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Beer in Belgium

Beer in Belgium includes pale ales, lambics, Flemish red ales, sour brown ales, strong ales and stouts. In 2018, there were 304 breweries in Belgium, including international companies, such as AB InBev, and traditional breweries, such as Trappist monasteries. On average, Belgians drink 68 litres of beer each year, down from around 200 each year in 1900. Most beers are bought or served in bottles, rather than cans, and almost every beer has its own branded, sometimes uniquely shaped, glass. In 2016, UNESCO inscribed Belgian beer culture on their list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity.

History
In Belgium, beer was already produced in the Roman era, as evidenced by the excavation of a brewery and malthouse from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD at Ronchinne. During the Early and High Middle Ages, beer was produced with gruit, a mix of herbs and spices that was first mentioned in 974 when the bishop of Liège was granted the right to sell it at Fosses-la-Ville. From the 14th century onwards, gruit was replaced by hops, after the example of imported beers from northern Germany and Holland. After that, several Belgian towns developed their own types of beer for export to other regions, most notably the white beer of Leuven and Hoegaarden, the caves of Lier and the uitzet of Ghent.

Monasteries played only a small role in beer production and mostly brewed for their own consumption and that of their guests. Monastic brewing would only receive some renown from the late 19th century onwards, when the Trappists of Chimay produced a brown beer that was commercially available.

In 1885, a change in legislation made brewing of German-style bottom-fermenting beers viable in Belgium, and it was only from then that large industrial-scale brewing in Belgium took off. During the 20th century the number of breweries in Belgium declined from 3223 breweries in 1900 to only 106 breweries in 1993. Yet, a number of traditional beer styles, such as white beer, lambic and Flemish old brown were preserved, while new local, top-fermented styles developed, such as spéciale belge, abbey beer and Belgian strong ale. In 1988, the country's two biggest breweries, Artois and Piedboeuf, formally merged to become Interbrew, then the world's 18th biggest brewer, which was to merge with AmBev in 2004 to become today's AB InBev, the biggest beer producing company in the world.

Methods
In Belgium, four types of fermentation methods are used for the brewing of beer, which is unique in the world. However, for good understanding of labels of Belgian beer and reference works about Belgian beer often use different terms for the fermentation methods based on archaic or traditional jargon:
 * 1) Spontaneous fermentation with beers that are unique in Europe: "lambic" and the derived faro, gueuze and kriek beers
 * 2) Warm fermentation is referred to as top or high fermentation for Trappist beers, white beers, ale, most other special beers
 * 3) Mixed fermentation for "old-brown" type beers
 * 4) Cool fermentation is referred to as low fermentation for lager or pilsner, or bottom fermentation

Belgian beer types
Belgian beers have a range of colours, brewing methods, and alcohol levels.

Trappist beers

Beers brewed in Trappist monasteries are termed Trappist beers. For a beer to qualify for Trappist certification, the brewery must be in a monastery, the monks must play a role in its production and the policies and the profits from the sale must be used to support the monastery or social programs outside. Only ten monasteries currently meet these qualifications, five of which are in Belgium, two in the Netherlands, one in Austria, one in Italy and one in the United Kingdom. Trappist beer is a controlled term of origin: it tells where the beers come from, it is not the name of a beer style. Beyond their being mostly warm fermented, Trappist beers have very little in common stylistically.

The current Belgian Trappist producers are:
 * Chimay sells Red Label (dark, 7% ABV dubbel), White Label (Blonde, ABV 8%, tripel) and Blue Label (dark, 9% ABV, Christmas), Chimay dorée Gold cap (blonde, 4.8% ABV, enkel).
 * Orval sells a "unique" dry-hopped 6.2% amber beer.
 * Rochefort sells three dark beers, "6" (7.5% ABV). "8" (9.2% ABV) and "10" (11.3% ABV) and one blonde beer "Triple Extra" (8.1% ABV)
 * Westmalle sells Dubbel (7% ABV) and Tripel (9.5% ABV),
 * Westvleteren sells Green Cap or "Blonde", (5.8% ABV), Blue Cap (dark, 8% ABV) or "8", and Yellow Cap (dark, 10.2% ABV) or "12".

In addition to the above, a lower-strength beer is sometimes brewed for consumption by the brothers (patersbier) or sold on site.

Abbey beers

The designation "abbey beers" (Bières d'Abbaye or Abdijbier) originally applied to any monastic or monastic-style beer. After introduction of an official Trappist beer designation by the International Trappist Association in 1997, it came to mean products similar in style or presentation to monastic beers. In other words, an Abbey beer may be:
 * produced by a non-Trappist monastery—e.g. Benedictine; or
 * produced by a commercial brewery under commercial arrangement with an extant monastery; or
 * branded with the name of a defunct abbey by a commercial brewer;

In 1999, the Union of Belgian Brewers introduced a "Certified Belgian Abbey Beer" (Erkend Belgisch Abdijbier) logo to indicate beers brewed under license to an existing or abandoned abbey, as opposed to other abbey-branded beers which the trade markets using other implied religious connections, such as a local saint. The requirements for registration under the logo include the monastery having control over certain aspects of the commercial operation, and a proportion of profits going to the abbey or to its designated charities. Monastic orders other than the Trappists can be and are included in this arrangement. The "Abbey beer" logo and quality label is no longer used for beers given the name of a fictitious abbey, a vaguely monastic branding or a saint name without mentioning a specific monastery. Some brewers may produce abbey-style beers such as dubbel or tripel, using such names but will refrain from using the term Abbey beer in their branding.

What connoisseurs now recognize as Trappist breweries began operations in 1838. Several monasteries, however, maintained "working" breweries for 500+ years before the French regime disrupted religious life (1795–1799). Even then, some Abbey beers such as Affligem Abbey, whose name now appears on beers made by the Heineken-owned Affligem Brewery, resumed brewing from "working" monasteries until the occupation of most of Belgium in World War I. Commercial Abbey beers first appeared during Belgium's World War I recovery.

Although Abbey beers do not conform to rigid brewing styles, most tend to include the most recognizable and distinctive Trappist styles of brune (Belgian brown ale, aka dubbel), strong pale ale or tripel, and blonde ale or blond. Modern abbey breweries range from microbreweries to international giants, but at least one beer writer warns against assuming that closeness of connection with a real monastery confirms a product's quality.

, 18 certified Abbey beers existed:
 * Achel sells Achel 5 Blonde (5% ABV, draught only), Achel 5 Brune (5% ABV, draught only), Achel 8 Blonde (8% ABV, tripel), Achel 8 Brune (8% ABV, dubbel), Extra Blonde (9.5% ABV.tripel), Extra Brune (9.5% ABV, dubbel).
 * Abbaye de Cambron, brewed in Silly by Brasserie de Silly.
 * 1) Abbaye de Bonne Espérance, previously brewed by Lefebvre Brewery, since 2015 more locally by La Binchoise.
 * Abdij Dendermonde, brewed in Merchtem by
 * Abbaye de Saint-Martin, historically referenced to 1096, is brewed near Tournai by Brasserie Brunehaut.
 * Affligem, produced for Affligem Abbey by a Heineken-owned brewery.
 * is located on the grounds of a former abbey.
 * Bornem is brewed in Oost-Vlaanderen by Brouwerij Van Steenberge
 * Ename is brewed in Oost-Vlaanderen by.
 * Floreffe is brewed to fund a school housed in a former monastery.
 * Grimbergen, made by the large Alken Maes brewery for an extant Norbertine abbey.
 * Keizersberg is brewed in Oost-Vlaanderen by Brouwerij Van Steenberge.
 * Leffe, the Abbey brand of Stella Artois, itself part of the multinational Inbev corporation, is brewed under licence from an extant brewery. It is thought to be the first such arrangement. Leffe has global distribution.
 * Maredsous, the Abbey brand of Duvel Moortgat, Belgium's second largest brewer, licensed from Maredsous Abbey.
 * Postel is brewed in Opwijk by.
 * Ramée is brewed in Purnode by Brasserie du Bocq.
 * St. Feuillien is a small independent brewery.
 * Steenbrugge is brewed in Brugge by.
 * Tongerlo is brewed in Boortmeerbeek by.

