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Passenger rail terminology

Various terms are used for passenger railway lines and equipment; the usage of these terms differs substantially between areas:

Rapid transit
A rapid transit system is an electric railway characterized by high speed (~80 km/h) and rapid acceleration. It uses passenger railcars operating singly or in multiple unit trains on fixed rails. It operates on separate rights-of-way from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded (i.e. is fully grade-separated from other traffic). The APTA definition also includes the use sophisticated signaling systems, and high platform loading.

Originally, the term rapid transit was used in the 1800s to describe new forms of quick urban public transportation that had a right-of-way separated from street traffic. This set rapid transit apart from horsecars, trams, streetcars, omnibuses, and other forms of public transport. A variant of the term, mass rapid transit (MRT), is also used for metro systems in Southeast Asia and Taiwan.

Though the term was almost always used to describe rail transportation, other forms of transit were sometimes described by their proponents as rapid transit, including local ferries in some cases.

The term bus rapid transit has recently come into use to describe bus lines with features to speed their operation. These usually have more characteristics of light rail than rapid transit.

Metro/subway
Metros, short for metropolitan railways, are defined by the International Association of Public Transport (L'Union Internationale des Transports Publics, or UITP) as urban guided transport systems "operated on their own right of way and segregated from general road and pedestrian traffic. They are consequently designed for operations in tunnel, viaducts or on surface level but with physical separation in such a way that inadvertent access is not possible. In different parts of the world, Metro systems are also known in English as the underground, the subway or the tube. Rail systems with specific construction issues operating on a segregated guideway (e.g. monorail, rack railways) are also treated as Metros as long as they are designated as part of the urban public transport network." Metropolitan railways are used for high capacity public transportation. They can operate in trains of up to 10 or more cars, carrying 1800 passengers or more. Some metro systems run on rubber tires but are based on the same fixed-guideway principles as steel wheel systems.

Paris, Rome, Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Copenhagen, Helsinki, Warsaw, Saint Petersburg, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Moscow all have metro (from the word metropolitan where "metro" means "mother" and "politan" means "city") systems which are called metro in French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Finnish, Polish, Dutch, and Russian.

Subway used in a transit sense refers to a rapid transit heavy rail system that goes underground. The term may refer only to the underground parts of the system, or to the full system. Subway is most commonly used in the United States and the English-speaking parts of Canada, though the term is also used elsewhere, such as to describe the Glasgow Subway in Scotland, and in translation of system names or descriptions in some Asian and Latin American cities.

In some cities where subway is used, it refers to the entire system; in others, only to the portions that actually are underground. Naming practices often select one type of placement in a system where several are used; there are many subways with above-ground components, and on the other hand, the Vancouver SkyTrain and Chicago "L" include underground sections. Historic posters referred to Chicago's Red & Blue lines (then called the State Street & Milwaukee/Dearborn lines) as "the subway lines".

Light metro
Medium-capacity system (MCS), also known as light rapid transit or light metro, is a rail transport system with a capacity greater than light rail, but less than typical heavy-rail rapid transit.

Sub-surface subway
Some light rail / street car lines that have underground sections that are referred to as subway are often sub surface subways. Notably, Boston's Green Line and the Newark City Subway, each about half underground, originated from fully surface streetcar lines. Also, the Buffalo Metro Rail is referred to as "the subway", while it uses light rail equipment and operates in a pedestrian mall downtown for half of its route and underground for the remaining section. Sometimes the term is qualified, such as in Philadelphia, where trolleys operate in an actual subway for part of their route and on city streets for the remainder. This is locally styled subway-surface.

When the Boston subway was originally built, the subway label was only used for sections into which streetcars (trams) operated, and the rapid transit sections were called tunnels. Also, in some countries, subway refers to systems built under roads and the informal term tube is used for the deep-underground tunnelled systems (such as London's Piccadilly line) – in this usage, somewhat technical nowadays and not used much in London, underground is regardless the general term for both types of system.

Other definitions of subway
Bus subways are uncommon but do exist, though in these cases the non-underground portions of route are not called subways. Until March 2019, Seattle had a downtown bus subway in which diesel-electric hybrid buses and light rail trains operated in a shared tunnel. The hybrid buses ran in electrical-only mode while traveling through the tunnel and overhead wires power the light rail trains which continue to operate in the tunnel. Bus subways are sometimes built to provide an exclusive right-of-way for bus rapid transit lines, such as the MBTA Silver Line in Boston.

Subway, outside the US, and especially in Europe, often refers to an underground pedestrian passageway linking large road interconnections that are often too difficult or dangerous to cross at ground level. In Canada, the term subway may be used in either sense.

Underground and tube
The usage of underground is very similar to that of subway, describing an underground train system.

In London the colloquial term tube now refers to the London Underground, and is the most common word used for the underground system; and it is used by Transport for London, the local government body responsible for most aspects of the transport system throughout Greater London. However, strictly speaking, it should only refer to those deep lines which run in bored circular tunnels as opposed to those constructed near to the surface by 'cut-and-cover' methods. The Glasgow metro system is known as the Glasgow Subway or colloquial as "the subway". The word metro is not usually used in London or Glasgow to refer to those cities' metros, but it is used in and around Newcastle upon Tyne to refer to the Tyne and Wear Metro.

Overground
In the UK, the term overground was created in 2007 by Transport for London to refer to a mainly above-ground suburban rail network serving Greater London, the London Overground, which took over Silverlink Metro routes.

Confusingly, the term overground is also used to refer to National Rail networks within London generally, or any non-London Underground rail service in everyday speech

U-Bahn and S-Bahn
The term metro is not usually used to describe metro systems in German-speaking areas (Germany, Austria and parts of Switzerland), instead using the term U-Bahn – a shortening of Untergrundbahn, meaning "underground railway" – and S-Bahn – an abbreviation for the German Stadtschnellbahn or just Schnellbahn (fast city train, fast train) the more common English translation, suburban train. So for example in Berlin, the mostly underground system is known as the Berlin U-Bahn and it is integrated with the mostly above-ground system, known as the Berlin S-Bahn. The Frankfurt U-Bahn is an important exception, the system being really a light rail transit system with underground sections.

Hamburg S-Bahn fulfills all criteria for heavy rail inside the state and city of Hamburg, but some lines go beyond the state border into the state of Niedersachsen and there the S-Bahn runs with lower train frequency.

The same applies also to the S-Bahn and U-Bahn in Copenhagen, Denmark, with the only exception that the word "Metro" is used instead of "U-Bahn", and "S-tog" instead of "S-Bahn". (The Danish word "S-tog" applies to the trains (tog), rather than the tracks as in Germany; "S-tog" means "S-train".) Otherwise, the S-Bahn of Berlin and the S-tog of Copenhagen are very similar with the exception of the size.

In Switzerland, where there is only one underground railway system in Lausanne, the term metro is generally used, due to the influence from the French language.

In Sweden, the metro of Stockholm is called "Tunnelbana" or "T-bana" which refers to the fact that the trains often run in tunnels. The same applies to Norway and the "T-bane" of Oslo.

Elevated and overhead
Elevated is a shorthand for elevated railway, a railway built on supports over other rights of way, generally city streets. The term overhead tends to be used in Europe. The names of elevated railways are sometimes further abbreviate it to El or L. Some examples include:

 * Chicago "L" The best known elevated transit system in the United States.
 * Vancouver SkyTrain An automated rapid transit system that is mostly elevated.
 * New York City Subway A combination of the old IRT and BMT rapid transit systems that had built or leased numerous elevated lines throughout the entire city. New York "El's" are the oldest ones in the United States, dating from 1869. Today, the majority of "El" lines in New York are in Brooklyn, Queens, and The Bronx. Most "El's" in Manhattan were torn down in the 1940s and 1950s, some replaced by subways.
 * Liverpool Overhead Railway This was the United Kingdom's only true elevated railway, although the London and Greenwich Railway of 1836 was constructed on a 3.45 mi brick viaduct for the greater part of its length.
 * SEPTA's Market–Frankford Line is elevated except for the portion running through Center City and University City, and is sometimes referred to as the "El".
 * The Manila LRT Line 1 in Manila, Philippines, is an elevated railway, made operational in 1984 and the country's first urban rail transit since Manila tram service ended in 1944, during the Japanese occupation of the city.
 * The BTS Skytrain is an elevated rapid transit system in Bangkok, Thailand, which was officially opened on 5 December 1999 by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. It now consists of 34 stations and 2 lines.
 * Sydney Metro Monorail was an elevated monorail through the CBD of Sydney from the bicentenary in 1988 until its dismantlement in 2013.

Heavy rail
The term heavy rail has different meanings in different parts of the world.

