text:
Jonathan Zebina

Jonathan Zebina (born 19 July 1978) is a French retired professional footballer. Having started his career as a striker, he played right-back for much of his career before being increasingly used as a centre-back. During his playing career, Zebina was an athletic defender, with good man-marking skills. However, Zebina, at times, was criticised throughout his career for being error-prone.

He spent his club career with several French and Italian clubs, most notably Roma – with whom he won a Serie A title and a Supercoppa Italiana in 2001 – and Juventus. At international level, Zebina obtained his only senior cap for the France national team in 2005.

Cannes
Born in Paris, France, Zebina began his football career at US Palaiseau, first joining the club when he was seven years old and started out playing as a striker. However, due to competitions in the striker at the club's youth system, he was left out and soon playing in the right–back position. Zebina then played for ES Viry-Châtillon before joining AS Cannes, where he began his professional football career there.

After progressing through the youth system, Zebina made his debut for AS Cannes, where they were playing in the French Division 1 in a home game against Metz which ended 0–0 on 8 March 1997. He later made six more league appearances at the end of the 1996–97 season. The following year Zebina continued to develop and he made 21 league appearances as Cannes were relegated to Ligue 2.

Cagliari
Zebina was then signed by Cagliari Calcio, whose president had spotted him during a match against Marseille while scouting Cyril Domoraud.

I had to impose myself. There, you have to earn your place. This is why the support of my family has been essential in the development of my profession which is football. She followed me when I left Cannes for Cagliari and allowed me to keep a balance to which I am strongly attached. I remember my first match with Cagliari, it was against Inter Milan and I had Roberto Baggio on the mark. This deadline, this match, I had thought about it all week. I was anxious and euphoric at the same time. And you know what? At the end of the meeting, when I returned home with my relatives, everything evaporated. I was just happy. This entourage allowed me to go titillate the highest level. In Rome, for example, being a good footballer was not enough. I arrived, a year when the craze in the city was palpable. It wasn't even the pressure on our shoulders anymore. I hardly ever went out into town, it was very difficult to go unnoticed. To my great regret, moreover, I who like to be quiet. It was, at times, very difficult to live with. But like I said, my family has been very important in helping me get through the stages. I have not been offered anything in the world of football. So I clung to what is most dear to me. This latest exhibition has come full circle and elsewhere the gallery closed its doors after that. I realized that it was beyond a passion, a profession in its own right that I could no longer combine with that of a footballer.

He made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Inter Milan in the opening game of the season. Since making his debut for Cagliari, Zebina was given a chance at a right-back position after injuries to two other defenders and soon made the position his own, in the process, he established a reputation as one of the most promising defenders in Europe. In the second half of the season, Zebina found himself placed in the substitute bench in a number of matches, at times, he returned to the starting line–up. In the last game of the season against Fiorentina, however, he scored an own goal, in a 1–1 draw. At the end of the 1998–99 season, Zebina went on to make twenty–four appearances in all competitions.

At the start of the 1999–00 season, Zebina, however, suffered ankle injury that saw him out for the first two months to the season. But he made his first appearance of the season, starting a match and played 76 minutes, in a 2–2 draw against AC Milan on 17 October 1999. Following his return from injury, Zebina appeared four more matches before being on the sidelines once again for two matches. Following his return, he continued to regain his first team place, playing in the right–back position. However, he was unable to help the club, as Cagliari were relegated to Serie B. During his time at the club, Zebina made fifty–eight appearances in all competitions for the Sardinian club between 1998 and 2000.

Roma
In June 2000, Zebina moved to AS Roma in a co-ownership deal for 9.5 billion Italian lire. Upon joining the club, he linked up with up with countryman and fellow full-back Vincent Candela and said: "I am very happy to be here. This is a big step for me from a professional point of view. I will try to give the best of myself. It doesn't scare me if I have to start off the bench. It will be a pleasure for me to fight for a place as a starter. My goal is to win against Roma and try to become stronger than Thuram."

Zebina made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 4–1 win against ND Gorica in the first round of the UEFA Cup. He helped Roma keep a clean sheet in the return leg by beating the opposition team 7–0 to advance to the next round. Zebina followed up by helping the club keep two clean sheets in the next two matches against Bologna and Leece. However, he suffered an injury that saw him miss two matches. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Reggina on 12 November 2000 and helped Roma beat the opposition team 2–1. However, his return was short–lived when he suffered a broken toe during a match against Perugia on 3 December 2000 and was substituted in the 43rd minute, as the club drew 0–0. After a month on the sidelines, Zebina returned to the first team against Bari on 14 January 2001, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute, in a 1–1. However, he found himself on the sidelines on four occasions in the next three months. Despite his absence later in the 2000–01 season, Zebina remained in the first team regular, playing in the centre–back position and helped Roma win the Scudetto. In his first season at the club, he made twenty–six appearances in all competitions.

At the start of the 2001–02 season, Manager Fabio Capello was impressed with Zebina's performances and skills and Roma bought him outright in July 2001. He started in the Italian Supercup against Fiorentina and helped the club keep a clean sheet, in a 3–0 win to win the competition. Since the start of the 2001–02 season, Zebina continued to regain his first team place, rotating in playing either the right–back position or centre–back position. He made his UEFA Champions League debut against Real Madrid on 11 September 2001 and won a penalty, which Francesco Totti successfully converted the penalty kick, as Roma lost 2–1. Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 29 September 2001 and 16 October 2001 against Juventus, Perugia and Lokomotiv Moscow. He, once again, helped Roma keep three clean sheets out of the club's four matches between 16 December 2001 and 6 January 2002. However, in the second half of the season, Zebina found himself in and out of the starting line–up for Roma. He was also suspended on three occasions, including one against Inter Milan for slapping Álvaro Recoba, losing 3–0 on 24 March 2002. After serving a three match suspension, Zebina lost his first team place, as the club eventually surrendered their league title to Juventus at the end of the 2001–02 season. At the end of the 2001–02 season, he went on to make thirty–seven appearances in all competitions.

Ahead of the 2002–03 season, Zebina switched number shirt from fifteen to number five. At the start of the 2002–03 season, he was involved in a minor car crash, but escaped with cuts and bruises. The incident led Roma supporters booing him when his name was mentioned in the club's next match. Eventually, Roma supporters apologised for their actions to the player. Following his return, Zebina continued to regain his first team place, rotating in playing either the right–back position, centre–back position or left–back position. He helped Roma keep two consecutive clean sheets between 15 December 2002 and 21 December 2002 against Reggina and Torino. However, the start of the second half of the season saw Zebina suffered a muscular problems and was sidelined for a month. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Valencia in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, losing 1–0. However, in a follow–up match against Udinese on 24 February 2003, Zebina was sent–off in the last minutes for a second bookable offence, in a 2–1 loss. After serving a one match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up against rivals, Lazio on 8 March 2003 but suffered a muscle injury and was substituted in the 26th minute, as the club drew 1–1. Following this, Zebina was later sidelined on two more occasions for Roma later in the 2002–03 season. Despite this, he played in both legs of the Coppa Italia final against Milan, as Roma lost 6–3 on aggregate. At the end of the 2002–03 season, Zebina went on to make thirty–one appearances in all competitions.

At the start of the 2003–04 season, Zebina continued to establish himself in the starting eleven, rotating in playing in either the right–back position or centre–back position. In early–September, Roma began talks with the player over a new contract. He scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–2 draw against Juventus on 21 September 2003. This was followed up by helping Roma keep seven league clean sheets between 28 September 2013 and 23 November 2003. However, in the second half of the season, Zebina found his himself sidelined on five occasions, due to injury and suspension. He also was sent–off on two occasions: the first one came against Siena on 22 February 2004 and the second one came against Villarreal on 25 March 2004. Despite this, Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 8 February 2004 and 22 February 2004. Despite being sidelined on two more occasions towards the end of the 2003–04 season, his contributions saw Roma finish in second place in the league behind Milan. At the end of the 2003–04 season, he went on to make thirty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions. During his time at the club between 2000 and 2004, Zebina made 126 appearances and scoring once in all competitions.

Juventus
Towards the end of his spell in the Italian capital, AC Milan began to take notice of Zebina and reported that the player was on the verge of moving to the club as the 2003–04 season was coming to an end. He even rejected a new contract from Roma and was expected to leave the club at the end of the 2003–04 season. On 19 May 2004, however, Zebina elected to join Juventus on a free transfer, where he was reunited with departing Roma manager Capello. Zebina revealed that he had rejected moves to Chelsea, Liverpool and Milan in order to join the club. Zebina later explained his decision to join Juventus, saying that AC Milan wanted him to play "the second of Stam", while Inter Milan offered the player "an astonishing contract proposal", he felt the club "must have taken him for a young rookie".