Other non-certified Abbey beers include:-
 * Abbaye des Rocs, made by a farmers' co-operative and named after a local ruined abbey.
 * Corsendonk, abbey beer brewed by a brewery in the name of the Corsendonk priory (monastery) in Oud-Turnhout
 * Kasteelbier, monastic style beers brewed in a castle.
 * St. Bernardus brewery, based on Watou originally brewed under contract for the abbey of St Sixtus at Westvleteren, but continues on an independent basis, in parallel with production at the monastery itself. Their range is considered a close match in recipe and style to the St Sixtus beers, which can be hard to obtain outside the area.
 * Tripel Karmeliet, with a three-grain recipe, is produced by Bosteels Brewery, who also make Pauwel Kwak. Bosteels, and Tripel Karmeliet, are now part of AB InBev after a not-so-popular take-over in 2016.
 * Averbode.
 * Braxatorium Parcensis.
 * Abdij van 't Park, an Aldi house brand abbey beer, made by Brouwerij Haacht Brasserie. Named after the abbey in Heverlee, Leuven.
 * Florival, a Delhaize house brand abbey beer, made by Brouwerij Affligem. Named after the abandoned abbey of Florival, in the rural municipal of Grez-Doiceau.

Pils or pale lager
This style makes up the bulk of beer production and consumption in Belgium. Belgian Pilsners are not particularly distinctive or renowned by connoisseurs. The top brands include Jupiler (within Belgium) and Stella Artois (both brewed by Inbev), Maes pils and Cristal (both brewed by the Alken Maes branch of Heineken). Stella Artois, originating in Belgium, is distributed globally.

The Pilsnerbeer is which is popularly called "pintje" (in Flemish, from English "pint" but in volume only 1/2 pint) or "choppe" (in French) in Belgium, was the basis of the "fluitjesbier" distributed during the German occupation in WWII and under rationing. This "fluitjesbier" was watered down to about 0.8° (compared to fruitjuice which can have up to 1.5° due to natural fermentation).

Bock
Bock is a strong lager of German origin. Some Belgian brewers have produced bock-style beers what makes it a style applicable to Belgium.

White or wheat beer

This type of beer, commonly called witbier in Dutch, bière blanche in French and wheat beer in English, originated in the Flemish part of Belgium in the Middle Ages. Traditionally, it is made with a mixture of wheat and barley. Before hops became widely available in Europe, beers were flavoured with a mixture of herbs called gruit. In the later years of the Middle Ages, hops were added to the gruit. That mixture continues today in most Belgian white beers.

The production of this type of beer in Belgium had nearly ended by the late 1950s. In the town of Hoegaarden, the last witbier brewery, Tomsin, closed its doors in 1955. However, ten years later, a young farmer by the name of Pierre Celis in the same village decided to try reviving the beer. In 1966, Celis began brewing a wit beer in his farm house. Ultimately, his beer took the name of the village and became very successful and famous.

Some notable current examples are Celis White, Blanche de Namur and Watou's Wit. Their alcohol strength is about 5–6 percent ABV, and these beers can be quite refreshing, especially during the warm summer months. The herb mixture traditionally includes coriander and bitter orange peel, among other herbs. White beers also have a moderate light grain sweetness from the wheat used. In recent times, brewers have been making fruit flavoured wheat beers.

Blonde or golden ale

These are a light variation on pale ale, often made with pilsner malt. Some beer writers regard blonde and golden ales as distinct styles, while others do not. Duvel is the archetypal Belgian blonde ale, and one of the most popular bottled beers in the country as well as being well known internationally. Its name means "Devil" and some other blonde beers follow the theme—Satan, Lucifer and Judas for example. The style is popular with Walloon brewers, the slightly hazy Moinette being the best-known example. Chouffe can be considered a spiced version (with coriander).

Hop-accentuated beers and India pale ale
A few Belgian beers are pale and assertively hopped. Brouwerij De Ranke's has a British-style name. Arabier from De Dolle Brouwers.'s, another example, hails from Belgium's hop-growing district.

Lambic beers (including gueuze and fruit lambics)

Lambic is a wheat beer brewed in the Pajottenland region of Belgium (southwest of Brussels) by spontaneous fermentation. Most modern beers are fermented by carefully cultivated strains of brewer's yeasts; Lambic's fermentation, however, is produced by exposure to the wild yeasts and bacteria that are said to be native to the Zenne valley, in which Brussels lies. The beer then undergoes a long aging period ranging from three to six months (considered "young") to two or three years for mature. It is this unusual process which gives the beer its distinctive flavour: dry, vinous, and cidery, with a slightly sour aftertaste.

From Lambic four kinds of beer are produced: Lambic, Gueuze, Fruit Lambic, and Faro.
 * The first of these, Lambic, is the unblended basic brew (young) or the refermented basic brew (old). Lambic is a draught beer which is rarely bottled, and thus only available in its area of production and a few cafes in and around Brussels.
 * The youngest of the Lambic brews, Faro, which is lambic just after the first fermentation is sometimes served with sugar or caramel added to make it palatable for consumption.
 * Gueuze blends old and young brews to stimulate a final fermentation, sometimes from three consecutive years (cfr sherry-method). Gueuze is the finished product, the beer that is commercialised. Top quality Geuze is bottled in large bottles (75cl) with a champagne-like cork, that require delicate handling, and controlled environmental conditions much like wine.
 * Fruit beers are made by adding fruit or fruit concentrate to Lambic or a mixture of Lambic brews before the final refermenting stage. The most common type is Kriek, made with sour cherries.

Amber ales
These are beers similar to the traditional pale ales of England, although less bitterly hopped. A notable example is the 5% ABV De Koninck brand, with its distinctive half-spherical glasses (called 'bollekes'). It is popular in its native city of Antwerp. Another is Palm Speciale. Some, such as, were based on British styles to please troops stationed in Belgium during World War I. Others were introduced by the UK-born brewer George Maw Johnson in the late 19th century. A very strong ambrée is brewed by "Bush" (Dubuisson), another brewery influenced by British styles.

Walloon amber or ambrée ale, such a, is considered to be somewhat distinct by some beer writers, and to be influenced by the French version of the ambrée style.

Tripel
Tripel is a term used originally by brewers in the Low Countries to describe a strong pale ale, and became associated with Westmalle Tripel. The style of Westmalle's Tripel and the name was widely copied by the breweries of Belgium, then the term spread to the US and other countries. Gulden Draak was awarded the best-tasting beer in the world in 1998 by the American Tasting Institute (now ChefsBest).

Dubbel
Dubbel (double) has a characteristic brown colour. It is one of the classic Abbey/Trappist types, having been developed in the 19th century at the Trappist monastery in Westmalle. Today, some commercial brewers using abbey names call their strong brown beers "Dubbel". Typically, a dubbel is between 6 and 8% abv. In addition to the dubbels made by most Trappist breweries, examples include St. Bernardus Pater, Adelardus Dubbel, Maredsous 8 and Witkap Dubbel.

Dubbels are characteristically bottle conditioned.

Flemish Red
Typified by Rodenbach, the eponymous brand that started this type over a century ago, this beer's distinguishing features from a technical viewpoint are a specially roasted malt, fermentation by a mixture of several 'ordinary' top-fermenting yeasts and a lactobacillus culture (the same type of bacteria yoghurt is made with) and maturation in oak. The result is a mildly strong 'drinking' beer with a deep reddish-brown colour and a distinctly acidic, sour yet fruity and mouthy taste. This style is closely related to Oud bruin.

Oud bruin, or Flemish sour brown ale
This style, aged in wooden casks, is a cousin to the sour "Flemish Red" style. Examples include Rodenbach, Goudenband and Petrus.

Brown ale
Regular bruin or brune beers such as Grottenbier are darker than amber ales, less sour than Flemish brown ale, and less strong than dubbel.

Scotch ales
These sweet, heavy-bodied brown ales represent a style which originated in the British Isles. The Caledonian theme is usually heavily emphasized with tartan and thistles appearing on labels. Examples include Gordon's, Scotch de Silly and La Chouffe Mc Chouffe.

Stout
Belgian stouts subdivide into sweeter and drier, and stronger and weaker versions. Examples include Callewaerts and Ellezelloise Hercule. The sweeter versions resemble the almost-defunct British style "milk stout", while the stronger ones are sometimes described as Imperial stouts.

Champagne beers
Champagne style beers are generally ales that are finished "à la méthode originale" for champagne. Examples include Grottenbier, DeuS and. They receive a second fermentation much like Champagne does and are stored for several months "sûr lie" while the fermentation lasts. This creates the smaller, softer bubbles that we know from Champagne, but maintains the beer flavour and style.

Quadrupel or Grand Cru
In Belgium "Grand Cru" is more often used than "Quadrupel", these beers are a mostly a blend of brews, which is often refermented as a blend.

