text:
List of republics

This is a list of republics. For antiquity (or later in the case of societies that did not refer to modern terminology to qualify their form of government) the assessment of whether a state organisation is a republic is based on retrospective analysis by historians and political theorists. For more recent systems of government, worldwide organisations with a broad political acceptance (such as the United Nations), can provide information on whether or not a sovereign state is referred to as a republic.

Middle Ages

 * Khersonite State (422 BCE – 1299 CE)
 * Most Serene Republic of San Marino (since 301, constitutional since 1600)
 * Monemvasía State (588–1252)
 * Qarmatians (899–1067)
 * Gotland (?–1285)
 * Upstalsboom League (c. 12th century–15th century)
 * Flag of The Icelandic Commonwealth.png Icelandic Commonwealth (930–1262)
 * Couto Misto (c. 1000 – 1868)
 * Taifa of Córdoba (1031–1070)
 * Republic of Florence (1115–1537)
 * Republic of Siena (1125–1557)
 * Novgorod Republic (1136–1478)
 * Commune of Rome (1144–1193)
 * Most Serene Republic of Lucca (1160–1805)
 * Haudenosaunee (c. 13th century–1794)
 * Republic of Massa (1225–1336)
 * Republic of Sassari (1275–1323)
 * Old Swiss Confederacy (1291–1798)
 * Republic of Poljica (1322–1806)
 * Republic of Senarica (1343–1797)
 * Символ господарства Псковского.png Pskov Republic (1348–1510)
 * Confederacy of Tlaxcala (1348–1520)
 * Dithmarschen (c. 1400 – 1559)
 * Republic of Cospaia (1440–1826)
 * Golden Ambrosian Republic (1447–1450)

Maritime republics
A maritime republic was a thalassocratic city-state during the Middle Ages in which the merchant class had considerable power.

 * Most Serene Republic of Venice (697–1797)
 * Republic of Gaeta (839–1140)
 * Republic of Amalfi (839–1131)
 * Bajjāna (886–922)
 * Republic of Ancona (c. 1000 – 1532)
 * Republic of Pisa (c. 1000 – 1406, 1494–1509)
 * Most Serene Republic of Genoa (c. 1100 – 1797)
 * Republic of Noli (1192–1797)
 * Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808)

Free imperial cities
A free imperial city was a self-ruling city member of the Holy Roman Empire that was represented in the Imperial Diet.

 * DEU Worms COA.svg Free Imperial City of Worms (c. 11th century–1789)
 * Wappen Goslar.svg Free Imperial City of Goslar (1081–1802)
 * (1166–1801)
 * DEU Ulm COA.svg Free Imperial City of Ulm (de jure: 1290–1803; de facto: 1184–1803)
 * Greater Coat of Arms of Free Imperial City of Besançon.svg Free Imperial City of Besançon (1184–1654)
 * (1189–1806;)
 * Wappen Konstanz.svg Free Imperial City of Konstanz (1192–1548)
 * Wappen Wetzlar.svg Free Imperial City of Wetzlar (c. 12th century–1803)
 * DEU Friedberg (Hessen) COA.svg Free Imperial City of Friedberg (1211–1806)
 * Wappen Noerdlingen.svg Free Imperial City of Nördlingen (1215–1803)
 * DEU Nürnberg COA (klein).svg Free Imperial City of Nuremberg (1219–1806)
 * Wappenschild der Stadt Nordhausen.svg Free Imperial City of Nordhausen (1220–1802)
 * Wappen Pfullendorf.svg Free Imperial City of Pfullendorf (1220–1803)
 * Wappen Lübeck.svg Free Imperial City of Lübeck (1226–1811)
 * CoA Rheinfelden, Aargau.svg Free Imperial City of Rheinfelden (1225–1330)
 * Image-Blason Colmar 68.svg Free Imperial City of Colmar (1226–1679)
 * DEU Esslingen am Neckar COA.svg Free Imperial City of Esslingen (1229–1802/3)
 * DEU Offenburg COA.svg Free Imperial City of Offenburg (c. 1240–1803)
 * Wappen Stadt Reutlingen.svg Free Imperial City of Reutlingen (1240–1803)
 * DEU Bopfingen COA.svg Free Imperial City of Bopfingen (1241–1802)
 * Mainz Arms.svg Free Imperial City of Mainz (1241–1462)
 * Wappen Regensburg.svg Free Imperial City of Regensburg (1245–1486; 1496–1803)
 * DEU Schweinfurt COA.svg Free Imperial City of Schweinfurt (1245–1803)
 * Wappen von Bad Windsheim.svg Free Imperial City of Windsheim (1248–1802)
 * Wappen Bad Buchau.svg Free Imperial City of Buchau (c. 1250–1803)
 * Esc Muehlhausen-Thueringen.png Free Imperial City of Mühlhausen (1251–1803)
 * FRA Strasbourg (lesser arms) COA.svg Free Imperial City of Strasbourg (1262–1681)
 * Wappen Memmingen.svg Free Imperial City of Memmigen (1268–1802)
 * Wappen Rottweil.svg Free Imperial City of Rottweil (1268–1802)
 * DEU Überlingen COA.svg Free Imperial City of Überlingen (1268–1803)
 * Schwäbisch Gmünd Wappen.svg Free Imperial City of Gmünd (1268–1802)
 * Wappen von Rothenburg ob der Tauber.svg Free Imperial City of Rothenburg (1274–1803)
 * Wappen Friedrichshafen.svg Free Imperial City of Buchhorn (1275–1803)
 * DEU Lindau COA.svg Free Imperial City of Lindau (1275–1802)
 * Coat of Arms of Weil der Stadt.svg Free Imperial City of Weil (1275–1803)
 * DEU Augsburg COA.svg Free Imperial City of Augsburg (1276–1803)
 * Wappen Ravensburg.svg Free Imperial City of Ravensburg (1276–1803)
 * Wappen Schwaebisch Hall.svg Free Imperial City of Hall (1280–1802)
 * Wappen Biberach.svg Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riß (1281–1803)
 * DEU Kaufbeuren COA.svg Free Imperial City of Kaufbeuren (1286–1803)
 * Wappen Wangen im Allgäu.svg Free Imperial City of Wangen (1286–1802)
 * Wappen Koeln.svg Free Imperial City of Cologne (1288–1801)
 * DEU Kempten (Allgäu) COA.svg Free Imperial City of Kempten (1289–1802/3)
 * Coat of arms of Dortmund.svg Free Imperial City of Dortmund (1293–1803)
 * DEU Leutkirch im Allgäu COA.svg Free Imperial City of Leutkirch (1293–1803)
 * DEU Speyer COA.svg Free Imperial City of Speyer (1294–1792)
 * DEU Weißenburg COA.svg Free Imperial City of Weißenburg (1296–1802)
 * DEU Zell am Harmersbach COA.svg Free Imperial City of Zell am Harmersbach (c. 14th century–1803)
 * Wappen Bad Wimpfen.svg Free Imperial City of Wimpfen (c. 1300–1803)
 * Wappen von Donauwörth.svg Free Imperial City of Donauwörth (1308–1607)
 * Blason Mulhouse.svg Free Imperial City of Mühlhausen (1347–1798)
 * Wappen von Dinkelsbühl.svg Free Imperial City of Dinkelsbühl (1351–1802)
 * Coa Aalen.svg Free Imperial City of Aalen (1360–1803)
 * DEU Gengenbach COA.svg Free Imperial City of Gengenbach (1360–1803)
 * Wappen Isny.svg Free Imperial City of Isny (1365–1803)
 * Wappen Bremen Nur Schild.svg Free Imperial City of Bremen (de jure: 1654–1811; de facto: 1366–1811)
 * Wappen Heilbronn.svg Free Imperial City of Heilbronn (1371–1802)
 * Wappen Frankfurt am Main.svg Free Imperial City of Frankfurt (1372–1806)
 * Wappen Giengen an der Brenz.svg Free Imperial City of Giengen (1391–1803)
 * Diessenhofen-blazon.svg Free Imperial City of Diessenhofen (1415–1460)
 * Wappen Gersau.svg Republic of Gersau (1433–1798)
 * Soest-coa.svg Free Imperial City of Soest (1449–1616)

Early modernity

 * Zaporizhian Sich (1552–1775)
 * Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)
 * Dutch Republic (1581–1795)
 * Saint-Malo (1590–1594)
 * Republic of Salé (1619–1668)
 * Catalan Republic (1641)
 * Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)
 * 🏴 Commonwealth of England (1649–1660)
 * Regency of Algiers (1659–1830)
 * Republic of Pirates (1706–1718)
 * Corsican Republic (1755–1769)
 * Republic of Paulava (1769–1795)
 *  United States of America (since 1776, constitutional since 1789)
 * Lanfang Republic (1777–1884)
 * Vermont Republic (1777–1791)
 * French First Republic (1792–1804)
 * Republic of Swellendam (1795)
 * Republic of Graaff-Reinet (1795–1796)
 * State of Muskogee (1799–1803)

Sister republics
A sister republic was a client state of France established by French armies or by local revolutionaries and assisted by the French First Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars.

 * Republic of Liège (1789–1791)
 * Flag of the Brabantine Revolution.svg United Belgian States (1790)
 * Rauracian Republic (1792–1793)
 * Republic of Mainz (1793)
 * Republic of Bouillon (1794–1795)
 * Batavian Republic (1795–1806)
 * Republic of Alba (1796)
 * Bolognese Republic (1796)
 * Republic of Reggio (1796)
 * Cispadane Republic (1796–1797)
 * Transpadane Republic (1796–1797)
 * Republic of Asti (1797)
 * Republic of Bergamo (1797)
 * Republic of Brescia (1797)
 * Republic of Crema (1797)
 * Anconine Republic (1797–1798)
 * Cisalpine Republic (1797–1802)
 * Cisrhenian Republic (1797–1802)
 * Ligurian Republic (1797–1805)
 * Lemanic Republic (1798)
 * Tiberina Republic (1798)
 * Republic of Connacht (1798)
 * Piedmontese Republic (1798–1799)
 * Helvetic Republic (1798–1802)
 * Roman Republic (1798–1799)
 * Republic of Pescara (1799)
 * Parthenopean Republic (1799)
 * Republic of Lucca (1799–1805)
 * Subalpine Republic (1800–1802)
 * Italian Republic (1802–1805)
 * Rhodanic Republic (1802–1810)
 * Swiss Confederation (1803–1815)
 * Republic of Ragusa (1806–1808)
 * Free City of Danzig (1807–1814)

19th century
Africa

 * Flag of Liberia.svg Republic of Liberia (since 1847)
 * Flag of the Republic of Maryland.svg Republic of Maryland (1853–1857)
 * Orange Free State (1854–1902)
 * South African Republic (1856–1877; 1881–1902)

