriter, producer and director
 * Courtney Hazlett, A&S '99, columnist and celebrity correspondent for MSNBC
 * Jonathan Hensleigh, Law, writer of Die Hard: With a Vengeance, Jumanji, Armageddon
 * Rick Hurst, actor; A&S '68
 * Lauren Hutton, 1964, actress; model
 * Anthony Jeselnik, comedian
 * Dave Jeser, A&S 2001, co-creator of Comedy Central's Drawn Together
 * Anthony Laciura, G '79, actor
 * Christian LeBlanc, 1980, actor
 * Shannon Lee, daughter of martial arts legend Bruce Lee
 * Elyse Luray, NC ’89, star of PBS' History Detectives
 * Olga Merediz, NC '78, actress
 * Linda Taylor Miller, 1976, actress
 * Alicia Morton, actress
 * Enrique Murciano, TC ’95, actor, TV's Without a Trace
 * Ed Nelson, A&S ’53, UC ’00, actor, Peyton Place
 * Bruce Paltrow, 1965, television and film producer
 * Meryl Poster, Academy Award-winning and Emmy-nominated producer
 * Michael Price, Emmy award-winning writer and producer best known for his work on The Simpsons
 * Al Shea, actor and theatre critic
 * Jerry Springer, B.A., 1965, talk show host and former mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio
 * Harold Sylvester, actor, director
 * Ian Terry, winner of the fourteenth season of Big Brother
 * Ronald A. Weinberg, American-born Canadian children's television producer (Cinar)

Literature and poetry

 * John Gregory Brown, novelist, 1982
 * Amy Carter, G ’96, children's book author; daughter of former President Jimmy Carter
 * Rich Cohen, writer, 1990
 * Nicole Cooley, poet; Walt Whitman Award recipient
 * Peter Cooley, poet
 * Alcée Fortier, folklorist and recorder of the story of Br'er Rabbit
 * Whitney Gaskell, Law 1997, novelist
 * Shirley Ann Grau, 1950, Pulitzer Prize-winning author
 * Jennifer Grotz, poet
 * N. K. Jemisin, science fiction and fantasy writer, three time Hugo Award recipient
 * John Reed, author, Snowball's Chance
 * Leigh Richmond (1911-1995), American writer
 * John Kennedy Toole, BA 1958, author, Pulitzer Prize winner for A Confederacy of Dunces
 * Dede Wilson, poet and author

Music

 * Les Crane, pioneer in interactive broadcasting, co-creator of pop music "Top 40"
 * Paul Crawford, jazz musician, music historian, and music arranger who served as associate curator of the Hogan Jazz Archive
 * Odaline de la Martinez, composer and conductor; first woman to conduct in a BBC Proms concert
 * John Doheny, jazz saxophonist, band-leader, and historian
 * Scott Greenstein, A&S ’81, president of Sirius XM Radio
 * Zachary Richard, A&S ’72, Cajun singer/songwriter and poet
 * Emily Saliers (attended), singer
 * Theo Hilton, indie folk musician of Nana Grizol and Defiance, Ohio
 * Sonia Tetlow, bass player in rock band Cowboy Mouth
 * Janice Torre, lyricist of the song "Paper Roses"
 * Michael White, jazz historian and musician

Non-fiction writing and journalism

 * Andrew Breitbart, '91, publisher and author
 * Hodding Carter, journalist, Pulitzer Prize winner
 * Christopher Drew, journalist and book author
 * Bessie Alexander Ficklen (1861–1945), writer, poet, artist
 * Robert Lane Greene, magazine journalist
 * Ira B. Harkey Jr., Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist
 * Nate Lee, B.A. 1978, writer, senior editor for Chicago's Newcity
 * Bill Monroe, A&S ’42, broadcast journalist, former host of Meet The Press
 * Mike Sacks, editor, writer, 1990
 * Thomas Sancton, editor, writer, civil rights journalist, teacher, 1935
 * Howard K. Smith, television journalist
 * Lawrence Wright, author, Pulitzer Prize winner, and journalist