Saison
Saison (French for "season") is the name originally given to refreshing, low-alcohol beers brewed seasonally in Wallonia, the French-speaking region of Belgium. First seen in early 19th century Liège, saisons gained notoriety as a luxury beer in 20th century Hainaut brewed by city and countryside brewers alike. By the 1980s, they were only produced on the countryside. Modern-day saisons are also brewed in other countries, particularly USA, and are generally bottle conditioned, with an average range of 5 to 8% ABV, though saisons at the more traditional 3.5% strength can still be found.

Although saison has been described as an endangered style, there has been a rise in interest in this style in recent years, with Saison Dupont being named "the Best Beer in the World" by the magazine Men's Journal in July 2005.

A related style known as a grisette was brewed with a lower ABV and with wheat added.

Winter or Christmas beers
Many breweries produce special beers during December. Most contain more alcohol than the brewery's other types of beer and may also contain spicing. An annual beer festival in Essen near Antwerp focuses on this type of beer with over 190 beers available for tasting in 2014.

Fruit beers (non-Lambic)
Some brewers that are not Lambic-brewers make fruit beers in a similar process as the Fruit Lambic beers.

All brewers of this style make fruit lambic. Many brewers of top fermentation beers such as Belgian golden ales, ambers and Flemish old brown beers, that produce beers that usually go through a multiple stage fermentation process, are catching on to the trend to make fruit beers. The process starts after the first fermentation of the wort, when sometimes sugar is added to referment the beer on wooden casks. To make fruit beer the fruit, juice or syrup is added (instead of sugar) to the first brew and refermented, these may be termed fruit lambics or fruit beers, depending on the type of first brew.

Beer that has fruit syrup or fruit lemonade added after (the final stage of) fermentation, in other words as a flavouring, are termed "Radlers" ("Shandy" in the UK) definitely not fruit beer.

Strong ale
Beers above 7%, such as tripels or strong dubbels, are referred to in some sources as Belgian strong ale, although this is not a name used by Belgian brewers.

Table beer
Table beer (tafelbier, bière de table) is a low-alcohol (typically not over 1.5%) brew sold in large bottles to be enjoyed with meals. It has gradually lost popularity due to the growing consumption of soft drinks and bottled water. It comes in blonde or brown versions. Table beer used to be served in school refectories until the 1980s; in the early 21st century, several organizations made proposals to reinstate this custom as table beer is considered more healthy than soft drinks. Some bars serve a glass of draft lager with a small amount of table beer added, to take away the fizziness and act as a sweetener, in Limburg it is referred to as a "half om".

Archaic styles
These include
 * Arge: A sour beer from Antwerp
 * Faro: A beer that was drunk sweetened. Not necessarily the same as the modern Faro.
 * Grisette ("little gray"): A lower-alcohol Saison drunk originally by miners in Hainaut.
 * Happe: A predecessor of wheat beer, made with wheat and oats.
 * Hoppe: An early hopped beer, from the mid-1500s when gruit was widely used.
 * Kuyte: also called Cuyte, a strong beer originating in 16th century France, as Quente, before becoming established in Belgium. Popular with the upper classes.
 * Pecce: A cheap beer.
 * Roedbier: Literally, red beer. It is not clear if this was a single style.
 * Uitzet: A sour beer.
 * Walgbaert or Waegebaert: Similar to Happe.
 * Zwaartbier: Literally, black beer. It is not clear whether this was a single style.

Glassware
Belgian "special" beers (stronger or bottled beers) are often served in elaborate branded beer glassware. Unless the bar is out of the specific glass that goes with that beer it is more often than not served in its own glass. Most bartenders or waitresses will apologize if the beer comes in a different glass.

One of the more common types is the tulip glass. A tulip glass not only helps trap the aroma, but also aids in maintaining large heads, creating a visual and olfactory sensation. The body is bulbous, but the top flares out to form a lip which helps head retention.

A vessel similar to a champagne flute is the preferred serving vessel for Belgian lambics and fruit beers. The narrow shape helps maintain carbonation, while providing a strong aromatic front. Flute glasses display the lively carbonation, sparkling colour, and soft lacing of this distinct style.

Chalices and goblets are large, stemmed, bowl-shaped glasses mainly associated with Trappist and Abbey ales. The distinction between goblet and chalice is typically in the glass thickness. Goblets tend to be more delicate and thin, while the chalice is heavy and thick walled. Some chalices are even etched on the bottom to nucleate a stream of bubbles for maintaining a nice head.

In addition to the profusion of glasses provided by brewers, some Belgian beer cafés serve beer in their own "house" glassware. An example is La Lunette in Brussels.

Distribution
The majority of Belgian beer brands are sold in bottles. Draught beers tend mostly to be pale lagers, wheat beers, regional favourites such as kriek in Brussels or De Koninck in Antwerp; and the occasional one-off. Customers who purchase a bottled beer (often called a "special" beer) can expect the beers to be served ceremoniously, often with a free snack.

These days, Belgian beers are sold in brown- (or sometimes dark green-) tinted glass bottles (to avoid negative effects of light on the beverage) and sealed with a cork, a metal crown cap, or sometimes both. Some beers are bottle conditioned, meaning reseeded with yeast so that an additional fermentation may take place. Different bottle sizes exist: 25 cl, 33 cl, 37.5 cl, 75 cl and multiples of 75. (8, 12, 24 or multiples of 24 fl. oz.) The 37.5 cl size is usually for lambics. Other beers are generally bottled in 25 or 33 cl format (depending on brands). The bigger bottles (75 cl) are sold almost in every food shop but customers do not always have an extensive choice. Bottles larger than 75 cl are named following the terminology used for champagne and are limited in quantity. In Belgian cafés, when someone orders a demi (English: "half"), he receives a 50 cl (half litre) glass (with beer from the tap, or from 2 bottles of 25 cl).

Virtually every Belgian beer has a branded glass imprinted with a logo or name.

Belgium contains thousands of cafés that offer a wide selection of beers, ranging from perhaps 10 (including bottles) in a neighborhood café, to over 1000 in a specialist beer café. Among the most famous are "Beer Circus," "Chez Moeder Lambic," and "Delirium Café" in Brussels; "Billie's Bier Kafétaria", "de Kulminator" and "Oud Arsenaal" in Antwerp, "Barnabeer" in Namur, "De Garre" and "'t Brugs Beertje" in Bruges, "Het Botteltje" in Ostend, "Het Hemelrijk" in Hasselt, "Het Waterhuis aan de Bierkant", "De Dulle Griet" and "Trappistenhuis" in Ghent, "De Blauwe Kater" in Leuven, the Vaudrées in Liège and the "Stillen Genieter" in Mechelen. Although many major brands of beer are available at most supermarkets, off-licences located throughout the country generally offer a far wider selection, albeit at somewhat higher prices.

International distribution

Belgium exports almost 80% of its beer. Some draught-beer brands produced by AB InBev – Stella Artois, Hoegaarden and Leffe – are available in several European countries. Aside from these, mostly bottled beer is exported across Europe. Cafés, exclusively or primarily offering Belgian beers, exist beyond Belgium in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, France, the United Kingdom and the United States, amongst others. Some beer festivals outside Belgium have a Belgian beer bar as an alternative to local products. In North America, a growing number of draught Belgian beer brands have started to become available, often at "Belgian Bars". Such brands include Brasserie Brunehaut, Karmeliet, Kwak, Maredsous, Mont Saint-Aubert, Delirium, Palm, Rodenbach and St. Feuillien.

Beer festivals
Belgium has a number of beer festivals including:
 * The BAB-bierfestival, held every year in February in Bruges
 * Zythos Beer Festival or ZBF. The festival held every spring in Leuven (previously in Sint Niklaas and Antwerp) organized by the consumer group Zythos.
 * The Belgian Beer Weekend held in Grand-Place, Brussels, organized by the Brewer's association.
 * Karakterbieren Festival in Poperinge, Belgium's hop-growing capital.
 * The Beer Passion weekend held each July in Antwerp, organized by Beer Passion magazine,
 * The Modeste Bier Festival held the 1st Weekend of Oct in Antwerp, Run by Antwerps Bier College.
 * The Christmas beer festival Essen
 * Alvinne Craft Beer Festival, at Picobrouwerij Alvinne, Zwevegem (Moen)
 * "La Géroublonnade", beer and gourmet event in a village in, region of southern Belgium, during second Sunday of July.
 * The Weekend of Belgian Beers, held in Hasselt in November, organized by the Limburgse Biervrienden
 * The Weekend of Special Beer in Sohier in February
 * Since 2017 Billie's Bier Kafétaria and Hop is Hop organises Billie's Craft Beer Fest. A unique formula for Belgium (all in formula) with 50 of the very best (Inter)national craft breweries. Annually half of November

Beer cuisine
A number of traditional Belgian dishes use beer as an ingredient. One is carbonade (French) or stoverij or stoofvlees (Dutch), a stew of beef cooked in beer, similar to Boeuf bourguignon. The beer used is typically the regional speciality—lambic in Brussels, De Koninck in Antwerp, and so on—so that the taste of the dish varies. Another is rabbit in gueuze. In't Spinnekopke, Brussels, and Den Dyver, Bruges are famed for their beer cookery. In 1998 Anheuser-Busch InBev started a worldwide chain of bars/restaurants, Belgian Beer Cafe, serving typical Belgian dishes combined with Belgian Beer.

