text:
Language processing in the brain

In psycholinguistics, language processing refers to the way humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings, and how such communications are processed and understood. Language processing is considered to be a uniquely human ability that is not produced with the same grammatical understanding or systematicity in even human's closest primate relatives.

Throughout the 20th century the dominant model for language processing in the brain was the Geschwind-Lichteim-Wernicke model, which is based primarily on the analysis of brain-damaged patients. However, due to improvements in intra-cortical electrophysiological recordings of monkey and human brains, as well non-invasive techniques such as fMRI, PET, MEG and EEG, a dual auditory pathway  has been revealed and a two-streams model has been developed. In accordance with this model, there are two pathways that connect the auditory cortex to the frontal lobe, each pathway accounting for different linguistic roles. The auditory ventral stream pathway is responsible for sound recognition, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'what' pathway. The auditory dorsal stream in both humans and non-human primates is responsible for sound localization, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'where' pathway. In humans, this pathway (especially in the left hemisphere) is also responsible for speech production, speech repetition, lip-reading, and phonological working memory and long-term memory. In accordance with the 'from where to what' model of language evolution, the reason the ADS is characterized with such a broad range of functions is that each indicates a different stage in language evolution.

The division of the two streams first occurs in the auditory nerve where the anterior branch enters the anterior cochlear nucleus in the brainstem which gives rise to the auditory ventral stream. The posterior branch enters the dorsal and posteroventral cochlear nucleus to give rise to the auditory dorsal stream.

Language processing can also occur in relation to signed languages or written content.

Early neurolinguistics models

Throughout the 20th century, our knowledge of language processing in the brain was dominated by the Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind model. The Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind model is primarily based on research conducted on brain-damaged individuals who were reported to possess a variety of language related disorders. In accordance with this model, words are perceived via a specialized word reception center (Wernicke's area) that is located in the left temporoparietal junction. This region then projects to a word production center (Broca's area) that is located in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Because almost all language input was thought to funnel via Wernicke's area and all language output to funnel via Broca's area, it became extremely difficult to identify the basic properties of each region. This lack of clear definition for the contribution of Wernicke's and Broca's regions to human language rendered it extremely difficult to identify their homologues in other primates. With the advent of the fMRI and its application for lesion mappings, however, it was shown that this model is based on incorrect correlations between symptoms and lesions. The refutation of such an influential and dominant model opened the door to new models of language processing in the brain.

Anatomy
In the last two decades, significant advances occurred in our understanding of the neural processing of sounds in primates. Initially by recording of neural activity in the auditory cortices of monkeys and later elaborated via histological staining  and fMRI scanning studies, 3 auditory fields were identified in the primary auditory cortex, and 9 associative auditory fields were shown to surround them (Figure 1 top left). Anatomical tracing and lesion studies further indicated of a separation between the anterior and posterior auditory fields, with the anterior primary auditory fields (areas R-RT) projecting to the anterior associative auditory fields (areas AL-RTL), and the posterior primary auditory field (area A1) projecting to the posterior associative auditory fields (areas CL-CM). Recently, evidence accumulated that indicates homology between the human and monkey auditory fields. In humans, histological staining studies revealed two separate auditory fields in the primary auditory region of Heschl's gyrus, and by mapping the tonotopic organization of the human primary auditory fields with high resolution fMRI and comparing it to the tonotopic organization of the monkey primary auditory fields, homology was established between the human anterior primary auditory field and monkey area R (denoted in humans as area hR) and the human posterior primary auditory field and the monkey area A1 (denoted in humans as area hA1). Intra-cortical recordings from the human auditory cortex further demonstrated similar patterns of connectivity to the auditory cortex of the monkey. Recording from the surface of the auditory cortex (supra-temporal plane) reported that the anterior Heschl's gyrus (area hR) projects primarily to the middle-anterior superior temporal gyrus (mSTG-aSTG) and the posterior Heschl's gyrus (area hA1) projects primarily to the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) and the planum temporale (area PT; Figure 1 top right). Consistent with connections from area hR to the aSTG and hA1 to the pSTG is an fMRI study of a patient with impaired sound recognition (auditory agnosia), who was shown with reduced bilateral activation in areas hR and aSTG but with spared activation in the mSTG-pSTG. This connectivity pattern is also corroborated by a study that recorded activation from the lateral surface of the auditory cortex and reported of simultaneous non-overlapping activation clusters in the pSTG and mSTG-aSTG while listening to sounds.

Downstream to the auditory cortex, anatomical tracing studies in monkeys delineated projections from the anterior associative auditory fields (areas AL-RTL) to ventral prefrontal and premotor cortices in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and amygdala. Cortical recording and functional imaging studies in macaque monkeys further elaborated on this processing stream by showing that acoustic information flows from the anterior auditory cortex to the temporal pole (TP) and then to the IFG. This pathway is commonly referred to as the auditory ventral stream (AVS; Figure 1, bottom left-red arrows). In contrast to the anterior auditory fields, tracing studies reported that the posterior auditory fields (areas CL-CM) project primarily to dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices (although some projections do terminate in the IFG. Cortical recordings and anatomical tracing studies in monkeys further provided evidence that this processing stream flows from the posterior auditory fields to the frontal lobe via a relay station in the intra-parietal sulcus (IPS).   This pathway is commonly referred to as the auditory dorsal stream (ADS; Figure 1, bottom left-blue arrows). Comparing the white matter pathways involved in communication in humans and monkeys with diffusion tensor imaging techniques indicates of similar connections of the AVS and ADS in the two species (Monkey, Human      ). In humans, the pSTG was shown to project to the parietal lobe (sylvian parietal-temporal junction-inferior parietal lobule; Spt-IPL), and from there to dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices (Figure 1, bottom right-blue arrows), and the aSTG was shown to project to the anterior temporal lobe (middle temporal gyrus-temporal pole; MTG-TP) and from there to the IFG (Figure 1 bottom right-red arrows).

Auditory ventral stream
The auditory ventral stream (AVS) connects the auditory cortex with the middle temporal gyrus and temporal pole, which in turn connects with the inferior frontal gyrus. This pathway is responsible for sound recognition, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'what' pathway. The functions of the AVS include the following.

