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125th Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)

The 125th Street station (formerly the Manhattan Street station) is an elevated local station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 125th Street and Broadway, at the border of the Manhattanville and Morningside Heights neighborhoods of Manhattan, it is served by the 1 train at all times.

The 125th Street station was constructed for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) as part of the city's first subway line, which was approved in 1900. Construction of the line segment that includes 125th Street began on June 18 of the same year. The station opened on October 27, 1904, as one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway. The station's platforms were lengthened in 1948, and the station was renovated in the 2000s.

The 125th Street station contains two side platforms and three tracks; the center track is not used in regular service. The station is the only one on the 2174 ft Manhattan Valley Viaduct, which carries the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line across a natural valley surrounding 125th Street. The platforms contain windscreens and canopies. The station house beneath the platforms contains exits to 125th Street and Broadway. The Manhattan Valley Viaduct is a New York City designated landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Construction and opening
Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in Lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and all legal conflicts concerning the route alignment were resolved near the end of 1899. The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, under which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway.

Viaduct
The Manhattan Street station was constructed as part of the IRT's West Side Line (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line). While most of the original line was designed to be underground, the topology of Manhattanville necessitated the construction of a viaduct between 122nd and 135th Streets. At the time, the section of 125th Street in West Harlem was known as Manhattan Street; although engineers found that it was technically feasible to dig a tunnel under Manhattan Street, they concluded that such a tunnel would have required a steep grade. The IRT's engineers originally planned to build a standard elevated structure, similar to those built in other parts of the rapid transit system, with steel columns that supported plate girder spans. However, this plan would have required rerouting the Third Avenue/125th Street streetcar line, which ran along Manhattan Street. As such, prior to the start of construction, the plans were changed to a steel viaduct with a double-hinged arch. The elevated rail section runs from 122nd to 135th Street and was originally called the Manhattan Valley Viaduct. The name was changed to avoid confusion with the nearby viaduct over Riverside Drive, which also goes by this name. The aboveground railway has five sections: two embankments at either end, a truss arch over 125th Street, and plate girder bridges connecting the arch with the embankments on either side.

During the planning process, IRT engineers had considered constructing a two-track elevated spur from the viaduct, leading west to a ferry terminal to Fort Lee, New Jersey. The spur was approved in 1903, and engineers drew up detailed plans for the structure; however, this spur was never built. Work began on the viaduct over Manhattan Valley on June 1, 1901. Work on the stone piers and foundations for the viaduct was done by E. P. Roberts, while other work was done by Terry & Tench Construction Company. According to Tramway and Railway World magazine, the viaduct was built within two weeks. Because of delays in constructing the masonry abutment, a portion of the parabolic arch span was built first, followed by the rest of the viaduct. Normally, the side spans would have been built before the arch was constructed.

The section of the West Side Line around this station was originally planned as a two-track line, but in early 1901, was changed to a three-track structure to permit train storage in the center track. A third track was added directly north of 96th Street, immediately east of the originally planned two tracks. By late 1903, the subway was nearly complete, but the IRT Powerhouse and the system's electrical substations were still under construction, delaying the system's opening. The escalators had not been installed by the time the station was scheduled to open, forcing passengers to use temporary stairways. The 125th Street station opened on October 27, 1904, as the Manhattan Street station, one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway from City Hall to 145th Street on the West Side Branch.

20th century
After the first subway line was completed in 1908, the station was served by West Side local and express trains. Express trains began at South Ferry in Manhattan or Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, and ended at 242nd Street in the Bronx. Local trains ran from City Hall to 242nd Street during rush hours, continuing south from City Hall to South Ferry at other times. In 1918, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened south of Times Square–42nd Street, and the original line was divided into an H-shaped system. The original subway north of Times Square thus became part of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Local trains were sent to South Ferry, while express trains used the new Clark Street Tunnel to Brooklyn.

To address overcrowding, in 1909, the New York Public Service Commission proposed lengthening the platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to $1.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) spent on platform lengthening, $500,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) was spent on building additional entrances and exits. It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. The northbound platform at the Manhattan Street station was extended about 98 ft to the south, while the southbound platform was not lengthened. Six-car local trains began operating in October 1910, and ten-car express trains began running on the West Side Line on January 24, 1911. Subsequently, the station could accommodate six-car local trains, but ten-car trains could not open some of their doors.

Four stairways at the station were relocated, two stairways were added, and two passageways in the mezzanine were widened during Fiscal Year 1915. Manhattan Street was renamed 125th Street on April 24, 1921; the original alignment of 125th Street became known as LaSalle Street. The station was also renamed 125th Street in 1921, following a request from the Harlem Board of Commerce. A mezzanine below the tracks opened at the station on September 26, 1931, with three new escalators and a new staircase to and from the street. The span of escalator service was extended from 1 a.m. to 2 a.m. on November 2, 1931.

The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. Platforms at IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations between 103rd Street and 238th Street, including those at 125th Street, were lengthened to 514 ft in 1948, allowing full ten-car express trains to stop at these stations. A contract for the platform extensions at 125th Street and five other stations on the line was awarded to the Rao Electrical Equipment Company and the Kaplan Electric Company in June 1946. The platform extensions at these stations were opened in stages. The platform extensions at 125th Street opened on June 11, 1948. Simultaneously, the IRT routes were given numbered designations with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The route to 242nd Street became known as the 1. In 1959, all 1 trains became local.

On November 24, 1981, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the Manhattan Valley Viaduct, including the 125th Street station, as a city landmark. The designation was contentious; the Jewish Theological Seminary argued against the designation because it would prevent the museum from erecting a new structure on or near the site. The New York City Board of Estimate, which had to ratify the landmark status, upheld the designation in April 1982. The viaduct and station were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.

In April 1988, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) unveiled plans to speed up service on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line through the implementation of a skip-stop service: the 9 train. As soon as the plan was announced, some local officials were opposed to the change. Initially, skip-stop service would have been operated north of 116th Street, with 1 trains skipping 125th Street, 157th Street, 207th Street, and 225th Street, and 9 trains skipping 145th Street, 181st Street, Dyckman Street, 215th Street and 238th Street. However, the plan was changed because riders did not want 125th Street to be a skip-stop station. When skip-stop service started in 1989, it was only implemented north of 137th Street–City College on weekdays, and 125th Street was served by both the 1 and the 9.

21st century
In June 2002, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) announced that ten subway stations citywide, including 103rd Street, 110th Street, 116th Street, 125th Street, and 231st Street on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, would receive renovations. As part of the project, fare control areas would be redesigned, flooring, and electrical and communication systems would be upgraded, and new lighting, public address systems and stairways would be installed. In addition, since 110th Street, 116th Street, and 125th Street had landmark status, historical elements would be replaced or restored, including wall tiles. Work on the ten citywide renovation projects was estimated to cost almost $146 million, and was scheduled to start later that year, and be completed in April 2004, in time for the 100th anniversary of the station's opening, and the 250th anniversary of Columbia University.

Manhattan Community Board 9 was concerned about preserving the historic nature of the station during its renovation. Manhattan Community Board 7 got the MTA to agree to maintain the existing design of the wood paneling and windows in the station. The MTA was expected to decide whether preservation or speed would be prioritized in the station renovation projects by the end of the year. Columbia University provided funding to cover a portion of the cost of renovating the 125th Street station, as it did for the station renovations at 103rd Street, 110th Street, and 116th Street, and funded the substitution of the station's aluminum vents with glass windows to reflect the station's original design.

Between October 5 and November 17, 2003, the downtown platforms at 110th Street and 125th Street were closed to expedite work on their renovations. Skip-stop service ended on May 27, 2005, as a result of a decrease in the number of riders who benefited. In February 2022, local officials requested that the MTA consider adding elevators to the 125th Street station, citing the fact that West Harlem was growing rapidly. At the time, there was only one fully accessible subway station on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line north of 96th Street; that station was 231st Street, several miles north in the Bronx.

Station layout
This station was part of the original subway. It has two side platforms and three tracks; the center track is not used in revenue service. The station is served by the 1 at all times and is between 137th Street to the north and 116th Street to the south. Both platforms have beige windscreens and red canopies. The windscreens have windows and green frames and outlines in the center that were installed in the station's 2003 renovation. On both ends of the platforms, which are not shaded by canopies, there are green, waist-high, ironwork fences.

IRT Broadway Line Viaduct
The viaduct was originally known as Manhattan Valley Viaduct, a name it shared with the nearby pedestriation and street viaduct over Riverside Drive. The 125th Street station is the only station on the 2174 ft viaduct, which bridges Manhattanville from 122nd to 135th Streets. The viaduct allows the trains to remain relatively level and avoid steep grades while traversing the valley. An elevated steel structure with simple steel supports, as used in other parts of the IRT, was not feasible because of the oblique intersection of 125th Street (originally Manhattan Street) and Broadway. A streetcar ran along Manhattan Street, and the steel support columns would have conflicted with the trolley path. The choices were a realignment of the street, or a pillarless span over the intersection.

The steel arch across 125th Street is 168.5 ft long and 54 ft high, with foundations descending 30 ft below street level. The arch measures 172 ft long when measured between the skewbacks on either end. The arch is composed of three lattice-girder two-hinge ribs, whose centers are spaced 24.5 ft apart. Each half rib supports six spandrel posts carrying the tracks. The chords of the ribs are 6 ft apart with an H-section. Each rib was made in 14 sections of equal length.

Most of the remainder of the viaduct is a simple steel structure, similar to other early IRT lines. Each section measures 46 to 72 ft long with transverse girders 31.33 ft wide. Each track was proportioned for a dead load of 330 lb/ft and a live load of 25000 lb per axle. The extreme ends of the viaduct contain plate girder bridges across LaSalle Street to the south and 133rd Street to the north. The span across LaSalle Street measures 86 ft long, while that across 133rd Street measures 65 ft long. When the viaduct was completed, it was painted dark green. The viaduct's southern portal runs from 122nd to LaSalle Streets while the northern portal runs from 133rd to 135th Streets. These portals are made of brick and stone and are topped by masonry parapets.

Architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler praised the IRT viaduct above 125th Street as "strictly an example of engineering, in which architectural conventions are not recognized at all". Aside from a complaint that the vertical supports of the arch carried an aesthetic "awkwardness", Schuyler wrote that "it is all the better architecturally" for having been designed for utilitarian purposes. Architectural writers Norval White and Elliot Willensky wrote in the AIA Guide to New York City that the arch was "worthy of Eiffel", a reference to the lattice of the Eiffel Tower.

Exits
The 125th Street station has a mezzanine fare control, where a turnstile bank provides access to and from the station. In the unpaid area, on the west side of the mezzanine, is a token booth and an enclosed passageway, which leads to two escalators going down to the west side of Broadway. The escalators go in opposite directions: one leads north to 125th Street while the other leads south to Tiemann Place. On the east side of the station house, another enclosed passageway leads to an escalator facing south and going down to the southeast corner of Broadway and 125th Street. Adjacent to this passageway is an L-shaped staircase with its upper half directly above Broadway and the lower half beneath the enclosed escalator going to the same corner of the intersection. When the station opened, drawings show that there were escalators descending to the median of Broadway.


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User talk:Schlesier/Warsaw/Vote

Voting
You've neglected to provide a Russian variant (Varshava). The Russians accumulated much more occupation time in Warsaw than the Germans ever did. Please add the Russian variant, to provide some color of rationality to this undertaking. logologist 10:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * A Latin variant would also be helpful, for the medieval period. logologist 10:53, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * The Russian name was never used by English-speaking people.--Schlesier 15:21, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * just out of curiosity - when was "Warschau" used by English-speaking people??? - Blueshade 18:28, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * And what about the 1915-1918 period? It should be treated separately. Halibutt 11:26, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)

This is a stupid proposition to vote on. The place is known as Warsaw in ENGLISH. If someone wishes to include the names used by Germans, Russians, Poles or Romans let them but that does not change the name of the city in English. If I write an article which includes the city, I will use the name Warsaw no matter what the locals were calling it at the time. If it is relevant and would help the article, I will include the name used by the locals at the time (or the Roman name or whatever). To argue that just because the city had a local name of something else at some time that anyone who call it Warsaw would be committing vandalism is stupid. Philip Baird Shearer 11:34, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This is incredibly stupid. In English, the place is Warsaw. There is no need for any of this. john k 13:21, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

For once I have to agree with Philip Baird Shearer; there is no question in this case about what the name is in English. This whole thing is stupid and completely unnecessary. / Uppland 13:27, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Please dont forget that Warschau was one of eastern German cities for a long time... --Schlesier 15:21, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Huh? Warsaw was Prussian for 11 years (1795-1806).  Otherwise, it has never properly been ruled by a German state. This is absurd all around. john k 16:13, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Warschau was populated mostly by Germans. The city was founded by German colonists, with DAS DEUTSCHES STADTRECHT (German cityr rights), in the 13-century. If you are interested of the REAL (without polish revisionism) history of that city please read: "Das deutsche Masovien", Stuttgart, Eher-Verlag by Günter Bauer--Schlesier 16:22, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * [Some nasty personal attacks by me deleted - after due deliberation, I think better of them. john k 23:00, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)]

 * no comments..--Schlesier 17:39, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Let me add that this user is pretty clearly a troll and a sockpuppet (of whom, I am not sure). john k 13:31, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Schlesier: no offense but your comment about Warsaw being populated by Germans in the past is irrelevant because it does not effect how the city is named in English. Munich is mostly populated by Germans now but nobody argues that it should be called anything but Munich in English. The only reason why we had the Danzig/Gdansk vote was because that city has been referred to under both names in English at various points in history. Rje 14:53, Apr 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * The orginal name of the city (Warschau) is still used in the English language. See: http://www.google.de/search?hl=de&q=Warschau+City&meta= (google)--Schlesier 17:31, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * An old map of Warschau http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png --Schlesier 17:34, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I have an equally reasonable proposal :) Let's rename all articles concerning German Cities, according to this map: ... great idea! what do you think? - Blueshade 18:34, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

How about voting for Frankreich/France ? Lysy 15:36, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Who is User:Schlesier and why is he/she trying to stir up this tempest? Sounds like sour grapes over the Danzig/Gdansk situation. It is worth nothing that, other than edits to his User and Talk pages, the Vote page is the first page this User created or edited. RickK 23:15, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)

Obviously a sockpuppet. john k 23:26, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't know if he's a sockpuppet; I'd say he's a German of Silesian origin (Schlesier is German for Silesian) who's disgruntled that ethnic Germans were forcibly evicted from what is now western Poland after WWII. From his user and user talk pages it seems likely that he belongs to the nationalistic German far right who want to restore Germany's 1937 (if not 1914) eastern frontier. --Angr/comhrá 12:22, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I was a little child when my family was expelled from Schlesien by the Poles - but i still remember the screaming of polish soldiers "schypko, schypko kurva mach!" (something in that way)--Schlesier 14:36, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Vote placement
On a completely different subject, why is this in the article namespace? —Korath (Talk) 23:36, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)

Because Schlesier's a jerk? john k 03:47, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

A second old map of Germany - (Warschau is not a German city?...) http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/british_dominions_yearbook/pan_ger_aims_map5_1911.jpg --Schlesier 12:46, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

John who is now the jerk...--Schlesier 12:57, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * LOL.... yeah sure... and Vilnius... or should I say Vilna, is also a German city :))) ... Oh! and don't you forget about Antwerp and Brussels (or maybe Antwerpstadt and Brusselburg ;) )... Schlesier, please... - Blueshade 13:09, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I know its hard to believe, for people who knows only the falsificated history of Europe and Germany..., but this map showing the true borders of Germany.--Schlesier 13:45, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * You never replied to the debunking of this map as a British WWI anti-German propaganda. --Tydaj 16:43, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah so! Ja wohl, Herr Schlesier, mein Personifikation auf die Allwissenheit... Ich wusste nicht das Ich ein Deutsch war... ;))) - Blueshade 14:03, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Das mußt du ja selber wissen, ob du dich zum Deutschtum bekennst oder nicht...--Schlesier 14:46, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * all right... you lost me on that... it seems even the citizens of the truly German lands don't necessarily understand German... but now - let's get back to reality, ok, Herr Schlesier? ... - Blueshade 16:26, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * He said you have to decide for yourself whether you consider yourself German. As for reality, anyone who considers a map clearly labeled "Pan-German aims" to be an accurate indication of what boundaries really were in 1911 obviously has only a tenuous grasp on it. --Angr/comhrá 18:56, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Schlesier/Warsaw/Vote


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XF86Config

The configuration file XF86Config of the XFree86 project is used by the X server to set necessary configuration parameters.

It is a plain text file ordered into sections and subsections. Important sections are Files, InputDevice, Monitor, Modes, Screen, Device, and ServerLayout.

Sections can appear in any order and there may be more than one section of each kind, for example, if you have more than one monitor, say a video projector and an onboard LCD of a notebook.

The Monitor sections are for the physical displaying devices, the Screen sections are for the logical displays, so you can have two monitors displaying the same content or entirely different information.

The option "SWCursor" in the Device section for example controls whether the mouse pointer is mirrored on an external monitor or suppressed.

On typical Unix-like systems the file often is found in  and a log file is in , typically named   for the last start of X and   for the previous one.

Inappropriate editing of this file may result in a black or illegible screen or might even damage the monitor, especially if it is a CRT. The user should be able to operate the system through console mode (i.e. "text mode") when configuring X, as X might fail to start due to an invalid configuration leaving the user with merely the CLI.

Xorg.conf
In the X.org Server fork of the XFree86 project, the file is called, but the specification is nearly identical. The X.org Server tries, however, to autoconfigure as much as possible with the aim of making xorg.conf unnecessary in the greatest proportion of cases.

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ

title: XF86Config


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Talk:Originalism

Removal of Globalize banner?
Given that originalism is almost entirely a US phenomenon, I suggest we remove the banner suggesting more perspectives from outside of the USA. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Xam2580 (talk • contribs) 03:43, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

Original research
These sections were removed for significant original research that was flagged two months ago but still not addressed.

Function of constitutional jurisprudence
Dissenting in Romer v. Evans, Scalia wrote:

"Since the Constitution of the United States says nothing about this subject, it is left to be resolved by normal democratic means, including the democratic adoption of provisions in state constitutions. This Court has no business imposing upon all Americans the resolution favored by the elite class from which the Members of this institution are selected."

This statement summarizes the role for the court envisioned by originalists, that is, that the Court parses what the general law and constitution say of a particular case or controversy, and when questions arise as to the meaning of a given constitutional provision, that provision should be given the meaning it was understood to mean when ratified. Reviewing Steven Douglas Smith's book Law's Quandary, Scalia applied this formulation to some controversial topics routinely brought before the Court:

"It troubles Smith, but does not at all trouble me—in fact, it pleases me—that giving the words of the Constitution their normal meaning would 'expel from the domain of legal issues ... most of the constitutional disputes that capture our attention', such as 'Can a macho military educational institution dedicated to what is euphemistically called the 'adversative' method admit only men? Is there a right to abortion? Or to the assistance of a physician in ending one's life?' If we should read English as English, Smith bemoans, 'these questions would seemingly all have received the same answer: 'No law on that one.

That is precisely the answer they should have received: The federal Constitution says nothing on these subjects, which are therefore left to be governed by state law."