North America

 * Flag of Haiti.svg First Republic of Haiti (1806–1811)
 * Flag of Haiti (1806–1811).svg State of Haiti (1810–1811)
 * Republic of West Florida (1810)
 * East Florida Patriot Flag.svg Republic of East Florida (1812)
 * Green Cross flag of Florida.svg Republic of the Floridas (1817)
 * Flag of Spanish Haiti.svg Republic of Spanish Haiti (1821–1822)
 * Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1841)
 * Bandera de la Primera República Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos.svg First Mexican United States (1824–1835)
 * Republic of Madawaska (1827)
 * Republic of Indian Stream (1832–1835)
 * Bandera de la República Central Mexicana.svg Centralist Republic of Mexico (1835–1846)
 * Republic of Texas (1836–1845)
 * Flag of the Republic of Canada (variant).svg Republic of Canada (1837–1838)
 * Flag of Los Altos.svg State of Los Altos (1838–1840; 1848–1849)
 * Flag of the Patriote movement (Lower Canada).svg Republic of Lower Canada (1838)
 * Flag of Costa Rica (1842-1848).svg Free State of Costa Rica (1838–1847)
 * Flag of Honduras (1866-1898).svg Republic of Honduras (1838–1896)
 * Flag of Nicaragua (1858-1889 and 1893-1896).svg Republic of Nicaragua (1838–1896)
 * Republic of the Rio Grande (1840)
 * Republic of Yucatán (1840–1843; 1846–1848)
 * Flag of Guatemala.svg Republic of Guatemala (since 1840)
 * Flag of El Salvador (1875-1877).svg Republic of El Salvador (1841–1896)
 * Flag of the Dominican First Republic.svg First Dominican Republic (1844–1861)
 * California Republic (June–July 1846)
 * Bandera de la Segunda República Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos.svg Second Mexican United States (1846–1863)
 * Flag of Costa Rica (1848-1906).svg First Costa Rican Republic (1848–1948)
 * Bonnie Blue flag of the Confederate States of America.svg State of Deseret (1849–1850)
 * Flag of the Republic of Lower California.svg Republic of Baja California (15 October 1853–January 1854)
 * Flag of the Republic of Sonora.svg Republic of Sonora (15 October 1853 – 8 May 1854)
 * Flag of Haiti.svg Second Republic of Haiti (since 1859)
 * Confederate States of America (1860–1865)
 * Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Second Dominican Republic (1865–1916)
 * Flag of Mexico.svg United States of Mexico (since 1867)
 * Republic of Manitobah (1867–1869)
 * United States of Central America (1896–1898)
 * Flag of El Salvador.svg Republic of El Salvador (since 1898)
 * Flag of Honduras.svg Republic of Honduras (since 1898)
 * Flag of Nicaragua.svg Republic of Nicaragua (since 1898)

South America

 * Flag of Paraguay.svg Republic of Paraguay (since 1811)
 * Flag of Venezuela (1811).svg American Confederation of Venezuela (1811–1819)
 * Flag of Argentina (1818).svg United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1816–1831)
 * Flag of Chile.svg Republic of Chile (since 1818)
 * Flag of the Gran Colombia.svg Republic of Gran Colombia (1819–1831)
 * Bandera de Guayaquil.svg Free Province of Guayaquil (1820–1829)
 * Republic of Entre Ríos (1820–1821)
 * Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
 * Flag of Peru (1825-1950).svg Republic of Peru (1824–1836)
 * Flag of Bolivia (state, 1826-1851).svg Republic of Bolivia (1825–1836)
 * Flag of Uruguay.svg Oriental Republic of Uruguay (since 1828)
 * Flag of Ecuador.svg Republic of Ecuador (since 1830)
 * Flag of Venezuela (1830-1836).svg State of Venezuela (1830–1864)
 * Flag of the Argentine Confederation.svg Argentine Confederation (1831–1861)
 * Flag of New Granada.svg Republic of New Granada (1831–1858)
 * Flag of South Peru.svg Republic of South Peru (1836)
 * Flag of Peru (1825-1950).svg Republic of North Peru (1836)
 * Flag of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation.svg Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)
 * Riograndense Republic (1836–1845)
 * Juliana Republic (1839)
 * Flag of Peru (state).svg Republic of Peru (since 1839)
 * Flag of Bolivia (state).svg Republic of Bolivia (1839–2009)
 * Flag of the State of Buenos Aires.svg State of Buenos Aires (1852–1861)
 * Flag of New Granada.svg Granadine Confederation (1858–1863)
 * Flag of Argentina.svg Argentine Republic (since 1861)
 * Flag of Colombia.svg United States of Colombia (1863–1886)
 * Flag of Venezuela (1863–1905).svg United States of Venezuela (1864–1953)
 * Flag of Colombia.svg Republic of Colombia (since 1886)
 * Flag of the Republic of Independent Guyana (1887-1904).svg Republic of Independent Guiana (20 July 1886 – 1891)
 * Flag of Brazil (1889–1960).svg Republic of the United States of Brazil (1889–1930)

Asia

 * Lanfang Republic (1777–1884)
 * Republic of Ezo (1868–1869)
 * Zheltuga Republic (1883–1886)
 * Republic of Formosa (1895)
 * Republic of Biak-na-Bato (1897)
 * First Philippine Republic (1898–1901)

Europe

 * Septinsular Republic (1800–1815)
 * Wappen Gersau.svg Republic of Gersau (1814–1818)
 * Republic of Genoa (1814–1815)
 * 🇨🇭 Swiss Confederation (1814–1848)
 * United States of the Ionian Islands (1815–1864)
 * Free City of Krakow (1815–1846)
 * Flag of Bremen.svg Free City of Bremen (1815–1871)
 * Flag of Hamburg.svg Free City of Hamburg (1815–1871)
 * Flag of the Free City of Lübeck.svg Free City of Lübeck (1815–1871)
 * Flag of the Free City of Frankfurt.svg Free City of Frankfurt (1816–1866)
 * Neutral Moresnet (1816–1920)
 * First Hellenic Republic (1828–1832)
 * 🇫🇷 Second French Republic (1848–1852)
 * Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Swiss Confederation (since 1848)
 * Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune (1848–1849)
 * Roman Republic (February–April 1849)
 * Republic of San Marco (March 1848–August 1849)
 * 🇫🇷 Third French Republic (1871–1940)
 * First Spanish Republic (1873–1874)
 * Bahnmarke bleibt an Backbord liegen.svg Cantons of Alcoy, Algeciras, Alicante, Almansa, Andújar, Bailén, Béjar, Cadiz, Camuñas, Castellón, Córdoba, Granada, Gualchos, Huelva, Jaén, Jumilla, Loja, Málaga, Motril, Murcia, Orihuela, Plasencia, Salamanca, San Fernando, Sevilla, Tarifa, Torrevieja, Valencia (1873) and Cartagena (1873–1874)
 * Republic of Tamrash (1878–1886)

Oceania

 * Independent Commune of Franceville (1889)
 * Republic of Hawai'i (1894–1898)

20th century
Africa

 * Tripolitanian Republic (16 November 1918 – 1922)
 * Confederal Republic of the Tribes of the Rif (18 September 1921 – 27 May 1926)
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt (since 1953)
 * 🇸🇩 Sudan (since 1956)
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia (since 1957)
 * 🇬🇭 Ghana (since 1960)
 * 🇧🇯 Benin (since 1960)
 * 🇲🇬 Madagascar (since 1960)
 * 🇲🇷 Mauritania (since 1960)
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia (since 1960)
 * 🇨🇲 Cameroon (since 1961)
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa (since 1961)
 * 🇳🇬 Nigeria (since 1963)
 * 🇷🇼 Rwanda (since 1962)
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria (since 1962)
 * Republic of Tanganyika (9 December 1962 – 26 April 1964)
 * 🇺🇬Uganda (since 1963)
 * 🇰🇪Kenya (since 1963)
 * 🇲🇼Malawi (since 1964)
 * 🇿🇲Zambia (since 1964)
 * Flag of Zanzibar (January-April 1964).svg People's Republic of Zanzibar (12 January 1964 – 26 April 1964)
 * 🇹🇿Tanzania (since 26 April 1964)
 * 🇬🇲Gambia (since 1965)
 * 🇧🇼Botswana (since 1966)
 * 🇧🇮Burundi (since 1966)
 * Biafra (30 May 1967 – 15 January 1970)
 * 🇬🇶Equatorial Guinea (since 1968)
 * 🇱🇾Libya (since 1969)
 * 🇨🇫Central African Republic (since 1970)
 * Rhodesia (2 March 1970 – 11 December 1979)
 * 🇸🇱Sierra Leone (since 1971)
 * 🇪🇹Ethiopia (since 1974)
 * 🇨🇻Cape Verde (since 1975)
 * 🇲🇿Mozambique (since 1975)
 * São Tomé and Príncipe (since 1975)
 * 🇪🇭Western Sahara (since 1976)
 * 🇸🇨Seychelles (since 1976)
 * Transkei (26 October 1976 – 27 April 1994)
 * Bophuthatswana (6 December 1977 – 28 April 1994)
 * Venda (13 September 1979 – 28 April 1994)
 * 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe (since 1980)
 * Ciskei (4 December 1981 – 28 April 1994)
 * 🇳🇦Namibia (since 1990)
 * Somaliland (since 1991)
 * 🇲🇺Mauritius (since 1992)

America

 * Republic of Acre (1st: 15 July 1899 – 15 March 1900; 2nd: November 1900–24 December 1900 3rd: 27 January 1903 – 11 November 1903)
 * Flag of Cuba.svg Republic of Cuba (since 20 May 1902)
 * Flag of Panama.svg Republic of Panama (since 3 November 1903)
 * Flag of Brazil (1889–1960).svg First United States of Brazil (16 July 1934 – 29 October 1945)
 * Flag of Brazil (1889–1960).svg Second United States of Brazil (31 January 1946 – 31 March 1964)
 * Flag of Costa Rica (state).svg Second Republic of Costa Rica (since 7 November 1949)
 * Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Third Dominican Republic (1924–12 July 1965)
 * State flag of Venezuela (1954–2006).svg Republic of Venezuela (11 April 1953 – 15 December 1999)
 * Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Fourth Dominican Republic (since 1 July 1966)
 * Flag of Anguilla (1967–1969).svg Republic of Anguilla (12 July 1967 – 19 March 1969)
 * Flag of Guyana.svg Co-operative Republic of Guyana (since 23 February 1970)
 * Flag of Suriname.svg Republic of Suriname (since 25 November 1975)
 * Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (since 1 August 1976)
 * Flag of Dominica.svg Commonwealth of Dominica (since 3 November 1978)
 * Flag of Brazil.svg Federative Republic of Brazil (since 15 March 1985)
 * Flag of Venezuela (state).svg Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (since 15 December 1999)

