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Munda people

The Munda people are an Austroasiatic-speaking ethnic group of the Indian subcontinent. They speak Mundari as their native language, which belongs to the Munda subgroup of Austroasiatic languages. The Munda are found mainly concentrated in the south and East Chhotanagpur Plateau region of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal. The Munda also reside in adjacent areas of Madhya Pradesh as well as in portions of Bangladesh, Nepal, and the state of Tripura. They are one of India's largest scheduled tribes. Munda people in Tripura are also known as Mura.

Etymology
Munda means headman of a village in the Munda-Manki system to govern villages in South-east Chotanagpur. They call themselves horoko or ho ko, which means men. Robert Parkin notes that the term "Munda" did not belong to the Austroasiatic lexis and is of Sanskrit origin. According to R. R. Prasad, the name "Munde" is a Ho word that means "headman". It is an honorific name given by Hindus, and hence became a tribal name. According to Standing (1976), it was under British rule that the term Munda started to be used for the tribal group.

Geographic distribution

The Munda primarily inhabit the eastern states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha, specifically in the Khunti, Ranchi, Simdega, Paschim Singhbhum, Gumla, Purbi Singhbhum, and Ramghar districts of Jharkhand; the Sundargarh and Sambalpur districts of Odisha; and the Jalpaiguri, Paschim Medinipur, and North 24 Parganas districts of West Bengal. They are also sporadically distributed in the neighboring states of Chhattisgarh and Bihar. Additionally, they live in the northeastern states of Assam, Tripura, and Mizoram, largely in the tea valleys of Assam, where they migrated to work as tea garden workers during colonial India. Apart from India, they also reside in neighboring countries such as Bangladesh and Nepal.

History
According to linguist Paul Sidwell, Munda languages arrived on the coast of Odisha from Southeast Asia approximately 4,000 to 3,500 years ago (c. 2000 BCE). The Munda people initially spread from Southeast Asia, but mixed extensively with local Indian populations. They are genetically closely related to Mah Meri and Temuan people of Malaysia.

According to historian R. S. Sharma, tribals who spoke the Munda language occupied the eastern region of ancient India. Many Munda terms occur in Vedic texts that were written between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. Their presence in texts compiled in the upper Gangetic basin late in that period suggests that Munda speakers were there at the time. According to Barbara A. West, the Mundas claim origin in Uttar Pradesh, and a steady flow eastward in history as other groups moved into their original homeland; she suggests that they inhabited a "much larger territory" in ancient India. Recent studies suggest that Munda languages spread as far as Eastern Uttar Pradesh but not beyond that, and impacted Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, as some groups such as Musahar have Munda genetic lineage. The claim of a Munda presence in the Upper Gangetic plain has no linguistic or genetic basis.

In the late 1800s, during the British Raj, the Mundas were forced to pay rents and work as bonded labourers to the zamindars. During the Kol uprising in 1823–1833, some Manki Munda revolted due to their disposition and attacked Thikedars, other Mankis, plundered and destroyed villages. This insurgency was suppressed by Thomas Wilkinson. During the 19th century, Munda freedom fighter Birsa Munda began the protest marches calling for non-payment of rents and remission of forest dues. He led guerrilla warfare to uproot the British Raj and establish Munda Raj. He was caught by Company forces, along with his supporters, and died in jail. He is still revered in Jharkhand.

Nomadic hunters in the India tribal belt, they became farmers and some were employed in basketwork. With the listing of the Munda people as Scheduled Tribes, many are employed in various governmental organisations (particularly Indian Railways).

Kinship patterns
Munda are divided into a number of exogamous clans. Clans among Mundas are known as Killi, which is similar to Sanskrit word Kula. Munda are patrilineal, and clan name descends father to son. According to tradition, people of the same clan are descendants of the same forefather. Clans among Mundas are of totemic origin. Some clans are:

 * Baa (a fish)
 * Baba (rice)
 * Bodra
 * Balamchu (fish net)
 * Barla
 * Bhengra (horse)
 * Bukru (a bird)
 * Bulung (salt)
 * Dang, Dungdung (a fish)
 * Gudia, Hans (swan)
 * Hemrom/Hembram (a tree)
 * Herenz (a specific Bird)
 * Horo (turtle)
 * Hundar (hyena)
 * Jojo (tamarind)
 * Kauwa (crow)
 * Kerketta (a bird)
 * Kula (tiger)
 * Nil (bull)
 * Mus (mouse)
 * Nag (cobra)
 * Oreya (bammboo basket)
 * Pandu (cobra)
 * Purty
 * Runda (wild cat)
 * Sandil (meteor)
 * Sanga (a type of root)
 * Surin/Soren/Soreng (a bird)
 * Tiru (a bird)
 * Tuti (a type of grain)
 * Topno (red ants)
 * Kongari (white crow)

Administrative system
Munda-Manki governing system was prevalent in Kolhan region of Jharkhand. Munda govern their villages by Munda-Manki system. Head of village is called Munda, informant of village is called Dakuwa, village priest is called Pahaan, assistant of Pahaan is called Pujhar, head of 15 to 20 villages is called Manki, assistant of Manki is called Tahshildar, which collected taxes. The priest "Deori" is also prevalent among Hos, Bhumij, Bhuyan, Sounti, Khonds tribe of Odisha and Chutia people of Assam. In Chotanagpur division, Munda have adopted Pahan as their village priest.

Festival
Involved in agriculture, the Munda people celebrate the seasonal festivals of Mage Parab, Phagu, Karam, Baha parab, Sarhul and Sohrai. Some seasonal festivals have coincided with religious festivals, but their original meaning remains. Their deity is Singbonga.

Music
They have many folk songs, dances, tales and traditional musical instruments. Both sexes participate in dances at social events and festivals. The naqareh is a principal musical instrument. Munda refer to their dance and song as durang and susun respectively. Some folk dances of the Munda are Jadur, Karam Susun and Mage Susun. Mundari music is similar to the music of Sadan. Mundari Mage song (winter) rhythm is similar to the Nagpuri Fagua song (winter, spring) rhythm.

Rituals
The Munda people have elaborate rituals to celebrate birth, death, engagement and marriage.

Munda practice clan exogamy and tribal endogamy. Monogamy is the norm. Bride price is prevalent. Marriage ceremony starts with Sagai and ends with Bidai. Munda enjoy this occasion with feast, drinks and dance. According to Sarat Chandra Roy, Sindurdaan ceremony and turmeric use in marriage clearly reflect Hindu elements borrowed into Munda tradition.

Munda people of Jharkhand also follow the age old tradition of Patthalgari, i.e., stone erection, in which the tribal community residing in the village buries a large inverted U-shaped dressed headstone on the head side of a grave or at the entrance to the village, in which is inscribed the family tree of the dead persons. There are some other types of patthalgari also:-
 * Horadiri - It is the stone in which family tree is written.
 * Chalpadiri or Saasandiri - It is the stone in remarking boundary of any village and its limits.
 * Magodiri - This is the headstone of a social criminal who committed polygamy or unsocial marriage.
 * Ziddiri - This is the stone placed over burial of placenta and dried navel part of a newborn.

Literature and studies
Jesuit priest John-Baptist Hoffmann (1857–1928) studied the language, customs, religion and life of the Munda people, publishing the first Mundari language grammar in 1903. With the help of Menas Orea, Hoffmann published the 15-volume Encyclopaedia Mundarica. The first edition was published posthumously in 1937, and a third edition was published in 1976. The Mundas and Their Country, by S. C. Roy, was published in 1912. Adidharam (Hindi:आदि धर्म) by Ram Dayal Munda and Ratan Singh Manki, in Mundari with a Hindi translation, describes Munda rituals and customs.

Economic condition
In a 2016 research paper on subsistence strategies of Mundas in a village of Sunderbans in West Bengal, it was found that many people migrate out of their residences because of poor economic conditions and landlessness. This rural to urban migration has followed a greater trend within India. Men and women engage in forest product collection, cultivation, small business and agricultural as well as non-agricultural jobs. A person or a family may be engaged in multiple occupations, often undertaking risky visits to the forests and rivers. It was also found that younger generation preferred to engage as migrant workers outside the village and often outside the district and the state.

Notable people

 * Dayamani Barla (active 2004–2013), journalist
 * Puna Bhengra, politician
 * Niral Enem Horo, politician
 * Amrit Lugun (born 1962), ambassador to Greece, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation director
 * Anuj Lugun (born 1986), poet who received the 2011 Bharat Bhushan Agarwal Award
 * Munmun Lugun, football player
 * Arjun Munda (born 1968), politician
 * Birsa Munda (1875-1900), freedom fighter, religious leader
 * Jaipal Singh Munda (1903-1970), politician, hockey player
 * Joseph Munda, politician
 * Kariya Munda (born 1936), politician
 * Laxman Munda, politician
 * Nilkanth Singh Munda (born 1968), politician
 * Ram Dayal Munda (1939-2011), scholar in languages & folklore
 * Sukra Munda (active 2016 to 2020), politician
 * Tulasi Munda (born 1947), social activist
 * Rohidas Singh Nag (1934-2012), creator of "Mundari Bani" script
 * Masira Surin, hockey player
 * Rajeev Topno (born 1974), private secretary to the prime minister of India, senior advisor to the executive director at World Bank

title: Munda people


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Mount Mitake (Tokyo)

Mount Mitake (御岳山) is a mountain in the Chichibu Tama Kai National Park near Tokyo, Japan. It stands 929 m tall. On the mountain is a Shinto shrine where practices such as Futomani divination take place.

It is one of the many highlights of the Chichibu Tama Kai National Park, which covers more than 1250 km2 of forested mountains, hills, gorges and some rural towns in the prefectures of Yamanashi, Saitama, Nagano and Tokyo.

The trip from Tokyo's Shinjuku Station to Mitake Station on the Ōme Line takes about 95 minutes.

A shuttle bus, located 50 meters to the left of Mitake Station, travels to Takimoto village every half-hour between 07:30 to 18:00. From Takimoto village, the Mitake-Tozan Railway cable car operates every half-hour between 07:30 to 18:30 and leads to Mitake village at its top. Mitake summit and the Musashi-Mitake Shrine (武蔵御嶽神社 (Musashi Mitake Jinja)) can then be reached by trail—approximately 1000 meters. Hikers heading to Mount Odake (Tokyo) often start here.

