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Hidayat Inayat Khan

Hidayat Inayat Khan (6 August 1917 – 12 September 2016) was a British-French classical composer, conductor and Representative-General of the Inayati Order.

Biography
Hidayat was born in London to Sufi Master Inayat Khan and Pirani Ameena Begum; brother of Noor Inayat Khan, Vilayat Inayat Khan and Khair-un-Nisa (Claire) Inayat Khan ; and father of Fazal Inayat-Khan, who led the Inayati Order from 1968-82. His western musical education began in Paris in 1932 at the Ecole Normale de Musique, in the violin class of Bernard Sinsheimer; the composition class of Nadia Boulanger; and the orchestra class of Diran Alexanian. Later, he attended chamber music courses given by the Lener Quartet in Budapest.

In 1942, Hidayat Inayat-Khan became Professor of music at the Lycée Musical de Dieulefit, France, and later, in the Netherlands, joined the orchestra of Haarlem as violinist. He followed the courses of orchestra conducting by Toon Verhey. In 1952, Hidayat Inayat-Khan conducted the orchestra of 's-Hertogenbosch for the worldwide broadcasting of his Po'me en Fa for orchestra and piano and in the same year, founded his first chamber music orchestra ensemble. Performance highlights in Hidayat Inayat-Khan's professional life include the playing, on 4 May 1957, of his Zikar Symphony at Salle Pleyel, Paris, conducted by Georges Prêtre, in a Pasdeloup concert. On the occasion of Mahatma Gandhi's centenary, on 21 November 1969, the Gandhi Symphony was played in a special concert organised by UNESCO in the Netherlands. This was repeated in 1971 during a broadcasting of "The Voice of America", as well as on the United Nations Radio in the USA and was later recorded by the US Armed Forces Radio Stations in a worldwide Carmen Dragon show. On 15 October 1971, the Virginia Symphonic Poem was played in honour of the Bicentennial of America. On Bavarian Radio La Monotonia was played in a Composer's Portrait in 1972 and The Message Symphony was played in 1977.

On 15–16 February 2002, the Suite Symphonic and La Monotonia, Op. 7 for Orchestra were performed by the Symphonisches Orchester München-Andechs with Andreas Pascal Heinzmann conducting in Munich, Germany. On 5 May 2007, the Royal Legend Symphonic Poem (op. 46) will receive its world premiere in Munich. It will be performed by the Zorneding-Baldham Orchestra with Andreas Pascal Heinzmann conducting. He has composed numerous works, among them Concerto for strings Op 38, Quartet for Strings Op. 45, Poem in F, and a number of choral pieces including Chanson Exotique, Awake for Morning, and a collection of Sufi hymns. He is a founding member of the European Composers' Union, and his music has frequently been broadcast internationally. Besides his symphonic works Hidayat Inayat-Khan has written choral compositions, Sufi songs and hymns as well as chamber music. Many of his compositions are now available on CD. His research in music could be described as a cross-point between eastern monophony and western polyphony; respecting western harmonic structures while also expressing the inspiring flavour of eastern ragas. In 1988, he assumed the role of Representative-General of the Sufi Movement International and Pir-o-Murshid of its Inner School.

Music

 * Nous vous invitons à la Prière and other compositions and Sufi songs of Hidayat Inayat-Khan – smaller compositions for voice, instrument, quartet. Mirasound Classics 399277 Holland 1997 ASIN: B0002NBLQC
 * Symphonic Works. Hidayat Inayat-Khan. "Sound of Light", Banff, Canada 1999 Double CD, total time 108 min. ASIN: B000LE1A04
 * Message from the Heart. Hidayat Inayat-Khan – extracts from his symphonic works, Oreade Music 2000, Haarlem. ORS 59622. CD total time 52:16 ASIN: B00004U0Y3
 * Suite Symphonique Op. 7 by Hidayat Inayat-Khan – Live in Munich 2002. Symphonisches Orchester München-Andechs – Conductor Andreas Pascal Heinzmann (also in the concert: Symphonie Nr. 1 C.Moll von J. Brahms)
 * Monotonia. Mystery. Hidayat Inayat-Khan. CJ Music 2003. Novosibirsk (Russia) CD, total time 68:30
 * Ballet Rituel Op. 17 Hidayat Inayat-Khan – Live 19. Juli 2003 in München. Symphonisches Orchester München-Andechs – Conductor Andreas Pascal Heinzmann (also in the concert: Rhapsodie von Rachmaninov, Symphonie Nr. 2 D-Dur von J. Brahms)
 * The Singing Zikar of Hazrat Inayat Khan composed by Inayat Khan, arranged by Hidayat Inayat Khan, performed and published by Jelaluddin Gary Sill (CD) (1987)

Books

 * Sufi Teachings: Lectures from Lake O'Hara by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Publisher: Ekstasis Editions (15 August 1996), 120 pages, ISBN 0-921215-66-5
 * The Inner School: Esoteric Sufi Teachings by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Publisher: Ekstasis Editions (15 August 1997) ISBN 0-921215-98-3 Google Books
 * Reflections on the Art of Personality by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. 128 pages Publisher: Ekstasis Editions (25 December 2001) ISBN 1-894800-01-X Google Books
 * Once Upon a Time. Early Days Stories About My Beloved Father and Mother by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. 2002
 * Reflections on Philosophy, Psychology and Mysticism: Contemplations on Sufi Teachings by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Ekstasis Editions (2003) 96 pages, ISBN 1-894800-44-3 Google Books
 * Reflections on Inner Sufi Teachings by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Ekstasis Editions (2006) 120 pages, ISBN 1-894800-58-3 Google Books
 * Reflections on Spiritual Liberty by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Ekstasis Editions (15 October 2007) 122 pages, ISBN 1-897430-14-0
 * Spiritual Liberty by Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Readworthy Publications (1 April 2011) 180 pages ISBN 9789350180099
 * Sufi Message of Unity of Religious Ideals Readworthy Publications (3 April 2012) 102 pages

in German language:

 * Eine Fackel in der Dunkelheit von Hidayat Inayat-Khan Heilbronn Verlag (1997) ISBN 3-923000-86-3
 * Geistige Freiheit von Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Petama Project Verlag, 185 pages, ISBN 3-907643-00-3
 * Es war einmal ... von Hidayat Inayat-Khan. Heilbronn Verlag (1998) 88 pages, ISBN 3-923000-91-X

in Greek language:

 * Η εσωτερική σχολή (i esoteriki scholi) by Hidayat Inayat Khan. Kyveli (2005) ISBN 9606630021
 * Το βιβλίο της υγείας (To vivlio tis ygeias). Pyrinos Kosmos (1997) ISBN 9604300202
 * I dimiourgiki fysi ton doniseon kai i dynami tou logou. Publisher: Pyrinos Kosmos (1994) ISBN 9607327772

in French language:

in Russian language:
 * Le Sentier du Souvenir: Enseignements sur le Zikar Chanté de Hazrat Inayat Khan. "Petama" 2009. ISBN 3907643089

 * Sufi Teachings: Pir-o-Murshid Hidayat Inayat-Khan ("Учение Суфиев Пир-о-Муршида Хадайят Инайят Хана") Publisher: Novosibirsk (2002), 148 pages.

Video

 * Hidayat Inayat Khan's "La Monotonia", choreography by Peter Leung of the Het Nationale Ballet, and danced by Maria Sascha Khan, and Wieslaw Dudek (Staatsballett Berlin). 2007
 * Hidayat Inayat Khan – Interview for television program "Chai Time" (Vancouver)
 * Hidayat Inayat Khan Monotonia from Concerto for strings op 48. Novosibirsk. 13 September 2010. Novosibirsk String Quintet: Oganes Girunian, violin; Alexander Kasheev, violin; Ilya Tarasenko, viola; Stanislav Ovchinnikov, cello; Viktor Murashov, contrabass.

Audio books

 * The Wisdom of the Sufis: A Dialogue Between Hidayat Inayat-Khan and Deepak Chopra, (Dialogues at the Chopra Center for Well Being) (Audio Cassette) Hay House Audio Books (February 2000) ISBN 1-56170-734-1

title: Hidayat Inayat Khan


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Rolf Saxon

Rolf Saxon is an American actor. He is well known for his voice-over work in video games, movies and TV shows.

Life and career
Saxon was born at Fort Belvoir in Alexandria, Virginia. He has worked with American Conservatory Theater, Cal Shakes, the Berkeley Mime Troupe, and Omphalos Street Theatre Company.

Awards and nominations
Upon his graduation at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, Saxon was awarded the Gold Medal. While performing with the Omphalos Street Theatre Company at the Edinburgh Festival, he was nominated for the Fringe First Award. Critics praised Saxon's performance as Victor Franz in The Price play, earning him the Best Actor in A Leading Role Award at the Manchester Evening News Theatre Awards. Films such as Saving Private Ryan and Tomorrow Never Dies, the TV series Agatha Christie's Poirot, and video games the Broken Sword series and The Witcher received several awards and nominations.Awards and nominations for films, TV series and video games in which Saxon was cast in:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rolf Saxon


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Maurice Raynaud

Auguste Gabriel Maurice Raynaud (10 August 1834 – 29 June 1881) was the French medical doctor who discovered Raynaud syndrome, a vasospastic disorder which contracts blood vessels in extremities and is the "R" in the CREST syndrome acronym, in the late 19th century.

Life and career
Maurice Raynaud was the son of a university professor. He commenced his medical studies at the University of Paris with the help of his uncle, the well known Paris physician Ange-Gabriel-Maxime Vernois (1809–1877), and obtained his medical doctorate in 1862. He thus became one of the select few who have achieved eponymous fame with their doctoral dissertation, in his case: De l'asphyxie locale et de la gangrène symétrique des extrémités. He became a holder of a Doctorat ès lettres the following year with the 48 page article "Asclepiades of Bithynia, doctor and philosopher", and the book "Medicine in Molière's time".