The varied nature of Belgian beers makes it possible to match them against each course of a meal, for instance:
 * Wheat beer with seafood or fish.
 * Blond beers or tripel with chicken or white meat
 * Dubbel or other dark beers with dark meat
 * Fruit lambics with dessert

Appreciation and organizations
Beer Passion is a magazine, which also organizes a beer festival. "Zythos" is the name of the main consumer's organization, successor to the earlier OBP (Objectieve Bierproevers). The Belgian Brewers' Association represents breweries. It organizes beer festivals and an open breweries day. The Knighthood of the Mashstaff honours individuals who have made an outstanding contribution to brewing, and pays tribute to Gambrinus and Saint Arnold.

Beer writers who have written extensively on Belgian beer include Belgians Peter Crombeq, Gert van Lierde and Erik Verdonck, and Britons Michael Jackson and Tim Webb.

On 1 December 2016, in the eleventh session of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage held in the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa Conference Centre, Addis Ababa, as an appreciation towards the beer culture in Belgium, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Belgian beer brands
The following list contains beers that are brewed in Belgium. Not to be confused with "Belgian style" beers that are produced in other countries, and may or may not resemble a style that is specific to Belgium.

title: Beer in Belgium


text:
Forum for the Restoration of Democracy

Forum for the Restoration of Democracy was a political party and a movement against the one-party system in Kenya. It was founded in August 1991 by Oginga Odinga and others. However, it split before the 1992 General elections, the first multiparty elections held in Kenya.

The original FORD split into three political parties:

 * Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Asili
 * Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-People
 * Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Kenya

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Forum for the Restoration of Democracy


text:
Talk:Gamma Virginis

Error
users of this webpage should note that the ephemeris displayed is erroneous, being derived from the long obsolete orbital computation of Strand 1937. In reality, Gamma is just now, April 2005, appraoching apparent periastron, probably in the next few weeks (May 2005), the most spectacular binary star event of the century for northern hemisphere observers; by 2007-8 all the most interesting action will be past history! For details of the true current state of progress of this 'magnificent phenomenon'(name J.Herschel) see www.hanwellobservatory.org.uk

Christopher Taylor Hanwell Community Observatory, Oxon. , UK

15 04 05

Further to the above, please note that Christopher Taylor's observational notes on Gamma Virginis currently reside at http://www.hanwellobservatory.org.uk/astronomy/gamma-virginis.html

Naming
i've deleted the alternative names ("arich") as the cited reference (allen) does not mention them and i have never encountered them in the astronomical literature. Macevoy (talk) 14:43, 26 May 2013 (UTC)

Leo Huckvale Hanwell Community Observatory 02 09 2010 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.112.215.80 (talk) 11:12, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

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Gamma Virginis update May 2023.
Greetings from the Hanwell Observatory, Oxon., U.K., where gamma Vir. has been measured at least annually since 1998.38, with the exception of 2022, during which time this magnificent revolving star-system has swept through 274 degrees of its orbit, down to the latest measure on the 12.5-inch telescope here last Sunday evening of position-angle ('p.a.')= 354.1 deg. +/- 1.1, at 2023.38. For comparison, the prediction for this date from the most recent orbital ephemeris is 353.5 deg. A recent critical review of the whole series of Hanwell measures has demonstrated that the measured p.a.s have generally been within about 1 degree of subsequently established definitive values (which are not merely those taken from any single orbit computation), even through the 0.3-arcsecond periastron of 2005, and sometimes even closer, while never being more than 3 deg. out at worst. This should be borne in mind when looking at the tabulation of observed and predicted p.a.s given in the main article here. The ancient Strand orbit of 1937 was already wildly divergent from the true motion of this binary even before the 2005 periastron and has now long been completely irrelevant. If the Wikipedia team would like to see a longer account of this work (450 words about), I'm happy to supply that. Christopher Taylor. 27.5.23 Manc0355 (talk) 08:28, 27 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gamma Virginis


text:
National Party of Kenya

The National Party of Kenya is a political party in Kenya. In the legislative elections of 27 December 2002, the party was a partner in the National Rainbow Coalition that won 56.1% of the popular vote and 125 out of 212 elected seats. The party itself took six of these seats. In the presidential elections of the same day, the party supported Mwai Kibaki, who won 62.2% and was elected.

The party was founded in 1992. Its chairperson was Charity Ngilu.

title: National Party of Kenya


text:
Talk:Boneless Fish

Question marks
What's with all the question marks in the opening paragraph? --Dan Huby 13:04, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Did you mean:

 * The Boneless Fish (????) is a fish-based frozen food invented by Dairei Corporation (??????) of ...

 * These are Japanese characters encoded in Unicode. Your browser may be unable to display some 2-byte characters. -- Toytoy 13:15, Apr 15, 2005 (UTC)

My edits
I guess this article hasn't been around too long. Let me know if I was too brash with the editing. -mako 00:30, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I need to know boneless fish! jade —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 80.44.207.30 (talk • contribs).

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 12:09, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

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Requested move 31 May 2019 : Move to boneless fish

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: not moved (non-admin closure) Wugapodes [thɑk] [ˈkan.ˌʧɹɪbz] 01:16, 8 June 2019 (UTC)

Boneless Fish → Boneless fish – Boneless fish is a kind of boneless fish, not a movie title or a name. Cryptochelys (talk) 00:07, 31 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Could it be a brand name? Are there any sources in English that discuss this topic? —BarrelProof (talk) 01:22, 31 May 2019 (UTC)
 * The article says it is a brand name, which means it should be capitalised. —SmokeyJoe (talk) 13:03, 31 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Support - According to the article, the brand name is "Fish With Delicious Bones". Primergrey (talk) 05:05, 3 June 2019 (UTC)
 * According to the article, "Fish with Delicious Bones" is the brand name of a different product, not this product. That product has tenderized bones, whereas this product has no bones. —BarrelProof (talk) 21:10, 4 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Support per reasons stated. Barca (talk) 13:04, 4 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Comment: This appears to be a specific manufactured product of Dairei Corporation, not a type of fish. It is not a discussion of the generic concept of a fish that does not have bones or of the general notion of removing bones from fish and selling the meat (e.g., as fish fillets or fish fingers). It is a particular company's product that has been "reassembled with a transglutaminase to look like a dressed fish". So if this is an actual brand name, I would oppose the move. However, I wonder whether the title is just a translation rather than an actual English-language brand name. It seems possible that the product does not have an official brand name in English. Perhaps move to Boneless fish (Dairei Corporation product) and create a dab page at Boneless fish that also includes fish fillets and fish fingers? —BarrelProof (talk) 21:27, 4 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Is generic "boneless fish" sufficiently notable for even a dab page? --В²C ☎ 22:45, 7 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose, with caution. The article claims it's about a brand name named "Boneless Fish", but I don't see any actual evidence of such a brand.I reserve the right to change my position if evidence supporting the existence of this brand is not found. The problem might be that the brand exists only in Japanese, and the translation of it is "Boneless Fish". If so, that works for me, but we still need some evidence of that. --В²C ☎ 22:43, 7 June 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Boneless Fish


text:
Talk:Athletic training

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 19 August 2021 and 10 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jasmineab3. Peer reviewers: Zanepiazza.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 17:39, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

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This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 16 August 2021 and 9 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jroberts119.