In Marbury, Chief Justice John Marshall established that the Supreme Court could invalidate laws which violated the Constitution (that is, judicial review), which helped establish the Supreme Court as having its own distinct sphere of influence within the federal government. However, this power was itself balanced with the requirement that the Court could only invalidate legislation if it was unconstitutional. Originalists argue that the modern court no longer follows this requirement. They argue that, since U.S. v. Darby, the Court has increasingly taken to making rulings in which the Court has determined not what the Constitution says, but rather, the Court has sought to determine what is "morally correct" at this point in the nation's history, in terms of "the evolving standards of decency" (and considering "the context of international jurisprudence"), and then justified that determination through a "creative reading" of the text. This latter approach is frequently termed "the Living constitution"; Scalia inveighed that "the worst thing about the living constitution is that it will destroy the constitution".

Matters rendered moot by originalism
Originalists are sharply critical of the use of the evolving standards of decency (a term which first appeared in Trop v. Dulles) and of reference to the opinions of courts in foreign countries (excepting treaties to which the United States is a signatory, per Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution) in Constitutional interpretation.

In an originalist interpretation, if the meaning of the Constitution is static, then modern sensibilities are irrelevant and should not form any part of constitutional jurisprudence. Additionally, foreign laws or morals (if they had no impact on the original drafting) are completely irrelevant. The Constitution is thus fixed and has amendment procedures to change. The exception to the use of foreign law is the English common law, which originalists regard as setting the philosophical stage for the US Constitution and the American common and civil law. Hence, an originalist might cite Blackstone's Commentaries to establish the meaning of the term due process as it would have been understood at the time of ratification.

Many originalists have serious disagreements with substantive due process. Justices Scalia and Thomas have called the doctrine an “oxymoron". These originalists view the due process clause as solely referring to procedural due process. To justify the incorporation or the discovery of unenumerated rights, Justice Gorsuch and Justice Thomas would prefer that the court rely on the Privileges and Immunities Clause rather than substantial due process. Not all originalist judges agree with the criticism of substantive due process.

Original research sections removed from the article
Originalism is an umbrella term for interpretative methods that hold to the "fixation thesis", the notion that an utterance's semantic content is fixed at the time it is uttered. Two alternative understandings about the sources of meaning have been proposed:

 * The original intent theory, which holds that interpretation of a written constitution is (or should be) consistent with what those who drafted and ratified it intended the meaning to be. This view has become largely depreciated among 21st-century originalists. Alfred Avins and Raoul Berger (author of Government by Judiciary) were proponents of this view.
 * The original meaning theory, which is closely related to textualism, is the view that interpretation of a written constitution or law should be based on what reasonable persons living at the time of its adoption would have understood the ordinary meaning of the text to be. Antonin Scalia was a proponent of this view, as are Clarence Thomas and Amy Coney Barrett.

Original intent
The original form of originalism is sometimes called intentionalism, or original intent originalism, and looked for the subjective intent of a law's enactors. One problem with this approach is identifying the relevant "lawmaker" whose intent is sought. For instance, the authors of the U.S. Constitution could be the particular Founding Fathers that drafted it, such as those on the Committee of Detail. Or, since the Constitution purports to originate from the People, one could look to the various state ratifying conventions. The intentionalist methodology involves studying the writings of its authors, or the records of the Philadelphia Convention, or debates in the state legislatures, for clues as to their intent.

There are two kinds of intent analysis, reflecting two meanings of the word intent. The first, a rule of common law construction during the Founding Era, is functional intent. The second is motivational intent. To understand the difference, one can use the metaphor of an architect who designs a Gothic church with flying buttresses. The functional intent of flying buttresses is to prevent the weight of the roof from spreading the walls and causing a collapse of the building, which can be inferred from examining the design as a whole. The motivational intent might be to create work for his brother-in-law who is a flying buttress subcontractor. Using original intent analysis of the first kind, one might decide that the language of Article III of the U.S. Constitution was to delegate to Congress the power to allocate original and appellate jurisdictions, and not to remove some jurisdiction, involving a constitutional question, from all courts. That would suggest that the decision was wrong in Ex Parte McCardle.

Problems with intentionalism
However, intentionalism encounters numerous problems when applied to the Constitution. For example, most of the Founders did not leave detailed discussions of what their intent was in 1787, and, while a few did, there is no reason to think that their views should be dispositive of what the rest thought. Moreover, the discussions of the drafters may have been recorded; however they were not available to the ratifiers in each state. The theory of original intent was challenged in a string of law review articles in the 1980s. Specifically, original intent was seen as lacking good answers to three important questions: whether a diverse group such as the framers even had a single intent; if they did, whether it could be determined from two centuries' distance; and, whether the framers themselves would have supported original intent.

In response to this, a different strain of originalism, articulated by (among others) Antonin Scalia, Robert Bork, and Randy Barnett, came to the fore. This is dubbed original meaning.

Original meaning
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes argued that interpreting what was meant by someone who wrote a law was not trying to "get into his mind" because the issue was "not what this man meant, but what those words would mean in the mouth of a normal speaker of English, using them in the circumstances in which they were used." This is the essential precept of modern originalism.

The most robust and widely cited form of originalism, original meaning, emphasizes how the text would have been understood by a reasonable person in the historical period during which the constitution was proposed, ratified, and first implemented. For example, economist Thomas Sowell notes that phrases like "due process" and "freedom of the press" had a long established meaning in English law, even before they were put into the Constitution of the United States. Applying this form involves studying dictionaries and other writings of the time (for example, Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England; see "Matters rendered moot by originalism", infra) to establish what particular terms meant. (See Methodology, infra).

Justice Scalia, one of the most forceful modern advocates for originalism, defined himself as believing in original meaning: "The theory of originalism treats a constitution like a statute, and gives it the meaning that its words were understood to bear at the time they were promulgated. You will sometimes hear it described as the theory of original intent. You will never hear me refer to original intent, because as I say I am first of all a textualist, and secondly an originalist. If you are a textualist, you don't care about the intent, and I don't care if the framers of the Constitution had some secret meaning in mind when they adopted its words. I take the words as they were promulgated to the people of the United States, and what is the fairly understood meaning of those words." Though there is evidence that the Founding Fathers intended the Constitution to be like a statute, this fact does not matter under Scalia's approach. Adherence to original meaning is explicitly divorced from the intent of the Founders; rather, the reasons for adhering to original meaning derive from other justifications, such as the argument that the understanding of the ratifiers (the people of the several States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution) should be controlling, as well as consequentialist arguments about original meaning's positive effect on rule of law.

Perhaps the clearest example illustrating the importance of the difference between original intent and original meaning is the Twenty-seventh Amendment. The Twenty-seventh Amendment was proposed as part of the Bill of Rights in 1791, but failed to be ratified by the required number of states for two centuries, eventually being ratified in 1992. An original intent inquiry might ask what the framers understood the amendment to mean when it was written, though some would argue that it was the intent of the latter-day ratifiers that is important. An original-meaning inquiry would ask what the plain, public meaning of the text was in 1992 when it was eventually ratified.

Semantic originalism
Semantic-originalism is Ronald Dworkin's term for the theory that the original meaning of many statutes implies that those statutes prohibit certain acts widely considered not to be prohibited by the statutes at the time of their passages. This type of originalism contrasts with expectations originalism, which adheres to how the statutes functioned at the times of their passages, without any expectation that they would function in any other particular ways.

Justice Antonin Scalia and other originalists often claim that the death penalty is not "cruel and unusual punishment" because at the time of the Eighth Amendment's passage, it was a punishment believed to be neither cruel nor unusual. Dworkin and the semantic-originalists assert, however, that if advances in moral philosophy (presuming that such advances are possible) reveal that the death penalty is in fact "cruel and unusual", then the original meaning of the Eighth Amendment implies that the death penalty is unconstitutional. All the same, Justice Scalia purported to follow semantic originalism, although he conceded that Dworkin does not believe Scalia was true to that calling.

Framework originalism
Framework Originalism is an approach developed by Jack Balkin, a professor of law at Yale Law School. Framework Originalism, or Living Originalism, is a blend of two principal constitutional interpretive methods: originalism and Living Constitution. Balkin holds that there is no inherent contradiction between these two interpretive approaches—when properly understood. Framework Originalists view the Constitution as an "initial framework for governance that sets politics in motion." This "framework" must be built-out or filled-out over time, successive generations, by the various legislative and judicial branches. This process is achieved, primarily, through building political institutions, passing legislation, and creating precedents (both judicial and non-judicial). In effect, the process of building out the Constitution on top of the framework of the original meaning is living constitutionalism, the change of and progress of law over time to address particular (current) issues. The authority of the judiciary and of the political branches to engage in constitutional construction comes from their "joint responsiveness to public opinion" over long stretches of time, while operating within the basic framework of the original meaning. Balkin claims that through mechanisms of social influence, both judges and the political branches inevitably come to reflect and respond to changing social mores, norms, customs and (public) opinions.

According to Framework originalism, interpreters should adhere to the original meaning of the Constitution, but are not necessarily required to follow the original expected application (although they may use it to create doctrines and decide cases). For example, states should extend the equal protection of the laws to all peoples, in cases where it would not originally or normally have applied. Contemporary interpreters are not bound by how people in 1868 would have applied these words and meanings to issues such as racial segregation or (sexual) discrimination, largely due to the fact the Fourteenth Amendment is concerned with such issues (as well as the fact that the Fourteenth Amendment was not proposed or ratified by the founders). When the Constitution uses or applies principles or standards, like "equal protection" or "unreasonable searches and seizures," further construction is usually required, by either the judiciary, the executive, or the legislative branch. Therefore, Balkin claims, (pure, unadulterated) originalism is not sufficient to decide a wide range of cases or controversies. Judges, he posits, will have to "engage in considerable constitutional construction as well as the elaboration and application of previous constructions." For example, originalism (in and of itself), is not sufficient to constrain judicial behavior. Constraint itself does not just come from doctrine or canons, but also from institutional, political, and cultural sources. These constraints include: multi-member or panel courts (where the balance of power lies with moderate judges); the screening of judges through the federal judicial appointment process; social and cultural influences on the judiciary (which keep judges attuned and attentive to popular opinions and the political will of the people); and prevailing professional legal culture and professional conceptions of the role of the judiciary (which produce social norms or mores). These constraints ensure that judges act as impartial arbiters of the law and to try to behave in a principled manner, as it applies to decision making.