However, Zebina had to wait for a month to make his debut for the club, due to a serving a suspension in both legs of the UEFA Champions League Play–Offs round against Djurgården that saw Juventus won 6–3 on aggregate to advance to the Group Stage. He made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in the opening game of the season against Brescia and set up a goal for David Trezeguet, in a 3–0 win. Zebina helped Juventus keep three consecutive clean sheets between 19 October 2004 and 28 October 2004. Having found himself in a competition with Gianluca Zambrotta and Alessandro Birindelli, Zebina won a first team place, playing in the right–back position at the start of the 2004–05 season. However, he suffered an injury that saw him out for weeks. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Inter Milan on 28 November 2004 and helped the club draw 2–2. Following his return from injury, he regained his first team place, playing in the right–back position. At one point, Zebina played in the right–midfield position on two occasions between 13 February 2005 and 19 February 2005. He helped Juventus keep another three consecutive clean sheets between 9 March 2005 and 19 March 2005. However, in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League quarter-finals against Liverpool on 5 April 2005, Zebina suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted in the 81st minute, as the club lost 2–0. After the match, he was sidelined with a hamstring injury for the rest of the 2004–05 season. Despite this, his contributions saw Juventus win the league (which they were later stripped of the league title). In his first season at the club, Zebina made thirty–one appearances in all competitions.

At the start of the 2005–06 season, Zebina made his first appearance of the season in the Supercoppa Italiana against Inter Milan, starting a match and played 111 minutes, as Juventus lost 1–0. In a follow–up match against Chievo in the opening game of the season, however, he suffered an injury in the 7th minute, as the club won 1–0. But Zebina made a quick recovery and returned to the starting line–up against Ascoli on 18 September 2005, only to be substituted in the 3rd minute, due to a hamstring injury, as Juventus won 2–1. Following this, he was sidelined for the rest of the year and had four separate injuries by then. As Zebina was returning from injury, the 2005–06 season was not his finest as a professional due to an argument with the Juventus management over his request for a pay rise. This led to rumours linking him with Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur. However, his move to England collapsed after Manager Capello persuaded him to stay. It wasn't until on 22 January 2006 when he made his return from injury against Empoli, coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win. This was follow–up by making his first start since September against his former club, Roma in the first leg of the Coppa Italia first leg, losing 3–2. However, in the return leg of the Coppa Italia quarter-finals against Roma, Zebina suffered an injury and was substituted in the 44th minute, as the club won 1–0, only to be eliminated from the tournament through away goal. After the match, he was sidelined for a month. But Zebina made his return to the first team against Milan on 12 March 2006 and started the whole game, as Juventus drew 0–0. Despite sidelined on three more occasions, including a red card in Juventus' Champions League quarter-final loss to Arsenal, along with Mauro Camoranesi, he was primarily used as a backup player, occasionally playing in the right-back position. Once again, his contributions to the club saw Juventus claimed the Scudetto to compensate for the European disappointment, but were stripped of their 2005 and 2006 titles title after a match-fixing scandal that saw the club relegated to Serie B. At the end of the 2005–06 season, Zebina went on to make fifteen appearances in all competitions.

Despite coming under fire several times for his perceived inconsistency, Zebina stayed with Juventus following their relegation and was expected to have his first-team opportunities increase after the sale of Zambrotta to FC Barcelona ahead of the 2006–07 season. However at the start of the 2006–07 season, he missed the first months to the season, due to injury. Zebina recovered and made his first appearance of the season against Modena on 23 September 2006 and started the match before being substituted at half time, due to an adductor problems, as the club won 4–0. After the match, he was sidelined for two months with adductor problems. It was not until on 11 November 2006 when Zebina made his return to the first team, coming on as a 77th-minute substitute, in a 2–0 win against Pescara. Following his return, he found himself, rotating in and out of the first team, fighting for his first team place in the centre–back position. In the 2007 winter transfer window he turned down prospective moves to Marseille or Real Madrid after reports of the player was expected to leave Juventus, but stayed at the club. However, Zebina received a straight red card for hitting Adriano Mezavilla against Cesena on 16 January 2007, as Juventus won 2–1. After the match, he was fined by the club and served a three match suspension. Zebina returned to the starting line–up against Crotone on 17 February 2007 and helped Juventus keep a clean sheet, in a 5–0 win. Following his return, his first team opportunities increased and rotating in playing either centre–back position and right–back position. However, his performances was still criticised by Juventus fans following his mistakes in a number of matches. Despite suffering from injuries on three occasions later in the 2006–07 season, his contributions saw the club promoted back to Serie A after a 5–1 win against Arezzo on 19 May 2007. At the end of the 2006–07 season, he went on to make twenty–four appearances in all competitions. Following this, Juventus' Serie B title success, Zebina signed a new four-year deal that would keep him at the club until 2011, ending speculation over his future at Juventus.

Ahead of the 2007–08 season, Zebina faced competition from new signing, Zdeněk Grygera for the right-back position. However, during a 3–2 win against Cagliari on 2 September 2007, he was sent–off for a second bookable offence in the 81st minute and punched a photographer on the way out. For his actions, Zebina was banned for four suspension and ordered to pay a €15,000 fine. After serving a four match suspension, he made his return to the first team against Inter Milan on 4 November 2007, coming on as a 78th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw. Zebina then helped Juventus keep three clean sheets in three matches between 25 November 2007 and 9 December 2007. Since returning from injury, he, at times, made a number of starts for the club in the right–back position. However, Zebina had a disagreements with coach Claudio Ranieri that saw him dropped from the squad in a number of matches. He also faced his own injury concerns that saw him sidelined on five occasions later in the 2007–08 season. At the end of the 2007–08 season, Zebina went on to make seventeen appearances in all competitions.

Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Zebina was linked a move away from Juventus, with several European clubs interested in signing him. However, he suffered an Achilles tendon rupture at the start of 2008–09 season and was sidelined for the rest of the year. By February, Zebina made a recovery and returned to the starting line–up, playing against the club's Primavera against Sampdoria on 28 February 2009, drawing 0–0. A week later on 7 March 2009, he made his first league appearance of the season against rivals, Torino, starting a match and played 59 minutes before being substituted, in a 1–0 win. Following this, Zebina continued to compete with Grygera over the right–back position for the rest of the 2008–09 season. At the end of the 2008–09 season, he went on to make eight appearances in all competitions.

Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Zebina was linked with a possible transfer to Bordeaux during the transfer window but he rejected the move in favour of staying at Juventus. At the start of the 2009–10 season, Zebina lost his starting place to Martín Cáceres that season, despite Cáceres also being seen as inconsistent. He made his first appearance of the season against Bordeaux ironically in the UEFA Champions League group stage match on 15 September 2009, coming on as a 67th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw. After Cáceres' injury, Zebina returned to the starting eleven, regaining his place in the right–back position and remained in the starting eleven ahead of Cáceres despite the latter recovering from injury. He then scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–1 win against Fulham on 11 March 2010 in the first leg of the UEFA Europa League last 16. However, in the return leg, Zebina received a straight red card for kicking Damien Duff, as Juventus lost 4–1, resulting in the club's elimination from the tournament. After the match, he apologised for gesturing to Juventus supporters but defended his actions, claiming their behaviour acted inappropriately. Following this, the club faced a landslide slip in their results, as they finished 7th and numbers of players were sold or their contracts were not renewed, including Fabio Cannavaro. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Zebina went on to make twenty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions.

Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Juventus decided not to buy Cáceres outright, but signed Marco Motta from Udinese on loan as new right-back. However, Zebina was included in Juventus's 25-man squad list A for 2010–11 UEFA Europa League play-offs round, due to his suspension from his red card in the qualifying round the end of last campaign. He also did not attend the pre-season camp, due to his international duty which delayed his vacation. Motta quickly became the starting right-back for Juventus in the first four matches of the season in the Europa League, and Zebina was not called up for the first Serie A game of the new season. On the last day of transfer window, his contract was mutually terminated along with Mauro Camoranesi, and David Trezeguet after Juventus strengthened their options in defence by signing Arsenal defender Armand Traoré on loan for the rest of the season, with a view to a permanent move.

Brescia
On the same day Zebina was released, he signed a two-year contract with Serie A newcomer Brescia. Zebina was previously linked with a move to Paris Saint-Germain before opting to join Brescia.

Shortly after signing for the club, he suffered an injury on his knee and had an operation on it which kept him out for about five weeks. After recovering from his knee injury, Zebina finally made his debut for Brescia, starting the whole game, against Udinese in a 1–0 loss on 17 October 2010. Since making his debut for the club, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the centre–back position. Unfortunately, Zebina had a frustrating campaign that ended with Brescia being relegated. Despite being suspended on two occasions later in the 2010–11 season, Zebina went on to make 28 appearances for the club in all competitions. On 8 July 2011, he and Brescia agreed to mutually terminated his contract.

Brest
After being released by Brescia, Zebina returned to France for the first time in twelve years, joining Ligue 1 newcomers Brest on 29 July 2011, with an option to extend a one-year contract. Upon joining the club, he explained joining Brest, stating his desire a move to England in the summer but that a lack of interest shown in his services forced him to turn his attentions elsewhere, with Brest, Saint-Étienne and Nice only interested in signing the player.

After missing the first two matches to the 2011–12 season, Zebina made his debut for the club, coming on as a late substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Lyon on 20 August 2011. Since joining Brest, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the centre–back position. His performance at the club attracted interest from Lille in the January transfer window, but Brest refused to let the player go. Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 17 December 2011 and 14 January 2012. However, during a 1–0 loss against Paris Saint-Germain on 28 January 2012, Zebina suffered a back injury and was substituted in the 9th minute as a result. After missing one match, he returned to the starting line–up against Dijon on 11 February 2012 and helped Brest draw 1–1. This was followed up by helping Brest keep another three consecutive clean sheets between 18 February 2012 and 4 March 2012. However, during a 4–0 loss against Auxerre on 29 April 2012, Zebina suffered a calf injury and was substituted in the 30th minute. After the match, it was announced that he would be out for the rest of the 2011–12 season. Despite being sidelined on five occasions during the 2011–12 season, which saw the club finish in 15th place, Zebina went on to make twenty–nine appearances in all competitions.

