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Talk:Ulissi Aldrovandi

Odd that Ulisse Aldrovandi is a redirect here. --Wetman 19:39, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Keep redirect
Keep redirect. I wasn't able to find the discussion for the redirect so I will just put my comments here. Ulissi Aldrovandi is the spelling used by the Catholic Encyclopedia, not simply a mispelling.

title: Talk:Ulissi Aldrovandi


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User talk:Akrobrat

Welcome!

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Plantations of Ireland

Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland (Plandálacha na hÉireann) involved the confiscation of Irish-owned land by the English Crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from Great Britain. The Crown saw the plantations as a means of controlling, anglicising and 'civilising' Gaelic Ireland. The main plantations took place from the 1550s to the 1620s, the biggest of which was the plantation of Ulster. The plantations led to the founding of many towns, massive demographic, cultural and economic changes, changes in land ownership and the landscape, and also to centuries of ethnic and sectarian conflict. They took place before and during the earliest English colonisation of the Americas, and a group known as the West Country Men were involved in both Irish and American colonization.

There had been small-scale immigration from Britain since the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion. By the 15th century, direct English control had shrunk to an area called the Pale. In the 1540s the English Tudor conquest of Ireland began. The first plantations were in the 1550s, during the reign of Queen Mary I, in Laois ('Queen's County') and Offaly ('King's County'). These plantations were based around existing frontier forts, but they were largely unsuccessful due to fierce resistance from native Irish clans.

The next plantations were during the reign of Elizabeth I. In 1568 there was an attempt to establish a corporate colony in Kerrycurrihy barony, but it was destroyed by the Irish. In the 1570s a privately-funded plantation of east Ulster was attempted, but it also sparked conflict with the local Irish lord and ended in failure. The Munster plantation of the 1580s followed the Desmond Rebellions. Businessmen were encouraged to invest in the scheme and English colonists were settled on land confiscated from the defeated rebel lords. However, the settlements were scattered and attracted far fewer settlers than was hoped for. When the Nine Years' War broke out in the 1590s, most of these settlements were abandoned, although English settlers began to return following the war.

The plantation of Ulster began in the 1610s, during the reign of James I. Following their defeat in the Nine Years' War, many rebel Ulster lords fled Ireland and their lands were confiscated. This was the biggest and most successful of the plantations and comprised most of the province of Ulster. While the province was mainly Irish-speaking and Catholic, the new settlers were required to be English-speaking Protestants, with most coming from northern England and the Scottish Lowlands. This created a distinct Ulster Protestant community.

The Ulster plantation was one cause of the 1641 Irish Rebellion, during which thousands of settlers were killed, expelled or fled. After the Irish Catholics were defeated in the Cromwellian conquest of 1652, most remaining Catholic-owned land was confiscated and thousands of English soldiers settled in Ireland. Scottish settlement in Ulster resumed and intensified during the Scottish famine of the 1690s. By the 1720s, British Protestants were the majority in Ulster.

The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with British and Protestant identities. The ruling classes of these communities replaced the older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes.

Background
There had been small-scale immigration from Britain in the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion, creating a small Anglo-Norman, English, Welsh and Flemish community in Ireland, under the Crown of England. By the 15th century, English control had shrunk to an area called The English Pale. By the Tudor period, however, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory initially lost to the Anglo-Normans: "even in the Pale, all the common folk ... for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language". At a higher social level, there was intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords. To varying degrees inside and especially outside of the Pale, the 'Old English' had integrated into Irish society. Edmund Spenser wrote of the old English: "they are more sharpely to be chastised and reformed … for they are more stubborne, and disobedient to the law and government, than the Irish". English discourse on Ireland largely viewed the Gaelic Irish outside the Pale as savages, and compared them with the Native Americans in 1580.

In 1174 Rory O’Connor (Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair) defeated the Anglo-Norman army at Thurles and began making incursions into the Pale itself forcing Henry II to come to talks, the treaty of Windsor was drafted which was agreed upon that the Anglo-Normans would have mostly the Pale but couldn't make incursions into Irish held lands. Henry II would later disavow the treaty he agreed to and made incursions into Irish kingdoms forfeiting his title as lord of Ireland and his right to the Pale itself. Meaning subsequent claims by the English monarchy to Ireland such as Henry VIII lordship or later kingship were illegitimate

Laudabiliter was a decree issued by the Pope that made Ireland's people the subjects of Henry II, however there is some debate on whether the Laudabiliter was legitimate or a forgery. The Laudabiliter could be compared to the Papal Bull "Inter Caetera," issued by Pope Alexander VI, which gave the Spanish the exclusive right to rule the lands discovered by Columbus, making the native Americans their "subjects". Despite this the Laudabiliter had a continuing political relevance into the 16th century. Henry VIII of England was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December 1538, causing his opponents to question his continuing claim to be Lord of Ireland, which was based ultimately on Laudabiliter. Henry established the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542.

Gerald of Wales argued that the English crown has the right to rule Ireland because of a mission to civilise a barbarous people. His writings shaped English and European views of Ireland for centuries. He says: The idle woodland people the Irish reject agriculture, cities, the rights and privileges of citizenship and hence civilisation itself, the mission is to civilise and truly Christianise the Irish. The Irish rejected the Laudabiliter

Early plantations (1556–1576)

The first Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest. The Dublin Castle administration intended to pacify and anglicise Irish territories controlled by the Crown and incorporate the Gaelic Irish aristocracy into the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland by using a policy of surrender and regrant. The administration intended to develop Ireland as a peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated and English plantations were established. To this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the "exemplary plantation", in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that the Irish could emulate and be taxed.

Laois and Offaly
The second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive/commercial in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions. The first such scheme was the Plantation of King's County (now Offaly) and Queen's County (now Laois) in 1556, naming them after the new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary I respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown (now Daingean) and Maryborough (now Portlaoise). An act was passed "whereby the King and Queen's Majesties, and the Heires and Successors of the Queen, be entitled to the Counties of Leix, Slewmarge, Irry, Glinmaliry, and Offaily, and for making the same Countries Shire Grounds." This plantation initiated the colonial settlement pattern for extending English control in hostile regions. The Leix-Offaly plantation also demonstrated to the Crown high cost of colonialism, leading them to encourage private financial participation in colonial ventures.

The O'Moore and O'Connor clans, which occupied the area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Sussex, ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement. However, the plantation was not a great success. The O'Moores and O'Connors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought a local insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578, the English finally subdued the displaced O'Moore clan by massacring most of their fine (or ruling families) at Mullaghmast in Laois, having invited them there for peace talks. Rory Oge O'More, the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year. The ongoing violence meant that the authorities had difficulty in attracting people to settle in their new plantation. Settlement ended up clustered around a series of military fortifications.

Kerrycurrihy
In 1568–1569, Warham St Leger and Richard Grenville tried to establish a small English joint stock colony in the barony of Kerrycurrihy, by Cork Harbour, on land leased from the Earl of Desmond. They then proposed establishing larger corporate colonies in Munster by confiscating Gaelic land. At about this time Grenville also seized lands for colonisation at Tracton, to the west of Cork harbour. Sir Peter Carew had asserted his claim to lands in south Leinster. The plantations in the south of Ireland led to bitter disputes with local Irish. However, in June 1569 the fledgling colonies were destroyed by the Irish under James FitzMaurice when the first Desmond Rebellion began.

East Ulster
In the 1570s, there was an attempt to colonize parts of east Ulster, which had formerly been part of the English Earldom of Ulster. It was known as the "Enterprise of Ulster". During the conflict between the English and Shane O'Neill, there were proposals to colonize parts of east Ulster, but Crown support was not forthcoming. Following Shane O'Neill's death, an act of attainder was passed on him for rebellion against the Crown. As O'Neill had claimed lordship over most of Ulster, the act declared most of the province to be forfeit to the Crown.