Professor Nelson Lund of George Mason University Law School has criticized Balkin's living originalism theory. Specifically, Lund argues that living originalism could be used to read the 26th Amendment to the United States Constitution in such a way that it allows for an 18-year-old U.S. President (with the argument being that the 26th Amendment implicitly amends the 35-year age requirement for the U.S. presidency as well as all other age requirements for federal offices to make all of them 18 years). Also, Lund argues that if living originalism could be used to justify a constitutional right to same-sex marriage, then "it would be child's play to construct the Fourteenth Amendment into a shield for polygamy, prostitution, incest (at least among adults), polyamorous marriages, and a variety of other unorthodox sexual relationships." Finally, Lund argues that "[w]hatever one's reasons for accepting Balkin's proposal to marry originalism and living constitutionalism, doing so leaves originalism itself in a condition akin to the legal death that married women experienced under the old rules of coverture." Superb Owl (talk) 20:21, 25 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ===Philosophical underpinnings===

Originalism, in all its various forms, is predicated on a specific view of what the Constitution is, a view articulated by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison:

"[T]he constitution organizes the government, and assigns to different departments their respective powers. It may either stop here; or establish certain limits not to be transcended by those departments.

The government of the United States is of the latter description. The powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the constitution is written. To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that limitation committed to writing; if these limits may, at any time, be passed by those intended to be restrained?"Originalism assumes that Marbury is correct: the Constitution is the operating charter granted to government by the people, as per the preamble to the United States Constitution, and its written nature introduces a certain discipline into its interpretation. Originalism further assumes that the need for such a written charter was derived from the perception, on the part of the Framers, of the abuses of power under the (unwritten) British Constitution, under which the Constitution was essentially whatever Parliament decided it should be. In writing out a Constitution which explicitly granted the government certain authorities, and withheld from it others, and in which power was balanced between multiple agencies (the presidency, two chambers of Congress and the Supreme Court at the national level, and state governments of the United States with similar branches), the intention of the Framers was to restrain government, originalists argue, and the value of such a document is nullified if that document's meaning is not fixed. As one author stated, "If the constitution can mean anything, then the constitution is reduced to meaninglessness."

Original intent vs original public meaning vs textualism
I think this article needs to have a section on the differences between original intent and original public meaning and textualism. All 3 are related and are sometimes confused. As for the original research issues, I think citing 1 or more supreme court justices (like below) is sufficient as a source. I for one think the section below should be restored:

"The original meaning theory, which is closely related to textualism, is the view that interpretation of a written constitution or law should be based on what reasonable persons living at the time of its adoption would have understood the ordinary meaning of the text to be. Antonin Scalia was a proponent of this view, as are Clarence Thomas and Amy Coney Barrett." Xam2580 (talk) 22:05, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

 * We'd still need a reliable source attributing these distinctions to those justices. Superb Owl (talk) 22:19, 3 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Is a reliable source a court opinion written by any of these justices? Because some of the writings of Scalia above were seemingly rejected. Xam2580 (talk) 22:24, 3 May 2024 (UTC)
 * That's a good question - it makes me uncomfortable to use court decisions or the works of the justices themselves as sources but open to what others think Superb Owl (talk) 22:27, 3 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Given that originalism is (mostly) a creation of the federal judiciary, I see no issues using the works of 100% beyond any doubt committed originalist justices as a source, especially if the source is qualified (like "originalist judge X said 'Y'"). Xam2580 (talk) 19:34, 7 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I disagree - I think we need secondary sources separate from those making decisions.
 * Also, I wanted to add links to the articles that might explain why I reverted your last edits: WP:synthesis, WP:No original research and not in an WP:encyclopedic tone. Superb Owl (talk) 20:18, 7 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Secondary sources dont often exist about specific judicial viewpoints... Why can't we just take the judges at their word? Xam2580 (talk) 20:23, 7 May 2024 (UTC)
 * If secondary sources are not available, then it is usually not notable enough for inclusion. I would recommend you also read WP:Reliable sources Superb Owl (talk) 20:29, 7 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I have. I understand the focus on secondary sources but I think judicial opinions count or should be an exception. Especially those from the supreme court where many judges join together to issue joint opinions, using a judicial opinion of "judge X who is commonly associated with originalism said Z" seems acceptable to me.
 * Judges in the common law system discover law, and originalism is a judicial doctrine. At least for this article, I would argue for some flexibility and leeway. Xam2580 (talk) 20:30, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

"See Also" Democratic backsliding in the United States
It may be that a correlation exists between anti-democratic (lowercase d) elements in the United States and the views of originalism, but I fail to see how Democratic backsliding in the United States is a relevant link in the "See Also" section without violating NPOV. JohnSon12a (talk) 19:22, 7 May 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree - what about linking to: Democratic backsliding in the United States?
 * I also removed Constitution in Exile since the page had so many issues and maybe 2 reliable sources Superb Owl (talk) 20:54, 7 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I have objections to linking to democratic backsliding because of Originalism's emphasis on empowering the people and democracy by insisting on democratic/legislative change to the law. I think such a link could be ok but at a minimum any link to democratic backsliding should be clearly shown to be disputed by originalist scholars. Xam2580 (talk) 15:08, 8 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I think the new location of the 'see also' in the opposition section improves the article as it provides a reference to other similar critiques of the conservative court and its judicial philosophy. I agree that as a standalone 'see also' it is not warranted Superb Owl (talk) 21:40, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

Originalist test/framework in Bruen/other SCOTUS cases
Adding discussion section to address this issue if anyone has thoughts/wants to comment. The supreme court has been using originalism in new ways and has been constructing tests to constrain lower courts based on originalism; I think it is relevant and could use more detailed analysis. It is a more modern practice with limited scholarship, making it difficult to put on wikipedia. I also think it is pretty clear that a quasi-originalist/originalist framework has been used in 7th amendment jurisprudence. Happy to discuss/have other input.

title: Talk:Originalism


text:
Transport for Brisbane

Transport for Brisbane, previously called Brisbane Transport, is an organisational division of the Brisbane City Council, responsible through its related Council Committee for providing policy and advice to Brisbane City Council, and for delivering various public transport services across the City of Brisbane. The division does this as part of an agreement with Translink, an agency of the Department of Transport and Main Roads that operates public transport across South East Queensland.

History
The origins of Transport for Brisbane (formerly, Brisbane Transport) can be traced to August 1885 where the Metropolitan Tramways & Investment Company established a service in Brisbane under franchise from the Queensland Government with 18 horse trams. The tram system remained in private hands until January 1923 when the Queensland government established the Brisbane Tramways Trust, compulsorily acquiring the tram network and supporting infrastructure, then in 1925 creating the Brisbane City Council and transferring responsibility for the tram network to the council. Before the council withdrew support in 1961, the council supported the tram network by expanding it to a peak of 175 km with over 400 trams.

Bus services commenced in 1925 by the Brisbane City Council. Brisbane City Council shut down bus services due to financial loss in November 1927. Bus services recommenced 13 years later, in July 1940 with 12 Albion Valkyries. In 1948 the Brisbane City Council acquired 20 operators with 67 buses.

The first Rocket services began on the morning of 18 April 1977 between Garden City and the Brisbane CBD. These services were based on the idea that bus travel time could be reduced to less than the travel time by car by the removal of most embarkation stops.

In the 1990s, Brisbane City Council corporatised its transport services to form Brisbane Transport, a council-owned commercial businesses managed at arm's length from the council and providing consultancy services back to it.

Infrastructure
Transport for Brisbane operates services along dedicated busway infrastructure to avoid peak hour traffic congestion on roads closest to the Brisbane CBD.

BUZ (bus upgrade zone)

Bus upgrade zones (BUZ) are high-frequency bus routes mostly running direct to the Cultural Centre. All BUZ services run at least every fifteen minutes from around 06:00 to 23:00 seven days a week and at least every ten minutes during peak hours from Monday to Friday. Except for the 199 BUZ, all other BUZ services operate on a limited stop basis (express service).

CityGlider
CityGlider is a high frequency bus service around the Brisbane CBD, operating every five minutes during peak and every 10 to 15 minutes during off-peak. The service is pre-paid, meaning you can't buy any tickets on the bus, you must have already purchased a ticket, or have a go card to pay for your fare. This is the first service in Brisbane to operate 24 hours on Friday and Saturday and 18 hours every other day. Bus stops serviced by the CityGlider are identified with signs and painted kerb.

City Centre Free Loops
The free City Loop, Spring Hill Loop and South Brisbane Loop bus services provide high frequency public transport access within the Brisbane Central Business District (CBD), at no cost to riders. Services also run between the CBD and Spring Hill areas and through South Brisbane and West End.

The City Loop operates in a clockwise (route 40) and anti-clockwise (route 50) direction. The City Loop uses distinctive purple buses and stop at the purple signposted bus stops.

The South Brisbane bus loop travels in an anti-clockwise direction along Grey Street, Montague Road, Vulture Street and Tribune Street. The bus stops were re-branded to a distinctive green and white stripe pattern.

The Spring Hill Loop service (route 30) between Brisbane City and Spring Hill runs on a continuous loop between the CBD and Spring Hill precincts. Distinctive yellow buses stop at the yellow signposted bus stops.

Rocket
Rocket is a peak hour service operating in the direction of peak (towards the city in the mornings, and away from the city in the evenings), with limited stops. You can identify the stops for the Rocket service by the smaller "Rocket" sign shown under the standard bus stop sign.

Clem7
Clem7 (Route 77) is a bus route using the Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem7) which links the suburbs of Eight Mile Plains and Chermside. It runs every 15 minutes at peak times and 30 minutes off-peak, Monday to Friday.

The route commenced on 22 March 2010 at a cost of $1.6 million per annum. It has decreased the journey time between Eight Mile Plains and Chermside, removing the need to transfer at Cultural Centre. The route completes the 30 km cross-city journey in 39 minutes instead of up to 55 minutes via the Brisbane CBD.