Raynaud never received a senior position at any of the Paris hospitals, but became Médecine des hôpitaux (received hospital privileges) in 1865. At various times, he was attached to the hospitals of Hôtel Dieu (1866), Laboisière (1872), and Charité (1880), among others. In 1866 he became an agrégé with the works Sur les hyperhémies non phlegmasiques and De la revulsion, which established him as a professor of medical pathology.

He was made an officer of the Légion d’honneur in 1871 and elected to the Académie de Médecine in 1879, and lectured with great success at the university as well as the Lariboisière and Charité hospitals.

Although Raynaud always wanted to hold the chair of medical history at the University of Paris, he died on 29 June 1881, in his prime, before achieving that goal, shortly before the International Medical Congress in London that year. By the time of his death, Raynaud had suffered for several years from cardiac disease. At the London congress, Raynaud's paper, "Scepticism in Medicine, Past and Present", was read by one of his colleagues.

He was also a busy writer. His book Sur la salive d'un enfant mort de la rage was the result of research done with Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) and Odilon Marc Lannelongue (1840–1911).

title: Maurice Raynaud


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San Felipe, Baja California

San Felipe (Kiliwa: Juwiy mja') is a coastal city in San Felipe Municipality, Baja California, located on the Gulf of California. The population of San Felipe was reported as 17,143 inhabitants in the 2020 Mexican Census. San Felipe is historically a fishing town. Today it is also a popular tourist destination, known for its beaches, nature, and desert racing, as home to the San Felipe 250.

History
The first European to arrive in the Baja California Peninsula was Hernán Cortés on May 3, 1535. The history of San Felipe began later with the expeditions of Francisco de Ulloa, one of Cortés's captains who navigated the bay in September 1535. In 1536, Hernando de Alarcón and Domingo Castillo explored the region and made the first detailed map of the peninsula, giving San Felipe its original name, Santa Catalina.

After the first expeditions were long forgotten, Father Eusebio Kino rediscovered the Baja California peninsula in 1701. Juan de Ugarte later built the first ship in Baja California and explored the area, arriving in San Felipe on July 5, 1721. Twenty-five years later Father Ferdinand Konščak arrived and christened the bay San Felipe de Jesús. In 1766, Wenceslaus Linck was the first European person to reach San Felipe by land, and in 1794 the Lt. Governor of the Californias, José Joaquín de Arrillaga, began to use it as a port. He also established the land route between San Felipe and Ensenada through Valle de la Trinidad.

It was not until 1925, during the administration of General Abelardo L. Rodríguez, territorial governor, that San Felipe began to incorporate, when the first fishing camps were established and the government organized the first sub-delegation and school. Octavio Vega Ruiz was appointed sub-delegate and the basis for the growth and development of San Felipe were established during his administration from 1926 to 1942.

The sea transportation of both people and cargo also contributed to the integration of San Felipe as a township. Among the most celebrated ships of the era were José Ascolani's Trieste, and Pacita and Río Colorado, owned by Arnulfo Liera. By the end of the 1920s, San Felipe had nearly 100 permanent inhabitants, and in 1940 appeared for the first time in the census with 287 inhabitants.

By 1947, the Compañía Industrial del Golfo de Cortés, owned by José María Rodríguez Luján, bought the land from Guillermo Andrade's estate to build an international tourist center. The Mexicali-San Felipe highway began paving in 1948 and was completed in 1951. At the same time, the 15-room Hotel Augies (later the Villa del Mar, Trucha Vagabunda and Las Palmas Inn) opened. In 1959, the motel El Cortés was opened to the public.

Many new hotels were established in the 1960s, including Hotel Riviera, El Pescador, Arnold's del Mar and Arco Iris, and the tourist camps of Costa Azul, Las Arenas, Miramar, Playa Bonita, Playa de Laura, and Rubén's. The port had electricity by 1963 and piped drinking water by 1967. The 1970s saw the establishment of the government building, restaurants, bars, gas stations, a small boat anchorage, airport, sea walk, main boulevard and sewage system, as well as the first four-star hotel, the Playas de San Felipe, followed by the Fiesta Hotel. The La Hacienda opened in the 1980s; the Marina Resort and Spa in 1993.

Currently, San Felipe's income depends (in descending order of importance) upon tourism, shrimping and fishing.

Geography
The Bay of San Felipe is 3 meters above sea level. At low tide, the water can recede as much as 2 km. San Felipe experiences one of the largest tidal bores in the world due in part to the Colorado River delta to the north. The seven-meter tides expose a kilometer of ocean floor.

The Valley of the Giants natural reserve of the thousand-year-old Cardon Cactus has become a major attraction after the transport of one of these giant specimens to Seville, Spain for Seville Expo '92. The area has also become a favorite spot for photographers worldwide. Local environmentalists are lobbying for the protection of the valley in the form of a Nature Reserve. The entrance to the park is located at 30.87719°N, -114.74079°W.

Climate
Temperatures in San Felipe average approximately 24 °C year-round. San Felipe is located in a unique ecosystem, where the desert meets the sea. Temperatures range from a nocturnal winter low of 4 to 46 °C in the shade during July and August.

The temperature of the sea experiences many variations, reaching a low of 60 °F in winter and highs of 79-86 °F in summer.

Economy
The port of San Felipe is a small town historically dependent on fishing and now on tourism, catering mostly to travelers from the United States. The city is home to San Felipe International Airport.

Tourism
San Felipe was a popular spring break spot for residents of the Western U.S. states and northern Mexico, due to its many tourist attractions. Nightclubs and bars dot the beach areas. Some visitors enjoy camping on the beaches or off-roading on ATVs and dirt bikes in the adjacent desert.

Several hotels, ranches, camp sites and RV parks in or near the town offer volleyball, tennis, pools, bathing areas and fishing. In 2005, San Felipe's first golf course, Las Caras de Mexico, opened to the public. This oceanside golf course is located at La Ventana del Mar.

Other popular activities are off-road racing events such as the Baja 250 and San Felipe 250, the former a spin-off from the popular Baja 1000 international race organized by SCORE and the latter hosted by CODE, an off-road racing organization based in Mexicali. In 2007 the SCORE race was changed to Ensenada due to a disagreement between the local ejidos, but the issues were resolved and returned to San Felipe in 2008 and has been held there since. Currently, CODE holds two races in the San Felipe Desert: the CODE San Felipe 200 in April and the CODE Race Ready 275 in December; the first is a loop around the deserts of San Felipe, while the other is a one-way race from Mexicali to San Felipe at the end of the season.

Another visitor attraction are the hot, sulfurous, geothermal springs at Puertecitos on the Sea of Cortez, cooled somewhat by sea water. In recent years, San Felipe locals and tourists have enjoyed a new activity, Carnaval. It is often referred to as a Mexican Mardi Gras but the name is an exaggeration, since the locale is smaller than in other Mexican carnivals.

New to the San Felipe Calendar of Events is the International Blues & Arts Fiesta, a San Felipe Lions Club fundraiser held the last Saturday in March.

Every other year, San Felipe receives hundreds of motorcycles in the Devils Run festival in the last weekend of April. Most of the riders make a run from Temecula, California, but the event attracts bikers from many different places as far as Cancun, Mexico or New York The three day event includes several contest and get together experiences like a rock concert sponsored by the local authorities and gets up to 90% of the different lodgings available in town.DiabloRun

One of the lesser known sightseeing trips in San Felipe is a boat ride to Konsag Island. This is a rock, visible from the San Felipe coast line, and about an hour out to Sea. The area around the rock has much marine life and makes for great fishing.

title: San Felipe, Baja California


text:
Talk:Battle of Varna

Absurd numbers
The numbers listed are just ridiculous. The Christian coalition most certainly did not number 86,000 men, much less 200,000. That's utter nonsense. Medieval armies weren't that big. The Christians had at most 23,000, but probably more like 15,000. The Ottoman army was certainly no larger than 60,000, but probably closer to 30,000 or 40,000. These articles need to ban these absurd inflated numbers and stick to the sober scholarly estimates. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hutin5432 (talk • contribs) 08:32, 2 June 2020 (UTC)

I believe that every battle must be based on sources from both sides and not be satisfied with the point of view of Western historians only, as the amplification is always directed against the Ottomans. Yuoo988 (talk) 15:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)

Questionable source
There are certain conclusions on the page concerning Đurađ Branković's role in the christian defeat in this battle; while the books with credible research do not contain such information, there is a source from the book called Heavenly Serbia: From Myth to Genocide. It is written by a badly received, not overly credible, Croatian dissident. The very book that is taken as a source is heavily criticized for not being objective. And the very fact that Branković betrayed the crusaders can't be found in other sources other than this revisionist title. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.228.107.240 (talk) 11:33, 10 August 2017 (UTC)

[Untitled]
Where do some people get these inflated numbers, the Ottoman army at that time was not bigger then 30000/35000. Even at their hight the Ottomans were unable to form such large armies. It seems to me that people write down what they think it should be instead of putting real history. There are also no articles to back up the claims made in this article.

wrong numbers
Following information about the battle is not precise but much closer to the real numbers. For more information refer to another website. Or a history book will be better.

Strengths of Armies (total number of soldiers) Turkish Army - 40000 Crusader Army - 100000

Losses Turkish Army - 15000 Crusader Army - 65000 (including the Hungarian King Vladislas, who had given his word some time before the battle to the Turks that he wouldn't fight against them. He should have kept his word. He was a brave man though.)