Austria, Germany, Switzerland
The German complementary term is Vollbahn and the opposite Kleinbahn. These terms were defined to distinguish different axle loads and connected construction rules. Today the term Vollbahn is not common and Kleinbahn is used for narrow-gauge lines.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, heavy rail refers to conventional railways forming part of the national network, including commuter, intercity, high-speed rail, regional rail and freight services, as distinct from metro, light rail and tram lines, people movers, and similar. The London Underground, despite being described as a metro system, is nonetheless officially classified as being heavy rail.

North America
In North America, the American Public Transportation Association defines a heavy-rail system as an electric railway with the capacity to handle a heavy volume of traffic. The term is often used to distinguish it from light rail systems, which usually handle a smaller volume of passengers.

In North America, heavy rail can also refer to rapid transit, when referring to systems with heavier passenger loadings than light rail systems, but distinct from commuter rail and intercity rail systems. It is characterized by high-speed, passenger rail cars running in separate rights-of-way from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded.

Such passenger rail cars are almost always electrically driven, with power either drawn from an overhead line or an electrified third rail.

Asia
In the Philippines, the North–South Commuter Railway has been described by Philippine National Railways general manager Junn Magno as a heavy rail metro line. Although the use of heavy rail also refers to rapid transit as with American parlance, it is characterized as electrified passenger rail services that use 8- or 10-car trains. This is then distinguished from light rail used to describe medium-capacity rail systems such as the LRT Line 1 and MRT Line 3, and medium rail which is a regular rapid transit system operated with fewer train cars such as the LRT Line 2.

International
Heavy rail term according International Union of Railways (UIC) refers to both freight rail and passenger rail (commuter, regional, intercity and high-speed) other than large-capacity metro.

Tram, streetcar, trolley
The terms tram, streetcar, and trolley refer to most forms of common carrier rail transit that run entirely or partly on streets, providing a local service and picking up and discharging passengers at any street corner, unless otherwise marked. While tram or tramway are widely used worldwide, the term used varies in different dialects of English, with streetcar and trolley most commonly used in North America (streetcar being more common in the western and central part of the continent and trolley in the eastern part), while tram predominates in Europe and elsewhere.

Tram is a British word, cognate with the Low German traam, and the Dutch trame, meaning the "shafts of a wheelbarrow". From this the term "tram" was used in the coal mines of Scotland and Northern England for a coal cart running on rails, and by extension to any similar system of trackway.

Streetcar is an American word derived from "street" + "car", where "car" is used in the sense of a vehicle running on rails, i.e. railway car. The first American streetcars, introduced around 1830, were horsecars, and this type of streetcar became ubiquitous because very few of the streets in American cities were paved. Mechanical versions, pulled by cables, were introduced around 1870. Electric streetcars were introduced in the 1880s and soon replaced the horse-drawn streetcar in cities across the United States.

Trolley is an American word derived from the electric current pickup mechanism in early systems. The first successful electric streetcars in the United States used a system devised by Frank J. Sprague, in which a spring-loaded trolley pole pushed a small trolley wheel up against an overhead wire to collect electricity for the motors. Although not the first overhead collection system, it was far more reliable than its predecessors, and eventually became used by almost all streetcars. Some authorities believe that the vehicle became known as a trolley car because it reminded people (particularly on the West Coast) of a boat trolling for fish. Others believe it derived from a dialect word for a wheeled cart.

In the U.S. the word tram frequently refers to a special-purpose bus used as a shuttle (and often not designed for use on public roads), such as for parking lot shuttles at theme parks and major events or transportation within theme parks. Other common North American English meanings of the term tram include aerial cable cars and short-distance, rubber-tired people-movers (such as at certain airports). Tourist buses that have been given the appearance of a vintage streetcar (i.e. trolley-replica buses) are most commonly referred to, ambiguously, simply as trolleys by the companies or entities operating them or selling them, but may be referred to as trams or streetcars.

Historical systems
Specific terms for some historically important tram technologies include horsecar, heritage streetcar, and cable car.

Heritage streetcar (also known as heritage trolley or vintage trolley) is an American term for streetcar systems that use vehicles that were built before 1960, or modern replicas of such vehicles.

Cable car is an American word for a passenger rail vehicle attached to a moving cable located below the street surface and powered by engines or motors at a central location, not on board the vehicle. There are cable cars operating in numerous cities, such as San Francisco.

Light railway
A light railway is a British English term referring to a railway built at lower costs and to lower standards than typical "heavy rail". These lighter standards allow lower costs of operation at the price of slower operating speeds and lower vehicle capacity. They were permitted under the Light Railways Act 1896 and intended to bring railways to rural areas. The London Docklands Light Railway, has more rapid transit style features than would be typical of light rail systems, but fits within the U.K. light railway definition.

Light rail
A light rail transit (LRT) system is an urban rail transit system with a "light" passenger capacity compared to heavy rail and metro systems. Its operating characteristics are that it uses railcars, called light rail vehicles (LRVs), operating singly or in short multiple unit trains on fixed rails in a right-of-way that is not necessarily grade-separated from other traffic for much of the way. Light rail vehicles are almost always electrically driven, with power usually being drawn from an overhead line rather than an electrified third rail, though a few exceptional systems use diesel multiple units (DMUs) instead as a cheaper alternative to an electrically driven light rail system.

The phrase light rail was coined in the 1970s during the re-emergence of streetcars/trams with more modern technology. It was devised in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA; the precursor to the Federal Transit Administration) to describe new streetcar transformations which were taking place, and was a translation of the German word Stadtbahn. However, instead of the literal translation of city rail, UMTA used light rail instead. In general, it refers to streetcar/tram systems with rapid transit-style features. It is named to distinguish it from heavy rail, which refers to rapid transit systems as well as heavier regional rail/intercity rail.

A few systems such as people movers and personal rapid transit could be considered as even "lighter", at least in terms of how many passengers are moved per vehicle and the speed at which they travel. Monorails are a separate technology.

Light rail systems can typically handle steeper inclines than heavy rail, and curves sharp enough to fit within street intersections. They are typically built in urban areas, providing frequent service with multiple-unit trains or single cars.

The most difficult distinction to draw is that between light rail and streetcar/tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies, and it is common to classify streetcars/trams as a subtype of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. The two general versions are:
 * 1) The traditional type, where the tracks and trains run along the streets and share space with road traffic. Stops tend to be frequent, and little effort is made to set up special stations. Because space is shared, the tracks are usually visually unobtrusive.
 * 2) A more modern variation, where the trains tend to run along their own right-of-way and are often separated from road traffic. Stops are generally less frequent, and the passengers are often boarded from a platform. Tracks are highly visible, and in some cases significant effort is expended to keep traffic away through the use of special signaling, and even level crossings (or grade crossings) with gate arms.
 * At the highest degree of separation, it can be difficult or impossible to draw the line between light rail and rapid transit, as in the case of London's Docklands Light Railway, which would likely not be called light rail were it not for the contrast between it and the London Underground.

Many light rail systems – even fairly old ones – have a combination of the two, with both on-road and off-road sections. In some countries, only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams running on mixed right of way are not regarded as light rail, but considered distinctly as streetcars or trams. However, the requirement for saying that a rail line is "separated" can be quite minimal – sometimes just with concrete "buttons" to discourage automobile drivers from getting onto the tracks.

There is a significant difference in cost between these different classes of light rail transit. The traditional style is often less expensive by a factor of two or more. Despite the increased cost, the more modern variation (which can be considered as "heavier" than old streetcar systems, even though it's called light rail) is the dominant form of new urban rail transit in the United States. The Federal Transit Administration helps to fund many projects, but as of 2004, the rules to determine which projects will be funded are unfavorable toward the simpler streetcar systems (partly because the vehicles tend to be somewhat slower). Some places in the country have set about building the less expensive streetcar lines themselves or with only minimal federal support. Most of these lines have been "heritage" railways, using refurbished or replica streetcars harkening back to the first half of the 20th century. However, a few, such as the Portland Streetcar, use modern vehicles. There is a growing desire to push the Federal Transit Administration to help fund these startup lines as well.

Light rail is generally powered by electricity, usually by means of overhead wires, but sometimes by a live rail, also called third rail (a high voltage bar alongside the track), requiring safety measures and warnings to the public not to touch it. In some cases, particularly when initial funds are limited, diesel-powered versions have been used, but it is not a preferred option. Some systems, such as AirTrain JFK in New York City, are automatic, dispensing with the need for a driver; however, such systems are not what is generally thought of as light rail, crossing over into rapid transit. Automatic operation is more common in smaller people mover systems than in light rail systems, where the possibility of grade crossings and street running make driverless operation of the latter inappropriate.

Very light rail or ultra light rail
Very light rail or ultra light rail is a term for light rail with more modest initial requirements than typical light rail. Parry People Mover which is grade-separated, low passenger capacity (maximum 35 standing) powered by LPG with no overhead lines, has been described as ultra light rail. The proposed Coventry Very Light Rail which is at-grade, low passenger capacity (60-70 people), battery powered so no overhead lines also falls into this category. A Very Light rail vehicles is described as vehicles weighing less than 1 tonne / m3.