In 1571, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Thomas Smith a large portion of Clannaboy and the Ards to colonize. Smith envisaged a colony led by the younger sons of English gentlemen, in which the native Irish would be employed as labourers. The scheme was partly privately funded and partly state-sponsored by way of military support. In 1572 Smith's son landed in the Ards with 100 men. They were opposed by the Lord of Clannaboy, Brian McPhelim O'Neill, who complained the grant was illegal. As the English often commandeered Irish church buildings for garrisons, McPhelim burned all church buildings in the Ards to prevent this. The colonists hastily built a fort near Comber, but the plantation fell apart after Smith's son was killed by Irishmen in 1573.

The plantation scheme was taken over by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, who set out to colonize much of County Antrim. He provided most of the funding, with the state providing some of the military support. He landed at Carrickfergus in 1573 with 1,100 men, but their numbers dwindled following an outbreak of plague in the town. The colonists were opposed by McPhelim, Turlough Luineach O'Neill of Tyrone, and Sorley Boy MacDonnell of the Glens, who asserted they were opposing Essex rather than the Crown. In September 1574, Essex led a military expedition deep into Tyrone, burning crops. That November, Essex's men massacred 200 of McPhelim's company during a parley at Belfast Castle, and Essex then had McPhelim executed for treason. The MacDonnells called in reinforcements from their kinsmen in the Scottish Highlands. In July 1575, Essex sent Francis Drake and John Norris to attack the MacDonnells. This ended with the massacre of 600 MacDonnell men, women and children on Rathlin Island. By this time, Elizabeth had called an end to the scheme. It was a failure which had cost Essex and the Crown dearly.

Munster Plantation (1583 onwards)
The Munster Plantation of the 1580s was the first mass plantation in Ireland. It was instituted as punishment for the Desmond Rebellions, when the Geraldine Earl of Desmond had rebelled against English interference in Munster. The Desmond dynasty was annihilated in the aftermath of the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–83) and their estates were confiscated by the Crown. The English authorities took the opportunity to settle the province with colonists from England and Wales, who, it was hoped, would be a bulwark against further rebellions. In 1584, the Surveyor General of Ireland, Sir Valentine Browne and a commission surveyed Munster, to allocate confiscated lands to English Undertakers (wealthy colonists who "undertook" to import tenants from England to work their new lands). The English Undertakers were obligated to develop new towns and provide for the defence of planted districts from attack.

However, the colonial plans were complicated by surveys showing less land available than previously imagined, as well as lawsuits influenced by the earl of Ormond. It was agreed that ninety-one families would be settled on 12,000 acres and further smaller grants of 8,000, 6,000 and 4,000 acres families were to be planted. In 1611 it has been estimated that 94,000 acres originally assigned to undertakers had been reclaimed. Out of the eighty-six, original volunteers only fifteen ultimately took out patents, although these were supplemented by another twenty individuals not associated with the initial scheme. On the outbreak of the Nine Years' War, one contemporary estimate was that the plantation had attracted about 5,000 English settlers, but it is more commonly surmised that the total English population in the colony stood at c. 4000 at the first overthrow in 1598. This was well short of the 11,375 people that the original plans had envisaged.

There was an enterprising capitalist element to the Munster plantations. Privateers and the enterprising public could buy land in Munster at pennies an acre as undertakers, sometimes backed by private investors. Sir Walter Raleigh owned large estates in Munster and harvested the forests around his estate to make tobacco pipes and wine barrels, although his company proved unprofitable. However, other investors made a fortune off the plantations. Businessman Robert Payne advocated for settlers to come to the Munster colonies. He bought land holdings in Munster for his venture, recruiting 25 business partners and partnering with industrialist Francis Willoughby. Willoughby was a sleeping partner in a project aimed at establishing an ironworks in the Munster colonies. Daniel Gookin, a Munster colonist, sold his lands in Carrigaline and his company in Munster to the ultimate capitalist-colonialist of the period, the newly created Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. He then partnered with another Munster colonist, Captain William Newce, to invest in the newly—formed Virginia Company and helped establish the colony at Jamestown in North America.

As well as the former Geraldine estates (spread through the modern counties of Limerick, Cork, Kerry and Tipperary), the survey took in the lands belonging to other families and clans that had supported the rebellions in Kerry and southwest Cork. However, the settlement here was rather piecemeal because the ruling clan – the MacCarthy Mór line – argued that the rebel landowners were their subordinates and that the lords actually owned the land. In this area, lands once granted to some English Undertakers was taken away again when native lords, such as the MacCarthys, appealed the dispossession of their dependants.

Other sectors of the plantation were equally chaotic. John Popham imported 70 tenants from Somerset, only to find that the land had already been settled by another undertaker, and he was obliged to send them home. Nevertheless, 500000 acres were planted with English colonists. The Crown hoped that the settlement would attract in the region of 15,000 colonists, but a report from 1589 showed that the English Undertakers had imported only about 700 English tenants between them. Historians have noted that each tenant was the head of a household and that he therefore likely represented at least 4–5 other people. This would put the English population in Munster at nearer to three or four thousand persons, but it was still substantially below the projected figure.

The Munster Plantation was supposed to develop compact defensible settlements, but the English settlers were spread in pockets across the province, wherever land had been confiscated. Initially, the English Undertakers were given detachments of English soldiers to protect them, but these were abolished in the 1590s. As a result, when the Nine Years War – an Irish rebellion against English rule – reached Munster in 1598, most of the settlers were chased off their lands without a fight. They took refuge in the province's walled towns or fled back to England. However, when the rebellion was put down in 1601–03, the Plantation was re-constituted by the Governor of Munster, George Carew. The English settler population in the 1620s was four times greater than in the earlier Munster plantation and powerful enough to control a considerable area after the Irish Rebellion of 1641.

Ulster Plantation (1606 onwards)
Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster was the most Irish-Gaelic part of Ireland and the only province that was completely outside English control. The war, of 1594–1603, ended with the surrender of the O'Neill and O'Donnell lords to the English crown, but it was also a hugely costly and humiliating episode for the English government in Ireland. In the short term the war failed, and generous surrender terms given to the rebels re-granted them much of their former land, but under English law.

But when Hugh O'Neill and the other rebel earls left Ireland in the so-called 1607 Flight of the Earls to seek help from the Spanish Crown for a new rebellion, the Lord Deputy Arthur Chichester seized the opportunity to colonise the province and declared the lands of O'Neill, O'Donnell and their followers forfeit. Initially, Chichester planned a fairly modest plantation, including large grants to Irish-born lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, in 1608 Cahir O'Doherty's rebellion in County Donegal interrupted implementation of this plan. O'Doherty was a former ally of the English who felt he had not been fairly rewarded for his role in the war. The rebellion was swiftly put down and O'Doherty killed, but these events gave Chichester a justification for expropriating all of the original landowners in the province.

In 1603 James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, uniting these two crowns and also gaining possession of the Kingdom of Ireland, at that time an English Crown possession. The Plantation of Ulster was promoted to him as a joint "British", i.e. English and Scottish, venture to pacify and civilise Ulster. It was agreed that at least half of the settlers would be Scots. Six counties made up his official plantation of Ulster: • Armagh

• Fermanagh

• Cavan

• Coleraine

• Donegal

• Tyrone

The plan was determined by two factors: first, the Crown wanted to protect the settlement from being destroyed by rebels like the Munster plantation. So rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from convicted rebels, they confiscated all of the land and redistributed it, creating concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons. The new landowners were explicitly banned from taking on Irish tenants, and had to import their tenant farmers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The common Irish residents were to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches, the more ready for Protestant control. The Planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman.

The second major influence on the plantation of Ulster was the political negotiation among the interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be English Undertakers, wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. The planters were granted around 3000 acres each, on condition that they settle there a minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking Protestants. However, veterans of the war in Ireland (known as Servitors) led by Arthur Chichester, successfully lobbied for land grants of their own. Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the City of London (the financial sector in London). The city was granted their own town, and lands. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant Church of Ireland, which was granted all churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic church. The Crown intended that clerics from England and the Pale convert the population to Protestantism.