Following this, Brest announced on 22 May 2012 that he would not extend his contract, which was due to expire at the end of June.

Toulouse

After leaving Brest, Zebina was linked with a move to Sochaux, Lille and Toulouse. Instead, he joined Toulouse as a replacement for the outgoing Daniel Congré on a free transfer, signing a two–year contract. Upon joining the club, Zebina was given the number 11 jersey, and became the club captain.

He made his debut for Toulouse against defending champion, Montpellier in the opening game of the season and started the whole game, in a 1–1 draw. However, Zebina suffered a back injury and was sidelined for two months. It was not until on 6 October 2012 when he returned to the starting line–up against Valenciennes and started the whole game, in a 2–2 draw. However, his return was short–lived when Zebina suffered a calf injury that kept him out for weeks. But he made his return to the first team against Lyon on 25 November 2012, starting the whole game, and kept a clean sheet, in a 3–0 win. In a match against Saint-Étienne on 11 January 2013, however, Zebina suffered a thigh injury and was substituted in the 66th minute, as the club drew 2–2. After the match, he was eventually sidelined for two months as a result. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Bordeaux on 17 March 2013 and helped Toulouse keep a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw. On 30 March 2013, he scored an own-goal, against Ajaccio, to give the opposition the lead. Eventually, Toulouse would win 3–2 after a comeback fight. However, Zebina, once again, was sidelined once again when he suffered a hamstring injury that saw him out for the rest of the 2012–13 season. Despite the injuries, Zebina was still seen as important, and he remained a key member of the squad. However, Zebina was at fault for a few goals in the few matches he played that season. At the end of the 2012–13 season, Zebina went on to make eighteen appearances in all competitions.

The start of the 2013–14 season continue to see Zebina recovering from a hamstring injury, which he sustained in the pre–season. Zebina made his first appearance of the season, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–1 win against Saint-Étienne on 20 September 2013. Since returning from injury, he found himself, rotating in and out of the starting line–up and captaining Toulouse in a number of matches, due to competitions in the centre–back position. However, in a match against Montpellier on 8 December 2013, Zebina received a red card for a second bookable offence, having came on as a second-half substitute, in a 1–1 draw. After serving a two match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up against Guingamp on 21 December 2013 and helped the club keep a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw. Following his return, Zebina regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position for the next three months. After being dropped for two matches in mid–February, he spoke about Toulouse's poor form on his social media account on two occasions. However, Zebina injured his right Achilles tendon that saw him sidelined for a month. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Guingamp on 10 May 2014 and played 90 minutes, as the club lost 2–0. In the last game of the season against Valenciennes, Zebina started the whole match as captain and help Toulouse win 3–1 to finish ninth place in the league. At the end of the 2013–14 season, he went on to make twenty–three appearances in all competitions.

It was announced on 25 February 2014 that Zebina hinted of leaving the club at the end of the 2013–14 season. His departure from Toulouse was later confirmed on 21 May 2014 after weeks of uncertainty over his future at the club.

Arles-Avignon
On 6 October 2014, Zebina joined AC Arles-Avignon on a two–year contract after spending five months as a free agent.

He made his debut for the club, starting a match and played 80 minutes before being substituted, in a 3–1 loss against Gazélec Ajaccio on 17 October 2014. However, in a follow–up match against Niortais, Zebina suffered a thigh injury that saw him miss one match. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Valenciennes on 7 November 2014, as Arles-Avignon lost 1–0. In a follow–up against Clermont, however, Zebina received a straight red card in the 42nd minute, as the club lost 3–1. After serving a two match, he made his return to the starting line–up against US Créteil on 12 December 2014, as Arles-Avignon lost 2–0. Having joined the club in early October 2014, Zebina had his contract terminated at the end of the year. By the time he departed from Arles-Avignon, Zebina made seven appearances in all competitions. Following this, he announced his retirement from professional football.

International career
In 2001, Zebina was called up to the France for the first time by manager Roger Lemerre. For the next four years, having been a regular during his time at Roma and Juventus, he remained in Jacques Santini's plans throughout his tenure.

Zebina earned only one cap for France; on 9 February 2005 in a 1–1 draw against Sweden. However, after Santini departed the national side, he was never called up for France again after falling out of favour with new coach Raymond Domenech.

Personal life
Yes, it was done when I was playing at Juventus deTurin. We can really speak of an adventure, because it was not planned. I still remember the day of the inauguration. The street was packed. I had succeeded in bringing together two opposing worlds. That of art and that of football. After necessarily, there was the sequel. I tried to do my best, to give my maximum. I think that we have succeeded in making exhibitions of great success. Until the last one that I really felt mine, when I managed to showcase contemporary African art. From that moment on, I understood that the life of a gallery owner, as a dealer, was not made for me. This latest exhibition has come full circle and elsewhere the gallery closed its doors after that. I realized that it was beyond a passion, a profession in its own right that I could no longer combine with that of a footballer.

His father, Denis, is an accountant, who has managed the family finances and his mother, Martine, is a nurse. Zebina has one brother and one sister. He has a diploma in accounting. Zebina said his hobby includes listening to music, watching art-house cinema, and a fan of wine. He is a fan of Aston Martin cars.

In September 2003, Zebina lost his driver's license after he was convicted of driving under the influence. In October 2005, Zebina once hosted a fashion show event that cost €200,000. Since 2006, he owns a large collection of contemporary art, and owns an art gallery in Milan.

During his early career in Italy, Zebina spoke about racism in Italian football, saying: "The tension cannot justify the insults. I'm not speaking as a Romanist but as a human being, if the players start to have the same habits as the racist fans around Europe, we won't go far. In the cold I don't mean nonsense. I'm just saying that players watched from all over the world, like those of Lazio, they cannot give such an unworthy example. If one of them says certain things, he doesn't do it out of stupidity, but out of ignorance, which is worse. So what to do?" On 29 March 2010, Zebina was hit by a fan as he was about to board the team's bus ahead of Juventu's match against Atalanta. Zebina stated: "Surely it is racism. […] It is a bad thing for the image of Italian football that does not deserve this. The Italian Football Federation has to do something […]".

In April 2010, Zebina announced his engagement to Chiara Tortorella, a daughter of magician, Cino Tortorella. In addition to speaking French, he is fluent in Italian since living in the country for two decades and also speaks Spanish and English.

During his time at Juventus, Zebina was involved in a training scuffle with teammate, Zlatan Ibrahimović. According to his autobiography, I Am Zlatan Ibrahimović, Ibrahimović said: "He (Zebina) tackled me very severely, I stood in front of him and told him that if he wanted to play hard, he had only to tell me. He hit me with a ball. I didn't have time to think it over, I hit him instantly and he hit the mat just as dry…", a claim that player denied, suggesting it was a ploy to sell more copies. The feud was reignited when Paris Saint-Germain and Toulouse face against each other on 5 October 2013 and after scoring a goal, Ibrahimović mimic pointing a gun in the direction of Zebina at the substitute bench.

In September 2017, Zebina was convicted of tax evasion, due to not declaring his income between 2011 and 2013. He was given a two–year suspended sentence and fined €10,000.

Honours
Roma
 * Serie A: 2000–01
 * Supercoppa Italiana: 2001

Juventus
 * Serie B: 2006–07

title: Jonathan Zebina


text:
Talk:Rummikub

To-do list
-- Ventura 05:40, 2005 Apr 24 (UTC)
 * Tie-breaking play after the first player is out.
 * More manipulations?
 * History

Ambiguity
I am trying to understand the rules from this page only and cannot tell whether each player has their own collection of sets and runs or whether they are all combined. This is probably obvious to anyone who has ever played the game, but it should still be stated explicitly. 72.183.253.227 (talk) 03:08, 25 December 2012 (UTC)

Rules dispute
It would seem there's quite a large dispute regarding the rules of the game surrounding the joker tiles. Older rules did not allow melds containing jokers to be manipulated beyond adding tiles to them, while newer rules do allow joker melds to be split and tiles to be removed from them. I have also encountered a group of people that allow the value and colour of a played joker tile to be changed by moving it between melds without requiring it to be freed with the relevant tile.

Some rules also allow jokers to be claimed with tiles that have already been melded, while stricter rules specify that the joker tile must come from your hand. The Extremist 23:28, 18 December 2005 (UTC)

 * To add my bit here, House rules for us dictate a fairly strict layout for tiles. Runs aligned by number going one direction and the sets in ascending numerical order above the runs.  Our rule for the joker is that once played it is glued to the table until it is "bought."  This effectively means that if a joker is played as a red 7 in a run, it must remain a red 7 in a run until exchanged for an actual red 7 from a players hand.  Jfmiller28 03:38, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

I revised the text which claimed that the rules in the article were the Sabra version. Actually the deletion of the restriction "A combination which contains a joker can have further tiles added to it, but nothing can be taken from it, nor can it be rearranged in any way while there is a joker in it" and the addition of "A joker that has been replaced must be used in the player's same turn with 2 or more tiles from his rack to make a new set" are pure Pressman '98, not Sabra '78. The Pressman '98 rules don't restrict you from rearranging a joker exactly as if it were the tile (or tiles) it represented when played, and is silent on the question of whether its identity becomes more ambiguous when it is moved (without replacement) from a run to a 3-tile set or if one member of its 4-tile set is moved. Does anyone know what rules are used in Lemada's WCT? Andyvphil 08:21, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Not sure at what point it was changed but the rules released with the 1987 print of the game state that a set with a value of 50 points is required to start, not 30. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Gusperry (talk • contribs) 22:27, 31 January 2011 (UTC)

Manipulation of played tiles
With the exception of the joker rules talked about above I believe the following would be a better description for melding. There can be some very complex changes made by "playing up" runs in to sets or "running out" sets into runs.