Many hikers access the mountain via Kori Station (two stops past Mitake Station from Ome). There is a hiking trail that takes approximately two and half hours to reach the summit, which passes Otsukayama (920 metres).

There is also a festival every year on May 8.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mount Mitake (Tokyo)


text: User talk:83.113.42.248

title: User talk:83.113.42.248


text: Template:KY-FedRep

title: Template:KY-FedRep


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Sheyenne River

The Sheyenne River is one of the major tributaries of the Red River of the North, meandering 591 mi across eastern North Dakota, United States.

The river begins about 15 mi north of McClusky, and flows generally eastward before turning south near McVille. The southerly flow of the river continues through Griggs and Barnes counties before it turns in a northeastward direction near Lisbon. The river forms the 27-mile long Lake Ashtabula behind the Baldhill Dam north of Valley City, which was constructed in 1951 for flood control by the US Army Corps of Engineers.

The Sheyenne is classified as a "perch river," as its banks are higher than the surrounding ground, formed as natural levees in flooding centuries ago. When floodwaters break through the banks, they spread in a wide area.

From Lisbon, the river crosses the Sheyenne National Grassland and enters Cass County near the city of Kindred. This stretch of the river is designated a National Wild and Scenic Riverway. From Kindred, the river flows north-northeastward through the fertile plains of the Red River Valley.

The character of the river changes as it leaves the sandy grasslands and picks up the fertile clay soil of the Red River Valley. Previously, the river posed a flooding hazard to cities such as West Fargo and Harwood, where it joins the Red River of the North, which flows north to Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. Thanks to a diversion canal completed near Horace and extending past West Fargo, these major Sheyenne River cities fared well in the 1997 Red River flood. By contrast, this flood devastated the cities of Grand Forks in North Dakota and East Grand Forks in Minnesota.

The Sheyenne diversion canal, built 1990-1992 in a joint federal-state effort, channels waters around the edges of the cities to draw off floodwaters. It was built primarily by the US Army Corps of Engineers, at a cost of $27.8 million. In West Fargo alone, the diversion project involved construction of:
 * 6.8 mile diversion control
 * 12.7 miles of protection levees
 * 4 diversion structures
 * 2 pumping stations (54,000 and 66,000 gpm)
 * 1 railroad bridge
 * 4 highway bridges
 * 6 road raises.

The Sheyenne River was named after the Cheyenne Indians of the area. Alternate names include: Cayenne River, Cheyenne River, and Maitomoni'ohe.

The Sheyenne River was formed by the meltwater of the Wisconsinan glacier about 13,000 years ago. The valley constitutes the glacier’s western edge at that time. Flowing 581 miles (~929 km) from its headwaters located 15 miles north of McClusky in Sheridan County until it converges with the Red River at Fargo, the Sheyenne River is the longest river located within North Dakota. The river valley from Baldhill Dam at Lake Ashtabula and south to Lisbon can be as deep as 200 feet and a mile wide.

Anglers can find northern pike, walleye, yellow perch, channel catfish and white bass in its lower reaches. Records indicate 53 fish species known to inhabit the Sheyenne, about twice the number of species found in other tributaries of the Red River. Two rare fish - the rosyface shiner and the pugnose shiner - and three rare mussels - the mapleleaf, black sandshell, and pigtoe clams - live in the Sheyenne.

Crossings
The river is crossed by several historic bridges, including the Lisbon Bridge and the Colton's Crossing Bridge in Lisbon; the West Park Bridge in Valley City; the West Antelope Bridge in Flora; the Romness Bridge near Cooperstown; and the Nesheim Bridge at McVille.

In Valley City it is crossed by several more bridges, including the Hi-Line Railroad Bridge and, before demolition, the Rainbow Arch Bridge.

title: Sheyenne River


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Wolseley 4/44

The Wolseley 4/44 is an automobile that was introduced by the British Motor Corporation in 1952 and manufactured from 1953 until 1956. It was designed under the Nuffield Organization, but by the time it was released, Wolseley was part of BMC. Much of the design was shared with the MG Magnette ZA, which was released later in the same year.

Unlike the MG, the 4/44 used the 1250 cc XPAW engine, a version of the XPAG engine previously seen in the later MG T-type series of cars but detuned by only having a single carburettor. The power output was 46 bhp at 4800 rpm. The four-speed manual transmission had a column change.

The construction was monocoque, with independent suspension at the front by coil springs and a live rear axle.

The car had upmarket trim, with wooden dashboard and leather seats and a traditional Wolseley radiator grille with illuminated badge, but was expensive at £997 on the home market.

An example tested by The Motor magazine had a top speed of 73 mph and could accelerate from 0–60 mph in 29.9 seconds. A fuel consumption of 27.6 mpgimp was recorded.

The 4/44 was replaced in 1956 by the similar Wolseley 15/50.

title: Wolseley 4/44


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Wolseley 15/50

The Wolseley 15/50 was an updated version of the Wolseley 4/44. The main change was the engine; the 4/44 used a pre BMC Morris XPA unit and after the MG TF stopped production it was the only car still fitted with it. To rationalise production the 15/50 was launched with the BMC B-series engine fitted. Much of the design was shared with the MG Magnette, although some of the panels of the MG Magnette ZA/ZB (e.g. the boot and rear wings) are not interchangeable with those of the Wolseley 15/50, as stated in Practical Classics. Unlike the MG, the 15/50 engine had only a single SU carburettor so the power output was slightly less at 55 bhp at 4400 rpm. Unlike the 4/44, the 15/50 had a floor gear change. From 1956 a "Manumatic" two pedal (centrifugal clutch) transmission was an option. This was controlled by a micro switch hidden in the gear lever operating a vacuum servo. Having no synchromesh on bottom gear could make changes into the lowest ratio, which would normally require double declutching, difficult.

The construction was monocoque with independent suspension at the front by coil springs and a live rear axle with semi elliptic leaf springs. The steering was rack and pinion and Lockheed brakes were fitted with 9 in drums all round.

In keeping with the up-market positioning of the Wolseley brand the car had upmarket trim with polished walnut dashboard and door cappings and leather seats and a traditional Wolseley radiator grille with illuminated badge. The individual front seats were placed very closely together to allow the car to be used as a six-seater albeit marginal but it was usually sold as a four seater. The handbrake lever was under the dash. A heater was fitted as standard.

Performance
An example with Manumatic transmission tested by the British The Motor magazine in 1957 had a top speed of 77.9 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 26.7 seconds. A fuel consumption of 28.7 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £1011 including taxes of £338.

It was replaced in 1958 by the Farina styled Wolseley 15/60.

title: Wolseley 15/50


text: User talk:63.89.90.183

title: User talk:63.89.90.183


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Wolseley 18/85

Wolseley 18/85 may refer to:

 * Wolseley 18/85 (1938 to 1948), an automobile produced in the United Kingdom from 1938 to 1948
 * Wolseley 18/85 (1967 to 1971), an automobile produced in the United Kingdom from 1967 to 1971 as a variant of the BMC ADO17/ Rarest of models was the type S a model tuned by a well-known UK tuning company and I had the good fortune to be given an 1800 s type complete engine that I used parts for in an Austin A60 engine for banger racing. It was a very fast engine with a modified engine block face with cut-outs for valve clearance, the camshaft/ followers, distributer, duplex timing gear, skimmed cylinder head, much lightened 1622 flywheel and clutch, and twin SU carbs with a decent exhaust manifold.

title: Wolseley 18/85


text: User talk:67.174.210.244

title: User talk:67.174.210.244


text:
Lauren Christy

Lauren Christy (born 1968) is a British songwriter and record producer. Originally a solo artist, she found success as part of the writing production trio the Matrix. The Matrix was nominated for the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards.

Biography
Christy studied at the Bush Davies Ballet School as a child, before she decided to become a musician.

Career
By age nineteen, Christy had become a solo recording artist. She was signed to EMI Publishing and achieved a recording contract with Polygram Mercury records. In 1994, she received an American Music Awards nomination for Best New Artist. Her song "The Color of the Night" for the film Color of Night also garnered her a Golden Globe nomination for Best Song in an Original Motion Picture.

Five years later, Christy moved into production as co-creator of the Matrix. Alongside creative partners, Christy's then-husband Graham Edwards and Scott Spock, the trio wrote and produced Avril Lavigne's debut album Let Go which included three international number one hits – "Complicated", "Sk8er Boi" and "I'm With You" – selling 20 million copies. "Complicated" led to the Matrix trio winning the Ivor Novello Award for International Hit of the Year, and they garnered seven Grammy nominations – including Song of the Year in 2003 for "Complicated" and again in 2004 for "I'm With You" along with Producer of the Year. Christy is also a two-time Juno award winner and a BMI Songwriter of the Year Award recipient.

The Matrix has worked with artists such as Avril Lavigne, Jason Mraz, Shakira, Korn, David Bowie, Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Hilary Duff, Busted, Tokio Hotel and Rihanna.

Her solo songwriting work includes Enrique Iglesias's "Tonight I'm Loving You", Kelly Clarkson's "I Forgive You", Jason Derulo's "Breathing"; Leona Lewis' "Your Hallelujah"; Ricky Martin's "Liar"; Chris Brown's "Time For Love"'; Jamie Foxx's "Baby's In Love"; Dua Lipa's "Blow Your Mind Mwah"; and Bebe Rexha's "I Got You" and "Busted".

In 2014, she was nominated for a Grammy for her work on Chris Brown's song, "Time For Love" on the album "X", nominated for Urban Contemporary Album of the Year.

In 2016, she gained further recognition with her credits on G Eazy and Bebe Rexha's "Me, Myself and I". Christy has written Iggy Azalea's first single "Team" that was released on 18 March 2016, as well as winner of The Voice Jordan Smith's first single "Stand in the Light".

In 2019, she worked in collaboration with Korn on three songs included in their 2019 release The Nothing. The titles include, "Cold", "Gravity of Discomfort", and "H@rd3r".