Asia

 * Urjanchai Republic (1 December 1911 – 17 April 1914)
 * 🇹🇼 Republic of China (since 1 January 1912, since 7 December 1949 only in Taiwan)
 * Flag of the Transcaucasian Federation.svg Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (22 April 1918 – 28 May 1918)
 * Democratic Republic of Armenia (28 May 1918 – 2 December 1920)
 * Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (28 May 1918 – 28 April 1920)
 * Flag of the South West Caucasian Republic.svg Kars Republic (1 December 1918 – 19 April 1919)
 * Flag of the Republic of Aras.svg Republic of Aras (December 1918 – Mid-June 1919)
 * Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1922).svg Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (28 April 1920 – 12 March 1922)
 * Flag of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922).svg Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (2 December 1920 – 12 March 1922)
 * Republic of Mountainous Armenia (26 April 1921 – 13 July 1921)
 * Tuvan People's Republic (14 August 1921 – 11 October 1944)
 * 🇹🇷 Republic of Turkey (since 29 October 1923)
 * Mongolian People's Republic (24 November 1924 – 13 February 1992)
 * Commonwealth of the Philippines (15 November 1935 – 4 July 1946)
 * 🇵🇭 Second Philippine Republic (14 November 1943 – 11 June 1945)
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanese Republic (de jure: since 22 November 1943; de facto: since 31 December 1946)
 * 🇮🇩 Republic of Indonesia (since 17 August 1945)
 * 🇲🇲 Republic of the Union of Myanmar (since 4 January 1948)
 * 🇵🇭 Third Philippine Republic (4 July 1946 – 30 December 1965)
 * 🇮🇱 State of Israel (since 14 May 1948)
 * Republic of Korea (since 15 August 1948)
 * Democratic People's Republic of Korea (since 9 September 1948)
 * North Vietnam (since 2 September 1945)
 * South Vietnam (26 October 1955 – 30 April 1975)
 * People's Republic of China (since 1 October 1949)
 * Republic of South Maluku (15 April 1950 – 12 April 1963)
 * 🇮🇳 Republic of India (since 26 January 1950)
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan (since 1956)
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq (since 1958)
 * 🇨🇾 Cyprus (since 1960)
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore (since 1965)
 * 🇵🇭 Fourth Philippine Republic (30 December 1965–22/25 February 1986)
 * 🇾🇪 Yemen (since 1990)
 * 🇲🇻 Maldives (since 1968)
 * 🇧🇩 Bangladesh (since 1971)
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka (since 1972)
 * 🇦🇫 Afghanistan (1973–1992)
 * Laos (since 1975)
 * 🇮🇷 Iran (since 1979)
 *  Northern Cyprus (since 1983; disputed)
 * 🇵🇭 Republic of the Philippines (since 22/25 February 1986)
 * Palestine (since 1988)
 * 🇦🇲 Armenia (since 1991)
 *  Republic of Artsakh (1991–2023)
 * Georgia (since 1991)
 *  South Ossetia (since 1991; disputed)
 *  Abkhazia (since 1992; disputed)
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia (since 1992)
 * 🇳🇵 Nepal (since 2008)

Europe

 * Flag of the Kruševo Republic.svg Kruševo Republic (3 August 1903 – 13 August 1903)
 * 🇵🇹 First Portuguese Republic (5 October 1910 – 26 May 1926)
 * Flag of TRWT.svg Independent Government of Western Thrace (31 August 1913 – 25 October 1913)
 * 🇫🇮 Republic of Finland (since 6 December 1917)
 * 🇷🇺 Russian Republic (1917)
 * 🇺🇦 Ukrainian People's Republic (25 January 1917 – 29 April 1918; 14 December 1918 – 18 March 1921)
 * Flag of the Mountain Republic.svg Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (11 May 1917–January 1921)
 * Flag of Crimean People's Republic 1917.svg Crimean People's Republic (13 December 1917–January 1918)
 * Flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic.svg Moldavian Democratic Republic (6 February 1918 – 10 December 1918)
 * Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg Kuban People's Republic (16 February 1918 – 17 March 1920)
 * Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg Belarusian People's Republic (9 March 1918 – 1919)
 * 🇹🇷 Republic of Turkey (since 29 October 1923)
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania (16 February 1918 – 3 August 1940)
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia (24 February 1918 – 6 August 1940)
 * Flag of Don Cossacks.svg Don Republic (18 May 1918 – 1920)
 * Democratic Republic of Georgia (26 May 1918 – 25 April 1921)
 * 🇵🇱 Commonwealth of Zakopane (13 October 1918 – 16 November 1918)
 * 🇺🇦 West Ukrainian People's Republic (18 October 1918 – 22 January 1919)
 * 🇺🇦 Komancza Republic (4 November 1918 – 24 January 1919)
 * POL Tarnobrzeg flag.svg Republic of Tarnobrzeg (6 November 1918–Spring 1919)
 * Flag of Bavaria (striped).svg People's State of Bavaria (8 November 1918 – 6 April 1919)
 * 🇦🇹 Republic of German-Austria (12 November 1918 – 10 September 1919)
 * 🇵🇱 Second Polish Republic (16 November 1918 – 6 October 1939)
 * 🇱🇻 Latvia (18 November 1918 – 5 August 1940)
 * First Czechoslovak Republic (28 October 1918 – 30 September 1938)
 * Прапор Лемко-Русинської Республіки.svg Lemko-Rusyn People's Republic (5 December 1918–March 1920)
 * 🇦🇹 First Austrian Republic (10 September 1919 – 1 May 1934)
 * Free State of Fiume (12 November 1920 – 22 February 1924)
 * Republic of Central Lithuania (12 October 1920 – 24 March 1922)
 * Free City of Danzig (15 November 1920 – 2 September 1939)
 * Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1922).svg Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (25 February 1921 – 12 March 1922)
 * Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
 * Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935)
 * Catalan Republic (14 April 1931 – 17 April 1931)
 * 🇪🇸 Second Spanish Republic (de facto: 1931–1939; de jure: 1931–1975)
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland (since 29 December 1949)
 * Second Czechoslovak Republic (30 September 1938 – 15 March 1939)
 * 🇺🇦 Carpatho-Ukraine (30 December 1938 – 18 March 1939)
 * 🇸🇰 Slovak State (14 March 1939 – 4 April 1945)
 * 🇫🇷 Fourth French Republic (1946–1958)
 * Italian Republic (since 2 June 1946)
 * 🇦🇱 Albania (est. 1946)
 * 🇷🇴 Romania (est. 1947, communist government from 1948 to 1989)
 * 🇫🇷 Fifth French Republic (since 1958)
 * 🇬🇷 Third Hellenic Republic (since 1974)
 * 🇲🇹 Malta (since 1974)
 *  Transnistria (since 1990; disputed)
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania (since 11 March 1990)
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia (since 20 August 1991)
 * 🇱🇻 Latvia (since 21 August 1991)

Oceania

 * Republic of West Papua (1961–1963)
 * 🇼🇸 Independent State of Samoa (since 1 January 1962)
 * 🇳🇷 Republic of Nauru (since 31 January 1968)
 * Bandera Tanna Vanuatu.svg Nation of Tanna (1974)
 * Flag of Bougainville.svg Republic of the North Solomons (1975–1976)
 * 🇵🇼 Republic of Palau (since 2 April 1979)
 * 🇲🇭 Republic of the Marshall Islands (since 1979)
 * 🇰🇮 Republic of Kiribati (since 12 July 1979)
 * Tafea Flag.svg Tafea Nation (1980)
 * 🇻🇺 Republic of Vanuatu (since 30 July 1980)
 * Flag of Vemerana.svg Republic of Vemerana (1980)
 * 🇫🇲 Federated States of Micronesia (since 3 November 1986)
 * 🇫🇯 Republic of Fiji (since 7 October 1987)
 * Flag of Rotuma (1987-1988).svg Republic of Rotuma (1987–1988)

21st century and later

 * Flag of East Timor.svg Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (since 20 May 2002)
 * 🇦🇫 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (9 October 2004 – 15 August 2021)
 * Flag of Kosovo.svg Republic of Kosovo (since 17 February 2008; disputed)
 * Flag of Nepal.svg Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (since 28 May 2008)
 * Flag of Bolivia (state).svg Plurinational State of Bolivia (since 7 February 2009)
 * Flag of Libya.svg State of Libya (since 17 February 2011)
 * 🇸🇸 Republic of South Sudan (since 9 July 2011)
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados (since 30 November 2021)

List by type
In modern usage, a republican system of government is loosely applied to any state which claims this designation. For example, the Dominican Republic under Rafael Trujillo is considered a republic, as is the Republic of Iraq under Saddam Hussein.

Arab republics

 * Tripolitanian Republic (1918–1922)
 * 🇪🇬 Arab Republic of Egypt (1953–present)
 * Syrian Arab Republic (1946–present)
 * 🇪🇭 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976–present)
 * United Arab Republic (1958–1971)
 * Yemen Arab Republic (1962–1990)
 * 🇱🇾 Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977)

Confederal republics
Confederal republics are associations of sovereign states, usually having power over critical common issues such as defense and foreign policy:
 * Confederate States of America (1861–1865)
 * Senegambia Confederation (1982–1989)
 * 🇺🇸 United States of America (under the Second Continental Congress and the Articles of Confederation, 1776–1789)

Crowned republics
A crowned republic, is a form of constitutional monarchy where the monarch's role is commonly seen as largely ceremonial and where all the royal prerogatives are prescribed by custom and law in such a way that the monarch has limited discretion over governmental and constitutional issues.

 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom (1707–present)
 * 🇳🇴 Kingdom of Norway (1905–present)
 * 🇦🇺 Commonwealth of Australia (1986–present)
 * 🇳🇿 Realm of New Zealand (1947–present)
 * 🇯🇵 Japan (1952–present)
 * 🇨🇦 Canada (1982–present)
 * Kingdom of Greece (1864–1967)
 * Union of South Africa (1910–1961)
 * Malaya (1957–1963)
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia (1963–present)
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand (1932–present)

Democratic republics
Democratic republics are usually socialist states, although not all of them are necessarily socialist.

 * 🇰🇵 Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948–present)
 * Democratic Republic of the Congo (1966–1971, 1997–present)
 * 🇸🇹 Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (1975–present)
 * Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (1975–present)
 * Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1945–1975)
 * 🇪🇭 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976–present)
 * 🇱🇰 Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (1978–present)
 * 🇪🇹 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1991–present)
 * 🇳🇵 Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (2008–present)
 * German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)
 * Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975–present)
 * 🇩🇿 People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (1962–present)
 * People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–1990)

Federal republics
Federal republics are federal states in which the administrative divisions (states or provinces) theoretically retain a degree of autonomy which is constitutionally protected, and cannot be revoked unilaterally by the national government. Federal republics are not unitary states.