Visual arts

 * Lynda Benglis, N ’64, sculptor
 * Jacqueline Bishop, MFA, 1982, visual artist
 * Deborah Czeresko, M.A., 1992, glass blower, won first season of Blown Away
 * Jane Davis Doggett, 1952, graphic artist and pioneer designer of wayfinding and graphics systems for airports
 * Mignon Faget, Newcomb 1955, artist, jewelry designer
 * Mary Garrard, 1958, art historian
 * Bryan Nash Gill, 1984, artist
 * Gary Russell Libby, art historian, curator, museum director
 * Sergio Rossetti Morosini, artist, conservator
 * Frank Relle, photographer
 * Wendi Schneider, Newcomb 1977, artist, photographer
 * Hunt Slonem, B.A., 1973, artist
 * Meredith Stern, B.F.A. 1998, artist
 * Cora Kelley Ward, painter

Other

 * Alice K. Bache (1903-1977), philanthropist and art collector
 * May Hyman Lesser, medical illustrator
 * Howard Scott Warshaw, video game programmer/designer and documentary filmmaker

Business and economics

 * Matt Battiata, CEO, real estate economics expert
 * Geoffrey Beene, fashion designer
 * Andrew Friedman, president of operations for the Los Angeles Dodgers
 * Neil Bush, B.A., M.B.A., 1979, presidential brother, ex-savings and loan executive
 * Philip J. Carroll, M.S., 1961, former CEO, Shell Oil Company and Fluor Corporation
 * James H. Clark, founder of Silicon Graphics, Netscape, and WebMD
 * Charles E. Fenner, founder of Fenner & Beane, a forerunner of Merrill Lynch
 * David Filo, B.S. 1988, co-founder of Yahoo!
 * Alfred Ford, great-grandson of Henry Ford
 * Talia Goldstein, B.A. 2002, entrepreneur, company founder
 * C. Jackson Grayson, professor at Harvard, Stanford and Tulane; member of the Nixon Cabinet
 * Thomas M. Humphrey, PhD. 1970, economist
 * Samuel Israel III, fraudulent hedge fund manager
 * Jeff Klein - hotelier and real estate developer
 * Dean Lombardi, J.D., President and GM of the Los Angeles Kings
 * Peter McNamara, B.S. CEO, McNamara Enterprises Underground Casino & Book Broker
 * Ricardo Salinas Pliego, M.B.A., 1979, Forbes' World's Richest People
 * Muhamed Sacirbey, Bosnian-American businessperson
 * Peter Schloss, Chief Executive Officer, Broadwebasia, Director, Giant Interactive (NYSE: GA)
 * Aaron Selber Jr. B.B.A., 1950, businessman and philanthropist in Shreveport
 * Fred L. Smith, president and founder of Competitive Enterprise Institute
 * Paul Tulane (benefactor), philanthropist
 * Sam Zemurray (benefactor)
 * Nicholas Moore CFO, Jaxon E&M

Heads of state

 * Luis Guillermo Solis, M.A. 1981, President of Costa Rica
 * José Raúl Mulino, LL.M, 1983, President-elect of Panama