 * During a players turn tiles my be rearranged in any way which does all of the following:
 * Leaves all played tiles in play and adds at least one additional one from the players hand.
 * Leaves all tiles in valid runs or sets that contain at least three tiles

Then included the current description as examples.

Jfmiller28 03:38, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

Pronunciation?
It's officially pronounced "Rummy" "cube". ★ https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=wSuVZtTrPU8

 * Why is this basic information not included in the article? 173.88.246.138 (talk) 04:44, 5 April 2021 (UTC)

 * It finally was. I've added "rummy cube" to the IPA pronunciation, seeing no harm in so doing. Bret Sterling (talk) 16:51, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
 * It is officially pronounced "Rummy" "cub" in the UK https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=r1PtyWxj06U (1987) and https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=WmHGBXU8uAE (2003)
 * 85.255.237.0 (talk) 15:37, 3 July 2023 (UTC)

Another Rules Dispute
This article says that if you can't do anything on your turn, you have to pick up three tiles (in "Play" section). However, my rules (60th Anniversary Collector's Edition) say you only have to pick up one (unless you unsuccessfully moved around the tiles on the table, in which case you have to pick up three). Does anyone else have a different rulebook that agrees/disagrees with what the article currently says in this respect? --Runner5k 14:00, 26 June 2007 (UTC) Article has been fixed. Andyvphil 07:53, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Removed "This is somewhat unfortunate..."
I remove the text "This is somewhat unfortunate, because the colours are somewhat indistinct, and the tile moulds are of low quality, with a bevelled edge that makes them difficult to pick up. Pressman's "Deluxe Edition" solves these problems." from the equipment section. I just don't like it, it seems a bit like telling people to buy the (presumably more expensive) version. And there's no suggestion of a source, so it's essentially someone's opinion. M0ffx 12:18, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

Removing tiles from the middle of runs
The article as of this writing (2009-01-01) states: "So long as the remaining tiles form a valid run, tiles can be removed from the ends of runs." The article also states that splitting a run is acceptable for the purpose of inserting a duplicate tile, for example if you have a tile numbered 5 in your hand of the appropriate color and there is a run of 3-4-5-6-7 on the table that you can play your tile leaving the table in the state 3-4-5, 5-6-7.

What is neither explicitly prohibited or allowed is removing a tile from the middle of an existing run outside of the previous example. To illustrate, consider the following play. The player holds two "5" tiles in  blue  and  orange . Already played on the table is the run 2-3-4-5-6-7-8 in  red . The player removes the  red  5 from the middle of the existing run to make a group of 5s, leaving the table in the legal state:  2-3-4 ,  6-7-8 ,  5 - 5 - 5

Is this a valid play? -- 74.196.116.128 (talk) 18:01, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

Duplicating colors in text.
The article currently has examples like this:

. This has several problems. Some people (myself included) find the colors indistinct. People using low end web browsers or simplified Wikipedia clients may not see the colors at all. Either way, it becomes difficult or impossible to read the examples. I propose changing the examples to look like this:. While this is unfortunately verbose, it's clearer. While I'm at it, I plan to change Template:Rummy to make writing these less complex and so that the colors can be tuned in one place, not repeatedly through the article. Currently you might write. My goal would be to say. Any thoughts for further improvement or objections? — Alan De Smet | Talk 05:13, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

In Hertzano's 'Official Rummikub Book', ... [citation needed]
The current edit states that "In Hertzano's 'Official Rummikub Book', published in 1978, he describes three different versions of the game: American, Sabra and International." and this has a [citation needed] tag. I'm not sure if it's the year of publication which someone thinks to be in need of citing or the part about 3 different versions of the game, but a quick search of Amazon lists the book as ISBN 0806949449, the publisher as Sterling Pub. Co and the year of publication as 1 Jan 1978. I don't know how to cite that part, but the book could presumably verify the bit about 3 different versions of the game. The book is expensive from Amazon's second-hand suppliers, but in the meantime I don't see any reason to question the veracity of the statement. --Stroller (talk) 08:25, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

History section
IN history section, there is "The game combines elements of rummy, dominoes, mah-jongg and chess.". I don't understand the relationship between Rummikub and chess. Does anyone know it?--Wolfch (talk) 03:39, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

Apparent contradiction
What does "If player has a play in hand it must be played or seven tiles must be drawn." mean? It appears to contradict the earlier "If the player cannot (or chooses not to) play any tiles, he must pick one random tile from the pool and add it to his rack.", unless I'm misunderstanding something here. Pam D  22:43, 17 October 2013 (UTC)

rummy-world.com
This was added as being the "old official site", but seems to fail at least one of the policies about only linking to one official site and not linking to sites that "require registration to view the relevant content" (it's an online game forum for Rummy where you have to register to play). I've removed the link. --McGeddon (talk) 11:18, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

Playing with cards
Looks like a paragraph about how "Rummikub may also be played using two decks of 52 playing cards, plus one joker per person..." has been added and removed a few times over the past couple of years. This seems WP:OR/WP:HOWTO (many commercial games may "also be played" by marking up some cards and making your own pieces), and shouldn't be part of "playing pieces", since it's not about how the commercial game of Rummikub is played.

Pagat compares Rummikub to the card game Vatikan, which is probably the better way to state that the game can be played with cards. I'll add that. --McGeddon (talk) 08:47, 9 October 2015 (UTC)

uniformity of spelling - an issue
15 November 2019 I am a first reader of this page, read in order to discuss the game with an established player. The page mixes the use of the words colour and color when describing the playing pieces. This makes searching the page to find out how and where colours count unnecessarily difficult. I suggest it's worth correcting. JontheDuke (talk) 18:12, 15 November 2019 (UTC)

To add to article
Basic information to add to this article: the etymology of the name "Rummikub." Where does the "-kub" part come from? 173.88.246.138 (talk) 04:45, 5 April 2021 (UTC)

Bing and ChatGPT on never using a preposition to end a sentence with
Someone I know received a Rummikub set as a gift yesterday, and being unfamiliar with the game I read the Wikipedia article on it. I'm not usually much of a stickler on things like split infinitives and sentence-ending prepositions, but I nonetheless had a negative feeling about "Point values are taken from the face value of each tile played, with the joker (if played) assuming the value of the tile it is being used in place of." My immediate correction would probably have been simply with "the tile in place of which it is being used", but I didn't like that either and so I asked Google Bard to edit the original sentence. It said:

''Sure, here is the edited sentence: ''The point value of a tile is taken from its face value, unless the tile is a joker, in which case it assumes the value of the tile it is replacing. ''Here are the specific changes I made: ''I removed the phrase "with the joker (if played)" because it is redundant. The phrase "if played" already implies that the joker is only used if it is played. ''I added the word "tile" after "point value" to make the sentence more clear. ''I changed the phrase "assuming the value of the tile it is being used in place of" to "assuming the value of the tile it is replacing." This is a more concise and accurate way of expressing the same idea. ''I hope this is helpful! Let me know if you have any other questions.''

I figured I'd check ChatGPT as well, which gave: Point values are determined by the face value of each tile played, wherein the joker (if used) assumes the value of the tile it replaces. I didn't like "wherein" in this and the Bard version looked generally superior (also, notably, to the edit I myself would have made), so I've inserted the latter into the article though without its first comma. Bret Sterling (talk) 17:10, 24 June 2023 (UTC)

Rummikub online
This game also has an application you can download and play live with others 2607:FB91:184B:884E:24A9:6361:8F6:254A (talk) 01:46, 16 July 2023 (UTC)

Not a single element from mah jongg
Why is it described so? 64.99.245.189 (talk) 01:42, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Rummikub


text:
Resident Evil (1996 video game)

Resident Evil is a 1996 survival horror game developed and published by Capcom for the PlayStation. It is the first game in Capcom's Resident Evil franchise. Players control Chris Redfield and Jill Valentine, members of the elite task force S.T.A.R.S., who must escape a mansion infested with zombies and other monsters.

Resident Evil was conceived by the producer Tokuro Fujiwara as a remake of his 1989 horror game Sweet Home (1989). It was directed by Shinji Mikami. It went through several redesigns, first as Super NES game in 1993, then a fully 3D first-person PlayStation game in 1994 and finally a third-person game. Gameplay consists of action, exploration, puzzle solving and inventory management. Resident Evil established many conventions seen later in the series, and in other survival horror games, including the inventory system, save system, and use of a vitals-monitoring system instead of a health counter.

Resident Evil was praised for its graphics, gameplay, sound, and atmosphere, although it received some criticism for its dialogue and voice acting. It was an international best-seller, and became the highest-selling PlayStation game at the time. By December 1997, it had sold about 4 million copies worldwide and had grossed more than US$200,000,000.

