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Tudor conquest of Ireland

The Tudor conquest (or reconquest) of Ireland took place during the 16th century under the Tudor dynasty, which ruled the Kingdom of England. The Anglo-Normans had conquered swathes of Ireland in the late 12th century, bringing it under English rule. In the 14th century, the effective area of English rule shrank markedly, and from then most of Ireland was held by native Gaelic chiefdoms. Following a failed rebellion by the Earl of Kildare in the 1530s, the English Crown set about restoring its authority. Henry VIII of England was made "King of Ireland" by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542. The conquest involved assimilating the Gaelic nobility by way of "surrender and regrant"; the confiscation and colonization ('plantation') of lands with settlers from Britain; imposing English law and language; banning Catholicism, dissolving the monasteries and making Anglican Protestantism the state religion.

The Tudor policies in Ireland sparked the Desmond Rebellions (1569–1573, 1579–1583) and the Nine Years' War (1594–1603). Despite Spanish support for Irish Catholics during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), by 1603 the entire country was under English rule. The Flight of the Earls in 1607 largely completed the destruction of the Gaelic aristocracy and left the way open for the Plantation of Ulster, which established a large British Protestant population in the north. Several people who helped establish the plantations of Ireland also played a part later in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men.

Situation before the Tudors
Ireland in 1500 was shaped by the Norman conquest, initiated by Cambro-Norman barons in the 12th century. Many of the native Gaelic Irish had been expelled from various parts of the country (mainly the east and southeast) and replaced with English peasants and labourers. A large area on the east coast, extending from the Wicklow Mountains in the south to Dundalk in the north (covering parts of modern counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Offaly, and Laois), became known as the Pale. Protected along much of its length by a ditch and rampart, the Pale was a defended area in which English language and culture predominated and where English law was enforced by a government in Dublin.

The Gaelic Irish were largely outside English jurisdiction, maintaining their own language, social system, customs, and laws. The English referred to them as "His Majesty's Irish enemies". In legal terms, they had never been admitted as subjects of the Crown. Ireland was not formally a realm, but rather a lordship; the title 'Lord of Ireland' was assumed by the English monarch upon coronation. The rise of Gaelic influence resulted in the passing in 1366 of the Statutes of Kilkenny, which outlawed many social practices that had been developing apace (e.g. intermarriage, use of the Irish language and Irish dress). In the 15th century, the Dublin government remained weak, owing principally to the Wars of the Roses.

Beyond the Pale, the authority of the Dublin government was tenuous. The Hiberno-Norman lords had been able to carve out fiefdoms for themselves but not to settle them with English tenants. As a result, in the 14th and 15th centuries, in the wake of Irish rebellion, Scottish invasion, the Black Death, and a lack of interest on the part of the London government, the territories controlled by those lords achieved a high degree of independence. The Butlers, Fitzgeralds, and Burkes raised their own armed forces, enforced their own law, and adopted Gaelic language and culture.

Beyond those territories large areas of land previously held by authority of the English crown were taken by the resurgent Gaelic Irish, particularly in the north and midlands. Among the most important septs were the O'Neills (Uí Néill) in central Ulster (Tír Eóghain), flanked to their west by the O'Donnells (Uí Dhomnaill); the O'Byrnes (Uí Bhroin) and O'Tooles (Uí Thuathail) in County Wicklow; the Kavanaghs (Uí Chaomhánach) in County Wexford; the MacCarthys ((Uí) Mhic Chárthaigh) and O'Sullivans (Uí Shúilleabháin) in County Cork and County Kerry; and the O'Brien (Uí Bhriain) lordship of Thomond in County Clare.

Henry VIII
By 1500, English monarchs had delegated government of Ireland to the most powerful of the Hiberno-Norman dynasties – the FitzGeralds of Kildare – to keep the costs of running Ireland down and to protect the Pale. The King's Lord Deputy of Ireland was chief of the administration, based in Dublin Castle, but maintained no formal court and had a limited privy purse. In 1495, laws were passed during Poynings's Parliament that imposed English statutory law wholesale upon the lordship and compromised the independence of the Parliament of Ireland.

The head of the Kildare FitzGeralds held the position of lord deputy until 1534. The problem was that the House of Kildare had become unreliable for the English monarch, scheming with Yorkist pretenders to the English throne, signing private treaties with foreign powers, and finally rebelling after the head of its hereditary rivals, the Butlers of Ormonde, was awarded the position of lord deputy. The Reformation also led to growing tension between England and Ireland as Protestantism gained sway within England. Thomas, Earl of Kildare, a Catholic, offered control of Ireland to both the pope and Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry put down the rebellion by executing the leader ("Silken Thomas" FitzGerald), along with several of his uncles, and imprisoned Gearóid Óg, the head of the family. But now the king had to find a replacement for the FitzGeralds to keep Ireland quiet. What was needed was a cost-effective new policy that protected the Pale and guaranteed the safety of England's vulnerable west flank from foreign invasion.

With the assistance of Thomas Cromwell, the King implemented the policy of surrender and regrant. This extended royal protection to all of Ireland's elite without regard to ethnicity; in return the whole country was expected to obey the law of the central government; and all Irish lords were to officially surrender their lands to the Crown, and to receive them back in return by Royal Charter. The keystone to the reform was in a statute passed by the Irish Parliament in 1542, whereby the lordship was converted to the Kingdom of Ireland. Overall, the intention was to assimilate the Gaelic and Gaelicised upper classes and to develop a loyalty on their part to the new crown. To this end, they were granted English titles and for the first time admitted to the Irish Parliament. One of the more important was the earldom of Tyrone, which was created for the Uí Néill dynasty in 1542. In a felicitous phrase, the king summed up his efforts at reform as "politic drifts and amiable persuasions".

In practice, lords around Ireland accepted their new privileges but carried on as they had before. For the Irish Lordships, the English monarch was but another overlord similar to that found in the Gaelic system. It was, however, the Tudors' increasing encroachment upon the Irish local autonomy by the development of a centralised state that was to bring the English system into direct conflict with the Gaelic one. Henry's religious Reformation – although not as thorough as in England – caused disquiet; his lord deputy, Anthony St Leger, was largely able to buy off opposition by granting lands confiscated from the monasteries to Irish nobles.

Difficulties

After the king's death, successive lords deputy of Ireland found that actually establishing the rule of the central government was far more difficult than merely securing the Irish lords' pledges of allegiance. Successive rebellions broke out, the first in Leinster in the 1550s, when the O'Moore and O'Connor clans were displaced to make way for the Plantation of Queen's County and King's County (named for Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain; modern counties Laois and Offaly). In the 1560s, English attempts to interfere in a succession dispute within the O'Neill sept, or clan, sparked a long war between Thomas Radcliffe (Lord Deputy of Sussex) and Seán Mac Cuinn Ó Néill. Irish lordships continued to fight private wars against each other, ignoring the government in Dublin and its laws. Two examples of this were the Battle of Affane in 1565, fought between the Ormonde and Desmond dynasties, and the Battle of Farsetmore in 1567, fought between the O'Donnells and O'Neills. Elsewhere, clans such as the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles continued raiding the Pale as they had always done. The most serious violence of all occurred in Munster in the 1560s to 1580s, when the Fitzgeralds of Desmond launched the Desmond Rebellions to prevent direct English influence into their territory. After a particularly brutal campaign in which up to a third of the population of the province was reported to have died, the rebellion was finally ended when the Earl of Desmond was killed in 1583.

There were two main reasons for the chronic violence that dogged the central government in Ireland. The first was some of the aggressive acts of the English administrators and soldiers. In many instances, garrisons or "seneschals" disregarded the law and killed local chiefs and lords, and sometimes seized native-owned land. The second cause of violence was the incompatibility of Gaelic Irish society with English law and central government. In Irish law, the chief of a sept or clan was elected from a small noble lineage group called a derbfine. This often caused violence between rival candidates. However, under Henry VIII's settlement, succession was, as was the English custom, by inheritance of the first-born son, or primogeniture, which was intended to result in fewer disputes over inheritance but also in an increasing reduction in the distribution of landed wealth. Imposing this law forced the English to take sides in violent disputes within Irish lordships. Finally, important sections of Irish society had a vested interest in opposing the English presence. These included the mercenary class or gallowglass, and Irish poets or file – both of whom faced having their source of income and status abolished in an English-ruled Ireland.

Solutions

Under Mary I and Elizabeth I, the English in Ireland tried a number of solutions to pacify the country. The first such initiative used martial government, whereby violent areas such as the Wicklow Mountains were garrisoned by small numbers of English troops under commanders called seneschalls. The seneschal was given powers of martial law, which allowed execution without trial by jury. Every person within the seneschal's area of authority had to be vouched for by the local lord—"masterless men" were liable to be killed. In this way, it was hoped that the Irish lords would prevent raiding by their own followers. However, in practice, this simply antagonised the native chieftains.

The failure of this policy prompted the English to come up with more long-term solutions to pacify and Anglicise Ireland. One was composition, where private armed forces were abolished, and provinces were occupied by English troops under the command of governors, titled lords president. In return, the pre-eminent septs and lords were exempted from taxation and had their entitlements to rents from subordinate families and their tenants put on a statutory basis. The imposition of this settlement was marked by bitter violence, particularly in Connacht, where the MacWilliam Burkes fought a local war against the English Provincial President, Sir Richard Bingham, and his subordinate, Nicholas Malby. In Munster the interference of the lord president was one of the major causes of the Desmond Rebellions. However, this method was successful in some areas, notably in Thomond, where it was supported by the ruling O'Brien dynasty. Composition merged into the policy of surrender and regrant.