U.S. Senators and Congressmen

 * William L. Armstrong, B 1958, former U.S. Representative and U.S. senator from Colorado; president of Colorado Christian University (R)
 * Howard Henry Baker Jr., 1945, U.S. Senate majority leader, White House chief of staff, U.S. ambassador to Japan (R)
 * Hale Boggs, Law, 1937, U.S. Representative, 1941–1943, 1946–1972; house majority leader (D)
 * Lindy Boggs, Newcomb 1935, U.S. Representative, 1973–1991, Tulane benefactor, U.S. ambassador to the Holy See, 1997-2001, (D)
 * Edwin S. Broussard, U.S. Senator from Louisiana (D)
 * Donelson Caffery, Law, U.S. Senator, 1892–1900 (D)
 * James "Jimmy" Domengeaux, Law, Lafayette congressman and Cajun cultural spokesman (D)
 * Allen J. Ellender, Law 1913, U.S. Senator, agriculture committee chair; appropriations committee chair; President Pro Tempore 1971-72 (D)
 * Newt Gingrich, U.S. Representative, 1979–1998 and Speaker of the House, 1995–1998 (R)
 * Tim Griffin, L '94, U.S. House of Representatives from Arkansas (R)
 * Felix Edward Hébert, U.S. Representatives, 1940–1977 (D); chair, House Armed Services Committee
 * Bob Livingston, former U.S. Representative, 1977–1999; chair, House Appropriations Committee, 1995-98 (R)
 * John H. Overton, Law, 1897, former U.S. senator from Louisiana (D)
 * Cedric Richmond, L '98, U.S. House of Representatives from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district (D); currently senior adviser to President Joe Biden
 * Jared Y. Sanders Jr., U.S. Representative (D), later States Rights Party
 * Luther Strange, B.A. 1975, Law 1978, U.S. Senator from Alabama, 2017–2018 (R)
 * Gene Taylor, U.S. Representative, 1989–2011 (D-turned-R)
 * Dave Treen, U.S. Representative, 1973-80 (R)
 * David Vitter, Law, former U.S. senator from Louisiana, 2005–2017; former U.S. Representative, 1999-2005 (R)

U.S. Governors

 * Newton C. Blanchard, former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Murphy J. Foster Sr., governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Michael Hahn, governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Luther E. Hall, governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Alvin Olin King, former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Richard W. Leche, former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Huey Long, Law, former governor of Louisiana (D, 1928-32)
 * John McEnery, former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Francis T. Nicholls, governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Jared Y. Sanders Sr., former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * Oramel H. Simpson, former governor of Louisiana (D)
 * David C. Treen (1928-2009), former governor of Louisiana (R, 1980-84)
 * Bob Wise, Law, 1975, former governor of West Virginia (D)
 * Pedro Pierluisi, B.A., 1980, governor of Puerto Rico, New Party for Progress

U.S. Cabinet Secretaries and other prominent federal officials

 * Howard Henry Baker Jr., 1945, U.S. Senate majority leader, White House chief of staff, U.S. ambassador to Japan (R)
 * Regina Benjamin, MBA 1991, Surgeon General of the United States (2009–13)
 * Donald Ensenat, Law, 1973, White House chief of protocol
 * Lisa P. Jackson, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (D) (2009–2013)
 * Stephen Douglas Johnson, AB '85, L '88, U.S. House Chief Counsel for Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit(1995–98) and Bush White House Senior Advisor to the Office of Federal Housing Oversight (2001–03)

Diplomats

 * Howard Henry Baker Jr. (1945), U.S. Senate majority leader, White House chief of staff, U.S. ambassador to Japan (R)
 * Lindy Boggs, Newcomb 1935, U.S. Representative 1973–1991, Tulane benefactor (D), U.S. ambassador to the Holy See, 1997-2001
 * Kristie Kenney, G '79, U.S. Ambassador to Thailand, former ambassador to the Philippines and Ecuador
 * John Giffen Weinmann, (A&S ’50, L ’52), former U.S. Ambassador to Finland and chief of protocol in the White House
 * Clint Williamson, (L '86) U.S. Ambassador-at-large for war crimes issues, UN envoy, White House policy official

Mayors

 * Sidney Barthelemy, mayor of New Orleans (D, 1986-94)
 * Ravinder Bhalla, J.D., mayor of Hoboken, New Jersey
 * Paul Capdevielle, Law, mayor of New Orleans
 * Sandra Frankel (née Applebaum), 1963, Arts and Sciences, former mayor of the Town of Brighton, NY (D)
 * Ray Nagin, M.B.A. 1994, mayor of New Orleans (D, 2002-10)
 * Robert Poydasheff, Law, former mayor of Columbus, Georgia (2003–2007) (R)
 * Jerry Springer, B.A. 1965, former mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio and television personality
 * T. Semmes Walmsley, Law, mayor of New Orleans (D)