 * Stop using huge numbers for the strengths of the Ottoman armies. 120.000 was an impossible number for the time of the Battle of Varna. Ottoman armies started to contain 100,000(+) soldiers with the Siege of Constantinople. Varna was before the conquests of Mehmet the Conqueror. With respect, Deliogul 07:49, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

I have red that The Ottomans managed to gather 70,000 men(50,000 arabs and 20,000 Turks). The crusader army was huge, up to 325,000, according to new researches. It seems like an impossible number, but there were so many allies that they succeeded gathering such huge army.

With respects the battle of Varna was just ten years prior to the siege and fall of Constantinople so I think that might be a bad basis for how many soldiers the Ottomans could not have had. 68.48.160.243 23:55, 16 November 2006 (UTC)

Just checked a couple of Hungarian history books. According to them, the Turkish Army was between 40,00 and 60,000 strong, while the Hungarian army was maybe 20-25,000 strong. The largest crusading army on the Balkans was the one defeated at Nikopolis in 1396, and even that was no stronger than 80,000 at most. Whelp 13:52, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

According to britannica online, Murad II brought to the field thrice the force of crusaders. reference for this is: Battle of Varna. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623523/Battle-of-Varna Also about 210000 dead out of an alleged 325000 strong crusader army... Were the Turks armed with machine guns? That kind of casualty rates belongs to 20th century, i think. About arab mercenary force of 40000: at its glory, the byzantine treasury could pay for that much mercenaries, after long preparations. This is clearly beyond the means of Murad. And how can he access Arabs? Maybe turcomans of anatolia, which is also unlikely, since ottomans were at odds with other anatolian beys. I think, some anatolian allies or vassals, though probably not more than a fraction of the ottoman troops, joined the battle. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ragharok (talk • contribs) 08:59, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

the numbers over 40000 is unlikely for both armies in this era. ottoman empire hadn't any arabian provinces and its borders was far away from arabian lands that time. so it's unlikely to them having any arabian cavalry. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.180.85.132 (talk) 13:11, 18 April 2010 (UTC)

Around 50,000 to 60,000 troops for Ottomans and 30,000 to 40,000 for Crusaders Uzair Ansari333 (talk) 23:25, 5 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Uzair Ansari333 - Please cite which Reliable published sources you are referring to in order to obtain those figures - Thank you - Arjayay (talk) 12:04, 6 January 2019 (UTC)

Image from Polski Chronicle
Can someone confirm that this is a picture of the battle? The picture is from Polski Chronicle from 1564.

 * I see crosses on the eight of the flags on the right (the one in the center is fluttering on a cavalry horn); and I see crescent moons on two of the flags on the left. So, it would seem this is a battle between christians and moslems.  Beyond that I don't know.  And, that's probably as much as others have noticed. 68.48.160.243 00:58, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

sources and links
I believe Wikipedia to be a fantastic idea however I wish contributors would aknowledge their sources and more importantly not copy other sites verbatem. For example this wording is straight from my website http://www.warfareeast.co.uk/main/Hungarian_Battles.htm#Varna (formally http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Hungarian_Battles.htm#Varna)

'the Hungarian army was smaller and very imbalanced. It contained almost no infantry, except 100 to 300 Czech mercenary handgunners. There were also 100 warwagons probably with crews, though none are mentioned. The rest of the army was heavy cavalry, mostly Royal and foreign mercenaries, with some Episcopal and Noble banners as well. '

and this from this article

'The Hungarian army was smaller and very imbalanced. It contained almost no infantry, except 100 to 300 Czech mercenary handgunners. There were also 100 warwagons probably with crews, though none are mentioned. The rest of the army was heavy cavalry, mostly Royal and foreign mercenaries, with some Episcopal and Noble banners as well.'

please reword it or link to the original source.

"By this time the Turkish army may have contained 60,000 men (probably Murad himself did not know how many he had) almost outnumbering the Christians by three to one." The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571 Vol.2:The Fifteenth Century (p.90) by Kenneth Meyer Setton

"...In due course the sultan arrived at Varna with his army of between 60,000 and 100,000 men, as against only 19,000 to 20,000 for the Christians." East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500 (p.247) by Jean W.Sedlar Lysandros 18:42, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

Problems with the article
First, I think "Aftermath" and "Follow up" are really the same thing and should be one section. Moreover "Aftermath" largely tries to be the section on the battle itself, which is missing. We need a section titled something like -oh, I don't know- The Battle. Plus I expect the decription of battle could be fleshed out a bit more. Someone attacked without waiting for someone else and died, and that was it. Well, that might actually go farther to represent what happened than I thought. But still, there must have been other things that happened also.

Also, it reads "Władysław III of Poland", but then it goes on to read "The death of Władysław III in the battle left Hungary in the hands..." Am I missing something here? So just which country was Wladyslaw king of exactly? (Sounds Polish to me, but I'm not just taking a guess on this one.)

And, what was Janos Hunyadi? Was he the king of Hungary? Or something else? A respected knight perhaps? It just seems unfair to the guy that folks haven't bothered to put what he was. Like, oh Hunyadi? Don't worry about him. Not important. Won't be on the test.

Oh and the bit about the Bulgarians "affectionate" nickname for Wladyslaw... I can't help but think that may be cynical sarcasm. The Bulgarians especially during the Byzantine era are known for an ironic, sometimes cruel, sense of "affection".

My last thought is that, except for elite mercenaries such as the Czechs, historians of the era were known for an infantry-don't-count kind of attitude. Not only that, but historically you could count on knights bringing about twenty plus or minus bonus men-at-arms with them to the field of battle. At least a handful of who were indispensable as support for the knight. Not that I think the numbers on the size of the united Christian army were wrong. I just think that a much larger portion of them were infantry than has been suggested. But, since historians haven't felt like mentioning them much, and because I suspect the infantry didn't do much in the battle before things had already gone very very bad, I think they've been over-looked. 68.48.160.243 01:35, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

Wladyslaw II of Poland was Wladyslaw I of Hungary - elected as Hungarian king in 1440 by the Hungarian nobles opposing Habsburg influence. Janos Hunyadi, at the time of Varna, was voivode of Transylvania. As to the composition of the Hungarian army, it was really mostly cavalry - as the mercenary infantry refused to embark on a traitorous campaign (if I remember correctly). Whelp 14:00, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * If anything is cynical, it is your comment on Bulgarians. From where exactly did you get the impression that they were "known" for "an ironic, sometime cruel, sense of "affection"? Please, do not make such childish and racist remarks, especially wneh they are not backed up by any proof. If you wish, I can show you a map of Varna or any random Bulgarian publication regarding the battle and Wladyslav, all of which prove you wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.83.252.114 (talk) 08:42, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

1444 there wasnt guns
i see in this article the talk of infantry and gunmen and such things...if its 1444 there isnt any guns then...so if you actually did research for this then you would know that...maybe they had archers but not gunmen for sure...when you read stuff like this it just makes everything thing youve done for this "project" seem absolutely pointless...please know what your talking about before you write something in here. your spreading stupidity —Preceding unsigned comment added by Newageweirdo (talk • contribs) 02:10, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Old post but deserving of an answer. Infantry means foot soldiers - guns, spears, rocks, whatever. There may have been Ottoman cannon at Varna, they certainly existed then, as did handguns but I can see no evidence they were used. Doug Weller  talk 14:02, 7 February 2016 (UTC)
 * It wasn't until the matchlock gun arrived in the 1400s that guns became effective as hand-weapons, but hand-cannons had been around since 1350 .. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.111.31.62 (talk) 18:59, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

Arabs on camels?
Sounds like fiction. Any source? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.106.212.33 (talk) 16:21, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

Arab cavalry? which source is talking about arabs, in 1444, ottoman had not rule on arabs,had not rule on all anatolian turks yet. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Yetjanissary (talk • contribs) 15:14, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

 * There were no Arab cavalry or Arabs on camels in the Ottoman armies in Europe, let alone at this early date (1444) when the Ottoman lands did not even touch any area that has a population of Arab origin to recruit from. These errors are the most glaring ones that exist among many others. Being fair minded I have put in a citation required mark at these errors. However, if no reputable unbiased citations are given, I shall have to change that section. Noyder (talk) 19:57, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

 * LoL... Perhaps it was the elusive Balkan camel? :) -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 20:06, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

It has been a year and noone has provided citations for the elusive Arabian mercenaries and camels. I am going to remove them. If anyone has reliable sources feel free to add them back. Robert Willie (talk) 20:41, 18 October 2010 (UTC)

 * There were actually camels in the battle, I don't believe there were any sizeable Arabs in the battle Alexis Ivanov (talk) 04:33, 19 June 2016 (UTC)

Are you kidding me??
So 5 European Kingdoms can form an army of only 20000 soldiers, while the Ottomans who have settled in Anatolia recently form armies of 60000-100000 soldiers.