Rigid buses
MAN 18.310s, Volvo B7RLEs and later Volvo B8RLEs make up the majority part of the rigid bus fleet of Brisbane Transport.

A total of 390 18.310s joined the Brisbane Transport fleet from 2005 to 2010, with 324 fitted with CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) engines (Fleet numbers 1200 to 1523) and 66 powered by diesel (Fleet numbers 1001 to 1066). Buses 1001 to 1015 were on loan to South West Transit, 1019 to 1029 were on loan to Hornibrook Bus Lines services since 2012, and returned to Brisbane Transport in July 2021. CNG powered buses are starting to pull off from service starting from 2019.

The rest of the regular rigid fleet are all Volvos, including 553 diesel-powered B7RLEs (delivered from 2009 to 2018, fleet numbers 1801 to 2353, two withdrawn from service due to accidents in 2017 and 2020). 139 Volvo B8RLEs (delivered from 2017 to 2021, numbers 2801 to 2939) and one Volvo B5RLEH Hybrid demonstrator bus (introduced in 2015, fleet number 1595), all low-floor, accessible and air-conditioned.

In October 2020, the last Scania L94UB, the first CNG and low floor bus was retired after 20 years of service. In total 217 were made with two lost due to accidents in 2003 and in 2009 when the bus exploded due to a problem with the CNG engine. This has led the Brisbane City Council to retire all gas powered buses by 2027.

Four Yutong E12 battery electric buses will operate on trial with Brisbane Transport, starting from June 2021 on the City Loop free services.

The supply of Volvo buses from Volgren came to an end in June 2021, where this contract started in 2009 across a 12-year period, with the first delivery of a Volvo B7RLE (fleet number 1801); while the final bus in the contract is a Volvo B8RLE (fleet number 2939) which is the 882nd bus built.

In 2020, one third of buses were powered by natural gas. By 2027 all gas powered buses will be phased out.

Starting from 22 May 2023, two new battery powered Volvo BZLs have been introduced to The Spring Hill Loop Route 30.

Tag axle buses
BT operates two models of tag axle buses, 8 Scania K310UB (delivered in early 2009, fleet numbers 1701 to 1708 and later renumbered as 5001 to 5008) and 149 Volvo B12BLE (delivered from 2010 to 2013, fleet numbers 5009 to 5157), both diesel-powered and delivered from 2009 on. These larger buses are used on high-demand trunk routes, mostly on the South East Busway.

Articulated buses
Articulated buses currently used by Transport for Brisbane are 30 CNG-powered MAN NG313s (Fleet numbers 1601 to 1630), delivered from 2007 to 2008 and 20 diesel-powered Volvo B8RLEAs (Fleet numbers 1631 to 1650), delivered in 2018.

A further batch of 20 B8RLEAs (Fleet numbers 1651 to 1670) has started to deliver in early 2020, 1651 and 1652 entered service in April 2020; while 1653, 1662 to 1670 entered service in March 2021. Since 12 July 2021, 1653 and the remaining 8 new artics (Fleet numbers 1654 to 1661) joined the Blue CityGlider Route 60 fleet to replace the rigid B8RLEs (Fleet numbers 2820 to 2838), while 1662 to 1670 joined the CityGlider fleet progressively to replace all the rigid B8RLEs in late 2021.

Historic
Until the mid-1970s, heavy-duty AEC and Leyland buses were purchased. Later purchases were from European suppliers, Volvo B59s being purchased from 1976, MAN SL200s in 1982 and Volvo B10Ms from 1987.

Depots
Transport for Brisbane operates its services from seven depots for specified areas. Some of these depots service routes shared in overlapping areas with other depots. Generally, each of Transport for Brisbane's buses is allocated to a particular depot, displaying a letter prefix for that depot before its fleet number, and hence is assigned to specific routes.

Accidents and incidents
On 28 October 2016, a Volvo B7RLE, S1980, was set alight by 48 year old Anthony O'Donohue. The driver, 29 year old Manmeet Sharma, was killed in his seat while all of the passengers were safely evacuated with some receiving minor injuries. Mr. O'Donohue was found to be suffering from mental health problems and was charged with the murder of the driver and multiple counts of attempted murder. Following the fire, the bus was destroyed and the fleet number '1980' was permanently retired from the company. All buses manufactured after 2005 were to receive a physical barrier for the driver and all buses in the fleet were to receive more CCTV cameras and better signage to help with evacuation process on any of the companies buses.

On 8 March 2024, a MAN 18.310, G1273, experienced loss of control on Edward Street in Brisbane CBD, causing it to veer off the road and onto the adjoining footpath before coming to rest against the exterior of the ANZAC Square Arcade building. An 18-year-old female pedestrian, who became pinned between the bus and the building, died at the scene. The driver and four passengers were taken to hospital with minor injuries.

title: Transport for Brisbane


text:
Spain at the 1980 Summer Olympics

Spain competed at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, USSR. In partial support of the American-led Olympics boycott, Spain competed under the Olympic Flag instead of its national flag. 155 competitors, 146 men and 9 women, took part in 75 events in 18 sports.

Archery
After not competing in archery in 1976, Spain returned to the sport in 1980. Two Spanish men competed.

Men's Individual Competition:
 * Antonio Vazquez — 2240 points (→ 29th place)
 * Francisco Peralta — 2181 points (→ 33rd place)

Athletics
Men's 800 metres
 * Colomán Trabado
 * Heat — 1:47.9
 * Semifinals — 1:48.1 (→ did not advance)

 * Antonio Páez
 * Heat — 1:49.5
 * Semifinals — 1:47.8 (→ did not advance)

Men's 1,500 metres
 * José Luis González
 * Heat — 3:40.9
 * Semifinals — 3:42.6 (→ did not advance)

 * José Manuel Abascal
 * Heat — 3:44.7 (→ did not advance)

Men's 10,000 metres
 * Antonio Prieto
 * Heat — 29:12.8 (→ did not advance)

Men's 4 × 400 metres Relay
 * Isidoro Hornillos, Colomán Trabado, Benjamín González, and José Casabona
 * Heat — 3:06.9 (→ did not advance)

Men's 110 m Hurdles
 * Javier Moracho
 * Heat — 13.72
 * Semifinals — 13.80
 * Final — 13.78 (→ 7th place)

 * Carlos Sala
 * Heat — 14.28
 * Semifinals — 14.00 (→ did not advance)

Men's 400 m Hurdles
 * Juan Lloveras
 * Heat — 50.48
 * Semifinals — 51.86 (→ did not advance)

 * José Casabona
 * Heat — 51.26 (→ did not advance)

Men's 3,000 m Steeplechase
 * Domingo Ramón
 * Heat — 8:31.9
 * Semifinals — 8:22.0
 * Final — 8:15.8 (→ 4th place)

 * Francisco Sánchez
 * Heat — 8:27.5
 * Semifinals — 8:19.0
 * Final — 8:18.0 (→ 5th place)

Men's High Jump
 * Roberto Cabrejas
 * Qualification — 2.21 m
 * Final — 2.10 m (→ 16th place)

 * Martí Perarnau
 * Qualification — 2.15 m (→ did not advance)

Men's Long Jump
 * Antonio Corgos
 * Qualification — 7.96 m
 * Final — 8.09 m (→ 7th place)

 * Alberto Solanas
 * Qualification — 7.73 m (→ did not advance)

Men's Triple Jump
 * Ramon Cid
 * Qualification — 16.20 m (→ did not advance)

Men's Marathon
 * Eleuterio Anton
 * Final — 2:18:16 (→ 22nd place)

Men's 20 km Walk
 * Josep Marín
 * Final — 1:26:45.6 (→ 5th place)

Men's 50 km Walk
 * Jordi Llopart
 * Final — 3:51:25 (→ [[Image:Silver_medal.svg|16x16px]] Silver Medal)

 * Josep Marín
 * Final — 4:03:08 (→ 6th place)

Diving
Men's Springboard
 * Ricardo Camacho
 * Preliminary round — 532.02 points (→ 8th place)
 * Final — 749.340 points (→ 8th place)

Fencing
Four fencers, all men, represented Spain in 1980.

 * Men's foil
 * Miguel Roca
 * Jesús Esperanza

 * Men's épée
 * José Pérez

 * Men's sabre
 * Valentín Paraíso

Football

 * Men's Team Competition
 * Preliminary round (Group C)
 * Spain – East Germany 1-1 (0-0)
 * Spain – Syria 0-0 (0-0)
 * Spain – Algeria 1-1 (1-0) → did not advance

 * Team roster
 * Joaquín Alonso
 * Marcos Alonso
 * Francisco Buyo
 * Miguel de Andrés
 * Juan Antonio Felipe
 * Agustín Gajate
 * Angel González
 * Francisco Guerri
 * Jorge David López
 * Víctor Muñoz
 * Urbano Ortega
 * Enrique Ramos
 * Hipólito Rincón
 * Agustín Rodríguez
 * Santiago Urquiaga
 * Manuel Zúñiga

Handball

 * Men's Team Competition
 * Preliminary round (Group A)
 * Lost to East Germany (17-21)
 * Defeated Denmark (20-19)
 * Lost to Hungary (17-20)
 * Drew with Cuba (24-24)
 * Defeated Poland (24-22)

 * Classification Match
 * 5th/6th place: Defeated Yugoslavia (24-23) → 5th place

 * Team Roster
 * Agustín Millán
 * Eugenio Serrano
 * Francisco López
 * Gregorio López
 * Javier Cabanas
 * Jesús María Albisu
 * José Ignacio Novoa
 * José María Pagoaga
 * Juan Alfonso de la Puente
 * Juan Francisco Muñoz
 * Juan José Uría
 * Juan Pedro de Miguel
 * Rafael López
 * Vicente Calabuig

Hockey

 * Men's Team Competition
 * Preliminary round
 * Spain – Soviet Union 2-1
 * Spain – Tanzania 12-0
 * Spain – India 2-2
 * Spain – Poland 6-0
 * Spain – Cuba 11-0

 * Final
 * Spain – India 3-4 → [[Image:Silver_medal.svg|16x16px]] Silver Medal

 * Team Roster:
 * Juan Amat
 * Juan Arbós
 * Jaime Arbós
 * Javier Cabot
 * Ricardo Cabot
 * Miguel Chaves
 * Juan Coghen
 * Miguel de Paz
 * Francisco Fábregas
 * José Garcia
 * Rafael Garralda
 * Santiago Malgosa
 * Paulino Monsalve
 * Juan Pellón
 * Carlos Roca
 * Jaime Zumalacárregui

Modern pentathlon
Three male pentathletes represented Spain in 1980.