Resident Evil is often cited as one of the best video games of all time. It is credited with defining the survival horror genre and with returning zombies to popular culture, leading to a renewed interest in zombie films by the 2000s. It created a franchise including video games, films, comics, novels, and other merchandise. It has been ported to Sega Saturn, Windows and Nintendo DS. A sequel, Resident Evil 2, was released in 1998. In 2002, the game's remake, alongside its prequel, Resident Evil Zero, were both released for GameCube (and subsequently on other platforms) in March and November 2002, respectively.

Gameplay
Resident Evil is a third-person survival horror game set in the Arklay Mountains, a fictional mountain range in the Midwest - the player, choosing to play as either Chris Redfield or Jill Valentine, members of the nearby Raccoon City's Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.), explores an abandoned forest mansion in the outskirts of the mountain range to find their missing teammates. The game is presented with real-time 3D polygonal characters and objects, superimposed over pre-rendered backdrops with fixed camera angles.

The player uses tank controls, where up and down move the character forward and backward and left and right rotate the character, as they navigate the mansion, and they are also able to run, observe the environment, pick up items, go through doors (accompanied by a transition between rooms), talk to certain non-playable characters, draw and use their equipped weapon, and push certain environmental objects. Each character has different abilities and have a slightly different campaign - Chris has more health, uses weapons more efficiently and starts with a lighter that can solve certain puzzles early, while Jill has eight inventory slots compared to Chris' six, and starts with a lockpick that unlocks doors Chris would need a key for. The player's starting key item does not take up inventory space.

The player can pause the game at any time to bring up the status screen, which shows their current health and inventory, and allows them to view the map of the area and read any files they obtained - items can also be combined together to create certain effects, e.g. reloading a firearm with fresh ammunition, or making key items required to progress. The player's health, represented by an electrocardiogram, goes down whenever the player is caught by a zombie or other hazard - if they run out, the character dies, resulting in a game over and forcing the player to restart from their last save, although herbs and first aid spray can be used to heal. Special safe rooms contain typewriters, where the player can use ink ribbons found in the environment to save their game, and item boxes that can store any excess items.

Plot
On July 24, 1998, when a series of bizarre murders occur on the outskirts of the fictional Midwestern town of Raccoon City, the Raccoon City Police Department's S.T.A.R.S. team are assigned to investigate. After contact with Bravo Team is lost, Alpha Team is sent to investigate their disappearance. Alpha Team locates Bravo Team's crashed helicopter and land at the site, where they are suddenly attacked by a pack of monstrous dogs. After Alpha Team's helicopter pilot, Brad Vickers, panics and takes off alone, the remaining members of the team — Chris Redfield, Jill Valentine, Albert Wesker, and Barry Burton — are forced to seek refuge in a nearby abandoned mansion. Depending on which character the player chooses to assume control of (Chris or Jill), either Barry or Chris are separated from the rest of the team during the chase and do not make it to the mansion. The team decides to investigate the mansion to search for their missing team member.

As the team members explore the mansion, they encounter dangerous creatures roaming its halls. The player character eventually learns that a series of illegal experiments were being undertaken by a clandestine research team under the supervision of biomedical company Umbrella Corporation. The creatures roaming the mansion and its surrounding areas are the results of these experiments, which have exposed the mansion's personnel and various animals and insects to a highly contagious and mutagenic biological agent known as the T-virus. The player character may also encounter several members of Bravo Team, including Enrico Marini, who reveals that one of Alpha Team's members is a traitor before being shot and killed by an unseen assailant.

Eventually, the player character discovers a secret underground laboratory containing Umbrella's experiments. In the lab, the player encounters Wesker, who reveals that he is a double agent working for Umbrella, and plans to use the Tyrant, a giant, humanoid supersoldier, to kill the remaining S.T.A.R.S. members. In the ensuing confrontation, Wesker is seemingly killed, and the player character defeats the Tyrant. After activating the lab's self-destruct system, the player character reaches the heliport and manages to contact Brad for extraction, at which point the Tyrant may confront them one last time.

The game features multiple endings depending on the player's actions at key points over the course of the game. The best ending sees that the player character saves their partner (Rebecca Chambers for Chris's campaign, and Barry for Jill's campaign) as well as a team member imprisoned in the lab (Jill for Chris's campaign, and vice versa). If at least the partner survives, the Tyrant is defeated and the mansion destroyed, otherwise the mansion remains intact and the Tyrant remains loose in the forest if the partner or team member is left to permanently die.

Design
Resident Evil was created by a team of staff members who would later become part of Capcom Production Studio 4. The inspiration for Resident Evil was the earlier Capcom horror game Sweet Home (1989), itself a video game adaption of the Japanese horror film of the same name. Shinji Mikami was commissioned to make a game set in a haunted mansion like Sweet Home, and early on, the game was intended to be a remake of Sweet Home. The project was proposed by Sweet Home creator Tokuro Fujiwara, who was Mikami's mentor and served as the game's producer. Fujiwara said the "basic premise was that I'd be able to do the things that I wasn't able to include" in Sweet Home, "mainly on the graphics front", and that he was "confident that horror games could become a genre in themselves." He entrusted Mikami, who was initially reluctant because he hated "being scared", with the project, because he "understood what's frightening." Since Capcom no longer had the rights to the Sweet Home license, they had to invent a new universe, but the game still adopted many elements from Sweet Home.

Resident Evil was based on Sweet Home's gameplay system, adopting many elements from the game, including the limited item inventory management, the mansion setting, the puzzles, the emphasis on survival, the door loading screen, the use of scattered notes and diary entries as storytelling mechanics, multiple endings depending on how many characters survive, backtracking to previous locations in order to solve puzzles later on, the use of death animations, individual character items such as a lockpick or lighter, restoring health through items scattered across the mansion, the intricate layout of the mansion, and the brutally horrific imagery.

Part of the inspiration for limited ammunition came from the MSX port of the game Alcazar: The Forgotten Fortress, according to scenario writer Kenichi Iwao. The idea of having limited ammunition was inspired by the limited amount of supplies in the game's randomized dungeons. Iwao wanted to take more elements from the game, such as adding more ways to attack zombies with items such as mines and traps, but was unable to due to schedule constraints.

Production
Production began in 1993, and the game took three years to develop. During the first six months of development, Mikami worked on the game alone, creating concept sketches, designing characters, and writing over 40 pages of script. The project was originally planned for the Super NES, before moving development to the PlayStation in 1994. Koji Oda was working on the Super NES version, after having worked on Super Ghouls 'n Ghosts (1991). Oda revealed that the setting was originally more of a hellish place, before being changed to a more realistic setting.

Several of the Resident Evil mansion's pre-rendered backdrops were inspired by The Overlook Hotel, the setting for the 1980 horror film, The Shining. Mikami also cited the 1978 film Dawn of the Dead as a negative inspiration for the game. The game was initially conceived as a fully 3D first-person update of Sweet Home (influenced by the game's first-person battles), with action and shooting mechanics. A first-person prototype was produced, and initially featured a supernatural, psychological Japanese horror style similar to Sweet Home, before opting for an American zombie horror style influenced by George Romero films. During production, Mikami discovered Alone in the Dark (1992), which influenced him to adopt a cinematic fixed-view camera system. Mikami said that, if it was not for Alone in the Dark, Resident Evil would have had a first-person view instead. Mikami was initially reluctant to adopt Alone in the Dark's fixed-view camera system, saying it "had an effect on immersion, making the player feel a bit more detached", but eventually adopted it because the use of pre-rendered backdrops allowed a higher level of detail than his fully 3D first-person view prototype, which "didn't get along so well with the original PlayStation's specs." A concept art claimed to be of the original first-person prototype has been available since the 1990s, showing more similarity to Doom rather than Alone in the Dark. A first-person perspective was not used again for the mainline Resident Evil series until Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017).

A later prototype featured cooperative gameplay, but this feature was eventually removed, as Mikami said it "technically...wasn't good enough." Early footage of this co-op prototype was revealed in 1995. At this stage of development, a local co-op mode was present, along with different outfits. A later demo made for the 1995 V Jump Festival presentation in Japan featured real-time weapon changes, with the co-op mode removed and rudimentary character models and textures. An early 1996 preview in Maximum Console magazine featured a graveyard and a slightly different version of the final boss. The graveyard, which was removed from the final game, eventually made it into the 2002 remake. Also featured in the game until late in development were guest houses and a tower, which were replaced by the guard house and the lab respectively. Another feature that was removed from the final game was the real-time weapon changing, from the earlier 1995 V-Jump demo.

Capcom did not use any motion capture in the game, despite having their own motion capture studio; instead, the animators referred to books and videos to study how people, spiders, and other animals encountered in the game move.

In pre-production, other characters were conceived. Dewey, an African-American man, was intended to perform a comic relief role, while Gelzer, a big cyborg, was a typical "strongman" character. Both were later replaced, by Rebecca and Barry, respectively.

Almost all development was done on Silicon Graphics hardware using the software program Softimage. The PlayStation was chosen as the lead platform because the development team felt it was the most appropriate for the game in terms of things such as the amount of polygons. The development team had upwards of 80 people towards the end of the game's development. According to Akio Sakai, head of Capcom's consumer software division, Capcom were hesitant to port Resident Evil to the Saturn because the hardware was not as ideally suited to the game as the PlayStation, ensuring the port would take a long time. A Saturn version was finally unveiled at the April 1997 Tokyo Game Show, at which Capcom also showed a demo for the sequel on PlayStation.