Even if the Ottomans used Arabs in their army they still would not be able to form such huge armies. We are talking about the middleages not about the 18-19 century. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Arsaces (talk • contribs) 07:55, 17 October 2011 (UTC)

western hypocrisy oozes from all parts of this article. a horde of crusading kingdoms join their forces and still the ottoman army outnumbers them 1 to 3 ?? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.121.235.112 (talk) 11:11, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Although it reads like a rant I'll take this seriously. See European Warfare, 1350–1750 edited by Frank Tallett, D. J. B. Trim ""Some notion of the disproportionate (even asymmetric) size of the two armies at Varna can be gleaned from Inalcik’s account of the battle.11 He suggests that the crusaders set out with a force of 16,000 knights collected from Hunyadi’s allies and his own cohorts. Drawing only on internal sources, the Ottomans mobilised 30,000 to 40,000 troops from Anatolia who were joined by a further 7,000 Rumelian troops following their crossing of the Gallipoli Straits into Rumelia. When the volunteer and self-mobilising akinci forces are included, it seems probable that an Ottoman force totalling nearly 60,000 took the field against the invading crusader army of 16,000. This disparity in army size, already apparent in the 1440s, remained characteristic of Balkan confrontations until the early decades of the eighteenth century. For example, in the summer of 1717 an Ottoman grand vizier, Halil Pasha, led a force of approximately 150,000 troops to attempt the rescue of the 7,000-strong garrison defending Belgrade. He encountered a besieging force led by Eugene of Savoy, that had began the campaign with a nominal strength of 80,000, but that had been so depleted by disease, desertion, and casualties by the later phases of the siege in early August that its numbers had shrunk to no more than 50,000." Doug Weller  talk 14:14, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * yes, the problem of such huge forces in pre-industrialized times was logistics - clothing and feeding such large numbers of men (and pack animals); shortly after the Roman Civil Wars, Augustus was in control of a military force of almost half a million men - this was a number that would have been impossible to sustain (and politically dangerous to maintain) - he settled 3/4's of these soldiers and established a military of about 150,000 - this was not too great a burden on the civilian populace to maintain - the Mongols were only able to get 200,000 or so into the field by using massive amounts of extra horses packing food, and foraging off the land - but that land had to be able to sustain their mounts if they were to stay in the area for any appreciable length of time - large forces' discipline will break down quickly when they begin to get really hungry and no supplies are available - Alexander was able to operate because he had superb supply trains in his wake, and when this was disrupted by his stretching his forces too far, things began to fall apart - the numbers of men involved in this battle should always be thought of moderately - if numbers seem too great, then they most assuredly are . . . — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.111.31.62 (talk) 18:53, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

Artillery and handguns
The article says without sources that bombards were used by the Christian armies. This agrees, saying the Ottomans probably had none, and this says Hungarian cannon were successfully used against the Ottoman calvary. But this suggests they had them with them at least, and this says the Ottomans had gunpowder weapons. A search for arquebuses looks useful. Doug Weller talk 14:27, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Are you working on the article? Alexis Ivanov (talk) 04:33, 19 June 2016 (UTC)

Contradiction in the article
At the top right the article refers to the Ottomans taking minimal casualties (doesn't look to reference a source). Whereas at the bottom of the article it makes reference to Ottoman casualties being severe to the point of the Sultan not being aware they had won the battle until 3 days later.

It can't be both? 2404:4408:877E:A000:E831:1005:A412:5C40 (talk) 01:52, 8 July 2022 (UTC)
 * I made a change to the infobox. Ktrimi991 (talk) 07:36, 8 July 2022 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:11, 18 March 2023 (UTC)
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title: Talk:Battle of Varna


text:
Don Maclean

Don Maclean KSS (born 1942/1943) is an English actor and comedian, who appeared on the BBC television series Crackerjack with Michael Aspel, Peter Glaze and Jan Hunt in the 1970s.

Born in Birmingham, he attended Clifton Road School, Balsall Heath and St. Philip's School, which was a Roman Catholic grammar school for boys in Edgbaston. His first job was as a civil servant at the Inland Revenue and he was an entertainer in pubs, clubs and holiday camps. Maclean's first television appearance was on the soap opera Crossroads and early in his career he was a comedy compère of the BBC television series The Black and White Minstrel Show.

On Crackerjack, Maclean usually performed a live routine or routines with Glaze in front of a studio audience of children and a filmed insert with Glaze, in the style of a silent comedy film. Live routines would almost always work in the 'joke' where an exasperated Glaze would exclaim 'Maclean!' to which Maclean would answer 'Yes, I had a bath this morning!'. Also notable was that when responding to Glaze's exasperation, Maclean would regularly give an alliterative reply, such as "Don't get your knickers in a knot" or "Don't get your tights in a twist". Maclean also appeared in the film Carry On Columbus. A practising Roman Catholic, from 1990 Maclean presented BBC Radio 2's religious show Good Morning Sunday, until he was replaced by Aled Jones in 2006.

He hosted the panel games The Clever Dick-Athlon (1988–90) and Are You Sitting Comfortably (1993–96), both for Radio 2, and First Letter First (1993) for BBC1. He also toured in the play There's No Place Like a Home with Gorden Kaye. In 2009, he claimed that the BBC is keen on programmes which attack churches and that there is a wider secularist campaign to get rid of Christianity.

In 2006 Maclean pleaded guilty to drink-driving and had his licence suspended for twelve months.

title: Don Maclean


text:
Giovanni Battista Bugatti

Giovanni Battista Bugatti (1779–1869) was the official executioner for the Papal States from 1796 to 1864. He was the longest-serving executioner in the States and was nicknamed Mastro Titta, a Roman corruption of maestro di giustizia, or master of justice. At the age of 85, he was retired by Pope Pius IX with a monthly pension of 30 scudi.

Biography
Bugatti's career in charge of executions lasted 68 years and began when he was 17 years old, on 22 March 1796, and lasted until 1864. Up until 1810, the method of execution in the Papal States was beheading by axe, hanging or mallet. The French introduced the use of the guillotine, which was continued after the Papal States regained their sovereignty (the first Papal guillotining occurred in 1816) until the last executions. Over his 68 years as official executioner, Bugatti carried out a total of 514 executions, an average of 7 per year (in his notebook, Bugatti noted 516 names of executed, but two prisoners are subtracted: one was shot and the other because he was hanged and quartered by the adjutant).

Bugatti is described as being short and portly, and always well dressed, frequenting the church of Santa Maria in Traspontina. He was married but had no children; when not carrying out his official duties, Bugatti and his wife sold painted umbrellas and other souvenirs to tourists. He referred to his executions as “justices” and the condemned as “patients”.

He could not leave the Trastevere neighborhood unless on official business. Officially, this was for his own protection, in case relatives of those he had executed decided to take revenge on him. This was probably due to superstition regarding his part-time job: when he was seen crossing the bridge, Romans were alerted an execution was to take place, and crowds would gather to witness the popular event.

One of his executions, carried out on 8 March 1845, was described by Charles Dickens in his work, Pictures from Italy (1846).

His blood-stained clothes, axes, and guillotines are now on display at the Museum of Criminology at Via del Gonfalone in Rome. The guillotine as used in the Papal States is of peculiar construction, with a straight blade and V-shaped neck-piece.

title: Giovanni Battista Bugatti


text:
Trans-Andean railways

The Trans-Andean railways provide rail transport over the Andes. Several are either planned, built, defunct, or waiting to be restored. They are listed here in order from north to south.

Colombian Railways

 * Feb 2011 - The Chinese Government plans to cooperate with Colombia in building a 220 km transcontinental railway which would link Colombia's Atlantic and Pacific coasts, according to a British newspaper.

Ecuador Trans-Andean Railway
Much of Ecuador's Trans-Andean Railway (a railway network that once ran from Guayaquil to Quito) has been rendered useless by natural disasters. Torrential rains from the 1982–83 and 1997-98 El Niño caused massive landslides that damaged the railway line. The network is operated by Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos. Only three sections remain operational: a 37 mi segment connecting Quito and Cotopaxi National Park, a 27 mi stretch between Ibarra and Primer Paso, and the mountainous five-hour, 62 mi excursion from Riobamba to Sibambe.

Peru
Although wholly within Peru, the Ferrocarril Central Andino (FCCA; the former Ferrocarril Central del Perú) running inland from Callao and Lima crosses the Andes watershed at Galera en route to La Oroya and Huancayo. From here the route is extended by the Ferrocarril Huancayo - Huancavelica. In July 2006 FCCA began work to regauge the Huancavelica line from to  (standard gauge). There was also a proposal for a 21 km tunnel under the Andes.

The Ferrocarriles del Sur del Perú (FCS), now operated by PeruRail, runs from the coast at Matarani to Cuzco, and to Puno on Lake Titicaca from where steamers and train ferries have been run connecting with Guaqui in Bolivia.

Proposed Bolivia-Chile Trans-Andean railway
Empresa Nacional de Ferrocarriles - ENFE, operator of the National Railways of Bolivia, and consultant Hagler Bailly, United States, have signed a contract to undertake an economic feasibility study into the proposed $US 1 billion 338 km Aiquile–Santa Cruz Railway (IRJ July p6). The line would connect the Eastern Railway network with the Andean Railway network, and effectively create a new trans-Andean railway from Pacific Ocean ports in Chile to the port of Santos in Brazil.

Other Bolivia-Chile railways:
 * Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia
 * Arica–La Paz railway, Arica, Chile–La Paz

Proposed Peru - Brazil Railway
In 2014, proposals were advanced by ProInversión for the above railway.

 * Ucayali - western Brazil
 * Huánuco - Peru
 * Pasco - Peru
 * San Martin - Peru
 * Amazonas - Brazil
 * Cajamarca - Peru
 * Piura - Peru - near Pacific coast in north

Argentina - Chile

 * (from North)

Salta-Antofagasta railway
The Huaytiquina railway is a single gauge linking Salta, Argentina, to Antofagasta, Chile. The Tren a las Nubes is a touristic service running for 217 km on the Argentinian side.

Transandine Railway
The central Transandine Railway from Valparaíso, Chile, to Mendoza, Argentina is defunct, pending reconstruction. While Chile and large parts of Argentina both use the same gauge, the connecting Ferrocarril Trasandino Los Andes - Mendoza used a narrow gauge of  with rack railway sections. Thus there are two break-of-gauge stations, one at Los Andes, Chile and the other at Mendoza.

In 2009, a deal was signed to build a, single gauge, base tunnel connecting Chile and Argentina.

South Trans-Andean railway

 * from Lonquimay (Chile) to Zapala (Argentina) – construction abandoned. 220 km line once again proposed in 2005 and work underway at Chilean end in 2005; first stage completed by early 2006. Possible break-of-gauge and rack railway.
 * from Osorno, Chile to Bariloche – never built.