The Plantation of Ulster was a mixed success for the English. By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male English and Scottish settlers in Ulster, which meant that the total settler population could have been as high as 80,000 to 150,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the Finn and Foyle valleys (around modern Derry and east County Donegal), north County Armagh and east County Tyrone. Planters had achieved substantial settlement on unofficially planted lands in north Down, led by James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery, and in south Antrim under Sir Randall MacDonnell. The settler population increased rapidly, as just under half of the migrants were women – a very high ratio compared, for instance, to contemporary Spanish settlement in Latin America or English settlement in Virginia. New England attracted more families, but still was predominately male in its early years.

But the Irish population was neither removed nor Anglicised. In practise, the settlers did not stay on poorer lands, but clustered around towns and the best land. This meant that many English and Scottish landowners had to take Irish tenants, contrary to the terms of the Plantation of Ulster. In 1609, Chichester deported 1300 former Irish soldiers from Ulster to serve in the Swedish Army.

The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism also had few successes; at first the clerics sent to Ireland were all English speakers, whereas the native population were usually monoglot speakers of Irish Gaelic. Later, the Catholic Church made a determined effort to retain its followers among the native population.

Later plantations (1610–1641)

In addition to the Ulster plantation, several other small plantations occurred under the reign of the Stuart Kings—James I and his son Charles I—in the early 17th century. The first of these took place in north county Wexford in 1610, where lands were confiscated from the MacMurrough-Kavanagh clan. Since most land-owning families in Ireland had taken their estates by force in the previous four hundred years, very few of them, with the exception of the New English planters, had proper legal titles for them. As a result, in order to obtain such titles, they were required to forfeit a quarter of their lands. This policy was used against the Kavanaghs in Wexford and subsequently elsewhere, to break up Catholic Irish estates (especially the Gaelic ones) around the country. Following the precedent set in Wexford, small plantations were established in Laois and Offaly, Longford, Leitrim and north Tipperary.

In Laois and Offally, the Tudor plantation had consisted of a chain of military garrisons. In the new, more peaceful climate of the 17th century, it attracted large numbers of landowners, tenants and labourers. Prominent planters in Leinster in this period include Charles Coote, Adam Loftus, and William Parsons.

In Munster, during the peaceful early years of the 17th century, thousands more English and Welsh settlers arrived in the province. There were many small plantations in Munster in this period, as Irish lords were required to forfeit up to one third of their estates to get their deeds to the remainder recognised by the English authorities. The settlers became concentrated in towns along the south coast – especially Youghal, Bandon, Kinsale and Cork city. Notable English Undertakers of the Munster Plantation include Walter Raleigh, Edmund Spenser, and Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. The latter especially made huge fortunes out of amassing Irish lands and developing them for industry and agriculture. The Irish Catholic upper classes were unable to stop the continued plantations in Ireland because they had been barred from public office on religious grounds. By 1615 they comprised a minority in the Irish Parliament, as a result of the creation of "pocket boroughs" (where Protestants were in the majority) in planted areas. In 1625, they gained a temporary halt to land confiscations by agreeing to pay for England's war with France and Spain.

In addition to the plantations, thousands of independent settlers arrived in Ireland in the early 17th century, from the Netherlands and France as well as Britain. Many of them became chief tenants of Irish land-owners; others set up in the towns (especially Dublin) – notably as bankers and financiers. By 1641, there were calculated to be up to 125,000 Protestant settlers in Ireland, though they were still outnumbered by native Catholics by around 15 to 1.

Not all of the early 17th century English Planters were Protestants. A considerable number of English Catholics settled in Ireland between 1603 and 1641, in part for economic reasons but also to escape persecution in England. In the time of Elizabeth and James I, the Catholics of England suffered a greater degree of persecution than English Catholics in Ireland. In England, Catholics were greatly outnumbered by Protestants and lived under constant fear of betrayal by their fellows. In Ireland they could blend in with the local majority-Catholic population in a way that was not possible in England. English Catholic planters were most common in County Kilkenny, where they may have made up half of all the English and Scottish planters to arrive in this region.

Plantations stayed off the political agenda until the appointment of Thomas Wentworth, a Privy Councilor of Charles I, to the position of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632. Wentworth's job was to raise revenue for Charles and to cement Royal control over Ireland – which meant, among other things, more plantations, both to raise money and to break the political power of the Irish Catholic gentry. Wentworth confiscated land in Wicklow and planned a full-scale Plantation of Connacht – where all Catholic landowners would lose between a half and a quarter of their estates. The local juries were intimidated into accepting Wentworth's settlement; when a group of Connacht landowners complained to Charles I, Wentworth had them imprisoned. However, settlement proceeded only in County Sligo and County Roscommon. Next, Wentworth surveyed the major Catholic landowners in Leinster for similar treatment, including members of the powerful Butler dynasty. Wentworth's plans were interrupted by the outbreak of the Bishops Wars in Scotland, which eventually resulted in Wentworth's execution by the English Parliament and civil war in England and Ireland. Wentworth's constant questioning of Catholic land titles was one of the major causes of the 1641 Rebellion, and the principal reason why it was joined by Ireland's wealthiest and most powerful Catholic families.

The 1641 Rebellion
In October 1641, after a bad harvest and in a threatening political climate, Phelim O'Neill launched a rebellion, hoping to rectify various grievances of Irish Catholic landowners. However, once the rebellion was underway, the resentment of the native Irish in Ulster boiled over into indiscriminate attacks on the settler population in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Irish Catholics attacked the plantations all around the country, but especially in Ulster. English writers at the time put the Protestant victims at over 100,000. William Petty, in his survey of the 1650s, estimated the death toll at around 30,000. More recent research, however, based on close examination of the depositions of the Protestant refugees collected in 1642, suggests a figure of 4,000 settlers were killed directly; and up to 12,000 may have died of causes also related to disease (always a cause of high fatalities during wartime) or privation after being expelled from their homes.

Ulster was worst hit by the wars, with massive loss of civilian life and mass displacement of people. The atrocities committed by both sides further poisoned the relationship between the settler and native communities in the province. Although peace was eventually restored to Ulster, the wounds opened in the plantation and civil war years were very slow to heal and arguably still fester in Northern Ireland in the early 21st century.

In the 1641 Rebellion, the Munster Plantation was temporarily destroyed, just as it had been during the Nine Years' War. Ten years of warfare took place in Munster between the planters and their descendants and the native Irish Catholics. But the ethnic/religious divisions were less stark in Munster than in Ulster. Some of the earlier English Planters in Munster had been Roman Catholics and their descendants largely sided with the Irish in the 1640s. Conversely, some Irish noblemen who had converted to Protestantism – notably Earl Inchiquin – sided with the settler community.

Cromwellian land confiscation (1652)

Over 12,000 veterans of the New Model Army were awarded land in Ireland in place of their wages due, which the Commonwealth was unable to pay. Many of these soldiers sold their land grants to other Protestants rather than settle in war-ravaged Ireland, but 7,500 soldiers did settle in Ireland. They were required to keep their weapons to act as a reserve militia in case of future rebellions. Taken together with the Merchant Adventurers, probably over 10,000 Parliamentarians settled in Ireland after the civil wars. In addition to the Parliamentarians, thousands of Scottish Covenanter soldiers, who had been stationed in Ulster during the war, settled there permanently after its end.

Some Parliamentarians had argued that all the Irish should be deported to west of the River Shannon and replaced with English settlers. However, this would have required hundreds of thousands of English settlers willing to come to Ireland, and such numbers of aspirant settlers were never recruited. Rather, a land-owning class of British Protestants was created in Ireland, and they ruled over mostly Irish Catholic tenants. A minority of the "Cromwellian" landowners were Parliamentarian soldiers or creditors. Most were pre-war Protestant settlers, who took the opportunity to obtain confiscated lands. Before the wars, Catholics had owned 60% of the land in Ireland. During the Commonwealth period, Catholic landownership fell to 8–9%. After some restitution in the Restoration Act of Settlement 1662, it rose to 20% again.