Discography

 * Albums
 * Lauren Christy (Mercury Records, 1993)
 * Breed (Mercury, 1997)

 * Soundtrack appearances
 * "The Color of the Night", from Color of Night (1994)
 * "Breed", from Batman & Robin (1997)
 * "Walk This Earth Alone", from Great Expectations (1998)
 * "My Spot in the World", from 102 Dalmatians (2000)

title: Lauren Christy


text:
User talk:DavidRader

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Questions, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! Alai 04:10, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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title: User talk:DavidRader


text:
Franco-Columbian

Franco-Columbians (Franco-Colombiens) are French Canadians or Canadian francophones living in the province of British Columbia. According to the 2016 Canadian Census, 71,705 residents of the province stated that French is their mother tongue. In the same census, 388,815 British Columbians claimed full or partial French ancestry.

The first francophones to enter the region were French Canadian voyageurs employed with the North West Company during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. French fur traders continued to visit the region in the early 19th century, with the French language serving as a lingua franca for the regional fur trade. Franco-Columbians formed the majority of Europeans in the region until the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, which saw anglophone settlers become the predominant group in the area. Franco-Columbians began to lobby for French language rights within the province in the mid 20th century, which led to the public funding of francophone classes in 1978, and an independent public school board in 1995.

There are several Franco-Columbian communities throughout British Columbia; although most are based in the Lower Mainland, with the largest francophone community in that region being Maillardville, a community settled by forty French Canadian families in 1909. The province's francophone community has become diversified since the mid-20th century, with migrants from Africa, Asia, and Europe settling in the province. Radio-Canada, the country's French-language public broadcaster, serves as the main French-language media outlet in the province.

Demographics
In the 2016 Canadian Census, the number of British Columbians with French as a mother tongue was at 71,705, or 1.6 per cent of the province's population. French is the most common mother tongue in the province following English, Punjabi, Cantonese, Mandarin, and Tagalog. The majority of Franco-Columbians are bilingual in English and French, with only 1,805 respondents in the 2016 census reporting to have proficiency in only the French-language. In the same census, 314,925 British Columbians, or approximately 6.8 per cent of the population, reported to be bilingual in both English and French. However, the following figure includes French second language speakers, in addition to Franco-Columbians.

Approximately 12 per cent of Franco-Columbians were born in the province; with a large portion of the province's francophone population is made up of migrants that moved from other parts of Canada and the Francosphere. Approximately 59 per cent of Franco-Columbians were born in another province or territory of Canada, while 28 per cent of Franco-Columbians were born outside the country. Among the francophones that were born abroad, half originated from Europe, 22 per cent from Asia, 18 per cent from Africa, and the rest from the Americas. The number of francophones from outside Canada has led to a diversification of the Franco-Columbian community in recent decades.

There are 388,815 British Columbians who claim partial or full French ancestry during the 2016 census. French is the seventh most commonly reported ethnic group in British Columbia after English, Canadian, Scottish, Irish, German, and Chinese.

Communities
As of 2016, approximately 58 per cent of Franco-Columbians resided in communities within the southwest coast of British Columbia (including the Lower Mainland). Approximately 22 per cent of Franco-Columbians resided in Vancouver Island and the central coast of British Columbia, 12 per cent of Franco-Columbians resided in the Okanagan-Thompson region, and the remaining 10 per cent of Franco-Columbians are spread throughout the other regions of British Columbia.

The largest community for Franco-Columbians within the Lower Mainland is Maillardville, a neighbourhood within the city of Coquitlam. The community originated from French Canadian lumber workers hired by the Canadian Western Lumber Company from Eastern Ontario, and Quebec in 1909. Today Maillardville describes itself as "a community with a francophone heart" and is home to several francophone community organizations, schools, churches, a retirement home, and an organization of francophone LEVII and guides. Community organizations place the francophone population of the Coquitlam area at 13,000. The community also hosts Festival du Bois, an annual event celebrating francophone culture. Additional francophone community centres and resources in the Lower Mainland are situated in Vancouver. In addition to the Lower Mainland, francophone community centres and resources can also be found in Kamloops, Nanaimo Nelson, Kelowna, Penticton, Powell River, Prince George, and Victoria.

Early settlers
The first French Canadians that was documented in the region was in 1793, working as guides, interpreters, and voyageurs for the North West Company's expedition through the Rocky Mountains. Francophones made up six of the ten members of the initial 1793 expedition led by Scottish-born explorer, Alexander Mackenzie. The majority of the francophones hired for the expedition originated from Montreal, and included French Canadians as well as the Metis. French Canadians made up of the majority of the crews for subsequent North West Company expeditions undertaken by David Thompson and Simon Fraser. Thompson established Kootanae House during his 1807 expedition, along with four French Canadians. By 1812, there were approximately 300 French Canadian fur traders in the region engaged in either fur trading or farming.

The French-speaking voyageurs and traders continued to make up the majority of the Europeans that settled near the fur trading posts of the Fraser Valley, and Vancouver Island. Because the majority of the early European settlers in the region were French traders, the French language was used as the lingua franca of the fur trade until the 1850s.

French-speaking Roman Catholic missionaries from the Canadas, and France were among the first residents in the region. The most prominent Catholic orders working in the region in the early 19th century included the Sisters of Saint Anne based in Montreal, and Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate based in France. The former typically set out to educate the children of the region, whereas latter order set out to impose a European lifestyle upon the First Nations communities in the region, leading to the foundation of communities based in Mission, and Kelowna. French remained the language of instruction for these missionaries until the 1850s, when English became more prominent, and recruits were increasingly drawn from the anglophone population.

In addition to fur trading and missionary work, francophones were also employed with the first law enforcement and military unit raised within the Colony of Vancouver Island. Formed by the colonial governor in 1851, the Victoria Voltigeurs was a volunteer unit made up of French-speaking Métis and French Canadian voyageurs. The unit served alongside the Royal Navy's Pacific Station until March 1858, when the colony disbanded the voltigeurs.

Although the influx in migrants from the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858 occurred for only a brief period, it caused a significant shift in the demographics of the newly established Colony of British Columbia, with French being displaced as the dominant European language in the region.

20th century
After the Canadian Western Lumber Company adopted a racial policy of not employing people of Chinese or South Asian descent, the company sent out a francophone employee to Eastern Ontario and Quebec in an effort to recruit French Canadian lumber workers to work for the company. Approximately 40 families took up the offer to work in British Columbia, settling in present-day Maillardville. The community saw another influx of francophone settlers during the 1930s from the Canadian Prairies following a series of servere droughts that afflicted that region.

In 1945, the Fédération canadienne-française de la Colombie-Britannique (FFCB) was formed by francophones in British Columbia, providing a collective voice for various local Franco-Columbian organizations, and as an attempt to advance French-language accessibility rights within the province. The organization had initially lobbied the government for public funding of its three French-language parish schools, although by the 1960s, the organization had adjusted its platform, instead lobbying for a public secularized French language schools. FFCB lobbying efforts eventually led to the creation of Programme cadre de français in 1978, where French first language classes would be held in English-language schools.

The passage of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982 saw the FFCB to continue to push for a separately managed school board for the province's French language classes, leading to a lengthy court battle between the provincial government, and the Fédération des parents francophones de la Colombie-Britannique. The resulting case saw the province establish the Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique in 1995, a school board that manages all public French-language elementary and secondary schools in the province.

Politics
Franco-Columbians have historically been represented by the Fédération canadienne-française de la Colombie-Britannique. Conversely, governmental relations with the francophone community is handled through the Francophone Affairs Program, a division of the Intergovernmental Relations Secretariat, which forms a part of the office of the Premier of British Columbia. In addition to facilitating relations between the government and Franco-Columbians, the program also provides funding for francophone programs and services. However, no legislative framework exists for French language services outside of the province's public education system.

Judicial access
The judicial system of the province formally does not have an official language in place, although in practice the judiciary functions as an English-language institution. Practically speaking, access to francophone court proceedings in British Columbia was only provided for criminal cases, as mandated by section 530 of the Criminal Code, a federal statute.

In 2019, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Bessette v British Columbia that individuals charged with a provincial offence in British Columbia have a right to a trial in either English or French. The ruling was not based on the Constitution of Canada, but interpretation of provincial law governing trials for provincial offences. The Supreme Court found that the relevant provincial statutes had no explicit provisions on the language of trials for provincial offences. However, the Supreme Court found that the person accused of an offence under BC provincial law would have the right to a trial in either official language as provided under the Criminal Code; as section 133 of British Columbia's Offence Act defers to the Criminal Code for procedural and trial governance issues not addressed by provincial law – such as language.

Elementary and secondary
French language schools were first established by Roman Catholic missionaries in the mid-19th century, although they were later displaced by English-language schools in the 1850s. Elementary and secondary French language schooling was not publicly funded in British Columbia until 1978, when the provincial government established the Programme cadre de français, which provided for French first language classes within an English school board. The province's public French language school system was split from the English school boards in 1995, and amalgamated into a single independent school board, the Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique. French-language rights for resident elementary and secondary school students in Canada, including British Columbia, is afforded through Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique presently operates 40 schools throughout the province. Most schools operated by the school board are housed in their own facilities, although several schools share facilities with their English-language counterparts. During the 2016–17 academic year, there were nearly 6,000 students enrolled in British Columbia's public francophone elementary and secondary school system. In addition to public elementary and secondary school, a number of private schools also operate with French as the primary instructional language. The province hosts an active chapter of Canadian Parents for French (BC-Yukon Branch).

Post-secondary
British Columbia has one French-language post-secondary college, Educacentre College. The private college operates campuses in Prince George, Victoria, and Vancouver.

There is no francophone or bilingual (in English and French) university in British Columbia. Simon Fraser University does offer five degree programmes that can be completed entirely in the French language, although the university as a whole is considered an anglophone institution.

Culture
The francophone community and culture in British Columbia has historically been associated with French Canadians and Catholicism, although secularization of society, and francophone migrants from Africa, and Asia in the latter half of the 20th century led to a diversification of the community. As a result of the diversification, the term Franco-Columbian became less prevalent by the end of the 20th century, with the provincial government opting to use the more inclusive term francophone community.

In addition to Coquitlam's annual Festival du Bois, Canadian Parents for French host an annual French Celebration Week, Francapalooza, a French film festival and French-language youth camps targeting both Francophone and French immersion students. L'Association des Ecrivains de la Colombie Britannique publishes a monthly youth magazine called La Moustique. A French-language theatre group called Théâtre la Seizième is also active in the province as well as the dance troupes Danseurs du Pacifique and Les Cornouillers, and the annual BC Francophone Games. The Conseil Culturel et Artistique de la Colombie Britannique serves as a community organization in the area of arts and culture. The Calendrier francophone de la Colombie-Britannique is the province's online french-language event calendar, which was founded in 2016 by Ashton Ramsay.