Sound recognition
Accumulative converging evidence indicates that the AVS is involved in recognizing auditory objects. At the level of the primary auditory cortex, recordings from monkeys showed higher percentage of neurons selective for learned melodic sequences in area R than area A1, and a study in humans demonstrated more selectivity for heard syllables in the anterior Heschl's gyrus (area hR) than posterior Heschl's gyrus (area hA1). In downstream associative auditory fields, studies from both monkeys and humans reported that the border between the anterior and posterior auditory fields (Figure 1-area PC in the monkey and mSTG in the human) processes pitch attributes that are necessary for the recognition of auditory objects. The anterior auditory fields of monkeys were also demonstrated with selectivity for con-specific vocalizations with intra-cortical recordings. and functional imaging One fMRI monkey study further demonstrated a role of the aSTG in the recognition of individual voices. The role of the human mSTG-aSTG in sound recognition was demonstrated via functional imaging studies that correlated activity in this region with isolation of auditory objects from background noise, and with the recognition of spoken words,      voices, melodies,  environmental sounds,  and non-speech communicative sounds. A meta-analysis of fMRI studies further demonstrated functional dissociation between the left mSTG and aSTG, with the former processing short speech units (phonemes) and the latter processing longer units (e.g., words, environmental sounds). A study that recorded neural activity directly from the left pSTG and aSTG reported that the aSTG, but not pSTG, was more active when the patient listened to speech in her native language than unfamiliar foreign language. Consistently, electro stimulation to the aSTG of this patient resulted in impaired speech perception (see also for similar results). Intra-cortical recordings from the right and left aSTG further demonstrated that speech is processed laterally to music. An fMRI study of a patient with impaired sound recognition (auditory agnosia) due to brainstem damage was also shown with reduced activation in areas hR and aSTG of both hemispheres when hearing spoken words and environmental sounds. Recordings from the anterior auditory cortex of monkeys while maintaining learned sounds in working memory, and the debilitating effect of induced lesions to this region on working memory recall,  further implicate the AVS in maintaining the perceived auditory objects in working memory. In humans, area mSTG-aSTG was also reported active during rehearsal of heard syllables with MEG. and fMRI The latter study further demonstrated that working memory in the AVS is for the acoustic properties of spoken words and that it is independent to working memory in the ADS, which mediates inner speech. Working memory studies in monkeys also suggest that in monkeys, in contrast to humans, the AVS is the dominant working memory store.

In humans, downstream to the aSTG, the MTG and TP are thought to constitute the semantic lexicon, which is a long-term memory repository of audio-visual representations that are interconnected on the basis of semantic relationships. (See also the reviews by discussing this topic). The primary evidence for this role of the MTG-TP is that patients with damage to this region (e.g., patients with semantic dementia or herpes simplex virus encephalitis) are reported with an impaired ability to describe visual and auditory objects and a tendency to commit semantic errors when naming objects (i.e., semantic paraphasia). Semantic paraphasias were also expressed by aphasic patients with left MTG-TP damage and were shown to occur in non-aphasic patients after electro-stimulation to this region. or the underlying white matter pathway Two meta-analyses of the fMRI literature also reported that the anterior MTG and TP were consistently active during semantic analysis of speech and text; and an intra-cortical recording study correlated neural discharge in the MTG with the comprehension of intelligible sentences.

Sentence comprehension
In addition to extracting meaning from sounds, the MTG-TP region of the AVS appears to have a role in sentence comprehension, possibly by merging concepts together (e.g., merging the concept 'blue' and 'shirt' to create the concept of a 'blue shirt'). The role of the MTG in extracting meaning from sentences has been demonstrated in functional imaging studies reporting stronger activation in the anterior MTG when proper sentences are contrasted with lists of words, sentences in a foreign or nonsense language, scrambled sentences, sentences with semantic or syntactic violations and sentence-like sequences of environmental sounds. One fMRI study in which participants were instructed to read a story further correlated activity in the anterior MTG with the amount of semantic and syntactic content each sentence contained. An EEG study that contrasted cortical activity while reading sentences with and without syntactic violations in healthy participants and patients with MTG-TP damage, concluded that the MTG-TP in both hemispheres participate in the automatic (rule based) stage of syntactic analysis (ELAN component), and that the left MTG-TP is also involved in a later controlled stage of syntax analysis (P600 component). Patients with damage to the MTG-TP region have also been reported with impaired sentence comprehension. See review for more information on this topic.

Bilaterality
In contradiction to the Wernicke-Lichtheim-Geschwind model that implicates sound recognition to occur solely in the left hemisphere, studies that examined the properties of the right or left hemisphere in isolation via unilateral hemispheric anesthesia (i.e., the WADA procedure ) or intra-cortical recordings from each hemisphere provided evidence that sound recognition is processed bilaterally. Moreover, a study that instructed patients with disconnected hemispheres (i.e., split-brain patients) to match spoken words to written words presented to the right or left hemifields, reported vocabulary in the right hemisphere that almost matches in size with the left hemisphere (The right hemisphere vocabulary was equivalent to the vocabulary of a healthy 11-years old child). This bilateral recognition of sounds is also consistent with the finding that unilateral lesion to the auditory cortex rarely results in deficit to auditory comprehension (i.e., auditory agnosia), whereas a second lesion to the remaining hemisphere (which could occur years later) does. Finally, as mentioned earlier, an fMRI scan of an auditory agnosia patient demonstrated bilateral reduced activation in the anterior auditory cortices, and bilateral electro-stimulation to these regions in both hemispheres resulted with impaired speech recognition.

Auditory dorsal stream
The auditory dorsal stream connects the auditory cortex with the parietal lobe, which in turn connects with inferior frontal gyrus. In both humans and non-human primates, the auditory dorsal stream is responsible for sound localization, and is accordingly known as the auditory 'where' pathway. In humans, this pathway (especially in the left hemisphere) is also responsible for speech production, speech repetition, lip-reading, and phonological working memory and long-term memory.