 * 🇻🇪 Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
 * 🇧🇦 Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1995)
 * 🏴 Commonwealth of England (1649–1653)
 * Regency of Algiers (1659–1830)
 * Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1969–1990), Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (1990–1992)
 * 🇪🇹 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (unitary republic 1974–1994; federal republic since 1994)
 * 🇨🇲 Federal Republic of Cameroon (1961–1972)
 * 🇸🇴 Federal Republic of Somalia (since August 2012)
 * 🇧🇷 Federative Republic of Brazil (since 15 November 1889)
 * 🇩🇪 Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
 * Gran Colombia (Republic of Colombia) (1819–1886), known as Great Colombia from 1819 to 1831, when it included present-day Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama.
 * 🇵🇰 Islamic Republic of Pakistan (since 1956)
 * 🇲🇽 Second Federal Republic of Mexico (1846–1864)
 * 🇲🇽 United Mexican States (since 1917)
 * 🇳🇵 Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (since 2007)
 * 🇳🇬 Federal Republic of Nigeria (1963–66:1st Republic, 1979–83: 2nd Republic, 1993: 3rd Republic, 1999–present: 4th Republic)
 * 🇦🇷 Argentine Republic (since 1852)
 * 🇮🇳 Republic of India (since 26 January 1950)
 * 🇸🇸 Republic of South Sudan (since 9 July 2011)
 * 🇸🇩 Republic of Sudan (since 1 January 1956)
 * 🇦🇹 Republic of Austria
 * 🇷🇺 Russian Federation (since 7 November 1917; up to 1991 it was named Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic )
 * State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006)
 * 🇨🇭 Swiss Confederation (1848–present), a federal republic but called the Swiss Confederation
 * Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
 * United Provinces of Central America (1823–1840)
 * 🇺🇸 United States of America (since 1789)
 * 🇮🇩 United States of Indonesia (1949–1950)
 * Yugoslavia: Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1946–1963), Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992), Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1992–2003)

Islamic republics
Republics governed in accordance with Islamic law:
 * 🇦🇫 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021)
 * 🇮🇷 Islamic Republic of Iran (since 1979)
 * 🇲🇷 Islamic Republic of Mauritania (since 1960)
 * 🇵🇰 Islamic Republic of Pakistan (since 1956)

People's republics
People's republics are said to be governed by the people. The name is most often (but not always) used by communist states.

Current people's republics

 * 🇰🇵 Democratic People's Republic of Korea
 * 🇩🇿 People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
 * Lao People's Democratic Republic
 * 🇧🇩 People's Republic of Bangladesh
 * 🇨🇳 People's Republic of China

Former people's republics

 * Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1946–1963)
 * 🇱🇾 Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992)
 * People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–1970)
 * 🇦🇱 People's Republic of Albania (1946–1976)
 * 🇦🇴 People's Republic of Angola (1975–1992)
 * 🇧🇯 People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990)
 * 🇧🇬 People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)
 * 🇨🇩 People's Republic of the Congo (1970–1992)
 * 🇭🇺 People's Republic of Hungary (1949–1989)
 * 🇲🇿 People's Republic of Mozambique (1975–1990)
 * 🇵🇱 People's Republic of Poland (1952–1989)
 * 🇪🇹 People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1987–1991)
 * 🇷🇴 Romanian People's Republic (1947–1965)

Socialist republics
These are republics that use the word "socialist" in their official name.

 * Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990)
 * Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)
 * Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)
 * Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1960–1990)
 * 🇱🇰 Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
 * 🇱🇾 Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)
 * Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992)
 * 🇦🇱 People's Socialist Republic of Albania (1976–1990)
 * 🇷🇴 Socialist Republic of Romania (1965–1989)
 * Socialist Republic of Vietnam (since 1976)
 * Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
 * Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)

Unitary republics
Unitary republics are unitary states which are governed constitutionally as one single unit, with a single constitutionally created legislature. Unitary states are not federations or confederations.

 * 🇦🇫 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021)
 * Republic of Acre (1st: 1899–1900; 2nd: 1900; 3rd: 1903)
 * 🇦🇱 Republic of Albania (since 1946)
 * 🇩🇿 People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
 * 🇦🇴 Republic of Angola (since 1975)
 * 🇦🇲 Republic of Armenia (1st: 28 May 1918; Current: 25 December 1991)
 * 🇦🇿 Republic of Azerbaijan (1st: 28 May 1918; re-established: 18 October 1991)
 * 🇧🇩 People's Republic of Bangladesh
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados (since 30 November 2021)
 * 🇧🇯 Republic of Benin
 * Republic of Bophuthatswana (1977–1994)
 * 🇧🇴 Plurinational State of Bolivia
 * 🇧🇼 Republic of Botswana (since 1966)
 * 🇧🇬 Republic of Bulgaria (since 1946)
 * 🇧🇫 Burkina Faso
 * Republic of the Union of Myanmar (Burma)
 * 🇧🇮 Republic of Burundi (since 1966)
 * 🇨🇲 Republic of Cameroon
 * 🇨🇻 Republic of Cape Verde
 * 🇹🇩 Republic of Chad
 * 🇨🇫 Central African Republic (1958–1976; restored 1979)
 * 🇨🇱 Republic of Chile
 * 🇨🇳 People's Republic of China
 * 🇹🇼 Republic of China (Taiwan)
 * Republic of Ciskei (1981–1994)
 * 🇨🇴 Republic of Colombia (unitary republic since 1886)
 * Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * 🇨🇩 Republic of the Congo
 * Corsican Republic (1755–1769)
 * Cospaia (1440–1826)
 * 🇨🇷 Republic of Costa Rica
 * 🇭🇷 Republic of Croatia
 * 🇨🇺 Republic of Cuba
 * 🇨🇾 Republic of Cyprus
 * 🇨🇿 Czech Republic
 * 🇩🇲 Commonwealth of Dominica
 * 🇩🇴 Dominican Republic (1821–1822, 1844–1861, 1865–present)
 * 🇩🇯 Republic of Djibouti
 * 🇪🇨 Republic of Ecuador
 * 🇪🇬 Arab Republic of Egypt (since 1953)
 * 🇸🇻 Republic of El Salvador (1821–present)
 * 🇬🇶 Republic of Equatorial Guinea
 * 🇪🇷 State of Eritrea
 * 🇪🇪 Republic of Estonia (since 1918)
 * Republic of Ezo (1868–1869)
 * Independent Commune of Franceville (1889)
 * 🇫🇯 Republic of Fiji (since 1987)
 * 🇫🇮 Republic of Finland (since 1919)
 * Finnish Democratic Republic (1 December 1939 to 12 March 1940)
 * Republic of Formosa (1895)
 * 🇫🇷 French Republic
 * 🇬🇦 Gabonese Republic
 * 🇬🇲 Republic of the Gambia (since 1970)
 * Georgia
 * 🇬🇭 Republic of Ghana (since 1960)
 * 🇬🇷 Hellenic Republic (First Hellenic Republic (1822–1832))
 * 🇬🇹 Republic of Guatemala
 * 🇬🇳 Republic of Guinea
 * 🇬🇼 Republic of Guinea-Bissau
 * 🇬🇾 Co-operative Republic of Guyana (since 1970)
 * 🇭🇹 Republic of Haiti (1806–1849; restored 1859)
 * Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898)
 * 🇭🇳 Republic of Honduras
 * 🇭🇺 Republic of Hungary (since 1946)
 * 🇮🇸 Republic of Iceland (republic since 1944)
 * 🇮🇩 Republic of Indonesia (unitary republic since August 1950)
 * 🇮🇱 Israel (since 14 May 1948)
 * 🇮🇹 Italian Republic (since 1946)
 * 🇮🇹 Italian Social Republic (1943–1945)
 * 🇮🇷 Islamic Republic of Iran (since 1979)
 * 🇮🇶 Republic of Iraq (since 1958)
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland (since 1949)
 * Republic of Ivory Coast
 * 🇰🇿 Republic of Kazakhstan
 * 🇰🇪 Republic of Kenya (since 1964)
 * 🇰🇮 Republic of Kiribati (since 1979)
 * 🇰🇷 Republic of Korea (since 1948)
 * 🇰🇵 Democratic People's Republic of Korea (since 1948)
 * 🇰🇼 Republic of Kuwait (1990)
 * 🇰🇬 Kyrgyz Republic
 * Lao People's Democratic Republic (since 1975)
 * 🇱🇻 Republic of Latvia
 * 🇱🇧 Republic of Lebanon (22 November 1943)
 * 🇱🇷 Republic of Liberia
 * 🇱🇾 Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1969–2011)
 * 🇱🇹 Republic of Lithuania
 * Lokot Republic (1941–1943)
 * 🇲🇬 Republic of Madagascar
 * 🇲🇼 Republic of Malawi (since 1966)
 * 🇲🇻 Republic of Maldives (since 1968)
 * 🇲🇱 Republic of Mali (since 1960)
 * 🇲🇹 Republic of Malta (since 1974)
 * 🇲🇭 Republic of the Marshall Islands (since 1979)
 * 🇲🇷 Islamic Republic of Mauritania
 * 🇲🇺 Republic of Mauritius (since 1992)
 * Menton and Roquebrune (1848–1861)
 * 🇲🇩 Republic of Moldova
 * 🇲🇳 State of Mongolia (since 1924)
 * 🇲🇪 Republic of Montenegro (since 2006)
 * 🇲🇿 Republic of Mozambique
 * State of Muskogee (1799–1803)
 * 🇳🇦 Republic of Namibia
 * 🇳🇷 Republic of Nauru
 * 🇳🇮 Republic of Nicaragua
 * 🇳🇪 Republic of Niger
 * Republic of North Macedonia (since 1991)
 * 🇵🇼 Republic of Palau (since 1981)
 * 🇵🇦 Republic of Panama
 * 🇵🇾 Republic of Paraguay
 * 🇵🇪 Republic of Peru
 * 🇵🇭 Republic of the Philippines (since 1946)
 * 🇵🇱 Republic of Poland
 * 🇵🇹 Portuguese Republic (since 1910)
 * Republic of Rhodesia (1970–1979)
 * 🇷🇴 Romania (since 1947)
 * 🇷🇼 Republic of Rwanda (since 1961)
 * 🇼🇸 Independent State of Samoa (since 1962)
 * 🇸🇲 Most Serene Republic of San Marino (since 301)
 * 🇸🇹 Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe
 * 🇸🇳 Republic of Senegal
 * 🇷🇸 Republic of Serbia
 * 🇸🇨 Republic of Seychelles
 * 🇸🇱 Republic of Sierra Leone (since 1971)
 * 🇸🇬 Republic of Singapore (since 1965)
 * 🇸🇰 Slovak Republic (1939–1945)
 * 🇸🇮 Republic of Slovenia
 * 🇿🇦 Republic of South Africa (since 1961)
 * 🇪🇸 Republic of Spain (1931–1939)
 * 🇱🇰 Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (since 1972)
 * 🇸🇷 Republic of Suriname
 * Syrian Arab Republic
 * 🇹🇯 Republic of Tajikistan
 * 🇹🇿 United Republic of Tanzania
 * Republic of Texas (1836–1845)
 * Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
 * 🇹🇬 Togolese Republic
 * Republic of Transkei (1976–1994)
 * 🇹🇹 Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (since 1976)
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisian Republic (since 1957)
 * 🇹🇷 Republic of Turkey (since 1923)
 * 🇹🇲 Turkmenistan
 * 🇺🇬 Republic of Uganda (since 1963)
 * 🇺🇦 Ukraine
 * Republic of Upper Volta (1958–1984)
 * 🇺🇾 Oriental Republic of Uruguay
 * 🇺🇿 Republic of Uzbekistan
 * 🇻🇺 Republic of Vanuatu
 * Republic of Venda (1979–1994)
 * Vermont Republic (1777–1791)
 * Republic of Vietnam (1955–1975)
 * Republic of West Florida (1810)
 * 🇾🇪 Republic of Yemen (since 1962)
 * 🇿🇲 Republic of Zambia (since 1964)
 * 🇿🇼 Republic of Zimbabwe