The second long-term solution was Plantations, in which areas of the country were to be settled with people from England, who would bring in English language and culture while remaining loyal to the crown. Plantation had been started in the 1550s in Laois and Offaly, the former being shired by Queen Mary as "Queen's County", and again in the 1570s in Antrim, both times with limited success. In the 1590s, after the Desmond Rebellions, parts of Munster were populated with English in the plantation of that province, but the project was half-hearted and ran into legal difficulties when Irish landowners chose to sue; the largest grant of lands was made to Sir Walter Raleigh, but he never really made a success of it and sold out to Sir Richard Boyle, who later became Earl of Cork and the wealthiest subject of the early Stuart monarchs.

After a neutral period from 1558 to 1570, Pope Pius V declared Elizabeth a heretic in his 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis. This complicated the conquest further, as her authority to rule was denied and her officials were considered by observant Roman Catholics to be acting unlawfully. Most Irish people of all ranks remained Catholic and the bull gave Protestant administrators a new reason to expedite the conquest. The Second Desmond Rebellion, from 1579 to 1583, was assisted by hundreds of papal troops. Religion had become a new marker of loyalty to the administration.

The prospect of land confiscation further alienated the Irish. But the alienation wasn't confined to the Gaelic Irish: those who claimed descent from the original Anglo-Norman conquerors under Henry II were increasingly referred to as the "Old English", to distinguish them from the many administrators, captains, and planters (the New English) who were arriving in Ireland. And it was mostly amongst this Old English community that fervent commitment to Catholicism was gaining ground.

Crisis
The crisis point of the Elizabethan conquest of Ireland came when the English authorities tried to extend their authority over Ulster and Aodh Mór Ó Néill, the most powerful Irish lord in Ireland. Though initially appearing to support the crown, Ó Néill engaged in a proxy war in Fermanagh and northern Connacht, by sending troops to aid Aodh Mag Uidhir lord of Fermanagh. This distracted the crown with military campaigns in the west while Tyrone consolidated his power in Ulster. Ó Néill openly broke with the crown in February 1595 when his forces took and destroyed the Blackwater Fort on the Armagh-Tyrone border. Later named the Nine Years War, Ó Néill focused his action in Ulster and along its borders, until Spanish promises of aid in 1596 led him to spread the conflict to the rest of Ireland. What had started as a war for regional autonomy became a war for the control of Ireland. With the Irish victory at the Battle of the Yellow Ford, the collapse of the Munster Plantation, followed by the dismal vice-royalty of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, the power of the Crown in Ireland came close to collapse.

In wider European terms, it was a part of the Anglo-Spanish war (1585—1604). While Ó Néill enlisted the help of lords throughout Ireland, his most significant support came from the Spanish king. Philip III of Spain sent an invasion force, only to see it surrender after a winter siege at the Battle of Kinsale in 1601. Outside Kinsale, Ó Néill's own army was defeated. The war ended in early 1603; thereafter the authority of the Crown was gradually reestablished throughout country. Ó Néill and his allies were treated relatively generously, considering the cost of the rebellion, and were regranted their titles and most of their lands. Unable to live with more restrictive conditions, they left Ireland in 1607 in the Flight of the Earls. As a result, their lands in Ulster were confiscated. In the ensuing Plantation of Ulster, great numbers of people from all over Britain were encouraged to move to Ulster.

As plantation policy expanded to outlying districts including Sligo, Fermanagh and Monaghan, the English occupation of Ireland grew increasingly militaristic. The Counter-Reformation created an environment of anti-Protestantism within the native population which hindered English influence and led to a massive uprising ending in 1603. It became increasingly clear that the only profitable gain from its recent subjugation of Ireland was the land it yielded. Tens of thousands of Protestants, mainly Scots, emigrated to Antrim and Ulster, supplanting the Irish residents.

Results
The first and most important result of the conquest was the disarmament of the native Irish lordships and the establishment of central government control for the first time over the whole island; Irish culture, law, and language were replaced; and many Irish lords lost their lands and hereditary authority. Thousands of English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers were introduced into the country and the administration of justice was enforced according to English common law and statutes of the Parliament of Ireland.

As the 16th century progressed, the religious question grew in significance. Rebels such as James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald and Aodh Mór Ó Néill sought and received help from Catholic powers in Europe, justifying their actions on religious grounds. However, the Pale community and many Irish lords did not consider them to be genuinely religiously motivated. In the new century, the country would become polarised between Catholics and Protestants, especially after the planting of a large English population into Ireland and Scots Presbyterians in Ulster (See Plantation of Ulster).

Under James I, Catholics were barred from all public office after the gunpowder plot was discovered in 1605; the Gaelic Irish and Old English increasingly defined themselves as Catholic in opposition to the Protestant New English. However the native Irish (both Gaelic and Old English) remained the majority landowners in the country until after the Irish Rebellion of 1641. By the end of the resulting Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in the 1650s, the "New English" Protestants dominated the country, and after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 their descendants went on to form the Protestant Ascendancy.

title: Tudor conquest of Ireland


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Talk:Marie-Anne Gaboury

Competing claim
Did Isobel Gunn (as "John Fubbister") no go far enough west to be considered for the title of "first woman into the Canadian west"? http://www.hbc.com/hbcheritage/history/people/women/isobelgunn.asp --  user:zanimum
 * It's and interesting story, and presumably explains why at least one of account of Gaboury uses weasel terms like "first married woman". A couple of points. First, there were lots of women in the west, just none of European descent. But you knew that. Also as I point out, Gaboury settled there. Finally, she did travel further west, to modern Saskatchewan and Alberta, and this is the basis for her claim. There could possibly have been other European women in the red river area. Why not start an article? Fawcett5 14:16, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Marie-Anne Gaboury


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User:Naraht

I first visited my page at 13:25, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

My name is Randolph Finder and I'm an alumnus of Carnegie Mellon University with a B.S. in Mathematics (Graduated 1990). Since graduation, I've been working in the Computer science field in the Washington, D.C. area.

I'm an Alumnus of Kappa chapter of Alpha Phi Omega and do work on maintaining that page, the List of notable Alpha Phi Omega members and ones related to it. I keep track of changes to pages that link to the Alpha Phi Omega page by periodically copying the contents of the Alpha Phi Omega Special:Whatlinkshere/Alpha Phi Omega to my local page User:Naraht/ΑΦΩreferences. I also keep a page at User:Naraht/AWB for loading to AWB.

Suggestions on what to add to my user page are welcome.

Pages created by Naraht

Tools
I use
 * Tools/Navigation popups quite a bit as they are useful for reversion
 * Special:LinkSearch as an external links search is useful.
 * Edward's Find link tool http://edwardbetts.com/find_link to find pages not linked.
 * Google books replacement https://alyw234237.github.io/wiki-doi-gbooks-citation-maker/
 * Google books reftool http://reftag.appspot.com/
 * Template Check https://tools.wmflabs.org/templatetransclusioncheck/index.php?lang=en
 * Quarry for direct database access https://quarry.wmflabs.org/
 * DISPLAYTITLE fixes needed fix
 * Changes to Fraternities/Sororites at

Workarea
User:Naraht/Work

title: User:Naraht


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User talk:Multihunter Tame

Hello my name is Multihunter Tame and I like paste in my sandwiches, especially chicken and stuffing with anchovies scattered in the bread. My favourite things are games, food, life and the bed. I can do anything that a daredevil does with the style of a wet chimp. My preferances are tall and slim with no baggage. My best mate is called Huddle, another user on this great website.

Removal of stub templates
Please do not remove stub templates from articles that are still of stub length. these templates are vital guides for editors of wikipedia articles, as they enable them to find articles which require considerable work easily. Continued removal of stub templates without just reason will be viewed as vandalism, and could see you user privileges blocked. Grutness|hello? 04:53, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Multihunter Tame


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Nexus of contracts

The nexus of contracts theory is an idea put forth by a number of economists and legal commentators (most notably Michael Jensen and William Meckling as well as Frank Easterbrook) which asserts that corporations are a collection of contracts between different parties – primarily shareholders, directors, employees, suppliers, and customers. It has replaced the legal theory of the corporation.

Proponents of this theory contend that all disputes about the obligations of a particular corporation should be settled by resort to the methods used to interpret contracts, and that courts should not imply the existence of fiduciary duties on behalf of corporate officers and directors. Alternatively, the nexus of contracts theory can also be viewed as a method of enhancing corporate plausible deniability, insofar as it is a way of "passing the buck" down a chain of contractual obligations and losing all semblance of responsibility in the "nexus." This can pose a practical loophole for corporate entities, a theoretical strength for those wishing to forward corporate ideology, and a legal problem for those who wish to take corporate entities to court. Another strength of this theory of the firm is a firm begins to transcend border and defy simple classification when it is really intertwined by its contracts into a number of different countries and with a number of different stakeholders.

title: Nexus of contracts


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User:Brendan62442

Hello. I am called Brendan. Someday I would like to graduate from high school. In the meantime, I am called Brendan.

EDIT, in aught 5.

Brendan enjoys fishing, but not the part where the fish come out of the water. He hopes to be a professional. But not too professional, cause that's just obnoxious.

File Folders Clean Room

title: User:Brendan62442


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File:DEBS poster.JPG

Summary
Promotional poster for D.E.B.S., deemed fair use.

Rationale of fair use for D.E.B.S. (2004 film)
It is believed that the image, Debs short poster.jpg, is subject to fair-use in the D.E.B.S. (2004 film) article, as;

Source
 * 1) No free or public domain images have been located for this film.
 * 2) The image is of lower resolution than the original poster (copies made from it will be of inferior quality).
 * 3) The image does not limit the copyright owners' rights to distribute the film in any way.
 * 4) For an article about a film, the promotional artwork is arguably one of the most important images that could be included. This is the artwork, intended by Screen Gems for wide distribution. As such, it has future historical significance, and is a more appropriate choice than any other image available.
 * 5) This image is used on various websites, so its use on Wikipedia does not make it significantly more accessible or visible than it already is. The poster is being used for informational purposes only, and its use is not believed to detract from the original film in any way.

title: File:DEBS poster.JPG


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Golden Rule (disambiguation)

The Golden Rule describes a "reciprocal" or "two-way" relationship between one's self and others that involves both sides equally and in a mutual fashion.