Speech production
Studies of present-day humans have demonstrated a role for the ADS in speech production, particularly in the vocal expression of the names of objects. For instance, in a series of studies in which sub-cortical fibers were directly stimulated interference in the left pSTG and IPL resulted in errors during object-naming tasks, and interference in the left IFG resulted in speech arrest. Magnetic interference in the pSTG and IFG of healthy participants also produced speech errors and speech arrest, respectively One study has also reported that electrical stimulation of the left IPL caused patients to believe that they had spoken when they had not and that IFG stimulation caused patients to unconsciously move their lips. The contribution of the ADS to the process of articulating the names of objects could be dependent on the reception of afferents from the semantic lexicon of the AVS, as an intra-cortical recording study reported of activation in the posterior MTG prior to activation in the Spt-IPL region when patients named objects in pictures Intra-cortical electrical stimulation studies also reported that electrical interference to the posterior MTG was correlated with impaired object naming

Vocal mimicry
Although sound perception is primarily ascribed with the AVS, the ADS appears associated with several aspects of speech perception. For instance, in a meta-analysis of fMRI studies (Turkeltaub and Coslett, 2010), in which the auditory perception of phonemes was contrasted with closely matching sounds, and the studies were rated for the required level of attention, the authors concluded that attention to phonemes correlates with strong activation in the pSTG-pSTS region. An intra-cortical recording study in which participants were instructed to identify syllables also correlated the hearing of each syllable with its own activation pattern in the pSTG. The involvement of the ADS in both speech perception and production has been further illuminated in several pioneering functional imaging studies that contrasted speech perception with overt or covert speech production. These studies demonstrated that the pSTS is active only during the perception of speech, whereas area Spt is active during both the perception and production of speech. The authors concluded that the pSTS projects to area Spt, which converts the auditory input into articulatory movements. Similar results have been obtained in a study in which participants' temporal and parietal lobes were electrically stimulated. This study reported that electrically stimulating the pSTG region interferes with sentence comprehension and that stimulation of the IPL interferes with the ability to vocalize the names of objects. The authors also reported that stimulation in area Spt and the inferior IPL induced interference during both object-naming and speech-comprehension tasks. The role of the ADS in speech repetition is also congruent with the results of the other functional imaging studies that have localized activation during speech repetition tasks to ADS regions. An intra-cortical recording study that recorded activity throughout most of the temporal, parietal and frontal lobes also reported activation in the pSTG, Spt, IPL and IFG when speech repetition is contrasted with speech perception. Neuropsychological studies have also found that individuals with speech repetition deficits but preserved auditory comprehension (i.e., conduction aphasia) suffer from circumscribed damage to the Spt-IPL area      or damage to the projections that emanate from this area and target the frontal lobe    Studies have also reported a transient speech repetition deficit in patients after direct intra-cortical electrical stimulation to this same region. Insight into the purpose of speech repetition in the ADS is provided by longitudinal studies of children that correlated the learning of foreign vocabulary with the ability to repeat nonsense words.

Speech monitoring
In addition to repeating and producing speech, the ADS appears to have a role in monitoring the quality of the speech output. Neuroanatomical evidence suggests that the ADS is equipped with descending connections from the IFG to the pSTG that relay information about motor activity (i.e., corollary discharges) in the vocal apparatus (mouth, tongue, vocal folds). This feedback marks the sound perceived during speech production as self-produced and can be used to adjust the vocal apparatus to increase the similarity between the perceived and emitted calls. Evidence for descending connections from the IFG to the pSTG has been offered by a study that electrically stimulated the IFG during surgical operations and reported the spread of activation to the pSTG-pSTS-Spt region A study that compared the ability of aphasic patients with frontal, parietal or temporal lobe damage to quickly and repeatedly articulate a string of syllables reported that damage to the frontal lobe interfered with the articulation of both identical syllabic strings ("Bababa") and non-identical syllabic strings ("Badaga"), whereas patients with temporal or parietal lobe damage only exhibited impairment when articulating non-identical syllabic strings. Because the patients with temporal and parietal lobe damage were capable of repeating the syllabic string in the first task, their speech perception and production appears to be relatively preserved, and their deficit in the second task is therefore due to impaired monitoring. Demonstrating the role of the descending ADS connections in monitoring emitted calls, an fMRI study instructed participants to speak under normal conditions or when hearing a modified version of their own voice (delayed first formant) and reported that hearing a distorted version of one's own voice results in increased activation in the pSTG. Further demonstrating that the ADS facilitates motor feedback during mimicry is an intra-cortical recording study that contrasted speech perception and repetition. The authors reported that, in addition to activation in the IPL and IFG, speech repetition is characterized by stronger activation in the pSTG than during speech perception.

Integration of phonemes with lip-movements
Although sound perception is primarily ascribed with the AVS, the ADS appears associated with several aspects of speech perception. For instance, in a meta-analysis of fMRI studies in which the auditory perception of phonemes was contrasted with closely matching sounds, and the studies were rated for the required level of attention, the authors concluded that attention to phonemes correlates with strong activation in the pSTG-pSTS region. An intra-cortical recording study in which participants were instructed to identify syllables also correlated the hearing of each syllable with its own activation pattern in the pSTG. Consistent with the role of the ADS in discriminating phonemes, studies have ascribed the integration of phonemes and their corresponding lip movements (i.e., visemes) to the pSTS of the ADS. For example, an fMRI study has correlated activation in the pSTS with the McGurk illusion (in which hearing the syllable "ba" while seeing the viseme "ga" results in the perception of the syllable "da"). Another study has found that using magnetic stimulation to interfere with processing in this area further disrupts the McGurk illusion. The association of the pSTS with the audio-visual integration of speech has also been demonstrated in a study that presented participants with pictures of faces and spoken words of varying quality. The study reported that the pSTS selects for the combined increase of the clarity of faces and spoken words. Corroborating evidence has been provided by an fMRI study that contrasted the perception of audio-visual speech with audio-visual non-speech (pictures and sounds of tools). This study reported the detection of speech-selective compartments in the pSTS. In addition, an fMRI study that contrasted congruent audio-visual speech with incongruent speech (pictures of still faces) reported pSTS activation. For a review presenting additional converging evidence regarding the role of the pSTS and ADS in phoneme-viseme integration see.