The live action full-motion video sequences were filmed in Japan with a cast of American actors; Charlie Kraslavsky (Chris), Inezh (Jill), Greg Smith (Barry), Linda (Rebecca), Eric Pirius (Albert), and Jason (Joseph). All Japanese releases contain English voice acting with Japanese captions and text, recorded at a recording studio in Tokyo and provided by Scott McCulloch (Chris, Narrator), Lisa Faye (Jill), Barry Gjerde (Barry), Lynn Harris (Rebecca, Triggering System), Sergio Alarcon (Brad, Joseph), Clay Alarcon (Richard, Zombie Forest Speyer, Zombies), Dean Harrington (Enrico, additional voices), Pablo Kuntz (Albert, Radio Transmissions), and Ward E. Sexton (Title and Character Names Announcer). Harris was also the voice director for the game, basing her direction on making it camp, loosely on Dawn of the Dead, The Blob and The Rocky Horror Picture Show. However, Japanese voice performances were also recorded but were left unused, as Mikami found the quality of the performances inadequate. However, lead programmer Yasuhiro Anpo later said that, due to all of the development staff being Japanese, they were unaware of the "poor localization" that apparently "hindered the realism and immersion of the title" for the international release, which was one of the reasons for the re-dub in the 2002 remake. The original Japanese PlayStation version also features a vocal ending theme, "Yume de Owarasenai..." (夢で終わらせない...), performed by Japanese rock artist Fumitaka Fuchigami, that is not in any other versions of the game.

Fujiwara said the game was originally targeted towards a core audience and he only expected it to sell around 200,000 copies, before the game went on to sell millions. Mikami said he was "a little worried about how well a horror game would really sell." Anpo said that Capcom did not expect the game to be successful.

English localization
Bio Hazard was renamed for the North American and European markets after Chris Kramer, the director of communications at Capcom, pointed out that it would be impossible to trademark it in the United States. Among others, the 1992 video game Bio-Hazard Battle and the New York alternative metal band Biohazard were already using the name. Capcom ran an internal company contest to find a new name. Resident Evil was chosen since the game takes place in a mansion. Kramer thought the name "was super-cheesy ... but the rest of the marketing crew loved it and were ultimately able to convince Capcom Japan and Mikami-san that the name fit." The cover artwork for the American and European release was created by Bill Sienkiewicz.

The original PlayStation version of Resident Evil went through several changes between its original Japanese release and its international counterparts. The North American and European versions of the intro were heavily cut from the one featured in the Japanese releases. Shots of mangled corpses, a "Cerberus" zombie dog being shot, Joseph's death, and Kenneth's severed head were edited out, as well as scenes featuring the character Chris Redfield smoking a cigarette. Despite these tweaks, the game was ultimately released on the PlayStation as one of the first games to receive the Mature rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board.

In the game itself, the auto-aiming function was disabled and the numbers of ink ribbons found by the player were reduced. Capcom also planned to eliminate the interconnected nature of item boxes, meaning that items could only be retrieved from the locations where they were originally stored. This change made it in preview copies of the US version, but was removed from the retail release. This particular game mechanic would resurface in the GameCube remake as part of an unlockable difficulty setting. Shinji Mikami noted that they made the American version harder at the request of the American staff so that the game could be rented and not be completed in a few days. Mikami said that this version proved fairly difficult for Capcom staff, who had to play very carefully to complete it.

Releases
Resident Evil was initially released for the PlayStation in Japan on March 22, 1996, in North America on April 1, and in Europe on August 16. It was then reissued and ported to other systems, with many gaining new features in the process.

Windows
The Windows version, released in December 1996, featured the uncensored footage from the Japanese version, and the opening intro is in full color rather than black and white. It is the only version of Resident Evil that has all of the uncensored full motion video (FMV) sequences, which includes the uncensored introduction, Kenneth's death scene in its entirety, and ending. Support for 3D accelerator cards were added, allowing for much sharper graphics. Two new unlockable weapons were added, a MAC-10 for Jill and an FN Minimi for Chris. New unlockable outfits for Chris and Jill were added as well. It also skips the door animations and allows saves without ink ribbons only in Jill's game.

The original Windows version was re-released on June 26, 2024 by GOG.com to include quality of life improvements and enhanced compatibility.

Sega Saturn
The Sega Saturn version, released in July 1997, added an unlockable battle mode in which the player must traverse through a series of rooms from the main game and eliminate all enemies within them with the weapons selected by the player. It features two exclusive enemies not in the main game: a zombie version of Wesker and a gold-colored Tyrant. The player's performance in the battle mode is graded at the end. The game's backgrounds were touched up to include more detail in this version. The Japanese version is the most gore-laden of all the platforms; after decapitating a crawling zombie with a kick, the head remains on the floor, and Plant 42 can cut the character before the game over screen; though the live-action footage is censored in the U.S. version. The Saturn version also features exclusive enemy monsters, such as a re-skinned breed of Hunters known as Ticks and a second Tyrant prior to the game's final battle in Chris's game. Exclusive outfits for Jill and Chris were added as well.

This version was published in Europe by Sega instead of Capcom's usual European publisher, Virgin Interactive Entertainment.

Director's Cut
A second version for the PlayStation, Resident Evil: Director's Cut, was released in September 1997. Director's Cut was produced to compensate for the highly publicized delay of the sequel, Resident Evil 2, and was originally bundled with a playable pre-release demo of that game. The Japanese version of the demo disc also included a pre-release demo of Rockman Neo, later retitled Rockman DASH (Mega Man Legends outside Japan), and a trailer for the newly released Breath of Fire III.

The main addition to Director's Cut is an "arranged" version of the game that changes the location of nearly every vital item in the mansion, as well as the enemy placement. The main characters, as well as Rebecca, are given a new wardrobe and the player's handgun is replaced by an improved model where any shot fired has a random chance of decapitating a zombie, killing it instantly. The original version of the game is included as well, along with a new "beginner" mode where the enemies are easier to kill and the amount of ammunition that can be found by the player is doubled. Additionally, the auto-aim function was restored in all modes, though it is not noted in the in-game controls.

The North American and European releases of the Director's Cut were marketed as featuring the original, uncensored footage from the Japanese releases. However, the FMV sequences were still censored, and Capcom claimed the omission was the result of a localization mistake made by the developers. The game's localization was handled by Capcom Japan instead of Capcom USA, and when submitted to Sony Computer Entertainment America (SCEA), it was rejected because of one line of copyright text. Rather than remove the individual line, Capcom Japan decided to save time and simply swap in the cinematics from the U.S. release of the original Resident Evil. SCEA then approved the game and manufactured a full production run without Capcom USA having any idea that the uncensored scenes had been cut. Three days after the game's release, the uncensored intro was offered as a free download from their website. The French and German PAL versions of Director's Cut do feature the uncensored intro FMV in color, though they lacked the uncensored Kenneth death scene.

Director's Cut was included in the lineup for the PlayStation Classic, which was released on December 3, 2018. It was made available on PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 on June 13, 2022.

Director's Cut Dual Shock Ver.
A third version for the PlayStation, Resident Evil: Director's Cut Dual Shock Ver. (デュアルショックver.), co-produced by Keiji Inafune, was released in August 1998. It features support for the DualShock controller's analog controls and vibration functions, as well as a new symphonic soundtrack, replacing the original soundtrack by Makoto Tomozawa, Koichi Hiroki, and Masami Ueda. The symphonic music was credited to composer Mamoru Samuragochi, although he admitted in 2014 that he directed his orchestrator Takashi Niigaki to ghostwrite the new soundtrack. The Japanese Dual Shock Ver. came packaged with a bonus disc that contained downloadable save data, footage of the unused Japanese dubbed versions of the live-action cutscenes, along with brief gameplay footage of the canceled original version of Resident Evil 2.

The soundtrack was generally deemed inferior to the original, with the ambient theme for the mansion's basement considered to be one of the worst video game compositions of all time.

In 1998, Capcom USA released the game under PlayStation's Greatest Hits label.

In North America, Resident Evil: Director's Cut Dual Shock Ver. was released as a downloadable game available from the PlayStation Network soon after it launched in November 2006, although the game is advertised with the original Director's Cut box art. In Japan and Europe, the original Director's Cut was instead made available from the PlayStation Network.

Game Boy Color version
A Game Boy Color version of the game, developed by the Software House HotGen, was supposed to be released in late 1999 or early 2000, until Capcom decided to cancel this project citing that the port was poor quality due to the Game Boy's limited hardware. This version contains every room, cutscene, and almost all the items that were present in the original PlayStation version.

In January 2012, an anonymous individual claimed to have an EPROM cartridge of the GBC version and requested $2,000 before he was willing to leak the playable ROM. The goal was met in February and the ROM files containing an unfinished build of the game were subsequently leaked.