Men's Individual Competition:
 * Federico Galera — 5.001 pts, 25th place
 * José Serrano — 4.887 pts, 29th place
 * Manuel Montesinos — 4.811 pts, 32nd place

Men's Team Competition:
 * Galera, Serrano, and Montesinos — 14.699pts, 9th place

Sailing

 * Open

Shooting

 * Open

Swimming
Men's 100m Freestyle
 * David López-Zubero
 * Heats — 52,43
 * Semi-Finals — 52,81 (→ did not advance)

Men's 200m Freestyle
 * Ramón Lavín
 * Heats — 1.56,99 (→ did not advance)

 * David López-Zubero
 * Heats — 1.53,22 (→ did not advance)

Men's 1.500m Freestyle
 * Rafael Escalas
 * Final — 15.21,88 (→ 6th place)

Men's 100m Butterfly
 * David López-Zubero
 * Final — 55,16 (→ [[Image:Bronze_medal.svg|16x16px]] Bronze Medal)

Women's 4 × 100 m Freestyle
 * Natalia Más, Margarita Armengol, Laura Flaque, and Gloria Casado
 * Final — 3.58,73 (→ 8th place)

title: Spain at the 1980 Summer Olympics


text: User:Jammydodger/Careers

title: User:Jammydodger/Careers


text:
Junior Campbell

Junior Campbell (born William Campbell Jnr, 31 May 1947) is a Scottish composer, songwriter and musician. He was a founding member, lead guitarist, pianist, and singer with the Scottish band Marmalade and co-wrote and produced some of their biggest successes, including "Reflections of My Life", "I See the Rain" and "Rainbow". "Reflections of My Life" has produced sales of over two million units. In 1998 Campbell and co-writer Dean Ford (Thomas McAleese) were awarded a Special Citation of Achievement by the BMI for attaining radio broadcast performances in excess of one million in the US alone. He also wrote and produced his own solo hits, "Hallelujah Freedom" and "Sweet Illusion" and "Carolina Days".

Campbell is also known for composing music for film and television drama, and as an arranger and producer for many musicians including Barbara Dickson. He is also known for co-composing the music and co-writing the lyrics for 182 episodes and 31 songs of the children's TV series Thomas & Friends from 1983–2003, including "The Island Song", "He's A Really Useful Engine", "The Snow Song" and "Accidents Happen", and also composing the music for Tugs, a thirteen part children's television series from the same production crew as Thomas.

Early life
Campbell was born in Glasgow, Scotland. He grew up in Springboig, in the east end of Glasgow, and was educated at Thorntree Primary in Greenfield and Eastbank Academy in Shettleston. His paternal grandfather Alfredo Cancellari was an Italian immigrant born near Lucca, Italy, who changed his surname to Campbell in the early 1900s when he settled in Scotland.

As a youngster, Campbell had a distinct unique style of guitar playing, whereby, similar to Albert King, Elizabeth Cotten and Dick Dale, he played right hand guitar, left-handed, literally upside down without changing the stringing, (unlike Jimi Hendrix and Paul McCartney who restrung to conventional stringing), although he tuned to "open E" tuning (List of guitar tunings) rather than standard Guitar tuning.

Marmalade: 1961-1971
He joined Pat Fairley to form The Gaylords, on his fourteenth birthday in May 1961 (later to become Dean Ford & the Gaylords, then Marmalade in 1966), acting as lead guitarist, piano player, and singer.

With Marmalade, he co-wrote and produced the multi-million-selling "Reflections of My Life", "Rainbow" and "I See The Rain", amongst others, in a line of hits from 1967 to 1971. Campbell's reverse tape guitar solo on "Reflections of My Life" and "I See the Rain" are particularly noteworthy – the latter was Jimi Hendrix's favourite cut of 1967.During his years with Marmalade, the band used Keith Mansfield as an orchestral arranger on all of their first record successes with CBS, including "Loving Things", "Wait For Me Mary Ann", "Obladi Oblada", "Baby Make It Soon" and also "Reflections of My Life", when the band moved to Decca, and Campbell studied Mansfield's scores at close range, was so impressed with the craft of arranging for orchestra, and the sound and expertise of orchestral musicians in the recording studio, that this led to a major turning point in his career, so much so, he then commenced arranging orchestral accompaniment on the band's sessions himself.

Tired of touring, Campbell left Marmalade in March 1971. Campbell was the main songwriting partner for lead singer Dean Ford, and by their next album "Songs" (November 1971), Ford only wrote two songs.

Solo career and composing: 1971-present
During the 1970s, he had two self-penned solo records released, both of which, "Hallelujah Freedom" (#9) (1972), (with Doris Troy on backing vocals), and "Sweet Illusion" (#15) (1973), made Top 20 chart appearances in the UK Singles Chart.

He then went on to study orchestration and composition with Eric Gilder and Max Saunders at the Royal College of Music and became an arranger and record producer for many artists as diverse as Miller Anderson, (Bright City, 1971), Matthews Southern Comfort, Barry Ryan, The Tremeloes, Freddie Starr and Barbara Dickson, arranging and producing her first hit single and album, "Answer Me". He also arranged and conducted Dickson's performances in her first-season run on the BBC Television series The Two Ronnies in 1976.

Campbell has composed music for television drama and film, including the 1989 war film That Summer of White Roses (starring Tom Conti, Rod Steiger, Susan George, and Alun Armstrong); the 1993 fantasy film Merlin: The True Story (aka October 32nd, starring Nadia Cameron-Blakey, James Hong, Richard Lynch and Rodney Wood) and the 1994 BBC Worldwide Television drama BAFTA winner Taking Over the Asylum, which starred Ken Stott, David Tennant and Elizabeth Spriggs.

He also composed the music for the 1998 BBC Television adaptation of the Minette Walters murder mystery The Scold's Bridle, starring Miranda Richardson, Bob Peck, Siân Phillips, Douglas Hodge, Trudie Styler, and Beth Winslet.

Campbell co-wrote the music and lyrics for the internationally successful children's TV series Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends with Mike O'Donnell, composing all music and songs during the classic period of Thomas films from 1984–2003, but when ownership of the production changed hands in 2003 during all episodes of season 7 for the British dub, and 21 episodes of season 7 for the American dub, Campbell (and his co-writer) departed the series after becoming embroiled in what proved to be a protracted legal dispute in a claim to recover substantial historic royalties with HIT Entertainment, the new owners. Campbell and O'Donnell also wrote the soundtrack for the TV series TUGS in 1989.

In November 2013, Junior Campbell – The Very Best Of .... Back Then was released through Union Square Music. It was a 32 track compilation album available for digital download.

Personal life
Campbell lives near Horsham in Sussex with his wife Susie.

Singles

 * All songs written by Junior Campbell – except "Baby Hold On" (co-written with Len (Chip) Hawkes)

Albums

 * Second Time Around – 1974 – Deram Records SML 1106
 * Second Time Around – 2001 – Sanctuary Records CMDDD 398 compilation containing original Deram album and all Deram/Private Stock singles, plus selection of previously unreleased tracks.

Albums

 * There's a Lot of it About – 1968
 * Reflections of the Marmalade – 1970

Other sources

 * Discography ref Record Collector issue No. 186 (February 1995)
 * Liner notes Second Time Around – 2001 – Sanctuary Records CMDDD 398

title: Junior Campbell


text:
Coiflet

Coiflets are discrete wavelets designed by Ingrid Daubechies, at the request of Ronald Coifman, to have scaling functions with vanishing moments. The wavelet is near symmetric, their wavelet functions have $$N/3$$ vanishing moments and scaling functions $$N/3-1$$, and has been used in many applications using Calderón–Zygmund operators.

Theory
Some theorems about Coiflets:

Theorem 1
For a wavelet system $$\{\phi,\tilde{\phi},\psi,\tilde{\psi},h,\tilde{h},g,\tilde{g}\}$$, the following three equations are equivalent:

\begin{array}{lcl} \mathcal{M_\tilde{\psi}}(0,l] = 0  & \text{for }l  =0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \sum_n (-1)^n n^l h[n]=0    & \text{for }l =0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ H^{(l)}(\pi)=0 & \text{for }l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \end{array}$$ and similar equivalence holds between $$\psi $$ and $$ \tilde{h}$$

Theorem 2
For a wavelet system $$\{\phi,\tilde{\phi},\psi,\tilde{\psi},h,\tilde{h},g,\tilde{g}\}$$, the following six equations are equivalent:

\begin{array}{lcl} \mathcal{M_\tilde{\phi}}(t_0,l] = \delta[l] & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \mathcal{M_\tilde{\phi}}(0,l] = t_0^l  & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \hat{\phi}^(l)(0)=(-jt_0)^t& \text{for }l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \sum_n (n-t_0)^l h[n]= \delta[l]   & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \sum_n n^l h[n]=t_0^l   & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ H^{(l)}(0)=(-jt_0)^t & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots,L-1 \\ \end{array} $$

and similar equivalence holds between $$\tilde{\psi} $$ and $$ \tilde{h}$$

Theorem 3
For a biorthogonal wavelet system $$\{\phi,\psi,\tilde{\phi},\tilde{\psi}\}$$, if either $$\tilde{\psi}$$ or $$\psi$$ possesses a degree L of vanishing moments, then the following two equations are equivalent:

\begin{array}{lcl} \mathcal{M_\tilde{\psi}}(t_0,l] = \delta[l] & \text{for } l=0,1,\ldots, \bar{L}-1 \\ \mathcal{M_\psi}(t_0,l] = \delta[l]  & \text{for }l=0,1,\ldots, \bar{L}-1 \\ \end{array} $$

for any $$\bar{L}$$ such that $$\bar{L} \ll  L$$

Coiflet coefficients
Both the scaling function (low-pass filter) and the wavelet function (high-pass filter) must be normalised by a factor $$1/\sqrt{2} $$. Below are the coefficients for the scaling functions for C6–30. The wavelet coefficients are derived by reversing the order of the scaling function coefficients and then reversing the sign of every second one (i.e. C6 wavelet = {−0.022140543057, 0.102859456942, 0.544281086116, −1.205718913884, 0.477859456942, 0.102859456942}).