Republics of Russia

 * Republic of Adygea
 * Republic of Chechnya
 * Republic of Dagestan
 * Republic of Ingushetia
 * Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria
 * Republic of Kalmykia
 * Flag of North Ossetia.svg Republic of North Ossetia-Alania
 * Republic of Altai
 * Republic of Bashkortostan
 * Republic of Buryatia
 * Republic of Chuvashia
 * Republic of Karelia
 * Republic of Khakassia
 * Republic of Komi
 * Republic of Mari El
 * Republic of Mordovia
 * Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
 * Republic of Tatarstan
 * Republic of Tuva
 * Republic of Udmurtia

Disputed separatist republics

 *  Republic of Abkhazia
 *  Republic of South Ossetia
 *  Gagauz Republic (1990–1995)
 *  Pridnestrovian Moldovan Republic
 * Flag of Kosovo.svg Republic of Kosovo
 *  Republika Srpska (1992–1995)
 * Dubrovnik Republic (1991-1992).svg Dubrovnik Republic (1991–1992)
 * State Flag of Serbian Krajina (1991).svg Republic of Serbian Krajina (1991–1995)
 *  Republic of Artsakh (1991–2023)
 *  Kurdish Republic of Lachin (1992)
 *  Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
 *  Donetsk People's Republic
 *  Luhansk People's Republic
 *  Republic of Crimea
 *  Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991–2000)
 *  Republic of Tatarstan (1992–1994)
 *  Catalan Republic (2017)

title: List of republics


text:
Hemoglobin A

Hemoglobin A (HbA), also known as adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin A1 or α2β2, is the most common human hemoglobin tetramer, accounting for over 97% of the total red blood cell hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is an oxygen-binding protein, found in erythrocytes, which transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Hemoglobin A is the most common adult form of hemoglobin and exists as a tetramer containing two alpha subunits and two beta subunits (α2β2). Hemoglobin A2 (HbA2) is a less common adult form of hemoglobin and is composed of two alpha and two delta-globin subunits. This hemoglobin makes up 1-3% of hemoglobin in adults.

Structure and function
Hemoglobin A (HbA) is the most common adult form of hemoglobin and exists as a tetramer containing two alpha subunits and two beta subunits (α2β2). Each subunit contains a heme group that diatomic oxygen (O2) molecules can bind to. In addition to oxygen, subunit assembly and quaternary structure are known to play important roles in Hb affinity. When hemoglobin binds to O2 (oxyhemoglobin), it will attach to the Iron II (Fe2+) of heme and it is this iron ion that can bind and unbind oxygen to transport oxygen throughout the body. All subunits must be present for hemoglobin to pick up and release oxygen under normal conditions.

Heme synthesis
Heme synthesis involves a series of enzymatic steps that take place within the mitochondrion and cytosol of the cell. First, in the mitochondrion, the condensation of succinyl CoA and glycine by ALA synthase takes place to produce 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). ALA then moves to the cytosol and after a series of reactions creates coproporphyringen III. This molecule moves back into the mitochondrion where it reacts with protoporphyrin-III oxidase to produce protoporphyrin IX. Iron is then enzymatically inserted into protoporphyrin via ferrochelatase to produce heme.

Globin synthesis
Globin synthesis takes place in the ribosomes which are located within the cytosol. Two globin chains that have heme groups combine to form hemoglobin. One of the chains is an alpha chain and the other is a non-alpha chain. Non-alpha chain nature in hemoglobin molecules varies due to different variables. Fetuses have a non-alpha chain called gamma and after birth it is then called beta. The beta chain will pair with the alpha chain. It is the combining of two alpha and non-alpha chains which create a hemoglobin molecule. Two alpha and two gamma chains form fetal hemoglobin or hemoglobin F (HbF). After the first five to six months after birth, the combining of two alpha chains and two beta chains form adult hemoglobin (HbA). The genes that encode for the alpha chains are located on chromosome 16, while the genes that encode for non-alpha chains are located on chromosome 11.

Clinical significance
Due to the numerous steps and processes during hemoglobin synthesis, there are many places in which errors can occur. Heme synthesis involves multiple enzymes and when these enzymes are deficient or do not function properly consequences such as mutations or deletions in genes coding for the globin chain can occur. This results in globin gene disorders (hemoglobinopathies) which can be either abnormal globin chain variants (sickle cell anemia) or reduced chain synthesis in erythroid cells (thalassemia) during the cellular process of hematopoiesis. These hemoglobinopathies are often inherited as autosomal recessive traits.

Alpha-thalassemia
Alpha-thalassemia (α-thalassemia) is defined by a lack of α-globin chain production in hemoglobin, and those who carry a mutation impacting the α-globin chain on only one chromosome are considered to have a “silent” α-thalassemia whereas, if the mutation is on both then it is considered an α-thalassemia trait. α-thalassemia is mostly found in sub-tropical and tropical areas, where individuals who carry the gene is 80-90% of the population. Like other hemoglobin related disorders (sickle cell and β-thalassemia), it is hypothesized that α-thalassemia is selected for within populations due to carriers being better protected against malaria falciparum. Most carriers of α-thalassemia are asymptomatic and are diagnosed if it is found after routine hematological analyses or before birth screenings. Single α-globin gene carriers usually have no profound fatigue or anemia because they have a compensating increase in the number of microcytic red blood cells. In contrast, mild α-thalassemia carriers could have symptoms of anemia due to other factors not related specifically to the disorder: poor diet, drop in hemoglobin levels due to blood loss, or other diseases.

The most severe form of α -thalassemia is a condition that begins at infancy in which there is no expression of α-genes and results in a large production of hemoglobin Bart's (Hb Bart's). The most common cause of Hb Bart’s is the inheritance of a deletion allele in that lacks functional α-globin genes from both parents. Hb Bart’s is a tetramer of four gamma-globulin subunits and is ineffective at transporting oxygen to the tissues due to its very high oxygen affinity. This usually results in fatal hydrops fetalis and associated symptoms include intra-uterine anemia, slowing of brain growth, oedema, deformities of the skeleton, and cardiovascular deformities that could lead to cardiac failure.

Beta-thalassemia
Beta-thalassemia (β-thalassemia) is an inherited mutation of the β-globulin gene which causes the reduced synthesis of the β-globin chain of hemoglobin. The majority of the mutations are point mutations that affect translation, transcriptional control, and splicing of the hemoglobin β gene and gene product. Individuals with one gene mutation (heterozygocity) are considered to have β-thalassemia minor (carrier or trait β-thalassemia), while those who have two gene mutations (homozygosity or compound heterozygosity) are diagnosed with β-thalassemia or intermedia. Due to the lack of beta-globin, accumulation of alpha-globin subunits and alpha tetramers begin to accumulate leading to damage of erythrocytes. People of Asian, Middle Eastern, and Mediterranean descent have a much higher incidences of β-thalassemia. It has been determined that there is a wide variation in phenotypes and genotypes of the disease due to more than 200 different thalassemia-associated mutations have being found in the beta-globin gene. Individuals with β-thalassemia major usually require medical attention within the first 2 years of life and require regular blood transfusions to survive. Patients who present the disorder later usually do not require transfusions and are diagnosed with thalassemia intermedia.

health/health-topics/topics/sca/

Sickle cell disease
Sickle hemoglobin (HbS) is the most common variant of hemoglobin and arises due to an amino acid substitution in the beta-globin subunit at the sixth residue from glutamic acid to valine. There are different forms of sickle cell disease. HB SS which is the most common and severe form of sickle cell. Hb SC is due to inheriting Hb S from one parent and Hb C (hemoglobin C) from the other parent. Hb S beta thalassemia is the least common and is experienced in patients who have inherited beta thalassemia hemoglobin from one parent and HbS from the other. In addition, there is sickle cell trait (HbAS) which is defined by having HbA and HbS. This makes the individual heterozygous for sickle cell. Of the world population, it is estimated that there are about 300 million individuals with the sickle cell trait and about 100 million of those are in sub-Saharan Africa. There is also a higher prevalence of sickle cell trait in areas that malaria is commonly found, with the prevalence in some parts of Africa and Saudi Arabia being as high as 25% and 60%, respectively. Individuals who have HbAS have about 40%HbS, 56% HBA, and are usually asymptomatic unless there is a severe lack of oxygen to the body (hypoxia) which can lead to symptoms of sickle cell disease. However, HbAS does not cause vaso-occlusive crisis, which is known to be associated with sickle cell disease.

Patients that are homozygous for HbS have multi-stranded fibers that induce a change in shape of red blood cells from biconcave disks to elongated crescents. The sickling reaction is reversible after re-oxygenating the hemoglobin, therefore, red blood cells can go through cycles of sickling and unsickling depending on the concentration of oxygen present in the bloodstream. Red blood cells that are sickle-shaped lack flexibility and stick to the walls of blood vessels decreasing or stopping the flow of oxygen to nearby tissues. This decrease in oxygen to the tissues cause vaso-occlusive crisis which presents itself in muscle pain and injury to tissues. Some symptoms of sickle cell anemia include fever, fatigue from anemia, swelling of the hands and feet, stroke, and organ failure. Current treatments include blood transfusions which aid with increasing the number of normal red blood cells, bone marrow transplants to help the patients body produce healthy red blood cells, and medications to help alleviate the symptoms listed previously.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hemoglobin A


text:
Herbert James Rowse

Herbert James Rowse (10 May 1887 – 22 March 1963) was an English architect. Born in Liverpool and a student of Charles Reilly at the Liverpool University School of Architecture, Rowse opened an architectural practice in the city. Although he designed major buildings for other cities, Rowse is best known for his work in Liverpool, including India Buildings, the entrances to and ventilation towers of the Mersey Tunnel ("Queensway"), and the Philharmonic Hall. He designed in a range of styles, from neoclassical to Art Deco, generally with a strong American influence.