Deadly Silence
A Nintendo DS port, Resident Evil: Deadly Silence, known in Japan as Biohazard: Deadly Silence (バイオハザード デッドリーサイレンス), was released in January 2006, made to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the series. Deadly Silence includes a "Classic Mode", the original game with minimal enhancements and touch-screen support, and a "Rebirth Mode", containing a greater number of enemies and a series of new puzzles that make use of the platform's capabilities. The characters models are remade with better textures and different clothing, and enemies have higher quality of detail. Although the graphical changes are difficult to notice on the DS' dual screen, they are easier to notice on an HD emulator. Exclusive new outfits for Jill, Chris and Rebecca were added as well.

The game makes use of the dual screen display with the top screen used to display the map, along with the player's remaining ammunition and health (determined by the color of the background); while the bottom screen displays the main action, and can be switched to show the player's inventory. The DS version also includes updated play mechanics: the 180-degree turn introduced in Resident Evil 3: Nemesis, along with the knife button and tactical reload from Resident Evil 4. The updated controls are applicable to both Classic and Rebirth modes. Just like the PC version, the door animations can be skipped as well as the cut scenes. The live-action footage was still censored, even in the game's Japanese release; however, the scene showing Kenneth's severed head was kept. Gameplay and combat are otherwise uncensored, thus making this the first of 11 DS games to ever be rated Mature 17+ by the ESRB.

In "Rebirth", new puzzles are added that use the system's touch-screen. "Knife Battle" sequences, viewed from a first-person perspective, are also added, in which the player must fend off incoming enemies by swinging the knife via the stylus. One particular puzzle requires the player to resuscitate an injured comrade by blowing into the built-in microphone. The player can also shake off enemies by using the touch screen, performing a melee attack.

The game also includes wireless LAN support for up to four players with two different multiplayer game modes. The first is a cooperative mode in which each player must help each other solve puzzles and escape the mansion together. The other is a competitive mode in which the objective is to get the highest score out of all the players by destroying the most monsters, with the tougher monsters being worth more points. There are three playable multiplayer stages and nine playable characters.

Reception
The original PlayStation version of Resident Evil was critically acclaimed, receiving an aggregated rating of 91 out of 100 at Metacritic based on eight reviews. Among those who praised the game was GameSpot, describing it as "one of those rare games that's almost as entertaining to watch as it is to play". Famitsu gave it ratings of 9, 10, 10 and 9 out of 10, adding up to 38 out of 40. This made it one of their three highest-rated games of 1996, along with Super Mario 64 (which scored 39/40) and Tekken 2 (which scored 38/40). Resident Evil was also one of only ten games to have received a Famitsu score of 38/40 or above up until 1996. GamePro described the storyline and cinematics as "mostly laughable", but felt the gameplay's "gripping pace" and the heavy challenge of both the combat and the puzzles make the game effectively terrifying. They reassured readers that the unusual control system becomes intuitive with practice and applauded the realism instilled by the graphics and sound effects. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly also commented on the realistic graphics and sounds, and additionally praised the selection of two playable characters. Sushi-X remarked that it, "at first glance, may appear to be a clone of Alone in the Dark, but in reality, it is a totally new experience". Mark Lefebvre particularly remarked, "The element that really grabs a player here is fear. After trading blows with the first zombie, you'll quickly become hesitant to turn down any uncharted corridors in the mansion."

A reviewer for Next Generation said it "manages to be as genuinely scary as a good horror film - no small achievement. There are a lot of things that work around games being this frightening ... In this case, however, the fine character work, creepy and well-executed sound effects, and just the right music in just the right places all have a subtle, cumulative effect ..." While criticizing the "laughable" dialogue and voice acting, he felt they were overridden by the game's positive aspects. He pointed out that the lack of genuinely confounding puzzles allows the game to move at a good pace, and the use of prerendered backgrounds allowed the PlayStation to handle much more detailed characters. Yasuhiro Hunter of Maximum stated that "The game has the greatest atmosphere of any other game in existence [sic] - naming a game that makes you jump as much as when encountering your first pair of Cereberos in this title would be very difficult." He also praised the heavy difficulty of the puzzles, the great care required in combat, the 3D graphics, and the exceptionally high replay value. Computer Gaming World gave a more mixed review for the Windows version, explaining that they "tried to hate it with its graphic violence, rampant sexism, poor voice acting and use of every horror cliché, however...it's actually fun."

The Saturn version was also very well-received. While most remarked that Capcom had taken too long to bring Resident Evil to the console (the game had been out on the PlayStation for well over a year, and hype had built up for Resident Evil 2, which would be released in just a few months),   critics agreed that the game was still as stunning as it had been on its initial release and had been accurately recreated for the Saturn. Computer and Video Games, for example, commented that "With all the talk about the Saturn being inferior in this department, the [graphics] quality cannot be surpassed. All of the rooms, the enemies and the animation are almost identical." GamePro, which gave it identical scores to the PlayStation version (a 4.0 out of 5 for control, and a perfect 5.0 for graphics, sound, and funfactor), summarized that "It would have been nice to have it on the Saturn sooner, but this is as close to a sure thing as you could ask for." Sega Saturn Magazine said that "the intense feeling of terror heightened by the chilling music and eerie silences ... sets Resident Evil apart from any other adventure game you may care to mention." Critics also widely praised the Saturn-exclusive Battle Mode.

The Director's Cut was positively received as well, with most critics regarding the advanced mode and the bundled Resident Evil 2 demo as the highlights. However, all four reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly decried it, arguing that a handful of changes and a demo disc were not enough to justify the price.

Sales
Resident Evil was a best-seller in Japan, North America, and Europe, including the United Kingdom. Shortly after release, it became the best-selling PlayStation game ever at the time. In Japan, the game sold 1.016 million units in 1996. Overseas, it topped the US charts and entered at number-two on the UK charts. In the United States, the game sold over 1 million copies by early September 1996, becoming a system-seller for the PlayStation and increasing its install base at the time. In Europe, the game shipped 230,000 units on its first day of release, with 21,500 sold on its first weekend in the United Kingdom where it was one of the fastest-selling CD releases up until then. The game went on to sell at least more than 300,000 units in Europe by December 1996.

By December 1997, the game had sold about 4 million units worldwide and grossed more than US$200,000,000. According to Capcom's investor relations website, the original version of Resident Evil has sold over 2.75 million copies, while the Director's Cut version (including the Dual Shock edition) sold an additional 2.33 million copies. All PlayStation versions of the game have sold a combined 5.08 million units worldwide.

Accolades
Resident Evil was the first game to be dubbed a "survival horror", a term that it coined for the genre. It was ranked as the 91st top game of all time by Next Generation in 1996, stating that it "successfully redefine[d] the genre which started with Infogrames' Alone in the Dark." In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 14th on their "Top 100 Games of All Time". Game Informer referred to the original Resident Evil as "one of the most important games of all-time" in 2007. In 2012, Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time. That same year, the game ranked as one of G4TV's top video games of all time for how it has "launched one of the most successful series in gaming history and provided one of its most memorable scares." Resident Evil was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame in 2024.

In 2004, readers of Retro Gamer voted Resident Evil as the 37th top retro game, with the staff calling it "one of the finest horror-themed games ever" and adding that "full of shocks, surprises and perfectly poor B movie dialogue, Resident Evil is the gaming equivalent of Night of the Living Dead." It entered the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008 for the "Worst Game Dialogue Ever". Stuff ranked it as the 3rd best PlayStation game of all time.

Sequels
The game's success resulted in a media franchise that has since branched out into comic books, novels and novelizations, sound dramas, a non-canonical series of live-action films and animated sequels to the games, and a variety of associated merchandise, such as action figures. The series has become Capcom's biggest franchise. The events of the game were also retold in Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles, originally released for the Wii in 2007.

Novelization
Resident Evil: The Umbrella Conspiracy is a novelization of the game, was written by S. D. Perry in 1998 as the first book in her series of Resident Evil novels. The novel combines Jill's and Chris scenarios into one narrative and features all five of the main characters (including Barry, Rebecca and Wesker).

The book also takes liberty with some of the original source materials; the most notable difference being the inclusion of an original character named Trent, an insider from the Umbrella Corporation who provides Jill with information about the Spencer Mansion prior to the events of the mansion incident. Since the book was written a few years before the Nintendo GameCube remake, the novelization lacks the presence of Lisa Trevor in the mansion. However, the book does allude to the original version of George Trevor's journal from The True Story Behind Bio Hazard, as well as the short story it contained, "Bio Hazard: The Beginning", which involved the disappearance of Chris Redfield's friend, Billy Rabbitson. Another notable difference in the novels is moving the location of Raccoon City from the Midwest to Pennsylvania, apparently about an hour's drive from New York. Overall, despite having been written before the retcon introduced in the Resident Evil remake and Resident Evil Zero, the book still maintains overall similarity to what the story warped into in the early 2000s.

Remake
In 2002, Resident Evil was remade for the GameCube as part of an exclusivity agreement between Capcom and Nintendo that spanned three new games. The remake includes a variety of new gameplay elements, environments, and story details, as well as improved visuals and sound. The game was also later ported for the Wii in 2008. A remastered version of the remake, featuring high definition graphics, was released as a download for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, Xbox One in 2015 then later for Nintendo Switch in 2019, with a limited edition PlayStation 3 version released at retail in Japan.

Cultural impact
GameSpot listed Resident Evil as one of the 15 most influential video games of all time. It is credited with defining and popularizing the survival horror genre of games. It is also credited with taking video games in a cinematic direction with its B-movie style cutscenes. Its live-action opening, however, was controversial; it became one of the first action games to receive the "Mature 17+" (M) rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), despite the opening cutscene being censored in North America. Chicago Tribune said it "revolutionized" gaming in 1997.