In Ulster, the Cromwellian period eliminated those native landowners who had survived the Ulster plantation. In Munster and Leinster, the mass confiscation of Catholic-owned land after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, meant that English Protestants acquired almost all of the land holdings for the first time in these territories. In addition, under the Commonwealth regime, some 12,000 Irish people were sold into indentured servitude to the Caribbean and North American colonies. Another 34,000 Irish Catholics went into exile on the Continent, mostly in the Catholic countries of France or Spain.

Recent research has shown that although the native Irish land-owning class was subordinated in this period, it never totally disappeared. Many of its members found niches in trade or as chief tenants on their families' ancestral lands.

Subsequent settlement
For the remainder of the 17th century, Irish Catholics tried to get the Cromwellian Act of Settlement reversed. They briefly achieved this under James II during the Williamite war in Ireland, but the Jacobite defeat there led to another round of land confiscations. During the 1680s and 90s, another major wave of settlement took place in Ireland (though not another plantation in terms of land confiscation). At this time, the new settlers were principally Scots, tens of thousands of whom fled a famine in the lowlands and border regions of Scotland to come to Ulster. At this point Protestants and people of Scottish descent (who were mainly Presbyterians) became an absolute majority of the population in Ulster.

French Huguenots, who were Protestant, were also encouraged to settle in Ireland; they had been expelled from France after the Crown's revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Many of the Frenchmen were former soldiers, who had fought on the Williamite side in the Williamite war in Ireland. This community settled mainly in Dublin, as some had already been established as merchants in London. Their communal graveyard can still be seen off St Stephen's Green. The total population of this community may have reached 10,000.

Long-term results and suppression of Irish culture
The English banned and discouraged the use of the Irish language in 1537 with The Statute of Ireland – An Act for the English Order Habit and Language (28. Hen. 8. c. 15 (I)). Irish clothing was also banned throughout the centuries. On 14 February 1588, William Herbert wrote to Francis Walsingham that he desired to show posterity his affection for his God and his prince 'by a volume of my writing,' by 'a colony of my planting,' and by 'a college of my erecting.' Moderate in treating the Irish, he put into execution clauses of the statute against Irish customs, particularly forbidding the wearing of the native mantle.

The Plantations had profound effects on Ireland. They resulted in the removal and/or execution of Catholic ruling classes and their replacement with what became known as the Protestant Ascendancy, Anglican landowners mostly originating from Great Britain. Their position was reinforced by the Penal Laws. These denied political and most land-owning rights to Catholics and non-Anglican Protestant denominations, they also brought in harsh punishments for use of the Irish language and limited Catholics ability to practice their religion. The forced dominance of the Protestant class in Irish life persisted until the late 18th century when they reluctantly voted for the Act of Union with Britain in 1800. It abolished their parliament, making their government part of Britain's.

The plantations and their related agricultural development also radically altered Ireland's physical environment and ecology. In 1600, most of Ireland was heavily wooded and undeveloped, apart from the bogs. Most of the population lived in small, semi-nomadic townlands, many migrating seasonally to pastures for their cattle. By 1700, Ireland's native woodland had been reduced to a fraction of its former size; it was intensively logged and sold for profit by the plantation settlers for commercial ventures such as shipbuilding, as much of the English forests had been overlogged to total depletion, and the navy was becoming a great power. Several native animal species, such as the wolf, were hunted to extinction during this period. Most of the settler population was urbanized, living in permanent towns or villages. Some of the Irish people continued their traditional practices and culture under the shadow of heavy control and punishments. By the end of the plantation period, almost all of Ireland had become integrated into a market economy. But many of the poorer classes had no access to money, still paying rent in kind or in service. The plantations also introduced a new measurement system to Ireland called the Irish measure or plantation measure which had some residual use even into the 20th century.

title: Plantations of Ireland


text:
Culture of Dominica

The culture of Dominica is formed by the inhabitants of the Commonwealth of Dominica. Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Although it was historically occupied by several native tribes, it was the Taíno and Island Caribs (Kalinago) tribes that remained by the time European settlers reached the island. "Massacre" is a name of a river dedicated to the murders of the native villagers by both French and British settlers, because the river "ran red with blood for days." Each (French and British) claimed the island and imported slaves from Africa. The remaining Caribs now live on a 3700 acre Carib Territory on the east coast of the island. They elect their own chief.

Dominica is often seen as a society that is migrating from collectivism to that of individualism. The economy is a developing one that previously depended on agriculture. Signs of collectivism are evident in the small towns and villages that are spread across the island.

Dominican cuisine is similar to that of other Caribbean countries. Common main courses comprise meat (usually chicken, but can be goat, lamb, or beef) covered in sauce. The sauces are either spicy pepper sauces, or concoctions made from local fruit. A huge variety of local fruit, from tamarind to passion fruit, are served on the island, usually in juice or sauce form. Soursop is peeled and eaten raw. Sorrel, a red flower that only blooms around Christmas, is boiled into a bright red drink.

The national psyche
Dominica draws on a mix of cultures. Names of French places appear as often as English. African language, foods and customs often mingle with European traditions as part of the island's Creole culture. The Caribs still carve dugouts (canoes), build houses on stilts, and weave distinctive basketwork. Rastafarian and Black pride influences are also common. The Bahá'í Faith in Dominica is practiced by about 1% of the population. However, the core of Dominican culture is deeply embedded in the European culture, specifically that of the British. This is reflected in the etiquette, courtesies, mannerisms, bureaucracies and so on, observed throughout the island.

With an almost 80% Roman Catholic population, conservative and traditional values are strong. Family holds an important place in Dominican society. To a great enough extent that a government poster warning Dominicans of the dangers of transporting illegal drugs lists separation from family (followed by imprisonment and loss of life) as the number one deterrent to the crime.

Amerindians
The first settlers on the island arrived to the Commonwealth of Dominica about 400 BC. The Arawak, a group of peaceful hunter-gatherers established villages after island-hopping across the Eastern-Caribbean. The more aggressive hunter-gatherers, the Caribs, annihilated the Arawaks and took hold of the island. The majority of native Caribbean people on other Caribbean islands were killed by European colonists. The local Dominican Caribbean natives were able to hide in areas that were hard for European soldiers to find. The English Queen granted a 3700 acre territory in east coast of Dominica for the native Caribbeans in 1903. Today, there are only 3000 Caribs remaining after years of brutal treatment by the Spanish, French and English. They live in eight villages, and they elect their own chief.

On the east side of the island, the descendants of the Caribs continued to practice their time-honoured culture and crafts of canoe building and basket weaving. Their society, however, has developed and modernized. The Amerindians' influence remains on the island through their artifacts and the sounds of modern language. For example, the word hurricane originated from the Amerindian word huracan.

Other settlers
When Christopher Columbus passed by the island he did give Dominica its name, but left no other settlers on the island. It would be years before English and French settlers came to the island. These two European superpowers fought relentlessly for the island, and their cultures each took hold. However, African slaves have also left an indelible mark on the island.

French influences include the island's native language, Creole, food, and many location names. The British government won the island, and the influences of government as well as the official language are distinctly theirs. Africans also influenced the Creole and food, as well as the distinctive local style of dress.

Carnival

Chanté mas (masquerade song) and Lapo kabwit is a form of Carnival music of Dominica. It is performed by masquerading partygoers in a two-day parade, in a call-and-response format call "lavwé", with a lead female singer or "chantwèl" dancing backwards in front of the drummer on a tambou lélé. The Carnival has African and French roots and is otherwise known as Mas Dominik, considered to be the most original Carnival in the Caribbean. Dominica's carnival is known to be the most original and least commercialized giving the carnival its name, the original mas.

