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Kadazan people

The Kadazans are an ethnic group indigenous to the state of Sabah in Malaysia. They are found mainly in Penampang on the west coast of Sabah, the surrounding locales, and various locations in the interior.

As a result of integration in culture and language, as well as for political initiatives, the new term "Kadazan-Dusun" was created to combine the two "Kadazan" and "Dusun" groups. Together, they are the largest ethnic group in Sabah. Kadazan-Dusun has been recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004.

Origins of the term 'Kadazan'
An extensive research was carried out by Gundohing Richard Francis Tunggolou entitled, The Origins and Meanings of the terms "Kadazan" and "Dusun". The article explains in detail on the origins of the Kadazan term.

It is believed that there is evidence to suggest that the term has been used long before the 1950s. The Bobolians or the Bobohizans of Borneo were interviewed to seek a better picture of the true meaning of the term 'Kadazan'. According to a Lotud Bobolian, Bobolian Odun Badin, the term 'Kadazan' means 'the people of the land'. A Bobohizan from Penampang, Gundohing Dousia Moujing, gave a similar meaning of 'Kadazan' and reiterated that the term has always been used to refer to 'the people of the Land'.

Over a hundred years ago, the Kadazans were ruled by the Brunei Sultanate; the Kadazan or Kadayan (in Lotud, Kimaragang, Liwan etc.) were referred to officially by the Sultanate as the 'Orang Dusun' which literally means 'people of the orchard' in the Malay language. Administratively, the Kadazans were called 'Orang Dusun' by the Sultanate (or more specifically the tax-collector) but in reality the 'Orang Dusun' were Kadazans. An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in Sabah, 1881. Owen Rutter wrote in 1927 that the native people residing in Papar preferred to call themselves as Kadazans. Administratively, all Kadazans were categorised as Dusuns. Only through the establishment of the KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association) in 1960 was this terminology corrected and replaced by 'Kadazan'. When Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore and Malaya formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, administratively all Dusuns born since were referred to as Kadazans.

Initially, there were no conflicts with regard to 'Kadazan' as the identity of the 'Orang Dusun' between 1963 and 1984. In 1985, through the KDCA (formally called KCA) the term Dusun was reintroduced after much pressure from various parties desiring a division between the Kadazan and the 'Orang Dusun' once again. This was largely successful and a precursor to the fall of the ruling political state party Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS). PBS, through the KCA, then coined the new term 'Kadazandusun' to represent both the 'Orang Dusun' and 'Kadazan'. Today, both Singapore and Malaysia acknowledge the ethnic group as Kadazandusun.

Genetic studies
According to a Genome-wide SNP genotypic data studies by human genetics research team from University Malaysia Sabah (2018), the Northern Borneon Dusun (Sonsogon, Rungus, Lingkabau and Murut) are closely related to Taiwan natives (Ami, Atayal) and non–Austro-Melanesian Filipinos (Visayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Minanubu), rather than populations from other parts of Borneo Island.

Culture
Kadazan culture is heavily influenced by the farming of rice, culminating in various delicacies and alcoholic drinks prepared through differing home-brewed fermentation processes. To'omis and linutau are the main rice wine variants served and consumed in Kadazan populated areas, and are a staple of Kadazan social gatherings and ceremonies.

The most important festival of the Kadazans is the Kaamatan or harvest festival, where the spirit of the paddy is honoured after a year's harvest. This takes place in May, and the two last days of the month are public holidays throughout Sabah. During the celebration, the most celebrated event is the crowning of the Unduk Ngadau, the harvest festival beauty queen. Young women of Kadazan, Dusun, Murut or Rungus descent from certain districts compete for this title. The beauty pageant is held to commemorate the spirit of Huminodun, a mythological character of unparalleled beauty said to have given her life in exchange for a bountiful harvest for her community.

In marriages, dowries are paid to the bride's family and an elaborate negotiation is arranged between the groom and bride's families. As a traditional gesture of politeness and civility, the dowry is metaphorically laid out with match sticks on a flat surface, and representatives from each side push and pull the sticks across a boundary to denote the bargaining of the dowry. Dowries traditionally consisted of water buffaloes, pigs, sacks of rice and even urns of tapai. Modern dowry negotiations also include cash and land ownership deeds. The dowry includes the costs of the wedding with any additional costs above the price of the dowry to be paid for by the brides family. Kadazan women from the Penampang and Dusun women from the Keningau, Ranau and Tuaran districts are widely regarded to have the most expensive dowries.

While it is traditionally customary for Kadazans to marry within a village or a neighbouring village, a downshift of xenophobia over the past few decades has eased the difficulty once associated with interracial marriage. Due to the overwhelming Christian influence and some marriages to Muslim spouses, resulting in a mandatory conversion to Islam, still induces outrage and rejection and is known to divide fiercely traditional Kadazans. Islam has lately been embraced by a growing minority as a means to political ends considering the fact that the local Malay minority has gained political ascendance in recent years. Ruling Malay political parties have also openly been giving political and economical privileges to Kadazans who agree to convert to Islam as well as to other non-Christian Kadazans. Conversion to Islam, in a Malaysian context, also results in an automatic conversion by law of ethnicity to Malay (source?). The resultant demographic shift has in recent years further compounded the dwindling numbers of the Kadazan-Dusun community and consequently making it more challenging in its efforts to preserve the heritage. (statistics?)

Cuisine
Traditional Kadazan cuisine involves mostly boiling or grilling which employs little use of oil, and with locally unique modifications and nuances as well as particular usage of locally available ingredients, particularly bamboo shoots, sago and fresh water fish. From simple appetizers of unripe mango dressed with soy sauce and chili flakes to a variety of pickled foods collectively known as noonsom, tangy and pungent flavours from souring agents or fermentation techniques is a key characteristic of traditional Kadazan cooking. One of the most well known Kadazan dishes is hinava, which is similar in concept to the South American ceviche.

It is a salad made with pieces of raw fish marinated in citrus juice, ginger, onion and other ingredients like bitter gourd and grated dried bambangan seed which is similar in texture to desiccated coconut strands. This dish is sometimes served in certain Sabahan restaurants which do not otherwise have a traditional Kadazan menu.

Another popular dish is pinasakan, which consists of sea or freshwater fish (usually smaller species) cooked with bambangan (a variety of mango found in Borneo) or takob-akob (a very tart dried fruit). The bambangan fruit is also eaten with meals as an appetiser. It is often pickled as noonsom and garnished with grated bambangan seed. Tuhau is a fragrant local root that is often made into a salad or is preserved with vinegar as noonsom.

Wild boar or bakas, whether char grilled, stewed or even made into noonsom is very popular with the Kadazandusun community, often an essential item at weddings and major gatherings. Sweets include hinompuka, a type of gooey rice cake steamed in banana leaves and flavoured with dark palm sugar. The Kadazan people are also renowned for lihing, a sweet-tasting wine brewed from glutinous rice and natural yeast.

Contemporary Kadazan food is influenced by Chinese and Malay food as well as international trends, and often sees the use of traditional ingredients interpreted in new and novel ways. For example, bambangan is available as an ice cream flavour and chicken lihing soup or sup manuk nansak miampai lihing is popular with both Chinese and Kadazan communities alike. Lihing is also used in marinades, local variants of sambal relishes and even as a flavouring for stir-fried noodles.

Music and Dance
The Kadazans have also developed their own unique dance and music. Sumazau is the name of the dance between a male and female, performed by couples as well as groups of couples, which is usually accompanied by a symphony of handcrafted bronze gongs that are individually called tagung. A ceremonial ring of cloth sash is worn by both male and female. The Sumazau and gong accompaniment is typically performed during joyous ceremonies and occasions, the most common of which being wedding feasts. The sompoton is another musical instrument.

The Kadazan have a musical heritage consisting of various types of tagung ensembles – ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed gongs which act as drone without any accompanying melodic instrument. They also use kulintangan ensembles – ensembles with a horizontal-type melodic instrument.

The late Chief Priestess Bobohizan Bianti Moujing from Kg. Kandazon and the High Priestess Bobohizan Binjulin Sigayun from Kg. Hungab were consulted during their heyday on the evolution of tagung or gongs and the beats rhythm. Recently, O.K.K. Datuk Jintol Mogunting, the former District Native Chief of Penampang, who was an authority on the traditional culture and customs was also consulted and he gave similar narration of the legend that has been used for centuries of generations.