Phonological long-term memory
A growing body of evidence indicates that humans, in addition to having a long-term store for word meanings located in the MTG-TP of the AVS (i.e., the semantic lexicon), also have a long-term store for the names of objects located in the Spt-IPL region of the ADS (i.e., the phonological lexicon). For example, a study examining patients with damage to the AVS (MTG damage) or damage to the ADS (IPL damage) reported that MTG damage results in individuals incorrectly identifying objects (e.g., calling a "goat" a "sheep," an example of semantic paraphasia). Conversely, IPL damage results in individuals correctly identifying the object but incorrectly pronouncing its name (e.g., saying "gof" instead of "goat," an example of phonemic paraphasia). Semantic paraphasia errors have also been reported in patients receiving intra-cortical electrical stimulation of the AVS (MTG), and phonemic paraphasia errors have been reported in patients whose ADS (pSTG, Spt, and IPL) received intra-cortical electrical stimulation. Further supporting the role of the ADS in object naming is an MEG study that localized activity in the IPL during the learning and during the recall of object names. A study that induced magnetic interference in participants' IPL while they answered questions about an object reported that the participants were capable of answering questions regarding the object's characteristics or perceptual attributes but were impaired when asked whether the word contained two or three syllables. An MEG study has also correlated recovery from anomia (a disorder characterized by an impaired ability to name objects) with changes in IPL activation. Further supporting the role of the IPL in encoding the sounds of words are studies reporting that, compared to monolinguals, bilinguals have greater cortical density in the IPL but not the MTG. Because evidence shows that, in bilinguals, different phonological representations of the same word share the same semantic representation, this increase in density in the IPL verifies the existence of the phonological lexicon: the semantic lexicon of bilinguals is expected to be similar in size to the semantic lexicon of monolinguals, whereas their phonological lexicon should be twice the size. Consistent with this finding, cortical density in the IPL of monolinguals also correlates with vocabulary size. Notably, the functional dissociation of the AVS and ADS in object-naming tasks is supported by cumulative evidence from reading research showing that semantic errors are correlated with MTG impairment and phonemic errors with IPL impairment. Based on these associations, the semantic analysis of text has been linked to the inferior-temporal gyrus and MTG, and the phonological analysis of text has been linked to the pSTG-Spt- IPL

Phonological working memory
Working memory is often treated as the temporary activation of the representations stored in long-term memory that are used for speech (phonological representations). This sharing of resources between working memory and speech is evident by the finding that speaking during rehearsal results in a significant reduction in the number of items that can be recalled from working memory (articulatory suppression). The involvement of the phonological lexicon in working memory is also evidenced by the tendency of individuals to make more errors when recalling words from a recently learned list of phonologically similar words than from a list of phonologically dissimilar words (the phonological similarity effect). Studies have also found that speech errors committed during reading are remarkably similar to speech errors made during the recall of recently learned, phonologically similar words from working memory. Patients with IPL damage have also been observed to exhibit both speech production errors and impaired working memory   Finally, the view that verbal working memory is the result of temporarily activating phonological representations in the ADS is compatible with recent models describing working memory as the combination of maintaining representations in the mechanism of attention in parallel to temporarily activating representations in long-term memory. It has been argued that the role of the ADS in the rehearsal of lists of words is the reason this pathway is active during sentence comprehension For a review of the role of the ADS in working memory, see.

Linguistic theories
Language-processing research informs theories of language. The primary theoretical question is whether linguistic structures follow from the brain structures or vice versa. Externalist models, such as Ferdinand de Saussure's structuralism, argue that language as a social phenomenon is external to the brain. The individual receives the linguistic system from the outside, and the given language shapes the individual's brain.

This idea is opposed by internalist models including Noam Chomsky's transformational generative grammar, George Lakoff's Cognitive Linguistics, and John A. Hawkins's efficiency hypothesis. According to Chomsky, language is acquired from an innate brain structure independently of meaning. Lakoff argues that language emerges from the sensory systems. Hawkins hypothesizes that cross-linguistically prevalent patterns are based on the brain's natural processing preferences.

Additionally, models inspired by Richard Dawkins's memetics, including Construction Grammar and Usage-Based Linguistics, advocate a two-way model arguing that the brain shapes language, and language shapes the brain.

Evidence from neuroimaging studies points towards the externalist position. ERP studies suggest that language processing is based on the interaction of syntax and semantics, and the research does not support innate grammatical structures. MRI studies suggest that the structural characteristics of the child's first language shapes the processing connectome of the brain. Processing research has failed to find support for the inverse idea that syntactic structures reflect the brain's natural processing preferences cross-linguistically.

The evolution of language
The auditory dorsal stream also has non-language related functions, such as sound localization   and guidance of eye movements. Recent studies also indicate a role of the ADS in localization of family/tribe members, as a study that recorded from the cortex of an epileptic patient reported that the pSTG, but not aSTG, is selective for the presence of new speakers. An fMRI study of fetuses at their third trimester also demonstrated that area Spt is more selective to female speech than pure tones, and a sub-section of Spt is selective to the speech of their mother in contrast to unfamiliar female voices.

It is presently unknown why so many functions are ascribed to the human ADS. An attempt to unify these functions under a single framework was conducted in the 'From where to what' model of language evolution In accordance with this model, each function of the ADS indicates of a different intermediate phase in the evolution of language. The roles of sound localization and integration of sound location with voices and auditory objects is interpreted as evidence that the origin of speech is the exchange of contact calls (calls used to report location in cases of separation) between mothers and offspring. The role of the ADS in the perception and production of intonations is interpreted as evidence that speech began by modifying the contact calls with intonations, possibly for distinguishing alarm contact calls from safe contact calls. The role of the ADS in encoding the names of objects (phonological long-term memory) is interpreted as evidence of gradual transition from modifying calls with intonations to complete vocal control. The role of the ADS in the integration of lip movements with phonemes and in speech repetition is interpreted as evidence that spoken words were learned by infants mimicking their parents' vocalizations, initially by imitating their lip movements. The role of the ADS in phonological working memory is interpreted as evidence that the words learned through mimicry remained active in the ADS even when not spoken. This resulted with individuals capable of rehearsing a list of vocalizations, which enabled the production of words with several syllables. Further developments in the ADS enabled the rehearsal of lists of words, which provided the infra-structure for communicating with sentences.

Sign language in the brain
Neuroscientific research has provided a scientific understanding of how sign language is processed in the brain. There are over 135 discrete sign languages around the world- making use of different accents formed by separate areas of a country.