City and state officials

 * Buddy Caldwell, attorney general of Louisiana 2008-16; former district attorney in Tallulah (D)-turned-(R)
 * Philip Ciaccio, state representative, New Orleans City Council member, state circuit judge 1982–1998
 * John Elton Coon, state representative from Ouachita Parish; mayor of Monroe 1949–1956, and state fire marshal 1956–1964 (D)
 * Grey Ferris, member of the Mississippi State Senate (D)
 * Cameron Henry, member of Louisiana House (R)
 * Adam Kwasman, B.A. Economics 2003, member of Arizona House of Representatives District 11; 2014 candidate for U.S. Congress (R)
 * Karen Carter Peterson, former state senator and state representative; candidate for United States House of Representatives from Louisiana's 2nd District (D)
 * Weldon Russell, state representative from Tangipahoa and St. Helena parishes 1984–1988; realtor in Amite (D)
 * Scott M. Simon, architect and state representative (R)
 * Eric Skrmetta, attorney from Metairie, Louisiana; Republican member of the Louisiana Public Service Commission for District 1 (R)
 * Chris Ullo, member of both houses of the Louisiana legislature 1972–2008 (D)

Other

 * Hanan Al-Ahmadi, Assistant Speaker of the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia
 * Ashley Biden, social worker, activist, and daughter of President Joe Biden
 * Amy Carter, '96, daughter of former President Jimmy Carter; children's book author (D)
 * Jan Crull Jr., Law, 1990, former Native American rights advocate, Hill staffer, international investment banker; multi Marquis Who's Who biographee
 * C. B. Forgotston, fellow of Tulane Institute of Politics, lecturer in law, political activist, state government watchdog
 * Juan Manuel García Passalacqua, 1967, late leading political analyst in Puerto Rico (D)
 * Pedro A. Gelabert, 1956, Puerto Rico Secretary of Natural Resources
 * Victor Gold, journalist and political consultant
 * John Grenier, Birmingham, Alabama, lawyer and leader of the Alabama Republican Party (R)

 * Supriya Jindal, E '93, B '96, first lady of Louisiana (R)
 * Kenneth McClintock, Law, 1980, Puerto Rico's former Senate President (2005–2008); former Secretary of State/Lt. Governor (D) (2009–2013)
 * Paul Morphy, L.L.B., April 7, 1857, chess prodigy and unofficial world chess champion
 * Terry O'Neill, president of the National Organization for Women (NOW)
 * Martha Gilmore Robinson (1888–1981), women's rights and civic activist

U.S. Supreme Court justices

 * Edward Douglass White Jr., Law, 1868, 9th Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (D)

Federal and state judges

 * Edith Brown Clement, Law, justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (R)
 * William Tharp Cunningham, preparatory curriculum, Law, judge of the 11th Judicial District in Natchitoches and Red River parishes, member of the Louisiana House of Representatives 1908–1912 (D)
 * W. Eugene Davis, Law, 1960, justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
 * John Malcolm Duhé Jr., Law, Justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (R)
 * Martin Leach-Cross Feldman, B.A. 1955, J.D. 1957 Federal Judge (R)
 * Rufus E. Foster, Law, 1895, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
 * F.A. Little Jr., Class of 1958, former judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana (R)
 * Ángel Martín, Law, former associate justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court
 * Tucker L. Melancon, Law, 1973, justice, 5th Circuit since 1994 (D)
 * Judge Henry Mentz, U.S. federal district judge 1982–2005
 * Bill Pryor, Law, 1987, justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (R)
 * Robert Reid, Law, 1875, Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
 * Christian Roselius, 1857, chief justice, Louisiana Supreme Court (D)
 * Alvin A. Schall, Law, 1969, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
 * Nauman S. Scott, one of the first Louisiana U.S. District Court Judges to advocate desegregation (D)-turned-(R)
 * Elizabeth Weaver, N ’62; L ’65, Michigan Supreme Court justice
 * Jacques Loeb Wiener, justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
 * John Minor Wisdom, Law, judge, U.S. Court of Appeals Fifth Circuit (R)