Golden Rule may also refer to:

Economics

 * Golden Rule (fiscal policy), a rule adopted in the UK by HM Treasury to provide guidelines for fiscal policy
 * Golden Rule savings rate, the savings rate which maximizes consumption in the Solow growth model

Science

 * Fermi's golden rule, a formula of quantum mechanics
 * Ronen's golden rule for cluster radioactivity, in nuclear physics

Business

 * Golden Rule Airlines, an airline in Kyrgyzstan that ceased operations in 2011
 * Golden Rule Insurance Company, an American health insurance company that was acquired by UnitedHealth Group in 2003
 * Golden Rule Store, the original name of J. C. Penney, an American department store chain

Entertainment

 * Golden Rule (album), the seventh studio album by Australian rock band Powderfinger
 * Golden Rule (EP), an EP by Golden State
 * "That Golden Rule," a song by Biffy Clyro
 * "3-Way (The Golden Rule)," a song by The Lonely Island
 * "Golden Rule," a space habitat in The Cat Who Walks Through Walls a science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein
 * The Golden Rule, a 1961 magazine cover painting by Norman Rockwell

Miscellaneous

 * Golden rule (law), or the British Rule, a form of statutory construction traditionally applied by English courts
 * Golden Rule (ship), a boat skippered by Albert Bigelow used in a nuclear-weapons protest
 * Samuel M. Jones (1846–1904), a.k.a. "Golden Rule" Jones, mayor of Toledo, Ohio
 * Rule of three (mathematics), also known as Golden Rule, a particular form of cross-multiplication in elementary mathematics
 * Goldwater rule, an Ethics related rule on commenting individuals' mental status without examining them personally or exposing them publicly without consent.

title: Golden Rule (disambiguation)


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Talk:Golden Rule (disambiguation)

deleted
Deleted link from "see also": because it was dead. DewiMorgan 23:37, 19 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Meta-Golden Rule

disambiguation
This should be converted to a "disambiguation" as wikipedia likes to call it. --Budlight 04:58, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

Deleted link to What Goes Around...
I've deleted

title: Talk:Golden Rule (disambiguation)


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D.E.B.S. (2004 film)

D.E.B.S. is a 2004 American action comedy film written, edited and directed by Angela Robinson, a feature-length adaptation of her 2003 short film of the same name. D.E.B.S. follows the relationship between spy-in-training Amy Bradshaw and supervillain Lucy Diamond.

Despite mixed critical reviews and underperforming at the box office on its initial release, it went on to become a cult film in the following years.

Plot
Embedded in the SAT is a secret test that determines aptitude for espionage. Women who score highly on the test are recruited into D.E.B.S. (Discipline, Energy, Beauty, Strength), a clandestine paramilitary academy. Four D.E.B.S.—squad leader Max, naïve Janet, promiscuous Dominique, and Amy, who dreams of attending art school despite being the academy's top recruit—are tasked by Ms. Petrie and Mr. Phipps, the heads of D.E.B.S., to surveil Lucy Diamond. Diamond is an infamous supercriminal, known for her operations, thefts, an alleged attempt to sink Australia, as well as supposedly killing every agent that goes up against her. Amy in particular is interested in Lucy due to writing a senior thesis about her. It is believed that Lucy is meeting Russian assassin Ninotchka Kaprova. Unbeknownst to them, Lucy is a rather neurotic woman, who has trouble opening up to people. Her meeting with Ninotchka is, in fact, a blind date.

In the meantime, Amy has recently broken up with her pushy and controlling boyfriend, Bobby, a fellow agent. The D.E.B.S. observe Lucy's date with Ninotchka, and are interrupted by Bobby, who is on his own stakeout, with several intelligence agencies also observing Lucy. Lucy has trouble connecting with Ninotchka and tries to call off the date. Amy gets into an argument with Bobby, demanding answers on their breakup, which catches Lucy's attention. A shootout ensues, during which Max reminds Janet that she has not yet earned her D.E.B.S. stripes, and Lucy flees while being chased by the D.E.B.S. Lucy is caught in a standoff with Amy, but they end up having a friendly conversation. Lucy escapes when Amy's attention wavers, and the D.E.B.S. praise Amy for being the only person to have ever faced Lucy and lived.

Lucy quickly takes a liking to Amy, and against the advice of her friend and henchman, Scud, sneaks into Amy's dorm. Lucy initially says she wants to help Amy on her thesis, but ends up coercing her into joining her at a nightclub, along with Janet, who witnesses Lucy speaking with Amy. During this trip, Lucy and Amy grow closer and have a conversation about their lives and relationships. Lucy even clarifies that the deaths of the agents sent after her were happenstance. Janet and Scud also befriend each other. When the two open up to each other, Lucy and Amy are about to kiss, but are interrupted by Janet.

Later, Amy is promoted to squad leader, replacing Max, much to Max's jealousy. Ms. Petrie plans on using Amy's encounter with Lucy to boost the D.E.B.S. image and reputation. Amy is hesitant to talk about her encounter due to her growing feelings for Lucy. The D.E.B.S. respond to a bank heist orchestrated by Lucy, which she has committed in order to see Amy again. When Lucy and Amy are alone, the two kiss, and Lucy talks Amy into running off with her. The D.E.B.S. assume Amy has been kidnapped and organize a nationwide manhunt to find her. In the meantime, Lucy and Amy enjoy having an actual relationship with one another, while Janet covers for them (and also develops feelings for Scud, whom she has a secret correspondence with).

On the basis of a tip from a jealous Ninotchka, the D.E.B.S. and Bobby discover Amy and Lucy while they are having sex. When Amy returns to the academy, Ms. Petrie prepares to exile Amy, but Max convinces her to claim that Amy was kidnapped and brainwashed in order to protect their reputation. Amy becomes depressive when forced to go along with the story, and Bobby tries to coerce Amy into getting back together with him. When Lucy tries to see Amy again, Amy is forced to reject her. In the meantime, Lucy comes to realize she is not happy with her life of crime. In an attempt to win Amy back, Lucy returns everything she has ever stolen, and publicly turns over a new leaf.

At the time of the D.E.B.S. year-end dance, Amy is to be made D.E.B. of the year and deliver a speech where she is to denounce Lucy. Janet talks with Dominique and Max, who start to realize how unhappy Amy actually is. Lucy infiltrates the academy during the dance. When Bobby discovers this, he plans to track her down and kill her. Lucy evades Bobby only to hear Amy's speech about her experience as Lucy's captive. When Amy and Lucy meet eyes, Amy retracts her entire speech, and runs off-stage to be with Lucy. Petrie, Bobby and the rest of the academy try to track them down, when Lucy and Amy are cornered by Max, Janet, and Dominique. When Amy reminds Max of her promise to always be her friend, they give their blessings to Lucy and Amy, and allow them to make their escape. Max finally awards Janet her D.E.B.S. stripes, and Janet and Scud begin a relationship. Lucy and Amy ride off into the night, heads on one another's shoulders.

Cast
Ritchie was the only cast member from the short film to reprise her role in the expansion.

Inception
Director, writer, and editor Angela Robinson began to draw comics about the D.E.B.S. in college as a sideline to her writing. She received a $20,000 grant from POWER UP to make an 11-minute short based on the concept, which toured a number of film festivals, including the Sundance Film Festival. Clint Culpepper, then president of Screen Gems, liked the short and gave the green light to develop it into a feature film.

Box office
D.E.B.S. was released in 45 theaters. Over 21 days, it grossed $97,446.

Critical response
D.E.B.S. received a 42% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 64 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "Lacking enough material for a full-length movie, D.E.B.S. is short on both plot and laughs." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 42% based on reviews from 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

In a positive review, Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post praised the film for poking fun at various tropes in spy films and not taking itself too seriously, saying “much of the fun of the innocent little thing is the riffs that [Angela] Robinson plays on familiar genre strokes. A gunfight in a nightclub, with sparks flying, guns blasting, glasses busting, shooters diving, has all the hallmarks of John Woo-style mayhem in full bloom.” He added the film “arrives with sparkly production values and extreme confidence in every scene. It's so spoofy it's difficult to call it ‘good’ or even ‘bad’; just say it's smooth.” Hunter further discussed how the film presents queerness in a normalized way, saying the film is “not gay in that in-your-face, zealous manner of so many films more interested in advocacy than art or commerce. It's gay in what might be called a homo-normative way. That is, it accepts same-sex attraction as a norm, something not at all ‘unusual’ or strange but something so a part of the landscape it doesn't require comment.”

Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave a one-star rating and said, "You might think there's no downside to a movie that peeks up the skirts of babes in micro-minis, but writer-director Angela Robinson's dimwitted satire is libido-killing proof to the contrary."

A positive reaction from a producer at a film festival screening led to Robinson making a deal to direct the 2005 Disney remake Herbie: Fully Loaded.

Legacy
The film has since gained a cult following in the LGBT community and continues to be screened at specialty theaters. Anna Govert of Paste wrote "in the 20 years since this film debuted, there is still a distinct lack of lesbian films (let alone lesbian rom-coms) that are as effortlessly queer, undeniably heartfelt and innately rewatchable" and that "D.E.B.S. remains a cornerstone of lesbian cinema, and a cult classic always worth revisiting". Maddy Myers, for Polygon, commented that the film "feels like a movie that teenage-me, a queer kid who adored screwball comedies, was meant to watch a billion times. I have to make up for lost time as an adult, and you might, too. Sadly, it isn't streaming anywhere, but don't let that stop you".