It was said that after the resurrection of Huminodun, from the original Bambaazon, the lifestyle of the Nunuk Ragang community as they were then known, began to improve as there was an abundant supply of food. The legend goes on to narrate that the spirit of Huminodun founded the Bobohizans as they were taught the art of rites, ritual practices and ceremonies, taboos, traditional cultures including the art of gong beating and the Sumazau dance. During the civilisation of Nunuk Ragang, the Bobohizans taught the people to fashion bamboos into various lengths, shapes and sizes and arranged them into an ensemble of seven musical instruments, the seventh item being the drum (gandang), which we know today as tongkungon, tongunggu and tongunggak. The Bobohizans then taught the people the beat rhythm of tagung, known today as magagung, botibas and dunsai. Another musical instrument, the Kulintangan; akin to the xylophone, would be played as an accompaniment to the magagung.

In the late 18th century, the Bruneian traders introduced brass gong canons and brasswares in North Borneo. The Kadazans were fascinated with these new brass items as they perceived the brasswares elegant and gong sound melodious. Then, they began to acquire collections of these brass times as family heirlooms and the gongs were arranged into the typical ensemble of seven instruments, to replace the bamboo gongs. Since then, the gong beats and rhythm were improved for a variety usage. The gong beats to accompany any ritual ceremonies are usually monotonous.

As for weddings, festive occasions and welcoming receptions for dignitaries, the rhythm of the gong beat is exhilarating, melodious, lively and smooth. Sometimes the botibas gong beat is performed as variation. During funerals, the dunsai gong beat is very solemn and fearsome as a symbol of respect for the dead. The single beat of a solitary gong at short intervals was used to be signal for emergencies such as house on fire and missing people who were lost in the jungle or drowning. However, there are only a few of Kadazan people that know the skills of beating the tagungs. It would require one long practice to gain experience.

It has been an issue that the present-day Kadazan youths are not inclined to gain skills in playing the traditional music instruments. Thus, magagung competitions and Sumazau competitions are organised at the village level not only to mark the Kaamatan celebrations but rather to preserve and promote the culture of Kadazan music and dance. Eventually, the competitions are held at district level where the Sumazau competitions were judged according to its choreography and the magagung according to the gong beats, rhythm and tempo.

In the early 1900s, these brass items were valuable items and became a symbol of family wealth. Once, they were highly in demand as dowries for marriage. Families that did not have them face difficulty meeting dowry requirement and would be compelled to search for these items elsewhere before the wedding. This custom still prevails in certain districts. Notably, many districts have most of the dowry converted into cash. As for the badil or canons, brassware and especially the gongs, they have become priceless and rare commodities. An ordinary set of gongs would cost about RM10,000 and the best set with high quality sound would cost around RM15,000. The original gongs, though popularly known as brass, are not entirely brass. They are actually made of composites of iron, brass and copper, to produce a smooth, reverberating and xylophonic tone. Gongs made entirely of brass are not popular because the sound produced has a flatsonic resonance.

Kulintangan or miniature gongs consist of nine ensemble and according to preference, it may be performed simultaneously with the gong to enhance the gong music. The latest type of gongs are made entirely of flat iron sheets, that were produced in Kudat. These are usually available at the weekend market or Tamu in Donggongon, Penampang in which each set would cost between RM700 to RM1,500. The sound quality of these gongs are more like cymbals clashing and shrills. People who are interested to know the best-quality melody gongs may drop by to any magagung and Sumazau competitions during Ka'amatan Harvest Festival from 30 to 31 May at the Hongkod of Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) in Penampang.

Religion
The majority of the Kadazans are Christians, mainly Catholics and some Protestants. Islam is also practised by a growing minority. Prior to the conversion to Christianity and Islam, the dominant religion was Momolianism, which some scholars equate to animism.

Animism
Animism was the predominant religion prior to the arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries during British North Borneo administration in the 1880s. The Protestant influence is due to later British influence during the 20th century. There was no "religion" for ancient Kadazan-Dusuns and to them, it was just a sort of relationship between the seen and the unseen.

The Kadazan belief system centres around a single omnipotent deity called Kinorohingan. Rice cultivation is the center of Kadazan life and as such, various rites and festivals are celebrated and revolve around paddy cultivation. Kaamatan is the most recognisable festival attributed to the Kadazan-Dusun. This annual festival is essentially a thanks-giving ceremony and in the olden days also serve to appease the rice spirit, Bambaazon. Special rituals are performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess or a spirit medium known as a Bobohizan.

Additionally, the majority of the Kadazan-Dusun people believe that the spirits of their ancestors dwell on the top of Mount Kinabalu. The Kadazans call this mountain Akinabalu which consists of two words 'Aki' which means ancestors and Nabalu (or Nabahu) that means 'coffin'. Thus combined, Akinabalu means 'abode of the dead'. Bobohizan does a ritual every year to appease the guiding spirit of the mount. The purpose of conducting such rituals is to placate the spirit of Mount Kinabalu as well as the ancestral spirits. The religious ceremonies are understood to be a means of seeking the spirit's sanction and soliciting their protection during a climb.

The Kadazan community as a ritual isolate is in constant interaction with the spirit world. This involves a number of sacrificial ceremonies to create a balanced ritual state between the Kadazans and the spirit world. The Kadazans believe in four principal spirits; the Almighty Creator (Minamangun), a living person's spirit (koduduvo), the ghostly spirit of the dead (tombivo) and the evil spirit (ogon).

The significance of Bobohizan
When asking for help from a Bobohizan to cure someone's prolonged or severe illness, the priestess is usually called upon. The Bobohizan would be informed with the latest information that will give her a good background in locating to the cause of sickness.

Bobohizans can also do preliminary consultations with the susukuon or the good spirit consultants. Before the Bobohizan goes to the house of the sick person the next day, she firstly would have to consult her susukuon the night before as to find the best way possible, determining the right offerings she could approach in the healing ceremony. She will then know whether a chicken, a pig or even a buffalo would be needed as a sacrifice. At some time, it may only take a simple inait or prayer to heal the sick. There are a number of inait or prayers that a Bobohizan has to choose depending on the cause of the sickness. The basic is the popo'ontong or sumuku to get in touch with the good spirit consultants for further guidance.

The Bobohizan may proceed to any of the following or other form of prayers which are; searching for strayed spirit of the sick person and preparing for its homecoming, appeasing the evil spirits that cause the person's sickness with the offerings, reaching the stage of Rundukon or being in the trance of possible dialogue with the evil spirit in which the priestess becomes the oracle for communicating in attempt to know the evil spirit's intentions. It is the longest performance of the Bobohizan that could last for almost 24 hours.

They also can read the prayers to 'cleanse the debris' that has been induced into the person's body by evil spirit, cure a person from the effects of black magic and liberate a sick person from the grip or disturbance of the dead. After being treated by Bobohizan for a day, sometimes for three days, one is not allowed to go out from the house.

The honouring of Bambaazon
In preparation for the ceremony, the village priestess carefully select stalks of paddy and ties them together just before the harvesting period starts. These stalks are left in the field and not to be cut or tampered with until the harvesting is completed. The selected stalks of paddy symbolise the spirit of paddy, which is Bambaazon. As soon as the harvest is over, these stalks are cut by the priestess and taken into the house of the owner of the field. The spirit would be in the house. Magavau will then take place when the padi is winnowed and stored away into the barns.

The ceremony of Magavau
The ceremony of Magavau begins just after sunset. The priestess and her attendants sit on the floor in the living room and start chanting ancient prayers (inaait) to Bambaazon. This continues further into the night. Thereafter, the priestess and attendants stand up and circle slowly around the living room, while chanting. After a while, they start to sing songs of praise to Bambaazon. At this stage, the men join in the circle, singing together with the priestess and attendants. As they sing, they stamp their feet on the floor in rhythmic timing and at regular intervals uttering the awe-insparing "pangkis" which is the triumphant cry of the Kadazans. This ceremony will go on until the break of dawn when preparations are made to feed Bambaazon with the fermented rice (habot), with ingredients similar to tapai, prepared especially for the Bambaazon in the previous evening and tapai. The ceremony ends with merry making as a mark of thanksgiving. Bambaazon stays in the house, guarding the paddy in the barn until the next planting season when another ceremony known as monogit is performed to take 'her' to the paddy field.