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I DO NOT AGREE
This article is a simple copy-paste from the links mentioned in the end of the article. --Jonnabuz 13:05, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * It reads like a cut and paste, but there are spelling errors and I don't see any of the text besides stuff very similar to the intro on those websites. Maybe I didn't look enough. Do you see specific cut and pastes? - Taxman 14:37, May 8, 2005 (UTC)

Supervision of ATs
When ATs working in health care settings providing physical therapy they work under the direction of physical therapists.DoctorDW (talk) 15:09, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

ATCs do not work under PTs
ATCs do not work under the supervision of PTs. In some hospital based clinical settings the PT does the initial assessment, etc., however in similar clinical settings the ATCs has equal the responsibilities as the PTs. ATCs work solely under the direction of or collaboration with physicians, even in the clinical setting. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.255.52.219 (talk) 03:47, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

If the physical therapist evaluates the patient then the services provided under the direction of the physical therapist is physical therapy. If an AT provides those services then they are working under the supervision of the PT. In most states and with Federal insurance programs ATA cannot bill insurnace companies. Therefore most ATs working in health care settings are working under the direction of a MD or PT in order for the services to be billable.DoctorDW (talk) 17:36, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

It all depends on the clinic you are at. If the clinic has policies and procedures that require the PT to perform the initial evaluation due the billing reasons then I suppose you have a point, however, treatment can be billed through ATCs. If the clinic does not have the aforementioned policies and procedures then the evaluation and therapy can be billed by the ATC. The AMA job description of athletic training states that, "the athletic trainer, with the consultation and direction of attending and/or consulting physician..." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.24.248.206 (talk) 05:09, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

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Education section needs reworking
I've put an advert tag on the education section because parts of it seem to be actively directing readers to look into certain schools, look for job listings on specific sites etc. – this seems inconsistent with Encyclopedic tone. I also think it could be made shorter given that the article as a whole isn't very long.

SamuelTheMuso (talk) 03:25, 7 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Athletic training


text:
Shmuel Winograd

Shmuel Winograd (שמואל וינוגרד; January 4, 1936 – March 25, 2019) was an Israeli-American computer scientist, noted for his contributions to computational complexity. He has proved several major results regarding the computational aspects of arithmetic; his contributions include the Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm and an algorithm for the fast Fourier transform which transforms it into a problem of computing convolutions which can be solved with another Winograd's algorithm.

Winograd studied Electrical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, receiving his B.S. and M.S. degrees in 1959. He received his Ph.D. from the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University in 1968. He joined the research staff at IBM in 1961, eventually becoming director of the Mathematical Sciences Department there from 1970 to 1974 and 1980 to 1994.

Honors

 * IBM Fellow (1972)
 * Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1974)
 * W. Wallace McDowell Award (1974)
 * Member, National Academy of Sciences (1978)
 * Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1983)
 * Member, American Philosophical Society (1989)
 * Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994)

title: Shmuel Winograd


text:
Fort Huachuca

Fort Huachuca is a United States Army installation, established on 3 March 1877 as Camp Huachuca. The garrison is now under the command of the United States Army Installation Management Command. It is in Cochise County in southeast Arizona, approximately 15 mi north of the border with Mexico and at the northern end of the Huachuca Mountains, adjacent to the town of Sierra Vista. From 1913 to 1933, the fort was the base for the "Buffalo Soldiers" of the 10th Cavalry Regiment. During the build-up of World War II, the fort had quarters for more than 25,000 male soldiers and hundreds of WACs. In the 2010 census, Fort Huachuca had a population of about 6,500 active duty soldiers, 7,400 military family members, and 5,000 civilian employees. Fort Huachuca has over 18,000 people on post during weekday work hours.

The major tenant units are the United States Army Network Enterprise Technology Command (NETCOM) and the United States Army Intelligence Center. Libby Army Airfield is on post and shares its runway with Sierra Vista Municipal Airport. It was an alternate but never used landing location for the Space Shuttle. Fort Huachuca is the headquarters of Army Military Auxiliary Radio System. Other units include the Joint Interoperability Test Command, the Information Systems Engineering Command, the Electronic Proving Ground (USAEPG), and the Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Directorate.

The fort has a radar-equipped aerostat (Tethered Aerostat Radar System), one of a series maintained for the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) by Harris Corporation. The aerostat is northeast of Garden Canyon and supports the DEA drug interdiction mission by detecting low-flying aircraft attempting to enter the United States from Mexico. Fort Huachuca contains the Western Division of the Advanced Airlift Tactics Training Center which is based at the 139th Airlift Wing, Rosecrans Air National Guard Base in Saint Joseph, Missouri.

History
The installation was founded to counter the Chiricahua Apache threat and secure the border with Mexico during the Apache Wars. On 3 March 1877, Captain Samuel Marmaduke Whitside led two companies of the 6th Cavalry and chose a site at the base of the Huachuca Mountains that provided sheltering hills and a perennial stream. In 1882, Camp Huachuca was redesignated a fort.

General Nelson A. Miles commanded Fort Huachuca as his headquarters in his campaign against Geronimo in 1886. After the surrender of Geronimo in 1886, the Apache threat was extinguished, but the army continued to operate Fort Huachuca because of its strategic border position. In 1913, the fort became the base for the "Buffalo Soldiers", the 10th Cavalry Regiment composed of African Americans. It served this purpose for twenty years. During General Pershing's failed Punitive Expedition of 1916–1917, he used the fort as a forward logistics and supply base. From 1916 to 1917, the base was commanded by Charles Young, the first African American to be promoted to colonel. He left for medical reasons. In 1933, the 25th Infantry Regiment replaced the 10th Cavalry at the fort.

With the build-up during World War II, the fort had an area of 71253 acre, with quarters for 1,251 officers and 24,437 enlisted soldiers. The 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions, composed of African-American troops, trained at Huachuca.

In 1947, the post was closed and turned over to the Arizona Game and Fish Department. However, at the outbreak of the Korean War, a January 1951 letter from the Secretary of the Air Force to the Governor of Arizona invoked the reversion clause of a 1949 deed. On 1 February 1951 the U.S. Air Force took official possession of Fort Huachuca, making it one of the few army installations to have had an existence as an air base. The army retook possession of the base a month later and reopened the post in May 1951 to train engineers in airfield construction as part of the Korean War build up. The engineers built today's Libby Army Airfield. On 1 May 1953, after the Korean War, the post was again placed on inactive status with only a caretaker detachment.

On 1 February 1954, Huachuca was reactivated after a seven-month shut-down following the Korean War. It was the beginning of a new era for this one-time cavalry outpost, which saw Huachuca focused on electronic warfare. The army's Electronic Proving Ground opened in 1954, followed by the Army Security Agency Test and Evaluation Center in 1960, the Combat Surveillance and Target Acquisition Training Command in 1964, and the Electronic Warfare School in 1966. Also in 1966 the U.S. Army established the 1st Combat Support Training Brigade, whose mission was to train soldiers in the specialties of field wire and communication, telegraph communications (O5B wired and wireless), light tactical vehicle driving, wheeled vehicle maintenance, and food service and administration due to the expanding need for these skills in Vietnam.

In 1967, Fort Huachuca became the headquarters of the U.S. Army Strategic Communications Command, which became the U.S. Army Communications Command in 1973, and U.S. Army Information Systems Command in 1984. It is now known as NETCOM after the army dropped the 9th Signal Command (Army) designation on 1 October 2011. NETCOM was realigned in 2014 as a subordinate command to United States Army Cyber Command from a direct reporting unit to the Headquarters, Department of the Army CIO/G6.

Fort Huachuca was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976 for its role in ending the Apache Wars, the last major military actions against Native Americans, and as the site of the Buffalo Soldiers. Fort Huachuca maintains a cemetery known as the Fort Huachuca Post Cemetery. Some 3,800 veterans and family members are buried there.

In 1980, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) conducted aircraft training exercises from Fort Huachuca in preparation for Operation Honey Badger. This operation aimed to rescue captive American personnel in Iran. It was developed in the wake of Operation Eagle Claw's failure. The environment near the fort enabled 160th SOAR pilots to train and simulate flying in the mountainous desert terrain of Iran.

The fort was the site of the 2007 Conseil International du Sport Militaire.

Museums
Fort Huachuca has two museums in three buildings on post. The Ft. Huachuca Museum occupies two buildings on Old Post, its main museum and gift shop (Building 41401), and a nearby spillover gallery called the Museum Annex (building 41305). It tells the story of Fort Huachuca and the U.S. Army in the American Southwest, with special emphasis on the Buffalo Soldiers and the Apache War. The Annex across the street (Old Post Theater) has outdoor displays, walkways, sitting areas, and historical statues.