Attorneys

 * Dean Andrews Jr., attorney convicted of perjury by Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison
 * Sean M. Berkowitz, 1989, chief prosecutor, Enron Task Force
 * Terry Michael Duncan, lawyer killed in 1993 Russian constitutional crisis
 * William T. Dzurilla, Law, 1981, international attorney and law clerk to U.S. Supreme Court Justice Byron White (1982–1983)
 * Jim Garrison, Law, New Orleans district attorney (D, 1962-74) and state appeals court judge
 * Marc Kligman, J.D. 1995, sports agent and criminal lawyer
 * Jim Letten, L '79, U.S. attorney
 * Leander Perez, Law, judge and district attorney of Plaquemines Parish in first half of twentieth century (D)
 * Ira Sorkin, BA 1965, attorney for Bernard Madoff

Other

 * Yaw Darko Asare, active Justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana 2024–present
 * William Suter, Law 1962, clerk of the U.S. Supreme Court 1991–present

Math, science and technology

 * Jon-Erik Beckjord, paranormal investigator and photographer
 * Ruth Benerito, Newcomb alumna and inventor of wrinkle-free cotton
 * Delzie Demaree, 1889 – 1987, botanist and plant collector who taught botany at Tulane from 1956 to 1958
 * Willey Glover Denis, 1879–1929, Newcomb A.B. 1899, Tulane M.A. 1902. Biochemist; her appointment as assistant professor at Tulane Medical School has been identified as the first appointment of a woman as a faculty member of a major medical institution in the U.S.
 * Anna Epps, microbiologist; possibly the first African-American woman with a PhD to lead a medical school
 * Joseph Fair, virologist
 * David Filo, B.S.C.E, co-founder of Yahoo!
 * Kurt Mislow, 1944, Professor of Chemistry at Princeton University
 * Harold Rosen, B.S.E.E, 1947, engineer/inventor, famous for inventing the geostationary communications satellite
 * Evelyn Walton Ordway, (1853 - 1928) a chemist, suffragist and professor at Newcomb College from 1887 until 1905
 * Dave Winer, B.A, Mathematics, 1976, Weblog and RSS pioneer, former Harvard Law School Berkman Center for Internet & Society Fellow
 * A. Baldwin Wood, B.S.M.E., 1899, engineer and inventor of the wood screw pump (1913) and the wood trash pump (1915)
 * Ilya Zhitomirskiy, 1989–2011, student, co-founder of the social network Diaspora

Medicine

 * James Andrews, M.D., orthopedic surgeon
 * Dale Archer, B.A., 1978, M.D., doctor and television personality
 * Jim C. Barnett, physician and surgeon from Brookhaven, Mississippi, member of Mississippi House of Representatives 1992–2008