Here is an instance of the prayers or incantations,

Odoi kada' kati gangang arai kotunguan ko do pa'is otimbaar ko do sadap odoi kososodop zou do mogiginipi kosou ku do nokotimung kito do pamakanan do karamaian diti Nga ino noh maan zou do mamagavau do paai diti do ounsikou nodi kaka do Bambaazon do kosuni vagu do to'un tiso do ka'anu no vagu kotimung kito om ogumu' nodi do pamakanan tokou mantad do paai

Historical beliefs
The ancestors of present-day Kadazans were among the people who have migrated from Taiwan. They can be referred to as Taiwanese aborigines (Formosan people). A research has stated, "Over the next thousand years to 1500 BC, the Austronesians spread south through the Philippines to the Celebes, the Moluccas, northern Borneo and eastern Java. One branch went east from the Moluccan Island of Halmahera about 1600 BC to colonize eastern Melanesia (1200 BC) and Micronesia (500 BC). The migration had continued well into Polynesia by 0 AD and on to Hawaii and Easter Island by the year 500. The Austronesians finally reached the last uninhabited land on earth, New Zealand, sometime around 1300."

There is a contrary belief that the ancestors of the Kadazans came from Yunnan. If there is some truth in this, the question arises whether or not they migrated first to Taiwan and then went southwards at a later period.

The discovery in 1958 of the 37,000 year-old "Deep Skull" of a Homo sapiens by Tom and Barbara Harrisson in the Niah Caves in Baram in present-day Sarawak, led some to propose the "out of Borneo" theory of human migration in parts of Asia.

Nunuk Ragang era
Prehistoric Kadazan can be traced back to the time in which the Nunuk Ragang tree had existed. It is roughly located to-date at Tampias, where two rivers (Liwagu and Gelibang) meet to the east of Ranau and Tambunan. Nunuk is a Dusun word for banyan tree. Ragang as well comes from the Dusun word "aragang", which means "red". Nunuk looks like a giant mangrove tree with highly developed buttress stems with deep indentions that provide good natural shelters. The Nunuk Ragang or 'the red banyan tree' as told by the old folks, Widu Tambunan, measured of six out-stretched arms in circumference. The top of its canopy was estimated to be able to shelter under its seven joined Kadazan-Dusun huts, in which a hut measures 12 by 20 feet. Its numerous branches and giant thick foliage provided for ideal shelter and habitat of wild life, birds, insects and even spirits according to local beliefs. It was believed that the roots of the giant tree produced red latex that had a great medicinal value. In fact, the Nunuk's latex is still used to treat rashes and other minor skin diseases in modern days.

Evacuation from the Nunuk Ragang area due to the Minorit Push of Nunuk Ragang, was decided through a meeting between the Bobohizans and the people. The leaders had made an agreement that the Tagahas (literally "strong") people were given a role to be the rear guard while others were immediately leaving Nunuk Ragang. River tributaries became their principal guidance to the direction of migrating. Each group's direction of migration is guided by the flow of Liwagu River. A Bobohizan said that, had the Kadazan-Dusuns not moved out of Nunuk Ragang, they would have not existed today.

The Kadazan and Rungus migrated out of Nunuk Ragang through Labuk River. The grouping of Kadazan and Rungus later arrived in Tempasuk, Kota Belud through the Marak-Parak valley. This is where they made the decision to split, in which one group would be heading to Matunggong, Kudat and the other would be heading to the West Coast, particularly Penampang and Papar. Initially, the Kadazans' settlement was an area with an abundant growth of mangroves ("tangar-tangar"), the area is believed to be present-day Beluran. Hence, they are referred to as Tangara or Tangaa. As for the Rungus, they had reached an area described to have the presence of white sand ("pirungusan"), which gives an explanation of how the Rungus obtained their demonym.

The Kadazan and Rungus share similarities in their languages, most probably because of the close relationship at Nunuk Ragang. As they settled the West Coast, the Kadazans met the Bruneians and other settlers. Barter trade occurred in which the Kadazans had their gongs, copper and silver wares, necklaces and bangles from the Bruneians.

P.S. Shim's theory
According to P.S. Shim's book "Inland People of Sabah: Before, During and After Nunuk Ragang" published in 2007, states that the ancestors of the Kadazandusuns came from Baram, Sarawak starting from the year 1200.

P.S. Shim insisted that the Kadazan tribe settled the plains of Kimanis, Papar around 1220. Another group which identify themselves as the Tatana tribe settled in Bundu, Kuala Penyu. Subsequently, a great number of Kadazans migrated from Papar to Putatan-Penampang in the 1800s. Specifically, the first group was the Tangaa group. The second group was given the name 'Bangkaakon', which followed afterwards.

There was a war between the Tangaa and Bangkaakon which is believed to have occurred somewhere in Tombovo, Putatan. The altercation was impactful enough that the Bangkaakon group had to move out and consequently made a settlement in an area known today as Minintod, Inanam.

Kadazan in Rungus folk tale
According to the legends that are told from generation to generation, the so-called Momogun Rungus was founded by a man who was persecuted by his brothers because he had various skills. He was good at making animal traps and making weapons which were capable of protecting his community then. It was because of his skills, he was persecuted. This caused him to be punished with his faithful wife and people by banishing them into the ocean.

The ships that they had boarded, were stranded on the island of Borneo, so they headed to Pampang Nabalu for religious purposes. He called himself an 'Usan-Usan', who had no family as he was being persecuted by his own siblings.

While they were there, they were resurrected with religious spirits, following their worship of Lumaag Nabalu. Religious ceremonies continued to evolve as they were increasingly crowded. A religious figure proficient in law who inherited the customs of Usan-Usan was Aki Bobolizan Gomburon. As the crowd grew more, they felt that it was necessary for the laws of the society to be gazetted according to the rules of Usan-Usan.

Aki Bobolizan Gomburon enforced the most stringent Law of Gomburon that if someone committed adultery, they would be drowned into water by inserting them into a trap or 'diaper' alongside a large stone. The stone must be chosen by the offender. If anyone intentionally murdered (someone or something), then the person would be punished as well.

These rules continued until Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk received a revelation from Lumaag Nabalu to abolish the Law of Gomburon. According to the revelation, any sin may be redeemed or paid with a slaughter which was referred to as "mangaraha" (pork slaughter). All sins that could be redeemed with slaughter of lives, should be redeemed through the sacrifice of one's livestock. This task was done by a "Bobolizan", which roughly means "payer of sin and middle person in begging for forgiveness to Kinoringan". The meaning of "Bobolizan", derived from the Rungus word "bwolzi" which means "to buy". Pigs that were used to get a blessing or ask forgiveness from Kinoringan cannot be called "vogok/wogok" ("a pig") but it should be called "bwolzi". "Bwolzi" refers to the role of the animal in sacrifice as a redeemer so that the offender can get a new spirit after sin redemption.

Then, the Momogun population grew more and more during the era of Aki Nunuk Ragang. Aki Nunuk Ragang was the most well-known Bobolizan in developing the teachings of Labus religion (animism). Before Aki Nunuk Ragang passed away, Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk received a message from Lumaag Nabalu. This message was regarding a new rule in which the three sons of Aki Nunuk Ragang must migrate to anywhere else because Lumaag Nabalu told that all the rivers flowing from Mount Kinabalu to the sea, belonged to Momogun. Therefore, the Momogun grandchildren or descendants should choose a high place, a hill or the highest mountain in any area they would settle at. All the rivers that flowed to the sea from the highest hills were the places guarded by the spirit of Lumaag Nabalu by inviting it through a ceremony called Momurinaait (mentioning seven names of the main spirits that guarded the Momogun).

Bobolizan Guraumanuk's teachings were developed by Aki Nunuk Ragang. All of Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk's will was proclaimed by Aki Nunuk Ragang. Three sons of Aki Nunuk Ragang were Aki Rungsud (ancestor of the Rungus), Aki Longuvai (ancestor of the Kadazan) and Aki Turumpok (ancestor of all Dusun tribes).

Aki Nunuk Ragang sent his sons Aki Rungsud (the eldest son) and Aki Longuvai (second son) to the coast by conquering Pompod Tana (Kudat, Kota Marudu and Pitas) so as not to be disturbed by Mizonvaig's invasions. According to the message they received through the Rundukon (approached by Lumaag that spoke in an incomprehensible language), told that the meeting area rahat kotonobwon (sea to the west) and rahat kosilzahon (sea to the east) began to be invaded by outsiders (pirates). Aki Nunuk Ragang decided to take control of the entire coastal area to keep the people safe. Therefore, the men responsible for the security of the coast were Aki Rungsud and Aki Longuvai.