BiOceanio

 * (2010)
 * Brazil - Paraguay - Argentina - Chile
 * 🇨🇱 Mejillones
 * 🇨🇱 Antofagasta
 * 🇧🇷 Paranaguá
 * 🇧🇷 São Francisco do Sul

title: Trans-Andean railways


text:
Caniapiscau Reservoir

The Caniapiscau Reservoir (Réservoir de Caniapiscau) is a reservoir on the upper Caniapiscau River in the Côte-Nord administrative region of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the largest body of water in Quebec and the second largest reservoir in Canada.

The Caniapiscau Reservoir, formed by two dams and forty-three dikes, is the largest reservoir in surface area of the James Bay Project. As headpond, it feeds the power plants of the La Grande complex in the winter and provides up to 35% of their production. Its total catchment area is about 36800 km2.

The reservoir was named after Lake Caniapiscau that was flooded during the formation of the reservoir. The name is an adaptation of the Cree or Innu toponym kâ-neyâpiskâw, which means "rocky point". Albert Peter Low had noted in 1895 that "a high rocky headland jutts into the lake." He probably referred to the northwest facing peninsula that gives the reservoir the shape of an arc as we currently know it.

The Caniapiscau Reservoir is accessible by bush plane and, since 1981, by a gravel road from James Bay (the Trans-Taiga Road). At the very end of this road, near the Duplanter spillway, is the former worksite of the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James, named Caniapiscau. There is no permanent human habitation at the reservoir, but it is used by outfitters for seasonal hunting and fishing expeditions and by some Cree for subsistence fishing and trapping. It is isolated from society and there are very few gas stations or other services nearby.

History
The natural lakes of the region were formed about nine thousand years ago as glaciers left Quebec after having scoured the Canadian Shield for ninety thousand years. The prototype of these lakes was an ice dam lake that drained southwards into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at a time when areas further north (Nunavik) were still glaciated. As post-glacial rebound elevated the southern part of the Canadian Shield more rapidly than the north, the region began to drain northward into the Caniapiscau River, a tributary of the Koksoak River, and ultimately into Ungava Bay.

Prior to impoundment, Lake Caniapiscau covered about 470 km2 and was frequented by hunters and fur traders in the 19th century. In 1834, the Hudson's Bay Company opened an outpost there to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay, but closed the Kaniapiskau Post in 1870.

In 1976, Société d'énergie de la Baie James, a subsidiary of Hydro-Québec, began construction on the Caniapiscau Reservoir, designed to feed the hydro-electric generating stations of the James Bay Project. Filling the reservoir began on October 25, 1981, and over the next three years it flooded numerous lakes such as Lakes Caniapiscau, Delorme, Brisay, Tournon, and Vermouille. It now fills a depression in the highest part of the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield, covering 4318 km2, or about four times the size of the natural lakes prior to impoundment.

Since August 1985, the Caniapiscau River was partially diverted to the west into the Laforge River of the La Grande River watershed, flowing west to James Bay.

Many new islands were created as a result of the lake's impoundment, and in 1997 Quebec's Commission de toponymie published a map naming those islands for significant works of Québécois literature. The names of the islands attracted controversy not only because they predominantly used French-language works, but also because Cree and Inuit First Nations leaders claimed that the sites already had native names prior to becoming islands, which were ignored and overwritten.

Flora
The Caniapiscau Reservoir is in the zone of discontinuous permafrost. The area surrounding the reservoir is vegetated entirely with taiga, or boreal forest, characterized by widely spaced Black Spruce with a thick underlayer of yellow-grey lichen and interspersed with muskeg and bogs. In the more moist areas, some closed coniferous forest stands may appear. On the more exposed land, a forest-tundra transition zone occurs where the woodland is replaced by lichen dominated tundra.

title: Caniapiscau Reservoir


text:
List of Massachusetts railroads

The following railroads operate in the U.S. state of Massachusetts.

Common freight carriers

 * Bay Colony Railroad (BCLR)
 * Connecticut Southern Railroad (CSO) (Genesee and Wyoming)
 * CSX Transportation (CSXT)
 * East Brookfield & Spencer Railroad (EBSR)
 * Fore River Transportation Corporation (FRVT)
 * Grafton and Upton Railroad (GU)
 * Housatonic Railroad (HRRC)
 * Massachusetts Central Railroad (MCER)
 * Massachusetts Coastal Railroad (MC)
 * New England Central Railroad (NECR) (Genesee and Wyoming)
 * Pan Am Railways (PAR)
 * Pan Am Southern (PAS) (Operated by Pan Am Railways)
 * Pioneer Valley Railroad (PVRR) (Pinsly)
 * Providence and Worcester Railroad (PW) (Genesee and Wyoming)

Passenger carriers

 * Amtrak (AMTK)
 * Berkshire Scenic Railway (BRMX)
 * Cape Cod Central Railroad (CCCR)
 * Edaville Railroad
 * Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTX)
 * Hartford Line (CNDX)

Defunct railroads

 * Street and other electric railways
 * Berkshire Street Railway
 * Boston Elevated Railway
 * Boston and Worcester Street Railway
 * Cambridge Railroad
 * Conway Electric Street Railway
 * Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway
 * Grafton and Upton Railroad
 * Metropolitan Railroad
 * Middlesex and Boston Street Railway
 * Middlesex Railroad
 * Milford and Uxbridge Street Railway
 * Palmer and Monson Street Railway
 * Pittsfield Electric Street Railway
 * Shelburne Falls and Colrain Street Railway
 * South Boston Railroad
 * Springfield and Eastern Street Railway
 * Upton Street Railway
 * West End Street Railway

 * Private carriers
 * Deerfield River Pulp and Paper Corporation

 * Not completed
 * Hampden Railroad
 * Lancaster Railroad
 * New York and Boston Rapid Transit Company
 * Southern New England Railway

title: List of Massachusetts railroads


text:
User talk:Nguyen Thanh Quang

Welcome!

'''Hello,, Welcome  to Wikipedia! '''I hope you like working here and want to continue. If you need help on how to name new articles, look at Naming Conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the Manual of Style. If you need general help, look at Help and the FAQ, and if you can't find your answer there, check the Village pump (for Wikipedia related questions) or the Reference Desk (for general questions). There's still more help at the Tutorial and the Policy Library. Also, don't forget to visit the Community Portal — and if you have any more questions after that, feel free to post them on my New-Users' Talk Page.'''

Additional tips:
 * Here are some extra tips to help you get around Wikipedia:
 * If you want to play around with your new Wiki skills, try the Sandbox.
 * Click on the Edit button on a page, and look at how other editors did what they did.
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 * You might want to add yourself to the New User Log
 * If your first language isn't English, try Contributing to articles outside your native language

Happy editing! Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 11:19, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject Vietnam
Hi, I saw your work on the Cinnamomum article and would like to invite you to join WikiProject Vietnam. Just go to the "Participants" section and add your name. We're working together to improve Vietnam-related articles and your expertise would be welcomed. Best, Badagnani 18:27, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Project talk page tagging for WP:VIET
Blnguyen  had requested me for the service of TinucherianBot to tag articles in the categories in WikiProject Vietnam/Categories for the WikiProject Vietnam. I request the members to kindly have a look, carefully verify ALL the categories and remove all the possibly wrong categories. Please Dont misunderstand by being cautious here, as we have faced many issues with such huge scale bot tagging earlier. Once I get the final go ahead, I will start the bot with the final list. Thank you for choosing TinucherianBot for the project,. It is a pleasure working for this project...I have also left a note at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Vietnam and request your comments there. You are receiving this message as you are a member of the project. Thanks --  Tinu  Cherian  - 06:17, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:00, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nguyen Thanh Quang


text:
Girl

A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. While the term girl has other meanings, including young woman, daughter or girlfriend regardless of age, the first meaning is the most common one.

The treatment and status of girls in any society is usually closely related to the status of women in that culture. In cultures where women have or had a low social position, girls may be unwanted by their parents, and society may invest less in girls. The difference in girls' and boys' upbringing ranges from slight to completely different. Mixing of the sexes may vary by age, and from totally mixed to total sex segregation.

Etymology
The English word girl first appeared during the Middle Ages between 1250 and 1300 CE and came from the Anglo-Saxon word gerle (also spelled girle or gurle). The Anglo-Saxon word gerela meaning dress or clothing item also seems to have been used as a metonym in some sense. Until the late 1400s, the word meant a child of either sex; it has meant 'female child' since about the late 15th century CE.

Usage for adult women
The word girl is sometimes used to refer to an adult female, usually a younger one. This usage may be considered derogatory or disrespectful in professional or other formal contexts, just as the term boy can be considered disparaging when applied to an adult man. Hence, this usage is often deprecative. It can also be used depreciatively when used to discriminate against children (e.g., "you're just a girl"). However, girl can also be a professional designation for a woman employed as a model or other public feminine representative such as a showgirl, and in such cases is not generally considered derogatory.

In a casual context, the word has positive uses, as evidenced by its use in titles of popular music. It has been used playfully for people acting in an energetic fashion (Canadian singer Nelly Furtado's "Promiscuous Girl") or as a way of unifying women of all ages on the basis of their once having been girls (American country singer Martina McBride's "This One's for the Girls").

History
The status of girls throughout world history is closely related to the status of women in any culture. Where women enjoy a more equal status with men, girls benefit from greater attention to their needs.

Girls' education
Girls' formal education has traditionally been considered far less important than that of boys. In Europe, exceptions were rare before the printing press and the Reformation made literacy more widespread. One notable exception to the general neglect of girls' literacy is Queen Elizabeth I. In her case, as a child, she was in a precarious position as a possible heir to the throne, and her life was endangered by the political scheming of other powerful members of the court. Following the execution of her mother, Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was considered illegitimate. Her education was for the most part ignored by Henry VIII. Henry VIII's widow, Catherine Parr, took an interest in the high intelligence of Elizabeth, and supported the decision to provide her with an impressive education after Henry's death, starting when Elizabeth was 9. Elizabeth received an education equal to that of a prominent male aristocrat; she was educated in Latin, Greek, Spanish, French, philosophy, history, mathematics and music. It has been argued that Elizabeth's education helped her grow up to become a successful monarch.