The second museum is The U.S. Army Intelligence Museum, in the military intelligence (MI) Library on the MI school campus (Hatfield Street – Building 62723). The museum has a collection of historical artifacts including agent radio communication gear, aerial cameras, cryptographic equipment, an Enigma Code machine, two small drones and a section of the Berlin Wall. The museum's emphasis is on U.S. Army military intelligence history and includes displays of the organizational development of army intelligence. There is a small military intelligence gift shop with customized Fort Huachuca souvenirs.

All visitors, military or civilian, are welcome at the Ft. Huachuca Museum free of charge. Civilian visitors without a DoD ID card must pass a criminal background check before being allowed to pass the gate. Foreign visitors must be escorted by active duty or retired military personnel.

Signal Commands
Fort Huachuca has a rich tradition in Army Signal and is currently home to NETCOM whose mission is to plan, engineer, install, integrate, protect, defend and operate army cyberspace, enabling mission command through all phases of operations. It used to be home to the 11th Signal Brigade. The 11th Signal Brigade has the mission of rapidly deploying worldwide to provide and protect command, control, communications, and computer support for commanders. They were deployed to provide signal operations during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. On 7 June 2013, the unit moved to Fort Hood, Texas. The Army Electronic Proving Ground (USAEPG), a forerunner in the research and development of defense technology, was conducted at Ft. Huachuca for several decades. The software-defined radios, Wideband Networking Waveform, and the Soldier Radio Waveform, were tested at USAEPG in 2014 for a network integration evaluation, NIE 15.2, at Fort Bliss, in 2015.

Military Intelligence
In addition to the US Army Intelligence Center, Fort Huachuca is the home of the 111th Military Intelligence Brigade, which conducts MI training for the armed services. The Military Intelligence Officer Basic Leadership Course, Military Intelligence Captain's Career Course, and the Warrant Officer Basic and Advanced Courses are taught on the installation. The Army's MI branch also held the responsibility for unmanned aerial vehicles until April 2006. The program was reassigned to the Aviation branch's 1st Battalion, 210th Aviation Regiment, now 2nd Battalion, 13th Aviation Regiment. Additional training in Human Intelligence (e.g., interrogation, counterintelligence), Imagery Intelligence, and Electronic Intelligence and analysis is also conducted by the 111th. The 111th MI Brigade hosts the Joint Intelligence Combat Training Center at Fort Huachuca.

Education
Fort Huachuca Accommodation Schools is the school district for dependent children living on the base. The schools are: Colonel Johnston Elementary School (K–2), General Myer Elementary School (3–5), and Colonel Smith Middle School (6–8). The zoned high school is Buena High School, operated by the Sierra Vista Unified School District, in Sierra Vista.

Notable people
People who have served or lived at Fort Huachuca:
 * Brigadier General Samuel Whitside, founded Camp Huachuca.
 * Major General Leonard Wood, Medal of Honor recipient and Chief of Staff of the Army from 1910 to 1914 (after whom Fort Leonard Wood in Missouri is named).
 * Colonel Cornelius C. Smith, Medal of Honor recipient and head of the Philippine Constabulary from 1910 to 1912. He accepted surrender of Mexican Colonel Emilio Kosterlitzky while stationed at Huachuca in 1913 and was later Huachuca commandant from 1918 to 1919.
 * Bullet Rogan (Negro league baseball) 25th Infantry Regiment
 * Cornelius C. Smith Jr., historian of Arizona, California, and the Southwestern United States.
 * John Henry, played professional baseball for the Washington Senators and Boston Braves from 1910 to 1918.
 * Colonel Sidney Mashbir, Commandant of Allied Translator and Interpreter Section, Military Intelligence Service during World War II.
 * General Alexander Patch, decorated officer who commanded Army and Marine forces in the Guadalcanal campaign and later the 7th Army in Europe during World War II.
 * General James Gavin (82nd Airborne Division)
 * General Robert Sink (101st Airborne Division)
 * Lieutenant General Sidney T. Weinstein, one of the driving forces behind reorganizing Army intelligence in late 1970s and 1980s.
 * Captain Amadou Sanogo, junta leader in the West African country of Mali, completed intelligence training at Fort Huachuca in 2008.
 * Specialist 5 Bobby Murcer, Major League Baseball player, New York Yankees, 1967–1969. 1st Training Brigade.
 * Luis Robles, goalkeeper for the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer, was born at Fort Huachuca in 1984.
 * Jayne Cortez, poet, born at Fort Huachuca in 1934.
 * Lieutenant General Robert P. Ashley Jr., served as the Commanding General of the Army Intelligence Center of Excellence and Fort Huachuca from April 2013 to July 2015.
 * Lieutenant General Scott D. Berrier, served as the Commanding General of the Army Intelligence Center of Excellence and Fort Huachuca from July 2015 to July 2017.

In popular culture

 * Captain Newman, MD (1963), starring Gregory Peck as the title character, was filmed at Fort Huachuca.
 * The opening sequence of Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came (1969) was filmed at Ft. Huachuca. This movie was supported by the 1st Training Brigade. It stars Brian Keith and Tony Curtis.
 * In Scent of a Woman (1992) starring Al Pacino as Lt. Colonel Frank Slade, Slade tells his companion Charlie Simms that he dreamed of The Oak Room's rolls when he was at Fort Huachuca. "Bread's no good west of the Colorado. Water's too alkaline."

title: Fort Huachuca


text:
Talk:Hannah (biblical figure)

Critical Theory
I removed the paragraph below pending citation of a source. The information provided, "See article on Saul is not adequate. Note that the Saul link goes to a disambiguation page and a verifier has no way of knowing which of the many listings on that page was intended. Please supply an actual source or sources with author(s), title, journal title if applicapble, etc. for this theory, sufficient to permit an outsider to determine how notable it is, and particularly whether "most" scholars believe it as claimed, or the opinion of only a few or one, or [[WP:OR|original research).

 * Though the text currently seems to describe Samuel as the child, the reason given for Hannah naming him as Samuel is considered to be quite awkward by textual scholars, particularly when Saul fits the reasoning very easily, and most see it as having originally referred to Saul (being censored by a later anti-monarchist editor) . Eli, also, has been argued to be not what he at first seems - Eli (meaning El or my El or my God) instead being considered to be El himself (either the Canaanite deity or the monotheistic God of the later Israelite religion), since Hannah prays with him nearby, at a doorpost (argued to be a symbolic pole representing the deity), he responds to her prayer, she refers to herself as Eli's handmaiden (1 Samuel 1:16) when she had only just described herself as God's handmaiden (1 Samuel 1:11), and when Eli wishes for her to have children she is straight away able to.

Thanks, --Shirahadasha 17:15, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

User:FDuffy appears to have identified a single source for claims that e.g. "most" scholars believe that Samuel in the story of Hannah really refers to Saul. The source is identified in the King Saul article as the personal web site of Rabbi Moshe Reiss,, a self-published source. Per WP:RS,

 * A self-published source is a published source that has not been subject to any form of independent fact-checking, or where no one stands between the writer and the act of publication. It includes personal websites, and books published by vanity presses. Anyone can create a website or pay to have a book published, and then claim to be an expert in a certain field. For that reason, self-published books, personal websites, and blogs are largely not acceptable as sources.

None of the exceptions to self-published sources (e.g. by someone known to be highly regarded in a field) appear to apply here. Accordingly, it appears that this content is not reliably sourced and should be deleted. The claim that "most" scholars hold this view appears particularly unevidenced. --Shirahadasha 13:17, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Actually, it is well sourced. Shirahadasha's claim as to what my source is is totally inaccurate, and disingenous to say the least. I have been through this argument elsewhere that Shirahadasha has raised it. To save duplicating it again and again, please see Talk:Samuel. --User talk:FDuffy 20:57, 9 September 2006 (UTC)

I have reviewed an additional source user:FDuffy provided, Peake's Biblical Commentary and the version I found (Mathew Black, Peake's Commentary on the Bible. Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415263557) says the following at p. 319:

 * Hannah named her son Samuel. The name, in the narrative, is interpreted as meaning "I have asked him of the Lord," but this interpretation belongs, etymologically, to the name Saul. It has therefore been suggested that the etymology, and probably the whole birth story with it, has been displaced from Saul to Samuel in the course of compilation or transmission.