By resorting to lesion analyses and neuroimaging, neuroscientists have discovered that whether it be spoken or sign language, human brains process language in general, in a similar manner regarding which area of the brain is being used. Lesion analyses are used to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain regions involved in language while neuroimaging explore regions that are engaged in the processing of language.

Previous hypotheses have been made that damage to Broca's area or Wernicke’s area does not affect sign language being perceived; however, it is not the case. Studies have shown that damage to these areas are similar in results in spoken language where sign errors are present and/or repeated. In both types of languages, they are affected by damage to the left hemisphere of the brain rather than the right -usually dealing with the arts.

There are obvious patterns for utilizing and processing language. In sign language, Broca’s area is activated while processing sign language employs Wernicke’s area similar to that of spoken language

There have been other hypotheses about the lateralization of the two hemispheres. Specifically, the right hemisphere was thought to contribute to the overall communication of a language globally whereas the left hemisphere would be dominant in generating the language locally. Through research in aphasias, RHD signers were found to have a problem maintaining the spatial portion of their signs, confusing similar signs at different locations necessary to communicate with another properly. LHD signers, on the other hand, had similar results to those of hearing patients. Furthermore, other studies have emphasized that sign language is present bilaterally but will need to continue researching to reach a conclusion.

Writing in the brain
There is a comparatively small body of research on the neurology of reading and writing. Most of the studies performed deal with reading rather than writing or spelling, and the majority of both kinds focus solely on the English language. English orthography is less transparent than that of other languages using a Latin script. Another difficulty is that some studies focus on spelling words of English and omit the few logographic characters found in the script.

In terms of spelling, English words can be divided into three categories – regular, irregular, and “novel words” or “nonwords.” Regular words are those in which there is a regular, one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme in spelling. Irregular words are those in which no such correspondence exists. Nonwords are those that exhibit the expected orthography of regular words but do not carry meaning, such as nonce words and onomatopoeia.

An issue in the cognitive and neurological study of reading and spelling in English is whether a single-route or dual-route model best describes how literate speakers are able to read and write all three categories of English words according to accepted standards of orthographic correctness. Single-route models posit that lexical memory is used to store all spellings of words for retrieval in a single process. Dual-route models posit that lexical memory is employed to process irregular and high-frequency regular words, while low-frequency regular words and nonwords are processed using a sub-lexical set of phonological rules.

The single-route model for reading has found support in computer modelling studies, which suggest that readers identify words by their orthographic similarities to phonologically alike words. However, cognitive and lesion studies lean towards the dual-route model. Cognitive spelling studies on children and adults suggest that spellers employ phonological rules in spelling regular words and nonwords, while lexical memory is accessed to spell irregular words and high-frequency words of all types. Similarly, lesion studies indicate that lexical memory is used to store irregular words and certain regular words, while phonological rules are used to spell nonwords.

More recently, neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography and fMRI have suggested a balanced model in which the reading of all word types begins in the visual word form area, but subsequently branches off into different routes depending upon whether or not access to lexical memory or semantic information is needed (which would be expected with irregular words under a dual-route model). A 2007 fMRI study found that subjects asked to produce regular words in a spelling task exhibited greater activation in the left posterior STG, an area used for phonological processing, while the spelling of irregular words produced greater activation of areas used for lexical memory and semantic processing, such as the left IFG and left SMG and both hemispheres of the MTG. Spelling nonwords was found to access members of both pathways, such as the left STG and bilateral MTG and ITG. Significantly, it was found that spelling induces activation in areas such as the left fusiform gyrus and left SMG that are also important in reading, suggesting that a similar pathway is used for both reading and writing.

Far less information exists on the cognition and neurology of non-alphabetic and non-English scripts. Every language has a morphological and a phonological component, either of which can be recorded by a writing system. Scripts recording words and morphemes are considered logographic, while those recording phonological segments, such as syllabaries and alphabets, are phonographic. Most systems combine the two and have both logographic and phonographic characters.

In terms of complexity, writing systems can be characterized as "transparent" or "opaque" and as "shallow" or "deep". A "transparent" system exhibits an obvious correspondence between grapheme and sound, while in an "opaque" system this relationship is less obvious. The terms "shallow" and "deep" refer to the extent that a system's orthography represents morphemes as opposed to phonological segments. Systems that record larger morphosyntactic or phonological segments, such as logographic systems and syllabaries put greater demand on the memory of users. It would thus be expected that an opaque or deep writing system would put greater demand on areas of the brain used for lexical memory than would a system with transparent or shallow orthography.

title: Language processing in the brain


text:
Talk:The Orb

Toxygene
I believe that the Orb's "Toxygene" was never meant to be a remix of Jarre's "Oxygene." If I remember correctly, that was a joke placed in some advertisements in France for the Orb song. — 66.215.51.23 00:56, 13 April 2005

 * I have removed the Toxygene mention of Jarre:
 * , which features Toxygene, a remix of a Jean Michel Jarre single from Oxygene 7-13. Apparently, Jarre rejected it as being nothing like the original.
 * Lazlo's discography clearly states that the Jarre thing was a joke. Our article was hardly confident sounding on the matter - "Apparently, Jarre..."
 * As far as I am concerned, the proof that this track had zero nil zilch and nada to do with Jarre lies in the songwriting credits. Don't you think if it was a remix of Oxygene Jarre would have a co-credit?! He doesn't. --kingboyk 18:56, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I found some print sources that talk about this subject - they seemed to think it was true. I haven't found any reliable sources stating otherwise.  Wickethewok 08:42, 14 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Looks like (from reading Toxygene) Lazlo's Orb discography was wrong then :/ --kingboyk (talk) 07:39, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

WP:KLF
Should this article be considered within the scope of WP:KLF? (And, yes, before anybody asks I'm looking for a free Featured Article ;)). --kingboyk 20:26, 6 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Since nobody objected (and they've had 13 years :D), I am going to add the WP:KLF template. The groups were closely related in the early days and I'd like to be able to keep track of this article's status on the KLF quality list. --kingboyk (talk) 14:05, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