By the eighteenth century, Europeans recognized the value of literacy, and schools were opened to educate the public in growing numbers. Education in the Age of Enlightenment in France led to up to a third of women becoming literate by the time of the French Revolution, contrasting with roughly half of men by that time. However, education was still not considered as important for girls as for boys, who were being trained for professions that remained closed to women, and girls were not admitted to secondary level schools in France until the late 19th century. Girls were not entitled to receive a Baccalaureate diploma in France until the reforms of 1924 under education minister Léon Bérard. Schools were segregated in France until the end of World War II. Since then, compulsory education laws have raised the education of girls and young women throughout Europe. In many European countries, girls' education was restricted until the 1970s, especially at higher levels. This was often done by teaching different subjects to each sex, especially since tertiary education was considered primarily for males, particularly with regard to technical education. For example, prestigious engineering schools, such as École Polytechnique, did not allow women until the 1970s.

"Coming of age" customs
Many cultures have traditional customs to mark the "coming of age" of a girl or boy, to recognize their transition to adulthood, or to mark other milestones of their journey to maturity as children.

Japan has a coming-of-age ritual called Shichi-Go-San (七五三), which literally means "Seven-Five-Three". This is a traditional rite of passage and festival day in Japan for three- and seven-year-old girls and three- and five-year-old boys, held annually on November 15. It is generally observed on the nearest weekend. On this day, the girl will be dressed in a traditional kimono, and will be taken to a temple by her family for a blessing ceremony. Nowadays, the occasion is also marked with a formal photo portrait.

Many coming-of-age ceremonies are to acknowledge the passing of a girl through puberty, when she experiences menarche, or her first menstruation. The traditional Apache coming-of-age ceremony for girls is called the na'ii'ees (Sunrise Ceremony), and takes place over four days. The girls are painted with clay and pollen, which they must not wash off until the end of the rituals, which involve dancing and rituals that challenge physical strength. Girls are taught aspects of sexuality, confidence, and healing ability. The girls pray in the direction of the east at dawn, and in the four cardinal directions, which represent the four stages of life. This ceremony was banned by the U.S. government for many decades; after being decriminalized by the Indian Religious Freedom Act in 1978, it has seen a revival.

Some coming-of-age ceremonies are religious rituals to recognize a girl's maturity with respect to her understanding of religious beliefs, and her changing role in her religious community. Confirmation is a ceremony common to many Christian denominations for both boys and girls, usually taking place when the child is in their teen years. In Roman Catholic communities, Confirmation is considered one of seven sacraments that a Catholic may receive. In many countries, it is traditional for Catholics children to receive another sacrament, First Communion, at the age of seven. The sacrament is usually performed in a church once a year, with children who are of age receive a blessing from a bishop in a special ceremony. It is traditional in many countries for Catholic girls to wear white dresses and possibly a small veil or wreath of flowers in their hair to their First Communion. The white dress symbolizes spiritual purity.

A traditional coming-of-age ritual for daughters of college age (17 to 21 years old) from high society and well-connected upper-class and White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) families in North America and Europe has historically been their debut, known as "coming out," at a debutante ball, such as the International Debutante Ball in New York City. Traditionally, debutantes wear couture white gowns and gloves symbolising purity and wealth.

Across Latin America, the fiesta de quince años is a celebration of a girl's fifteenth birthday. The girl celebrating the birthday is called a Quinceañera. This birthday is celebrated differently from any other birthday, as it marks the transition from childhood to womanhood.

While completely secular in nature, a girl’s first bra is sometimes seen as an important next step in her life. Unlike many more traditional coming of age customs, the event has no set date in a girl’s life and can occur when she is a teenager and in other times can occur when she is a preteen.

Preparing girls for marriage
In many ancient societies, girls' upbringing had much to do with preparing them to be future wives. In many cultures, it was not the norm for women to be economically independent. Thus, where a girl's future well-being depended upon marrying her to a man who was economically self-sufficient, it was crucial to prepare her to meet whatever qualities or skills were popularly expected of wives.

Western society
In cultures ranging from Ancient Greece to the twentieth-century United States, girls were taught essential domestic skills including sewing, cooking, gardening and basic hygiene, and medical care such as preparing balms and salves, and in some cases midwifery. These skills were passed orally from generation to generation, with the knowledge passed down orally from mother to daughter. A well-known reference to these important women's skills is in the folk tale Rumpelstiltskin, which dates back to medieval Germany and was collected in written form by the folklorists the Brothers Grimm. The miller's daughter is valued as a potential wife because of her reputation for being able to spin straw into gold.

China
In some parts of China, beginning in the Southern Tang kingdom in Nanjing (937–975), the custom of foot binding was associated with upper-class women who were worthy of a life of leisure, and husbands who could afford to spare them the necessity of work (which would require the ability to be mobile and spend the day on their feet). Because of this belief, parents hoping to ensure a good marriage for their daughters would begin binding their feet from about the age of 5–8 to achieve the ideal appearance. The tinier the feet, the better the social rank of a future husband. The practice started seriously to decline in the early years of the twentieth century, and was all but extinct by 1950.

China has had many customs relating to girls and their roles as future wives and mothers.

Traditionally an unmarried girl would wear her hair in two pigtails, and once married, in one.

Africa
In some cultures, girls' passing through puberty is viewed with concern for a girl's chastity. In some communities, there is a traditional belief that female genital mutilation is a necessity to prevent a girl from becoming sexually promiscuous. The practice is dangerous, however, and leads to long-term health problems for women who have undergone it. The practice has been a custom in 28 countries of Africa, and persists mainly in rural areas. This coming-of-age custom, sometimes incorrectly described as "female circumcision", is being outlawed by governments, and challenged by human rights groups and other concerned community members, who are working to end the practice.

Trafficking and trading girls
Girls have been used historically, and are still used in some parts of the world, in settlements of disputes between families, through practices such as baad, swara, or vani. In such situations, a girl from a criminal's family is given to the victim's family as a servant or a bride. Another practice is that of selling girls in exchange for the bride price. The 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include: c) Any institution or practice whereby: (i) A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or (ii) The husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person for value received or otherwise; or (iii) A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person.

Demographics
Scholars are unclear and in dispute as to possible causes for variations in human sex ratios at birth. Countries which have sex ratios of 108 and above are usually presumed as engaging in sex selection. However, deviations in sex ratios at birth can occur for natural causes too. Nevertheless, the practice of bias against girls, through sex-selective abortion, female infanticide, female abandonment, as well as favouring sons with regard to allocating of family resources is well documented in parts of South Asia, East Asia, and the Caucasus. Such practices are a major concern in China, India and Pakistan. In these cultures, the low status of women creates a bias against females.

China and India have a very strong son preference. In China, the one-child policy was largely responsible for an unbalanced sex ratio. Sex-selective abortion, as well as rejection of girl children is common. The Dying Rooms is a 1995 television documentary film about Chinese state orphanages, which documented how parents abandoned their newborn girls into orphanages, where the staff would leave the children in rooms to die of thirst, or starvation. In India, the practice of dowry is partly responsible for a strong son preference. Another manifestation of son preference is the violence inflicted against mothers who give birth to girls.

In India, by 2011, there were 91 girls younger than 6 for every 100 boys. Its 2011 census showed that the ratio of girls to boys under the age of 6 years old has dropped even during the past decade, from 927 girls for every 1000 boys in 2001 to 918 girls for every 1000 boys in 2011. In China, scholars report 794 baby girls for every 1000 baby boys in rural regions. In Azerbaijan, last 20 years of birth data suggests 862 girls were born for every 1000 boys, on average every year. Steven Mosher, president of the Population Research Institute in Washington, D.C., has said: "Twenty-five million men in China currently can't find brides because there is a shortage of women [...] young men emigrate overseas to find brides." The gender imbalance in these regions is also blamed for spurring growth in the commercial sex trade; the UN's 2005 report states that up to 800,000 people being trafficked across borders each year, and as many as 80 percent are women and girls.

Biology

Embryos that inherit two X chromosomes (XX), one from each parent, are generally identified as girls when born.

About one in a thousand girls have a 47,XXX karyotype, and one in 2500 have a 45,X one.

Girls typically have a female reproductive system. Some intersex children with ambiguous genitals may be classified as girls, while some Transgender youth have a gender identity as girls.

Girls' bodies undergo gradual changes during puberty. Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilization. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sexual organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when the child has developed an adult body. Until the maturation of their reproductive capabilities, the pre-pubertal, physical differences between boys and girls are the genitalia. Puberty is a process that usually takes place between 10 and 16 years, but these ages differ from person to person. The major landmark of female puberty is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs on average between 12 and 13. According to a 2010 Canadian study, the variation of age in which menstruation begins had a "statistically significant" relation to where the child was living, household income, and family type.

Gender and environment
Biological sex interacts with environment in ways not fully understood. Identical twin girls separated at birth and reunited decades later have shown both startling similarities and differences. In 2005, professor Kim Wallen of Emory University noted, "I think the 'nature versus nurture' question is not meaningful, because it treats them as independent factors, whereas in fact everything is nature and nurture."

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviours, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically created factors. This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity,  though traits associated with femininity vary depending on location and context, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.

Gender neutrality describes the idea that policies, language, and other social institutions should avoid distinguishing roles according to people's sex or gender, in order to avoid discrimination arising from rigid gender roles. Unisex refers to things that are considered appropriate for any sex. Campaigns for unisex toys include Let Toys Be Toys.

Teenage pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy is pregnancy in an adolescent girl. A female can become pregnant from sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate. Pregnant teenagers face many of the same pregnancy related issues as other women. There are, however, additional concerns for young adolescents as they are less likely to be physically developed enough to sustain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth.