Aki Turumpok as the youngest son was regarded as Tandon Tongkob (inheriting father's house) in which Aki Turumpok inherited his father's home. Tandon Tongkob still exists in the custom of the Rungus people today. "Tandon tongkob" means "the content or occupant that remains in the room". So, Aki Turumpok was the heir of Kg. Nunuk Ragang and became a leader there.

Soon, Aki Nunuk Ragang died and was buried near a deep lake. The lake is located in the present place called Kampung Tampias in the area of Lubuk Sugut, Sandakan. According to legend, after 40 days Aki Nunuk Ragang was buried, on the day of the ceremony "Mongupus", there grew a fig tree at the middle of Aki Nunuk Ragang's grave. The fig tree was quite different because it was red and if the leaves were scratched, the tree would release human blood. Then, the people of Aki Nunuk Ragang worshipped the tree and named it Nunuk Ragang because they believed the tree was the incarnation of Aki Nunuk Ragang.

Aki Rungsud managed to conquer Pompod Tana and their descendants were referred to as Momogun Rungus. Meanwhile, Aki Longuvai was struggling. He was not willing to leave Nunuk Ragang for his wife was heavily pregnant and they would follow Aki Rungsud later. Aki Rungsud's journey would be marked with kukurungan (chicken cages) as indications. It was because every hilltop which would have been passed by Aki Rungsud, required a chicken to be sacrificed in order to call upon the guarding spirit of Borneo, Lumaag, and as the declaration of power over the territory they had passed through.

When Aki Longuvai was tracking his brother's route, he had mistaken the direction. This was all due to one route, in which there were two pathways that were going towards opposite directions. Kukurungan marked by Aki Rungsud throughout the pathway of the journey unfortunately had been moved by a person with a bad intention, to the false position. As a result, Aki Longuvai was lost in the journey of tracking Aki Rungsud's path until they reached Pinampang or Penampang area ("Pinampang" most probably comes from the Kadazan/Rungus word "pampang" which means "large rocks"). They lacked the supply of food then they decided to make a hillyard there.

After a long time, they did not come to Pompod Tana. Aki Rungsud eventually found out through Lumaag that Aki Longuvai was lost. Aki Rungsud instructed his men to find Aki Longuvai and luckily they found Aki Longuvai in Pinampang. The servants of Aki Rungsud invited Aki Longuvai to join a mission in Pompod Tana but Aki Longuvai declined the invitation. This was because Aki Longuvai was not willing to live in a war and to be in the state of emergency there. To fulfill their father's request, Aki Nunuk Ragang kodori (the late), Aki Longuvai promised to send his eldest son, Aki Bulun who was born after they came out of Nunuk Ragang. Aki Bulun, without anyone, came to Pompod Tana when he was 17 years old. Aki Bulun however was accompanied by seven extraordinary or highly immune dogs that were said able to beat a tiger.

In the session of dividing Pompod Tana into certain areas, Aki Bulun and Aki Rungsud made divisions of the area by marking the boundaries through a method that was by how far the sound of Aki Rungsud's gong could be heard. Thus, the attentive observers were camping at every hilltop in the Pompod Tana area at that time to hear the gong sounds. If the sound of the gong could not be heard any more, then a spear would be pierced into the ground, called Binorudan. Binorudan was a spear used by coastal warriors which was as large as a yacht paddle, moderate in size.

Today, Aki Bulun's descendants are known as Rungus Gonsomon who once dominated the east coast of Kudat. If further detailed, the language of Rungus Gonsomon is almost the same as the Kadazan language. Due to the large number of dialects in Kadazan-Dusun ethnicity, it is believed that the original language used before the separation of Aki Rungsud and Aki Longuvai was Momogun Rungus. As the colonialists initially colonised the Penampang area, it had an early development with the establishment of shops for the colonial business's interests at that time. According to the ancestors, the people of Aki Longuvai who settled in the area of "kedai-kedai" or shops, were originally known as Kadazan people. In Rungus, kakadazan refers to "shops" or basically a town. When the Aki Rungsud people refer to the Aki Longuvai people, they would call them tulun antad sid kakadazan which means "people from the shop areas or more advanced place."

The Nunuk Ragang area, after a while, became a place of chaos because Aki Turumpok abandoned the Labus religious laws (animism). Aki Turumpok was more likely to be in the competition of magical powers which resulted in the Nunuk Ragang area getting a kopizo (a bad sign). Whatever they do would result in contention and hostility to one another. This condition ended with the spreading of a disease because the mamasi ceremony was not performed.

Language
The Kadazan dialect has adopted several loanwords, particularly from other northern Borneo indigenous languages and also Malay.

The use of the language has been declining due to the use of Malay by the Malaysian federal government and by the use of English by missionaries, which was done through the method of language shift enforced by the work of both the colonial and federal governments. The state of Sabah has introduced policies to prevent this decline, which is also happening to other native Sabahan languages. This included the policy of using Kadazan and other indigenous languages in public schools. Efforts have also been done to allow the language to become official in the state.

In an earlier 2005 Unesco's report, the Kadazan-Dusun language was classified as an endangered language, spoken by a mere 300,000 people. The language has apparently joined the 7,000 other languages worldwide that face the threat of extinction. On the bright side, Datuk Philip Lasimbang, Chair of Board of Directors Kadazandusun Language Foundation (KLF) had stated that the Kadazandusun language will never go extinct because it has entered our education system, is formalised and has been institutionalised.

The similarities between the Kadazan and Dusun languages are sufficient for speakers of these two languages to understand each other easily. In a nutshell, the most salient distinction between these two languages are the differences in their phonemic charts.

Unification
Presently, the Kadazans are associated together with another similar indigenous tribe, the Dusuns and various other indigenous peoples, under the blanket term Kadazan-Dusun. This is officially recognised as the result of political machinations, specifically a resolution of the 5th KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association, which was then renamed to Kadazan-Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA)) Delegates Conference held between 4 and 5 November 1989. It was decided as the best alternative approach to resolve the "Kadazan" or "Dusun" identity crisis that had crippled and impeded the growth and development of the Kadazan-Dusun multi-ethnic community socio-culturally, economically and politically – ever since Kadazan versus Dusun sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s.

Kadazans and Dusuns share some similarity in language and culture albeit with differences in dialect. Many consider their traditional geographical influences as the major difference between the two ethnic groups. Kadazans are mainly inhabitants of the flat valley deltas, conducive to paddy field farming, while Dusuns are traditionally inhabitants of the hilly and mountainous regions common to the interior of Sabah.

Indigenous status
Being indigenous to Sabah and a part of Malaysia, Kadazans are conferred the same political, educational and economic rights as the predominant Malay population of Malaysia. The term ascribed to this is Bumiputra (from Sanskrit Bhumiputra), a Malay word, which is translated to 'Sons of the Land'.

title: Kadazan people


text:
Bournonite

Bournonite, also axotomous antimony glance, wheel ore, berthonite, volchite or dystomic glance (antimonbleikupferblende) is a sulfosalt mineral species, trithioantimoniate of lead and copper with the formula PbCuSbS3.

It was first mentioned by Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as an ore of antimony and was more completely described in 1804 by French crystallographer and mineralogist Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon (1751–1825), after whom it was named. The name given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since used in the form endellionite, after St Endellion, the locality in Cornwall where the mineral was first found.

The crystals are orthorhombic, and are generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the basal pinacoid; numerous smooth bright faces are often developed on the edges and corners of the crystals. They are usually twinned, the twin-plane being a face of the prism (m); the angle between the faces of this prism being nearly a right angle (86° 20′), the twinning gives rise to cruciform groups and when it is often repeated the group has the appearance of a cog-wheel, hence the name Rãdelerz (wheel-ore) of the Kapnik miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae, which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the massive material.

It is a mineral in medium temperature hydrothermal vein deposits. It commonly occurs with galena, tetrahedrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, stibnite, zinkenite, siderite, quartz, rhodochrosite, dolomite and barite.