 * Charles C. Bass, MD, Tulane Medical School dean 1922–1940, researcher in tropical medicine, inventor of modern dental floss
 * Regina Benjamin, M.B.A., 1991, U.S. Surgeon General under President Barack Obama; first African-American woman on the American Medical Association Board of Trustees
 * Gerald Berenson, B.S. 1943, M.D. 1945, heart researcher, preventive medicine pioneer and founder of the Bogalusa Heart Study
 * Cyril Y. Bowers, M.D., professor of medicine and medical researcher
 * George E. Burch, M.D., 1933, cardiologist
 * Jay Cavanaugh, Ph.D, 1994, member of California State Board of Pharmacy 1980–90; director of American Alliance for Medical Cannabis, 2001
 * Wallace H. Clark Jr., B.S. 1944, M.D. 1947, pathologist, cancer researcher
 * Michael E. DeBakey, M.D., 1932, pioneer of modern medicine and recipient of the Congressional Gold Medal
 * Theodore John Dimitry Jr. M.D. 1901, pioneer of modern optometry
 * E. Wesley Ely, B.S., 1985; M.P.H., 1989; M.D., 1989, physician researcher of delirium at Vanderbilt University Medical Center
 * Thomas Farley, New York City Health Commissioner
 * Elizabeth Fontham, M.P.H., 1978, D.P.H., 1983, American cancer epidemiologist, public health researcher, and founding dean of the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans School of Public Health
 * Robert I. Grossman, B.S., 1969, physician-researcher, Dean of the NYU Grossman School of Medicine
 * Thomas Naum James, M.D., 1949, director, World Health Organization cardiovascular center
 * Ruth L. Kirschstein, M.D., 1951, director, National Institutes of Health, for whom the Kirschstein NRSA grant program is named
 * Abraham L. Levin, M.D., 1907, inventor of the Levin Tube, which is still used for duodenal drainage after surgery
 * Rudolph Matas, M.D., 1880, "father of vascular surgery"
 * William Larimer Mellon Jr., M.D., M ’53, founder of Albert Schweitzer Hospital, Haiti
 * José Gilberto Montoya, founder of the Immunocompromised Host Service and works at the Positive Care Clinic at Stanford
 * Kelly Overton, Activist
 * Imperato Pascal, MPH & TM, author
 * Steven M. Paul, B.S. 1972, M.D. 1975, neuroscientist and pharmaceutical executive
 * Luther Leonidas Terry, M.D., 1935, U.S. surgeon general 1961–1965; chair of the committee that produced Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service
 * Xiaobin Wang, M.P.H., 1987, molecular epidemiologist at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
 * Paul Wehrle, physician who helped develop of methods to prevent and treat polio and smallpox
 * Charles B. Wilson, pioneer in pituitary tumor treatment; Cushing Medal recipient