Academic Claire Hines, in her article "The Queer Female Action Spy Hero in Post-Millennial American Cinema", highlighted that "when D.E.B.S. was released the queer press responded positively to the film as part of a wider breakthrough" and that the film "is also recognized by action scholars as significant in the development of the female action hero". Hines commented that "the use of camp is especially important to the challenges that D.E.B.S. makes to the heteronormative codes and conventions of spy action. [...] D.E.B.S. makes a strong statement about the female action hero as a queer figure, the (guilty) pleasures of spy action and teen romantic comedy and is intentionally playful with the secret identity trope".

title: D.E.B.S. (2004 film)


text:
Sydney Opera House Grand Organ

The Sydney Opera House Grand Organ is the world's largest mechanical tracker-action pipe organ. It is located in the concert hall of Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, and was designed by Ronald Sharp, who was assisted by Mark Fisher, Myk Fairhurst and Raymond Bridge.

It is in six divisions, five manuals plus pedals, and is the largest tracker action organ ever built, with 131 speaking stops served by 200 ranks of pipes consisting of 10,244 pipes. It is a neo-baroque organ in style.

The contract for the construction of the organ was awarded in 1969, during the construction of the Opera House, and the organ was completed in 1979, six years after the opening of the building. Since then the electronics have been updated, including a major refit in 2002, but the musical specification is unchanged from that developed by Sharp starting in 1967.

In April 1994 the Sydney Opera House Trust awarded the contract for ongoing maintenance of the organ to Mark Fisher, one of the original staff of Ronald Sharp.

In addition to its mechanical action, the organ can be played remotely by an electronic system, enabling it to be played from a remote console, or a performance or passage can be recorded by a system built into the keyboards and played back by the electronic action. This system is used by visiting organists to select the registration (the combination of stops) that they will use, enabling them to stand in different parts of the hall and hear the results. Its stops are entirely electronically operated and programmed.

Gallery
Additional pictures of the organ and its components.

title: Sydney Opera House Grand Organ


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Romssa Arena

Romssa Arena, previously known as Alfheim Stadion, is a football stadium located in Tromsø, Norway and home of Eliteserien side Tromsø IL. Romssa Arena has a seating capacity of 6,801 and artificial turf. It is the second northernmost stadium to have been used in European football, after the Finnmarkshallen, which is located 170 km to the northeast in Alta, and is home to Alta IF.

History
The Alfheim area, previously used as a recreational area, was bought by the municipality in 1954. Construction of the first sports venue began in 1960 at the same time as a new handball and ice hockey field at Nedre Elvebakken. A swimming pool was also built at Alfheim. From the mid-1960s Tromsø had three main football venues: Alfheim, Valhall Stadion and Tromsdalen Stadion. TIL's path to the top league started in the 1970s with the hiring of Peter Drecker as manager. In the early 1980s the team established itself in the Second Division and the need for an upgraded stadium arose. From 1981 to 1986 the club's revenue increased from 1.2 to 4.2 million Norwegian krone (NOK) and the club became professional from 1985. The first major upgrade to a sports complex had been Tromsdalen Stadion in 1983, which was largely financed by the municipality but owned and operated Tromsdalen UIL.

A similar cooperation between the municipality and the club was established in regard to upgrading Alfheim and the stadium was spun off as a separate limited company with TIL as the majority and the municipality as a minority shareholder. The company leased Alfheim for fifteen years and spent NOK 10 million on the Alfheim upgrades. Part of the financing was secured from private donors. Ahead of the 1986 season, the first in the First Division, Tromsø played its matches at Valhall while Alfheim was being upgraded.

TIL played an exhibition match against Germany's 1. FC Nürnberg on 22 July 1987, but chose to play it at Valhall instead of Alfheim to spare the pitch. The opening match took place against England's Queens Park Rangers on 27 July 1987, with TIL losing 0–1 in front of 2,700 spectators. On 26 August Norway's Olympic football team played 0–0 against Switzerland in front of 4,000 spectators. Tromsø played St Mirren on 30 September 1987 in the 1987–88 European Cup Winners' Cup, which became the northernmost location of a European football match. The teams tied 0–0 and Tromsø did not advance. The municipality had to save the stadium company from bankruptcy through a private placement in 1992, thus becoming a majority shareholder. In a 2012 survey carried out by the Norwegian Players' Association among away-team captains, Alfheim was ranked seventh amongst league stadiums, with a score of 3.60 on a scale from one to five.

In 2023 the stadium naming rights were bought for five years by local power company Troms Kraft, who changed the name from Alfheim Stadion to Romssa Arena. Romssa is the genitive form of Romsa, which is the Northern Sámi name for Tromsø. The name was chosen to promote Sámi visibility.

The pitch

Romssa Arena has a playing surface made of artificial turf with under-soil heating. It had natural grass until 2006. However, the condition of the pitch, especially during the winter months, received considerable criticism from sports pundits and visiting managers. Usually in October, when the Norwegian top division is in its last rounds, winter sets in Tromsø. This, along with the wear and tear from football matches and practicing sessions, caused the grass to disappear and reduced the pitch to a muddy field. To make up for this, Tromsø IL installed artificial turf at the stadium during the 2006 World Cup in Germany. Funding for the turf came from contributions to the club from several businesses in Tromsø, including 7.5 million NOK from an anonymous donor. The artificial turf laid in 2006 was replaced with a new one in June 2010 after taking much criticism.

The stands
The East stand is an all seated covered stand which can accommodate about 2000 people. This stand was built in the mid-eighties and is the oldest stand at Romssa Arena. It houses the clubs offices. At the back of the stand there is a row of executive boxes. Some controversy surrounded the East Stand during the 2004 season. Ringnes, a Norwegian brewery, complained about the clubs S.K. Brann and Tromsø IL being sponsored by the breweries Hansa Borg and Mack Brewery respectively. Advertising for alcohol is illegal in Norway. The result of this complaint for Tromsø IL was that the club had to remove all advertisements for Mack, including the seating arrangement on one of the stands that spelled out Mack. The seats were changed, making the stands spell out "Tack" instead. Tack is a play on words, since it resembles the word Takk, Norwegian for "thank you", a gesture from Tromsø IL thanking Mack for the co-operation through a great deal of years. Ahead of the 2005 season, the former Mack-stands had been renamed to the Coop-stands, being sponsored by the Norwegian convenience store chain Coop. The West Stand was rebuilt during the 2005-season, meaning both sides now are seated and covered. Before the rebuilding the West Stand was an uncovered wooden stand. The West Stand has a capacity of approximately 4000, making it the largest stand at Romssa Arena. There are three media gantries suspended from the roof of the West Stand.

Straddling the middle of the south end and running for two thirds of the length is an uncovered family stand which seats approximately 600 people. Ahead of the 2011 season this stand replaced most of the 1500 capacity temporary uncovered stand. A part of the old stand remains next to the family stand towards the east stand. This part has no seating and can hold about 200 visiting supporters, leaving them with the worst facilities at Romssa Arena. The South Stand is closed for matches in European cup tournaments due to safety regulations imposed by UEFA.

Until August 2007 there was a temporary uncovered stand at the north end which ran for about two thirds of the pitch, this was dismantled to allow place for a stage during a music festival. The north end is now filled with advertising hoardings. In 2010 the scoreboard and stadium clock at the north end were replaced with a large video screen in the north east corner. Set back from the pitch at the north end is TIL-huset, a building that previously housed the teams' changing rooms.

Records
Record Attendance: 10,225 v Rosenborg on 15 August 1990 (quarter final in the Norwegian Cup)

Fort Alfheim
Because of Tromsø IL's good home record in many seasons in the Eliteserie (for example, 10 wins in 13 matches in the 2004 season), Romssa Arena has been given the nickname Fort Alfheim, building on the image of the stadium as being impregnable. Chelsea F.C., Galatasaray, Besiktas and Red Star Belgrade have all experienced losing to Tromsø IL away.

title: Romssa Arena


text:
Talk:Discos Taxco

Untitled
I'm not sure as to Wikipedia's standards on translation, but judging by the picture of the record label itself and Google, I have renamed this article from 'Taxco Records' to 'Discos Taxco', which is presumably Spanish for 'Taxco Records'. A search on Google for "Taxco Records" returns hundreds of Wikipedia mirrors but sod-all about the latera; a search for "Discos Taxco" returns only two links, and they are the same page, but they are the informative article which I have linked in the text; I have opted for quality over quantity. Taxco seems to be a place, as well, which confuses searches for Taxco Records without quotes.-Ashley Pomeroy 13:30, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Discos Taxco


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Talk:H2S (radar)

Origin of H2S name
There are a number of spurious explanations for how H2S received its name (some for understandable reasons) however, according to A. P. Rowe, who was at TRE at the time, the real reason is this:

When H2S was first being developed it was initially referred to as the Town Finder or TF, as that was the purpose of the system, i.e. to allow RAF Navigators to find their target towns at night and in all weathers, however it was realised that this name might be too obvious and so would eventually need changing for security reasons. At around this time Lord Cherwell (Professor Lindemann) was being shown round TRE and was shown the TF equipment and on seeing it he enquired as to it's purpose. On being told that the device would show a picture of the ground below in all weathers and at night (this was something akin to Science Fiction then) he replied incredulously: It stinks, it stinks! As a private joke the researchers from then-on referred to the TF system as H2S - the name of the foul-smelling gas given-off by rotten eggs (Hydrogen Sulphide) Some time later, Cherwell re-visited TRE and the TF system had by then been officially named H2S and the joke almost forgotten, but Cherwell on seeing the system again and hearing it called 'H2S' enquired why it had such a name. Quick as a flash, some bright-spark, remembering the 'It stinks' episode and wanting to save embarrasment on both sides, replied Home-Sweet-Home

Ian Dunster 13:31, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * According to Prof. R V Jones (Chief of Air Scientific Intelligence), the H2S was a reference to the cavity magnetron itself. Again the credit went to Lord Cherwell on seeing the unbelievably simple construction of the magnetron, said that stunk that no-one had though of it before. 20.133.0.13 12:25, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Actually, A.P.Rowe was one of the team at TRE that developed H2S. Jones was only involved on a wider level, so I'm inclined to believe Rowe as he was actually there. The H2S name does refer to the entire equipment and not just the resonant-cavity magnetron (RCM), however the RCM's main application was the H2S system, the ASV usage came later, and at a lower priority, therefore it's possible that Jones associated the 'H2S' name with the RCM. The Rowe book BTW, is One Story of Radar. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.40.248.89 (talk) 22:35, 14 May 2009 (UTC)

The part of the article that describes the German's investigation of H2S does not square with the facts. The Germans were well aware that a 10cm radar was a desireable thing to have. The Germans were also aware that Britain had a fully working 10cm (actually 9.1cm) radar system (H2S), but were unable to fathom out how we were generating the transmitted signal at such unbelievable power. How do we know that the Germans were aware of our radar? Their version of window, the bundles of alluminium strips dropped from aircraft to blind radar (which the Germans had codenamed Düpple) were specifically cut to blind a 9.1cm radar system, of which H2S was the only example. The Germans eventually found the magnetron and built their own version of H2S, but by the time they got it into service, the only thing it detected was defeat. 20.133.0.13 12:25, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

magus732 4:05PM 6/2/2008 (ET) Don't know how important for the article this is, but in the listed radar systems, accourding to just about evry book and website I've seen, it says that the 2 should be subscripted, meaning it should be a 2, not a 2.