It was first described for an occurrence in Wheal Boys in the parish of St Endellion in Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, sphalerite and siderite. Later, still better crystals were found in another Cornish mine, namely, Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which was worked for argentiferous galena. Fine crystals of large size have been found with quartz and siderite in the mines at Neudorf in the Harz, and with sphalerite and tetrahedrite at Cavnic near Baia Mare in Romania. It has been reported from a large number of other localities.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bournonite


text:
Talk:I Mother Earth

Another spin around the sun
Former lead singer Edwin also had a solo career and could use an article. Edwin currently redirects to Edwin of Northumbria... Samaritan 12:48, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * There is now one in place. Check Edwin (musician) for that... Anon 16:42, 13 August 2005 (UTC)

IME originated in Peterborough, Ontario?
There is no mention of Peterborough in the article body. Spallen 17:59, 9 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The Tannas are from Peterborough, and Edwin is from Toronto. They met in Toronto, and those three are the founding members, so I don't know where Peterborough factors in. Anon 15:33, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

There is now a reference to Peterborough because three of the band members currently live there, one does not, and the band members' geography has resulted in some changes to their touring lineup. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.219.69.213 (talk) 00:33, 30 July 2012 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Imotherearth.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 23:27, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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title: Talk:I Mother Earth


text:
Manuel García

Manuel Garcia may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Manuel García (tenor) (1775–1832), Spanish singer and composer, father of Manuel Patricio Rodríguez García
 * Manuel García (baritone) (1805–1906), Spanish singer & voice pedagogue; son of Manuel García (tenor)
 * Manuel García Ferré (1929–2013), Spanish comic book artist
 * Manuel García (singer-songwriter) (born 1970), Chilean singer-songwriter
 * Manolo García (make-up artist) (aka Manuel García), Spanish make-up artist

Military

 * Garcí Manuel de Carbajal (died 1552), Spanish lieutenant
 * Manuel García Banqueda (1803–1872), Chilean Minister of War and Navy
 * Manuel García de la Huerta (fl. 1877–1878), Chilean Minister of War and Navy
 * Manuel Rebollo García (born 1945), Spanish Navy admiral

Politics and law

 * Manuel José García (1784–1848), Argentine politician, lawyer, economist and diplomat
 * Manuel García (governor) (fl. 1826–1829), Spanish governor of Melilla
 * Manuel García Prieto, Marquis of Alhucemas (1859–1938), Spanish prime minister
 * Manuel García Pelayo (1909–1991), Spanish jurist

Association football

 * Manuel García (footballer, born 1980), Argentinian football forward
 * Manuel García (footballer, born 1985), Chilean football midfielder
 * Manuel García (footballer, born 8 July 1988), Argentine football goalkeeper
 * Manuel García (footballer, born 31 July 1988), Mexican football defender
 * Manu García (disambiguation), several players

Other sports

 * Cocaína García (Manuel García Carranza, 1905–1995), Cuban baseball player
 * Manuel García (boxer) (born 1935), Spanish Olympic boxer
 * Manuel García (biathlete) (born 1955), Spanish Olympic biathlete
 * Manuel García (cyclist) (born 1964), cyclist from Guam

Others

 * Manuel Pereiras García (born 1950), Cuban author and translator
 * Manuel Garcia-Duran, Spanish businessman

Other uses

 * Manuel Garcia, Texas, a census-designated place in Starr County, Texas, United States

title: Manuel García


text:
User:ZacParkplatz

I'm interested in the organisation of information. I have a PhD in Computing_Science from Newcastle University.

I am bisexual and a Buddhist, both of which are minority concerns that suffer from widespread misconceptions. I would like to do what I can to help change this.

I'm also, more generally, interested in:

title: User:ZacParkplatz


text:
File:Jackson Heights 1.jpg

Jackson Heights, Queens is among the most diverse communities in the world. This picture shows Roosevelt Avenue below the elevated No. 7 train line that defines the Southern edge of the community. April 24, 2005.

Attribution 2.5

You are free:

to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work to make derivative works to make commercial use of the work Under the following conditions:

For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you get permission from the copyright holder. Your fair use and other rights are in no way affected by the above.

title: File:Jackson Heights 1.jpg


text:
Richard Egan (actor)

Richard Egan (July 29, 1921 – July 20, 1987) was an American actor. After beginning his career in 1949, he subsequently won a Golden Globe Award for his performances in the films The Glory Brigade (1953) and The Kid from Left Field (1953). He went on to star in many films such as Underwater! (1955), Seven Cities of Gold (1955), The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956), Love Me Tender (1956), Tension at Table Rock (1956), A Summer Place (1959), Esther and the King (1960) and The 300 Spartans (1962).

Early life
Egan was born and raised in San Francisco, California of Irish descent, graduated from St. Ignatius College Preparatory. He won a public-speaking competition in 1938 that helped fire his interest in performing. He was supported by his brother who was a priest.

Egan was interested in drama and studied it while doing a BA at the University of San Francisco. He left in 1943 and served in the United States Army as a judo and knife fighting instructor during World War II. He served a year in the Philippines and was discharged with the rank of captain.

"The war had given me time to think", he later said, "and to decide what I really wanted to do. I think I had always been an actor in my mind, but now I was going to be one in public, too. Right out in front of everybody."

When Egan returned, he went back to school to earn a master's degree in theater history from Stanford University, with the help of the G.I. Bill. From there, he went on to teach public speaking at Northwestern University. While at Northwestern, he appeared in thirty campus stage productions and was eventually spotted by a Warner Bros talent scout, Solly Bioano, who encouraged him to try Hollywood.

Career
Egan had a series of unsuccessful screen tests. He eventually got a bit role in the 1949 Hollywood film The Story of Molly X, at Universal. He had small roles in The Good Humor Man (1950) starring Jack Carson, at Columbia; The Damned Don't Cry (1950) (as Joan Crawford's husband) and Return of the Frontiersman (1950) with Gordon MacRae and Rory Calhoun, both at Warners; and The Killer That Stalked New York (1950) with Evelyn Keyes, at Columbia.

Universal
In June 1950 Egan signed a contract with Universal. There he had supporting roles in Wyoming Mail (1950), Undercover Girl (1950), Kansas Raiders (1950); Highway 301 (1950); Bright Victory (1951); and Up Front (1951). Egan later described these roles as saying things like "Charlie, go outside! The horses are ready."

He was billed third on the screen (but sixth on the posters) as a police investigator in Hollywood Story (1951), directed by William Castle, and billed fourth in the swashbuckler The Golden Horde (1951).

Egan was also in Flame of Araby (1951) and The Battle at Apache Pass (1952).

Edward Small cast him in a support role in Cripple Creek (1952). Egan went to RKO for One Minute to Zero (1952) and MGM for The Devil Makes Three (1952), shot in Germany. He did "Let George Do It" on TV for Hollywood Opening Night (1952).

Egan had support roles in RKO's Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) starring Robert Newton and Split Second (1953).

Egan supported Victor Mature in The Glory Brigade (1953), a war movie at 20th Century Fox, then had a small part in The Kid from Left Field (1953). He did "Malaya Incident" and "Double Bet" for Ford Television Theatre(1953).

Egan's career received a boost when a casting director, according to Egan, said "Take off your shirt!", and then cast him in a small role in Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954), as a gladiator who fights Victor Mature.

This led to Egan's first leading role, in Edward Small's Wicked Woman (1953). On TV he did "Go Away a Winner" for Schlitz Playhouse (1954), then had another lead in a low budget movie, Gog (1954), produced by Ivan Tors.

Small used him as a leading man again in Khyber Patrol (1954). He was used by RKO to costar with Jane Russell in Underwater! (1955). It led to Hedda Hopper declaring Egan to be one of the most promising actors of 1954.

20th Century Fox
In July 1954, Darryl F. Zanuck of Fox offered Egan a seven-year contract at two films a year.

Egan was billed third in Fox's Untamed (1955), supporting Tyrone Power and Susan Hayward, taking a role that Victor Mature turned down. He was billed second in Fox's Violent Saturday (1955), directed by Richard Fleischer, starring Mature. The film was a success.

Fox announced him for Women in the Woods with Sheree North and Rita Moreno but it was not made.

Stardom
Egan was top-billed in Fox's Seven Cities of Gold (1955), an adventure film. He had the star part in The View from Pompey's Head (1955), which was well received.

He starred in The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956), opposite Jane Russell again (playing a part turned down by Marilyn Monroe).

Egan went to RKO for a Western, Tension at Table Rock (1956). He followed this with another Western at Fox, Love Me Tender (1956), where Egan was top-billed. It was a success at the box office. However this was attributed to the third-billed actor who played Egan's character's brother, Elvis Presley, whose first film it was. The success of the film saw Egan voted as the 13th biggest star in the US according to an exhibitor poll.