I agree this commentary is a reliable source to support mention of the idea as a hypothesis. However, a plain reading suggests it describes the theory as a suggestion ("it has been suggested..."). This tentative statement of the view does not appear consistent with the use of emphatic language or claims that the idea is established among "most" academic scholars or with anything like the degree of evidence or support comparable to evolution. A lot of explanation (e.g. a later anti-monarchist author etc.) which does not appear to be in this source's commentary on the Hannah story (It may be elsewhere). The Hannah article (and others) need to be signifcantly toned down, to state only what the sources can support. It is the making of statements beyond what the sources can support, as well as Wikipedia's policy shouldering editors with the responsibility for supplying sources, that is at issue. If sources can simply be supplied in accordance with policy, they could be quietly checked without all this fuss and bother. Best, --Shirahadasha 22:06, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

My first name is hanna -Mariah Helms

The dagesh in Hannah
In the Hebrew version of the name ( ַחנָה), I am not seeing a dagesh. Is this just something wrong with my computer or is it something wrong with the article? Alephb (talk) 14:40, 3 September 2017 (UTC)

 * Nevermind. I'm not sure why the problem existed, but I've found a way to fix it by using a template. Alephb (talk) 20:04, 3 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hannah (biblical figure)


text:
Protagonistas

Protagonistas... aka Protagonistas de Novela, Protagonistas de la Música, Protagonistas de la Fama, is a reality television franchise. It broadcasts in Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, and Latin communities in the United States.

The game format is similar to Big Brother, or Operación Triunfo (Star Academy) where a group of anonymous people competes in an isolated house to win a contract with a record company, or a TV channel.

Protagonistas around the world
Currently, there are 28 winners of the Protagonistas format. The most recent winner is Laura Alemán from Puerto Rico.

title: Protagonistas


text:
Avening Valley

The Avening Valley is located in the South Cotswolds in England, running roughly east from Nailsworth and through the village of Avening.

During the 17th century, the cloth industry developed in the Avening Valley, with mills powered by the Avening Stream. One of the larger cloth mills was named the Holcombe Mill (an old "gig" mill), which was adapted in 1879 for manufacture of bedding. Another is at Longfords Mills, Minchinhampton.

title: Avening Valley


text: User talk:69.91.45.21

title: User talk:69.91.45.21


text:
Nguyễn Văn Linh

Nguyễn Văn Linh (1 July 1915 – 27 April 1998) was a South Vietnamese revolutionary and politician. Nguyễn Văn Linh was the general secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 1986 to 1991 and a political leader of the Vietcong during the Vietnam War. During his time in office, Linh was a strong advocate of "Đổi Mới" (renovation), an economic plan whose aim is to turn Vietnam economy to a socialist-oriented market economy. As such, Linh was often touted as the "Vietnamese Gorbachev" after the Soviet leader, who introduced Perestroika.

Nguyễn Văn Linh was born in Hưng Yên, a province in the North, but more than half of his life was associated with the South. He was arrested and imprisoned many times by the French colonialists. After 1945, Linh was assigned by the Party Committee to return to Saigon to lead two resistance wars against France and United States. In 1962, Linh was elected leader of the Central Committee for the South, directing strategy during the war until the country was unified.

Nguyễn Văn Linh has held many positions in the Party Central Committee before holding the position of General Secretary. Linh became General Secretary of the Party after the 6th National Congress on 18 December 1986. He is one of the Party leaders who initiated the reform policy, eliminating the centralized bureaucratic subsidy mechanism, shifting to a multi-sector economy, operating according to the market mechanism with State management. In 1987, he spoke and wrote many important articles clarifying his views on innovation, especially the issues he raised under the title "Things to be done immediately" under the pen name N.V.L (which means "Nói và làm” or “Nhảy vào lửa”) to create positive changes in social life Vietnam. With the Doi Moi reform, Vietnam’s economy has gradually developed. After only 1 year, the inflation rate of 774% decreased to only 323.1% and then continued to decrease to only 34.7%. He also promoted diplomatic relations with other countries with the motto "Vietnam wants to be friends with countries around the world". Thanks to that, Vietnam normalized diplomatic relations with China, Japan and Western countries and established diplomatic relations with South Korea and United States thereby promoting the process of bringing Vietnam into ASEAN in 1995. He left the position of General Secretary on 28 June 1991 and then became the late Secretary of the Central Executive Committee until his retirement on 29 December 1997.

Biography
Nguyễn Văn Linh was born in Hưng Yên on 1 July 1915. His original name was Nguyễn Văn Cúc, he would later adopt Nguyễn Văn Linh as his nom de guerre. At age 14, Linh became involved in the underground communist movement against French colonial rule, joining the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union. In 1930 at the age of sixteen, Linh was arrested and incarcerated until 1936 for distributing leaflets directed against the French. After his release, he joined the Communist Party of Vietnam. He was sent to Saigon, in the southern part of the country to help establish party cells, causing him to be detained again from 1941 to 1945. In 1945, Vietnam declared its independence from French rule and the First Indochina War ensued. Meanwhile, Linh rose in the party hierarchy becoming a member of the Central Committee in 1960.

During the Vietnam War, Nguyễn Văn Linh was the party secretary for the Vietcong in South Vietnam, which had seen him direct the guerrilla resistance against the American-allied government there, but most of his duties were organizational rather than military. He also specialised in propaganda, studying and attempting to influence American politics in favour of North Vietnam. He trained special undercover Vietcong spies who infiltrated government organisations in Saigon. In 1968, Linh directed the Tet Offensive against South Vietnam. This surprise attack throughout most South Vietnamese towns and cities was a turning point of the Vietnam War. After the end of the Vietnam War and the re-unification of Vietnam in 1975, Linh was inducted to the Communist Party's Politburo and became party chief of the capital Saigon. He favoured a slow transformation of the formerly capitalist southern part of the country causing him to come into conflict with his party colleagues. In the late 1970s, though considered a promising party politician, he had repeated arguments with Lê Duẩn, Ho Chi Minh's successor as party leader, preventing him from rising further in the hierarchy. In 1982, he was even removed from the Politburo. According to his friends, Linh resigned after an argument over the future of South Vietnam, in which he defended private capital.

Doi Moi Renovation
In the mid-1980s the Vietnamese economy experienced crisis, making a more liberal, market-based economy more of a sensible option to many politicians. This led to Linh's being re-instated in the Politburo in 1985 (and Permanent Secretariat 1986), under the direction of General Secretary Trường Chinh draft political report and even being made party general secretary the following year. Immediately, he started reforming Vietnam's economy. He was elected General Secretary in the immediate aftermath of the 6th National Congress. Renouncing the ideological decisions that he claimed had caused the problems, he allowed private enterprise and market prices and disbanded agricultural collectives. This change in policy was dubbed Doi Moi, a Vietnamese term meaning renovation.

In the late of May 1987, on the front page of Nhan Dan newspaper appeared a new pseudonym N.V.L with the column Nói và Làm ("Say and Do"). He wrote a series of articles "Things to be done immediately", signed NVL. According to journalist Hữu Thọ: At that time I worked at Nhan Dan newspaper. The evening of May 24, 1987 was my turn to be on duty at the editorial board. At around 5:30 p.m., when everyone had gone home, there was only me and the secretariat left in the editorial office that day. The comrade on duty at gate 71 Hang Trong brought in an envelope saying it was from an elderly person driving a Lada car. milk color sent to the editorial board. Although there was no express stamp, because the envelope was from the Central Office, I opened it immediately. In the envelope were letters and a handwritten article. The letter was signed Nguyen Van Linh, clearly stating that he sent the article and if the editorial board saw it, he would publish it. The article has the title "Things to do immediately", signed NVL.

From 1986 to 1991, during his term as General Secretary, Nguyễn Văn Linh made a decisive contribution to turning the situation around, paving the way for the new guava cause to move forward. In order to overcome the inadequacies and backwardness of Vietnam's centralized, bureaucratic and subsidized mechanism, he introduced new ideas, new concepts, and new ways of doing things. He abolished what Southerners often called "blocking the river and banning the market", completely eliminating the power and abuse of a few corrupt state-owned or state-owned traders at that time. Resolutely set an example against bureaucratic behavior, distancing from the people, and giving up special privileges. He abandoned the regime of high-ranking leaders flying domestically and going on business trips by Lada car without air conditioning (standard for Deputy Minister level); From the South to the North, take a plane with everyone; cutting down on security protection,...