Interurban
In the U.S., interurban (German Überland(straßen)bahn) refers to a higher-speed streetcar (tram) line – i.e. electrical railcars or trains which run both between the cities or towns (often in rural environments) on their own right-of-way, and through the city streets as trams. In the U.S., some interurban railcars constructed in the period 1900–1930 ran at extremely high speed for its time. Essentially, the classic interurbans were the light-rail lines of the day. Several advanced innovations – like streamlining, wind tunnel research and lightweight constructions – have their origin on the interurban scene, or were early adopted by companies like J. G. Brill Company, Cincinnati Car Company, and St. Louis Car Company. The fastest interurbans had a maximum service speed at 145-150 km/h, and an average speed including stops at above 80 km/h. The Cincinnati–Toledo route of Cincinnati and Lake Erie Railroad was 349 km. A few interurbans like Philadelphia and Western Railroad adapted to high speeds with double-track, absolute block signalling and without grade crossings. Others ran at (too) high speed on single-track right-of-way without block signalling – and experienced disastrous wrecks.

The classic U.S. interurbans are all but gone, with two of the remaining (Norristown High Speed Line, IRT Dyre Avenue Line) having been upgraded to rapid transit specifications, and a third system (Cleveland's Blue and Green Lines) now considered to be light rail. The South Shore Line, which runs from Chicago's Millennium Station to South Bend, Indiana, has been converted to modern electric rapid-transit operation on the dense corridor between Chicago and Gary, Indiana, but still runs essentially as an interurban through several small towns between Gary and South Bend. Los Angeles has a light-rail system whose lines sometimes follow the routes of the area's interurbans, although this revival commenced decades after the original interurban ceased service.

The European interurbans, like the Silesian Interurbans (Tramwaje Śląskie S.A.; German Schlesische Straßenbahn) and Belgium's Coastal Tram, were (and are) more like conventional tramways, as their names indicate.

Interurbans sometimes used freight railways rather than building their own track.

In Australia, interurban refers to long-distance commuter trains such as the routes between Newcastle and Sydney, between Brisbane and Gympie, or between Brisbane and the Gold Coast. Some interurban trains may operate from where suburban lines end, such as Southern Higlands services between Campbelltown and Goulburn, or between Ipswich and Rosewood. These do not have the features of "intercity trains" in other parts of the world, such as booked seats and meal services, but are bare commuter trains. They are properly called interurban rather than intercity, although New South Wales refers to its interurban services as "intercity" trains and Victoria refers to theirs as "regional" trains.

Tram-train
Tram-trains are railcars or trains which run like trams (streetcars) in city streets, and on heavy rail tracks out to the suburbs or between the cities. Usually, this requires two current systems (German Zweisystemstadtbahn, Stadtbahn with two systems), both the tram voltage (600 or 750 V DC) and the heavy rail high voltage (in Germany, 15 kV AC). The vehicles must also be adapted to the heavy rail's signalling system. This transit mode combines the tram's availability with stops in the street, and the heavy rail's higher speed. They are often faster than most rapid transit (metro) systems. The first system was opened in Karlsruhe in 1992. Their top speed is often 100 km/h, in Kassel as much as 114 km/h. This transit mode is a rebirth of the interurban.

Inter-city, regional and commuter rail
Passenger services are frequently split into three categories; Inter-city, Regional, and Commuter.

Inter-city rail covers fast trains linking urban areas over long distances. Examples include the former BR's InterCity and Germany's DB Fernverkehr.

Regional rail covers the slower services that stop at more stations than inter-city services along the same routes, as well as services on the more minor lines that do not see inter-city services. They provide services to and from smaller settlements and link them to long-distance inter-city services. Examples include the former BR's Regional Railways, France's TER (Transport express régional) and Germany's DB Regio services.

Commuter rail covers the services within singular urban areas that link the districts and suburbs within it. Examples include New York's Metro-North Railroad and London's Overground.

Note that in North America, "regional rail" is often used as a synonym for "commuter rail", often using "commuter rail" to refer to systems that primarily or only offer service during the rush hour while using "regional rail" to refer to systems that offer all-day service.

Other types of rail transit
Automated guideway transit refers to guided transit vehicles operating singly or in multi-car trains with fully automated control (no crew on transit units). Service may be on a fixed schedule or in response to a passenger-activated call button. Automated guideway transit includes personal rapid transit, group rapid transit, and people mover systems.

Personal rapid transit (PRT), also called personal automated transport (PAT), is a public transportation concept that offers on-demand, non-stop transportation, using small, independent vehicles on a network of specially built guideways.

People mover or automated people mover (APM) systems are fully automated, grade-separated mass transit systems which serve a relatively small area such as an airport, downtown district or theme park. The term "people mover" has become generic for the type of system, which may use technologies such as monorail, duorail, automated guideway transit or maglev.

Monorail means a system of guided transit vehicles operating on or suspended from a single rail, beam, or tube. Usually they operate in trains. Monorails are distinguished from other types of elevated rail system by their use of only a single beam, and from light rail and tram systems by the fact they are always grade-separated from other vehicles and pedestrians.

Suspension railway is a form of elevated monorail where the vehicle is suspended from a fixed track (as opposed to a cable used in aerial tramways), which is built above street level, over a river or canal, or an existing railway track.

Local service
Means trains stop at every station on a route. For light rail vehicles operating on city streets as trams or streetcars, local service is analogous to local bus service, where stops are every block or two apart.

Express service
Means trains operate for long distances without stopping, skipping some stations between stops. This speeds up longer trips, especially in major urban areas. In major cities, express trains may have separate tracks for at least part of their routes.

Street-level boarding
Used primarily by light rail and tram lines that stop on the street rather than at stations. No platforms are used, the passengers walk up steps into the vehicles. For wheelchairs, a retractable lift or ramp is required to gain access to the vehicle.

Low-level platforms
Generally about 30 to 45 cm above track level and are used primarily by some commuter rail and light rail and tram/streetcar rail systems. Wheelchairs can board low-floor vehicles directly from the platform, but high-floor vehicles require retractable lifts or ramps.

High-level platforms
Generally 45 to 95 cm above track level and are used primarily by heavy rail, automated guideway, and some commuter rail lines. Only high-floor vehicles can be used, but wheelchairs can board directly from platforms if vehicle floors are level with the platform.

Conventional rail
Generally, the speed range for conventional rail is 160 km/h or less.

The vast majority of local, regional, and express passenger trains, and almost 100% of freight trains are of this category.

Countries that do not make distinction between conventional rail and higher-speed rail can have the maximum speeds of conventional rail up to 200 km/h with the systems that can operate at the speeds higher than that be classified as high-speed rail. For the countries with higher-speed rail classification, the maximum speeds of conventional rail can vary which may go up to 160 km/h such as in Canada.

Higher-speed rail
Generally, the speed range for higher-speed rail is between 130 km/h and 250 km/h.

The higher-speed rail can operate at top speeds that are higher than conventional rail but the speeds are not as high as those in the high-speed rail services. These services are provided after improvements to the conventional rail infrastructure in order to support trains that can operate safely at higher speeds. There is no globally accepted standard in the speed ranges for this classification. Local and regional jurisdictions may have their own definitions. For example, a definition in North Texas has a wide range of speeds between 80 mph and 150 mph. A planned construction in Thailand, called medium-speed rail, has the top speeds of 250 km/h.

In some cases the term higher speed rail would sound incorrect to define a train travelling below a high speed since higher is greater than high. Therefore, the word higher speed rail would sound correct to refer to a train at a speed between 300 and 500 km/h (i.e. greater than the high speed of 200–300 km/h).

High-speed rail
Generally, the speed range for high-speed rail is between 200 km/h and 400 km/h.

There is no globally accepted standard separating high-speed rail from conventional railroads; however a number of widely accepted variables have been acknowledged by the industry in recent years. Generally, high-speed rail is defined as having a top speed in regular use of over 200 km/h. Although almost every form of high-speed rail is electrically driven via overhead lines, this is not necessarily a defining aspect and other forms of propulsion, such as diesel locomotives, may be used. A definitive aspect is the use of continuous welded rail which reduces track vibrations and discrepancies between rail segments enough to allow trains to pass at speeds in excess of 200 km/h. Track radius will often be the ultimate limiting factor in a train's speed, with passenger discomfort often more imminent than the danger of derailment. Depending on design speed, banking, and the forces deemed acceptable to the passengers, curves often exceed a 5 kilometer radius. Tilting trains have been developed for achieving greater comfort for passengers, so higher speeds are possible on curvy tracks. Although a few exceptions exist, zero grade crossings is a policy adopted almost worldwide, with advanced switches utilizing very low entry and frog angles. Magnetic levitation trains fall under the category of high-speed rail due to their association with track oriented vehicles; however their inability to operate on conventional railroads often leads to their classification in a separate category.