Broadcast
Vancouver-based television station CBUFT-DT broadcasts throughout the province via cable, satellite and IPTV, as do French-language radio stations CBUF-FM (Première Chaîne) and, to a lesser extent, CBUX-FM (Espace musique). Other French-language media such as CBC's Ici RDI, TV5 and MusiquePlus are also available but not locally based. TVA's owned-and-operated station in Montreal (CFTM-DT) is also available on basic cable.

The Société radio communautaire Victoria, started in 1999 as an offshoot of the Société francophone de Victoria, was incorporated in 2004 and started on-air FM radio programming on 7 November 2007 non-stop as CILS-FM at 107.9 MHz and 250 watts.

Print
Between 1968 and 1998, the province had a newspaper called Le Soleil de la Colombie-Britannique. A digitized version of the complete run of the newspaper is available online. There is now a newspaper published out of Vancouver called L'Express du Pacifique.

Notable Franco-Columbians

 * Richard Stewart, mayor of the city of Coquitlam and former minister.
 * Jean-Luc Bilodeau, actor (born 1990)
 * Sébastien Bordeleau, hockey player (born 1975)
 * Modeste Demers, Canadian missionary and first Bishop of Vancouver Island (1809-1871)
 * David Emerson, politician and former minister (born 1945)
 * Grimes, musician (born 1988)
 * Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, premier of Québec and later Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia (1829-1908)
 * Georges Payrastre, television producer
 * Denise Savoie, politician (born 1943)
 * Lucille Starr, Franco-Manitoban and resident of Maillardville (born 1938)
 * Emmanuelle Vaugier, actress (born 1976)
 * Françoise Yip, comedian (born 1972 to a Chinese-Canadian father and a Québécois mother)

title: Franco-Columbian


text:
User talk:Splarka/Sandbox:isotopes

I'm very impressed with what you've done here. I'm glad to see you're committed to this project. I'm real excited to discuss these ideas with you they look very promising. I'm hoping to get more people involved so that we have more of a consensus than a few people. I'll put comments up tomorrow. Keep up the excellent work! -- oo64eva (AJ) (U @ 04:10, Apr 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks! I've done a bunch more sandboxing since yesterday. I've mostly been interested in the coloring scheme possibilities of the Isotope table (complete) (as you can probably tell). Critique welcome. Splarka 03:42, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Splarka/Sandbox:isotopes


text: Category:Hong Kong people by occupation

title: Category:Hong Kong people by occupation


text:
Aqeela Sherrills

Aqeela Sherrills is a campaigner against gang violence and the death penalty who lives in Watts, Los Angeles, United States.

In 1992, Sherrills brokered a peace agreement between the Bloods and the Crips (two rival gangs). His son, Terrell Sherrills, was shot to death in 2004 in an apparently random killing. He is executive director and co-founder (with his brother Daude) of the Community Self-Determination Institute. He also co-founded Amer-I-Can with American football player Jim Brown.

In 2005, Sherrills visited sacred sites around the world, and upon returning to Watts he launched The Reverence Movement. As a peace movement, The Reverence Movement is:
 * a multi-tiered consultant company focused on shifting world wide imagination by instituting a practice of authentic exploration of the wounds in the personal life as a means of accesses the gift of who we are by not defining ourselves as our experiences.

A longtime anti-death penalty activist, Sherrills became the Southern California Outreach Coordinator for California Crime Victims for Alternatives to the Death Penalty (CCV) in 2010. Through his work with CCV, he speaks out against the death penalty alongside other murder victim family members who also oppose the death penalty.

title: Aqeela Sherrills


text:
User:CKlunck/StuffAndThings

Let us give thanks for stuff...and things

Categories of Articles

 * Articles to be grammar checked
 * Articles to be copy edited
 * Articles to be cleaned up (can we be more general?!)
 * Cleanup templates and links to their category pages (the long list)
 * Open Tasks
 * Ancient pages

Reference Materials

 * Edit summary
 * How to copy-edit
 * Wikipedia style and how-to directory
 * Wikipedia Manual of Style

Templates

 * "In Use"
 * Grammar check

Grammar and Copy-Editing

 * Libertarianism - Wordiness. See User_talk:Harry491
 * Braniff International Airways - Massive work needed
 * MUMPS - Passive voice, less "tech"
 * Candlestick chart - Copyedit bottom half of article
 * Sea spider
 * HMX-1 - Minor copyedit
 * Tartrazine - Copyedit
 * Childhood_disintegrative_disorder - Minor copyedits left, standardize acronym usage and capitalization
 * Ciguatera

Content

 * Galapagos tortoise

Copyright Checking

 * Biphasic_Cuirass_Ventilation - see http://www.unitedhayek.com/bcv CKlunck (talk) 18:22, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

title: User:CKlunck/StuffAndThings


text:
Mount Takao

Mount Takao (高尾山) is a mountain in the city of Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan. It is protected within Meiji no Mori Takao Quasi-National Park.

Standing 599 m tall and located within an hour of downtown Tokyo, it is a popular hiking spot, with eight hiking trails and more than 2.5 million annual visitors. The Tama Forest Science Garden is also located at the mountain's base.

Mount Takao is closely associated with the Shinto-Buddhist tengu, supernatural creatures from Japanese folklore. The mountain is also renowned for Shugendō, the mountain asceticism focusing on strict discipline. A Buddhist temple, Takaosan Yakuōin Yūkiji, is located on the mountain, and attracts many visitors who pray to the tengu for good fortune. The temple belongs to the Shingon Buddhist sect.

Hiking
Hiking to the top of Mount Takao takes an average of 90 minutes, but the time may vary depending on the method used to climb the mountain. Visitors to Mount Takao can choose to start climbing from the base, or take a funicular or ropeway ride halfway up the mountain. The Takaotozan Railway operates both of these services. The system nominally has four stations—two each for the funicular and the ropeway. However, the distance between the pairs of stations is only a few dozen metres (at the base of the mountain) and approximately 150 metres (at the top of the services, which are themselves about a 30-minute scenic uphill walk from the top of Mount Takao itself), so they can essentially both be thought of as coming from and going to the same place.

Some visitors to Mount Takao bypass the Takaotozan Railway services entirely. Trail 1 from the base of the mountain is a somewhat arduous climb, but it is paved and leads past the top stations of both the ropeway and the funicular on the way to the summit. Trail 6 and the "Inariyama Trail" are unpaved trails that start from the base of the mountain and go all the way to the summit, but they do not pass the ropeway and funicular top stations. Past the summit lies a larger network of hiking trails, many of which connect to the many peaks of the nearby Chichibu-Tama-Kai National Park. Some visitors to Takao ride up the mountain and then walk back down. The peak summit of Mount Takao is relatively small in comparison to that of the well-known Mount Fuji.

One end of the Tōkai Nature Trail is at Mount Takao, at the Takaosan-guchi Station. The other end is at Minoh, near Osaka. Sites including a suspension bridge found along Trail 4 and numerous waterfalls (such as the Biwa Falls, found on Trail 6) are scattered along the numerous trails. On Trail 1, hundred-year-old cedars line the path, including Takosugi, the famous octopus cedar, with a height of 37 meters and a circumference of about 19 feet. This enormous tree is estimated to be around 500 years old. Along with cable cars and chair lifts, Mount Takao has several stores and sweet shops. There are a total of three observation decks scattered along Trail 1. A monkey park is located on Trail 1, just past the first observation deck. At the base of the mountain, one can enjoy a soak in the Keio Takaosan Onsen Gokurakuyu, or visit the 599 Museum, which focuses on the ecology surrounding Mount Takao. In addition to Mount Takao's most popular temple, Takaosan Yakuōin Yūkiji, many other shrines and statues are scattered throughout the mountain. Most of dedicated to the tengu, considered to be guardians of the mountain, but several are dedicated to the Buddha and other Buddhist and Shinto figures. While many people explore Mount Takao during the day, visitors can also hike the mountain at night as Trail 1 is lined with lanterns.

Wildlife
Mount Takao is located near the boundary line between the warm-temperature zone and cool-temperature zone, therefore diverse vegetation covers the mountain. Despite the mountain's proximity to the metropolis of Tokyo, Mount Takao is rich in wildlife, with more than 1,200 species of plants and a wide variety of native animals and insects, including wild boars and monkeys. This diversity was under threat from the construction of the Ken-Ō Expressway, which involved the drilling of two 10 m tunnels through the heart of the mountain. The Ken-Ō Expressway opened to traffic on March 28, 2012. Because of its brilliant fall colors, Mount Takao has become a very popular kōyō (autumn foliage) spot. The mountain is home to many cherry blossoms, making it a popular spot during Hanami. However, due to climate change, the cherry trees are blooming earlier over time, by an average of 5.5 days over the 25-year study. Increased temperatures during earlier months, such as February and March, are responsible for much of the change in flowering times.

Access

 * Takao Station on the JR East Chūō Line
 * Takaosan-guchi Station on the Keiō Takao Line

title: Mount Takao


text:
Mataveri International Airport

Mataveri International Airport or Isla de Pascua Airport is at Hanga Roa on Rapa Nui / (Easter Island) (Isla de Pascua in Spanish). The most remote airport in the world (defined as distance to another airport), it is 2336 mi from Santiago, Chile (SCL) which has scheduled flights to it on the Chilean carrier LATAM Chile. The runway starts just inland from the island's southeast coast at Mataveri, and nearly reaches the west coast, almost separating the mountain of Rano Kau from the rest of the island. The airport is the main point of entry for visitors to Easter Island. It has a transit lounge that was formerly used by passengers continuing to or returning from Papeete, Tahiti, which was serviced by LATAM until June 2020.