The chanté mas tradition started to become dominated by imported calypso and steel pan music in the early 1960s. After a fire in 1963, the traditional carnival was banned, though calypso and steelpan continued to grow in popularity. Calypso appealed to Carnival partygoers because the lyrical focus on local news and gossip was similar to that of chanté mas, despite a rhythmic pattern and instrumentation that contrast sharply with traditional Dominican Mas Domnik music.

Though the traditional Chanté mas and Lapo kabrit declined in popularity due to imported calypso and steel pan music, several villages on Dominica, such as Grand Bay, has preserved the unique Dominican tradition. On modern Dominica, Chanté mas and lapo kabrit has become a part of bouyon music.

Each year, Dominicans celebrate the Catholic Carnival, a festival held for three days before Ash Wednesday. Due to the country's French heritage, a majority of citizens are Catholic, but many non-Catholics also celebrate Carnival. Activities include the Calypso Monarch Competition, Carnival Queen Pageant, and Carnival parades and parties.

Music
Music and dance are important facets of Dominica's culture. The annual independence celebrations show an outburst of traditional song and dance preceded since 1997 by weeks of Creole expressions such as "Creole in the Park" and the "World Creole Music Festival". Dominica gained prominence on the international music stage when in 1973, Gordon Henderson founded the group Exile One and an original musical genre that he coined "Cadence-lypso", which paved the way for modern Creole music.

The 11th annual World Creole Music Festival was the first activity held there since its completion on 27 October 2007, part of the island's celebration of independence from Great Britain on 3 November. A year-long reunion celebration began in January 2008 marking 30 years of independence.

Cuisine
Dominica's cuisine is similar to that of other Caribbean islands, particularly Trinidad and St Lucia. Like other Commonwealth Caribbean islands, Dominicans have developed a distinct twist to their cuisine. Breakfast is an important daily meal, typically including saltfish, dried and salted codfish, and "bakes," fried dough. Saltfish and bakes are combined for a fast-food snack that can be eaten throughout the day; vendors on Dominica's streets sell these snacks to passersby, together with fried chicken, fish and fruit and yogurt "smoothies". Other breakfast meals include cornmeal porridge, which is made with fine cornmeal or polenta, milk and condensed milk and sugar to sweeten. Traditional British-influenced dishes, such as eggs, bacon and toast, are also popular, as are fried fish and plantains.

Common vegetables include Plantain, Tania (a root vegetable), Yam, Potato, rice and peas. Meat and poultry typically eaten include chicken (which is very popular), beef, and fish. These are often prepared in stews with onions, carrots, garlic, ginger and herbs like thyme. The vegetables and meat are browned to create a rich dark sauce. Popular meals include rice and peas, brown stew chicken, stew beef, fried and stewed fish, and many different types of hearty fish broths and soups. These are filled with dumplings, carrots and ground provisions.

Religion in Dominica

According to the 2001 population and housing census, approximately 61 percent of Dominica's population is Roman Catholic. Followers of evangelical churches represent 18 percent of the population, Seventh-day Adventists 6 percent, and Methodists 3.7 percent. Minority religious groups and denominations, whose members range from 1.6 percent to 0.2 percent of the population, include Rastafarians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Anglicans, and Muslims. According to the census, 1.4 percent of the population belongs to "other" religious groups, including Baptist, Nazarene, Church of Christ, Brethren Christian, and the Baha'i Faith; 6 percent of the population claims no religious affiliation.

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contributes to the generally free practice of religion. The law at all levels protects this right in full against abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Government generally respects religious freedom in practice. In 2008, the U.S. government received no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice.

The music and culture of Dominica and the French Antilles
Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc was a French trader and adventurer in the Caribbean, who established the first permanent French colony, Saint-Pierre, on the island of Martinique in 1635. Belain sailed to the Caribbean in 1625, hoping to establish a French settlement on the island of St. Christopher (St. Kitts). In 1626 he returned to France, where he won the support of Cardinal Richelieu to establish French colonies in the region. Richelieu became a shareholder in the Compagnie de Saint-Christophe, created to accomplish this with d'Esnambuc at its head. The company was not particularly successful, and Richelieu had it reorganized as the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique. In 1635 d'Esnambuc sailed to Martinique with one hundred French settlers to clear land for sugarcane plantations.

After six months on Martinique, d'Esnambuc returned to St. Christopher, where he soon died prematurely in 1636, leaving the company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, Du Parquet. His nephew, Jacques Dyel du Parquet, inherited d'Esnambuc's authority over the French settlements in the Caribbean. In 1637, his nephew Jacques Dyel du Parquet became governor of the island. He remained in Martinique and did not concern himself with the other islands.

The French permanently settled on Martinique and Guadeloupe after being driven off Saint Kitts and Nevis (Saint-Christophe in French) by the British. Fort Royal (Fort-de-France) on Martinique was a major port for French battleships in the region from which the French were able to explore the region. In 1638, Jacques Dyel du Parquet (1606-1658), nephew of Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc and first governor of Martinique, decided to have Fort Saint Louis built to protect the city against enemy attacks. From Fort Royal, Martinique, Du Parquet proceeded south in search for new territories and established the first settlement in St. Lucia in 1643, and headed an expedition that established a French settlement in Grenada in 1649. Despite the long history of British rule, Grenada's French heritage is still evidenced by the number of French loanwords in Grenadian Creole, French-style buildings, cuisine and places name (For ex. Petit Martinique, Martinique Channel, etc.)

In 1642, the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique company received a twenty-year extension of its charter. The King would name the Governor General of the company, and the company the Governors of the various islands. However, by the late 1640s, in France Mazarin had little interest in colonial affairs and the company languished. In 1651 it dissolved itself, selling its exploitation rights to various parties. The du Paquet family bought Martinique, Grenada, and Saint Lucia for 60,000 livres. The sieur d'Houel bought Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, La Desirade and the Saintes. The Knights of Malta bought Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin. In 1665, the Knights sold the islands they had acquired to the newly formed (1664) Compagnie des Indes occidentales.

Dominica is a former French and British colony in the Eastern Caribbean, located about halfway between the French islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south). Christopher Columbus named the island after the day of the week on which he spotted it, a Sunday (domingo in Latin), 3 November 1493. In the hundred years after Columbus's landing, Dominica remained isolated. At the time it was inhabited by the Island Caribs, or Kalinago people, and over time more settled there after being driven from surrounding islands, as European powers entered the region. In 1690, French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply the French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers. France had a colony for several years, they imported slaves from West Africa, Martinique and Guadeloupe to work on its plantations. In this period, the Antillean Creole language developed. France formally ceded possession of Dominica to Great Britain in 1763. Great Britain established a small colony on the island in 1805. As a result, Dominica speak English as an official language while Antillean creole is spoken as a secondary language and is well maintained due to its location between the French-speaking departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique.

In Trinidad, the Spanish who were in possession of the island, contributed little towards advancements, with El Dorado the focus, Trinidad was perfect due to its geographical location. Because Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783. Following the cedula of population French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from the French Antilles of Martinique, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to the Trinidad. They too added to the ancestry of Trinidadians, creating the creole identity; Spanish, French, and Patois were the languages spoken. The Spanish also gave many incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for ten years and land grants in accordance to the terms set out in the Cedula. These new immigrants establishing local communities of Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage and Laventille. Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population. This exodus was encouraged due to the French Revolution.

Carnival had arrived with the French, indentured laborers and the slaves, who could not take part in Carnival, formed their own, parallel celebration called canboulay (from the French cannes brulées, meaning burnt cane) — the precursor for Trinidad's carnival and has played an important role in the development of Trinidad's culture. During the carnival season, the slaves performed songs in tents called Kaiso — later Calypso tents. Many early kaiso or calypso were performed in the French creole language and led by a griot or chantwell. As Trinidad became a British colony, the chantwell became known as the calypsonian. The British government tried to ban the celebration of carnival due to its aggressive overtone; this led to canboulay Riots between the Afro-creoles and the police, which banned the use of Stick fighting and African percussion music in 1881. They were replaced by bamboo "Bamboo-Tamboo" sticks beaten together, which were themselves banned in turn. In 1937 they reappeared, transformed as an orchestra of frying pans, dustbin lids and oil drums. These steelpans or pans are now a major part of the Trinidadian music scene.