Military

 * George K. Anderson, General in the United States Air Force
 * Wayne Downing, General in the US Army
 * Douglas G. Hurley, NASA astronaut
 * Murphy "Neal" Johnson, USAF F105-D pilot, Vietnam veteran, Colonel, Tulane University Green Wave football player. 6½ years as a prisoner of war in North Vietnam's infamous "Hanoi Hilton."
 * John L. McLucas, G ’43, Secretary of the Air Force
 * Richard I. Neal, General in the US Marine Corps
 * William Suter, Law 1962, General, US Army
 * Tate Westbrook, Captain, US Navy
 * James C. Yarbrough, General in the US Army
 * David H. Berger E '81, The 38th Commandant of the United States Marine Corps
 * Christina Maria Rantetana, MPH '97, rear admiral in the Indonesian Navy

Royalty and religion

 * Jorge Bolaños, son of Nicaraguan President Enrique Bolaños
 * Francis George, Ph.D., 1970, cardinal archbishop of Chicago
 * James G. Heller, rabbi and composer

Sports

 * Stephen Alemais, baseball player
 * Michael Aubrey, baseball player
 * David Mark Berger, A&S '66, NCAA champion, member of 1972 Israeli Olympic weightlifting team
 * Jim Boyle, NFL offensive tackle
 * Bubby Brister, NG-UC ’85, former NFL quarterback
 * Bobby Brown, Medicine 1950, baseball player, president of the American League
 * Janell Burse, basketball player in the WNBA
 * Chris Bush, 2004, NFL receiver
 * Andy Cannizaro, MLB shortstop and baseball All American
 * Jerry Dalrymple, football All-American
 * Quincy Davis, 2006, naturalised Chinese Taipei men's national basketball team player
 * JaJuan Dawson, 1999, NFL receiver
 * Burnell Dent, NFL linebacker
 * Corey Dowden, NFL defensive back
 * Barbara Farris, UC ’98, WNBA forward, New York Liberty
 * Steve Foley, football, quarterback in 1973 season when Tulane beat LSU for the first time in 25 years; played in two Super Bowls with Denver Broncos
 * Matt Forte, NFL running back
 * Nolan Franz, NFL wide receiver
 * Lester Gatewood, NFL center
 * Tony Giarratano, MLB, Detroit Tigers
 * Fred Gloden, NFL player
 * Brandon Gomes, MLB, Tampa Bay Rays
 * Jim Gueno, NFL linebacker
 * Ryan Grant, NFL wide receiver who is currently a free agent
 * Nickie Hall, football player
 * Ruffin Hamilton, NFL linebacker
 * Phil Hicks, NBA basketball player
 * Rodney Holman, 1981, NFL pro bowl tight end with Cincinnati Bengals
 * Linton Johnson III, 2004, NBA player
 * Robert Kelley, NFL running back
 * Shaun King, 1999, NFL quarterback
 * Dominik Köpfer, German tennis player
 * Troy Kropog, 2009–present, NFL lineman Tennessee Titans
 * Eric Laakso, 1976 Tulane Athlete of the year, NFL offensive tackle; started in Super Bowl XVII for Miami Dolphins
 * J. P. Losman, NFL quarterback
 * Aaron Loup, MLB pitcher
 * Seth Marler, B ’03, NFL kicker
 * Lonnie Marts, 1990, NFL linebacker 1991–2001
 * Tommy Mason, NFL running back
 * Max McGee, NFL wide receiver; caught first touchdown pass in Super Bowl history for Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl I
 * Sylvester McGrew, NFL defensive end
 * Mewelde Moore, NFL running back
 * Ed Morgan, baseball player
 * Kevin Mmahat, baseball player
 * Steve Mura, baseball player
 * Eddie Murray, UC ’80, NFL kicker
 * Herman Neugass, track & field athlete noted for his boycott of the 1936 Olympic trials
 * Phil Nugent, football player
 * Micah Owings, MLB, Arizona Diamondbacks, Cincinnati Reds
 * Richie Petitbon, NFL player (Chicago Bears, Los Angeles Rams) and coach (Washington Redskins)
 * Michael Pratt, current Green Wave quarterback
 * Tyjae Spears, current NFL running back
 * Eddie Price, football player
 * Patrick Ramsey, NFL quarterback
 * Ham Richardson, 1955, tennis player
 * Taylor Rochestie (born 1985) American-Montenegrin player for Hapoel Haifa of the Israel Basketball Premier League
 * Cairo Santos, NFL kicker
 * Andy Sheets, MLB shortstop
 * Joe Silipo, football player in the CFL, USFL and NFL
 * Jerald Sowell, NFL running back
 * Mike Tannenbaum, former general manager, New York Jets (NFL)
 * Eric Thomas, 1987, NFL defensive back 1987–1995
 * Michael Thompson, PGA Tour golfer
 * Paul Thompson, NBA player
 * Dalton Truax, NFL tackle, Oakland Raiders
 * Linda Tuero, tennis, winner of Italian Open
 * John "Hot Rod" Williams, NBA player
 * Roydell Williams, NFL wide receiver
 * Frank Wills, MLB relief pitcher
 * Josh Zeid, MLB pitcher
 * Darnell Mooney, NFL wide receiver
 * Thakarius “BoPete” Keyes, NFL cornerback