Resident Evil is credited with sparking a revival of the zombie genre in popular culture since the late 1990s, leading to a renewed interest in zombie films during the 2000s. Resident Evil also played an important role in the zombie genre's shift from supernatural themes to scientific themes, using science to explain the origins of zombies. In 2013, George Romero said it was the video games Resident Evil and The House of the Dead "more than anything else" that popularised zombies in early 21st-century popular culture. In a 2015 interview with Huffington Post, screenwriter-director Alex Garland credited the original Resident Evil video game as a primary influence on his script for the horror film 28 Days Later (2002), and credited the first Resident Evil game for revitalizing the zombie genre. Shaun of the Dead (2004) star and co-writer Simon Pegg also credits the original Resident Evil game with starting the zombie revival in popular culture. The Walking Dead comic book creator Robert Kirkman cited Resident Evil as his favorite zombie game, while The Walking Dead television series director Greg Nicotero credited Resident Evil and The House of the Dead with introducing the zombie genre "to a whole generation of younger people who didn't grow up watching Night of the Living Dead and Dawn of the Dead."

After the original Resident Evil video game sparked a renewed interest in the zombie genre, it was followed by zombie films such as 28 Days Later, Dawn of the Dead (2004), Shaun of the Dead, 28 Weeks Later (2007), Zombieland (2009), Cockneys vs Zombies (2012), and World War Z (2013), as well as zombie-themed graphic novels and television shows such as The Walking Dead and The Returned, and books such as World War Z (2006), Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2009) and Warm Bodies (2010). The Resident Evil film adaptations also went on to become the highest-grossing film series based on video games, after they grossed more than US$1 billion worldwide. The zombie revival trend was popular up until the mid-2010s, before zombie films declined in popularity by the late 2010s.

title: Resident Evil (1996 video game)


text:
John P. McConnell (general)

General John Paul McConnell (February 7, 1908 – November 21, 1986) was the sixth Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. As chief of staff, McConnell served in a dual capacity. He was a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff which, as a body, acts as the principal military adviser to the President of the United States, the National Security Council, and the Secretary of Defense. In his other capacity, he was responsible to the Secretary of the Air Force for managing the vast human and materiel resources of the world's most powerful aerospace force.

Early life and education
John Paul McConnell was the son of Dr. Samuel Paul McConnell, a medical doctor, and Desseau M. (Dorsey) McConnell. A native of Booneville, Arkansas, McConnell graduated magna cum laude from Henderson Brown College at Arkadelphia, Arkansas, with a Bachelor of Science degree in 1927. He entered West Point a year later and, at the time of his graduation on June 10, 1932, was First Captain of the Corps of Cadets. After taking flying training at Randolph and Kelly Fields, Texas, he received his pilot wings in 1933.

Military career
A fighter pilot during his early years in the then-Army Air Corps, later Army Air Forces, McConnell gained broad experience through a variety of operational and administrative assignments, including duty as assistant executive in the Office of the Chief of Air Forces in Washington. Subsequently, he served in key Air Force positions in both Asia and Europe.

In 1943 McConnell became chief of staff of the China-Burma-India Air Force Training Command at Karachi, India (later part of Pakistan), and remained in Asia for the rest of World War II. While senior air staff officer, Air Command Southeast Asia, and deputy commander of the Third Tactical Air Force in 1944, he participated in combat operations against the Japanese in Burma. In 1946 he was named senior air adviser to the Chinese government and, at the same time, commanded the Air Division, Nanking Headquarters Command.

McConnell returned to Air Force Headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1947 to become chief of the Reserve and National Guard Division and, the next year, was appointed chief of the Air Force's Civilian Components Group. Assigned to England in 1950, he served as deputy commander and later, commander of the Third Air Force. He then took command of the 7th Air Division of the Strategic Air Command, commanding the Third Air Force at the same time.

This was followed by a four-year tour as director of Plans at Headquarters Strategic Air Command, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska. In 1957 he was named commander of Second Air Force, Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, and four years later returned to Strategic Air Command to become vice commander in chief.

In 1962 McConnell was assigned to Europe as deputy commander in chief of the United States European Command and promoted to the rank of general. He was appointed Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in August 1964, and assumed the position of Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force on 1 February 1965, relieving General Curtis E. LeMay. His appointment as chief of staff was extended to July 1969.

McConnell's decorations included the Army Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster, Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster, Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters, Distinguished Flying Cross, Bronze Star Medal, Air Medal, and numerous foreign awards, including Commander of the Order of the British Empire and the Legion of Honor – Degree of Commandeur (France).

In June 1965, McConnell was presented an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of Akron, Akron, Ohio. He also received an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville in June 1966.

McConnell retired from the Air Force on July 31, 1969, and died November 21, 1986, in Bethesda, Montgomery County, Maryland. A funeral service was held on November 25 in the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., with burial in the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery in Colorado Springs, Colorado on November 26.

The public library in his hometown of Booneville, Arkansas is named in his honor and contains many items of memorabilia from his years of service to the US Air Force, including service medals, decorations and commendations as of 2016.

Effective dates of promotion
Source:

Postscript
McConnell's role as Chief of Staff of the Air Force, as well as that of the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Vietnam War, specifically under the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, has recently been the subject of significant historical research in the area of the relationships between senior military leaders (e.g., the JCS) and the civilian political leadership (e.g., the National Command Authority) and has increasingly become a topical discussion issue and object lesson for officers attending the nation's senior service colleges (i.e., Air War College, Army War College, Naval War College and National War College).

The Arkansas Aviation Historical Society inducted McConnell into the Arkansas Aviation Hall of Fame in 1985.

McConnell's son, Dorsey W. M. McConnell, is bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Pittsburgh. Another son, Bruce W. McConnell, is CEO and President at the EastWest Institute.

title: John P. McConnell (general)


text:
Elizabeth Bolden

Elizabeth Bolden (née Jones; August 15, 1890 – December 11, 2006) was an American supercentenarian who, at the time of her death at age 116 years, 118 days, was recognized by Guinness World Records as the then-world's oldest living person.

Biography
Elizabeth Jones was born in 1890 in Somerville, Tennessee as the daughter of freed slaves.

She married Louis Bolden (1892–1955) in 1908 when she was eighteen and he was sixteen, and their first child, a son, James Ezell Bolden, Sr. (23 September 1910–18 September 1986) was born two years later when she was twenty and he was eighteen. Elizabeth and Louis Bolden had three sons and four daughters and raised cotton and subsistence crops on farmland near Memphis until the 1950s.

Bolden outlived another son, John Wesley "Wes" Bolden (16 December 1915–8 October 1983), who died at the age of 68, two daughters, Ethel Bell Riddick (1912–13 September 1935), who died at 23 and Annie Pearl Trice (23 June 1925–16 April 2000) who lived to the age of 75, as well as a grandson, James Emil William Bolden, Jr. (8 August 1930–3 October 1998), the eldest-born of her late eldest son, Ezell, who was 68 years old at the time of his death.

Only two daughters were living at the time of Bolden's death in 2006, Queen Esther Rhodes (born 1918), who died in 2008 at age 90, and Mamie Brittmon (born 1920), who died aged 102 in 2022. At the time of her 116th birthday in August 2006, Bolden also had 40 grandchildren, 75 great-grandchildren, 150 great-great-grandchildren, 220 great-great-great-grandchildren and 75 great-great-great-great-grandchildren, for a total of 562 living, direct descendants.

Later life
In her final years, Bolden resided in a Memphis nursing home that she had lived in since she was 109, and was described by her family as unable to communicate. They requested that media attention (such as interviews and visits) be limited. While she was the world's oldest person, Bolden was rarely seen in public.

She was photographed for two different books in early 2005, and was featured in Jet magazine in May 2005 and the Memphis Commercial Appeal in June 2005. For her 116th birthday, new photographs were released for the first time in almost a year, and her family said that she was looking forward to her birthday.

Age records
Elizabeth Bolden was verified in April 2005 as being the oldest documented resident of the United States since the death of Emma Verona Johnston the previous December. Prior to this, Bettie Wilson, had been the oldest known American. After the death of Hendrikje van Andel on August 30, 2005, she was thought to be the world's oldest living person until December 9, 2005, when María Capovilla was authenticated as older. She became the oldest living person following Capovilla's death on August 27, 2006. This was officially confirmed on September 17, 2006, by Guinness World Records.

At the time of her death, she was the sixth-oldest undisputed person ever documented. After her death, Emiliano Mercado del Toro became the world's oldest person and Julie Winnefred Bertrand became the world's oldest woman.

title: Elizabeth Bolden


text:
User:Rossnixon

Who is Ross Nixon? A born and bred New Zealander (or "kiwi" in common slang).

My interests include:

Computers (tinkering with hardware and software, testing and using freeware or open source software). I have been using computers since about 1979 - my first one being a Casio pocket computer.

Christianity (especially eschatology, creationism and apologetics.

Genealogy (mainly as it relates to my and my wife's ancestors who first came to New Zealand, and their descendants).

75%     Fundamentalist      75%      Romanticist      50%      Existentialist      38%      Materialist      13%      Postmodernist      13%      Idealist      13%      Modernist      0%       What is Your World View?

title: User:Rossnixon