Anybody maintaining this?
The 2007–present section has no sentences with citations covering anything which happened since 2012. It looks to me like 2009 or 2010 is about the last year properly documented, and a quick glance at the discography says there's been half a dozen albums since then. The recent edit history is not pretty. It's a shame because the article starts out great but then becomes a mess... the last "citation" is a link to Amazon! :( . --kingboyk (talk) 04:15, 6 March 2020 (UTC)
 * The article says: "After leaving Killing Joke in 1986, Paterson met future KLF member Jimmy Cauty". This seems to be really clumsily worded, as Paterson was never a member of Killing Joke. Also, when and how did he meet Cauty?... Actually, thinking about it can probably fill this in from the Guardian article I unearthed, where Youth says he was living with his childhood friend Paterson and (Youth's) ex-Brilliant bandmate Cauty was a regular visitor. It doesn't explicitly say that is when Alex and Jimmy first met, so I'll have to be careful not to give that impression... --kingboyk (talk) 03:40, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Likewise, the lineup is outdated, as Thomas Fehlmann has apparently gradually left the group since the release of COW / Chill Out, World, contributring only a few tracks on No Sounds Are Out of Bounds, and evidently having been replaced entirely by the most recent release by Michael Rendall. Then again, even The Orb's own website states that the most recent album was by 'Alex Paterson and his rotating roster of collaborative cohorts..', so for all intents and purposes Alex Paterson IS The Orb, everyone else is just there for the ride for a period of time. KDLarsen (talk) 10:07, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

Source available
2016 interview with Youth. Includes a mention of "the backing that Alex made for Primal Scream’s Higher Than The Sun" (which astonishingly doesn't seem to be mentioned in the article given it was a prominent track on what many consider to be one of the best albums of the 90s, if not the best. One sentence would suffice.) --kingboyk (talk) 04:11, 9 March 2020 (UTC)

Personnel section needed
I really feel that with the numerous lineup changes over the years, the article needs a Personnel section listing either each line up in chronological order, or each member with the years they were active in the group. --kingboyk (talk) 21:16, 13 March 2020 (UTC)

Orbsessions
I feel like Orbsessions volumes 1 & 2 could do with at least a mention. Also, I don't understand this sentence about Baghdad Batteries (Orbsessions Volume III), in particular the words I have bolded: "The 11-track album is said to be the third in the Orbsessions series, although unlike the first two outtakes parts composed of brand new material, recorded at Fehlmann's Berlin studio". Is that supposed to mean something like "unlike the first two albums in the series which contained outtakes, Baghdad Batteries comprised brand new material, recorded at Fehlmann's Berlin studio"? Or was BB part old outtakes and part new material? --kingboyk (talk) 04:46, 25 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Edit made based on the contents of the cited source (that BB is new recordings, whereas Vols 1-2 weren't). --kingboyk (talk) 04:51, 25 March 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:The Orb


text:
Druid Hill Park

Druid Hill Park is a 745 acre urban park in northwest Baltimore, Maryland. Its boundaries are marked by Druid Park Drive (north), Swann Drive and Reisterstown Road (west and south), and the Jones Falls Expressway / Interstate 83 (east).

Inaugurated in 1860, under the administration of city Mayor Thomas Swann, Druid Hill Park ranks with Central Park (begun in 1858) in New York City, Fairmount Park (1812) in Philadelphia and Golden Gate Park in San Francisco as the oldest landscaped public parks in the United States.

History
The land was originally part of "Auchentorlie", the estate of Dr George Buchanan (1696–1750), one of the seven commissioners responsible for the 1729 establishment of Baltimore Town, which was laid out by the commissioners the following year. Buchanan's country estate northwest of the town, and on the west bank and overlooking the Jones Falls stream running south to "The Basin" (today's Inner Harbor) of the Northwest Branch of the Patapsco River and future Port of Baltimore, included 579 of the 745 acre that comprise Druid Hill Park today. Renamed "Druid Hill" by Col. Nicholas Rogers, who married Eleanor Buchanan, it was purchased in 1860 by the City of Baltimore from family descendant Lloyd Rogers with municipal funds raised by the revenue derived from a one-cent park tax on the nickel horsecar fares, put through by 19th Mayor Thomas Swann, (1809–1883; served 1856–1860) - (later 33rd Governor of Maryland - served 1866–1869). After its purchase, Druid Hill Park was inaugurated by Swann on October 19, 1860. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Local residents often refer to the park as "Dru Hill" Park, a "Baltimorese" (local dialect) corruption of its given name, itself the inspiration for the name of the popular local R&B group Dru Hill.

The park was designed by Howard Daniels, landscape designer retained by the newly created and appointed Board of Park Commissioners, and John H. B. Latrobe, (1803–1891), who designed the gateways to the Park and the alterations made to the early-19th-century Nicholas Rogers mansion that already stood in the site, later known as the "Mansion House". George A. Frederick, (1842–1924), the 21-year-old Baltimore municipal architect who later won the commission for Baltimore City Hall in 1860, (constructed 1867–1875), provided designs for architectural features in the park. Among Frederick's playful structures for Druid Hill in Moorish and Chinese styles is the Chinese Station erected in 1864 and the Moorish Station, which were stops on a narrow-gauge railroad that once wound through the park. The "Mansion House" now functions as the main administration building of the Baltimore City Zoo, founded 1876 and later renamed Maryland Zoo in Baltimore.

The Park served as an attractive hill for winter sledding during the 1940s, particularly for boys attending the nearby Talmudical Academy of Baltimore.

Like Central Park in New York City's central urban Manhattan of the 1850s designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, (1822–1903), Druid Hill was at the northern edges of urban development at the time of its establishment. The northern end of the park, which contains some of the oldest forest growth in the state of Maryland, has never been landscaped, but rather left as a natural wooded habitat. Roadways through this section of the park have been closed to vehicular traffic since the late 1970s or early 1980s, but have always been open for hikers and bicyclists. A well-known Osage Orange tree, said to be hundreds of years old, was brought down by Storm Sandy in October 2012.

The southern end of the park was a popular destination for city dwellers for a number of decades. Druid Lake, the park's most notable waterway, was constructed in 1863 and remains one of the largest earthen dammed lakes in the country. Through 2024, it serves as a reservoir for the Baltimore metropolitan area public water system, after which that function will be replaced by two large underground tanks installed in the western end of the lake. The dam was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1971. With the advent of automobiles, the park's many winding roadways became popular with car dealers who took potential buyers there to teach them to drive.