In the United States, the federal law has used the term "high-speed rail" as the rail services with "reasonably expected to reach sustained speeds of more than 125 miles per hour [200 km/h]" since 1998. In 2009, the United States Department of Transportation created a vision plan for national high-speed rail network with conflicting definitions by describing the lowest speed range of the high-speed rail systems as "Emerging HSR" with top speeds between 90 mph and 110 mph This created confusion in terminology and the media started to differentiate the "higher-speed rail" from the high-speed rail. Some state-level departments of transportation and council of governments now use different sets of definitions. For examples, North Central Texas Council of Governments uses the definition of the speeds over 150 mph, and Texas Department of Transportation and Oklahoma Department of Transportation use the speeds of 165 mph or more to define high-speed rail. These agencies have a separate category for higher-speed rail which can be a wide range of speeds between 80 mph and 150 mph.

Very high-speed rail
Generally, the speed range for very high-speed rail is between 310 km/h and 500 km/h.

The term is used for the fastest trains introduced after 2000, exceeding 300 km/h. Shanghai Transrapid is one example, with a line speed of 430 km/h.

Ultra high-speed rail
Generally, the speed range for ultra high-speed rail is between 500 km/h and 1000 km/h.

A number of both technological and practical variables begin to influence trains in the vicinity of 500-600 km/h. Technologically, the limitations are by no means beyond reach, however conventional trains begin to encounter several physical obstacles, most notably track damage and pantograph limitations. It is important to note that the current world record for rail vehicles is held by the TGV V150 set on 15 April 2007 at 574.8 km/h, and conventional trains may indeed eventually reach into ultra high-speeds. However, this test has shown that speeds over 500 km/h are unrealistic for regular usage; it wears down the material too much. Based on current and foreseeable technology, these speeds will more than likely be reached predominantly by maglev trains. The two most prominent maglev trains are the Transrapid with a maximum speed of 550 km/h and the Japanese MLX01, which holds the world land speed record for rail vehicles at 581 km/h.

Trains faster than 600 km/h will exceed the speed of most propeller-driven aircraft. Regardless of technological parameters, the track for such a train and anything faster would more than likely require turn radii of significantly higher proportions than current dimensions, essentially preventing anything but a direct line between terminals. Such trains are extremely unlikely in the current or near future.

Greater than 1000 km/h (621 mph)
Depending on the aerodynamic design of the vehicle and various ambient atmospheric conditions, a train would begin to exhibit transonic airflow in the vicinity of Mach 0.8 (988 km/h) and higher. From a modern perspective, this is essentially the realistic maximum speed of trains as they are known today. This is because the Prandtl-Glauert singularity would cause catastrophic damage to the vehicle as the sound waves reflected off of the ground, potentially blasting the train into the air. The only trains that could exceed this speed significantly are vactrains.

Rail terminology with respect to railway track gauge
Approximately 60% of the world's existing railway lines are built to the standard track gauge where the distance between the inside edges of the rails of the track is (see the list of countries that use the standard gauge).

Narrow gauge railways have track gauges of between and. They are cheaper to build and operate, but tend to be slower and have less capacity. Minimum gauge railway have a gauge of less than and are primarily used as industrial railways rather than for passenger transit. However many miniature railways use this type of gauge.

Broad gauge railways use a track gauge greater than. Examples include, and.

title: Passenger rail terminology


text:
Edmund Burke Fairfield

Edmund Burke Fairfield (August 7, 1821 – November 7, 1904) was an American minister, educator and politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. He served as the 12th lieutenant governor of Michigan and as the second Chancellor of the University of Nebraska.

Early life
Fairfield was born in Parkersburg, Virginia, now West Virginia. He moved with his family to Troy, Ohio, when he was a young boy. He received an early education at Denison University of Granville and in 1837 he attended Marietta College of Marietta. He graduated from the congregationalist-affiliated Oberlin College of Oberlin in 1842. He then worked as a tutor at the college teaching Latin and Greek.

He spent two years as a Christian minister in New Hampshire, and two in Boston as pastor of the Ruggles Street Baptist Church. Then, in 1848, he became President of the Michigan Central College, renamed Hillsdale College in 1853, and remained in this office until his resignation in 1869. In 1857, Fairfield received LL.D. degree from Madison University (now Colgate University) in New York.

Politics and further academics
Fairfield served as a Republican in the Michigan Senate (14th district) from 1857 to 1859. He was elected to serve as the 12th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan from 1859 to 1861, and made a widely published speech on the "Prohibition of Slavery in the Territories".

In 1863, Fairfield received a Doctor of Divinity degree from the Indiana University Bloomington. The following year he received an S.T.D. degree from Denison University of Ohio.

In the early 1870s, Fairfield was involved in public dispute based on a review he published in Mansfield, Ohio, regarding the Henry Ward Beecher adultery scandal. The scandal broke in 1873, and in 1874, Fairfield published "Wickedness in High Places: A Review of the Beecher Case" Robert Raikes Raymond, brother of Vassar professor John Howard Raymond, published a scathing review to this pamphlet entitled: "The Case of the Rev. E.B. Fairfield, D.D., LL.D.: Being an Examination of his 'Review of the case of Henry Ward Beecher" together with his 'Reply' and a Rejoinder"

He received a number of honors in the academic world before being elected Chancellor of the University of Nebraska in 1876. The Board of Regents dismissed him in 1882, after a disagreement over religion and its place in education.

Fairfield became the pastor of the Manistee congregational church from September 1882 to April 1889.

In 1886, he was the Moderator of the Congregationalists' "General Association of Michigan" meeting held in Flint

In July 1889, President Benjamin Harrison nominated Fairfield to be the consul of the United States at Lyons in place of Lawson V. Moore. His son George D. Fairfield was vice-consul in Lyons at the same time.

He returned from France in 1893 and lived in Grand Rapids, where he lived an intellectual life of writing and speaking until 1896. In 1896, he became a pastor again at his former church in Mansfield, Ohio, and then in 1900 he retired to Oberlin, where he died in November 1904.

Retirement and death
In the theological field, Fairfield, having been a Baptist early in his career and Congregationalist pastor later in life, became convinced that the doctrines of Baptists were without sufficient foundation for him to remain a minister in any Baptist denomination. He delineated his views in his Letters on Baptism (1893). He died on November 7, 1904, in Oberlin, Ohio, at the age of eighty-three in Oberlin, eleven years after its publication.

Family life
Fairfield was the son of Micajah Fairfield and Hannah (Wynn) Fairfield. He was married three times. He married his first wife, Lucia Ann Jennison, daughter of Dr. Charles Jennison and Betsy Mahan, on August 27, 1845. They had three children together. He married his second wife Mary A. Baldwin on August 22, 1859, and had seven children together. He married his third wife Mary Allen Tibbitts on June 16, 1883; they had no children together.

Fairfield was descended from a Frenchman by the name of Beauchamp, at some point the name was anglicised to Fairfield.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edmund Burke Fairfield


text:
Daewoo Lacetti

The Daewoo Lacetti is a compact car manufactured and marketed globally by GM Korea since 2002. The first-generation Lacetti was available as a four-door sedan and five-door station wagon, styled by Pininfarina—and five-door hatchback styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro. The sedan and wagon were marketed as the Daewoo Nubira in some European markets and as the Suzuki Forenza in North America. The hatchback, was introduced in 2004 and marketed as Daewoo Lacetti5 in South Korea, Suzuki Reno in the United States. After the 2004 model year, it was marketed as Chevrolet Nubira and Lacetti in Europe, as the Chevrolet Optra in Canada, Latin America, Africa, Middle East, India, Japan and Southeast Asia, and as the Holden Viva in Australia and New Zealand.

In 2008, the second-generation Lacetti was launched as the Daewoo Lacetti Premiere, a badge-engineered version of the Chevrolet Cruze, co-developed by GM Daewoo, Holden, and General Motors. It was marketed under the Daewoo marque until the beginning of 2011, when the brand was discontinued, and was thereafter marketed under the Chevrolet and Holden brands.

The name Lacetti derives from the Latin "Lacertus", meaning "youthful".

First generation (J200; 2002)
The Lacetti was developed based on its predecessor Nubira under Daewoo before it was acquired by GM. The four-door sedan, designed by Pininfarina, was launched in South Korea on 25 November 2002, following a development period of two years and six months.

A pre-production prototype of the five-door hatchback, styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro, was shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2003 with production starting in December. The hatchback featured a different exterior and interior design than the sedan.

At the Geneva Motor Show in March 2004, Daewoo revealed the station wagon body variant penned by Pininfarina with the hatchback's updated interior and a facelifted derivative of the sedan's frontal styling. The facelift replaced the three-slot grille with a single item for a new full-length item featuring a bold horizontal bar capped in the center by the company's logo. The wagon's door handles ditch the lift-up variety from the sedan and hatchback for pullout versions. A facelift for the sedan was released on 25 March incorporating these new door handles, front-end styling and interior changes. The hatchback also received new door handles around this time.