History
Scheduled services from the Chilean mainland started in 1967 with a monthly Douglas DC-6B propliner flight operated by LAN-Chile that took nine hours, using a runway extended and paved for the use as a U.S. base. In 1970, services were upgraded with weekly Boeing 707-320 nonstop jet service to Santiago, Chile and Faa'a International Airport (PPT) in Papeete, Tahiti. Nonstop service to Papeete had been added earlier during the late 1960s using a DC-6B and the frequency then doubled to twice-weekly with LAN-Chile providing direct connecting 707 service once a week between Easter Island and Frankfurt, Paris and Madrid in Europe via its Santiago hub. By 1975, LAN-Chile had extended its Tahiti route flown once a week with a 707 to Nadi, Fiji (NAN). LAN-Chile then replaced its Boeing 707 flights with Boeing 767-200ER jet service and in 1993 was operating twice weekly round trip flights on a routing of Santiago (SCL) – Easter Island (IPC) – Papeete (PPT). The airline later operated Airbus A340 and Boeing 767-300ER wide body jetliners into the airport.

The airport's single runway is 3,318 m (10,885 ft) long. The airport was once designated as an abort site for the U.S. Space Shuttle when polar orbital flights from Vandenberg Air Force Base in southern California were planned with this space launch activity then subsequently being cancelled. The project undertaken by NASA to lengthen the runway was completed in 1987 and enabled wide-bodied jets to use the airport, which further boosted tourism to the island.

Description
Due to the lack of diversion airports between Tahiti and South America except for Mataveri, Chilean aviation authorities prohibit more than one aircraft from being in the vicinity of Mataveri. Once an aircraft flying from South America passes the halfway point between South America and Easter Island, no other aircraft can be closer than its own halfway point until the first aircraft successfully lands on the island. This is because if an aircraft should have an accident that obstructs or closes the runway, the other aircraft would not be able to land, and should have been turned back to its airport of departure.

There is a hill adjacent to the eastern end of the runway. Approach and departures from either end of the runway are over the water.

title: Mataveri International Airport


text:
Talk:Condor

Erasing extra lines
I've erased a little empty space, but the pictures and the empty space in the start of the article must be fixed. Please help!

Size
For California Condor, Raptors of the World (Ferguson-Lees & Christie, 2001) gives length (beak to tail) 109–127 cm (43–50 in.), weight 8.2–14.1 kg (18–31 lb), and wingspan 249–300 cm (98–118 in.). These measurements are undoubtedly largely based on captive birds.

It's not the largest bird in North America, however, outweighed by Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator, up to 17.2 kg/38 lb.), and Mute Swan (Cygnus olor, up to at least 14.3 kg/31½ lb. – generally heavier than C. buccinator), an introduced species. But it does have the largest wingspan, the runner up being American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, 244–290 cm/96–114 in.).

The Andean Condor is larger, yet shorter. Ferguson-Lees gives length 100–122 cm (39½–48 in.), weight 11–15 kg (24¼–33 lb.) for males and 7.5–11 kg (16½–24¼ lb.) for females, and wingspan 274–310 cm (108–122 in.). Does the name "South American Condor" have any official status? I've never seen this name before.

The order should be changed in "Ciconiiformes" (new researches). --Gan 12.11.2005
 * great. could you please put this mass info in .? :) -- Procrastinating@ talk2me 20:46, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Nomenclature
>The order should be changed in "Ciconiiformes" (new researches). --Gan 12.11.2005 n I agree with this opinion. There is the following 1997 paper:

FORTY-FIRST SUPPLEMENT TO THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION CHECK-LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

It includes taxonomic and nomenclatural changes adopted by the AOU Committee on Classification and Nomenclature between 15 March 1995 and 15 March 1997. The AOU Committee based its recommendation for Cathartidae upon the morphological and molecular analyses described in Ligon (1967), Rea (1983), Sibley and Ahlquist (1990), and Wink (1995). The changes were subsequently included in the 7th Edition of the AOU Check-list of North American Birds. I believe we and others in the field should follow these recommendations until the alternative point of view is accepted. To find the appropriate changes in the above document, perform the text search using a keyword "cathartid". The current (7th Edition) AOU Check-list for North American Cathartidae can be seen here.

And, of course, there is no such a species "South American Condor". Must be "Andean condor".

I represent a California condor research group .--Michael Romanov 19:58, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm very surpriced to read that Condors still seems to be concidered as "The Vultures of the New World", it's been at least 10 years ago I first red that new science had ruled out that Condors and Vultures are taxonomical related. Condors should not be placed in the "common birds of preys", just like Owles no longer is. Condors do not belong to Falconiformes any more (nore to Accipitriformes as Vultures do). Condors are a completely new order or perhaps they are related to Storks. The similar way of living between Condors and Vultures have got nothing to do with the taxonomy of the birds. Besides there are more then two spieces of Condors. The Lowland Condor (before known as King's Vulture) i the Amazonas is one for instance.

/Swedish ornithologist —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.249.33.160 (talk) 22:46, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

Largest birds????
California Condors are the largest bird
 * Ostriches are bigger.63.225.86.56 (talk) 20:45, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

 * The Harpyan eagle (Amazonaz and central America south of Mexico) and Stellers Sea Eagle (Kamtjatka peninsula, Russia) are both heavier, and some of the Pelicanes too. Thats certain. Wingspread - some albatrosses are wider, I belive. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.249.33.160 (talk) 22:52, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

DDT
The story blames DDT as a cause of Condor decline, though much of the research in this area is contradictory. See: http://www.junkscience.com/ddtfaq.htm. The article should note that DDT exposure was a popular theory about the cause of condor eggshell thinning.

 * The entire issue needs more references anyway. Note that research on non-toplevel-predator species cannot be transferred to CCs, and that at any rate, the "junkscience" references are more or less junk science from the heat of the debate in the 70s(!) themselves. If one cites bygone science, then it should only be a keystone study (no matter if it is wrong - if it broke ground, it is encyclopedia-worthy). Simply burying the issue under a shitload of references of which a lot certainly was bought science (billions in revenue were at stake, against which the price of a scientist's ethos weighs little) is not sufficient. The adverse effects of organochlorides on the reproductive effort of toplevel carnivorous birds, especially k-strategists, is as far as I can recall well documented in the field. Especially the rebound of populations after organochloride restriction, conciding with decreasing substance levels in the environment cannot easily be explained away.
 * Besides, anyone who advocates DDT against malaria can't be taken seriously as a distributor of scientific fact. There is a thing called "pesticide resistance", which was the main reason the stuff flopped in the first place: 5 years respite, 50 years rollback. Dysmorodrepanis 23:31, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

Split article

 * Support The two species need their own accounts, but there still need to be a Condor page. The problems won't completely go away as evidenced by pages like peafowl and Turkey where one species of two or three is much better known than the others, so these pages tend to be treated as synomynous with Indian Peafowl and Wild Turkey respectively. jimfbleak 04:31, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Suppport three pages total: one for Condor, one for Andean, and one for California

 * Support; different critters. I think each species should have its own page.  Antandrus  (talk) 18:42, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Support as per jimfbleak, but instead of separate Condor page, integrate such info into and expand New World vulture Dysmorodrepanis 23:31, 30 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Support Who would like to split the article? --Melly42 02:17, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

I started a split, but as the article does not always clearly define which species they refer to, it needs more work. --Mfranck 11:00, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Nonsense
"The Coat of Arms of Chile features a condor."...So..? --Ziget 03:35, 28 September 2007
 * Haha totally right, the coat of arms of Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia..also have a condor in it...so? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 201.255.187.70 (talk) 07:17, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Monotypic Genus
if there are two species within a genus, then the genus cannot be monotypic. propose to delete monotypic genus in this article or another editor revise monotypic. παράδοξος (talk) 07:36, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Accipter
new world vultures and condors do not exhibit any morphological or behavioral traits that significantly differentiate them from old world vultures. compare old world vultures to the "more closely related" hawks, goshawks, kites, and eagles. just because one person says old world vultures are more closely related to hawks, goshawks, kites, and eagles does not necessarily mean new world vultures are "superficially related" to old world vultures. where is the beef? show independent research that proves old world vultures are genetically different than new world vultures and more closely related to hawks, goshawks, kites, and eagles, than falcons are related to accipters. just think about it: hawks, goshawks, kites, and eagles are more different than falcons compared to new world vultures and old world vultures. new world vultures are morphologically and behaviorally similar to old world vultures, not to mention occupying the same niche. let us talk about these biological organisms. παράδοξος (talk) 07:36, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Argentavis as a relative of the condor
I've edited the text to be less specific; implying that Argentavis was a relative of the California Condor specifically is a bit dumb. It was not a condor at all, it was a teratorn. Whether teratorns were related to condors at all is apparently debatable, but mentioning Gymnogyps specifically is unnecessary because Argentavis wasn't even a condor. It was confusing, since the text never bothered to mention that it belonged to a different family, it implies to the reader that it was a condor when it wasn't. 97.104.210.67 (talk) 16:13, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Spanish version
Hello there, I'm not able to add the Spanish version of this article. Could anyone please add this link http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vultur_gryphus to the list of languages? Thanks — Preceding unsigned comment added by 186.136.165.149 (talk) 16:51, 13 June 2014 (UTC)

Etymology
Ok, so the name comes from kuntur which become condor in Spanish, which everyone uses now I think. But in french it used to be called a contour. Do people think this comes from its habit of gliding i.e. contouring,, or just a coincidentally apt homonym? Oblomov99 (talk) 18:31, 24 October 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:55, 25 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) at Colca Canyon.jpg

title: Talk:Condor


text: User talk:68.99.19.213

title: User talk:68.99.19.213


text:
Amerzone

Amerzone (also known as Amerzone: The Explorer's Legacy, L'Amerzone: Le Testament de l'explorateur) is a first-person fantasy graphic adventure game published by Microïds and designed by Benoît Sokal, who based it on his 1986 Inspector Canardo comic strip L'Amerzone. Amerzone was originally released for Microsoft Windows, the classic Mac OS and PlayStation in 1999, and re-released for iOS and Android in 2014 by Anuman Interactive, whom had bought out Microïds in 2009. An upcoming remake is scheduled for release in october 2024.

Like the comic, the game tells the story of a French explorer, Alexandre Valembois, who goes on an expedition to the mysterious South American country of Amerzone. There, he discovers many fantastical animals including a species of magical White Birds, who require human intervention for their survival. These become threatened when a friend of Valembois turns Amerzone into a brutal dictatorship, and Valembois endeavors to rescue the endangered species. The game adds a journalist as the player character, who continues Valembois's quest as the man nears death.