Faculty

 * Akira Arimura, professor of endocrinology
 * William Balée, professor of anthropology and environmental studies
 * Harry Blackmun, associate justice on the U.S. Supreme Court
 * David Bonderman, founder of TPG Capital
 * Elizabeth Hill Boone, professor of Latin American art history
 * Christian M. M. Brady, targumist
 * Ian Bremmer, political scientist
 * Stephen Breyer, associate justice on the U.S. Supreme Court
 * Douglas Brinkley, historian
 * William Craft Brumfield, professor and historian of Russian art and architecture
 * Florian Cajori, historian
 * James Carville, political science
 * Alfred H. Clifford, mathematician
 * Harold Cummins, faculty 1919–1964, anatomist
 * David John Doukas, clinical ethicist and professionalism scholar
 * John Duffy, medical historian
 * Giuseppe Ferrata, composer and professor of music
 * Gordon G. Gallup Jr., faculty 1968–1975, developer of the mirror test for self-awareness (1970)
 * Kenneth W. Harl, historian
 * Melissa Harris-Perry, former professor of political science and anchor for MSNBC
 * Maximilian Heller, rabbi, professor of hebrew and hebrew literature 1912–1928
 * Helmut Otto Hofer, faculty 1965–1977, zoologist and comparative anatomist
 * Andy Horowitz, historian, winner of Bancroft Prize (2021)
 * Louis J. Ignarro, faculty 1973–1985; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1998
 * Walter Isaacson, author and former CEO of CNN; member of the Board of Tulane
 * T.R. Kidder, archaeologist
 * James A. Knight, M.D., former faculty, psychiatrist, theologian, and medical ethicist
 * Adrienne Koch, historian
 * Ida Kohlmeyer, artist and associate on faculty, 1950s
 * Kris Lane, historian and author, Tulane University and University of Minnesota faculty
 * Robert K. Merton, sociologist, former head of the Sociology Department
 * Claire Messud, novelist
 * Alton Ochsner, founder of Ochsner Clinic, pioneer anti-smoking advocate
 * William Rehnquist, Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court
 * John Leonard Riddell, faculty 1836–1865; microscopist, chemist, botanist, geologist, physician, inventor of the first practical mono-objective binocular microscope (1851)
 * Charles P. Roland, historian of the American Civil War and the American South, professor at Tulane 1952–1970
 * Tom Sancton, journalist, musician, Andrew W. Mellon Professor
 * Antonin Scalia, associate justice on the U.S. Supreme Court
 * Andrew V. Schally, faculty 1962–2006, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1977), French Legion of Honor
 * J. Lawrence Smith, chemist and inventor of the inverted microscope (1850)
 * Raymond Taras, faculty, political scientist
 * Royal D. Suttkus, faculty 1950–1990, founder of the largest ichthyology collection in the world
 * Andrea Talentino, assistant professor of political science 1999–2005, ninth president of Augustana College
 * Lewis Thomas, faculty 1948–1950, physician, researcher, and essayist
 * Frank J. Tipler, physicist and author
 * Jesmyn Ward, novelist; two-time winner of the National Book Award for Fiction (2011 and 2017)
 * Barbara Jazwinski, Head of the Composition Program at the Newcomb Music Department

title: List of Tulane University people


text:
Datasaab D2

D2 was a concept and prototype computer designed by Datasaab in Linköping, Sweden. It was built with discrete transistors and completed in 1960. Its purpose was to investigate the feasibility of building a computer for use in an aircraft to assist with navigation, ultimately leading to the design of the CK37 computer used in Saab 37 Viggen. This military side of the project was known as SANK, or Saabs Automatiska Navigations-Kalkylator (Saab's Automatic Navigational-Calculator), and D2 was the name for its civilian application.

The D2 weighed approximately 200 kg, and could be placed on a desktop. It used words of 20 bits corresponding to 6 decimal digits. The memory capacity was 6K words, corresponding to 15 kilobytes. Programs and data were stored in separate memories. It could perform 100,000 integer additions per second. Paper tape was used for input.

Experience from the D2 prototype was the foundation for Datasaab's continued development both of the civilian D21 computer and military aircraft models. The commercial D21, launched already in 1962, used magnetic tape, 24 bit words, and unified program and data memory. Otherwise it was close to the D2 prototype, while a working airborne computer required a lot more miniaturization.

The D2 is on exhibit at IT-ceum, the computer museum in Linköping, Sweden.

title: Datasaab D2


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Phoenix Linux Users Group

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. - Mailer Diablo 16:43, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Phoenix Linux Users Group
non-notable. --Anonymous Cow 03:56, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - Agreed. – ClockworkSoul 04:03, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Kevin Rector 06:17, Apr 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * If this is deleted, then some of the entries in Category:Linux User Groups probably also need to be expunged as well. — RJH 15:10, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Notable LUG. Klonimus 01:42, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as non-notable. Radiant_* 09:54, Apr 9, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete My LUG includes in its members a major kernel hacker, and no fewer than three people directly employed by distro folk, and it's not here. No evidence provided that this group is of that calibre. Chris 00:42, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * May I suggest you make an entry for your notable LUG. Klonimus 02:03, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I didn't say mine was notable. Only that it is more notable than this one. Chris 15:44, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.