The sedan was facelifted for some markets from 2007, receiving the same front end as the hatchback featured since its debut. This version was only produced in certain countries, such as Colombia, India or Thailand, and in 2013–2016 in Uzbekistan as the Daewoo Gentra.

South Korea
In South Korea, the four-door Daewoo Lacetti was released in 2002. The five-door hatchback showed off only after the 2004 facelift of the sedan, which mainly included a new front grill, switching from a three-part corporate Daewoo grill to a simpler, Chevrolet-style grill. The hatchback name was Lacetti5, offering a specific design for the front, rear and dashboard.

The wagon version, called simply the Lacetti Wagon, was introduced in late 2007—though it was already sold in many other countries. It had the same dashboard as the hatchback, with the sedan front end. At the same time, GM Daewoo introduced the VM Motori diesel engines on the Lacetti range.

When the Lacetti Premiere was introduced in November 2008, the sedan and wagon version sales were discontinued, leaving the only hatchback in the range, renamed Lacetti EX. The Lacetti EX was discontinued in October 2009.

In the same year Chevrolet Optra entered the Iraqi market with the 1.6-liter engine and manual transmission, a few years later Iraqi government used the LS version as traffic police vehicle.

Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand the Daewoo Lacetti was briefly sold between September 2003 and December 2004 as a four-door sedan. At this time, Daewoo withdrew from the Australian market. Fitted with the 1.8-liter engine rated at 90 kW and 165 Nm, the Lacetti offered standard five-speed manual or optional four-speed automatic transmission. The single trim level, called SX, included are dual front airbags, air conditioning, power steering, keyless entry, power windows, CD player, and an alarm. The special edition SX Limited from October 2003 added anti-lock brakes, side impact airbags, alloy wheels, climate control air conditioning, six-stacker CD player, tilt/telescopic steering wheel, lumbar support for the front passenger seat, and leather trim.

From 2005, the Lacetti (sedan and wagon) and Lacetti hatchback were sold together as the JF series Holden Viva. It was introduced at around the same time as the Daewoo Gentra-based Holden Barina. Unlike the Barina, however, the Viva was meant to be below the premium Holden Astra as a budget alternative.

Despite the Viva's lower price compared to the Astra (A$17,990 compared to A$21,990), the Astra continued to outsell the Viva by a factor of about two-to-one.

With the release of the all new Holden Cruze in mid-2009 the Viva ceased to be sold in Australia. In New Zealand, where many cars are imported second-hand from Japan, several Japanese specification Chevrolet Optra sedans and wagons were also sold.

Canada
The Lacetti was sold in Canada as the Chevrolet Optra. Two body styles were available for the entirety of its sales run, a four-door hatchback (the Optra5) and an Optra wagon, all in LS or LT trim levels (2005 wagon only had base or LS trim levels), while sedan was available for model years 2004 and 2005, but was removed for 2006.

All are powered by the 2.0-liter inline-four D-TEC engine, rated at 119 hp at 5400 rpm and 126 lbft of torque at 4000 rpm, driving the front wheels through either a five-speed manual transmission or a four-speed automatic. Despite its compact size and the 2.0-liter engine, fuel economy was poor rated at 10.7 and 7.4 L/100km for city and highway driving, respectively, which was worse than mid-size cars like the Toyota Camry or Honda Accord, considering that the Optra was a compact car.

The main selling point of the Optra was its low price at $12,000 MSRP. The car was positioned as a versatile and fun to drive but affordable budget compact family car. The Optra slotted between the Cobalt and the Aveo, and it replaced the Daewoo Nubira.

Brakes are disc, front and rear. Independent suspension, 15-inch wheels, and CD player were standard on the LS sedan, with optional ABS and air conditioning; the LT adds standard air conditioning and cruise control, standard fog lamps on both LS and LT, and an optional sunroof. The sedan is rated as an Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle.

The Optra5 hatchback was added to the line-up for 2004 and was more contemporary in styling and equipment, with projector type headlights and fog lamps, clear taillight lenses, and blackout grille. In addition to the same options available on the sedan LS and LT models, an options package contained alloy wheels, sunroof, spoiler, leather steering wheel and shift knob, and steering wheel mounted controls for the eight-speaker audio system.

The Optra wagon was also added to the line-up for 2005, sharing the sedan's front styling. The wagon has standard alloy roof rails, 60/40 folding rear seat, and a 12-volt power outlet in the rear compartment, in addition to the same options available on the sedan LS and LT models.

General Motors Canada discontinued the importation of Optra for 2008 so 2007 is the last model year.

China
In China, the cars are marketed as the Buick Excelle sedan or wagon and Excelle HRV (hatchback). The sedan, which is also assembled in China, features an updated exterior.

The successor to the Daewoo Lacetti-based Buick Excelle is based on the global GM Delta II platform, like the Opel Astra and Chevrolet Cruze and their derivatives. The development center at the Opel plant in Rüsselsheim, Germany, leads the development of this platform. This second generation hatchback Buick Excelle XT, making its debut in 2009, is actually a replica of the Opel Astra hatchback adapted to Chinese conditions. The corresponding sedan (Excelle GT) made its debut in China in 2010. A version of this sedan for North America was introduced for model year 2012 as Buick Verano, and as Opel Astra sedan in other parts of the world. The Lacetti-based first generation (Excelle) sedan, however, continued to be produced for the Chinese market until 2016.

Europe
In Europe, the car was initially sold as the Daewoo Nubira, with the production model being introduced at the 60th Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2003. However, by the end of 2004, it was rebadged Chevrolet Lacetti throughout the continent. As with its home market, in some European markets, the Lacetti name is also used for the entire range of sedan, station wagon and hatchback models on the same J-series platform. In Finland and Germany, for example, only the hatchback is sold under the Lacetti name.

The European models were initially only available with the following gasoline-powered four-cylinder engines:
 * 1.4 L E-TEC II—93 hp (69 kW) at 6300 rpm
 * 1.6 L Family 1—109 hp at 5800 rpm, 0 - 100 km/h: 10.9 seconds (4-door) and 10.6 seconds (5-door), top speed: 186 km/h (4-door manual) and 184 km/h (5-door manual)
 * 1.8 L Family II—120 hp at 5800 rpm
 * 2.0 L D-TEC—132 hp at 5800 rpm
 * 2.0 L DOHC—121 bhp, 0 - 100 km/h: 9 seconds, top speed: 202 km/h (4-door manual)

A diesel-powered version was later added to the line-up with these specifications:
 * 2.0-liter SOHC turbo-diesel engine, under VM Motori licence of RA 420 SOHC (see List of VM Motori engines), 121 bhp, 280 Nm torque from 2000 rpm, 0 - 100 km/h in 9 seconds, 200 km/h top speed. This engine is available with five-speed manual and five-speed automatic.

In Europe, the sedan version was initially sold as the Daewoo Nubira. However, in late 2003, it was announced that Daewoo would be rebranded Chevrolet in some European markets. The Chevrolet Nubira went on sale in early 2004, initially only in Eastern Europe. When Daewoo was rebranded Chevrolet across Europe by the end of 2004, the Chevrolet Nubira was renamed Chevrolet Lacetti in some markets for the 2005 model year, which expanded the Lacetti line-up to include both the sedan and station wagon versions in addition to the five-door hatchback version, in line with Korea.

The engines built for the Nubira and its badge-engineered twins are the same as in the Lacetti hatchback and its badge-engineered versions. The 1.8-liter Family II four-cylinder engine is sourced from the Australian car maker Holden.

India

In 2004, The Lacetti was launched in India and sold as the Optra and the sportsback version was sold as Optra S-RV (formerly known/sold as Chevrolet SRV), which the company planned to produce with a 2.0-liter diesel engine in the near future.

The 1.6-liter petrol produced 104 bhp and allowed a top speed of 177 km/h, while the 1.8-liter petrol sibling was capable of producing 114 bhp and a limited top speed of 191 km/h. However, the 1.8-liter automatic was capable of 176 km/h.

In 2007 GM India introduced a facelifted diesel-engined Optra called the Optra Magnum. The Magnum sported the family nose, and better interiors as compared to the petrol version, also a new 2.0-liter TCDi engine capable of producing 121 bhp. Subsequently the petrol version received the new nose treatment (as that of the Optra SRV, but with a slightly different front grill) and tail lights, and was sold as the Optra Magnum petrol.

The S-RV succumbed to competition from cheaper cars and was eventually discontinued in 2009. It had a 1.6-liter petrol engine with a maximum power output of 101 bhp.

The Optra sedan continued selling in India until 2013.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the car came in three trim levels, 1.6-liter SE and LS and the 1.8-liter CDX. SE trim models came with manual transmission only, whilst LS and CDX models came with five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmissions. Sales however, were poorer than expected and all models were withdrawn from sale.