Amerzone received generally positive reception. It was praised for its atmosphere and visuals, with critics claiming that it lent it a poetic and dreamlike quality; while criticism targeted the sound, controls, and difficulty. It was a great commercial success, with over 1 million copies sold in its original release. The game's setting became the foundation of Sokal's Syberia series, and is the namesake for the video game development company he co-founded White Birds Productions.

Setting
The world of Amerzone interweaves fact and fiction. "Amerzone" itself is the name of a fictional region in South America and the great river that runs through it. The name, and the lush tropical rainforest in the Amerzone, suggest that it is inspired by the real-life Amazon rainforest. Valembois lives in a lighthouse on the fictitious Langrevin peninsula in Brittany.

The game veers further into the realm of fantasy once the player enters Amerzone. The country is home to many strange plants and animals, depicted through watercolor sketches in Valembois's exploration journal. The flora comprises mostly herbaceous plants such as the orchid-like Orcochi. Animals in the Amerzone tend to resemble real-life animals, but with bizarre flourishes: the ventousier resembles a shrew, but its snout branches off into sucker-bearing arms; the rhinopotamus is cross between a rhinoceros and hippopotamus; the web-footed giraffe navigates the marshlands with its webbed feet.

The White Birds are the key plot point of the game. The Birds are born legless and as such spend their entire lives gliding over the thermals issuing from a great volcano, sustaining themselves on a diet of flying insects. Their wings keep growing after the rest of their bodies has stopped, such that they end up disproportionately long. The Birds' limited range threatens their survival, as does their method of reproduction: every three years, a single, enormous egg is laid, containing many embryos. However, the volcano's fumes will naturally make the eggs "ill", such that they will hatch as Black Birds. Only a nearby indigenous tribe, the Ovo-volahos, knows how to "cure" the eggs to make them hatch as White Birds. Most Amerzonians believe the White Birds to merely be a fanciful myth.

Characters

 * The journalist: The player character; a faceless, nameless, silent protagonist. Has virtually no identity: all that is known is they were assigned by their employer, Mondial Magazine, to interview Valembois about the Amerzone.
 * Alexandre Valembois (voiced by Michel Barbey): Born in 1904, he studied natural history in Paris. Fascinated by the biology of Amerzone, he goes on a scientific expedition there from 1932 to 1934. There, he encounters and becomes enamored with the White Birds, and finds love in a native girl called Yékoumani. When he brings back one of the White Birds' eggs, the scientific establishment laughs it off. After World War II, he gets a career as a lycée professor. When the player character meets him in 1998, he is exhausted and tormented by his past mistakes, and can only think of returning the egg to Amerzone.
 * Antonio Alvarez (voiced by Marc Moro): An Amerzone native who befriends Valembois in 1929 while studying law. A lover of his native land, he accompanies Valembois on his expedition, and stays behind after his friend returns to Europe. Wishing to modernize the country, Alvarez spearheads a coup d'état. The patriot turns into a cynical dictator, corrupted by power and leading his once-beloved country into ruin.
 * David Mackowski (voiced by Luc Gentil): A Jesuit who also accompanies Valembois to Amerzone, being equally fascinated by the place. He unwisely attempts to convert the Amerzone natives to Catholicism. Like Valembois, by 1998 he is filled with regret and sadness over his mistakes and what has become of Amerzone under Alvarez's rule.

Plot
The game proper begins in 1998 with the journalist's interview of Valembois, but much of the plot is backstory about Valembois's 1932 expedition.

1932–1934: The Valembois expedition
Alexandre Valembois, a zoology buff fascinated by Amerzone, lobbies the National Museum of Natural History in Paris to fund an expedition to discover the exotic flora and fauna mentioned by Antonio Alvarez. The Museum grants his wish in 1932, and he devises a watercraft called a Hydraflot to get to and around the country. Valembois, Alvarez, and the Jesuit David Mackowski set out on October 22 of that year, finding their way by following the migrating Amerzone geese. On the way, the Hydraflot is damaged by a sperm whale, so they make the rest of the trip on a Peruvian whaling vessel.

They set foot in Amerzone on Christmas Day, and make their way to the former trading post of Puebla. Valembois begins sketching and studying the wildlife. On New Year's Day, he learns of the White Birds from one Luis Angel, and decides to pursue the lead despite widespread disbelief in the creatures. He hires Angel as a guide and rows up the Amerzone River, going it alone after Angel abandons him on February 18. On the 22nd of the month, he discovers a native tribe—the Ovo-vohalos—but hesitates to make contact. That night, he contracts a debilitating illness, and is nursed back to health by the comely native girl Yékoumani. They grow very close, and upon his recovery a month later, begins designing labor-saving machines for the tribe.

On June 1, a young tribesman returns from the nearby mountains with a large White Bird egg, thus convincing Valembois of their existence. He takes part in the ceremony to cure the egg so it will hatch as healthy White Birds. Promising to Yékoumani that he will return, he heads for the mountains the next day. Making his way through a swamp and an ancient temple, he reaches the Birds' volcanic home on the 18th. In his zeal for scientific recognition, he steals an egg and returns to Puebla, thus betraying Yékoumani and the tribe.

In France, however, the scientific community dismiss the find as a hoax, perhaps an oversized ostrich egg. The Museum fires him for bringing ridicule upon them, and after a stint as a lycée professor, he holes up in a lighthouse in Brittany, all the while longing for Yékoumani and wallowing in guilt over his betrayal. Meanwhile, Alvarez has seized power in Amerzone and turned the country into a despotic dictatorship. His ties to the Museum now severed, Valembois independently builds a new Hydraflot with which to return to Amerzone with the egg, but comes to realize that he is too old and weak for the journey.

1998: The journalist
In 1998, the player character—a journalist—is assigned to interview Valembois. The old man confesses that he is dying, and beseeches the journalist to travel to Amerzone with the egg and safeguard the White Birds. He entrusts him with a letter and his old expedition journal, and the newsman sets out in the new and upgraded Hydraflot. The vehicle now uses programs on floppy disk to switch between different configurations. It is also equipped with a grappling hook. He leaves to the journalist his old expedition journal, containing all his observations on Amerzone wildlife, and a candid letter detailing his experiences.

The journalist sets sail, and stops to refuel at the same island where Valembois ran into the sperm whale. An ultrasonic repellent keeps the craft safe, but a disoriented whale ends up tangled in a fishing net. The journalist manages to free it, and finds a disk that turns the Hydraflot into a helicopter. After fueling up, he heads for Puebla. In the once-lively, now heavily militarized village, he encounters an aged Mackowski who tells him that a despondent Yékoumani committed suicide in 1935. Mackowski wishes to aid the journalist in his quest, but Alvarez has him assassinated and the journalist captured to cover up the existence of the Birds. The journalist manages to escape, fuels up and locates a disk which lets him go up the Amerzone river.

On his way upstream, he discovers the plants and animals mentioned in Valembois's journal. A collision with a three-horned buffalo damages the Hydraflot so badly that only the grappling hook is left functioning, and the journalist must pull himself from rock to rock until he reaches the Ovo-volaho village. He narrowly escapes death when the hook catches on an ill-tempered rhinopotamus. At the village, he has the egg cured, acquires a new disk and rides one of Valembois's contraptions to get above some waterfalls that are in the way.

He thus reaches the swamp, but not before the Hydraflot is knocked over and finally put out of commission. The egg thus becomes lost in the mazelike swamp. The journalist finds a whistle in a pile dwelling, which lets him call and ride a web-footed giraffe deeper into the swamp. After finding the egg, he climbs a great tree and crosses a rope bridge into the temple Valembois had written of. There, he encounters Alvarez, who threatens to kill him but doesn't have the strength left for it. Further on, he rides a primitive hang glider which takes him to the volcano's rim. He sets the egg down and it hatches the White Birds, thus accomplishing Valembois's dying wish.

Gameplay
Amerzone plays like a typical first-person point-and-click adventure game. The player flips between panoramic "screens", which can be panned around to view the game world. Certain elements can be interacted with by clicking on them. To progress in the game, the player must solve puzzles, which may involve talking to people or using items collected throughout the game. Some items are not required for puzzle-solving, but instead serve to flesh out the game's plot: this is the purpose of the explorer's journal and Valembois's letter. The game has a resource management component in the Hydroflot: the player must constantly be on the lookout for fuel and floppy disks required to keep the vehicle running.

The game's mobile port modified some gameplay elements. An optional hint system was added to get struggling players back on track, and certain puzzles were redesigned in an attempt to limit tedious back-and-forth travel between locations. Since iOS devices use touchscreens for input, the controls were redesigned: objects are highlighted with clickable icons, and the camera can be controlled by tilting the device.

Pre-production
Before entering the gaming industry, Benoît Sokal drew comic books like Canardo, which he colorized on a personal computer. With the advent of CD-ROMs, which could store hundreds of times more data than then-ubiquitous floppy disks, Sokal was inspired in 1995 to create a multimedia CD-ROM containing 2D and 3D art which would add up to a cohesive universe. His comic publisher, Casterman, approved of the idea, and after a successful demonstration Sokal began work on the project with software developer Gregory Duquesne. Casterman's initial vision was of a cheap, small-scale product with a very limited production run; they eventually realized that such a niche product would not sell, and decided to do something more ambitious.

Sokal and Duquesne began planning a full-fledged video game, which Sokal decided to base on his comic book L'Amerzone. It would be made up of prerendered screens, linked together using the Phoenix VR engine. Sokal held complete creative control over the product, doing all the design work himself. He believed that working alone would foster creativity, whereas collaboration would result in a banal and standard commercial product. He did hire fellow comic book artist Benoît Peeters to assist with writing, but he soon left the project.

Sokal wanted to keep the game accessible to inexperienced players. This meant avoiding sudden difficulty spikes, which could leave a player stuck; point-of-no-return scenarios, in which a player is stuck because they missed an item; and failure states in which the player character is killed. He admitted to thinking the game may have been too simple as a result, and promised that "if [they] were to make a sequel, I think it would be more complex, especially toward the end".