Foreign relations
In the political sphere, Linh tried to improve relations with both the United States and China. In 1990, he and Đỗ Mười secretly visited China and met Chinese leader Jiang Zemin normalizing diplomatic relations between the two countries after over 10 years of tension, becoming the first Vietnamese leader to do so since the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War. In 1989, he ordered the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Cambodia, where they had been sent to remove Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge regime. However, as far as domestic policy is concerned, Linh felt there was little need for change. "It is not objectively necessary to establish a political mechanism of pluralism and multiparty government," he stated, while always referring to Western-style democratic systems as "demagogic bourgeois democracies". He criticised the old communist policies, blaming them on corrupt leaders. Thus, Linh's policies were the constant target of criticism from the more conservative elements in the Communist Party. Linh stepped down as party leader in 1991 at the 7th National Congress, having announced his withdrawal a year before. His poor health was cited as the cause, as he had been hospitalised for what is suspected to have been a stroke in 1989, but political rivalries probably also played into his decision. He was succeeded by Đỗ Mười, a supporter of Linh's reforms.

Retirement
He was Advisor of the Party's Central Committee from 1991 to December 1997. Starting with a surprising speech at the 7th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam and then series of letters to the country's newspapers, Linh eventually renounced the effects of his own policies, accusing foreign investors of exploiting his native country and harming socialism. He attacked the growing gap between the rich and the poor and accused American companies of dumping goods on the country rather than helping it with investments and technology. He then wrote a regular newspaper column called "Things That Must Be Done Immediately" attacking corruption and incompetence among the Vietnamese political elite.

Death and state funeral
Linh died of liver cancer on 27 April 1998, in Ho Chi Minh City just 3 days before the 23rd anniversary of the liberation of the South, he was 82 years old. His state funeral was held on April 29, 1998 and he lied in state at Thong Nhat Hall, Ho Chi Minh City. In the eulogy of the Party Central Committee, General Secretary Lê Khả Phiêu commented that Linh is a dedicated, innovative, creative leader who tries his best to contribute to the Party. State and serving the people. After the national funeral, in the afternoon of this day he was buried at the Ho Chi Minh City Cemetery.

Contributions to Vietnam
Nguyễn Văn Linh had charted the evolution of the reforms of the party organization. Scholars argue that Linh's contributions and importance in reform gave a very detailed and clear analysis of his program to reform the Vietnam communist party within the wider context of Đổi Mới. Linh showed flexibility and adaptability with an inclination for the unorthodox spin to policy making. Scholars like Stern see that Linh relied less on mobilizational instruments, campaigns exhortations, symbols and more on bureaucratically co-ordinated programmes. He was able to utilize unique combinations of resources to attack specific party related problems, often relying on media and selected mass organizations to propel his reformist ideologies. Linh was critical in steering plenary sessions of the Central committee to take more importance in decision process where competing views of economic policies and fundamental political issues were discussed. Stern argued this was possible, in large part due to Linh's open, flexible, innovative and unconventional mode of operation within the Vietnamese bureaucracy which showed Linh's importance in how he managed politics to contribute towards reform.

Under Linh, effort was made to make the party more responsible and accountable for policies and personnel choices which was a strong factor in the success of economic reform. Stern suggested that it was Nguyễn Văn Linh himself who was most important in the biggest part to play in Vietnam's economic reforms. He suggested that Linh's position and foresight was that economic reforms should be done gradually and steadily without causing political instability or creating opportunities for negative elements to create trouble. Linh also allowed flexibility and local initiative for issues of parallel political and economic renovation which sheds light for scholars to compare Linh's style and contributions to other key leaders in the current narrative. Linh also could be seen to have also got to where he was with self promotion more than what he was able to do. This opens up avenues for us to question and consider if any other contenders then might actually be equally important in the grand scheme of Vietnam's economic renovation. Some might contend that Linh achieved some initial and limited success in making the party responsive to the altered political playing field and could not push past the conservative majority and his own political beliefs to welcome true change in the Vietnamese political landscape. This view carries quite a generic stance on Linh amongst the scholarship published and if Linh truly had been a conservative the above categories would then be problematic in accessing his true legacy and contributions. Scholarship in some parts also acknowledges that Võ Văn Kiệt as one of the important key proponents of the reform programme. In this aspect we have to calibrate our understanding to consider Võ Văn Kiệt’s contributions with both perspectives included.

Being the Brains of Đổi Mới
Nguyễn Văn Linh could also be seen as the nominal brains of Đổi Mới but was publicly horrified by his results of his own inspirations. He was also at one point especially hostile toward Võ Văn Kiệt by publicly accusing Võ Văn Kiệt of corruption even when they had once been close allies.

While Linh publicly took an even stronger position in favor of a grassroots movement "to help the party correct, rectify, and overcome its shortcomings in the earlier years, some might consider that it was Võ Văn Kiệt who opined in 1995 that businessmen should be encouraged to succeed for the economy by understanding the economics of business. Võ Văn Kiệt’s actions led others to consider him as a key architect of the market revolution since its inception. In considering the narratives of both persons, it is important to note that that Võ Văn Kiệt and his allies might have used ideologies, whether called socialist or market as practical tools to advance their own strategic objectives and power. An objective way to weigh perspectives would be to understand that these members also ultimately wanted power to their advantage and this added another dimension in analysing how one worked towards contributing along with his true agenda balanced. Apart from these it is also important to know how sources might not always give us the full story.

Another method of analysing Linh's contributions
The harsh realities and economic crisis were both not necessary or sufficient conditions for the reform fully take place but it was the entrepreneurial process which saw structural changes and later kicked off innovation in Vietnam. While Linh had contributed to the process of Đổi Mới by restructuring the economy nationwide, working on investment and allocation of financial resources to increase efficiency and effectiveness of policies and the economy. Linh’s activeness in key military and key diplomatic activities as efficient in improving the standing of Vietnam and aiding his decision making process during the reforms. He was also responsible for economic reform successes and not the same reasons Linh himself had claimed, thereby creating "another method” in considering Linh's contributions and legacy. As the policies of Nguyen Van Linh were adopted at the 6th Congress, Vietnam slowly transformed into a market economy which brought success to the reform. These were key evidences towards the assessments of the Nguyen Van Linh narrative in considering his contributions in the renovation, modernisation and industrialization of Vietnam which made him a responsible contributor.

In another perspective, Võ Văn Kiệt could perhaps also be seen as being one of the key respected leaders had tried to work with numerous directors of nationally owned enterprises in hopes to promote better reforms in a larger scale without subverting party hierarchies by not uprooting the leadership but allowing the party to change its mind to slowly come to a new consensus. Võ Văn Kiệt had also implicitly approved using the economic model of North Vietnam across the nation but later found problems with the growth model from his experiences in Ho Chi Minh city, driving him towards the key leaders in “fence breaking” experiments in the lead up towards the 6th Party Congress. This also paints Kiệt in different dimensions where he was willing to reflect on his own policies and make adaptations to ensure what was best for the nation, a key trait and contribution towards Vietnam's economic successes.

Võ Văn Kiệt had supported the authorization of establishing credit cooperatives, foreign bank branches and the join stocks bank to separate budgetary functions away from central bank functions in reforming the economy a key step which cannot be ignored. Being the first deputy Prime Minister then, he was game in taking an unprecedented method in setting up two key independent specialist expert groups to conduct research and studies on the matter. He was adept in using the advice from both groups and combined the best ideas to develop an ordinance on the banking sector, to his credit, he later also created a department responsible for mobilizing intellectual resources from the former regime in the South. All of these contributions reflect his forward looking attitudes and areas which would later become important contribution towards Vietnam's successful ongoing reform process.

Linh had also been described as “having earned a reputation as a reformer” during Linh's time as party secretary of Ho Chi Minh city after 1975. Linh penned articles to give weight to reform experiments where experimentation of policies was allowed before such practices were sanctioned in his critical role to the state. However, one might also see Võ Văn Kiệt as the southerner reformer who placed himself to critics of central government policies in the South by supporting innovative economic schemes. Linh could also be seen as a third group of leaders who were similar in age to the second generation leaders (but joined earlier and hence promoted earlier to where they were). While Linh was widely trumpeted as an economic reformer, he was actually as capable as anyone in tightening the screw of politics. This provided another perspective as to how capable and important Linh was. In addition, Võ Văn Kiệt had also been well recognized as a champion of Vietnam reforms even when he lacked formal western training and should not be considered young even by a more relaxed standards of East Asian countries.

Historians are also able to consider if it was a handover and collaborative effort where the right people were at the right place to reform Vietnam at the same time challenges the main narrative of Nguyễn Văn Linh's contributions to consider the role of leaders greatly provided insight towards this research. In making an objective analysis of Linh, it seemed apparent that application of postmodernism analysis in historical figures along with critical interpretation and objectivity based on the context and how knowledge of history has unfolded or evolved allows us to get a clearer picture.

title: Nguyễn Văn Linh


text: User talk:67.35.183.51

title: User talk:67.35.183.51