Mathematically, this looks like $$ B_k = (-1)^k C_{N - 1 - k} $$, where k is the coefficient index, B is a wavelet coefficient, and C a scaling function coefficient. N is the wavelet index, i.e. 6 for C6.

Matlab function
F = coifwavf(W) returns the scaling filter associated with the Coiflet wavelet specified by the string W where W = "coifN". Possible values for N are 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

title: Coiflet


text:
Bulgaria at the 1980 Summer Olympics

Bulgaria competed at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, USSR. 271 competitors, 183 men and 88 women, took part in 151 events in 20 sports.

Gold

 * Petar Lesov — Boxing, men's flyweight
 * Lyubomir Lyubenov – canoeing, men's C1 1000m Canadian singles
 * Stojan Deltshev – gymnastics, men's horizontal bar
 * Yanko Rusev – weightlifting, men's lightweight
 * Asen Zlatev – weightlifting, men's middleweight
 * Georgi Raikov – wrestling, men's Greco-Roman heavyweight
 * Valentin Raychev – wrestling, men's freestyle welterweight
 * Ismail Abilov – wrestling, men's freestyle middleweight

Silver

 * Mariya Petkova – athletics, women's discus throw
 * Krasimira Bogdanova, Diana Braynova-Dilova, Vanya Dermendzhieva, Silviya Germanova, Nadka Golcheva, Petkana Makayeeva, Penka Metodieva, Angelina Mikhaylova, Snezhana Mikhaylova, Kostadinka Radkova, Evladiya Slavcheva, and Penka Stoyanova – basketball, women's team competition
 * Lyubomir Lyubenov – canoeing, men's C1 500m Canadian singles
 * Vanja Gesheva-Tsvetkova – canoeing, women's K1 500m kayak singles
 * Georgi Gadshev, Svetoslav Ivanov, and Petar Mandazhiev – equestrian, team dressage
 * Dimitar Zapryanov – judo, men's heavyweight
 * Nadya Filipova, Ginka Gyurova, Mariyka Modeva, Rita Todorova and Iskra Velinova – rowing, women's coxed fours
 * Yordan Angelov, Dimitar Dimitrov, Stefan Dimitrov, Stoyan Gunchev, Khristo Iliev, Petko Petkov, Kaspar Simeonov, Khristo Stoyanov, Mitko Todorov, Tsano Tsanov, Emil Valchev, and Dimitar Zlatanov – volleyball, men's team competition
 * Stefan Dimitrov – weightlifting, men's featherweight
 * Blagoi Blagoev – weightlifting, men's light heavyweight
 * Rumen Aleksandrov – weightlifting, men's Middle Heavyweight
 * Valentin Khristov – weightlifting, men's heavyweight
 * Aleksandar Tomov – wrestling, men's Greco-Roman Super Heavyweight
 * Mikho Dukov – wrestling, men's freestyle featherweight
 * Ivan Yankov – wrestling, men's freestyle lightweight
 * Slavcho Chervenkov – wrestling, men's freestyle heavyweight

Bronze

 * Petar Petrov – athletics, men's 100 metres
 * Ivailo Khristov — Boxing, men's Light Flyweight
 * Borislav Borisov, Lazar Khristov, Ivan Manev, and Bozhidar Milenkov – canoeing, men's K4 1000m Kayak Fours
 * Borislav Ananiev and Nikolay Ilkov – canoeing, men's C2 500m Canadian Pairs
 * Stojan Deltshev – gymnastics, men's All-Around Individual
 * Iliyan Nedkov – judo, men's Half Lightweight (65 kg)
 * Bogdan Dobrev, Mincho Nikolov, Lyubomir Petrov, and Ivo Rusev – rowing, men's Quadruple Sculls
 * Ani Bakova, Rumeliana Boncheva, Dolores Nakova, and Mariana Serbezova – rowing, women's Quadruple Sculls
 * Siyka Kelbecheva and Stoyanka Kurbatova-Gruicheva – rowing, women's Coxless Pairs
 * Lyubcho Dyakov — Shooting, men's Free Pistol
 * Petar Zapryanov — Shooting, men's Small-bore Rifle, prone
 * Verka Borisova-Stoyanova, Tsvetana Bozhurina, Rositsa Dimitrova, Tanya Dimitrova-Todorova, Maya Georgieva-Stoeva, Tanya Gogova, Valentina Ilieva-Kharalampieva, Rumyana Kaisheva, Anka Kristolova-Uzunova, and Silva Petrunova – volleyball, women's team competition
 * Mincho Pashov – weightlifting, men's lightweight
 * Nedelcho Kolev – weightlifting, men's middleweight
 * Mladen Mladenov – wrestling, men's Greco-Roman Flyweight
 * Pavel Pavlov – wrestling, men's Greco-Roman Middleweight
 * Nermedin Selimov – wrestling, men's freestyle flyweight

Archery
In its first appearance in Olympic archery, Bulgaria entered one man and one woman.
 * Men
 * Women

Athletics

 * Men
 * Track & road events

 * Field events

 * Combined events – Decathlon

 * Women
 * Track & road events

 * Field events

 * Combined events – pentathlon

Women's tournament
The women's tournament was decided in a round robin group with all six teams. The first two places competed for the gold medal, while the third and fourth places for the bronze. The remaining teams retain their group ranks for the final standings. The host nation finished the group phase undefeated and won the gold against Bulgaria. Yugoslavia would go on to win the bronze medal against Hungary.

Boxing
Men's Light Flyweight (– 48 kg)
 * Ismail Mustafov → [[Image:Bronze medal.svg|16x16px]] Bronze Medal
 * First Round — Bye
 * Second Round – defeated Gerard Hawkins (Ireland) on points (5-0)
 * Quarter-finals – defeated Ahmed Siad (Algeria) on points (5-0)
 * Semi-finals – lost to Hipolito Ramos (Cuba) on points (1-4)

Men's flyweight (– 51 kg)
 * Petar Lesov → [[Image:Gold medal.svg|16x16px]] Gold Medal
 * First Round – defeated Onofre Ramirez (Nicaragua) on points (5-0)
 * Second Round – defeated Hassen Sherif (Ethiopia) on points (5-0)
 * Quarter-finals – defeated Roman Gilberto (Mexico) on points (4-1)
 * Semi-finals – defeated Hugh Russell (Ireland) on points (5-0)
 * Final – defeated Viktor Miroshnichenko (Soviet Union) after referee stopped contest in 2nd round

Men's Bantamweight (– 54 kg)
 * Aleksandr Radev
 * First Round — Bye
 * Second Round – lost to John Siryakibbe (Uganda) after referee stopped contest in first round

Men's featherweight (– 57 kg)
 * Tsacho Andreikovski
 * First Round — Bye
 * Second Round – defeated William Azanor (Nigeria) after knock-out in first round
 * Third Round – defeated Barthelémy Adoukonu (Benin) after knock-out in second round
 * Quarter-finals – lost to Viktor Rybakov (Soviet Union) on points (1-4)

Men's lightweight (– 60 kg)
 * Yordan Lesov
 * First Round – defeated Patrice Martin (Benin) after knock-out in first round
 * Second Round – defeated Tibor Dezamits (Hungary) on points (4-1)
 * Quarter-finals – lost to Viktor Demyanenko (Soviet Union) on points (0-5)

Men's light-welterweight (– 63.5 kg)
 * Margarit Anastasov
 * First Round – lost to Ace Rusevski (Yugoslavia) on points (1-4)

Men's heavyweight (+ 81 kg)
 * Petr Stoimenov
 * First Round – defeated Naasan Ajjoub (Syria) after referee stopped contest in second round
 * Quarter-finals – lost to Jürgen Fanghänel (East Germany) after referee stopped contest in second round

Sprint

 * Men
 * Women

Cycling
Six cyclists represented Bulgaria in 1980.

Track

 * Time trial

Diving

 * Men

Fencing
Four fencers, all men, represented Bulgaria in 1980.

 * Men's sabre
 * Vasil Etropolski
 * Khristo Etropolski
 * Georgi Chomakov

 * Men's team sabre
 * Khristo Etropolski, Nikolay Marincheshki, Vasil Etropolski, Georgi Chomakov

Judo

 * Men

Modern pentathlon
Three male pentathletes represented Bulgaria in 1980.