Life and career
Rowse was born at 15 Melling Road, Liverpool, the son of James William Rowse, a builder, and his wife, Sarah Ann, née Cammack. He was schooled privately, and from 1905 to 1908 he studied at the Liverpool University School of Architecture. The school, under Charles Reilly, was at that time beginning its rise to be the most influential architectural college in the country. Rowse was awarded first-class honours in 1907 and was joint winner of the Holt Travelling Scholarship in Architecture, which took him to Italy and the US. While working in the office of the architect Frank Simon he was admitted to associate membership of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1910. Simon won an important Canadian commission in 1912, and Rowse worked in the firm's Winnipeg office in 1913. In June 1914 he returned to Liverpool, establishing his own practice.

During the First World War Rowse worked as an architect for the British navy. In July 1918 he married Dorothy (1893–1968), daughter of Thomas and Edith Parry of Crosby. They had two sons and a daughter, born between 1925 and 1933. After the war Rowse resumed his civilian practice with a commission for the Fairrie sugar refinery in Liverpool. In 1923 he entered an open competition for the design of India Buildings, a large development in the financial and administrative centre of Liverpool. The assessor was Giles Gilbert Scott; Rowse's design won, beating those by the architects of the Port of London Authority building, Tower Hill (Sir Edwin Cooper); the Royal Automobile Club, Pall Mall (Mewis and Davis); the Wolseley building, Piccadilly (Curtis Green); and the Cunard Building (Willing and Dodd) and Mersey Docks and Harbour Board building (Arnold Thornley), both at the Pier Head, Liverpool.

In Nikolaus Pevsner's series of books The Buildings of England he and Richard Pollard comment on "Rowse's two great commercial buildings": "The first was India Buildings of 1923–30, designed in conjunction with Arnold Thornely, and complete with a tunnel-vaulted shopping arcade; Reilly wrote that it "would not disgrace Fifth Avenue". Two years after completion, it was outdone by Rowse's Martins Bank opposite, whose arcaded and Travertine-clad banking hall is the match of any in the country, and one of the sights of Liverpool."

Rowse's contemporary, the architect H S Goodhart-Rendel, commented, "That an Englishman should have produced single-handed a specimen equal to America's best is undoubtedly gratifying, although the flawless magnificence of Martins Bank at Liverpool (1926) may evoke in us admiration untinged with affection."

In 1931 Rowse was appointed architect to the Mersey Tunnel Joint Committee. In a 1996 study of Reilly and his pupils, Joseph Sharples writes: "Reilly complained that an architect had not been involved in the project from the outset, and that Rowse's work had been compromised by decisions taken before his appointment. He particularly regretted … that Rowse had "been set the impossible task of decorating what is really but a hole in the ground. The engineer too often feels that he can cover up his mistakes by calling in an architect to add pretty things to hide them.""

Rowse modified his style for his work on the tunnel, moving away from the American neo-classicism of India Buildings and the bank premises to "a smooth streamlined style with Art Deco ornaments, also American in inspiration." In 1934 the Bauhaus architect Walter Gropius came to see Rowse's work on the tunnel, and praised it. For the ventilation tower at Woodside, on the Cheshire side of the Mersey, Rowse received the Bronze Medal of the RIBA in 1937.

In 1932 a young architect, Alwyn Edward Rice, still a pupil of Reilly, designed a speculative modern concert hall as his thesis for his final year at the School of Architecture. The exhibition of his drawings coincided with the destruction by fire of the old Philharmonic Hall in Hope Street. Rowse was commissioned to design a replacement, and he recruited Rice to help him. The building was in Streamline Moderne style. Sharples comments, "the executed design is markedly similar to [Rice's] thesis, both in the massing of the exterior and the arrangement of the auditorium." When the new hall was opened in 1939, The Manchester Guardian commented, "The magnificent compliment Liverpool has paid to the cause of music in England almost takes one's breath away ... a hall of great size, noble proportions, and up-to-date appointments ... ready to take its place among the most eminent homes of musical culture in this or any other country".

Rowse collaborated closely with the sculptor Edmund Thompson, whose work includes the gilded relief panels in the foyers of the Philharmonic Hall, and the incised murals depicting the Muses on the interior walls of the auditorium. For Rowse's Mersey Tunnel, Thompson, with George T Capstick, designed a relief in Art Deco style showing two winged bulls, "symbolic of swift and heavy traffic". Rowse's Portland stone ventilation towers for the tunnel are also decorated with sculptures by Thompson and Capstick.

The Second World War brought Rowse's career to a temporary stop. He moved to Anglesey, where he served as High Sheriff in 1942–43. He was a member of the Council of the RIBA from 1944 to 1950. After the war his main work included the supervision of the restoration of India Buildings, which had been severely damaged by German bombing. He advised the Belgian government on post-war reconstruction, and was awarded the Order of Leopold II in 1950. For the British government he designed diplomatic buildings in 1951, built in Delhi and Karachi. Shortly before his death his practice won the competition for the renovation of the Rows in Chester.

Rowse died at the age of 74 at his home, Chapel House, Puddington, Cheshire.

Works

 * Heswall Golf Club House, Wirral, 1924
 * Housing schemes at Whiston, Lancashire, 1924
 * India Buildings, Liverpool, 1924–32
 * Housing at Rainhill, Lancashire, 1925
 * Martins Bank head office, Water Street, Liverpool, 1927–32
 * Lloyd's Bank, Church Street, Liverpool, 1928–32
 * Additions to St Paul's Eye Hospital and Royal Southern Hospital, Liverpool, 1929
 * Flats, Camden Street, Birkenhead, 1931
 * Queensway Tunnel (Mersey Tunnel), Liverpool, tunnel entrances, toll booths and ventilation building exteriors, 1931–34
 * Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool, 1936–39
 * Offices for Pilkington's Glass Works, St Helens, 1937
 * College of the Pharmaceutical Society, London, 1937–60
 * UK Pavilion, Empire Exhibition, Glasgow, 1938
 * Woodchurch Estate, Birkenhead, 1946.
 * Source: Sharples.

title: Herbert James Rowse


text:
User talk:Gumbagumba

You're simply going to be blocked from editing again. Why do you bother? Do you really have nothing else in your life but this childish scrawling on Wikipedia? Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 18:30, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gumbagumba


text:
User:Mackensen/Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen Plan is commonly held to have been the German General Staff's overall strategic plan for victory against France in the event of a two-front war in the years before the First World War. The reputed brainchild of then Chief of the General Staff Count Alfred von Schlieffen, it envisaged a rapid German mobilisation followed by a sweeping attack against France through the neutral territories of Luxembourg, Belgium, and Holland. The bulk of the German Army would sweep through northern France and encircle and occupy Paris, the French capital, which presumably would force the French to surrender. The war in the west was to be over within six weeks, according to a rigid timetable.

Since the First World War the "Schlieffen Plan" has been a consistent source of controversy among generals, statesmen, and academics. Schlieffen's actual intentions remain a subject of debate, as do those of the German Army itself in 1914. By that point, Schlieffen had been dead for over a year, and in retirement for eight. Therefore, compounding the questions about Schlieffen's intentions are those of his successor, Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, often referred to simply as Moltke the Younger. Such debates began right after the First Battle of the Marne, and continued into the 1920ss, when former disciples of Schlieffen, referred to in academia as the "Schlieffen School," attacked the younger Moltke (who had died in 1916) for "betraying" the legacy of the great master and failing to execute his "perfect blueprint" for victory.

The Plan itself, in its canonical form, has attracted criticism from academics and statesmen for its supposed inflexibility and disregard for political realities. In particular, the violation of the neutrality of both Belgium and Holland has been singled out as an example of the excesses of Prusso-German militarism. It has also been criticised by some for being militarily impractical–most notably, for requiring more troops than the German army possessed at the time or later. This discusses both the plan itself and the historiography of the Plan, as the Plan and the history of it have become one in the same.

Introduction to pre-World War I planning
By the beginning of the 20th century every European army, with the important exception of the British, was based on the model of universal service.

The Canonical View
The canonical view of Schlieffen and Schlieffen's planning is perhaps best put by the prominent British military historian Sir John Keegan. In his The First World War, while discussing war planning, he presents us with this description of Schlieffen at work:

"He recognized that a marching army of foot and horse would exhaust its impetus in the limitless room of the steppe. Hence his midnight vigils over the maps of Flanders and the Ile-de-France, a corps here, a flank march there, a river bridged, a fortress masked. His midnight pettifoggery had as its object an exact adjustment not of German numbers to those that the French could deploy, but to what the Belgian and French road network could carry."

Keegan creates the image of the master strategist, hunched over the map table, meticulously plotting the perfect invasion of France and Belgium, with Paris as the ultimate prize. To this description could be added Gordon Craig's portrait of Schlieffen himself, written in 1955:

"Schlieffen...had neither the philosophical breadth nor the diversity of interest which had characterized Moltke's thinking. He was the professional soldier pure and simple, completely absorbed in his calling and impervious to anything that lay outside it."

Historical background
The idea of a two-front war against France and Russia was not new in Schlieffen's day; Count Moltke had played with the idea as early as 1859, only a year after Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, acting as regent for his ailing brother King Friedrich Wilhelm IV, appointed him Chief of the Prussian General Staff. A war against France and Russia was unlikely at the time, but the idea provided an excellent opportunity to test the possibilities of a two-front war. Moltke's plan was typical of the era: he discussed first what he thought were probable political combinations and then the military capabilities of Prussia's opponents.
 * Moltke's 1859 plan

Politically, Moltke thought it likely that Great Britain, Belgium, and the minor German states would intervene in the west on the side of Prussia, against France, while Austrian support in the east against Russia was doubtful. Therefore, while the French Army was judged the greater threat, the bulk of the Prussian Army would deploy around Thorn, in eastern Prussia, and advance on Warsaw, then part of the Russian Empire. The goal of such a campaign, Moltke argued, would be the creation of a nominally independent Poland under the King of Prussia. An independent Poland could act as a buffer between Russia and Prussia.

Schlieffen's exercises
Count Schlieffen became Chief of the German General Staff in 1891, on the dismissal of Count Waldersee. Waldersee had subjected the Kaiser's performance in the 1891 Kaisermanöveruver to honest criticism and got the sack for his trouble (Waldersee's penchant for political intrigue may have helped).

The Great Memorandum
The most important document in the so-called "Schlieffen Plan debate" is a document of some thirty pages know also known as the Große Denkschrift (Great Memorandum). Schlieffen composed it 1905, shortly before his retirement. Conventional historiography holds that this represents his ultimate work as Chief of the General Staff and was representative of his strategic thinking and of Germany's actual war plan at the time. These claims have faced numerous challenges since the end of the First World War.

The Reluctant Feldherrn
Schlieffen retired at the end of 1905. His successor was Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, nephew and namesake of Graf Moltke.