Japan
In Japan, Suzuki briefly distributed the Lacetti as the Chevrolet Optra wagon. It was available in two trim levels, the LS and the LT. Both came with either a five-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission with a console shift. The Optra Wagon was powered by a 1.6 or 1.8-liter engine. For model years 2004 and 2005 the Lacetti sedan was also sold in Japan as the Chevrolet Optra LT. The Optra was limited in sales due to the exterior dimensions exceeding 1700 mm, thereby causing Japanese owners to pay a yearly tax for a vehicle that exceeds Japanese dimension regulations.

Mexico
In Mexico, the Lacetti came to the market in 2006 as Optra to replace the Chevrolet Cavalier, and it was sold only as a sedan. The Optra was phased out after the 2009 model year in favour of the Chevrolet Cruze, although for now, the Mexican Cruze is an imported model from South Korea.

Colombia
The Lacetti as a best seller was launched in Colombia, under the Chevrolet brand as Chevrolet Optra, in 2004 with the sedan version having the following engine options:

 * 1.4 L GM Family I engine E-TEC II, 94 hp at 6300 rpm
 * 1.8 L GM Family II engine D-TEC, 121 hp at 5800 rpm

In 2006 the hatchback version was introduced, with only the aforementioned 1.8-liter engine. By 2006, the 1.4-liter engine was replaced by the 1.6 L Family I E-TEC II, 109 hp at 5800 rpm. In addition, the design of wheels, and the grille were updated for all models offered.

The Vehicle was sold in LT and LTZ trims. LS trim wasn't available in the Colombian market.

In 2009, the saloon version received a facelift marketed as Chevrolet Optra Advance, with a sportier interior and front styling similar to that of the hatchback, it was sold with GM's 1.6 and 1.8 engines, with the 5 Speed Manual Transmission and 4 Speed Automatic Transmission. Assembly at the Bogotá GM plant (GM Colmotores) ceased in 2013 due to the modernization of GM Colmotores lineup.

South Africa
In South Africa, the Lacetti came to the market in 2004 as Chevrolet Optra, and it was sold only as a sedan. The Optra was one of the first models brought in when Chevrolet made its comeback into South Africa. The Optra was phased out after the 2009 model year in favour of the Chevrolet Cruze.

Southeast Asia
In Singapore, the name "Chevrolet" has replaced the Daewoo nameplate after GM bought Daewoo. It still offers the same line-up as did GM Daewoo, naming the Optra sedan, Optra station wagon and Optra5 hatchback in Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. In Indonesia, the sedan is simply called Optra or Optra Magnum for the facelift model, and Estate for the station wagon. The vehicles use the 1.6- or 1.8-liter engine with an automatic transmission option for selected models.

United States
Suzuki marketed a rebadged Lacetti as the Forenza and Reno beginning in the United States in 2004—following the end of Daewoo's North American operations in 2002 and replacing the Daewoo Nubira station wagon and sedan. The Forenza/Reno falls between the Aerio (later SX4) and the now-discontinued Verona. In the territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands, it was sold as a Chevrolet Optra, but it was only available as a sedan.

The US model line features the 2.0-liter four-cylinder D-TEC made by General Motors, developing a maximum power of 132 hp at 5600 rpm.

The Forenza and the Reno were discontinued within the 2008 model year, the Reno being replaced by the Suzuki SX4 sedan after the 2008 model year and the Forenza by the Chevrolet Cruze.

Iraq
The Chevrolet Optra entered the Iraqi market in 2004 with the 1.6-liter engine; a few years later the LS term version was used as a traffic police patrol vehicle.

Uzbekistan
In Uzbekistan, the Lacetti has been produced by GM Uzbekistan since 2008, in a plant located in Asaka, and marketed as the Chevrolet Lacetti. In 2013, the partner company Uz-Daewoo Avto began producing the facelifted sedan version as the new Daewoo Gentra. It is marketed throughout the CIS countries. In 2015 the car was renamed the "Ravon Gentra".

After UzAuto phased out the Ravon brand in 2020, the Ravon Gentra/R5 was renamed again as Chevrolet Lacetti. The Chevrolet Lacetti received the same facelift of the Daewoo Gentra.

Russia

It was sold as the Chevrolet Lacetti and includes 5-door hatchback, sedan and station wagon models. The entire line of models were produced at the Avtotor plant in Kaliningrad with full cycle of manufacturing until 2012.

In 2014, UzDaewoo, GM's subdivision in Uzbekistan, started importing the Lacetti sedan as Daewoo Gentra. After license agreement between GM and Daewoo ended, UzDaewoo (now GM Uzbekistan) re-branded all of its lineup as Ravon, due to impossibility of using both Daewoo and Chevrolet names in Russia (Chevrolet withdrew from the Russian market in early 2015 due to the economic crisis).

The Russian models are available with the following gasoline-powered four-cylinder engines:
 * 1.4 L: 95 hp; manual; not available for station wagon
 * 1.6 L: 110 hp; automatic and manual (wagon is manual only)
 * 1.8 L: 122 hp; automatic and manual (wagon is manual only)

In 2020, the Ravon Gentra was discontinued along with the whole Ravon Brand in Russia.

Second generation (J300; 2008)

The second-generation, built on the GM Delta II platform, is sold in most markets as the Chevrolet Cruze. In South Korea it was originally branded as the Daewoo Lacetti Premiere, until the Daewoo brand was replaced by Chevrolet in 2011.

For the Chinese successor of the Lacetti-based Buick Excelle, see Buick Excelle XT and Buick Excelle GT, which are twins of Opel Astra hatchback and sedan respectively.

Chinese versions also included the new SAIC-GM-Wuling joint venture called Baojun 630 manufactured in Liuzhou, Guangxi, China. It was launched at the 2011 Shanghai Auto Show, and went on sale in August 2011.

Motorsport
The car has been used in the FIA's World Touring Car Championship from 2005 until 2012, and in the British Touring Car Championship from 2008 until 2011.

Media
The Chevrolet Lacetti was chosen as the new "reasonably-priced car" for Top Gear's "Star in a Reasonably-Priced Car" segment for series 8 in 2006, replacing the Suzuki Liana, which had ceased production. In this segment of the show, celebrity guests set timed laps of the Top Gear test track driving the Lacetti.

In the first episode of series 15 of Top Gear, broadcast on BBC2 on 27 June 2010, the Lacetti, that had been used for the power laps, was given a "Viking Burial" by presenter Richard Hammond. An industrial chimney was demolished, collapsing over and almost completely burying the car under rubble. Soon afterwards, the new reasonably priced car, a Kia Cee'd, was unveiled to viewers.

title: Daewoo Lacetti


text: User talk:68.108.180.38

title: User talk:68.108.180.38


text:
Feynman's Lost Lecture

Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun is a book based on a lecture by Richard Feynman. Restoration of the lecture notes and conversion into book form was undertaken by Caltech physicist David L. Goodstein and archivist Judith R. Goodstein.

Feynman had given the lecture on the motion of bodies at Caltech on March 13, 1964, but the notes and pictures were lost for a number of years and consequently not included in The Feynman Lectures on Physics series. The lecture notes were later found, but without the photographs of his illustrative chalkboard drawings. One of the editors, David L. Goodstein, stated that at first without the photographs, it was very hard to figure out what diagrams he was referring to in the audiotapes, but a later finding of his own private lecture notes made it possible to understand completely the logical framework with which Feynman delivered the lecture.

Overview
"You can explain to people who don't know much of the physics, the early history... how Newton discovered... Kepler's Laws, and equal areas, and that means it's toward the sun, and all this stuff. And then the key - they always ask then, 'Well, how do you see that it's an ellipse if it's the inverse square?' Well, it's God damned hard, there's no question of that.  But I tried to find the simplest one I could."

In a non-course lecture delivered to a freshman physics audience, Feynman undertakes to present an elementary, geometric demonstration of Newton's discovery of the fact that Kepler's first observation, that the planets travel in elliptical orbits, is a necessary consequence of Kepler's other two observations.

The structure of Feynman's lecture:
 * A historical introduction to the material
 * An overview of some geometric properties of an ellipse
 * Newton's demonstration that equal areas in equal times is equivalent to forces toward the sun
 * Feynman's demonstration that equal changes in velocity occur in equal angles in the orbit
 * Feynman's demonstration, using techniques of Ugo Fano, that these velocity changes imply that the orbit is elliptical
 * Discussion of Rutherford's experiments with scattering of alpha particles, and the discovery of the atomic nucleus

The audio recording of the lectures also includes twenty minutes of informal Q&A at the blackboard with students who had attended the lecture.

title: Feynman's Lost Lecture


text:
High Court (Ireland)

The High Court (An Ard-Chúirt) of Ireland is a court which deals at first instance with the most serious and important civil and criminal cases. When sitting as a criminal court it is called the Central Criminal Court and sits with judge and jury. It also acts as a court of appeal for civil cases in the Circuit Court. It also has the power to determine whether or not a law is constitutional, and of judicial review over acts of the government and other public bodies.