Many of the park's older fountains and man-made ponds have been drained, allowing nature to reclaim those areas. However, many of their structures remain partially or completely intact.

Druid Hill Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 22, 1973. The Park is also included in the newly organized Baltimore National Heritage Area in the 2010s in cooperation with the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Racial segregation
When the Park first opened in 1860 - a few months before the outbreak of the American Civil War - recreation facilities such as pools and tennis courts were racially segregated.

By the early 1890s, tennis had become popular in clubs around Baltimore and Washington, D.C., and at Howard University. An organization dedicated to developing black tennis players, the American Tennis Association held its first ATA National Championships in Druid Hill Park in August 1917. The events were men's and women's singles, and men's doubles.

The practice of segregation was definitively challenged on July 11, 1948, when 24 black tennis players, protesting the city's discriminatory policies, were arrested for playing on the park's "white-only" tennis courts. The names of the protestors are commemorated on the Baltimore Tennis Club marker, located adjacent to the Rawlings Conservatory glasshouse along Druid Park Lake Drive. The incident was the subject of the last public column and editorial of the famed Baltimore editor, reporter, columnist and author, H.L. Mencken, who, writing in The Baltimore Sun in 1948, condemned the city's segregationist policies.

Festivities
The Druid Hill Farmers' Market is located at the Howard P. Rawlings Conservatory in Druid Hill Park. When open, it offers free programming each week, including concerts, children's activities, yoga classes, plant workshops, art workshops, hay rides, hula hoops, 4-H Workshops, and more. The market runs weekly from June through September.

The Park also is the venue for the annual Charm City Cyclocross bicycle race in mid-September, which is one of the major cyclocross bicycle races on the East Coast of the United States.

Since 2014 the annual Charm City Folk and Bluegrass Festival is held each April, next to the H.P. Rawlings Conservatory and Botanical Gardens.

Health
In 2007, the city of Baltimore spent $50,000 on exercise equipment for the park. The park consists of three workout stations around the park reservoir. The workout machines in the park are free for the public. These stations have rowing machines, elliptical, and leg presses. Many of the exercise machines are manually operated. By the end of 2010, the city of Baltimore plans to install more outdoor exercise equipment for other parks in the city.

Monuments
There are many different monuments in Druid Hill Park. The Wallace Monument, standing at 30 feet tall, honors fourteenth-century Scottish hero and rebellion chieftain William Wallace. The Wagner Monument, dedicated to the German composer, stands on the lawn near the Mansion House ("Druid Hill" mansion). The monument in honor of Christopher Columbus lies within a view of the main South Driveway, and looks out upon the reservoir. The statue of George Washington (removed from old Carroll Hall building from the mid-19th century at the southwest corner of Calvert and Baltimore Streets in downtown) is placed at an intersection near the Rotunda driveway.

Housing
Druid Hill Park is not home to any private residences, according to the official neighborhood boundaries by the city government of Baltimore. However, the Mansion House, located in The Maryland Zoo, which was built in 1801, served as the estate for Colonel Nicholas Rogers and his family until it was converted into a public pavilion in 1863. The only privately owned properties that are somewhat within the general park outline are at the northeastern corner of the park. This small enclave is the Brick Hill historic district dating to 1877, made of small masonry as well as stone duplexes, where those who worked at the Meadow Mill of the Woodberry Manufacturing Company lived. However, this is considered to be a part of the Woodberry neighborhood. Many homes face the park in the neighborhoods of Hampden, Liberty Square, Park Circle, Parkview Woodbrook, Reservoir Hill, and Woodberry. The Auchentoroly Terrace, which faces the neighborhood in the Parkview Woodbrook neighborhood, is a historic district of nine blocks built between 1876 and the 1920s in the Victorian style.

Features
Today, the park is home to a number of attractions. These include:
 * The Maryland Zoo, formerly the Baltimore City Zoo, home to over 2,000 animals and is considered the third oldest zoo in the United States opening in 1876
 * The Howard Peters Rawlings Conservatory and Botanic Gardens of Baltimore, with its historic Palm House and Orchid Room, built in 1888
 * The Baltimore Model Safety City (where school children learn how to be safe pedestrians by walking in a miniaturized model of downtown Baltimore)
 * An 18-hole disc golf course with 15 additional holes in the woods and another 18-hole wooded course under construction
 * Almost a dozen historic shelters and exotic pavilions
 * Recreational facilities including swimming pools, tennis courts, and ballfields
 * Jones Falls Trail, a hiking and bicycling trail, leaves the Jones Falls at the Woodberry Light Rail Station to enter the north end of Druid Hill Park. It then runs along the west side of the park, before it circles Druid Hill Lake and exits at the southeast corner, where to continues to follow the Jones Falls south.

Additional buildings
Druid Hill Park is home to 22 structures protected under the National Register of Historic Places. Some of the main structures are highlighted below:
 * Engineer's House (1894/1955) home to the Baltimore City Department of Recreation and Parks at 2600 Madison Avenue near the arched entrance
 * Forestry Building/Wagon Shed (ca 1903–1914) home to the Baltimore City Forestry Division and TreeBaltimore's nursery at 3100 Shop Road
 * High Service Reservoir Pumping Station/Aquarium/Reptile House (ca. 1914-1921/1938/1948) originally built as a pumping station, but is mostly remembered for housing the Baltimore Zoo's reptile collection from 1948 until 2004, and was previously Baltimore's first aquarium from 1938 until 1948. The building at Greenspring Avenue and Beechwood Drive is now vacant.
 * Mansion House (1801) the only remaining building from the original Rogers estate (now part of the Maryland Zoo)
 * Maryland House (1876) built for the 1876 Exposition in Philadelphia and reassembled in the park (now part of the Maryland Zoo)
 * Superintendent's House (1872) "Stone House" now home to the Parks and People Foundation at 2100 Liberty Heights Avenue
 * Western Pumping Station/Bath and Field House  (1873/1924) now home to the Baltimore City Department of Recreation and Parks Headquarters at 3100 East Drive

title: Druid Hill Park


text:
Talk:J. D. Hayworth

Untitled
I was wondering where you got the idea that Hayworth is “the most conservative member of the Arizona congressional delegation.” Hayworth only has a 96% rating from the American Conservative Union, while Shadegg was 100%. Flake, Shadegg, and Franks all have a higher rating from the NTU and from the Club for Growth. I would say that Hayworth is not even in the top three of the Arizona congressional delegation.