Egan signed a contract with Universal where he made Slaughter on Tenth Avenue (1957), and Voice in the Mirror (1958).

Back at Fox, Egan starred with Robert Mitchum and Robert Wagner in The Hunters (1958), and Don Murray in These Thousand Hills (1959).

Egan had another hit with A Summer Place (1959) at Warner Bros. which co-starred Sandra Dee and Troy Donahue.

In 1960, Egan appeared with Jane Wyman and Hayley Mills in Disney's Pollyanna. He co-starred with Joan Collins in Fox's Esther and the King (1960).

Egan was Rod Serling's first choice to narrate The Twilight Zone, because of his distinctive voice. However, contractual issues got in the way, and Serling himself narrated instead, rather than select any actor other than his first choice.

Egan played the lead role of Leonidas I in Fox's The 300 Spartans (1962).

Television
Egan starred in the NBC Western dramatic series, Empire, which aired from September 25, 1962 to December 31, 1963. In the shortened second season, the program was renamed Redigo after Egan's character, ranch manager Jim Redigo.

When the series ended Egan starred in a TV thriller Fanfare for a Death Scene (1964). He did "Massacre at Fort Phil Kearney" for Theatre of Stars (1966) and the TV movie Valley of Mystery (1967).

In 1966, when asked about his lack of film roles, he said, "They want anti-heroes now, and it's just not for me. I'm just not right for that. It's much easier to be cynical than to make a positive statement, to set up a man only to knock him down, than to show convincingly a man who successfully sticks by his beliefs. We desperately need something to give strength and fortitude to the lost. I want to be a part of that. Part of the solution. And if I can't . . . well . . . I'm sure not interested in becoming part of the problem instead."

Egan had the lead in some low-budget films, Chubasco (1968) and The Destructors (1969) and starred opposite Lana Turner in The Big Cube (1969).

Egan had the lead in Moonfire (1970) and co-starred with Barbara Stanwyck in The House That Would Not Die.

He had the lead in the TV movie The Day of the Wolves (1971) and a support part in Left Hand of Gemini (1972) and Shootout in a One Dog Town (1974).

Later roles
Egan began guest starring on TV series such as The Streets of San Francisco, Matt Helm, The Quest, and Police Story.

He had a lead in Throw Out the Anchor! (1974).

In 1974, he returned to the stage and for the next 8 years toured extensively in stage productions starting with No Hard Feelings. (1974 until 1976). In 1976 he appeared in Time Out For Ginger, 1976 to 1979 in Hanky Panky, 1979 to 1981 in Broken Up and 1982 in I Ought To Be In Pictures.

Egan had the lead in a TV movie, Mission to Glory: A True Story (1977), and co starred with Robert Mitchum in The Amsterdam Kill (1977) and starred in the low-budget Western The Sweet Creek County War (1979).

Egan joined the political soap opera, Capitol, as a recurring character in 1982.

Personal life
Egan met his wife, Patricia Hardy, in 1956.

The couple married on June 7, 1958, in San Francisco and remained together until Egan's death in July 1987. The couple had four daughters — Patricia, Kathleen, Colleen, and Maureen Egan, a writer and music video director — as well as a son, Richard Egan Jr., who founded Vagrant Records.

Egan died in Santa Monica, California, on July 20, 1987, of prostate cancer at age 65. He was remembered in The New York Times as being, "known for his roles as a tough leading man in action films and Westerns." He is interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.

Partial filmography

 * The Story of Molly X (1949) – Police Detective (uncredited)
 * The Good Humor Man (1950) – Officer Daley
 * The Damned Don't Cry! (1950) – Roy Whitehead
 * Return of the Frontiersman (1950) – Cowhand (uncredited)
 * The Killer That Stalked New York (1950) – Treasury Agent Owney (uncredited)
 * Wyoming Mail (1950) – Beale
 * Undercover Girl (1950) – Jess Faylen
 * Kansas Raiders (1950) – First Lieutenant
 * Highway 301 (1950) – Herbie Brooks
 * Up Front (1951) – Capa
 * Bright Victory (1951) – Sgt. John Masterson
 * Hollywood Story (1951) – Police Lt. Bud Lennox
 * The Golden Horde (1951) – Gill
 * Flame of Araby (1951) – Captain Fezil
 * The Battle at Apache Pass (1952) – Sgt. Reuben Bernard
 * Cripple Creek (1952) – Strap Galland alias Gillis
 * One Minute to Zero (1952) – Capt. Ralston
 * The Devil Makes Three (1952) – Lt. Parker
 * Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) – Briggs
 * Split Second (1953) – Dr. Neal Garven
 * The Glory Brigade (1953) – Sgt. Johnson
 * The Kid from Left Field (1953) – Billy Lorant
 * Wicked Woman (1953) – Matt Bannister
 * Gog (1954) – Dr. David Sheppard
 * Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) – Dardanius
 * Khyber Patrol (1954) – Capt. Kyle Cameron
 * Underwater! (1955) – Johnny Gray
 * Untamed (1955) – Kurt Hout
 * Violent Saturday (1955) – Boyd Fairchild
 * Seven Cities of Gold (1955) – Jose Mendoza
 * The View from Pompey's Head (1955) – Anson 'Sonny' Page
 * The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956) – Jim Blair
 * Tension at Table Rock (1956) – Wes Tancred
 * Love Me Tender (1956) – Vance Reno
 * Slaughter on Tenth Avenue (1957) – William "Bill" Keating
 * Voice in the Mirror (1958) – Jim Burton
 * The Hunters (1958) – Colonel Dutch Imil
 * These Thousand Hills (1959) – Jehu
 * A Summer Place (1959) – Ken Jorgenson
 * Pollyanna (1960) – Dr. Edmond Chilton
 * Esther and the King (1960) – King Ahasuerus
 * The 300 Spartans (1962) – King Leonidas
 * Chubasco (1967) – Sebastian
 * The Destructors (1968) – Dan Street
 * The Big Cube (1969) – Frederick Lansdale
 * Downhill Racer (1969) – Extra in bar scene (uncredited)
 * Moonfire (1970) – Sam Blue
 * The House That Would Not Die (1970, TV movie) – Pat McDougal
 * The Day of the Wolves (1971) – Pete Anderson
 * Throw Out the Anchor! (1974) – Jonathon
 * Mission to Glory: A True Story (1977) – Father Eusibio Francisco Kino
 * The Amsterdam Kill (1977) – Ridgeway
 * The Sweet Creek County War (1979) – Judd Firman

title: Richard Egan (actor)


text:
Mia De Vits

Marie Louise "Mia" De Vits (born 31 March 1950) is a Belgian politician.

De Vits started her career with the socialist trade union ABVV in 1973, rising through the ranks to become Secretary-General (1989–2002) and its chairman (2002–2004).

In 2004 De Vits went into elective politics and was elected a Member of the European Parliament (2004–2009) with the Socialistische Partij-Anders, part of the Socialist Group. She sat on the European Parliament's Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection. She was a substitute for the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs.

In 2009 she was elected to the Flemish Parliament and served from 2009 to 2014. She retired from politics after the 2014 regional elections.

Education

 * 1971: Degree in social sciences

Career

 * 1971–1973: Freelance journalist with VRT-TV (Flemish Radio and Television Company)
 * 1973–1984: Policy adviser, General Federation of Belgian Labour (ABVV/FGTB)
 * 1984–1989: Federal Secretary, ABVV
 * 1989–2002: Secretary-General, ABVV
 * 2002–2004: Chairwoman of the ABVV
 * 1989–2004: Member of the executive board of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
 * 1989–2004: Member of the executive committee, European Trade Union Confederation
 * Member of the Governing Body of the International Labour Organization, Geneva
 * 2004–2009: Member of the European Parliament
 * 2009–2014: Member of the Flemish Parliament

title: Mia De Vits


text: User talk:195.194.86.98

title: User talk:195.194.86.98


text:
User:Sopiro~enwiki

Sopiro

title: User:Sopiro~enwiki


text:
Marc-Théodore Bourrit

Marc-Théodore Bourrit (1739–1819) was a traveller and writer from the Republic of Geneva.

Biography
Marc-Théodore Bourrit came of a family which was of French origin but had taken refuge at Geneva for reasons connected with religion. His father was a watchmaker there, and he himself was educated in his native city. He was a good artist and etcher, and also a pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love of music he was made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the former cathedral) at Geneva.