Structure
The High Court is established by Article 34 of the Constitution of Ireland, which grants the court "full original jurisdiction in and power to determine all matters and questions whether of law or fact, civil or criminal", as well as the ability to determine "the validity of any law having regard to the provisions of this Constitution". Judges are appointed by the President, as Article 35 dictates. However, as with almost all the President's constitutional powers, these appointments are made on "the advice of the Government". In practice, this means that the judges are nominated by the government and automatically approved by the President.

The High Court is composed of its president, 42 ordinary judges, and additional judges being ex officio the Chief Justice, the President of the Court of Appeal, the President of the Circuit Court, and former chief justices and courts presidents who remain judges.

Cases are normally heard by one judge, but the President of the High Court may order that a particular case be heard by three judges sitting together — a so-called 'divisional court'.

The court normally hears cases in the Four Courts building in Dublin, although it also has regular sittings outside the capital.

Mella Carroll was the first woman to serve on the court and did so between 1980 and 2005.

Central Criminal Court
The High Court is known as the 'Central Criminal Court' when it is hearing a criminal case. The Central Criminal Court has exclusive jurisdiction over the following criminal offences:

 * treason, encouraging, harbouring, or comforting treason,
 * an offence under section 6, 7, or 8 of the Offences Against the State Act 1939,
 * piracy,
 * genocide,
 * a severe breach of the Geneva Conventions,
 * murder,
 * rape, rape under section 4 of the Criminal Law (Rape) (Amendment) Act 1990, and aggravated sexual assault,
 * burglary with intent to commit rape, and
 * anti-competitive behaviour and abuse of a dominant market position contrary to the Competition Act 2002.

All Central Criminal Court cases are heard in front of a jury of twelve people. The defendant can be convicted on a majority verdict of ten jurors. Appeals from the Central Criminal Court can be made to the Court of Criminal Appeal, and the sentence can be appealed as well as the verdict.

Civil cases
The High Court is the court of first instance for all civil cases where the plaintiff is claiming more than €75,000 in damages in ordinary contract and tort claims, or €60,000 in damages in personal injuries actions, this being the upper limit of the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court.

By virtue of its full original jurisdiction under the Constitution, however, theoretically a civil action of any value may commence in the High Court.

The High Court has full chancery powers to grant any injunction or declaration that could be granted by a court of chancery. Petitions to windup companies and various company law remedies are heard by the High Court which has exclusive jurisdiction in this area.

The High Court further has exclusive jurisdiction in the area of bankruptcies.

In contentious Probate matters and Family Law, the High Court has concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Court over such claims. Non-contentious Probate motions are heard solely by the High Court.

The High Court has full jurisdiction in Admiralty and can exercise jurisdiction under the Brussels Convention on the Arrest of Seagoing Vessels.

The Court also has power of judicial review over the acts of the government and other public bodies, including the decisions of all inferior courts, and decisions made by tribunals of inquiry.

The High Court hears all applications for extradition, both under the European Arrest Warrant system and to non-EU member states.

Appeals from professional disciplinary bodies under the Nurses Act, Medical Practitioners Act and Solicitors Acts are to the High Court.

Any non-criminal judgment or order of the High Court sitting as a court of first instance may be appealed to the Supreme Court save as provided for by statute.

The High Court also hears civil and family law appeals from the Circuit Court and when hearing such an appeal its decision is final and there is no right of further appeal. The High Court sits outside of Dublin to hear appeals from trials from circuits other than the Dublin Circuit and is known as the "High Court on Circuit".

Statutory appeals on points of law can be made to the High Court from the District Court and various statutory bodies and consultative cases on a point of law can be stated to the High Court from the District Court, various statutory bodies or an arbitrator hearing an arbitration.

History
The current High Court is the fourth court in Ireland to bear that name. The first High Court – the High Court of Justice in Ireland – was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (Ireland) 1877. This fused the administration of common law and equity in Ireland (as had been done in England several years earlier under the Judicature Acts). The existing four superior courts, the Court of King's Bench (Ireland), Court of Chancery, Court of Exchequer, and Court of Common Pleas were merged to form the High Court of Justice, although they remained as divisions of the new court, and the building which housed them is called the Four Courts to this day. However, in Ireland, the divisions of the High Court other than the King's Bench Division and Chancery Division were abolished by 1907. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 split the court into separate courts for Northern Ireland (the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland and the High Court of Justice in Southern Ireland). Judges of the existing Court became judges of the Southern Ireland court unless they elected otherwise. With the enactment of the Constitution of the Irish Free State, the High Court became the High Court of Justice in Saorstát Éireann.

After the establishment of the Irish Free State, the Courts of Justice Act 1924 created a new courts system. The High Court of Justice was the only court from the pre-independence era to keep its name (and substantially, the same jurisdiction). However, the divisions were now completely abolished and any judge of the High Court could now hear any suit at either common law or equity. A new office of President of the High Court was established, as the previous judicial offices (Lord Chief Justice of Ireland, Vice-Chancellor, and Master of the Rolls in Ireland) were abolished under this Act. Most of the existing judges retired at this time and new judges were appointed.

After the enactment of the Constitution of Ireland, the Courts Acts 1961 established a new High Court as required by the Constitution. However this Court was in both form and name substantially identical to that established under the 1924 Act. This court is simply known as the High Court.

Judges
Judges of the High Court deal with both civil and criminal matters, and have full original jurisdiction. When the High Court deals with criminal cases, it sits as the Central Criminal Court.

In court, ordinary judges are directly addressed as "Judge" (in Irish, "a Bhreithimh") or in the third person as "The Court". The President of the High Court is to be addressed by their title. In writing, judges should be described as "The Honourable Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Murphy", which is typically abbreviated in judgements as "Murphy J." ("Murphy P." in the case of the president). Prior to 2006, judges were traditionally addressed in court as "My Lord" (whether male or female), following the British tradition, although this was never contained in the Rules of the Superior Courts.

The President of the Circuit Court may sit as an additional High Court judge and occasional other Circuit Court judges are temporarily assigned to sit ex officio as High Court judges. The Chief Justice of Ireland is additionally an ex officio judge of the High Court.

Presidents of the High Court since 1924
The office of President of the High Court was created under the Courts of Justice Act 1924. Before 1924, the Master of the Rolls in Ireland was the President of the High Court.

Master of the High Court
The Master of the High Court is an official attached to the court with the power to make a range of minor interlocutory orders and give judgement in uncontested matters. Although based on the common-law master of the English judiciary, the master in Ireland is not a judge, but rather a "quasi-judicial office holder". The office of master of the High Court was established in 1926. Its functions are specified in Order 63 of the Rules of the Superior Courts. Originally, the master also had any residual powers of court officers whose posts were abolished in 1924 but whose powers were not transferred elsewhere.

Although a barrister rather than a judge, the master holds hearings on original jurisdiction applications. These hearings, at which documentary evidence may be presented, are unofficially called the Master's Court. In 2008–2013, the master made 2,922 to 4,763 orders per annum, and issued between one and four rulings.

Patrick Lindsay was the master from 1975 to 1984 and Harry Hill between 1984 and 2001. Edmund Honohan was made master in May 2001. Since his retirement in April 2022, the position has been vacant with the deputy master presiding.

title: High Court (Ireland)


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Thanks for your edits to Congo Crisis. I've been meaning to get back to that article for months and it's good to see someone else make some good contributions to it. Cheers,  BanyanTree 17:08, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Chaz171


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Elevated (disambiguation)

Elevated may refer to:
 * Elevated (film), a short film by Canadian director Vincenzo Natali
 * Elevated railway, a form of rapid transit railway with the tracks built above street level

title: Elevated (disambiguation)


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Lubbock High School

Lubbock High School is a 5A high school serving grades nine to twelve in Lubbock, Texas, as part of the Lubbock Independent School District,

The school was founded in 1891 as the first high school in Lubbock County. Lubbock High School predates the incorporation of Lubbock, Texas by 18 years. Lubbock High's colors are black and gold, and its mascot is the Westerner. The school primarily serves students from the central and eastern parts of Lubbock, but the school's LEAP (Lubbock Exemplary Academic Program) magnet program serves students from all over the city.

History
The school was founded in 1891 as a one-room school, with two additional rooms added in 1898. The original announcement of the school's opening read: "Schooling for all who could reach it by pony, wagon, buggy or on foot." The first (and only) teacher at this point was Miss Minnie Tubbs. In March 1909, a fire set by students destroyed the building. After this, the school relocated to a brick building with two stories and a basement at the location of the current City Hall in Lubbock. In 1922, a bond issue provided for a new high school with 28 teachers and located between 13th and 14th streets in the 2000 block. Bonds were voted in 1925 for the addition of two study halls. This was the old Thompson Junior High building. In the fall of 1929, plans began for the construction of a new building for LHS. Construction began in 1930, and the building was completed in 1931. The school opened in its new location for the fall semester of 1931. This is the current Lubbock High School building. Due to its distinctive architecture, the school is included in the National Register of Historic Places.