 * National Journal has him very conservative on economic issues.TR

NPOV section
Biased, not grounded in fact. Footnotes do not refer to pages containing the attributed quotes/information.

The 2006 Campaign section is not neutral, and clearly uses opinion as fact. This should be fixed to be made more neutral.

Jonyyeh 06:22, 16 November 2006 (UTC)

Improvements
There are many sections in the Hayworth article that are not written judicially. Most of the facts are correct, however they are not presented impartially. For example, in the "Controversies" section it discusses the payments made to Hayworth's wife totaling $107,000 over 5 years and as 26% of the PAC's revenue. While the amounts are right the presentation is reckless. My cite-able research (and common sense) shows that anyone can make $107,000 in 5 years if they are getting paid $21,400 per year.

Numerous citations are no longer functioning or are misleading. Validity cannot be proved if links are dead. Other references are misleading: #5 cites the Associate Press, but when clicked on opens up the USA Today Congressional profile of Hayworth. Link #6 cites USA Today and opens the same thing as #5. The language from these sources is also word for word plagiarized.

Work, including pictures, will be added to the page over the next month or so.

Tschlink (talk) 01:11, 21 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm having a hard time deciding whether this article was written / edited by McCain's or Hayworth's campaign staffers and if I should come back when the election in Arizona is over. Detrius77 04:20, 24 March 2010 (CET)

Infomercial
Hey how come there is no mention of his infomercial he made in 2007? Truthsort (talk) 21:55, 28 June 2010 (UTC)
 * If that's the only mention then it might not be significant enough to include. Are there more sources? Has it become an issue in the campaign?   Will Beback    talk    08:21, 7 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes and yes.--70.142.44.41 (talk) 01:44, 4 August 2010 (UTC)

Out at KSFO?
It appears that Congressman Hayworth has been replaced by Mike Huckabee on the 9:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon slot at KSFO in San Francisco, despite Hayworth's having been there only since the start of the year. I can't find anything other than KSFO's Program Schedule to indicate that, however. 69.42.13.45 (talk) 15:36, 10 April 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100407183015/http://waysandmeans.house.gov/singlepages.aspx?NewsID=10475 to http://waysandmeans.house.gov/singlepages.aspx?NewsID=10475
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070927231841/http://www.azcongresswatch.com/?p=1807 to http://www.azcongresswatch.com/?p=1807

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 22:51, 18 October 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100104074258/http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/elections2/election_2010/election_2010_senate_elections/arizona/election_2010_arizona_senate_gop_primary to http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/elections2/election_2010/election_2010_senate_elections/arizona/election_2010_arizona_senate_gop_primary

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:47, 6 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20070929155951/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/external/pre-election/bios/1127.html to http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/external/pre-election/bios/1127.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at Sourcecheck).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 09:17, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20070401151755/http://www.citizensalliance.org:80/Major%20Issues/Campaign%20Finance%20and%20Tribal%20Influence/Arizona%20Rep%20Takes%20Money.htm to http://www.citizensalliance.org/Major%20Issues/Campaign%20Finance%20and%20Tribal%20Influence/Arizona%20Rep%20Takes%20Money.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 00:10, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100323150939/http://www.jdforsenate.com:80/ to http://www.jdforsenate.com/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:09, 9 November 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on J. D. Hayworth. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120826032512/http://www.azpbs.org/horizon/poll/2005/5-24-05.htm to http://www.azpbs.org/horizon/poll/2005/5-24-05.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120523022450/http://www.azsos.gov/election/voterreg/VRcounts2006.htm to http://www.azsos.gov/election/voterreg/VRcounts2006.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120227073834/http://www.solidprinciples.com/index.php/podcast/episode-27/ to http://www.solidprinciples.com/index.php/podcast/episode-27/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060827080650/http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/can_detail/H4AZ06052/ to http://herndon1.sdrdc.com/cgi-bin/can_detail/H4AZ06052

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:48, 18 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:J. D. Hayworth


text: Category:Polish photographers

title: Category:Polish photographers


text:
Journeyman (disambiguation)

A journeyman is a tradesman or craftsman who has completed an apprenticeship, but is not yet a Master tradesman.

Journeyman may also refer to:

TV and games

 * Journeyman (TV series), a 2007 American science fiction television drama
 * The Journeyman Project a science fiction adventure game series

Film

 * Journeyman (film), a 2017 UK film
 * Journeyman Pictures (US), a film production company founded by Paul Mezey
 * Journeyman Pictures, a film distribution company founded by Mark Stucke

Music

 * Journeyman (album), a 1989 album by Eric Clapton
 * The Journeymen, a folk music trio of John Phillips, Scott McKenzie and Dick Weissman
 * "Journeyman", recording name of Paul Frankland (a.k.a. Woob) and Colin Waterton
 * Journey, Man!, a 1996 album by trumpeter Jack Walrath

Songs

 * "Journeyman", a song from Jethro Tull's 1978 album Heavy Horses
 * "Journeyman", a song from Praying Mantis' 1993 album A Cry for the New World
 * "Journeyman", a song from Iron Maiden's 2003 album Dance of Death
 * "Journeyman", a song from Amon Tobin's 2011 album ISAM
 * "Journeyman", a song from Blackmore's Night's 2012 album A Knight In York
 * "Journey Man", a song from Korpiklaani's 2005 album Voice of Wilderness

Other uses

 * Journeyman (boxing), a fighter who has adequate boxing skill, but does not have the caliber of a contender or gatekeeper
 * Journeyman (sports), an athlete or professional sports player who is technically competent, but unable to excel or one who plays for many different teams over the course of a career
 * Journeyman quarterback, in professional American football, is a quarterback who plays short stints for several teams over a career.
 * Journeyman, a 1935 novel by Erskine Caldwell

title: Journeyman (disambiguation)


text: Category:Russian photographers

title: Category:Russian photographers


text: Category:Colombian guerrilla movements

title: Category:Colombian guerrilla movements