Calypso's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves, including canboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions. The French brought Carnival to Trinidad, and calypso competitions at Carnival grew in popularity, especially after the abolition of slavery in 1834. From Trinidad, the carnival, calypso and steel pan spread to the entire English speaking Caribbean islands. Calypso in the Caribbean includes a range of genres, including: the Benna genre of Antiguan and Barbudan music; Mento, a style of Jamaican folk music that greatly influenced ska and reggae; Ska, the precursor to rocksteady and reggae; Spouge, a style of Barbadian popular music.

In Dominica, the chanté mas and lapo kabwit tradition started to become dominated by imported calypso and steel pan music in the early 1960s. After a fire in 1963, the traditional carnival was banned, though calypso and steelpan continued to grow in popularity. Calypso appealed to Carnival partygoers because the lyrical focus on local news and gossip was similar to that of chanté mas, despite a rhythmic pattern and instrumentation which contrast sharply with traditional Dominican "Mas Domnik" music. Many of the traditional chanté mas (masquerade songs) were performed to the calypso beat and later the new reggae beat coming out of Jamaica.

Calypsonians and Calypso Monarch competitions emerged and became extremely popular. Steelbands emerged all around Dominica and the rest of the Caribbean islands. Calypso music has been popular in Dominica since the 1950s; the first Calypso King was crowned in 1959. Bands such as Swinging Stars, The Gaylords, De Boys an Dem, Los Caballeros and Swinging Busters surfaced and began to cut records. The emergence of radio, first WIDBS and later Radio Dominica helped to spread the music.

In the 1960s, a number of Haitian musicians to the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique) brought with them the kadans (another word named for the genre "compas"), a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. Webert Sicot, the originator of cadence recorded three LPs albums with French Antilles producers: two with "Celini disques" in Guadeloupe and one with "Balthazar" in Martinique. Haitian compas or cadence bands were asked to integrate Antillean musicians. Consequently, the leading "Les Guais troubadours", with influential singer Louis Lahens, among other bands, played a very important role in the schooling of Antilleans to the méringue compas or kadans music style. Almost all existing Haitian compas bands have toured these islands that have since adopted the music and the dance of the meringue. These were followed by French Antillean mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe.

In 1969, Gordon Henderson of Dominica decided that the French Overseas Department of Guadeloupe had everything he needed to begin a career in Creole music. From there, lead singer Gordon Henderson went on to be the founder of a kadans fusion band, the Vikings of Guadeloupe – of which Kassav's co-founder Pierre-Eduard Decimus was a member. At some point he felt that he should start his own group and asked a former school friend Fitzroy Williams to recruit a few Dominicans to complete those he had already selected. The group was named Exile One. The band added various Caribbean styles to their musical identity such as reggae, calypso and mostly cadence or compas as the band moved to Guadeloupe. In 1973, Exile One (based on the island of Guadeloupe) initiated a fusion of cadence and calypso "Cadence-lypso" that would later influence the creation of soca music. The Trinidadian Calypso and Haitian kadans or méringue were the two dominants music styles of Dominica so Exile One, that featured calypso, reggae and mostly kadans or compas, called its music Cadence-lypso however, most of the band's repertoire was kadans.

Later in 1975, Lord Shorty of Trinidad visited his good friend Maestro in Dominica where he stayed (at Maestro's house) for a month while they visited and worked with local kadans artists. You had Maestro experimenting with calypso and cadence ("cadence-lypso"). A year later Maestro died in an accident in Dominica and his loss was palpably felt by Shorty, who penned "Higher World" as a tribute. In Dominica, Shorty had attended an Exile One performance of cadence-lypso, and collaborated with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, Lord Tokyo and two calypso lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron in the early 1970s, who wrote him some kwéyòl lyrics. Soon after Shorty released a song, "Ou Petit", with words such as "Ou dee moin ou petit Shorty" (meaning "you told me you are small Shorty"), a combination of calypso, cadence and kwéyòl. Soca's development includes its fusion of calypso, cadence, and Indian musical instruments—particularly the dholak, tabla and dhantal—as demonstrated in Shorty's classic compositions "Ïndrani" and "Shanti Om".

Due to the popularity of Exile One, there was a virtual explosion of kadans bands from Dominica - Grammacks, Liquid Ice, Midnight Groovers, Black Affairs, Black Machine, Mantra, Belles Combo, Milestone, Wafrikai, Black roots, Black Blood, Naked Feet and Mammouth among others. Leading vocalists of the period include Gordon Henderson, Jeff Joseph, Marcel "Chubby" Marc, Anthony Gussie, Mike Moreau, Tony Valmond, Linford John, Bill Thomas, SinkyRabess and Janet Azouz among others. Dominican kadans bands became popular in Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti and other islands in the Caribbean and Africa.

The full-horn section kadans band Exile One led by Gordon Henderson was the first to introduce the newly arrived synthesizers to their music that other young cadence or méringue bands from Haiti (mini-jazz) and the French Antilles emulated in the 1970s. Gordon Henderson's Exile One turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with a full-horn section and the newly arrived synthesizers, paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks, Experience 7, among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav' invented zouk and popularized it in the 1980s.

Kassav' was formed in 1979 by Pierre-Edouard Décimus and Paris studio musician Jacob F. Desvarieux. Together and under the influence of well-known Dominican and Guadeloupean kadans-lypso or compas bands like Experience 7, Grammacks, Exile One and Les Aiglons they decided to make Guadeloupean carnival music recording it in a more fully orchestrated yet modern and polished style. Kassav' created its own style "zouk" by introducing an 11-piece gwo ka unit and two lead singers, tambour bélé, ti bwa, biguine, cadence-lypso: calypso and mostly Cadence rampa or compas with full use of the MIDI technology. Kassav was the first band in the Caribbean to apply the MIDI technology to their music. In the 1980s they took Caribbean music to another level by recording in the new digital format. The style lost ground in the late 1980s due to the strong presence of cadence or compas, the main music of the French Antilles.

A special style within the zouk is "zouk love", characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm. The inspiration for the zouk love style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas, as well as music called cadence-lypso — Dominica cadence as popularized by Grammacks and Exile One. The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems.

The music kizomba from Angola and cola-zouk or cabo love from Cape Verde are derivatives of this French Antillean compas music style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres. A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie of Dominica. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa.

In Brazil, the zouk rhythm is used to dance the Brazilian Lambada. Since the addition of many new steps changed the characteristics from Lambada, a new name was given to this dance "Zouk-lambada", which was originally called "zouk Love", later just "zouk". Today, the Brazilian Zouk has changed, and the name "Traditional Zouk" has been given to the dance that was first taught by Adilio and Renata in the beginning of the '90s, which is now didactically used all over the world.

In the late '80s, the WCK or Windward Caribbean Kulture, was formed by a group of highly creative young Dominican musicians. The band heralded in a new and much needed resurgence of live music and created a new wave in Dominicas musical evolution. They began experimenting with a fusion of cadence-lypso, the native lapo kabwit drum rhythms and elements of the music of jing ping bands. This group came together to fill a void left by several of Dominica's most internationally recognized bands such as Exile One and Grammacks. While the Cadence-Lypso sound is based on the creative use of acoustic drums, an aggressive up-tempo guitar beat and strong social commentary in the native Creole language, the new sound created by WCK, focused more on the use of technology with a strong emphasis on keyboard rhythmic patterns.