Academics
In 1979, due to low enrollment as a result of new school district boundaries, there was discussion of closing LHS. To solve this problem and to comply with an ongoing desegregation plan ordered by the US Department of Justice, LEAP (Lubbock Exemplary Academic Program) was developed. This college preparatory program offers advanced classes in mathematics, science, English, and history. Counselor Nancy Phillips was instrumental in the initial success of the LEAP Program. In its initial design, the LEAP plan included several incentives to attract students from outside the school's geographic district. These included unique classes not offered at that time in other Lubbock high schools, including Russian, Portuguese, Mandarin Chinese, Western Cultures, Marine Biology, and Calculus, among others. Additionally, the school offered trips to relevant locations in conjunction with specific classes. For example, students in the Western Cultures class spent 15 days in western Europe at the close of the school year. Due to pressure from parents with students in other high schools in the district, some of these incentives were phased out by the school board in the 1983–1984 academic year.

1983 saw the addition of the "Friday Enrichment Schedule," wherein students attended academic classes Monday through Thursday (for longer hours than other high schools in Lubbock) and attended either "enriching classes" (e.g. "Reading for Pleasure," "French Club," etc.) or review classes from 8 am until noon on Fridays. The Friday Enrichment Schedule was altered to exclude the "enriching classes" in favor of shortened academic classes in 2007. The school switched to an "abbreviated" Texas Friday schedule with classes ending at 1:35 on Fridays. This schedule was changed in 2017 to ending at the regular time of 3:55, then changed again in 2021 with classes ending at 4:10. Starting in the 2022-2023 school year, classes began to be shortened on Wednesdays with first classes starting at 9 am; other days retain normal schedules. Along with the "Friday Enrichment Schedule," a program was instituted in 1983 that allowed junior or senior students to take courses at Texas Tech University or South Plains College for dual credit.

In 1996, Lubbock High was named as a Blue Ribbon school.

Lubbock High School began its International Baccalaureate classes during the 2000–2001 school year.

Lubbock High School implemented the AP Capstone Diploma Program in 2018.

Academic Decathlon
In 2002, the Lubbock High Academic Decathlon team made national news when its victory over J. Frank Dobie High School in the state championship competition was disputed in court. The debate arose when there were questions about the scoring methods used in some of the competition's events. Both Dobie and LHS prepared for national competition in Phoenix, Arizona as the lawsuit developed. The Court ruled Lubbock High the rightful victor, and the team did not hear of this news until they were en route to Phoenix. At nationals, Lubbock High went on to place 3rd in the national competition, as well as 1st place among "rookie" schools in the competition. In later years, Lubbock High made history again when an LHS decathlete became the first competitor to achieve the highest score in the state without competing in the highest division. In 2006, the Lubbock High School Academic Decathlon team placed third in the state. In 2013, the Lubbock High School decathlon team placed 5th in the state, topping the previous year.

Athletics
Lubbock High competes in many sports. These include football (boys), wrestling (boys and girls), tennis (boys and girls), basketball (boys and girls), baseball (boys), softball (girls), golf (boys and girls), soccer (boys and girls), volleyball (girls), swimming (boys and girls), gymnastics (boys and girls), and track and field (boys and girls). Boys' teams are called "Westerners," whereas girls' teams are called "Lady Westerners." In 1922, the football team was named "The Pirates" despite the school's mascot being "The Westerner." This changed in the 1930s, and the team's name has been "The Westerners" ever since. LHS was named "AAAAA Texas State Sportsmanship Champion School" in 1998 by the University Interscholastic League.

The Lubbock Westerners football program had its heyday during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. The school reached the state championship game in 1938 and 1939, winning in 1939. The team had consecutive 13–0 seasons and 5A state titles in 1951 and 1952. Notable coaches in the 1950s and later included Wilford Moore, Grant Teaff, and Fred Akers. Lubbock High School did not make the playoffs between 1975 and 2012, marking the second longest playoff drought in Texas 5A football. During the 1998 season Lubbock High beat Monterey High School to win the annual Silver Spurs game for the first time in fifteen years. The next year the Westerners to a 16–13 win over Monterey to retain the Silver Spurs. They repeated this feat in 2007–2008. In 2012 the Lubbock High football team made playoffs for the first time in 37 years in the new 4-4A district.

The Lubbock High men's swim team has won 15 straight district championships and the Lubbock High Girls swim team has won 5 straight district championships and a regional championship in 2007. The men's district championship streak is an LISD record for most straight district championships in any sport.

Robotics
The Lubbock High FIRST Robotics Competition team won the "Against All Odds" award at the FIRST Championship in 1997. This was given because they had raised the money to enter and attend the competition (which took place in Orlando, Florida) themselves, rather than relying on corporate sponsorship like many other competitors did. Lubbock High has also competed in the West Texas BEST competition since 1996.

Science Bowl
A team from Lubbock High won the first ever National Science Bowl in 1991. The team again achieved a Science Bowl victory in 1992. Lubbock High also won the state Science Bowl for nine consecutive years. In 2020, Lubbock High School placed third at the virtual National Science Bowl.

Mariachi and Ballet Folklorico
Lubbock High is the first and only high school in the Lubbock area to offer a mariachi music program. The Mariachi program offers instruction in violin, trumpet, guitar, vihuela, guitarra de golpe and guitarron. The mariachi program performs for various Lubbock High, LISD and community functions.

The Ballet Folklorico program was added in 2008. There is an advanced class as well as a beginners class. The dance group performs throughout Lubbock.

Lubbock High School NJROTC
Lubbock High has an NJROTC (Naval Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps) program as well. In 2010, the Unit qualified for the 15th consecutive year for State, and often places in one of the top three slots in regular Drill Meets. The NJROTC program allows cadets to compete in teams such as Academics, Marksmanship, Armed Drill Team, Unarmed Drill Team, Physical Fitness Team, and Color guards. At the area 9 state championship drill meet the teams placed fourth in both 2010 and 2011, out of 67 schools.

Lubbock High Westerner Band
The Lubbock high band is the only state band in Lubbock.

Notable alumni

 * Jerry Allison, songwriter/drummer (The Crickets)
 * Hub Bechtol, former Baltimore Colts player
 * Charley Brewer, quarterback of the 1951 state championship teams, later Texas Longhorn
 * Waggoner Carr, Class of 1936, Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives and attorney general of Texas
 * Madisyn Cox, Class of 2013, competitive swimmer
 * Sonny Curtis, singer-songwriter
 * Mac Davis, singer-songwriter
 * Ralna English, Class of 1960, singer with the Lawrence Welk Show from 1969 until it ended/songwriter/performer
 * Eric Felton, former New Orleans Saints player
 * Grandmaster Ratte', hacker
 * James Wesley Hendrix, United States District Court Judge
 * Bill Herchman, former San Francisco 49ers player
 * Buddy Holly, singer-songwriter/guitarist
 * E. J. Holub, professional football player
 * Bobby Keys, saxophone player (The Rolling Stones)
 * Bob Livingston, singer-songwriter
 * Lloyd Maines, musician and producer
 * Natalie Maines, singer-songwriter (The Dixie Chicks)
 * Joe B. Mauldin, bassist (The Crickets)
 * Amanda Shires, singer-songwriter
 * Niki Sullivan, guitarist (The Crickets)
 * John Tatum, former professional football player
 * Spencer Wells, geneticist and anthropologist

title: Lubbock High School


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Zapata (disambiguation)

Zapata usually refers to Emiliano Zapata, a Mexican revolutionary. It may also refer to:

People

 * Zapata (surname)

Birds

 * Zapata rail
 * Zapata sparrow
 * Zapata wren

Places

 * Ciénaga de Zapata, municipality in Cuba
 * Zapata Peninsula, peninsula in Cuba
 * Zapata Swamp, Cuba
 * Zapata County, Texas
 * Zapata, Texas

Films

 * Viva Zapata!, a 1952 movie based on the life of Emiliano Zapata
 * Zapata: The Dream of a Hero, a Mexican movie about Emiliano Zapata
 * Zapata Western, a subgenre of Westerns and Spaghetti Westerns set during the Mexican Revolution era

Other

 * Zapata Corporation, founded by George H. W. Bush
 * Operation Zapata, code name for the failed CIA-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban exile training program
 * Zapata metro station, a Mexico City Metro station
 * Zapata Formation, geological formation in Patagonia

Artworks

 * Zapata (lithograph) created by Diego Rivera in 1932

title: Zapata (disambiguation)