Sokal wrote the game much as he typically wrote comics: first writing a linear story, then rendering it frame-by-frame as a storyboard. His guiding principle was to make "the kind of adventure that you no longer get these days, an adventure out of the early 20th century". The challenge for Sokal was making this adventure interactive; in that regard, he found Duquesne's input very valuable. He credits Myst as his inspiration to make the game, and also cites Werner Herzog films like Fitzcarraldo and the writings of Gabriel García Márquez as influences. He is quoted especially as saying "Myst is really the game that made me want to make Amerzone".

Production
The team began producing artwork in 1996, using LightWave 3D for character and object models, and Bryce 3D for environments. Modeling characters at Sokal's desired quality level was time-consuming, so the cast of characters was kept small. Being unfamiliar with 3D graphics, Sokal had to learn on the fly by studying the software documentation and getting help from the more technically proficient Duquesne. The latter's skills were applied to the game's more complex visual effects, such as dust particles being buffeted about.

Sokal eventually realized the project was too ambitious for the two-man team, and hired Supinfocom graduates to help with the graphics from 1996 onwards. In 1998, Duquesne left to pursue a career at LightWave in the United States, and Sokal called on the Belgian company Grid Animation to produce cutscenes and do further graphics work. The experience made Sokal overcome his misgivings about working collaboratively. In an interview with JATV, he was quoted as saying: "I recall that [for] the first chapters of Amerzone, I modeled everything because I wanted to be on top, but it was impossible of course. So little by little, people made their way into the team and started modeling, and I told myself it made me sick but... in a way it was a revolution in my mind!" He ended up highly satisfied with the output of his collaborators.

Sokal recalls that the game's development was troubled at many points. In 1997, Casterman had fallen on hard times and called upon the publisher Microfolie's to help with financing. Microfolie themselves went bankrupt and the project was "saved" when Microïds bought them out and agreed to fund the game. The total budget was 5 million francs (€760,000), much higher than Sokal's initial sub-million-franc estimate. He would go on to describe the game's completion as a "miracle".

Amerzone underwent several changes in direction as some design ideas proved impractical or unappealing. Sokal originally wanted a strictly 2D art style, but was disappointed in the results. The team considered using live actors keyed into computer backgrounds instead of time-consuming 3D character modeling, but found the compositing of real and fake elements jarring. Concurrently, Duquesne and the publishers pushed for a highly interactive product, whereas Sokal had initially conceived of the game as a more passive experience. A day-to-night progression was scrapped, as was a requirement to feed and hydrate the journalist, since this would have created frustrating failure states.

Later development
Anuman interactive started work on iOS ports of the game in November 2010. The game was released on June 7, 2011.

Tetraedge Games—a developer of adventure games for mobile devices —was chosen to make the port, since they shared office space with Anuman and so could intercommunicate efficiently. Tetraedge cofounder Emmanuel Zaza said that the greatest hurdle lay in parsing all the old development data, which had not been organized properly. The port features greatly improved in-game visuals and cutscene video quality, and a new playable area: the top of the lighthouse. Benoît Sokal was eager to see the game rereleased for new players to enjoy, and collaborated with the Tetraedge team.

Release
Amerzone was released in France on 4 CD-ROMs for Windows on March 18, 1999. Mac OS and PlayStation ports followed in September and December of that year. December also saw the DVD-ROM rerelease of the game, in which the cutscenes were in MPEG2 format instead of Smacker video. The DVD-ROM version saw further rereleases, some of them by Mindscape, some of them as bargain-priced pack-ins with other adventure titles.

The official strategy guide, Amerzone: Strategies & Secrets was released in June 1999. In addition to a walkthrough of the game, it contains a guide to the Amerzone universe, an interview with Sokal and some behind-the-scenes information. Another book, Amerzone: Memoirs of an Expedition, was put out by Casterman in November of the same year. It compiles the art from the game and also some concept art that didn't make it into the final product. It is annotated with text explanations of the images, most of which are from the in-game expedition journal.

In January 2014, the Android port of the game was released. It is identical to the iOS release.

Sales
Amerzone was a surprise commercial success; GameSpot UK noted in June 1999 that it had become a "big hit in France". Following its release in France in March 1999, it sold 10,000 units by early May, a number that French paper Libération considered a promising sign. The game proceeded to have a long shelf life. Its global sales surpassed 500,000 copies by March 2002. At the time, Mathieu Van Overstraeten of La Libre Belgique noted that these sales were unusual for Benoît Sokal's work, as each volume of Inspector Canardo averaged 30,000 units sold. In 2007, Michel Bams of Sokal's White Birds Productions reported that Amerzone had risen above 1 million sales. Ultimately, the game sold 1.5 million copies by 2013.

Critical reviews
The game was generally positively received at the time. The presentation was ubiquitously praised: the visuals were called "magnificent" and "amazing", and frequently compared to those of Myst, although some complained of excessive pixelation. The cutscenes were praised for high video quality. The storyline and atmosphere were called "very good", "interesting and well-developed" and "sublime", with some critics drawing comparisons to Jules Verne novels. The linearity of the narrative drew criticism, however.

More divisive was the difficulty: some welcomed it for keeping players from getting stuck, while others complained that it made the game too simple and end too soon. There were also occasional complaints that the point-and-click interface was cumbersome or awkward. The sound design was the most criticized aspect of the game: the limited music was deemed repetitive and poor. A few reviewers were positive about the ambient sound effects.

The game also received some attention from mainstream publications such as Télérama and Libération, both giving extremely positive reviews.

Awards
Amerzone won the Pixel-INA prize for games at the 1999 Imagina festival in Monaco. Sokal attributes the game's commercial success to this accolade.

Legacy
The game has been cited as one of the finest examples of French computer adventure games. In 2003, Benoît Sokal would borrow the logo and name of his new company, White Bird Productions, from the game. Amerzone is occasionally referenced in his later games, most notably the Syberia series. Amerzone is collected with the first two Syberia installments as the Syberia Collection, which was released in October 2009.

A remake of the original game is currently in development for PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S, and PC, scheduled for release in 2024.