The Debate in the Interwar Years

 * Groener
 * Ludendorff
 * Bayerische Kriegsarchiv

Critique of a Myth
The eruption of the Second World War interrupted discussion of the Schlieffen Plan. In April of 1945 an Allied bombing raid destroyed most of the military archives at Potsdam, eliminating thousands upon thousands of documents and inhibiting the work of historians for generations. Those documents which survived the inferno were captured by advancing Soviet troops, a fact which was not known in the West until after the reunification of Germany.

This situation changed in 1953, when the German historian Gerhard Ritter discovered a copy of the "Great Memorandum" among Schlieffen's personal papers. Ritter brought out the complete text, with commentary, in 1954 as Der Schlieffen-Plan: Kritik Eines Mythos.

Debate after Ritter
One writer who challenged Ritter's analysis was Colonel Trevor N. Dupuy, a retired American army officer turned author. Dupuy had written a book, entitled A Genius for War: The German Army and the General Staff, 1807-1945, in which he investigated what he termed the "secret of institutionalizing military excellence."

Dupuy also asserted that by 1914 the German Army had grown to a mobilized strength of "more than 100 divisions," which would more than satisfy the manpower requirements of the plan. This contradicts all other sources which put the mobilized strength of the German Army at 87 infantry divisions, including reserve formations. Dupuy did not use footnotes in his work, and as a result it is impossible to say what on what grounds he made this assertion. It is possible that he included cavalry divisions in his total, but such usage would be misleading as planning calculations were always based on infantry divisions.

The Zuber Controversy
The July 1999 issue of the scholarly journal War in History contained a forty-page article by Terence Zuber, a retired American army officer then working on his doctorate at the University of Würzburg. Zuber, after a thorough investigation of available archival materials, including documents recently discovered after the fall of the Berlin Wall, had come to the controversial conclusion that the "Schlieffen Plan" was an ex post facto myth conjured up after the First World War by the German General Staff, in an effort to shift blame for Germany's defeat elsewhere. The 1905 Denkschrift, long taken to be the "Schlieffen Plan" or the basis for it, was actually just a policy paper, Zuber argued. This provoked much consternation in the academic world–the debate over the plan had always divided over whether it was workable or not (with the grudging consensus being that it was not)–no one had ever argued so forcefully that the plan itself was a fraud. Zuber's article provoked an on-going article war in War in History between himself and Terence M. Holmes, a retired lecturer, formerly at Swansea University.

Reactions in the historical community to Zuber's thesis have been mixed. Holger Herwig, in two of his most recent publications, has been wholly dismissive of Zuber. Herwig's criticism focuses only on Zuber's initial article owing to publishing deadlines. His explanatory footnote is roughly the same in both publications, quoted in full here: "Zuber bases much of his argument on an unpublished manuscript by Wilhelm Dieckmann entitled 'Der Schlieffenplan.' After studying all available documents (since destroyed or lost) in the 1920s, Dieckmann came to the conclusion that there in fact existed a Schlieffen plan. In any case, Dieckmann's manuscript ends with the year 1904-5 and hence does not address the critical winter 1905-6 Schlieffen memoranda [the Great Memorandum]. BA-MA, W-10/50220. As well, Zuber's claim that Schlieffen planned frontally 'to break the great French fortress line' flies in the face of all available evidence." Critics of Herwig charge that there was some kind of Schlieffen Plan is hardly in dispute—one presumes that Schlieffen was doing something between 1891 and 1906. Also, Zuber used the Dieckmann manuscript to demonstrate the Schlieffen's planning looked nothing like the 1905 Denkschrift; a point which Herwig does not discuss. Critics also inquire how Dieckmann knew there was a "Schlieffen Plan" if Dieckmann didn't see the 1905 Denkschrift.

title: User:Mackensen/Schlieffen Plan


text:
Kastanies

Kastanies (Καστανιές, meaning "chestnuts", Kestanelik which means "chestnut" too) is a town located in northern part of the regional unit of Evros, Greece, and is part of the municipal unit of Vyssa. It is situated at the border with Turkey.

Geography
Kastanies is situated in the low plains near the confluence of the rivers Evros and Ardas, on the south bank of the Ardas. The area consists of farmlands, with some forests at the banks of the rivers. There are two road bridges and one railway bridge across the Ardas. Kastanies is 2.5 km south of Marasia, 4 km west of Karaağaç (Turkey), 5 km northeast of Rizia, 8 km northwest of Nea Vyssa, 8 km southwest of Edirne (Turkey) and 16 km north of Orestiada.

Transport
The Greek National Road 51/E85, which connects Alexandroupoli with the Bulgarian border near Svilengrad passes west of Kastanies. A smaller road connecting the E85 with Edirne in Turkey by way of the border crossing Karaağaç passes through Kastanies.

Kastanies has a station on the Alexandroupoli–Svilengrad railway, served by trains from Alexandroupoli to Ormenio. The Otoyol 3 (O-3) to Istanbul begins a few km directly north of Kastanies. The O-3 is part of Asian Highway 1 to Tokyo and is also part of the E80 to Lisbon.

History
The village during the Ottoman administration was called "Çörekköy" and in the past had experienced great economic growth, from the cultivation of the broom. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 heavily affected Kastanies. In March 2018, at the Greek-Turkish border in Kastanies, two Greek officers were captured by a multi-member Turkish patrol. At the beginning of 2020, the village became widely known due to the incidents of the 2020 Greek-Turkish border crisis.

Tourism
Kastanies is the last village on the Sultans Trail hiking path within the territory of Greece. There are 2 sections ready in Greece one coming from Svilengrad, Bulgaria via Ormenio and other coming from Ivaylovgrad, Bulgaria via Komara and following the river Ardas.

It's not permitted by the Turkish border guards to cross into Greece from Turkey on foot via the border crossing northeast of the village.

title: Kastanies


text:
Pope Paul

Pope Paul may refer to:

 * Pope Paul I (757–767)
 * Pope Paul II (1464–1471)
 * Pope Paul III (1534–1549)
 * Pope Paul IV (1555–1559)
 * Pope Paul V (1605–1621)
 * Pope Paul VI (1963–1978)

title: Pope Paul


text:
Hueston Woods State Park

Hueston Woods State Park is a state park located in Butler and Preble counties of the U.S. state of Ohio, about five miles (8 km) northeast of Oxford in the southwestern part of the state. The park lies in Oxford Township, Butler County, and Israel Township, Preble County. It has nearly 3000 acre, including a man-made lake of 625 acre. The park's beech-maple climax forest has been designated a National Natural Landmark.

History
The state bought the land in 1941, but the park did not open until 1957. The state used the land initially as a prison camp. In 1956, Four Mile Creek was dammed to form Acton Lake, named for Clyde Acton, the member of the Ohio General Assembly who persuaded the legislature to buy the property. Hueston Woods was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in 1967.

The park was temporarily named after former Cincinnati Bengals player Ickey Woods prior to Super Bowl LVI.

Features
"The limestone and shale bedrock of the Hueston Woods area provides evidence of the ancient shallow sea that once covered Ohio. Fossilized remains of ancient marine animals are so abundant that visitors from around the world are drawn to Hueston Woods to collect them." Fossils found at this State Park include:

 * Bryozoans, brachiopods, pelecypods, horn corals, cephalopods, gastropods, crinoids, trilobites and mollusks.

The Hueston Woods Covered Bridge in Preble County was completed and opened for traffic in June 2012. The $2.0 million Burr arch truss structure spans 108 feet over Four Mile Creek north and west of the park. The structure supports 40 ton tractor trailer traffic and has a life expectancy of over 100 years.

The Doty Homestead is a mid 19th-century brick farmhouse that is operated by the Oxford Museum Association as a historic house museum. It is open on Sunday afternoons in the summer season.

Mammals that call the park home include beaver, mink, white-tail deer, foxes, eastern coyotes, bobcats, opossums, muskrats, cottontail rabbits, skunks, and more.

Activities and amenities
The park offers boating, camping, fishing, swimming, 12 mi of hiking trails, 18 mi of bridle trails, 20 mi of mountain biking trails, cabins, 96-room lodge, and golf course.

title: Hueston Woods State Park


text:
PANAMIN

PANAMIN, also Panamin or Panamin Foundation, was the nonstock, nonprofit organization created to protect the interests of Philippine cultural minorities. Headed and mainly funded by Manuel Elizalde, Jr., eldest son of a Filipino millionaire, but sometimes funded by the Philippine government under President Ferdinand Marcos, PANAMIN means Presidential Assistant on National Minorities. Established in 1968, the organization dissolved in 1983 when Elizalde fled the Philippines. Elizalde is considered a crony of Marcos.

PANAMIN has been accused of representing the interest of economic enterprises that aimed to exploit natural resources on ancestral lands. The organization forced thousands of indigenous peoples into "strategic hamlets," supposedly to protect them from armed conflict. A report by Human Rights Watch, however, said that the displacement was intended to allow Elizalde to conduct logging and mining operations. PANAMIN also recruited indigenous peoples to join paramilitary groups to divide and harass indigenous communities.

Notably, Charles Lindbergh served on PANAMIN's board of directors and visited many of the Philippines' indigenous peoples with Elizalde.

title: PANAMIN


text:
Talk:No Limit (2 Unlimited song)

Disambiguation
disambiguated "no limit." --Myles Long 18:36, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:No Limit file.ogg
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No Limit 2.3
There is no info about the single "No Limit 2.3" by 2 Unlimited. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.116.88.40 (talk) 00:40, 1 January 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:No Limit (2 Unlimited song)


text:
Julius Darmaatmadja

Julius Riyadi Darmaatmadja (born 20 December 1934) is an Indonesian cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was made a cardinal in 1994, becoming the second Indonesian to be a cardinal. He served as the Archbishop of Semarang from 1983 to 1996 and Archbishop of Jakarta from 1996 to 2010.

Biography
Darmaatmadja entered Saint Peter Canisius Minor seminary in Magelang, Central Java in 1951 and Society of Jesus in 1957. He studied philosophy from 1961 to 1964 at De Nobili College, Pontifical Athenaeum, Pune, Maharashtra and theology from 1966 to 1970 at Saint Ignatius College, Yogyakarta. He was ordained priest on 18 December 1969 by Cardinal Justinus Darmojuwono. He was then assigned as parish priest in the Archdiocese of Semarang from 1971 to 1973, in Indonesian Province of the Society of Jesus from 1973 to 1978, and then as Rector of Saint Peter Canisius minor seminary from 1978 to 1981. He served as Provincial of the Indonesian Province of the Society of Jesus from 1981 to 1983.

On 19 February 1983 Pope John Paul II appointed him Archbishop of Semarang; he received episcopal consecration from Justinus Darmojuwono on 29 June 1983. On 28 April 1984, he was also appointed Ordinary of the Indonesian Military Forces (ABRI) Ordinariate.