This post enabled him to devote himself to the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a great passion ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near Geneva. In 1775 he made the first ascent of the Buet (3096 m) by the now usual route from the Pierre à Bérard, on which the great flat rock known as the Table au Chantre still preserves his memory. In 1784–1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. On the other hand, he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Géant (3371 m), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also among the mountains of the Valais and the Bernese Oberland.

He received a pension from Louis XVI, and was named the historiographe des Alpes by Emperor Joseph II, who visited him at Geneva. His last visit to Chamonix was in 1812.

Bourrit's writings are composed in a naive, sentimental and rather pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific study. His chief works are the Description des glacières de Savoye, 1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775–1776), the Description des Alpes pennines et rhétiennes (2 vols., 1781), and the Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes, (2 vols., 1803), while his Itinéraire de Genève, Lausanne et Chamouni, first published in 1791, went through several editions in his lifetime.

Works

 * Description des glacières de Savoye, 1773. English translation, Norwich, 1775–1776.
 * Itinéraire de Genève. Lausanne et Chamouni, 1791; with several editions.
 * Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes, 2 vols., 1803.
 * Itinéraire de Genève. Lausanne et Chamouni, 1791; with several editions.
 * Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes, 2 vols., 1803.

title: Marc-Théodore Bourrit


text:
Informetrics

Informetrics is the study of quantitative aspects of information, it is an extension and evolution of traditional bibliometrics and scientometrics. Informetrics uses bibliometrics and scientometrics methods to study mainly the problems of literature information management and evaluation of science and technology. Informetrics is an independent discipline that uses quantitative methods from mathematics and statistics to study the process, phenomena, and law of informetrics. Informetrics has gained more attention as it is a common scientific method for academic evaluation, research hotspots in discipline, and trend analysis.

Informetrics includes the production, dissemination, and use of all forms of information, regardless of its form or origin. Informetrics encompasses the following fields:

 * Scientometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of science
 * Webometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of the World Wide Web
 * Bibliometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of recorded information
 * Bibliometrics definition.svgmetrics, which is similar to webometrics, but broadens its definition to include electronic resources

Origin and Development
The term informetrics (French: Informetrie) was coined by German scholars Otto Nacke in 1979, and came from the German word 'informetrie’. The corresponding English terminology soon appeared in the subsequent literature.

In September 1980, Professor Otto Nacke introduced the term 'informetrics' at the first seminar on Informetrics in Frankfurt, Germany. Later, Committee on Informetrics has established through The International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID).

In 1987, informetrics started to be officially recognized by the international information community and several foreign information scientists.

In 1988, at First International Conference on Bibliometrics and Theoretical Aspects of Information Retrieval, Brooks suggested bibliometrics and scientometrics can be included in the field of informetrics.

In 1990, Leo Egghe and Ronald Rousseau proposed the formation of the discipline of informetrics: statistical bibliography (1923) to bibliometrics and scientometrics (1969) and then to informetrics (1979).

In 1993, the International Society for Scientometrics and Informetrics (ISSI) was founded at the International Conference on Bibliometrics, Informetrics and Scientometrics in Berlin, and the first one was held in Belgium and organized by Leo Egghe and Ronald Rousseau. The society was formally incorporated in 1994 in the Netherlands and plays a significant role in the development of informetrics.

The ISSI aims to promote the "exchange and communication of professional information in the fields of scientometrics and informetrics, including improve standards, theory and practice, as well as promote research, education and training". In addition, to "engage in relevant public conversation and policy discussions".

In the western world, 20th century's Informetrics is mostly based on Lotka's law, named after Alfred J. Lotka, Zipf's law, named after George Kingsley Zipf, Bradford's law named after Samuel C. Bradford and on the work of Derek J. de Solla Price, Gerard Salton, Leo Egghe, Ronald Rousseau, Tibor Braun, Olle Persson, Peter Ingwersen, Manfred Bonitz, and Eugene Garfield.

Difference Between Informetrics, Bibliometrics and Scientometrics
Since the 1960s, three similar terms have emerged in the fields of library science, philology and science of science, they are bibliometrics, scientometrics and informetrics, representing three very similar quantitative sub-disciplines. The three metrics terms can be confusing and often misused. Informetrics and bibliometrics interpenetrate each other but have different aspects in research object, research scope, and measuring unit. Informetrics and scientometrics are very different in their research purpose and research object, as well as the research scope and application.

Bibliometrics is categorised under the field of library science, it uses mathematical and statistical methods to describe, evaluate, and predict the current status and trends of science and technology. Also to study the "distribution structure, quantitative relationship, change law and quantitative management of literature information, quantitative relationships, patterns and quantitative management of literature and information". The term was first used by Alan Pritchard in 1969 in his paper Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics?.

Scientometrics is a branch of science that quantitatively evaluates and predicts the process and management of scientific activities in order to reveal their development patterns and trends. The definition of scientometrics was described by Derek De Solla Price in his book Science to Science as the “quantitative study of science, communication in science, and science policy”.

Links between the three metrics terms
The most prominent connection between the three metrics terms is in their research objects. Since all three disciplines use literature information as their research object, therefore, they have some similarities and overlaps in their research methods and fields. Moreover, they all use mathematical methods as the basic research methods and they all apply the three basic laws, Bradford's law, Lotka's law and Zipf's law.

Distinctions between the three metrics terms
The distinction between the three metrics terms can tell from their research object and research purpose. The research of bibliometrics focuses on the analysis of "scientific output in the form of articles, publications, citations, and others". Scientometrics is to measure the basic characteristics and laws of scientific activities. Where informetrics is to investigate information sources and information distribution process.

Purpose of Informetrics Research
The main purpose of informetrics is to use its theocratical research to solve the methodological issues in the research process, and to discover and reveal the basic laws of information distribution through the study of information process and phenomenon. In this way, makes information management more scientific and provides a quantitative basis for information services and information management decisions.

For informetrics, it is necessary to bring quantitative analysis methods to further reveal the structure of information units and the "quantitative change law of literature information”. Further to this, to improve the scientific accuracy of information science from a theoretical point of view. At the same time, to better solve the basic contradictions in the information service, overcome the information crisis, and make the information management work more effective to serve science and technology, economic and social development.

Quantitative analysis of bibliographic data was pioneered by Robert K. Merton in an article called Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England and originally published by Merton in 1938.

The Significance of Informetrics Research
The significance of informetrics research is to summarize various empirical laws from the theoretical point of view, at the same time test and modify the various empirical laws in the new information unit conditions, and explore its new applicability, therefore, the scientific nature of information science can be improved, but also to provide theoretical guidance for practical work.

The Objects of Informetrics Research
The object of informetrics is broader than the field of bibliometrics and scientometrics, including "messages, data, events, objects, text, and documents”. Informetrics is often used to inform policies and decisions across a broad range of fields, such as economy, politics, technology and social spheres that "influence the flow and use patterns of information". Tague-Sutcliffe describes the following uses of informetrics:

 * Citation analysis;
 * Characteristics of authors;
 * Use of recorded information;
 * Obsolescence of the literature;
 * Concomitant growth of new concepts;
 * Characteristics of publication sources;
 * Definition and measurement o information;
 * Growth of subject literature, databases, libraries;
 * Types and characteristics of retrieval performance measures;
 * Statistical aspects of language, word, and phrase frequencies.

Basic Laws
In the field of informetrics research, there are many outstanding contributors in the discipline with a solid knowledge of quantitative research methods. In the early 20th century, several scientists contributed empirical applications that have become the three basic laws of informetrics, Bradford's law, Lotka's law, and Zipf's law, which promote the development of informetrics.

Bradford's Law
The British documentalist and librarian Samuel C. Bradford first discovered the law of concentration and scattering of literature, and in 1934, it has been described as Bradford's law of scattering. It reveals the law of concentration and scattering of scientific papers in journals in a quantitative way, which is the most basic law and an important part of bibliometrics, as well as informetrics and its research still has important irreplaceable theoretical value and practical significance. Bradford found a pattern in the distribution of disciplinary literature among journals, papers from one discipline often appear in journals of another discipline. Eventually, there is a pattern for a large number of papers in a given discipline to be concentrated in a certain number of journals, while the others are scattered in a large number of other related journals. He ranked journals by the number of papers published in a particular discipline, "in their descending order of productivity", then can dividing articles into three different zones, first is the nuclear zone with high productivity; "the second zone moderately productive zone; and the third as the low productive zone". In summary, Bradford's law described the relationship between the number of journals and papers.