 * The Germans could detect the H2S transmissions across the Channel when the aircraft tested their equipment on the ground before take off. That's how powerful the H2S's transmitter was. As regards the US H2X system, Bernard Lovell's biography by Dudley Saward states that the system was inferior to the contemporary H2S Mk III UK system, and that US engineers had initially stated that no such system as H2S was possible in the first place. Later they tried to get their H2X system adopted by the RAF. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.40.248.89 (talk) 22:13, 14 May 2009 (UTC)

 * BTW, the A. P. Rowe mentioned in the initial post is this one: A. P. Rowe - he was the head of TRE at the time — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.4.57.101 (talk) 09:14, 30 April 2012 (UTC)

 * This is pure speculation and O.R. but a more obvious meaning of the acronym H2S might be 'Horizontal Surface' - or even 'Horizontal '2'D Surface' - people did tend to like using simple obvious meanings in acronyms.. A curious aside is that my Grandfather (his name was Geoffrey Stuart Holiday) might have worked on this radar, he was apparently a specialist in miniaturisation and one of the projects he worked on was described as a moving map radar. - I have looked for it before on WP but only found it today while researching microwaves - including magnetrons, as am in the earliest stages of designing a 'high power' 3 cm to 1 cm microwave system - though certainly not for use in radar.. :) Lucien86 (talk) 20:19, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

 * The origin of the term is as stated at the start of this section - upon seeing early work on the system and being told what it would do, Lord Cherwell said 'It stinks, it stinks' and thereafter the TRE team referred to it as H2S - hydrogen sulphide. Later when he visited TRE again, on asking why it was called H2S they didn't want to offend him or hurt his feelings over their earlier joke at his expense, so 'one bright spark' quipped 'Home Sweet Home'. That's it. So the 'H2S' name is, in effect, a private joke. Hydrogen Sulphide is a very foul-smelling compound, like the smell of rotten eggs. So 'it stinks'. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 18:37, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

 * A useful description of the development of H2S on the Blumlein's family site here:  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 19:53, 2 December 2013 (UTC)

As an aside, when the Germans captured the so-called Rotterdam Gerat from the crashed Stirling the equipment was damaged and the PPI display had been destroyed so that they only had a rough idea what the system would do. It was around a year or so later when they finally recovered an intact display unit and to test the combined equipment, the newly-recovered intact display and the Rotterdam Gerat recovered earlier, they set it all up on the roof of one of Berlin's Flak Towers. When Göring was shown the equipment in action he was apparently horrified, he said something like; 'My god, the English really can see in the dark!' - amongst other things, there on the PPI screen were all the other Flak Towers around Berlin plainly distinguishable. That's how astounding H2S was. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 10:15, 8 March 2014 (UTC)

Post WW2
H2S was apparently used until just after the Falklands. Some post WW2 info. would be nice. 86.134.182.189 (talk) 20:04, 2 August 2008 (UTC)

 * I've now added a bit of post-war history, and amended the intro para accordingly. Letdorf (talk) 12:38, 14 January 2009 (UTC).

Coastal Command, what Coastal Command?
I am astounded an entire article on ASV says nothing about the controversy between Bomber and Coastal Commands.... (I'll get to it when I can.)  TREKphiler   hit me ♠  16:10, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

British H2S and American H2X
The H2S article claims that the American H2X was merely an adaptation of the British 10cm MkIII H2S.

The H2X article claims that the American H2X introduced 3cm radar and that this was later adopted as the british H2SMkIII 3cm.

Which is right? I suspect I know but can anybody point to a source? E x nihil (talk) 03:46, 24 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Although its a long time since I read it Bernard Lovell's biography by Dudley Saward mentions the arguments that the TRE had with the Americans over the worth of H2S, their opinion being IIRC that it wouldn't work, however whether the US or UK 3cm version of H2S was first or not I cannot remember. I seem to remember that they were actually different designs, the US 3cm one being designed by MIT, whereas the 3cm H2S Mk III was designed by the TRE.

 * BTW, there are some fascinating online talks by Lovell on his H2S radar work at TRE online here: and he mentions where the 'H2S' name came from here:  - it was Cherwell (Professor Lindemann) who said ''It stinks!'  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.112.84.240 (talk) 17:19, 12 August 2010 (UTC)

Merger proposal
Make one better article from a good one and a mediocre stub!!--Petebutt (talk) 07:04, 26 September 2014 (UTC)
 * You say a mediocre stub, but what more could you say on the subject of Fishpond? Most sources do not devote more than a paragraph to the subject.  But, having said that, the subject could usefully be merged into H2S, possibly in a section discussing other developments.  In fact: so much so that I have gone ahead and done it.  DieSwartzPunkt (talk) 16:24, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

Selsyn
What is a Selsyn? There either needs to be an explanitory note or an article. Mjroots (talk) 18:53, 4 July 2016 (UTC)

 * It is linked to an article.

 * "Taffy Bowen had noted that he had significant trouble getting the sets to do anything in the US; in testing against Springfield, Hartford and Boston, the display simply didn't show anything" - perhaps no-one remembered or noticed that the UK mains supply is at 50Hz, whereas in the US it is 60Hz. The equipment taken to the US would have been 50Hz. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.150.18.147 (talk) 10:28, 5 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:H2S (radar)


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Walter P. Zeller

Walter Philip Zeller (October 21, 1890 – August 25, 1957) was a Canadian businessman and founder of discount retail chain Zellers.

Zeller was born October 21, 1890, near the city of Kitchener, Ontario (then Berlin). His great-grandfather settled in Breslau, Ontario after arriving from Germany.

Zeller began his career with the F. W. Woolworth Company, where he started as a delivery boy in 1912. He left after two years to move to the U.S. and work for S. S. Kresge Co. and later Metropolitan Stores.

In 1928, he returned to Canada and started his own chain of stores, with locations in London, Guelph, St. Catharines and Fort William (Thunder Bay). They were acquired by Schulte-United. After Schulte went bankrupt during the Great Depression, Zeller bought the company's Canadian stores and launched Zeller's in 1931. The store's name was eventually changed to "Zellers" to make it more bilingually appropriate. Zellers was originally concentrated in southern Ontario but gradually expanded across the country. The business was headquartered in Montreal, Quebec. In 1952, American retailer W.T. Grant Company became the largest shareholder of the company, eventually owning a 51% controlling share.

Zeller retired in 1956 and died in 1957. He is buried in Montreal, at Mount Royal Cemetery in the Lilac Knoll section.

Zeller married Nettie Lewis in 1912 and had two sons, C. Edward and Warren Robert. Warren died in 1944 as a flying officer with the RCAF and Edward served with the Royal Canadian Artillery as a lieutenant.

title: Walter P. Zeller


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Urnes Stave Church

Urnes Stave Church (Urnes stavkyrkje) is a 12th-century stave church at Ornes, along the Lustrafjorden in the municipality of Luster in Vestland county, Norway.

The church sits on the eastern side of the fjord, directly across the fjord from the village of Solvorn and about 5 km east of the village of Hafslo. It is among the oldest stave churches in Norway, with parts of the lumber construction dating from the latter half of the 11th century. The church was built in a long church basilica plan inspired by medieval Christian churches, with cylindrical columns and semi-circular arches inside. The decoration on capitals of the columns and outside of the church embodies the visual evidence of the Viking culture’s transformation, assimilation, and adoption of Christianity. The north portal of the church is defined as the Urnes style, which contains decorations derived from Norwegian mythology dating back to the 12th century.

It has been owned by Fortidsminneforeningen (Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments) since 1881. In 1979, the Urnes Stave Church was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Context
Stave churches in Norway can be dated back to 10th–11th century. Stave churches are wooden buildings covered with wall planks; the frame of the overall structure is constructed with timber balks and the wall planks are fitted into the frames where convenient.

The word "Stave" (Stav) means sturdy wood columns that are the corner posts and columns which uphold the overall architectural structure. The Stave Style can be defined as using the upright wall planks.

The Urnes Stave Church was built around the year 1130 or shortly thereafter, and still stands in its original location; it is believed to be the oldest of its kind. The 1956 excavation revealed that there are two prior churches built on the same site.

The first church was built during the period of transition to Christianity in the palisade style, in which structural members were embedded into the ground. The second one was built in the latter half of the 11th century. Both of them were small structures with the nave-and-chancel design.

In the middle of the 12th century, the second church was torn down; the third church, based on some part of the second one, was vastly different from it. It incorporated a central section of nave which is higher above the rest of the building; the framework contains 16 large staves, and defines nave and surrounding aisles. The roof of the central compartment is 2 m higher than the roof of aisles.