title: Amerzone


text: User talk:67.77.201.198

title: User talk:67.77.201.198


text:
Template talk:Current U.S. senators/TFD Vote Archive

Archive of discussion to delete Template:Current U.S. Senators, April 2005 --DuKot 04:32, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Hideous, gigantic, unnecessary, no need for box because it's not a series organized logically, duplicates category, Neutralitytalk 05:13, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep It IS organized logically. It is organized by states in alphabetical order. Very useful in navigating between the pages of current U.S Senators. --DuKot 05:37, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Size should not be an issue. Here are some templates which are even bigger Template:US Constitution, Template:India topics --DuKot 05:47, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Those are much more appealling to the eye and are used on large articles or as parts of Wikiprojects. This COULD have potential, but is not a useful navigation aide right now because it is basically a large lump of text. --tomf688 (talk) 05:50, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep The template could be beautified, but is a useful one. --Chakravyuh 06:56, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep even though it is really ugly. --Vik Reykja ♬ 07:18, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete unless
 * It is renamed with two periods in the U.S. abbreviation rather than "Current U.S Senators"
 * At least four spaces are removed in each entry and the party and state designations closed up with no additional spaces inside the parentheses symbols). It is now especially ugly in part because of the line breaks on those useless parentheses spaces which were not even made nonbreaking.
 * Links to the parties and the states are removed as they are of little utility, to provide a visual separation between the names
 * With that, the bullets might be unnecessary as well
 * It wouldn't be so bad as
 * Shelby (R-AL) • Sessions (R-AL) • Stevens (R-AK) • Murkowski (R-AK) • McCain (R-AZ) • Kyl (R-AZ) • Lincoln (D-AR) • Pryor (D-AR) •
 * Gene Nygaard 07:54, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Done. --Vik Reykja ♬ 08:55, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I'd suggest removing all parentheses as well. Gene Nygaard 07:57, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I've changed it to a rather different version; it's a bit bigger, but makes much more sense visually; feel free to toy with it. The colors may also stand improvement.--Pharos 08:44, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oh my! I can even stand to look at that.  Since we updated it at almost the same time, I've put my version in over it.  Everyone, please look at the history for Pharos' version --Vik Reykja ♬ 08:55, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Oh! You have no taste!  It's a beautiful dream, just gotta work ot the kinks... (anyway, its actually good for navigation)--Pharos 08:58, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't know how to change this because I'm a n00b, Vikreykja, but the postal code for Delaware is definitely DE. Might want to fix that. christopherschuller 09:04, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Neeeeever mind; I'm an idiot. Did it myself. christopherschuller 09:11, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * No blue checkerboard, and even with the spaces and links removed the line variation still is pretty big. How about just an unlinked boldface state two-letter abbreviation, followed by two surname links with no party designation, then one bullet to separate each state?  Categories and lists can handle anything else someone might want.  Gene Nygaard 09:11, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page should be reserved for voting. I've added some comments to the template's talk page. --Vik Reykja ♬ 09:37, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No, comments belong here too: as the tfd template tells us, "Please see its entry on Wikipedia:Templates for deletion for comments and voting." Gene Nygaard 18:25, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete Massive ugliness (in just about all the variations) and no demonstrated necessity for a nav-template to browse by senators--a list or category is more than sufficient IMO. older ≠ wiser 14:41, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep simpler, smaller version (ie no gaudy boxes). Category:United States Senators is by name, and lists ALL senators--useful to have current senators by state. I like having the state and party abbrevs there, and linked. Niteowlneils 14:56, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Yet another reformat; I've attempted to match it to other templates such as Template:USpresidents and have limited it to Last names and state postal abbrevations; check it out. --tomf688 (talk) 16:49, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * tomf688's version is the least obtrusive so far. Though I'm still not convinced of the necessity for such a beast as this, I could live with this version. There's no need to include party affiliation or link the state abbreviations -- a list is a far better place to spell out such details than a navbox. older ≠ wiser 16:57, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm removing my "delete" vote because I now feel this temp has potential. I feel it will provide a good way to interlink all the senator's articles and thus open them to more scrutiny by other editors. --tomf688 (talk) 17:09, Apr 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep Current version looks much better --Boshtang 18:06, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Changing my Delete to a weak Keep, it does look much better now, and I think it has some marginal utility in addition to categories and lists. Gene Nygaard 18:23, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep It is useful Rogerd 21:45, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Gamaliel 22:34, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Very useful template, and I'm at a loss why anyone would want to delete it. As with almost any template however, its aesthetics could be worked on. —  Stevie is the man!  Talk 23:03, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Thanks you to everyone who made the template look better. Zzyzx11 00:17, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. I would MUCH rather see information about the state's congressional delegation in the places this template appears than a complete listing of the other members of the Senate, i.e. I'd replace this with a template per state with the state's current congressional delegation.  Complete list of US Senators is easily available elsewhere (List of United States Senators);  there should be a link to this page from the article about each senator (perhaps in the "delegation by state" template I'm proposing). -- Rick Block 00:40, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Rick: Are you referring to something like what I did in this template for Maryland a while ago? -- tomf688 (talk) 01:23, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, although my preference would be a little more compact (perhaps User:Rick_Block/sandbox). -- Rick Block 02:34, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Seems imbalanced IMO. -- tomf688 (talk) 03:13, Apr 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * I've created a version for Colorado, see Template:CO-FedRep. These could be built from a meta-template, but I guess we shouldn't go there.  -- Rick Block 04:09, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Why not have both this template and the one you're describing? Both would be very useful navigation tools. —  Stevie is the man!  Talk 15:47, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Assuming you're asking why NOT have both, my reasoning is that including both (presumably at the bottom) on every page for a current U.S. Senator exceeds my tolerance for visual clutter. I hesitate to mention it lest someone actually do it, but we could have a template with all 435 members of the U.S. House.  I hope this would exceed everyone's tolerance for visual clutter.  I've updated the CO-FedRep template to include an explicit link to the lists of all senators and all representatives.  Does this version address the senator to senator navigational need?  Compare, for example, Wayne Allard and Mark Udall. -- Rick Block 18:15, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This is one of those rare cases where I say that the "visual clutter" is ok, as the information conveyed is more valuable than the eyesore it creates. — Stevie is the man!  Talk 10:33, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. Useful (so long as it's up-to-date)--Comrade Nick @ )---^--  09:38, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep --Sina 11:09, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong keep. This is a very useful template. --Lst27 ( t a l k )  21:06, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I was about to change my vote to keep, but someone added absolutely hideous colors to the template. If this template is simply going to end up looking like some warped psychedelic eyesore it should be deleted post-haste. older ≠ wiser 00:21, Apr 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * I've already voted, but I have a question for all you keepers: if the presumed use of this template is to allow traversal from one senator to another, how is a link on each senator's page to list of United States Senators not sufficient? Yes, it's two clicks rather than one, but isn't the inclusion of much more information content (party, when elected, seat expiration, yada yada yada) worth the extra click?  My point is, IMO, there isn't a reasonable way to make this template do everything everyone wants; hence, we should delete it. -- Rick Block 00:45, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm a bit up in the air; I think the template has potential, but perhaps a template similiar to Template:MD-FedRep on each page might be better afterall (although for larger states, might have to do something else for representatives). -- tomf688 (talk) 01:35, Apr 5, 2005 (UTC)
 * Using the Colorado specific template, navigating from Wayne Allard to the other Colorado Senator or to any other member of Colorado's U.S. House delegation is one click. Navigating to any other Senator or any other U.S. Representative is two clicks.  I honor and respect whoever originally came up with the senator template, but it is the nature of wikipedia to improve on others ideas.  Is this not an improvement?  -- Rick Block 04:09, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Very Strong Keep Very useful in navigating between the pages of current senators. We have to make sure that the template is updated whenever an existing senator leaves office and a new senator is appointed or elected. Some kind of color scheme would be better than putting a D and R next the name of each senator. --SpitFlame 08:03, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete Repeats info already on List of United States Senators but presents it better. The template's presentation would be well placed at the front of the List of US Senators article.  The state specific template is far better and possibly more useful in that these critters are most responsive to their own constituents. Flawiki 16:57, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. I saw this template in use today for the first time, and I thought it was a great navigational aid. Sjakkalle 09:44, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete it in it's current version (see below) -- User:Docu
 * I just realized that it looks better in the usual template, than in Cologne Blue (the font-size doesn't work there). A condensed version might be fine, but in it's present form it's too large. On the other hand, there is already a sequence footer for every current senator. -- User:Docu
 * Abstain. It's still quite large for a footer template, but now that the text size has been fixed, it's more reasonable (I removed it to show those who don't use the standard skin the result). It's still close if not beyond the limit. -- User:Docu

 * Keep But I dont see any reason why there should be both color coding and party names in brackets. --WikiRocks 03:15, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete: fails second and third criteria at Categories%2C_lists%2C_and_series_boxes. --Jiang 10:44, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Strong Keep Very useful. The category is not enough. You will have to use the back button or use two clicks to navigate through various senator pages. Extremely useful navigatonal aid. --Leslie123 18:11, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep of course. --DuluthRocker 07:21, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. Aris Katsaris 16:45, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. I see no reason to remove this. The template is not that big. -- Will
 * Keep, i have no problem with this template. Rhobite 04:18, Apr 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I love it. -- Seth Ilys 13:15, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)


text:
Hydrocyanation

In organic chemistry, hydrocyanation is a process for conversion of alkenes to nitriles. The reaction involves the addition of hydrogen cyanide and requires a catalyst. This conversion is conducted on an industrial scale for the production of precursors to nylon.

Hydrocyanation of unactivated alkenes
Industrially, hydrocyanation is commonly performed on alkenes catalyzed by nickel complexes of phosphite (P(OR)3) ligands. A general reaction is shown:
 * RCH\dCH2 + HCN -> RCH2\sCH2\sCN

Stoichiometry and mechanism
The reaction involves the addition of H+ and cyanide (-CN) to the substrate. Usually the substrate is an alkene and the product is a nitrile.

The reaction proceeds via the oxidative addition of HCN to a low-valent metal complex to give a hydrido cyanide complex. Subsequent binding of the alkene gives the intermediate M(H)(CN)L_{n}(alkene), which then undergoes migratory insertion to give an alkylmetal cyanide. The cycle is completed by the reductive elimination of the nitrile.

Lewis acids, such as triphenylboron (B(C6H5)3), induce reductive elimination of the nitrile product, increasing rates.

In the case of nickel-based systems, catalyst deactivation involves formation of dicyanonickel(II) species, which are unreactive toward alkenes. The dicyanide arises via two pathways (L = phosphite):
 * Ni(H)(CN)L2 + HCN  -> Ni(CN)2L2  +  H2
 * Ni(R)(CN)L2 + HCN  ->  Ni(CN)2L2  +  RH

Asymmetric hydrocyanation
Most alkenes are prochiral, meaning in this context that their hydrocyanation generates chiral nitriles. Conventional hydrocyanation catalysts, e.g. Ni(P(OR)3)4, catalyse the formation of racemic mixtures. When however the supporting ligands are chiral, the hydrocyanation can be highly enantioselective. For asymmetric hydrocyanation, popular chiral ligands are chelating aryl diphosphite complexes.

Applications
The most important industrial application is the nickel-catalyzed synthesis of adiponitrile (NC\s(CH2)4\sCN) synthesis from buta-1,3-diene (CH2\dCH\sCH\dCH2). Adiponitrile is a precursor to hexamethylenediamine (H2N\s(CH2)6\sNH2), which is used for the production of certain kinds of Nylon. The DuPont ADN process to give adiponitrile is shown below:

 * ButadieneHydrocyanation.svg

This process consists of three steps: hydrocyanation of butadiene to a mixture of 2-methyl-butene-3-nitrile (2M3BM) and pentene-3-nitrile (3PN), an isomerization step from 2M3BM (not desired) to 3PN and a second hydrocyanation (aided by a Lewis acid cocatalyst such as aluminium trichloride or triphenylboron) to adiponitrile.

Asymmetric hydrocyanation
Hydrocyanation is important due to the versatility of alkyl nitriles (RCN), which are important intermediates for the syntheses of amides, amines, carboxylic acids and esters.

Naproxen, an anti-inflammatory drug, is prepared via an asymmetric hydrocyanation of a vinylnaphthalene utilizing a phosphinite (OPR2) ligand, L. The enantioselectivity of this reaction is important because only the S enantiomer is medicinally desirable, whereas the R enantiomer produces harmful health effects. This reaction can produce the S enantiomer with >90% stereoselectivity. Upon recrystallization of the crude product, the optically pure nitrile can be obtained.

History
Hydrocyanation was first reported by Arthur and Pratt in 1954, when they homogeneously catalyzed the hydrocyanation of linear alkenes. The industrial process for catalytic hydrocyanation of butadiene to adiponitrile was invented by William C. Drinkard.

Transhydrocyanation
In transhydrocyanation, an equivalent of HCN is transferred from a cyanohydrin, e.g. acetone cyanohydrin, to another HCN acceptor. The transfer is an equilibrium process, initiated by base. The reaction can be driven by trapping reactions or by the use of a superior HCN acceptor, such as an aldehyde.

With unsaturated carbonyl compounds
α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds undergo hydrocyanation in the absence of metal catalysts. One manifestation is a special case of the Michael reaction, leading to β-cyanoketones. Another manifestation leads to vinyl cyanohydrins. β-cyano-cyanohydrins are also observed. Reaction conditions allows access to any of these products.

(1)

Generally acidic conditions favor 1,2-adducts, while basic conditions favor 1,4-adducts. Additions of alkali metal cyanides, for instance, lead exclusively to 1,4-addition. In contrast to alkali metal cyanides and cyanoaluminates, Lewis acidic cyanides, such as TMSCN, favor 1,2-addition. Acetylenic substrates undergo the reaction; however the scope of this reaction is limited and yields are often low.

(5) 1,4-Addition to imines has been observed in a few cases, although imines are often base labile. (6) Esters, nitriles and other carbonyl derivatives also undergo conjugative hydrocyanation.

When alkali metal cyanides are used, at least partial neutralization of the reaction medium is usually necessary. Neutralization can be accomplished through an acidic group on the substrate itself (internal neutralization). or through the addition of an external acid (external neutralization). Acetic acid is commonly used for this purpose, in a procedure pioneered by Lapworth. (7)

Conjugative hydrocyanation was used to prepare the steroidal D ring. Diastereoselectivity is generally high in these addition reactions, and the resulting β-cyano carbonyl compounds can be converted to a number of steroidal products.

title: Hydrocyanation