Lotka's Law
Lotka's law is an empirical law describing the productivity of science, also known as the inverse square law, pioneered by the American statistician Alfred J. Lotka in 1926. It reveals scientific productivity and the quantitative relationship between authors and papers. Lotka's law is mainly used to predict the number of authors and papers in a specific discipline, to grasp the trend of the growth of literature, thus, facilitating scientific management of literature information.

Zipf's Law
Zipf's law is proposed by linguist George Kingsley Zipf in 1949, it is obtained from the statistics of natural language vocabulary. It is a summary of the "literature vocabulary frequency distribution rule". The frequency of different words has a certain statistical regularity. Zipf's law has significant use in the fields of library information, information resources management, science and technology management.

Informetrics Education in Library and Information Science (LIS)
Informetrics study is usually offered to undergraduate and post-graduate students. Only a few universities offer informetrics as an independent course, such as China, Germany and Japan. Most Universities include informetrics in the department of library and information science.

In fact, many challenges and the need for improvements have been shown in informetrics education across the world. Constant examination and adjustment in Informetrics education are needed as the rapid evolvement of information technologies in the field of LIS, for example, the emergence of webometrics/cybermetrics. On the other hand, technological development has become a challenge that affects the learning environment of informetrics education, for example, the shortage of research expertise in the informetrics field, and the insufficient skills of research specialists and data collection tools. Moreover, most countries have limited resources in informetrics education, as some Universities only offer the course if there is a demand among students.

Although many countries do not offer informetrics education, it is still important and necessary to maintain and continue further development in the field of informetrics as it is useful in science policy and management, as well as plays an essential role in the domain of research evaluation. Informetrics education can provide an in-depth understanding of "information user communities and the boundaries of specific fields". As science and technology are continuously innovating and developing, using the methods and applications of informetrics allows for "research monitoring and evaluation purpose in an objective way". Moreover, informetrics research is benefited almost all scientific fields, as it is multidisciplinary.

Future Development
With the advent of digitalization and the development of technologies, virtual libraries and online journals have become the main way for researchers and scholars to access scientific literature information, which has made the measurement and evaluation of web-based literature information more important. Webometrics/cybermetrics is the expansion of informetrics and bibliometrics, that has great theoretical significance and broad application prospects. Network and information are the relationships of inheritance and development, hence, webometrics/cybermetrics as a new sub-discipline under the field of informetrics has rapidly developed to adapt to the network environment.

Webometrics/cybermetrics is a discipline in science that integrates bibliometrics, informetrics, statistical methods, and computer technology to measure and analyze information and documents on the web, which covers "quantitative aspects of both the construction side and the usage side of the Web". The concept of webometrics was introduced in 1997 by T.C. Almind and P. Ingwersen and became a research hotspot in 1999. In 2000, scientists began to explore the disciplinary system and theoretical framework of webometrics and conducted meaningful application research. Its research areas include link analysis, search engines and web citation analysis.

title: Informetrics


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Talk:Mother Meera

Link and Photo added
I have just added a few things, like the mentioning of Japa and Bhakti and added my own Homepage. This is not self-promotion, as the page has really the most information on it, and I'll promise to keep it updated. So, I hope this is acceptable to everybody. I also added a link to Meera to give people an idea where the name comes from. There is more to say but I didn't want to make too many changes at my first time.

Harvey
I appreciate the NPOV and stylistic modifications to my edit, but I going to re-insert the Andrew Harvey material that User:Hanumandas deleted. Ok? --goethean ॐ 20:19, 13 September 2005 (UTC)
 * What material? That she cursed him? If you are interested, you may read my article on it . You were talking about his depression and her alleged curse, but I think that depression is easily part of a splitting process to a Guru. Harvey makes very strong and wild claims, which he cannot really back up. Mother Meera has nothing against him. So, I ask you to try to be objective as well, you brought the issue up, I left it there, but made it clear what it was about. -- Mizar 20:57, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Oh, cute, how did you get this ॐ behind you name? -- Mizar ॐ  21:13, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I inserted the code at the "nickname" blank under "preferences".

 * Thanks. I am trying :-) -- mizar ॐ Talk

Thalheim, Mr. Reddy
As there was some confusion with the editors here, this is the Thalheim referred to: [Dornburg Community Site], [Thalheim]; As there are 20 or more different villages with the names Thalheim, Talheim or Dalheim in Germany and Austria, there is even a meeting of the majors of those villages every year, see [] Please don't start saying things here unless you really know, just from some superficial internet research; superficial, as if you would simply have followed the links given in the article itself you would have clearly seen the address and exact location! I also insertet the Mr for Mr. Reddy, as this has started to become a name in itself. In all of the publications, he has always been referred to as 'Mr. Reddy', similarly as in 'Mother Meera', Mother has become part of the name. The name Reddy is extremely common in Andhra Pradesh, as it is a caste name. If you've ever been to Andhra, you will see that. --mizar 23:58, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

I have inserted some material relating to Thalheim from my own knowledge, since I visited Mutter Meera there for Darshan twice in the years between 1991 and 1995. I have also taken out the word "currently" since it is not very precise. Someone who knows Mother Meera's history should expand and clarify this section, for the record. When did she bring her Darshan to Thalheim, and when did she leave? Did she then move her Darshan directly to Schloss Schaumberg, or were there other locations in between? Alafarge (talk) 20:14, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

disambiguating from with mirra alfassa
I would support a revertion of this edit by User:Hanumandas. It is a good thing to distinguish between two people that readers might get confused. They are both female spiritual writers whose names (Meera and Mirra) are pronounced identically or similarly. — goethean ॐ 18:07, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Goethean, there are thousands of people called Meera in India, among those there are celebrities like Movie stars, political writers etc. 'Mother Meera' is, as pointed out, a unique epitet. There are other spirital figures with similar names, like 'Mirabai Devi' (search Google). There is the historical princess Meera (Mira, Mirabai). If at all, you need disambiguation page for the term Meera/Mira. I made the revert after some Aurobindo folks felt to make a strong statement of disconnection. So I guess we should keep the two figures separate. The names are simply different, in writing and in their specific combination. Mirra Alfassa is never called 'Mother Mirra'. She is only called 'the Mother' (in book titles) or 'Sweet Mother' - as a familiar address. Mirra Alfassa or Mirra Richards was her legal name, these two titles are never confused. The real problem is the funny nomenclature here about putting Mirra Alfassa under The Mother, which was used in the Ashram, but as a name has no merits. Therefore, on that page you need at least two ambiguations. You could also name some Guru 'Guruji', and then having to distinguish from all other Gurus. In the german edition Mirra Alfassa would never be put under 'die Mutter', as this is simply a honarable address,much like Shri, or Baba or Amma etc. -- hanuman ॐ^ 11:12, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

Do we need the curse?
Ummmm does someone's claim of a curse warrant mention in wikipedia? I think the homophobia claim (and counter claims) are fine, but do we need to include claims of a curse? Sethie 06:10, 25 April 2007 (UTC)

No one has objected, so I am removing the curse refference. Sethie 09:57, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

Alleged Visions and funny edits by Aurobindo folks
The word alleged has a negative connotation as it essentially presupposes that there is reason to doubt a statement. Visions as such - much as dreams maybe - but in a stronger way are a deeply personal thing. To speek of them as having been allegedly is a funny way of addressing the issue, and in this particular case are an item of Aurobindoean philosophy that there are 'true' and 'untrue' visions.

The Aurobindo Ashram (who's members obviously think they have to correct this article on and on and keep adding Mirra Alfassa disambiguations) obviously think, unless approved by them, that any vision of Aurobindo and The Mother have to be regarded as doubtful. Please note that Mother Meera does not seek the approval of anyone representing the SA Ashram, the Ashram merely is mentioned honestly as a part in her history. For the use of the word vision I suggest that it is used in the way it is generally understood by the public. As such it cannot be proven or disproven, much like a dream cannot be proven or disproven. Everybody I think knows this. hanuman ॐ^ 00:47, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

Ongoing discussion on moving the term Avatar to primary topic
There is an ongoing discussion [here] on moving the term Avatar from the popular film back to its original place as a primary topic. Hoverfish Talk 15:02, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mother Meera