Rowing

 * Men
 * Women

Sailing

 * Open

Shooting

 * Open

Swimming

 * Men
 * Women

Preliminary round

 * Pool A

Team roster

 * Stoyan Gunchev
 * Hristo Stoyanov
 * Dimitar Zlatanov
 * Dimitar Dimitrov
 * Tsano Tsanov
 * Stefan Dimitrov
 * Petko Petkov
 * Mitko Todorov
 * Kaspar Simeonov
 * Emil Valtchev
 * Hristo Iliev
 * Yordan Angelov

Preliminary round
Teams in two groups played each other in a round to decide, for which place each of them should compete in the semi-finals and the finals.
 * Group B

Team roster

 * Tania Dimitrova
 * Valentina Ilieva
 * Galina Stancheva
 * Silva Petrunova
 * Anka Khristolova
 * Verka Borisova
 * Margarita Gerasimova
 * Rumiana Kaicheva
 * Maia Georgieva
 * Tania Gogova
 * Tsvetana Bozhurina
 * Rositsa Dimitrova

Group B

 * Team Roster
 * Volodia Sirakov
 * Andrei Andreev
 * Kiril Kiriakov
 * Asen Denchev
 * Vasil Nanov
 * Anton Partalev
 * Petar Kostadinov
 * Nikolai Stamatov
 * Biser Georgiev
 * Matei Popov
 * Georgi Gospodinov

Weightlifting

 * Men

title: Bulgaria at the 1980 Summer Olympics


text:
Faculty of Advocates

The Faculty of Advocates (Dàmh an Luchd-tagraidh) is an independent body of lawyers who have been admitted to practise as advocates before the courts of Scotland, especially the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary. The Faculty of Advocates is a constituent part of the College of Justice and is based in Edinburgh.

Advocates are privileged to plead in any cause before any of the courts of Scotland, including the sheriff courts and district courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute.

History
The Faculty has existed since 1532 when the College of Justice was set up by Act of the Parliament of Scotland, but its origins are believed to predate that event. No curriculum of study, residence or professional training was, until 1856, required on entering this profession, but the faculty always had the power of rejecting any candidate for admission. Subsequently candidates underwent two private examinations; one in general scholarship that could be substituted by evidence of an equivalent university degree, and the other, at the interval of a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law, along with evidence of having attended approved classes. For a long period the Faculty resisted reorganisation, until changes in admissions were introduced in 1960.

The first woman to be admitted to the faculty was Margaret Kidd in July 1923, who remained Scotland's only female advocate until 1948. Kidd served as Keeper of the Advocates' Library 1956–1969. In 2004 the first female vice-dean of the faculty was elected.

Organisation and governance
The Faculty is led by the Dean of Faculty, who is elected by the whole membership. The post is currently held by Roddy Dunlop KC, who succeeded Gordon Jackson in July 2020. He is supported by the Vice-Dean, Treasurer, Clerk, Keeper of the Library and Chairman of Faculty Services Ltd, all of whom are also elected. The Dean regularly consults with Faculty Council, which is made up of elected and ex officio members.

The Faculty is self-regulating, but subject to the overriding supervision of the Lord President of the Court of Session, who delegates to it the task of preparing Intrants for admission as advocates. This task involves a process of examination and practical instruction known as devilling, during which intrants benefit from intensive structured training in the special skills of advocacy. No-one can be presented to the court as suitable to be a practising advocate without satisfying these training requirements. The Faculty also provides for its members an ongoing programme of talks, seminars and conferences covering a wide range of topics.

Free Legal Services Unit
Many Advocates and trainee advocates carry out work for the Free Legal Services Unit (FLSU). This is part of the Faculty's long standing commitment to providing access to justice for everyone in society. The FLSU enables qualified persons to provide advice and representation to clients of accredited advice agencies (including CAS) across Scotland. (In order to devil a person has to first undergo a period of training in a solicitor's office.)

Current membership
The Faculty includes practising and non-practising members. The current practising Bar includes an increasing proportion of women. Women make up approximately one quarter practising membership. Total numbers now stand at just over 460, of whom approximately one fifth are King's Counsel. The taking of Silk, as assumption of the title of King's Counsel is commonly known, depends upon the prerogative of His Majesty. This is exercised through the First Minister of Scotland upon the recommendation of the Lord Justice General. The Dean of Faculty is consulted in the course of this process. As a general rule, silk is awarded to experienced Counsel, who are considered to have achieved distinction in full-time practice. The process of awarding silk has been the subject of some criticism.

Advocates Library
For more than 300 years, the Faculty has maintained within Parliament House the Advocates Library, often regarded as the finest working law library in the United Kingdom.

Range of materials
A comprehensive range of materials has been built up over the last three hundred years, and a modern library management system utilising the latest technology, ensure that the Advocates Library is able to meet the increasingly complex needs of members of the Faculty of Advocates. In addition, the library's stock is made available to others via the National Library of Scotland.

History
The Library was formally inaugurated in 1689. From the start the collection was a general one. In 1709 the status of the collection was confirmed when Queen Anne's Copyright Act gave the Keeper of the Library the right to claim a copy of every book published in the British Isles. The collection was enhanced by purchase and donation, particularly of continental imprints and of manuscripts.

The Advocates Library came to be recognised as the natural depository for literary materials of national importance. By the 1850s the Library had become in effect Scotland's national library. In 1925 the National Library of Scotland was established when the Faculty gifted to the nation its whole non-law collections comprising 750,000 books, pamphlets, manuscripts (notably those of Walter Scott), maps and sheet music. The Advocates Library has retained the copyright privilege for law publications.

In recent years the Advocates Library has expanded to take account of the increase in membership of the Faculty. Advances in technology have been embraced with the installation of a new library management system, incorporating an on-line catalogue, which further enhances the services the library offers.

Deans of the Faculty of Advocates
The Dean of Faculty is the leader of the Faculty of Advocates. The Dean elected by the whole membership.

Since 2000, the following have served as Dean:

 * 1997 to 2001: Nigel Emslie
 * 2001 to 2004: Colin Campbell
 * 2004 to 2007: Robert Logan "Roy" Martin
 * 2007 to 2014: Richard Keen
 * 2014 to 2016: James Wolffe
 * 2016 to 2020: Gordon Jackson
 * 2020 to present Roddy Dunlop KC

References and sources

 * References

title: Faculty of Advocates


text:
Jerry Manock

Jerrold Clifford Manock (born February 21, 1944) is an American industrial designer. He worked for Apple Computer from 1977 to 1984, contributing to housing designs for the Apple II, Apple III, and earlier compact Apple Macintosh computers. Manock is widely regarded as the "father" of the Apple Industrial Design Group. Since 1976 he is the president and principal designer of Manock Comprehensive Design, Inc., with offices in Palo Alto, California, and Burlington, Vermont.

Education and career
Manock attended Stanford University, where he earned his B.S. in mechanical engineering in 1966 and his M.S. in Mechanical Engineering–Product Design in 1968. For his master's project, he worked on a device to aid in percussion-drainage therapy for children with cystic fibrosis.

From 1968 to 1972, Manock worked as a product design engineer in the Microwave Division of Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, California. From 1972 to 1975 he was chief mechanical engineer at Telesensory Systems, Inc., of Palo Alto. He then worked as a freelance product design consultant; in 1977 he took on Apple Computer as a client and consulted on the product design and mechanical engineering of the Apple II personal computer.

Apple Design Team
Manock joined Apple in 1979 as corporate manager of product design. Working under the direction of Steve Jobs, Manock led the product designs of the Apple II, the Apple III, and the "Cuisinart-inspired" upright casing for the first Macintosh computer, which necessitated a detached keyboard. Manock also worked on the Disk II, Disk III, and Apple Lisa office computer.

Manock was a member of the original Apple Macintosh design team. In January 1981, when Jobs became manager of the Macintosh project, he brought in Manock and Terry Oyama to design the computer housing. According to Jason O'Grady in Apple Inc., Manock was "hand-picked" by Jef Raskin to work on the Macintosh design team. In a 1984 interview, Manock said that the initial design goal was for a computer housing with "portability", but that idea was replaced by the design goal of "minimal desk space". As a result, the design team created a keyboard that was smaller than the width of the computer. Manock himself contributed the idea of using icons on the outside of the machine rather than English words to make the Macintosh more international. This style was mirrored in the ROM, which used icons instead of English-language directions, such as a frowning face when the computer needed to reboot and a smiling face indicating booting.

Patents
Manock is the co-inventor of:
 * Personal computer (U.S. Patent No. D268584), 12 April 1983
 * Dual disk drive (U.S. Patent No. D271102), 25 October 1983
 * Housing for moveable cursor control for a video display (U.S. Patent No. D284284), 17 June 1986
 * Computer housing (U.S. Patent No. D285687), 16 September 1986
 * Keypad (U.S. Patent No. D286047), 7 October 1986
 * Disk drive housing (U.S. Patent No. D286050), 7 October 1986
 * Disk drive case (U.S. Patent No. D290257), 9 June 1987
 * Equatorial sundial apparatus utilizing one or more concave cylindrical focusing mirrors (U.S. Patent No. 6301793), 16 October 2001

Teaching
Manock is a part-time lecturer on product design at the University of Vermont.

Family
Manock married Mary Ellen Tobey; they have two daughters, Abigail and Katherine.

title: Jerry Manock


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Zeneth

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. – ABCD 02:45, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Zeneth
non-notable, vanity. --Jonathan Christensen 20:46, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete —Wahoofive | Talk 21:13, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Googled, only 1 hit appears to be related to this garage band. Halidecyphon 22:08, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, band vanity. Megan1967 06:36, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Zeneth


text:
Talk:Q32

Untitled
Anyone have some references on this computer? I know it's not just a Strategic Air Command system, since I've seen references to other ANFS-Q32 systems in University time-sharing documents. -- Kaszeta 20:46, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I'm working on it - the Q32 was used as a development machine for the AN/FSQ-31V Data Processing Central for the SAC Automated Command and Control System (SACCS) at System Development Corporation (SDC) under contract to the Air Force as part of Project 465L. References on the system are hard to come by as the machie ran SIOP data and was therefore classified TS/SIOP. So no pictures, or other data lying around or otherwise available. Presently I am relying on personal memory of the training I received prior to and during my assignment as a maintenance technician for DPC 3, the Q31 installed at 15AF HQ COC March AFB, CA from Sept 1972 - Jan 1976 and whatever other information I have been able to discover since the Internet came about. Chuckharding 13:47, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Q32


text: Category:Danish paleontologists

title: Category:Danish paleontologists