This design was immensely popular at the time and served as inspiration for later stave churches. It provides a link between Christian architecture and the architecture and art forms of the Viking Age with typical animal-ornamentation, the so-called "Urnes style" of animal-art.

Interior
The entirely wooden churches were built on the classic basilica plan. The main inspiration of the plan was the basilica style of cathedrals in European Christian churches, and the inspiration of the framing the roof lined with boards and the roof covered with shingles was a prevalent architectural technique in Scandinavian countries. The cylindrical columns with cubic capitals and semi-circular arches in the church revealed the borrowing from the spatial structures of Romanesque stone architecture.

In the 17th century the nave of the church, which is a raised central room surrounded by an aisle, was extended southwards. Other elements were also added to the church, including a baptismal font (1640), a wooden canopy above the altar (1665) and a pulpit (1693–1695). The altarpiece, which depicts Christ on the cross with the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist, dates from 1699. Windows were added to the church in the 18th century.

Decoration
The decorations on the outside of the Urnes Stave Church, including wood carvings and sculpted decor, serve as visual evidence of the Viking culture's transformation, assimilation, and adoption of Christianity. Strap-work panels were taken from the previous 11th century Urnes Church and then incorporated into the new structure, keeping elements of Viking tradition alive. The carved decoration of the North Portal, depicting interlaced animals, in this Urnes-style context is one of the last examples of Viking animal ornamentation.

The interior of the church is more richly decorated than the exterior. The structure is partly held up by a series of 12th century wooden columns. At the top of the columns, the capitals are decorated with carvings of human, animal, and vegetal motifs. Some of these capitals contain simple abstracted figures while some contain the traditional interlacing design of the Viking tradition. The Urnes Stave Church is also home to numerous medieval liturgical objects for public worship.

North Portal
The portal and other details of the north wall of the present church, as well as the wall planks of the gables, are decorated in classic Urnes-style. They are probably relics from one of the earlier churches.

It has been speculated that the portal may originally have been the main portal, facing west. In mythology and religions, the portal is meant to let people enter into God's house. In a Christian sense, the portals are the symbolic embodiment in the mortal world of the chaos and struggle with evil in daily life.

Here, the struggle between the serpent with the great beast, as shown in the portal at Urnes, represents the onset of Ragnarok. It is possible that the decoration of the earlier church featured some scenes from Norse mythology, a likely reason for its premature reconstruction in the 12th century. In this context, the animal may be interpreted as Níðhöggr eating the roots of Yggdrasil. "The intertwined snakes and dragons represent the end of the world according to the Norse legend of Ragnarök".

The Urnes style doorway with carved whorls of writhing snakes and vines, in a welter of elongated animals and plants reduced to vines. The most important point of the huge tangle is to present the intertwinedness itself of all living things, animal or vegetable. On the right hand side, about one-third of the way from the bottom a serpent is even emitting a fleur-de-lis from its mouth. The visual characteristic is often referred to by art historians as the Urnes style.

17th century to present
The church is built with a rectangular nave and a narrower choir. The nave and choir both have raised central spaces. The choir was extended to the east in the 17th century, but this addition was later removed. The drawing by Johan Christian Dahl depicts this, as well as the deteriorated state of the church at that time. During the 20th century the church underwent a restoration, and the richly decorated wall planks were covered to stop further deterioration.

A large number of medieval constructive elements remain in situ: ground beams (grunnstokker), sills (sviller), corner posts (hjørnestolper), wall planks (veggtiler) and aisle wall plates (stavlægjer). The construction of the raised central area with staves, strings and cross braces, and the roof itself, also date from medieval times. From the previous church on the site remain, in addition to the portal, two wall planks in the northern wall, the corner post of the choir, the western gable of the nave and the eastern gable of the choir.

The church has not been in ordinary use since 1881, when the parish of Urnes was abolished, and it became a part of Solvorn parish in the Sogn prosti (deanery) of the Diocese of Bjørgvin. It is now only used for special occasions in the parish such as baptisms and weddings.

Interventions to the church building for religious and practical needs have been carried over the centuries. These interventions are still clearly visible; they have provided authentic testimony to social life and religious practices in Norway. Now, Urnes Stave Church is one of the most popular tourist sites in Norway.

title: Urnes Stave Church


text:
Mississagi Provincial Park

Mississagi Provincial Park is a natural environment-class provincial park north of Elliot Lake, in Algoma District, Ontario, Canada. It lies on the Boland River, a tributary of the Little White River, which is itself a tributary of the Mississagi River. The park is accessed via Highway 639.

The park has a rugged landscape of ancient hills and clear lakes with seven hiking trails. Together with surrounding areas, it offers more than 60 km of trails that cross the rugged Penokean Hills.

It is an operating park requiring a permit for day and overnight use. Facilities include a total of 72 campsites (car accessible and walk-in backcountry sites), an amphitheatre, boat launches and docks (on Semiwite Lake and Flack Lake), park store, and picnic shelter. The park is used for recreational activities such as biking, boating, canoeing, fishing, hiking, swimming, and hunting.

History
Mississagi Provincial Park was established in 1965 but not officially regulated under the Provincial Parks Act until 1973. At that time it comprised an area of 3160 ha. It was expanded in 1988 with an additional 1740 ha to the east that included all of Helenbar Lake and significant geological features. In 2002, another 3574 ha were added to the north and east, consisting of two natural heritage areas: the Stag Lake Peatland and the Boland River Valley.

In late 2012, a release from the province stated that Mississagi Provincial Park would change its status from an 'operating' to a 'non-operating' park due to low visitation rates. However, due to objections from the city of Elliot Lake, a one-year pilot project was initiated in which Ontario Parks would work with the city of Elliot Lake to continue operations at Mississagi Provincial Park with the goal of increasing revenue and visitation rates. Through this agreement, the park continued to provide camping and other services during the 2013 season.

Since 2013, the park has continued to provide day-use and overnight camping for the duration of the summer seasons, and remains up and running.

Flora and fauna
Forest in the park is transitional, between the boreal forest to the north and the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence forest to the south. It consists of sugar maple and yellow birch, with stands of white and red pine and some eastern hemlock. Although the original pines were logged or burned in forest fires during the early 20th century, some old-growth pines remain in and around the park. In the Boland River Valley, there are a variety of old forest communities, including white cedar and black ash swamps.

Common wildlife found in the park includes white-tailed deer, moose, black bear, red squirrel, snowshoe hare, chipmunk, raccoon, and beaver. Bird species sighted include warbler, thrush vireo, flycatcher, loon, kestrel, pileated woodpecker, osprey, and northern (Baltimore) oriole.

title: Mississagi Provincial Park


text: User talk:82.201.229.150

title: User talk:82.201.229.150


text:
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing (Ontario)

The Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing is the ministry of the Government of Ontario that is responsible for municipal affairs and housing in the Canadian province of Ontario. The current Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing is Paul Calandra.

History
The Department of Municipal Affairs was established in 1934 by the Department of Municipal Affairs Act, which was passed in 1935. It inherited the municipal administrative and regulatory functions which had briefly been the responsibility of the Ontario Municipal Board. Initially, it was responsible for supervising the affairs of the municipalities whose real property tax-revenue base had collapsed during the Depression. After The Second World War, it became more involved in the provision of administrative and financial advice and support to municipalities.

From 1947 until 1955, the Minister of Municipal Affairs acted as the Registrar General, and the Office of the Registrar General was attached to the department. This office was transferred to the Department of the Provincial Secretary in 1955.

In April 1972, the department was dissolved, with most of its functions being transferred to the newly created Ministry of Treasury, Economics and Inter-governmental Affairs, but with the assessment function being given to the Ministry of Revenue.

In 1973, the Ministry of Housing was established by The Ministry of Housing Act, inheriting the Plans Administration Branch from the Ministry of Treasury, Economics and Intergovernmental Affairs, as well as the Ontario Housing Corporation from the Ministry of Revenue.

In 1981, the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing was formed by the consolidation of municipal affairs functions into the Ministry of Housing.


text:
Mack Brewery

Mack Bryggeri (Mack Brewery; Norwegian official name: Macks Ølbryggeri AS) is a brewery in Balsfjord Municipality in Troms county, Norway. It claims to be world's northernmost brewery.

It was founded during 1877 in Tromsø by Ludwig Markus Mack (1842–1915).

Claims of the world's northernmost brewery
Mack Bryggeri claims to be the northernmost brewery in the world, a claim that is cited on its bottles. After over 130 years of operation in Tromsø, in March 2012 the company moved production to Nordkjosbotn in Balsfjord Municipality, and lost the title of world's northernmost brewery to the brewery operated inside the Icefiord Hotel in Ilulissat (Greenland) by a margin of a mere 50 m. When Hotel Icefjiord closed their brewery in 2013, the brewery equipment was taken over by Brewery Immiaq (also Ilulissat), who claimed to hold the title of "world's northernmost brewery". In 2015, Svalbard Bryggeri claimed the northernmost brewery in the world at 78 degrees North.

Related reading

 * Sanner, J. Mack's bryggeri gjennom 75 år. 1877–1952 (Tromsø. 1953)
 * Høeg, E. I. Bryggerieier Ludvig Macks etterslekt ( Larvik. 1994)

title: Mack Brewery


title: User:Violetriga/Templates4/featured


text:
Meet the Barkers

Meet the Barkers is a reality television series which aired on MTV. The series followed the everyday life of Blink-182 drummer Travis Barker and his wife Shanna Moakler, as well as Moakler and Barker's two children, Alabama Luella Barker and Landon Asher Barker. Moakler and Oscar De La Hoya's daughter, Atiana Cecelia De La Hoya, also appeared on the show. Meet the Barkers lasted two seasons, airing 16 episodes. Barker filed for divorce after the series finale until it was finalized in 2008.

In 2008, MuchMusic (before becoming Much) started airing Meet the Barkers after Barker's involvement with the 2008 South Carolina Learjet 60 crash.