In developed countries, teenage pregnancy is usually associated with social issues, including lower educational levels, poverty, and other negative life outcomes; and often carries a social stigma. By contrast, teenage girls in developing countries are often married, and their pregnancies welcomed by family and society. However, in these societies, child marriage and early pregnancy often combine with malnutrition and poor health care and create medical problems.

Girls' education
Girls' equal access to education has been achieved in some countries, but there are significant disparities in the majority. There are gaps in access between different regions and countries and even within countries. Girls account for 60 percent of children out of school in Arab countries and 66 percent of non-attendees in South and West Asia; however, more girls than boys attend schools in many countries in Latin America, the Caribbean, North America and Western Europe. Research has measured the economic cost of this inequality to developing countries: Plan International's analysis shows that a total of 65 low, middle income and transition countries fail to offer girls the same secondary school opportunities as boys, and in total, these countries are missing out on annual economic growth of an estimated $92 billion.

Although the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has asserted "primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all" girls are slightly less likely to be enrolled as students in primary and secondary schools (70%:74% and 59%:65%). Worldwide efforts have been made to end this disparity (such as through the Millennium Development Goals) and the gap has closed since 1990.

Educational environment and expectations

According to Kim Wallen, expectations will nonetheless play a role in how girls perform academically. For example, if females skilled in math are told a test is "gender neutral" they achieve high scores, but if they are told males outperformed females in the past, the females will do much worse. "What's strange is," Wallen observed, "according to the research, all one apparently has to do is tell a woman who has a lifetime of socialization of being poor in math that a math test is gender neutral, and all effects of that socialization go away." Author Judith Harris has said that aside from their genetic contribution, the nurturing provided by parents likely has less long-term influence over their offspring than other environmental aspects such as the children's peer group.

In England, studies by the National Literacy Trust have shown girls score consistently higher than boys in all scholastic areas from the ages of 7 through 16, with the most striking differences noted in reading and writing skills. In the United States, historically, girls lagged on standardized tests. In 1996 the average score of 503 for US girls from all races on the SAT verbal test was 4 points lower than boys. In math, the average for girls was 492, which was 35 points lower than boys. "When girls take the exact same courses," commented Wayne Camara, a research scientist with the College Board, "that 35-point gap dissipates quite a bit." At the time Leslie R. Wolfe, president of the Center for Women Policy Studies said girls scored differently on the math tests because they tend to work the problems out while boys use "test-taking tricks" such as immediately checking the answers already given in multiple-choice questions. Wolfe said girls are steady and thorough while "boys play this test like a pin-ball machine." Wolfe also said although girls had lower SAT scores they consistently get higher grades than boys across all courses in their first year in college. By 2006 girls were outscoring boys on the verbal portion of the United States' nationwide SAT exam by 11 points. A 2005 University of Chicago study showed that a majority presence of girls in the classroom tends to enhance the academic performance of boys.

Obstacles to girls' access to education
In many parts of the world, girls face significant obstacles to accessing proper education. These obstacles include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms.

Sex segregation

Sex segregation is the physical, legal, and cultural separation of people according to their biological sex. It is practiced in many societies, especially starting when children attain puberty. In certain circumstances, sex segregation is controversial. Some critics contend that it is a violation of capabilities and human rights and can create economic inefficiencies and discrimination, while some supporters argue that it is central to certain religious laws and social and cultural histories and traditions. Purdah is a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities in South Asia. It takes two forms: physical segregation of the sexes and the requirement that women cover almost entirely their bodies. The ages from which this practice is enforced vary by community. Such practices are most common in cultures where the concept of family honor is very strong. In cultures where sex segregation is common, the predominant form of education in single sex education.

Violence against girls
In many parts of the world, girls are at risk of specific forms of violence and abuse, such as sex-selective abortion, female genital mutilation, child marriage, child sexual abuse, honor killings.

In parts of the world, especially in East Asia, South Asia and some Western countries' girls are sometimes seen as unwanted; in some cases, girls are selectively aborted, abused, mistreated or abandoned by their parents or relatives. In China, boys exceed girls by more than 30 million, suggesting over a million excess boys are born every year than expected for normal human sex ratio at birth. In India, scholars estimate from boy to girl ratio at birth that sex-selective abortions cause a loss of about 1.5%, or 100,000 female births per year. Abnormal boy to girl ratio at birth is also seen in Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia, suggesting possible sex-selective abortions against girls.

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." It is practiced mainly in 28 countries in western, eastern, and north-eastern Africa, particularly Egypt and Ethiopia, and in parts of Southeast Asia and the Middle East. FGM is most often carried out on girls aged between infancy and 15 years.

Child marriages, where girls are married at young ages (often forced and often to much older husbands) remain common in many parts of the world. They are fairly widespread in parts of the world, especially in Africa, South Asia, Southeast and East Asia,  the Middle East,  Latin America, and Oceania. The ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Bangladesh, Guinea, Mozambique, Mali, Burkina Faso, South Sudan, and Malawi.

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. In Western countries CSA is considered a serious crime, but in many parts of the world there is a tacit tolerance of the practice. CSA can take many forms, one of which is child prostitution. Child prostitution is the commercial sexual exploitation of children in which a child performs the services of prostitution, for financial benefit. It is estimated that each year at least one million children, mostly girls, become prostitutes. Child prostitution is common in many parts of the world, especially in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Cambodia), and many adults from wealthy countries travel to these regions to engage in child sex tourism.

In many parts of the world, girls who are deemed to have tarnished the 'honor' of their families by refusing arranged marriages, having premarital sex, dressing in ways deemed inappropriate or even becoming the victims of rape, are at risk of honor killing by their families.

Health
Girls' health suffers in cultures where girls are valued less than boys, and families allocate most resources to boys. A major threat to girls' health is early marriage, which often leads to early pregnancy. Girls forced into child marriage often become pregnant quickly after marriage, increasing their risk of complications and maternal mortality. Such complications resulting from pregnancy and birth at young ages are a leading cause of death among teenage girls in developing countries. Female genital mutilation (FGM) practiced in many parts of the world is another leading cause of ill health for girls.

Girls and child labor

Gender influences the pattern of child labor. Girls tend to be asked by their families to perform more domestic work in their parental home than boys are, and often at younger ages than boys. Employment as a paid domestic worker is the most common form of child labor for girls. In some places, such as East and Southeast Asia, parents often see work as a domestic servant as a good preparation for marriage. Domestic service, however, is among the least regulated of all professions, and exposes workers to serious risks, such as violence, exploitation and abuse by the employers, because the workers are often isolated from the outside world. Child labor has a very negative effect on education. Girls either stop their education, or, when they continue it, they are often subjected to a double burden, or a triple burden of work outside the home, housework in the parental home, and schoolwork. This situation is common in places such as parts of Asia and Latin America.

International initiatives for girls' rights

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1988) and Millennium Development Goals (2000) promoted better access to education for all girls and boys and to eliminate gender disparities at both primary and secondary level. Worldwide school enrolment and literacy rates for girls have improved continuously. In 2005, global primary net enrolment rates were 85 percent for girls, up from 78 percent 15 years earlier; at the secondary level, girls' enrolment increased 10 percentage points to 57 percent over the same period.

A number of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have created programs focusing on addressing disparities in girls' access to such necessities as food, healthcare and education. CAMFED is one organization active in providing education to girls in sub-Saharan Africa. PLAN International's "Because I am a Girl" campaign is a high-profile example of such initiatives. PLAN's research has shown that educating girls can have a powerful ripple effect, boosting the economies of their towns and villages; providing girls with access to education has also been demonstrated to improve community understanding of health matters, reducing HIV rates, improving nutritional awareness, reducing birthrates and improving infant health. Research demonstrates that a girl who has received an education will:
 * Earn up to 25 percent more and reinvest 90 percent in her family.
 * Be three times less likely to become HIV-positive.
 * Have fewer, healthier children who are 40 percent more likely to live past the age of five.

Plan International also created a campaign to establish an International Day of the Girl. The goals of this initiative are to raise global awareness of the unique challenges facing girls, as well as the key role they have in addressing larger poverty and development challenges. A delegation of girls from Plan Canada introduced the idea to Rona Ambrose, Canada's Minister of Public Works and Government Services and Minister for Status of Women, at the 55th Session of the Commission on the Status of Women at United Nations Headquarters in February 2011. In March 2011, Canada's Parliament unanimously adopted a motion requesting that Canada take the lead at the United Nations in the initiative to proclaim an International Day of the Girl. The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted an International Day of the Girl Child on December 19, 2011. The first International Day of the Girl Child is October 11, 2012.

Its most recent research has led PLAN International to identify a need to coordinate projects that address boys' roles in their communities, as well as finding ways of including boys in activities that reduce gender discrimination. Since political, religious and local community leaders are most often men, men and boys have great influence over any effort to improve girls' lives and achieve gender equality. PLAN International's 2011 Annual Report points out that men have more influence and may be able to convince communities to curb early marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM) more effectively than women. Egyptian religious leader Sheikh Saad, who has campaigned against the practice, is quoted in the report: “We have decided that our daughter will not go through this bad, inhumane experience [...] I am part of the change.”

Art and literature
Historically, art and literature in Western culture has portrayed girls as symbols of innocence, purity, virtue and hope. Egyptian murals included sympathetic portraits of young girls who were daughters of royalty. Sappho's poetry carries love poems addressed to girls.

Painting
In Europe, some early paintings featuring girls were Petrus Christus' Portrait of a Young Girl (about 1460), Juan de Flandes' Portrait of a Young Girl (about 1505), Frans Hals' ' in 1620, Diego Velázquez' Las Meninas in 1656, Jan Steen's The Feast of St. Nicolas (about 1660) and Johannes Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring along with '. Later paintings of girls include Albert Anker's portrait of a ' and Camille Pissarro's 1883 '.