The band played a blend of the local Cadence-lypso and traditional Jing ping, chanté mas and lapo kabwit rhythms, which would later be labelled "bouyon", a genre which they are credited with creating. Dominican-born Derick "Rah" Peters is considered to be one of the most influential figures in the development of the bouyon genre. Bouyon as popularized largely by the WCK band blends in jing ping, cadence-lypso, and traditional dances namely bèlè, quadrille, chanté mas and lapo kabwit, mazurka, zouk and other styles of caribbean music. From a language perspective, Bouyon draws on English and Kwéyòl.

Bouyon music is popular across the Caribbean and is known as "bouyon gwada" or jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique. A popular offshoot within the bouyon gwada is called "bouyon hardcore", a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics. This musical style is characterized by texts "slackness" sexually explicit. It is a form of radicalized bouyon of Dominica. Some call it bouyon gwada (Guadeloupe bouyon) to mark its difference and its themes are often the same.

title: Culture of Dominica


text: Soraismus

title: Soraismus


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Talk:Perins School

VfD
On April 20, 2005, this article was nominated for deletion. The result was keep (no consensus). See Votes for deletion/Perins Community School for a record of the discussion. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 15:10, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Houses
I'm a current Perins student, year 10. (So I don't have a reference but I am living this so definitely correct!) The houses have been changed. The new head added a house (purple) so it now goes like this: Ignis house (fire in Latin) formerly Endeavour (red) Terra house (earth in Latin) formerly Challenger (green) Ventus house (wind in Latin) formerly Discovery (yellow) Aqua house (water in Latin) the new house (purple) Am going to add this to the page but wanted to post here to say I know I didn't add a referenc because there isn't one to add! (It hasn't been posted on the website or anything) Pinkalotk (talk) 11:40, 24 June 2016 (UTC)

School logo
Please could someone get the logo in normal colours, last time i checked, the logo ismore black then blue. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.12.178.246 (talk)

Repeated ranting.
Instead of constantly adding your personal issues to the page, would you like to discuss them in here, rather than including inappropriate information time after time?

I fail to see how your own bad experiences and biased views have any bearing on the description of Perins. Nor do i see how the list of students is important, as none of them appear to be noteworthy in any way.

I'd appreciate an answer. Thanks. - onebravemonkey

 * we just think that these issues should be given with the general view of the school. they are 100% accurate and truthful. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.179.108.212 (talk)

 * in order to give an unbiased view of the school, there should first be the information given about how wonderful it is, and then the opinions of those actually experiencing how wonderful the school is. Also, prove that the list of students contains none that are noteworthy: I mean Dan Wright has done many a thing for the school, including looking gormless and making stupid faces.  Another of the students on the list, Barnaby Walker, is the prime minister of the school. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.93.95.72 (talk)

 * We feel that our education is failing. Surely, you cannot deny us the right to place facts that people would want and deserve to know. We welcome anyone truthfully praising the school, and your system accepts this. I'm sure many an article gives negative points about a subject, and if all articles are equal, then why is this one an exception? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.105.191.69 (talk)

Wiki articles aren't the place for your concerns about the state of your own education. I'm also a little confused about what you're referring to when you mention "your system". I'm afraid i'm going to stick by the guidelines on this one, and kill the ranting as it appears. I'll repeat for the final time; Wiki articles are not the place for personal opinions; it's an encyclopedia, not a discussion forum. - Onebravemonkey
 * I think what you're misunderstanding is that Wikipedia isn't supposed to be a soapbox for everyone's personal opinions about verious subject. I'm sure another student could give a positive view of the school, but that's not the point. To give any personal view is ignoring Wiki's policy of NPOV, set out in its guidelines.

 * Fair play, but i still don't know why you removed the list of students. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.179.125.102 (talk)

 * I removed the list of students because repeated googling didn't bring anything up. As far as i could tell, they're just mates of the original author. I couldn't see why they were notable. Of course, if they are then a link to their appropriate Wiki page would clarify things. - obm

 * But under wiki rules, they are not allowed Wiki pages because they are not of significant importance. They are important to the school. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.179.125.102 (talk)

Assessment
This article has been assessed for the WikiSchools Project by me. The results of this are as follows: ''This article contains some encyclopedic information with limited references. To improve this article needs to be split into sections so it is written less like an essay, and checked so it meets the Wikipedia Manual of Style. More references are also needed and it would be good if the logo was merged into an infobox.'' Camaron1 | Chris 20:12, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

Moodle
Is all of the technical information on Moodle really necessary? I feel that it is oddly specific, out of tone with the rest of the article, and generally not relevant. -Alex Withington-Smith —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 81.149.74.206 (talk) 15:16, 8 May 2007 (UTC).
 * I will remove it and de-techify it if you people like? Lmc   169  15:21, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:PerinsBadge.jpg
Image:PerinsBadge.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 06:34, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

A few things to add
I'm a student at Perins and thought you might want to know these things:

•In February 2015 a new Headteacher was appointed after Mrs Bernard announced she was leaving. Mr Steve Jones. He starts September this year.

•The temporary huts have been taken down (hence the name temporary) and there is now an empty space outside Pascal where they were.

Any questions just reply.

Pinkalotk (talk) 17:57, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perins School


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World Electronic Music Festival

The World Electronic Music Festival (WEMF) was an electronic music event held annually in various locations across Southern Ontario over a period of three days. It was created and run by Destiny Productions out of Toronto. In summer of 2008 Destiny put on what was said to be their last WEMF in Madawaska, however the event returned in 2011 for 2 more years.

History
This festival was developed in 1995. At that time it was named "The World Trance Festival" which 2 years later was changed to The World Electronic Music Festival or WEMF. The festival ran from Friday through Sunday on an annual basis from 1995 to 2008 with attendance reaching 25,000 at its peak. With the popularity of dance music waning in the late 2000s, the festival took a 2-year hiatus in 2009 & 2010 to focus on CEMF but returned with a bang in 2011 and sold out its visually stunning but remote 5,000 person venue.
 * WEMF (Destiny 10) 1995 took place at Mosport International Raceway in the center of the large race track from Friday, July 14 to Sunday July 16. A tornado ripped through the middle of it, destroying one of two sound stages and many people's tents went airborne. However, nobody was hurt and the festival continued the next day after repairs were made to the remaining stage. The first year featured John The Dentist, Evil Eddie Richards, Dr. Trance and many more.
 * WEMF (Destiny 15) 1996 took place at a campground in Oro Medonte Township near Barrie, Ontario from Friday July 12 to Sunday July 14 and was a co-production with Toronto's Industry Nightclub.
 * WEMF (Destiny 20) 1997 took place on private land just outside Orillia, Ontario
 * WEMF (Destiny 25) 1998 took place at Christian Island near Midland, Ontario from Friday, July 17 to Sunday, July 19
 * WEMF 1999 took place at White Sands, Sauble Beach near Owen Sound, Ontario from Friday, July 16 to Sunday, July 18
 * WEMF 2000 took place at Dunnville Airport in Dunnville, Ontario from Friday, July 14 to Sunday July 16
 * WEMF 2001 took place on private property in Bobcaygeon, Ontario from Friday, July 21 to Sunday, July 23
 * WEMF 2002 took place on private property in Bobcaygeon, Ontario from Friday, August 2 to Sunday August 4
 * WEMF 2003 took place at Trudeau Park in Tweed, Ontario from Friday, July 25 to Sunday, July 27
 * WEMF 2004 took place at Wasaga Beach in Wasaga Beach, Ontario from Sunday, July 25 to Tuesday, July 27
 * WEMF 2005 took place at the Orangeville Fairgrounds in Orangeville, Ontario from Friday July 8 to July 10.
 * WEMF 2006 took place at Trudeau Park in Tweed, Ontario from Friday July 21 to Sunday July 23.
 * WEMF 2007 took place at the Niagara Regional Exhibition (NRE) in Welland, Ontario from Friday July 20 to Sunday July 22.
 * WEMF 2008 took place at Madawaska, Ontario, from Friday, July 18 to Sunday, July 20.
 * WEMF 2011 took place at Madawaska, Ontario from Friday, August 12 to Sunday August 14. The lineup was announced in stages, with the portion first portion of the headliners released on April 15, 2011, and the second portion released on May 13, 2011. Highlights included Rusko, Skrillex, Zeds Dead, Pendulum, Andy C, Noisia, Calvin Harris, Infected Mushroom, Caspa, and Mark Breeze. Tickets were on sale beginning Tuesday, February 15, 2011 at 11 A.M. EST via www.wemf.com and were offered at escalating prices over time ($25 Increase per 1000 tickets).  The talent lineup and budget was alleged to have been substantially increased for the 2011 festival to justify the substantially higher costs relative to previous years.
 * WEMF 2012 was announced December 17, 2011 and returned to Madawaska, Ontario, from Friday August 17 to Sunday August 19. Headline artists at WEMF 2012 included Wolfgang Gartner, Zeds Dead, Moby, Chase & Status, Pendulum, Andy C, Infected Mushroom (live), DJ Hype, Thomas Gold, Datsik, The Crystal Method, Krafty Kuts, Dub FX, Felix Cartel, 12th Planet, Christopher Lawrence, John 00 Fleming, Trolley Snatcha, Harvard Bass, Adventure Club, Ed Rush & Optical, MC GQ, Figure, The Killabits, Torro Torro, Adam K, Jelo Bad Company Keys & Krates Mimosa, Two Fresh, Jeft Tale and many, many more over 3 stages. The production was their most ambitious yet, with 2 massive main stages and a 3rd tented area. Renegade, or Community stages are purchasable prior to the event by contacting WEMF through their website: www.wemf.com. WEMF was produced by festival founder, Destiny with help from Toronto's EMbrace Presents and the EDM division of Live Nation, Electronic Nation.
 * Destiny, the founders of WEMF, became part of Toronto's Digital Dreams Music Festival in 2013 and continued to work on that festival for 3 more years