Family members

 * Travis Barker (born November 14, 1975) is the drummer of Blink 182 and The Transplants, and (formerly of) The Aquabats, Box Car Racer, and +44.
 * Shanna Moakler (born March 28, 1975) is a former Miss New York USA, Miss USA (received crown when the winner Chelsi Smith became Miss Universe), and Playboy model. She played "Monica Harper" on the television series Pacific Blue from 1998 though 2000.
 * Atiana Cecelia De La Hoya (born March 29, 1999) is the daughter of Moakler and boxer Oscar De La Hoya.
 * Landon Asher Barker (born October 9, 2003) is Barker and Moakler's son and older offspring.
 * Alabama Luella Barker (born December 24, 2005) is Barker and Moakler's daughter and younger offspring. She was born during the production of season two and only shown in the final episode. Despite the Barkers celebrating Christmas with Alabama present, scenes involving the then-newborn were filmed in early 2006.

title: Meet the Barkers


text:
Stalag XX-A

Stalag XX-A was a German World War II prisoner-of-war camp located in Toruń in German-occupied Poland. It was not a single camp and contained as many as 20,000 men at its peak. The main camp was located in seven forts of the 19th-century Toruń Fortress, located in the southern part of the city.

History
In September 1939 some of the forts were used as POW camps for Polish prisoners, specifically those captured after the surrender of the Polish fort at Westerplatte at the mouth of the river Vistula and on the Hel Peninsula. In June 1940 additional forts were added to the camp to accommodate British soldiers. The first to arrive were 403 men from the Allied campaign in Norway. Later, about 4,500 arrived from Dunkirk and subsequently from the British 51st (Highland) Infantry Division captured at Saint-Valery-en-Caux. In 1941 and 1942 Soviet prisoners arrived. At the peak there were about 10,000 prisoners at the camp. However, many of them were located in sub-camps. The camp was expanded by building additional wooden barracks.

The POWs in the camp were often weakened, exhausted, and various diseases were prevalent, including dysentery, diphtheria, tuberculosis, peptic ulcer disease, etc. Many suffered from depression and had mental breakdowns, and there was a case of suicide. Australian prisoner of war Walter Edward Smith recalled random extrajudicial executions of Polish prisoners of war carried out by the Germans (see German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war). Many POWs died in the camp. A hospital was located in Fort XIV, which was operated by the British Sanitary Corps.

The Polish resistance movement facilitated escapes of British POWs from the camp, subsequently sheltering them in Bydgoszcz, and transporting them through Gdynia to neutral Sweden.

The camp was liberated on 1 February 1945 by the Soviet Army.

Sub-camps
In accordance with the Third Geneva Convention, POWs below the rank of Sergeant were required to work and were attached to Arbeitskommando ("labour units") mostly located in various towns and villages in the region. They were hired out to military and civilian contractors. In the case of farm work, this was often carried out on state farms. Sergeants and above could not be forced to work and if they did so were sent to non-working camps. Some of these sub-camps were not the traditional POW camps with barbed wire and guard towers but merely accommodation centres. According to the International Red Cross and British POW Sam Kydd living conditions in the sub-camps were much better than in the main camp. The POWs received better food there, and they had contact with people from the outside, despite the fact that such contacts were forbidden. Some camps were large and created for a particular project.
 * Camp 34 - Construction of a large housing project for German colonists.
 * Elbing camp
 * Konitz camp
 * Bromberg Dynamit Nobel AG Factory in Bydgoszcz

Historical Note:

British actor Sam Kydd was a prisoner in one of these camps throughout the war. During his internment, where he remained for the next five years, he took command of the camp's theatrical activities - devising and staging plays. He felt so strongly about his work there that, when he was offered repatriation after three years, he turned it down to continue with his theatrical work. While imprisoned in a sub-camp in Wyrzysk, Sam Kydd had contact with local Poles and learned various phrases in Polish.

Notable prisoners

 * Aonghas Caimbeul, Private in 51st (Highland) Division from the Isle of Lewis. He subsequently became a highly important figure in 20th century Scottish Gaelic literature as both a war poet and award-winning memoirist.
 * Peter Conder, British soldier, ornithologist and conservationist
 * Okey Geffin, South African soldier and rugby union player
 * Sam Kydd, British soldier and post-war actor
 * Tommy Macpherson, British officer, escapee from the camp
 * Frank McLardy, British soldier and Nazi collaborator
 * Bruno Malaguti, Italian general
 * Airey Neave, British soldier, lawyer and Member of Parliament
 * Brian Paddon, Royal Air Force pilot, escapee from the camp
 * Walter Edward Smith, Australian soldier, who escaped from the camp, joined the Polish resistance and took part in the Warsaw Uprising
 * John Stephenson, British soldier, Sherwood Foresters.

title: Stalag XX-A


text:
Technology roadmap

A technology roadmap is a flexible planning schedule to support strategic and long-range planning, by matching short-term and long-term goals with specific technology solutions. It is a plan that applies to a new product or process and may include using technology forecasting or technology scouting to identify suitable emerging technologies. It is a known technique to help manage the fuzzy front-end of innovation. It is also expected that roadmapping techniques may help companies to survive in turbulent environments and help them to plan in a more holistic way to include non-financial goals and drive towards a more sustainable development. Here roadmaps can be combined with other corporate foresight methods to facilitate systemic change.

Developing a roadmap has three major uses. It helps reach a consensus about a set of needs and the technologies required to satisfy those needs, it provides a mechanism to help forecast technology developments, and it provides a framework to help plan and coordinate technology developments. It may also be used as an analysis tool to map the development and emergence from new industries.

Process
The technology roadmapping process may be conducted in three phases: preliminary activities, the development of the roadmap, and the follow-up activities phase. Because the process is too big for one model, the phases are modeled separately. In the models no different roles are made; this is because everything is done by the participants as a group.

Phase 1: Preliminary phase
The first phase, the preliminary phase (see figure 2), consists of three steps: In this phase the key decision makers must identify that they have a problem and that technology roadmapping can help them in solving the problem.
 * 1) satisfy essential conditions,
 * 2) provide leadership / sponsorship, and
 * 3) define the scope and boundaries for the technology roadmap.

Satisfy essential conditions
In this step it must become clear what the conditions are (they must be identified) and if they are not met, who takes actions to meet them. These conditions include, for example: All conditions should be satisfied (or an agreed-on party takes necessary actions) to continue to the next step. The participants can have zero or more conditions of their own. It applies to all conditions that have the attribute to be met or not.
 * A need for the technology roadmap
 * Input and participation from different parts of the organization (e.g., marketing, R&D, the strategic business units) with different planning horizons and perspectives.

Provide leadership / sponsorship
Committed leadership is needed because of the time and effort involved in creating a technology roadmap. Additionally the leadership should come from one of the participants, one of them provides leadership and sponsorship. This means that the line organization must drive the process and use the roadmap to make resource allocation decisions.

Define the scope and boundaries
In this step the context for the roadmap is specified. In the company a vision should exist and it must be clear that the roadmap can support that vision. If the vision does not exist one should be developed and clearly stated. When that is done the boundaries and the scope of the roadmap should be specified. Furthermore, the planning horizon and the level of details should be set. The scope can be further divided into the technology scope and the participation scope.

In table 1 all the different sub-activities of the preliminary activity phase can be seen. All the sub-activities have concepts as end products (marked in bold). These concepts are the actual meta-data model, which is an adjusted class diagram.

Phase 2: Development phase
The second phase, the development of the technology roadmap phase (see figure 3.), consists of 7 steps: "1. Identify the 'product' that is the focus of the roadmap,

2. Identify the critical system requirements and their targets,

3. Specify the major technology areas,

4. Specify the technology drivers and their targets,

5. Identify technology alternatives and their timelines,

6. Recommend the technology alternatives that should be pursued, and

7. create the technology roadmap report."

Identify the product focus of the roadmap
In this step the common product needs are identified and are agreed on by all the participants. This is important to get the acceptance of all groups for the process. In case of uncertainty of the product needs scenario-based planning can be used to determine the common product needs. In figure 3, the participants and possibly the scenario-based planning provide the common product needs.

Identify the critical system requirements and their targets
Once it is decided what must be roadmapped, the critical system requirements can be identified; they provide the overall framework for the technology roadmap. The requirements can have targets (as an attribute in figure 3) like reliability and costs.

Specify the major technology areas
These are the areas that help achieve critical system requirements. For each technology area several technologies can be found. Example technology areas are: market assessment, crosscutting technology, component development, and system development.

Specify the technology drivers and their targets
In this step the critical system requirements from the second step are transformed into technology drivers (with targets) for the specific technology area. These drivers are the critical variables that select the technology alternatives. Drivers depend on the technology areas but they relate to how the technology addresses the critical system requirements.

Identify technology alternatives and their timelines
At this point the technology drivers and their targets are specified and the technology alternatives that can satisfy those targets should be specified. For each of the alternatives a timeline should be estimated for how it will mature with respect to the technology driver targets.

The time factor can be adapted suitable for the particular situation. The time horizons for e-commerce and software related sectors are usually short. Other distinctions can be made on scale and intervals.

Recommend the technology alternatives that should be pursued
Because the alternatives may differ in costs, timeline, etc., a selection must be made of the alternatives. These are the alternatives to pursue in figure 3. In this step a lot of trade-offs must be made between different alternatives for different targets: for example, performance over costs and even target over target.

Create the report
At this point the technology roadmap is finished. In figure 3, it can be seen that the technology roadmap report consists of 5 parts: The report can also include additional information. In table 2 all the different sub-activities of the development phase can be seen.
 * 1) the identification and description of each technology area,
 * 2) critical factors in the roadmap,
 * 3) unaddressed areas,
 * 4) implementation recommendations, and
 * 5) technical recommendations.

Phase 3: Follow-up activity phase
This is the moment when the roadmap must be critiqued, validated and hopefully accepted by the group involved in any implementation. This requires a plan developed using the technology roadmap. Next, there must be a periodical review and update point, because needs from the participants and the technologies evolve.