Mary Cassatt painted many famous Impressionist works that idealize the innocence of girls and the mother-daughter bond, for example her 1884 work . During the same era, Whistler's Harmony in Gray and Green: Miss Cicely Alexander and The White Girl depict girls in the same light.

Children's literature about and for girls
The European children's literature canon includes many notable works with young female protagonists. Traditional fairy tales have preserved memorable stories about girls. Among these are Goldilocks and the Three Bears, Rapunzel, The Princess and the Pea and the Brothers Grimm's Little Red Riding Hood. Well-known children's books about girls include Heidi, Anne of Green Gables, The Secret Garden, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the Nancy Drew series, Little House on the Prairie, Madeline, Pippi Longstocking, A Wrinkle in Time, Dragonsong, and Little Women.

Beginning in the late Victorian era, more nuanced depictions of girl protagonists became popular. Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Match Girl, The Little Mermaid, and other tales featured themes that ventured into tragedy. Published in 1865, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll featured a widely noted female protagonist, Alice, confronting eccentric characters and intellectual puzzles in surreal settings. The character of the plucky, yet proper, Alice has proven immensely popular and inspired similar heroines in literature and pop culture. Literature followed different cultural currents, sometimes romanticizing and idealizing girlhood, and at other times developing under the influence of the growing literary realism movement. Many Victorian novels begin with the childhood of their heroine, such as Jane Eyre, an orphan who suffers ill treatment from her guardians and then at a girls' boarding school. The character Natasha in War and Peace, on the other hand, is sentimentalized.

By the twentieth century, the portrayal of girls in fiction had for the most part abandoned idealized portrayals of girls. Popular literary novels include Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird in which a young girl, Scout, is faced with the awareness of the forces of bigotry in her community. Vladimir Nabokov's controversial book Lolita (1955) is about a doomed relationship between a 12-year-old girl and an adult scholar as they travel across the United States. Zazie dans le métro (Zazie in the Metro) (1959) by Raymond Queneau is a popular French novel that humorously celebrates the innocence and precocity of Zazie, who ventures off on her own to explore Paris, escaping from her uncle (a professional female impersonator) and her mother (who is preoccupied by a meeting with her lover). Zazie was also made into a popular movie in 1960 (Zazie dans le Métro) by French director Louis Malle.

Books which have both boy and girl protagonists have tended to focus more on the boys, but important girl characters appear in Knight's Castle, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, The Book of Three and the Harry Potter series.

Adult literature featuring girls
Recent novels with an adult audience have included reflections on girlhood experiences. Memoirs of a Geisha by Arthur Golden begins as the female main character and her sister are dropped off in the pleasure district after being separated from their family in nineteenth-century Japan. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan by Lisa See traces the laotong (old sames) bond of friendship between a pair of childhood friends in modern Beijing, and the parallel friendship of their ancestors in nineteenth-century Hunan, China.

Girls' studies
Since the 1970s, under the influence of feminist criticism of the androcentric approach in scientific studies of childhood and adolescence, a special scientific discipline studying girls, girls' studies, has gradually emerged.

Popular culture
There have been many comic books and comic strips featuring a girl as the main character such as Little Lulu and Little Orphan Annie from the US, and Minnie the Minx from the UK. In superhero comic books an early girl character was Etta Candy, one of Wonder Woman's sidekicks. In the Peanuts series (by Charles Schulz) girl characters include Peppermint Patty, Lucy van Pelt and Sally Brown.

In Japanese animated cartoons and comic books girls are often protagonists. Most of Hayao Miyazaki's animated films feature a young girl heroine, as in (Kiki's Delivery Service). There are many other girl protagonists in the shōjo style of manga, which is targeted at girls as an audience. Among these are The Wallflower, Ceres, Celestial Legend, Tokyo Mew Mew and Full Moon o Sagashite. Meanwhile, some genres of Japanese cartoons may feature sexualized and objectified portrayals of girls.

The term girl is widely heard in the lyrics of popular music (such as with the song "American Girl"), most often meaning a young adult or teenaged female.

title: Girl


text:
Talk:Girl

Page move
Due to an edit (not by me) the COTW tag seen via Talk:Girl was absent for some time. Have reinstated the tag there. --Janke | Talk 20:20:14, 2005-08-31 (UTC)

Pre-RfC Woman lead image discussion
There is a discussion to select image options for an RfC for the lead image at Woman. Discussion at Talk:Woman/sandbox. Kolya Butternut (talk) 09:22, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 23 March 2021
there is a spelling error in the 2 paragraph Hanger 12345 (talk) 15:08, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: what spelling error? Volteer1 (talk) 15:26, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

Rename Girl > Girl (victim). Semi-protected edit request on 15 Aug 2022
Reason: This article is mainly about girls as victims, not as "normal" humans. This should be reflected in the article name. Here I propose "Girl (victim)", but I am open to other solutions, such as "Girl (survivor)". 109.155.0.175 (talk) 17:07, 15 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: please establish a consensus for this alteration before using the template. MadGuy7023 (talk) 17:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Where did the topic for Greta Dallager go? Problem Detective (talk) 12:24, 2 December 2023 (UTC)

Girl as applied to women
It is also used in the context of a group of women relaxing, for example "going out with the girls," "girls night out," "chilling with my girls." I suspect a little more analysis would reveal its used in many more ways, some identically to the way "boy" is used, some different. I'm sure this must be documented. All the best: Rich Farmbrough 15:03, 10 June 2024 (UTC).

 * It's already in the article, quite prominently in the second sentence at the very top of the article:
 * "While the term girl has other meanings, including young woman,[1] daughter[2] or girlfriend[1] regardless of age, the first meaning is the most common one."

 * There are also multiple archived talk threads on the topic. Nakonana (talk) 16:21, 21 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Girl


text:
Talk:Bonfire of the vanities

Disambiguation
I notice that this page (on the historical event) is distinguished from that on the book (and film) only by the "The". This seems to me a rather arbitrary distinction since while the "The" may be part of the official title, people will still search without it; and, conversely, the event is the only one of its kind and therefore quite likely to be referred to as "The ...". I'm not sure what disambiguation approach would be best in this case, but some thought is probably needed. - IMSoP 11:21, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

No proof for Botticelli statement
This article records that Sandro Botticelli threw his paintings into the Bonfire of the Vanities. Although this is a popular belief, there is no evidence to support this claim. Even Giorgio Vasari, convinced of Botticelli’s devotion to Savonarola, does not include Botticelli among the artists who contributed their artworks to the fire in his Lives of the Artists. According to John Wyndham, Botticelli could still be counted among the enemies of Savonarola (Wyndham, 4) at the time the two Bonfires were held in 1497. Herbert Horne recorded that as of 1499, Botticelli recieved a commission from Guidantonio Vespucci, who was also recognized as an outspoken enemy of Savonarola (Horne, 282). If Botticelli was a follower of Savonarola, it is unlikely that he would accept commissions from a known enemy. This evidence seems to disprove the theory that Botticelli willingly submitted his paintings to a public burning in 1497. If nothing else, the evidence is inconclusive and one cannot know for certain that Botticelli participated in this event. -TLD

See for more information: Horne, Herbert P. Alessandro Filipepi Commonly Called Sandro Botticelli, Painter of Florence, 1908, 2nd ed. London: George Bell and Sons, 1986. Steinberg, Ronald M. Fra Girolamo Savonarola, Florentine Art, and Renaissance Historiography. Athens: Ohio University, 1977. Wyndham, John. Sandro Botticelli: The Nativity, in the National Gallery, London. London: Percy, Lund, Humphries and Co., [n.d.]. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.229.105.10 (talk) 02:45, 7 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Thanks for that. I’ll remove the reference to Botticelli and mark the whole article as wanting sources. If you can improve the article, please go ahead! Cheers, Ian Spackman (talk) 00:36, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I revised the discussion, adding Botticelli back in, and noting that the historical record on whether he'd burned paintings was unclear. It might be worth noting that some people think that Vasari confused Botticelli with his brother as a follower of Savonarola, but that's properly more a matter for the Botticelli page, since it's rather tangential here. Geoffrey.landis (talk) 15:20, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

Original research allegation
Ray Bradbury's 1953 novel Fahrenheit 451 is a science fiction rendering of a bonfire of the vanities. I'm not sure how this can be called out as possible original research. The entry for 451 cites book burning, and the first praragraph for that entry includes the text "The burning of books represents an element of censorship and usually proceeds from a cultural, religious, or political opposition to the materials in question." I suggest the original research tag is removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pgb62uk (talk • contribs) 13:39, 7 February 2019 (UTC)
 * It wasn't. Removed. 50.111.46.80 (talk) 04:22, 7 February 2020 (UTC)

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reaction of gov't authorities
Do any of the scholarly sources list any action by the authorities to either stop or encourage this escapade? That would make for important information in the article. 50.111.46.80 (talk) 04:24, 7 February 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bonfire of the vanities


text:
Novinar

Novinar (Новинар) is a Bulgarian national daily newspaper published in Sofia.

History and profile
Novinar was established in 1993. The paper is part of the company with the same name and is published in tabloid format.

Novinar is the only Bulgarian newspaper to reprint all 12 Danish Mohammad cartoons. Later in 2006 it published 12 cartoons of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi with the aim to make public the sufferings of the five Bulgarian nurses sentenced to death in Libya on trumped-up charges of deliberately infecting more than 400 Libyan children in Benghazi with HIV.

In 2002 the circulation of Novinar was 29,000 copies. The paper had a circulation of 25,000 copies in 2004.

title: Novinar


text: User talk:80.63.149.82

title: User talk:80.63.149.82


text: Template:User ca-3

title: Template:User ca-3