While there have been many rumours of a WEMF reunion of some kind, Destiny has stayed quiet on the subject while still throwing events in downtown Toronto to this day.

Past Headliners
WEMF 1996 - The first festival was held in association with the UK's Outer Limits. Headliners included Paul Edge, Platipus Records, Colin Favor, Brenda Russell.

WEMF 1998 featured 6 main stages of music
 * Destiny (trance): Jon The Dentist, Chris Liberator, M-Zone, Deniro, Mark EG, Christopher Lawrence, LL Bishop, Shane Morris, Matt Booker, Robert Oleysyk, Dave Trance, Mistress Barbara, The Alliance & Tweek (Live P.A.) + locals
 * Next Junction (drum'n'bass): Nicky Blackmarket, L Double, D.Bo General, R Notorious J, The Substitution Crew: DJ Lorne / DJ Starchild / DJ Kpakpa, MC Flex / MC Mis-ty, Athena Produce, Adaire, MC Blaise + locals
 * Hullabaloo (hardcore): Vinyltrixta, Spinback, Jimmy J + locals
 * Return To The Source (psy trance): Medicine Drum, Cosmosis, Ceiba + locals
 * Speed (techno): DJ Traxx, Dietrich, Altitude, Adam Marshall + locals
 * AM Trip: Dreamstate (Live P.A.) + locals

WEMF 1999 featured 6 main stages of music:
 * Destiny (trance): Jon The Dentist, Chris Liberator, Mark EG, Mark Tyler, Shane Morris, Commander Tom, Andy Trex, Christopher Lawrence, Scott Stubbs, Dave Trance, Xotec, Flex, Max Graham, Vapourspace + locals
 * Dose (house + breaks): Dubtribe (Live), John Kelley, Daeman, Eric Davenport, Nigel Richards, Vitamin D, 3PO, Melting Man + locals
 * Hullabaloo (hardcore + trance): Vinyl Groover, Druid, M-Zone, Madam Zu, Mc Magika, Mc Stixman + locals
 * Syrous/Renegades (drum'n'bass): Mickey Finn, Ray Keith, Brockie, MC Det, MC GQ + locals
 * Moon Shadow Collective (psy trance): Psychopod, Frank E, Eon Ion, Tim Shuldt, Avatar + locals
 * Speed (techno): Andrew Weatherfall, Silicon Valley, Daz Quayle, Mike Shannon, Vortex, Algorhythm + locals

WEMF 2000 featured 6 main stages of music:
 * Trance: Paul Oakenfold, Hardware, Mark EG, John '00' Flemming, Chris Liberator, Christopher Lawrence, Commander Tom, BK, Andy Farley, Marco Dux Baby, Scott Stubbs + locals
 * Drum'n'Bass: Darren Jay, Mickey Finn, Swift Skibadee, MC GQ + locals
 * Hardcore: Sy, M-Zone, Orange Peel + locals
 * House/Breaks: H Foundation, Problem Kids + locals
 * Techno: Thomas Krome, Disco D, Joel Mull + many more headliners
 * Psy Trance: Hallucinogen, Agent 1475 + locals

WEMF 2001 featured 8 main stages of music:
 * Destiny trance stage: Nostrum, Commander Tom, Jon The Dentist, John '00' Flemming, Chris Liberator, Fergie, Andy Trex, Darren Pierce, Christopher Lawrence, Scott Stubbs, Benji Solice + locals
 * Dose house/breaks stage: Bassbin Twins, H Foundation, Olav Basoski, Czech, 3PO, Chris Anderson + locals
 * Syrous/Renegades drum'n'bass stage: Ed Rush, Optical, Ray Keith, Digital, Spirit, Dieselboy, Skibadee, MC MC, Rhyme Tyme, Rage + locals
 * Hullabaloo hardcore stage: Scott Brown, Breeze, Devastate, Storm, MC Whizzkid + locals
 * Eclipse psy-trance stage: Orion, Jean Borelli, Taka, Lori The HiFi Princess, Jamin + locals
 * Flux booty/hard house stage: DJ Funk, 420, Bam Bam, Alex Peace, Josh Da Funky 1, Rip, Paradigm, Frankie Vega, The Zelch Brothers, Major Malfunction, Xotec + locals
 * Techno stage: Punk Floyd, DDR, Christian Smith, Geezer, Murphy, Patrick DSP, Scorpion, Grooverobber + locals
 * Neksis chill tent: Czech, Rob Theakston, William Van Loo, Echo + more

WEMF 2002 featured 6 main stages of music:
 * Destiny trance stage: Christopher Lawrence, Graham Gold, Lange, Commander Tom, Chris Liberator, Yves Deruyter, Jon the Dentist, Lee Mullin of Hybrid, Pulser, Tim Lyall, Vinylgroover, Club Ra Tour featuring Scott Stubbs & Duane King + locals
 * Afternoon performances live on the main stage: The New Deal, Liquidfied, The Aponauts, Hibernate, Prine nebula, Rhythm Mercenaries, West Magnetic, The Lou Cypher Project
 * Syrous/Renegades drum'n'bass stage: Terry T, DJ Souljah, MC Fearless, Demolition Man, MC Dyer, Million Dollar Dan, Godfather JD, DJ Prophecy, Teebee, Shakka Zulu a.k.a. Golden Child + locals
 * Dose/Backbreakers house/breaks/techno stage: DJ Hyper, Simply Jeff, Czech, Chris Anderson, Grooverobber + locals
 * Hullabaloo hardcore stage: DJ Brisk, Kevin Energy, DJ Kaos, Simon Apex, MC Storm, MC Ethos + locals
 * Eclipse/CIA goa-trance stage: Shakta (Live PA), Mindfield (Live PA), Shape Shifter (Live PA), Digitalis, John Phantasm, Matt Boom, Ben Mindfield, Hugh Sharpe, Jamin, Steve-o + locals
 * Phlux urban beats stage: DJ Bam Bam, Alex Peace, DJ Assault, Josh "The Funky 1", DJ Rip, DJ Trajic, Jes One, Xotec + locals

title: World Electronic Music Festival


text: User talk:69.217.126.180

title: User talk:69.217.126.180