The fast-start approach to roadmapping
Given the potential complexity and organisational inertia surrounding the creation of roadmaps, researchers at the University of Cambridge focused on developing a fast-start approach to roadmapping. This approach, called T-Plan, was created in the late 1990s primarily to help organisations take the first step into roadmapping with minimal resource and time commitment. It has been influential in the propagation and uptake of roadmapping internationally including translations of the T-Plan workbook into Chinese (traditional & modern), German, Japanese and Spanish. The approach (as well as its counterpart for innovation and strategy roadmapping, S-Plan) is flexible and scalable, and therefore can be easily customised for efficient application. Fast and lean approaches are particularly important for small and medium enterprises (SME) and have been shown to work in particularly to give directions to clusters of SMEs.

Planning and business development context
The process of technology roadmapping fits into corporate strategy, corporate strategic planning, technology planning and the business development context. Three critical elements should be connected: needs, products, and technology.

Consultant with skills
Creating a technology roadmap requires certain knowledge and skills. Some of the participants must know the purpose of technology roadmapping. Next to this group-process and interpersonal skills are required since the process includes a lot of discussions and finding out what the common need is. If the number of participants is really large there might be need for a consultant or facilitator.

Product planning in roadmapping
This is the most common type of a technology roadmap: linking the insertion of technologies into products.

Programme planning
This type is more directed to the implementation of strategy and related to project planning. Figure 5 shows the relationships between technology development phases, programme phases and milestones.

Formats

 * Bars: Almost all the roadmaps are (partly) expressed in bars for each layer. This makes the roadmaps very simple and unified, which makes the communication and integration easier.
 * Graphs: A technology roadmap can also be expressed as a graph, usually one for each of the sub layers. (e.g. IMEC uses the second method).

Case studies
Documented case studies include:
 * ABB
 * Mining
 * Motorola
 * Philips
 * Siemens

title: Technology roadmap


text: Category:Religion in Scotland

title: Category:Religion in Scotland


text:
West Russian Volunteer Army

The West Russian Volunteer Army or Bermontians was a pro-German military formation in Latvia and Lithuania during the Russian Civil War from November 1918 to December 1919.

History
The Western Russian Volunteer Army, unlike the pro-Entente Volunteer Army in Southern Russia, was supported and in fact put together under German auspices. The Compiègne Armistice of November 1918, in article 12, stipulated that troops of the former German Empire would remain in the Baltic provinces of the former Russian Empire to help fight against Bolshevik advances and that such German units were to withdraw once the Allies determined that the situation was under control. The order to withdraw was given after signing of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919.

However, only a small portion of the Freikorps in the Baltic retired in response to the Allies' order; the rest remained under the leadership of the German Army General Rüdiger von der Goltz. To avoid casting blame on Germany and infuriating the Allies, von der Goltz withdrew into the background and in August 1919 merged his troops with the "Special Russian Corps", led by Cossack General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. The two generals recruited about 50,000 men: mostly Freikorps members and Baltic Germans, as well as some Russian POWs captured by Germany in World War I and then released if they promised that they would help fight against the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War. The resultant Western Russian Volunteer Army declared that it would support the Russian White movement forces of Aleksandr Kolchak (then based in Siberia) and started marching eastwards (October 1919) with a stated intention of attacking the Bolsheviks, but its real goal appeared to be sustaining German power in the Baltic region.

Confrontation with the governments of Latvia and Lithuania
The political situation in the Baltic region continued to deteriorate. A new government in Lithuania refused to allow White Russians to pass troops through and establish a military base. After initially supporting the White Russians the Weimar government, under pressure from the Entente, banned the transfer of German soldiers to the Russians and ordered the Reichswehr to block the East Prussian border to block Freikorp's supplies. General von der Goltz was finally recalled on October 4.

In this circumstances Bermondt-Avalov launched an offensive using Freikorps in attempt to force the Republic of Latvia to negotiate. With the support of British naval artillery and Estonian armoured train, a Latvian counter-offensive followed in November, which forced Bermondt's army to withdraw. Mitau was also lost in loss-making fights.

In October 1919, the West Russian Volunteer Army attacked the newly independent states of Lithuania and Latvia, to which Germany had granted independence. It briefly occupied the west bank of the Daugava River in Riga and the government of Kārlis Ulmanis had to request military assistance from Lithuania and Estonia. The Estonians sent two armoured trains to aid the Latvians while the Lithuanians were engaged in battles with the Bolsheviks and could only issue diplomatic protests. The Latvians also received assistance from the guns of a British Royal Navy destroyer, HMS Vanoc, in Riga harbour.

In November, the Latvian army managed to drive the Bermondt-Avalov forces into Lithuanian territory. Mitau was also lost. Finally, the West Russian Volunteer Army suffered heavy defeats by the Lithuanians near Radviliškis, a major railway centre.

Upon defeat Bermondt-Avalov fled to Denmark. The German Freikorps were handed over to the German Lieutenant General von Eberhardt, successor of the Goltz as commander of the VI Reserve Corps in Allenstein. After the involvement of the Entente military mission, General Eberhardt was able to organize evacuation of the remaining German Freikorps via Lithuania to East Prussia. This was completed by mid-December 1919.

Army
The Army uniforms of the West Russian Volunteer Army were provided by Germany and decorated with Russian distinctive signs, in particular the shoulder legs according to the model of the Russian Imperial Army and an Orthodox cross worn on the left sleeve.

The army included:
 *  Corps Graf Keller (Colonel Potozki): from 7,000 to 10,000 soldiers, near Jelgava
 *  Corps Virgolitsch (Colonel Virgolitsch): from 3,500 to 5,000 mounted soldiers including Cossacks, stationed in northern Lithuania
 *  Iron Division (Major Bischoff): about 15,000 to 18,000, at Jelgava, joined in August
 *  German Legion (1919) (Captain Sievert): about 9,000 to 12,000 soldiers who had come together from various independent free corps.
 *  Freikorps Plehwe (Captain ): about 3,000 soldiers (the former 2nd Guard Reserve Regiment), before Libau
 *  Freikorps Diebitsch: about 3,000 soldiers, for railway protection in Lithuania.
 *  Gerhard Roßbach: about 1,000 soldiers, appeared at the end of October after a march over 1,200 km off Riga.

title: West Russian Volunteer Army


text:
User:MementoVivere/Sandbox

 * This page is used for the temporary storage of work in progress.

title: User:MementoVivere/Sandbox


text:
Kalli Dakos

Kalli Dakos (born June 16, 1950) is a Canadian children's poet and teacher. She was born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada and graduated from Queen's University, earning BAH and BEd degrees.

title: Kalli Dakos


text:
Wolseley 6/90

The Wolseley 6/90 is a car produced by Wolseley Motors Limited in the United Kingdom from 1954 to 1959. Announced on the first day of the October 1954 British Motor Show, the 6/90 replaced the 6/80 as the company's flagship model. It was badged with Six-Ninety on the bonnet and with 6/90 on the bootlid.

Whereas the postwar austerity 6/80 had shared all but its radiator shell and interior finish with the Morris Six, the 6/90 design used the Italian-style body panels of the previous year's Riley Pathfinder, although (because big Wolseleys were all six-cylinder cars) not Riley's traditional sporting "big four" engine or its suspension. These Morris, Riley and Wolseley cars had all been designed by the Nuffield Organization before it merged with Austin to become BMC. All three marques would soon be heavily involved in BMC's badge engineering.

The Pathfinder and 6/90 were Nuffield designs. The Wolseley received the new BMC C-Series straight-6, an engine that produced 95 hp (71 kW) coupled to a four-speed manual transmission. The 6/90 was not given the Pathfinder's sophisticated rear suspension but some versions had Riley refinements like a right-hand gear lever on the floor.

The interior features a grey striped formica instrument panel and central large chrome mesh "cheese-cutter" speaker grille. The hand brake control was under the dash to the side of the steering column and the gearchange was column mounted opposite the dip switch. The leather trimmed front seats were mounted closely together and the rear bench had a fold down centre arm rest.

In total, 5776 of the Series I cars were made before the Series II 6/90 entered production in 1957.

The Motor magazine tested a 6/90 in 1955 and found it to have a top speed of 96 mph and acceleration from 0-60 mph in 17.3 seconds. A fuel consumption of 21.6 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £1063 including taxes.

It is also somewhat notorious for leading to the sacking of its designer Gerald Palmer (by BMC's Leonard Lord) in favour of Alec Issigonis.

Series II
Series II 6/90s, introduced for 1957, included leaf springs on the live axle in the rear, a more conventional walnut dash and a floor-mounted gear lever — unusually on the right-hand side, on right-hand-drive cars. Overdrive or automatic transmission were available as options.

In production for only 8 months, the Series II gave way to the Series III in 1958 after only 1024 had been made.

Series III
The Series III included larger power brakes and a larger rear window. This design was also available, rebadged, as the Riley Pathfinder's replacement, the short-lived Two-Point-Six. Total production for Series III cars was 5052.

Between 1954 and 1959, the 6/90 was the only car to bear the famous illuminated Wolseley radiator badge.

6/90 production ended in 1959 with the introduction of the Pininfarina-designed 6/99.

Until the early 1960s, the definitive British police car was a black Wolseley 6/90 with a brass Winkworth bell on its front bumper.

Specifications

 * Engine: 3.0 L (2912 cc) C-Series I6, 95 hp (71 kW)

Die-cast models
A model of the 6/90 was produced by Lansdowne in 2007.

title: Wolseley 6/90


text:
User:Soredewa

Hi, there! I am a Saitaman living in Melbourne Australia. I hope you enjoy my participation. Soredewa 13:44, 2005 Apr 14 (UTC)

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title: User:Soredewa


text: Category:Wolseley vehicles

title: Category:Wolseley vehicles