He was created Cardinal-Priest of titular see of S Cuore di Maria by Pope John Paul II on 26 November 1994 consistory, and became the second Indonesian cardinal after Cardinal Darmojuwono, who died earlier that year. Upon the retirement of Leo Soekoto he was appointed Archbishop of Jakarta and installed on 11 January 1996. He was elected President of National Bishops' Conference of Indonesia from 1988 to 1997 and again from 2001 to 2006.

He submitted his resignation upon reaching mandatory retirement age of 75 and Pope Benedict XVI accepted his retirement on 28 June 2010. He was automatically succeeded as Archbishop of Jakarta by the Coadjutor Archbishop Ignatius Suharyo Hardjoatmodjo.

He participated as an elector in the Papal conclave, 2005, which elected Pope Benedict XVI. Although he was eligible to participate as an elector, he did not attend the 2013 papal conclave that followed Pope Benedict XVI's resignation, for health reasons. He ceased to be qualify as a cardinal elector following his 80th birthday 20 December 2014.

Views
He has rejected the identification of Islam with terrorism, called upon Christians to forgive Islamic radicals behind church bombings in 2000, and was an outspoken critic of the US-led war in Iraq.

title: Julius Darmaatmadja


text:
Happiness Is a Warm Gun

"Happiness Is a Warm Gun" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 album The Beatles (also known as "the White Album"). It was written by John Lennon and credited to the Lennon–McCartney partnership. He derived the title from an article in American Rifleman magazine and explained that the lyrics were a double entendre for guns and his sexual desire for Yoko Ono.

Although tensions were high during the recording sessions for the White Album, the Beatles worked together as a unit to complete the song's challenging rhythmic issues and time signature changes. A demo of the song, recorded at George Harrison's Kinfauns home before the album's recording sessions, showed the song in its initial stage, with only a few portions present. He helped with the time signature changes through his knowledge of Indian classical music. The final portion of the song features backing vocals by Harrison and Paul McCartney. An excerpt from the demo was released on Anthology 3 in 1996, with the full demo being released on the super deluxe edition of the White Album in 2018.

Despite mixed reviews for the White Album on release, "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was positively received by music critics, who highlighted the song's complex structure and lyrics for praise. All four Beatles identified it as their favourite song on the album. Nevertheless, it was banned by the BBC due to its sexually suggestive lyrics. The song has been covered by Tori Amos, U2 and the Breeders.

Background and inspiration
Lennon derived the title of "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" from an article in the May 1968 issue of American Rifleman. The magazine belonged to George Martin, the Beatles' producer, who had brought it with him to the recording studio. Lennon recalled his reaction to the phrase: "I just thought it was a fantastic, insane thing to say. A warm gun means you just shot something." Written by Warren W. Herlihy, the article told the story of how Herlihy had introduced his teenage son to shooting and how much the young man had come to enjoy the sport. The magazine had adapted the headline from the title of the bestselling book by Peanuts cartoonist Charles M. Schulz, Happiness is a Warm Puppy.

Some commentators suggested that the "warm gun" could refer to Lennon's sexual desire for Yoko Ono or, due to the drug connotations in the lyric "I need a fix", to a heroin syringe. In his 1980 Playboy interview, Lennon admitted to the double meaning of guns and sexuality but denied that the song had anything to do with drugs. He said: "that was the beginning of my relationship with Yoko and I was very sexually oriented then."

Composition
Lennon said he "put together three sections of different songs ... it seemed to run through all the different kinds of rock music ..." and described it as a miniature "history of rock and roll". This results in a three-part through-composed structure. The song begins with surreal imagery inspired by an acid trip that Lennon and Derek Taylor experienced, with Taylor contributing the opening lines. The three sections were described by Lennon as "the Dirty Old Man", "the Junkie" and "the Gunman (Satire of '50s R&R)".

Author John Winn divides the completed composition into five sections: the fingerpicked guitar intro, with the line "She's not a girl who misses much"; the portion when the full band enters, containing more of the lyrical images supplied by Taylor; the blues-based "I need a fix" section; the "Mother Superior" refrain; and the doo wop-style section exploring the "warm gun" theme. The composite structure features several changes in time signature. According to Kenneth Womack, this consists of shifts from 4/4 to 6/4 time in the "Dirty Old Man" section; 9/8 and 12/8 in "the Junkie", although the drums play in 6/8 throughout; four-bar sequences of 6/8, 6/4, 6/8 and 7/4 over the "Mother Superior" portion; and 6/8 and 4/4 for "the Gunman" (even though the drums remain in 4/4). The musical keys used in the song are E minor, A major, A Lydian and C major.

The demo recorded by Lennon in May 1968 shows the song in its initial stage, with only the "I need a fix" and "Mother Superior jump the gun" portions present. Lennon extends the "Mother Superior" part, segueing into a portion addressing Ono by name, which does not appear in the Beatles' recording. The section that became the rock 'n' roll and doo-wop satire was partly previewed at the end of Lennon's performance of "I'm So Tired" from the same demo tape. This two-minute solo performance of "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was edited for release on the Anthology 3 compilation album in 1996, with over 30 seconds being cut from the middle of the song.

Recording
Recording for "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" began at 7 pm in Studio Two at EMI Studios in London on 23 September 1968. Although tensions were high among the Beatles during the album's recording sessions, the band collaborated as a close unit to work out the song's challenging rhythmic and metre issues. Having spent much of the first session discussing the individual sections, the group completed a satisfactory basic track on 24 September, albeit by editing together two separate performances: takes 53 and 65. Work on the song was completed at 5 am on 26 September. Piano, organ and tuba parts in this recording are unattributed; the tuba was all but removed through mixing. Martin was on holiday while this song was recorded, and had left a note asking Chris Thomas to take over as producer.

Having spent over two years studying the sitar, George Harrison had become familiar with the complex time signatures typically found in Indian classical music. Lennon benefited from Harrison's input in the arrangement for "Happiness Is a Warm Gun", further to the pair having joined different sections together for Lennon's 1966 song "She Said She Said". Author Simon Leng highlights Harrison's guitar playing on the completed track – ranging from stinging riffs beside Lennon's picked chords, to the heavily distorted solo that introduces the "I need a fix" bridge – as an example of Harrison's empathetic musicianship on Lennon's White Album songs. A tape containing just the 25 September instrumental overdubs reveals that the guitar solo was added to the previous day's backing track, along with organ (over the opening section of the song), tambourine and extra hi-hat, and piano (throughout the closing, "doo-wop" portion). In his description of this tape, music critic Richie Unterberger comments that the organ part, which appears low in the final mix, sounds "so churchly downcast it would do the Zombies proud". Over the "Gunman" section of the song, Paul McCartney and Harrison sang backing vocals in the doo-wop style, including the lines "Bang bang, shoot shoot" in response to Lennon singing the title phrase.

Musicologists Kenny Jenkins, of Leeds Beckett University and Richard Perks, University of Kent, have expressed the opinion that a Bartell fretless guitar belonging to Harrison was used on this track.

Release and reception
Apple Records released The Beatles on 22 November 1968, with the double LP soon gaining the informal title "the White Album" due to its stark cover art. "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was sequenced as the final track on side one, following "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" reportedly was Harrison and McCartney's favourite track on the White Album. All four of the Beatles later identified it as their favourite song on the album. American and British censors were unhappy with the song, and it was banned by the BBC.

Nik Cohn gave the album an unfavourable review in The New York Times, but he wrote: "The only track that I've found myself actually playing for pleasure has been 'Happiness Is a Warm Gun', which is obviously mostly by John Lennon and which stands [in] roughly the same tradition as 'A Day in the Life' and 'I Am the Walrus'." Cohn added that although the song "includes more than its share of half-baked poeticisms", it develops into "a marvelous parody of high school rock in the mid-fifties of groups like the Diamonds and the Monotones", during which Lennon's bandmates support his repetition of the title phrase with interjections of 'Bang bang – shoot shoot. Cohn concluded that "Just this once, the take-off has edge, it's not pure self-indulgence." Hubert Saal of Newsweek was also highly critical of the Beatles' propensity for pastiche, yet he included "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" among the few successes that result when they abandoned their attempts to be "Alexander Pope or Max Beerbohm". He said it featured "an orgasmic ending that Mick Jagger would admire".

Record Mirror commented that the song starts as "a serene ballad, but is soon taken over in the true vein of this foremost stylist", with the arrival of the "deep guitar" solo and lyrics referencing Mother Superior and the sensation of "my hands on your trigger". The reviewer said that "The firearm becomes feminine and the lyrics ambiguous in this strange subject matter for a song." Barry Miles wrote in International Times: Happiness is a Warm Gun' is one of the greatest numbers on the album. Again a very complex construction in which the music has three distinct phases ending with a touch of the '50s ... It has a fine developing deep bass line and uses a snatch from 'Angel Baby' by Rosie & The Originals at the end."

Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of its release, Jacob Stolworthy of The Independent listed the song at number 2 in his ranking of the White Album's 30 tracks, below Harrison's "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". Stolworthy described it as "A loaded weapon of a track" and "one of Lennon's best songs". In 2006, Mojo placed it at number 8 in the magazine's list of "The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs". In her commentary with the selection, American singer-songwriter Tori Amos highlighted "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" as a rare example of social commentary that successfully makes its statement "without preaching". Amos added: "The Beatles had the ability to make you think about the world, not just your own little world. They could put the microcosm and macrocosm in the same song. They sang of drugs and guns without telling me what to feel about it. That's genius." Beatles biographer Bill Harry commented on the irony of Lennon having written a song titled "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" and then, following his fatal shooting in New York City in December 1980, becoming the "most high profile" of the many musicians who have died as a result of the wide availability of guns in the United States.

Personnel
According to Ian MacDonald, except where noted:

 * John Lennon – double-tracked lead vocal, backing vocal, electric guitar, Hammond organ
 * Paul McCartney – bass guitar, backing vocal, piano
 * George Harrison – lead guitar, backing vocal
 * Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine

Cover versions

 * Tori Amos, on her 2001 album Strange Little Girls. The recording includes an anti-gun message read out by her father. In 2006, Amos recalled that her decision to include the song was because of its relevance in the aftermath to the Columbine High School massacre and during an era of US gun control typified by the "father and son comedy team" of George Bush and George W. Bush, and the pair's "close connections" with the National Rifle Association. She added that in an accompanying picture of her included in the CD booklet, she was "playing the call girl character" that Mark Chapman had visited the night before he fatally shot Lennon on 8 December 1980.
 * Phish, on the album Live Phish Volume 13.
 * U2, as a B-side of the 1997 single Last Night on Earth.
 * Joe Anderson with Salma Hayek, for the soundtrack of Across the Universe
 * The Breeders, on the album Pod
 * Marc Ribot, on the album Saints
 * World Party, on the European maxi-single release of Way Down Now
 * Annika Aakjær, on the collab album Come Together

title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun