text:
Talk:Static single-assignment form

attribution
The introduction to the article states "SSA was developed by Ron Cytron, Jeanne Ferrante, Barry Rosen, Mark Wegman, and Ken Zadeck, researchers at IBM in the 1980s".

The current terminology is indeed that popularized by the IBM team. The ideas are a decade older.

The final sentence of Wegman and Zadeck's POPL85 "Constant Propagation with Conditional Branches" is ""We would also like to thank John Reif who made a special trip to Yorktown to help us understand his work". They are acknowleging the important of the referenced Rief and Lewis' POPL77 paper "Symbolic evaluation and the global value graph" where Phi-nodes are termed "birthpoints".  Rief and Lewis in turn mention work done at Massachusetts Computer Associates: Shapiro and Saint's "The Representation of Algorithms" (CA-7002-1432, Feb 1970); Karr's "P-graphs" (CA-7501-1511, Jan 1975). Jsyjr (talk) 05:28, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The notion of birthpoints precedes SSA form. But SSA has more than just birthpoints.  Phi functions, which indeed are placed at birthpoints, have more information namely the name of the variables whose values reach the birthpoint. MarkWegman (talk) 03:06, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

mistake
Currently the main page says "if the node A defines a certain variable, then that definition and that definition alone will reach every node A dominates", but this is clearly untrue. The variable can be redefined in other nodes that A dominates. For instance: x = 0; if(foo) bar else baz x = 6; biz; The entire code there is dominated by the initial block with x=0 (assuming no non-local control flow out of one of the functions), but the definition of x=0 does not reach biz.

I plan on correcting this once I decide how it should be worded.

arrays and structs
Arrays and structs require special treatment that ought to be described. Loisel 09:53, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Sure. I don't know much about this currently, if you'd like to add it. I'd suggest a separate section, to avoid overwhelming the novice. Deco 16:44, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

lwn
There is an explaination of tree SSA in gcc at linux weekly news.

can we have an example involving a loop
I think i can see how this would apply to loops but i'm not sure enough to write an example. Plugwash 23:00, 2 May 2005 (UTC)
 * That's a good idea. It does make things a little more interesting. Will look at this when I have time, if no one else does first. Deco 05:14, 3 May 2005 (UTC)
 * I found a pretty clear example at https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~fp/courses/15411-f13/lectures/06-ssa.pdf, section 3. Perhaps someone can incorporate that. Yihkrys (talk) 11:12, 24 November 2015 (UTC)

Summer 2004
Please change summer 2004 (in GCC description) to a correct month --200.178.63.180 05:53, 8 May 2005 (UTC)

Removed from mains article in SSA Extensions
''Is it necessary to enumerate all known SSA extensions? Should each extension have a separate page? What about gated single assignment form, which is probably the most popular SSA extension?''
 * I don't believe we're likely any time soon to have enough material to justify separate pages on each form. Let's keep it all here until one becomes too large. I'm not sure which SSA form is most popular, but I'd hazard a guess of "ordinary" SSA. Deco 02:05, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

SSA and AST
The article says SSA is not suitable for tree representations. I can see where this is can be true, but I can also come up with tree representations where it could work (I think). More importantly, GCC now implements a kind of tree-ssa. Anyone care to elaborate on that?? Madhu 03:59, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * It's more accurate to say that SSA is normally used with linear intermediate representations, not tree-based IRs, but there's no reason it can't be used with tree-based IR as long as reaching definitions are clear. I'll just remove the statement you noted.
 * As for Tree-SSA, just based on my initial impression it still uses a 3-address (linear) format, but each individual instruction is represented using a tree, for backward compatibility with GCC's tree IR. Deco 06:29, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

"Φ function" verses "Φ-function"
The literature (e.g. the classic Cryton et al paper, Andrew Appel's books, most papers I have read) use a hyphen between "Φ" and "function". Why is this not followed here? Is it the case that the original authors made a mistake and most literature follows them, either out of respect or ignorance? I don't think that you could say that "Φ" is used as an adjective, so it seems to me that a hyphen is indicated. However, I'm far from confident about this. I'd like to know definitively the correct way to write this term, and I believe that Wikipedia should be a guide in this respect. --Mike Van Emmerik 23:03, 5 August 2006 (UTC)
 * We should probably follow what the literature says. Regarding its English correctness, see hyphen. I would regard this as a "noun noun" phrase, which generally is not hyphenated (e.g., ice cream, department store manager), but again I wouldn't contradict the literature. Deco 01:41, 6 August 2006 (UTC)

idom(n)
Can you please explain me what id idom(n). It is given that idom(n) is the immediate dominator of node n. but if a node has two predecessors (dominator) what will be the idom (n)? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rudk (talk • contribs) 05:26, 27 March 2009 (UTC)

In a flow graph, a node n dominates a node m if every path from the graph's entry node to m must pass through n. If m has more than one predecessor, neither of those predecessors can be its dominator. Instead, its dominator will be a predecessor farther along the path back to the entry node. (Use of "back indicates traversing edges against their direction.)

Given the set of nodes that dominate m, often denoted DOM(n), its immediate dominator is the node in the DOM set closest to m in the graph. Another way to picture the relationship is that inside DOM(m) you will find one node dominated by all the other nodes in DOM(m). That node is m's immediate dominator, sometimes denoted IDOM(m). [The notation IDOM(m) suggests that IDOM is a set and might mislead you into thinking that IDOM(m) can be more than one node. IDOM(m) is a single node in the flow graph.] --Kdcooper (talk) 22:04, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

examples
PyPy uses SSA for both compilation of RPython and JIT. Should I add this to the list of implementations? It's already sort of long. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Fijal (talk • contribs) 04:41, 1 April 2010 (UTC)

Possibile mistake in section Variations that reduce the number of Φ functions
When you describe the semi-pruned SSA the last phrase says: On the other hand, pruned SSA form will contain more Φ functions. But pruned SSA is better than semi-pruned, so it will contain less Φ functions. 93.145.207.190 (talk) 08:14, 6 August 2010 (UTC) by mickey_mouse

Notation interpretation
In the currently provided example control flow graphs, in which way are two arrows coming from one box to be interpreted? --Abdull (talk) 15:09, 8 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I didn't write this stuff, but I did read it, so I can take a guess. I think that it relates to the last line in the top box.  The last line in the top box says "X < 3 ?".  (meaning: "is X less than 3 ?").  That is, if the value of "X is less than 3" is TRUE, then [the graphical pseudo-code says] it will take one certain branch, and if not, then it will take the other branch.

 * Which branch is for "TRUE"? Well, by analogy with "if ... then ... else ...", (where "then" comes before "else"), I would guess that the LEFT (first) branch shown, is the one for "TRUE".

 * (However, I am not sure it matters, [which branch is for "TRUE"], for purposes of explaining the concept of Phi functions. Maybe what matters, for those purposes, is simply the fact that it takes one branch or the other, and the [interesting!] fact that, in some cases -- [as illustrated here!] -- the branch that will be taken may be able to be determined at compile time.)

 * TMI:
 * In the etiquette of old-fashioned flow-chart drawing, it was customary to use a "diamond" shape for a "decision point" -- and even today, it would probably be a good practice [it would be advisable] to clearly label the outgoing branches -- that is, to indicate which one is for which value of the "decision" expression. (but, "see also" the parenthesized paragraph above, beginning with "However"...)  Usually, there will be two outgoing branches -- "TRUE" and "FALSE" -- but in some cases, especially if someone is used to dealing with old style IF statements (like those used in "FORTRAN II"), there might be three outgoing branches -- "negative", "zero", and "positive".  Some of this might be "TMI"... [sorry]... but, it also might be responsive to what was puzzling Abdull (talk) on 8 October 2010.

 * I hope this helps. --Mike Schwartz (talk) 20:46, 23 March 2015 (UTC)

Is SSA an IR or a property of an IR?
The first sentence says that SSA form is an IR, but I think it is a property of an IR. 129.13.72.198 (talk) 13:14, 11 January 2011 (UTC)

Human after all

 * Humans can see that the first assignment is not necessary, and that the value of y being used in the third line comes from the second assignment of y. A program would have to perform reaching definition analysis to determine this.

I don't think people have any mystical computational power that stems from having a soul - a human needs to perform reaching definition analysis too... ~ Booya Bazooka 14:22, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

Terrible language
The article is a mostly unreadable convolute of terrible grammar and should _really_ be rewritten by someone with a firm grip of the English grammar. Example: "new variables typically indicated by the original name with a subscript in textbooks". *Shudder* — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.212.29.186 (talk) 07:02, 3 May 2013 (UTC)

Definition/Link of Φ functions
A definition/wikilink to what "Φ functions" means in the topic is needed — Preceding unsigned comment added by 201.55.113.110 (talk) 13:01, 20 October 2014 (UTC)

Spelling: "phony" (rather than "phoney")
Some lookups using online dictionaries (such as https://www.wordnik.com/words/phoney which clearly says [under the heading "from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition"],"adj. Variant of phony." for example) seem to indicate that "phony" is the primary spelling, and that the spelling "phoney" is an acceptable variant, but is a secondary choice.

So, I investigated, to see whether the spelling "phoney" was being used in this article for some good reason -- such as, because of its use in the source identified in the footnote. (Spoiler alert: it is not.)

The footnote in question is footnote number [1], at least in this version of the article. It appears right after (or, right 'on') the phrase "According to Kenny Zadeck", at the beginning of the last paragraph of the section Converting to SSA.

That footnote, footnote number [1], is coded with a link (called "Presentation on the History of SSA") which points to the URL "http://citi2.rice.edu/WS07/KennethZadeck.pdf". So, I went to that URL, anbd I found that (on page 43, which is entitled "The Origin of Ф-Functions and the Name"), it clearly uses this spelling: “phony functions”.

Conclusion:
The use of the spelling “phoney functions”, in the article (see above for a specific "oldid" [version] and for a specific place within the article) (OR, just do an "edit" or "show source" and search for the 4-character string "phon") was not chosen for any good reason -- such as, because of its use in the source identified in the footnote. Rather, the use of the spelling “phoney functions” in the article, is simply a TYPO which probably should be changed, to remove the 'e'.

Any comments? Even if there are, by that time I probably will already have edited (to remove the 'e') to correct the TYPO. No harm/no foul: -- in the unlikely event that there is more to this, than this Talk:-page section has covered, then my edit can always be reverted, or "re-" modified ... if/as appropriate.

--Mike Schwartz (talk) 22:22, 23 March 2015 (UTC)

Potential mistake in introduction
The introduction text states that a program under SSA form must meet the following requirements:
 * 1) each variable is assigned exactly once
 * 2) every variable is defined before it is used

My understanding is that only (1) is required (unless we consider strict SSA form where we demand that each use of a variable is dominated by its definition).

Any comments on the subject?

--Uncurry (talk) 20:04, 16 April 2019 (UTC)

Haskell using CPS?
The introduction gives Haskell as an example of a functional language that uses the Continuation Passing Style, but there is no citation. The source I guess would be the slightly obsolete "Implementing lazy functional languages on stock hardware: the Spineless Tagless G-machine" (S. P. Jones 1992), which describes the STG as similar to CPS, but not equivalent. The modern GHC does have an LLVM backend, so it does in fact rely on the SSA form.

83.24.255.228 (talk) 23:11, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes, you are right. As section 4.8 of (S. P. Jones 1992) explicitly notes, the STG is different from CPS. I think it would be best to remove the reference to Haskell here. Uncurry (talk) 20:48, 9 May 2020 (UTC)

Suggested Changes
Ken Zadeck and I (Mark Wegman) suggest a number of improvements to the article. We would make the changes directly except that we're not clear that making changes to the description of your own work is appropriate in the context of the guidelines.

The first two paragraphs should be replaced with these three. They are more accurate and more to the point.

''In compiler design, static single assignment form (often abbreviated as SSA form or simply SSA) is a type of intermediate representation (IR) that requires each variable be assigned exactly once. Existing variables in the original IR are split into versions, new variables typically indicated by the original name with a subscript, so that every definition gets its own version. Additional statements that assign to new versions of variables may also need to be introduced at the join point of two control flow paths. SSA makes numerous analyses needed for optimizations easier to perform, because when looking at a use of a variable there is only one place where that variable may have received a value.

SSA is used in most commercial quality optimizing compilers for imperative languages including LLVM and GCC, which form the basis of many open source efforts as well.

''There are efficient algorithms for converting programs into SSA form and converting from SSA form to machine code. Once in SSA form optimizations preserve SSA form, so that one optimization can be performed after another with no additional analysis. The SSA based optimizations are usually more efficient and more powerful than their non-SSA form prior equivalents.

The history section contains several errors and should be replaced with:

''SSA was developed in the 1980s by several researchers at IBM. Kenneth Zadeck a key member of the team moved to Brown University as development continued.[4][5] A 1986 paper introduced birthpoints, identity assignments, and variable renaming such that variables had a single static assignment.[6] A subsequent 1987 paper by Jeanne Ferrante and Ronald Citron[7] proved that the renaming done in the previous paper removes all false dependencies for scalars.[5] In 1988, Barry Rosen, Mark N. Wegman, and Kenneth Zadeck replaced the identity assignments with Φ-functions, introduced the name "static single-assignment form", and demonstrated a now-common SSA optimization.[8] The name Φ-function was chosen by Rosen to be a more publishable version of "phony function".[5] Alpern, Wegman, and Zadeck presented another optimization, but using the name "single static assignment".[9] Finally, in 1989, Cytron, Ferrante, Rosen, Wegman, and Zadeck found an efficient means of converting programs to SSA form.''

For details Ken was originally at IBM when the first work started and continued at Brown. There were never two independent teams at IBM working on computing SSA form. Mark had mentioned the notion of dominance frontier to both Ken and Ron and Jeanne and since Ken was remote he later thought that Ron and Jeanne came up with it independently.

The list of compilers using SSA should be reorganized into two groups, Commercial and Research compilers.

Commercial should include:

The IBM family of XL compilers, which include C, C++ and Fortran. See https://www.cs.rice.edu/~vs3/PDF/ibmjrd97.pdf for validation that it uses SSA.

NVIDIA CUDA see: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235605681_CUDA_Compiling_and_optimizing_for_a_GPU_platform

Also several that are already in the list, including Microsoft C++ from visual studio, Oracle Hotspot Java, Go, LLVM, GCC, Swift, Android and Erlang.

The others should be listed as Research. The current list starts with Oberon and is in an apparent random order. The above list is probably the most important compilers. We believe all the Digital compilers were also based on SSA but haven't found a reference to justify that. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MarkWegman (talk • contribs) 11:15, 8 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I have done some changes. For the lead I tried a different structure, generally it is recommended to establish the importance of the topic in the first paragraph. The history I have adopted. For the list of compilers I went with three categories, I didn't feel comfortable categorizing GCC as commercial. Mathnerd314159 (talk) 04:28, 9 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Static single-assignment form


text:
Midpoint Memorial Bridge

The Midpoint Memorial Bridge (often referred to as simply the Midpoint Bridge) is a bridge located in Southwest Florida. It spans the Caloosahatchee River, connecting Fort Myers and Cape Coral. It is a four-lane fixed span that is 1.125 miles long. The bridge's name comes from serving as a midpoint or middle bridge for the Cape Coral bridges – Cape Coral Bridge is south, and the Caloosahatchee Bridge is located north. It carries County Road 884, which is known as Colonial Boulevard on the Fort Myers side, and Veterans Parkway on the Cape Coral side.

History
Building a second bridge between Cape Coral and Fort Myers was first proposed in the 1970s, but construction was delayed for many years, largely due to opposition in Fort Myers. After a series of court battles, reaching the Florida Supreme Court, construction began in 1995, and the bridge opened for traffic on October 19, 1997. Earlier in 1959, the bridge's location was considered a possible location of the Cape Coral Bridge before its current location was determined.

The Midpoint Memorial Bridge was constructed as part of the extension of Colonial Boulevard into Cape Coral. Before construction, Colonial Boulevard terminated at State Road 867 (McGregor Boulevard), which runs parallel to the river. In Cape Coral, CR 884 (locally known as Veterans Parkway) now terminates at SR 78 (Pine Island Road) near Matlacha, and includes an overpass over the intersection with Del Prado Boulevard (CR 867A). The addition of the Midpoint Memorial Bridge resulted in several ancillary road projects in Fort Myers. Colonial Boulevard was widened to six lanes and overpasses were constructed over McGregor Boulevard and at the intersection with US 41.

The bridge is owned by the Lee County Department of Transportation. There is a two-dollar toll for westbound vehicles only and no toll for eastbound traffic. Florida's statewide SunPass prepaid electronic toll collection system is accepted on the Midpoint Bridge, along with Lee County's Leeway prepaid toll system, which is also used on the Cape Coral Bridge and the Sanibel Causeway.

On the Cape Coral side of the bridge, there is a replica of the statue from the Marine Corps War Memorial in Rosslyn, Virginia (which is just outside Washington, D.C.). The statue depicts the six U.S Marines raising the American flag at the Battle of Iwo Jima. On the Fort Myers side, there is a small Vietnam War Memorial.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Midpoint Memorial Bridge


text:
History of New York City (1855–1897)

The history of New York City (1855–1897) started with the inauguration in 1855 of Fernando Wood as the first mayor from Tammany Hall, an institution that dominated the city throughout this period. Reforms led to the New York City Police Riot of June 1857. There was chaos during the American Civil War, with major rioting in the New York Draft Riots. The Gilded Age brought about prosperity for the city's upper classes amid the further growth of a poor immigrant working class, as well as an increasing consolidation, both economic and municipal, of what would become the five boroughs in 1898.

Ocean-going steamships and steam railroads, developed in earlier decades, grew to take over most long-distance transport, bringing an ever-increasing stream of immigration and industrialization.

Police, gangs and violence
The new Republican Party in the late 1850s attempted to cut the power of Mayor Fernando Wood and other pro-South Democrats by abolishing the New York City Municipal Police Department in favor of a Metropolitan Police District. Resistance resulted in the New York City Police Riot of 1857. While the police were busy with their feud, the Dead Rabbits Riot between two gangs in Five Points occurred in July, lasting two days, and was stopped only by intervention of the state militia. It was the worst riot in New York City up to that time. Historian Tyler Anbinder says the "Dead Rabbit" name "so captured the imagination of New Yorkers that the press continued to use it despite the abundant evidence that no such club or gang existed." Andbinder notes that, "for more than a decade, 'Dead Rabbit' became the standard phrase by which city residents described any scandalously riotous individual or group."

Historians such as Michael Kaplan and Elliott Gorn have argued that an intensifying highly masculine working-class male identity fostered gangs, brawling, and even homicide and rape, which was fueled by New York City taverns. The emerging male code emphasized physical courage, defiance of authority, and class pride. Irish and German immigrants brought European influences. Sexual harassment of women increased because women were more visible outside the home, as many worked in factories and shops. Women were regarded as depersonalized objects of lewd talk, and gang rapes became an opportunity for male bonding.

Staten Island Quarantine War
From 1800 to 1858, Staten Island was the location of the largest quarantine facility in the United States. Angry residents burned down the hospital compound in 1858 in a series of attacks known as the Staten Island Quarantine War. Although there were no deaths as a result of the attack, the arsonists completely destroyed the hospital compound.

Central Park
As the population grew explosively in Lower Manhattan after 1820, middle-class residents were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noises, smells, and chaotic life in the city. Landscape painter Asher B. Durand and writer William Cullen Bryant, recalling their rural upbringing and the great parks of Europe, advocated the therapeutic value of nature in the overcrowded city. Along with architect Andrew Jackson Downing, they envisioned a great park. The state government in 1853 provided $5 million and eminent domain powers to buy out the land owners of what became Central Park. Egbert L. Viele drew the original plans, but Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux made the final Greensward Plan design and have received the main credit.

Several American influences came together in the design. Landscaped rural cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, provided examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes. The most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the multiple circulation plans for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crossing routes for commercial traffic were concealed in sunken roadways screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a natural setting. It was the nation's first great urban park; Olmsted taught Americans a new sensibility in park environments and urban planning as an applied science with his radically naturalistic park design.

Civil War

Prior to the Civil War, in 1861, Mayor Wood proposed New York City secession from the United States as a neutral sovereign city-state to be called Tri-Insula as a way to avoid the ravages of war. Despite strong local Copperhead sympathies, the proposal was not well received.

The city provided a major source of troops, supplies, equipment, and financing for the Union Army. Powerful New York politicians and newspaper editors helped shape public opinion toward the war effort and the policies of President Abraham Lincoln. The port of New York, a major entry point for immigrants, served as recruiting grounds for the Army. In July 1863, Irish Catholic protestors of conscription began five days of rioting. The "Draft Riots", the worst in American history, targeted blacks and wealthy Republicans. It was suppressed by artillery units of the United States Army firing grapeshot that killed and wounded hundreds of rioters. Meanwhile, the upscale membership of the New York Union League Club recruited over 2,000 black men for the 20th United States Colored Infantry to help fill the quotas and to make a major contribution to African American civil rights. The neighboring city of Brooklyn in contrast was more pro-war.

In 1865 the Metropolitan Fire District united the fire departments of New York and Brooklyn, and was more successful than the earlier Metropolitan Police District, eventually developing into the New York City Fire Department.

Tourism and entertainment
New York increasingly became the national capital for tourism and entertainment. Grand hotels were built for the upscale visitors New York's theater district gradually moved northward during this half century, from The Bowery up Broadway through Union Square and Madison Square, settling around Times Square at the end of the 19th century. Edwin Booth and Lillian Russell were among the Broadway stars. Prostitutes served a wide variety of clientele, from sailors on leave to playboys.

The first nightclubs appeared in New York City in the 1840s and 1850s, including McGlory's, and the Haymarket. They enjoyed a national reputation for live music, dance, and vaudeville acts. They tolerated unlicensed liquor, commercial sex, and gambling cards, chiefly Faro. Practically all gambling was illegal in the city (except upscale horseracing tracks), and regular payoffs to political and police leadership was necessary. Prices were high and they were patronized by an upscale audience. Timothy Gilfoyle calls him "the first nightclubs." By contrast, Owney Geoghegan ran the toughest nightclub in New York, 1880–83. It catered to a downscale clientele and besides the usual illegal liquor, gambling and prostitution, it featured nighly fistfights, and occasional shootings, stabbings,  and police raids. Webster Hall is credited as the first modern nightclub. It opened in 1886 as a "social hall", originally functioning as a home for dance and political activism events.

Gilded Age
The post-war period was noted for the corruption and graft for which Tammany Hall has become proverbial, but equally for the foundation of New York's pre-eminent cultural institutions, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Opera. The Brooklyn Museum was a major institution of New York's independent sister city. Various older institutions merged into the New York Public Library. The New York Academy of Sciences, founded early in the century, expanded and promoted other institutions such as the New York Botanical Garden and the American Museum of Natural History.

New York newspapers were read across the nation, particularly, the New York Tribune, edited by Horace Greeley, the voice of the new Republican Party.

As immigration increased in cities, poverty rose as well. The poorest crowded into low-cost housing such as the Five Points and Hell's Kitchen neighborhoods in Manhattan. These areas were quickly overridden with notorious criminal gangs such as the Five Points Gang and the Bowery Boys. Overcrowding spread germs; the death rates in big city tenements vastly exceeded those in the countryside.

Rapid outward expansion required longer journeys to work and shopping for the middle class office workers and housewives. The working class generally did not own automobiles until after 1945; they typically walked to nearby factories and patronized small neighborhood stores. The middle class demanded a better transportation system. Slow horse-drawn streetcars and faster electric trolleys were the rage in the 1880s.

In the horse-drawn era, streets were unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. However, this produced uneven wear, opened new hazards for pedestrians, and made for dangerous potholes for bicycles and for motor vehicles. Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses in 1900, pulling streetcars, delivery wagons, and private carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets.

In small towns people mostly walked to their destination, so they continued to rely on dirt and gravel into the 1920s. Larger cities had much more complex transportation needs. They wanted better streets, so they paved them with wood or granite blocks.

By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, followed by brick construction. Street-level electric trolleys moved at 12 miles per hour, and became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers. Big-city streets became paths for faster and larger and more dangerous vehicles, the pedestrians beware. In the largest cities, street railways were elevated, which increased their speed and lessened their dangers. Boston built the first subway in the 1890s followed by New York a decade later.

Immigration
The flood of immigration from Europe passed first through Castle Clinton (opened 1855) and then through Ellis Island (opened 1892) in New York Harbor, with the nearby Statue of Liberty opening in 1886. Most of the new arrivals headed to destinations across the north and west, but many made New York City their destination.

European immigration brought further social upheaval, and old world criminal societies rapidly exploited the already corrupt municipal machine politics of Tammany Hall. Housing, especially in the southern tip of Manhattan, became crowded with newly built tenements and flimsy shacks in the back. Italians settled around Mulberry Street between the East Village and Lower Manhattan, in an area later to be known as "Little Italy." Many Yiddish-speaking East European Jews came to the Lower East Side.

In the Orange Riots of July 1871 and 1872, Catholic Irish attempted to stop Protestant Irish from celebrating the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne. These resulted in more than 33 deaths and many wounded. Pioneering photojournalist Jacob Riis documented the poor conditions of immigrant tenement dwellers in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives; he was befriended by Republican reformer Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt lost his mayoral race in 1886. Reformers did win in 1894, and Roosevelt undertook a major reform of the New York City Police Department in 1895–97 during his term as President of the Police Commissioners.

Public health
Epidemics (typhus, cholera, diphtheria, and tuberculosis) were rampant in the city's slums. Horse manure covered the streets. In winter, when all the grime froze, walking on the sidewalks was a challenge. Dead pigs and other carcasses remained on the street for weeks. In 1894, Colonel George E. Waring Jr. introduced sanitary reforms using a large street cleaning force.

Tammany Hall
William Tweed, better known as Boss Tweed, had become the sole leader of Tammany Hall by 1867. From April 1870, with the passage of a city charter consolidating power in the hands of his political allies, Tweed and his cronies were able to defraud the city of some tens of millions of dollars over the next two years and eight months, most famously with the construction bill for a lavish courthouse. The efforts of reform-oriented Democratic politicians, especially Samuel J. Tilden, as well as aggressive newspaper editors aided by the biting cartoons of Thomas Nast, helped elect opposition candidates in 1871. Tweed was convicted of forgery and larceny in 1873. Tweed's fall put an end to the immunity of corrupt local political leaders and was a precursor to Progressive Era reforms in the city.

Tammany did not take long to rebound from Tweed's fall. Reforms demanded a general housecleaning, and former county sheriff "Honest John" Kelly was selected as the new leader. Kelly was not implicated in the Tweed scandals and was a religious Catholic related by marriage to Archbishop John McCloskey. He cleared Tammany of Tweed's people and tightened the Grand Sachem's control over the hierarchy. His success at revitalizing the machine was such that in the election of 1874, the Tammany candidate, William H. Wickham, unseated the unpopular reformist incumbent, William F. Havemeyer, and Democrats generally won their races, delivering control of the city back to Tammany Hall.

Theodore Roosevelt, before he became president in 1901, was deeply involved in New York City politics. He explains how the machine worked:
 * The organization of a party in our city is really much like that of an army. There is one great central boss, assisted by some trusted and able lieutenants; these communicate with the different district bosses, whom they alternately bully and assist. The district boss in turn has a number of half-subordinates, half-allies, under him; these latter choose the captains of the election districts, etc., and come into contact with the common healers.

Reformers
Middle-class moral sensibilities were deeply opposed to prostitution and all forms of gambling. The reform movement was strongest in the 1890s. Reform was led by men such as the Reverend Charles H. Parkhurst, the leading Presbyterian pastor and president of the New York Society for the Prevention of Crime; reform mayor William L. Strong, and his police commissioner Theodore Roosevelt. Reformers passed laws in the state legislature against any emerging gambling venue. Such laws were enforced in most small towns and rural areas, but not in New York's larger cities, where political machines controlled the police and the courts.

Economy
In 1874, nearly 61% of all U.S. exports passed through New York harbor. In 1884, nearly 70% of U.S. imports came through New York. The eventual rise of ports on the Gulf of Mexico and on the Pacific coast reduced New York's share of imports and exports to about 47% in 1910. The city's banking resources grew 250% between 1888 and 1908, compared to the national increase of 26%. Between 1860 and 1907, the assessed value of the land and buildings on Manhattan rose from $1.7 billion to $6.7 billion.

The city and its suburbs, mainly Brooklyn and Long Island City, also became important in light industry. Its factories dominated the garment industry and some high technology industries of the second industrial revolution such as sewing machines and pianos. It was an important center for other hi-tech items such as hard rubber products and electrical goods. Petroleum and chemical works sprang up along Newtown Creek, Bayonne, New Jersey, and other industrial suburbs.

Department stores
In modern major cities, the department store made a dramatic appearance in the middle of the 19th century and permanently reshaped shopping habits and the definition of service and luxury. Similar developments were underway in Paris and London. New York became a regional and national destination for upscale shoppers, thanks to its development of the modern department store. London and Paris were developing department stores around the same time, and the leaders quickly adopted innovations. In 1846, Alexander Turney Stewart established his "Marble Palace" on Broadway, between Chambers and Reade Streets. He offered upscale retail merchandise at fixed prices. Though it was clad in white marble to look like a Renaissance palazzo, the building's cast iron construction had large plate glass windows that permitted major seasonal displays, especially in the Christmas shopping season. Increasingly, the clientele were women from wealthy or upper-middle-class families.

In 1862, Stewart built a new store on a full city block with eight floors and nineteen departments of dress goods and furnishing materials, carpets, glass and china, toys and sports equipment, ranged around a central glass-covered court. His innovations included buying from manufacturers for cash and in large quantities, keeping his markup small and prices low, truthful presentation of merchandise, the one-price policy (so there was no haggling), simple merchandise returns and cash refund policy, selling for cash and not credit, buyers who searched worldwide for quality merchandise, departmentalization, vertical and horizontal integration, volume sales, and free services for customers such as waiting rooms and free delivery of purchases. His innovations were quickly copied by other department stores.

In 1858, Rowland Hussey Macy founded Macy's as a dry goods store. Benjamin Altman and Lord & Taylor soon competed with Stewart as New York's earliest department stores.

By the 1880s New York's retail center had moved uptown, forming a stretch of retail shopping from "Marble Palace" that was called the "Ladies' Mile". By 1894 the major stores competed in the Christmas season with elaborate Christmas window displays; in 1895 Macy's featured 13 tableaux, including scenes from Jack and the Beanstalk, Gulliver's Travels and other children's favorites.

The department store was especially important for women; in middle-class families women took control of the purchasing, and the department stores catered to their tastes. Furthermore, ambitious young women from the middle class who wanted a career were welcomed into the clerical ranks, where they developed social skills to work with their upscale customers.

Skyscrapers and apartment buildings
New inventions facilitated the emergence of the skyscraper in the 1880s—it was a characteristic American style that was not widely copied around the world until the late 20th century. Construction required several major innovations, including the elevator and structural steel. The steel skeleton, developed in the 1880s, replaced the heavy brick walls that were limited to 15 or so stories in height. The skyscraper also required a complex internal structure to solve issues of ventilation, steam heat, gas lighting (and later electricity), and plumbing.

The city's housing involved a wide variety of styles, but most of the attention focused on the tenement house for the working class and the apartment building for the middle class. The apartment building came first, as middle-class professionals, businessmen, and white-collar workers realized they did not need and could scarcely afford single-family dwellings in the high-cost real estate districts of the city. Boarding houses were inappropriate for family; hotel suites were too expensive. In outlying neighborhoods there were many apartments over stores and shops, usually occupied by proprietors of small local businesses. Apartment dwellers paid rent and did not own their apartments until the emergence of cooperatives in the 20th century. Turnover was very high, and there was seldom a sense of neighborhood community. Starting with the luxurious Stuyvesant Apartments that opened in 1869, and the even more lavish The Dakota in 1884, affluent tenants hired full-time staff to handle the upkeep and maintenance, as well as security.

The less-lavish middle-class apartment buildings provided gas lighting, elevators, good plumbing, central heating, and maintenance men on call. Apartment buildings were built along the paths of the street railways since the middle-class tenants rode the streetcar to work, while the working class saved a nickel each way and walked.

The working class crowded into tenement houses, with far fewer features and amenities. Novelist Stephen Crane in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) wrote of an Irish tenement neighborhood characterized by poverty and violence:"'Eventually they entered into a dark region where, from a careening building, a dozen gruesome doorways gave up loads of babies to the street and the gutter. A wind of early autumn raised yellow dust from cobble and swirled it against an hundred windows. Long streamers of garments fluttered from fire escapes. In all unhandy places there were buckets, brooms, rags, and bottles. In the street infants played or fought with other infants or sat stupidly in the way of vehicles. Formidable women, with uncombed hair and disordered dress, gossiped while leaning on railings, or screamed in frantic quarrels. Withered persons, in curious postures of submission to something, sat smoking pipes in obscure corners. A thousand odors of cooking food came forth to the street. The building quivered and creaked from the weight of humanity stamping about in its bowels.'"Tenements were cheap and easy to build, and filled up almost the entire lot. There were typically five story walk-ups, with four separate apartments on each floor. There was minimal air circulation and sunlight. Until the Tenement House Act of 1879, newly built tenements lacked running water or indoor toilets. A law in 1901 required indoor plumbing be retrofitted to older tenements. Garbage pickup was erratic until late in the 19th century. Rent was cheap for those who could endure the dust, clutter, smells and noises; the only cheaper alternatives were squalid basement rooms in older buildings. Most of the tenements survived until the urban renewal movement of the 1950s.

Neighborhoods
Pre-war steam ferries had already made Brooklyn Heights into a bedroom community for affluent professionals on Wall Street and other urban areas. Elevated railroads, operated by the Manhattan Railway Company, and other new public transport expanded the commuter area of New York, allowing development of suburbs for commuters of more modest means in Upper West Side and other distant areas. Plans were made for subways to still more remote exurbs such as Harlem and the West Bronx.

In the late 19th century, the island's schist bedrock encouraged the early skyscrapers whose successors characterize its skyline today. The Great Blizzard of 1888 exposed the vulnerability of the urban infrastructure connecting those buildings, encouraging the undergrounding of electric and telephone lines, and plans were made for a subway line.

Consolidation
In 1855, the City of Brooklyn annexed Williamsburg and Bushwick, forming the third most-populous city in America. In 1870, Long Island City was formed in Queens. In 1874, New York City annexed the West Bronx, west of the Bronx River. The Brooklyn Bridge, completed in 1883, epitomized the heroic confidence of a generation and drew the two cities of Brooklyn and New York inexorably together. As Brooklyn annexed the remainder of Kings County in the decade from 1886 to 1896, the issue of consolidation grew more pressing.

The modern city of Greater New York — the five boroughs — was created in 1898, with the consolidation of the cities of New York (then Manhattan and the Bronx) and Brooklyn with the largely rural areas of Queens and Staten Island.

title: History of New York City (1855–1897)


text:
Talk:.htaccess

Several Webservers
The comment that this is supported by several webservers is strange, Apache is a continuation of NCSA which developed the .htaccess technology. So, this is mainly an Apache (see references) technology; in the top 5 used Web Server Softwares, Apache and LiteSpeed would be the only two that support it, and LiteSpeed (a fork of apache?) which is a direct apache drop in replacement. In fact, I do not know more than 1 other Web Server software that support this at all... could this be reworded to provide more factual context? Kaylus (talk) 18:31, 27 January 2016 (UTC)

###
Someone please fix the spanish in this article... +sj +  07:23, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Deny users by Country
Is that possible modify the htaccess file to deny by country? --Saphire diablo 10:32, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Sure. You can block domains, for instant. You can also deny access to certain IP ranges (you'd have to find them on the web). However, what's the point?
 * 1. It can be easily overridden by an anonymous proxy (lock them if you can).
 * 2. Domains are registered in one country, but administered worldwide. It's possible that some people are in a global TLD, or in another country's (Tuvalu is popular, as is Armenia, or FS of Micronesia).
 * 3. IP ranges are in a complete disarray now. You can't reliably predict the location of the ip address. Even if you can, the reported IP is frequently something completely different from the actual IP.
 * 4. Even if you account for all the above, the user will find a way to access your data if it's really that important.
 * BTW, what data can be so important as to block users from a certain country from accessing it? And what country is it???
 * I'd assume it'd be for political rather than security purposes... - furrykef (Talk at me) 04:45, 15 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I'd assume it'd be for political rather than security purposes... - furrykef (Talk at me) 04:45, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

Space in url
Can spaces be used in the url for redirection e.g. RedirectPermanent /old%20one.html http://www.wiki.co.nz/new.html this does not seem to work for me, I get a 404 Onco_p53 11:34, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
 * 404 is a client error. It might be possible that the browser is interpreting the %20 wrong and doesn't change it into a space, but expects actually spelled out "%20" in the address. Have you tried quoting the addresses?
 * RedirectPermanent "/old%20one.html" "http://www.wiki.co.nz/new.html"
 * It actually works to quote the old address without the %20 as follows:
 * Redirect permanent "/old one.html" http://www.wiki.co.nz/new_one.html — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.138.130.2 (talk) 21:01, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

HTTP_HOST .htaccess example
The example given for HTTP_HOST does not actually work in .htaccess files, at least with the popular Apache 1.3 server. Does it work with 2.x?

Ok the HTTP_HOST example is fixed.. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Produke (talk • contribs).

Password protection
AuthGroupFile /dev/null

Is not absolutely necessary, I suggest removing. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Bah23 (talk • contribs) 12:19, 22 January 2007 (UTC).

Password protection - htpasswd command
htpasswd /home/newuser/www/stash/.htpasswd newuser

I believe you need -c?? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Bah23 (talk • contribs) 12:19, 22 January 2007 (UTC).

 * Sorry for not signing! I'm new.--Bah23 12:21, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I know this is the wrong place to post this... but is there a way to autosign? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Bah23 (talk • contribs) 12:23, 22 January 2007 (UTC).

 * Just type  after your message – Qxz 02:13, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

Article disruption
I think it's disappointing this article has now been stripped of all content, the article was slowly improving and becoming useful, but now it's basically gone! I strongly disagree with this opinion that Wikipedia should focus as an encyclopedia, this makes little sense to me, why not use it for a communal resource, we already have encyclopedias! When I type 'htaccess' in Google, this article is one of the top results, so why can't it tell visitors how to use .htaccess files? Or at least link to resources which can? This article effectively adds to the bulk of rubbish that already exists on the Internet, this site is meant to be an educational resource! Nobody wants an article explaining that a .htaccess file is something you use with the Apache Web Server, whilst this is an important piece of information, visitors needed to be guided to the next stage of learning, either by using this article to explain the file usage, or to link to other content which does! .htaccess files are not part of a commercial product, they are part of an open source project and are supported by millions of web servers, detailed documentation and guidance should un-questionably be included in this article!

CSS example
The CSS example doesn't have much to do with .htaccess, really. He's using a PHP script, and mod_rewrite to redirect the CSS requests to that script. If anything that can be configured via .htaccess belongs in this article, it's going to be a big one...

No filename
If anyone knows why the file has only an extension and no filename, it's probably worth mentioning as it seems a notable point. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.211.32.107 (talk) 23:30, 26 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks, added explanation to the lead section. It's actually not an extension, just a dot-file. -- intgr [talk] 02:52, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

Regarding rewrite rules
Although often used in conjunction with PHP. PHP, in fact has nothing to do with the rewrite process itself. I think the explanation of the rewrite module should be reworded. 66.11.77.89 (talk)

What is the purpose of HTAccess File
That means why we are using the Htaccess files —Preceding unsigned comment added by 123.201.129.6 (talk) 05:47, 12 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Check out .htaccess for why we are using the Htaccess files and for What is the purpose of HTAccess File. Both questions are answered in that one section. Also this here is not the place to talk about the content of the article but rather to discuss the article its self. Perhaps that is your intention. Are you suggesting a rename of "Common usage" section? Im not sure what your asking/telling/typing/trying to say. R00m c (talk) 05:55, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

creation on windows
it would be good if there was a mention of how you cant make this filename on windows, i.e. it complains you must type a filename —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.242.227.50 (talk) 07:36, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

correction needed?
For each HTTP request there are additional file-system accesses for every parent directory when using .htaccess. Maybe it should read "child directory" instead of "parent directory". Doru001 (talk) 08:26, 29 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I guess what was meant is "the directory being accessed and every parent directory thereof"; made sense to me when i first read it. Maybe it's clearer if that statement is rephrased altogether. -- intgr [talk] 17:13, 29 April 2009 (UTC)

Deletion
Please do not delete this page, I find it very useful. Doru001 (talk) 08:26, 29 April 2009 (UTC) Very useful page

Examples
The page needs a few examples, and explicit links to more. 94.30.84.71 (talk) 08:55, 7 June 2014 (UTC)
 * I fully agree! Askapache (talk) 03:31, 7 October 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:.htaccess


text: User talk:213.201.144.194

title: User talk:213.201.144.194


text:
Worker Student Alliance

The Worker Student Alliance (WSA) in the United States was the section of Students for a Democratic Society led by the Progressive Labor Party. The WSA argued that the best way to build a movement in the working class, like SDS wanted, was for students to become involved in workers' struggles both on and off the campuses. In practice, that usually meant students enrolled in school would get jobs as cafeteria hands and other manual labor jobs at those schools.

Organizational history
The WSA explicitly rejected the rest of the New Left's insistence that it would be various combinations of 'progressive' nationalism and popular rebellion that would jump-start the revolution; rather, the WSA said the catalyst would be organized workers in various industries and the service sector, and that students could best help spread and deepen workers' class consciousness by really being among the workers themselves, rather than just using their class designation in rhetoric to appear more Marxist.

The WSA faction took about 900 of the approximately 1400 representatives in the split at the 1969 SDS convention in Chicago. The other 500, who had been the Revolutionary Youth Movement, left to form a myriad of other groups. SDS chapters around the country then split along these same lines, or disbanded entirely.

Both the RYM and the WSA kept the SDS name, but the Weatherman organization continued to hold the SDS National Office and all the SDS membership lists; thus it was able to assume effective "command" of the name and public face of SDS despite its inferior size. Nearly immediately post-conference, Weatherman led their "Days of Rage" Chicago riots of 1969 and other sporadic acts of violence — all under the SDS name — until 1970, when Mark Rudd and a few other Weathermen decided to close the SDS National Office and drop the SDS name. PL, however, continued to keep its SDS for several more years. Since all active SDS chapters after 1970 were SDS-WSA, the "WSA" initials were dropped.

In 1974 PL's SDS voted to dissolve itself and join the Committee Against Racism which PL had helped to form at a conference at New York University in November 1973. The CAR eventually expanded to several other countries and added "International" to its name to become InCAR, but InCAR was in many respects another "mass organization" led and directed by the PLP, with separate publications and staff, but always with a goal of winning InCAR members to support PLP. By 1996, this strategy was too much to maintain, and PLP elected to pursue pure and open communist activity again, using only its own party as an organizational structure.

title: Worker Student Alliance


text:
The Pawn

The Pawn is an interactive fiction game for the Sinclair QL written by Rob Steggles of Magnetic Scrolls and published by Sinclair Research in 1985. In 1986, graphics were added and the game was released for additional home computers by Rainbird.

Plot

The player's character is knocked unconscious and awakens in the fairyland of Kerovnia, a silver bracelet around their wrist that cannot be removed. A general election is about to be held to decide whether King Erik will be replaced by a dwarf whose campaign promise is to "rid dungeons of mazes of any sort." The character must interact with others and perform tasks for them, gathering objects that will be needed for later tasks in order to escape from Kerovnia and return to reality.

Development
The Pawn was written by Rob Steggles at Magnetic Scrolls in 1985, and a text-only version was first published for the Sinclair QL in 1985. After Magnetic Scrolls secured a publication deal with Rainbird, a graphical version of the game was then released for other platforms in 1986.

The game is written in 68000 assembler. Later versions use a cut-down 68000 virtual machine even on less powerful machines like the Z80-based Sinclair Spectrum. The Amiga version uses digitized instrument samples in its title music early in that computer's lifecycle. The peaceful title music was composed by John Molloy and it features guitar and flute sounds.

Reception
By late 1987, The Pawn was Firebird's second best-selling Amiga game in the United States. Reviewers complimented it for its excellent graphics (on some versions) and the opening music available in some game versions. The game itself–story and parser–got mostly positive reviews.

 * In the October 1986 edition of Compute!, Neil Randall described The Pawn as "parod[ying] the entire genre of interactive fiction, showing us that much of it — even the serious stuff — has its shortcomings", giving as example a character campaigning to eliminate mazes in text adventures. Randall commented that some of the Atari ST version's graphics were "superb" but wished that the pictures contributed to solving the game instead of being optional. He concluded that "Firebird has given us a good adventure, one that bodes well for the company and for all of us adventurers".
 * In the December 1986 edition of Computer Gaming World, Roy Wagner stated that The Pawn "shows how well something can be done for the Amiga when one KNOWS the machine". Roy Wagner reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "Both humor and challenge are present here, two of the key elements of any good adventure (along with an excellent parser and outstanding presentation)."
 * In the January–February 1987 edition of Info, Benn Dunnington gave the Amiga version four-plus stars out of five, praising the "excellent graphics" and text parser. Dunnington concluded, "The Pawn's story is good, the characters are interesting, and the play is entertaining".
 * In the July 1987 edition of Commodore Magazine, Shay Adams thought the game's sophisticated parser "handily parses circles around every American counterpart except Infocom's - and it's not far behind that one." Adams was highly impressed by the game plot as well, saying, "The Pawn also delivers well-honed prose, vivid graphics, innovative visual effects, and dozens of puzzles - some diabolically difficult, others deceptively simple - in an imaginative story." He concluded with a strong recommendation: "Technically and creatively, this is England's all-time best adventure game. For advanced players, The Pawn is a must whether you prefer text or graphic adventures."

Two reviews of the game appeared in Dragon:
 * In the October 1986 edition, Hartley and Pattie Lesser stated that the Atari ST version's "'painted' scenes will leave you in awe". They also praised the "sophisticated language parser" and thought "the intriguing plot" would be "extremely appealing to all gamers."
 * In the June 1988 edition, Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser reviewed the IBM PC and PC compatible version, commenting that since their previous review The Pawn "is steadily pushing toward the status of becoming a classic adventure." The Lessers thought highly of the game, saying, "The Pawn is not only great for experienced adventurers, but because of the interactivity of the scenario’s characters, it also enables novice gamers to learn as they progress through the land of Kerovnia. This is certainly one offering that any computer-game library should contain." They gave the game an above average rating of 4 out of 5 stars if played on an IBM PC or compatible equipped with an Enhanced Graphics Adapter EGA board, but only 2½ stars for systems without an EGA board.

Awards
In 1988, readers of Crash voted The Pawn "Best Adventure Game of the Year".

It was also "Best Adventure Game of the Year" at the 1987 Golden Joystick Awards.

title: The Pawn


text:
User:Sjakkalle/TestSR

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks experimenting with Wikipedia and for cleaning up after yourself by taking back your edit to the article. If you wish to make further tests, the best place to do so is the sandbox, because such test edits tend to annoy the users on Recent Change Patrol, even when you quickly revert them yourself. Here are a few helpful links: Thanks.
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User:Sjakkalle/TestSR


text:
Julius Scriba

Julius Karl Scriba (5 June 1848 – 3 January 1905) was a German surgeon serving as a foreign advisor in Meiji period Japan, where he was an important contributor to the development of Western medicine in Japan.

Biography
Scriba was born in Darmstadt, Germany and studied to become a pharmacist as well as a physician. His studies were interrupted by a year of military service during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. He graduated three years after the end of the war from the University of Heidelberg and practiced medicine in Freiburg im Breisgau. He apprenticed under the noted surgeon Vincenz Czerny and from 1879 served as a lecturer at the University of Freiburg. In addition to his medical accomplishments, he was also a gifted amateur botanist, and published a book on the flora of the Grand-Duchy of Hesse.

Beginning in 1870, the Meiji government of Japan hired a series of German medical specialists to establish a modern medical school system in Japan. At the time, German medicine was considered to be the most advanced in Europe, with most medical textbooks and research papers published in the German language. Western medicine had been introduced into Edo period Japan by German-speaking physicians such as Engelbert Kaempfer and Philipp Franz von Siebold, and the German physician Erwin Balz was serving as the personal physician to Emperor Meiji.

Scriba was employed by the Japanese government as a foreign advisor from 6 June 1881 to 5 June 1887, and taught surgery, dermatology, ophthalmology and gynecology at the Medical School of Tokyo Imperial University. In 1885 he first described the endemic form of bacterial infection pyomyositis in the tropics. He returned once to Germany on the expiration of his contract, but his contract was renewed again from 2 September 1889 to 10 September 1901. During his second tenure in Japan, he is credited with performing the first craniectomy for a depressed skull fracture in Japan in 1892. He trained many surgeons who later became leaders in modern Japanese surgery. His Japanese assistant Miyake Hayari (1867–1945) was one of the first Japanese neurosurgeons. From 1893 he was imperial embassy doctor at the German embassy in Tokyo. Subsequently, he was chief surgeon until 1905 at the St. Luke's Hospital in Tokyo. He also was the first honorary member of the Japanese Society for Surgery and Honorary Professor of the University of Tokyo.

Scriba was called upon by the Japanese government twice during particularly sensitive international incidents: the first time was after the Otsu Scandal, when Russian Tsarevich Nicholas Alexandrovitch (the future Tsar Nicholas II), was assaulted by a Japanese policeman in 1891; and the second time when the Chinese diplomat Li Hongzhang was shot while attending the Shimonoseki Peace Conference in 1895 which ended the First Sino-Japanese War. For his services, Emperor Meiji awarded him the Order of the Sacred Treasures.

Scriba died of a lung abscess in Kamakura, Kanagawa prefecture in 1905, and was buried in the foreign section of Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.

title: Julius Scriba


text:
Honda VT series

The Honda VT series comprises motorbikes with two-cylinder V engines. More sporting V engined bikes are given "VTR" model numbers. Four-cylinder V-engined Hondas are designated VF or VFRs, while Honda motorbikes with inline engines mostly belong to the CB and CBR series.

Just because an engine is listed within a series or sub-series doesn't mean it is directly related to another within the same category.

Honda's 90-Degree VT Series
 * VT125C
 * VT250
 * VT250F
 * VTR250

Honda's 52-Degree VT Series
 * Honda VT400C Shadow
 * Honda NV400
 * Honda NT400 Bros
 * VT500
 * VT500C
 * VT500E
 * VT500FT
 * Honda XL600V Transalp
 * VT600C VLX
 * VT600CD VLX
 * Honda NT650 Hawk (US) Bros (Global)
 * Honda XL650V Transalp
 * Honda DN-01 (700cc)
 * VT750C
 * VT750CD
 * VT750C03
 * VT750DC
 * Honda VLX1300 Shadow
 * Honda VLX1800 Shadow

Honda's 45-Degree VT Series
 * VT700C
 * VT750
 * Honda XL700V Transalp
 * VT800
 * VT1100C
 * VT1100C2
 * VT1100C2
 * VT1100C3
 * VT1100T

title: Honda VT series


text:
Oslo (disambiguation)

Oslo is the capital of Norway. Oslo may also refer to:

Geography

 * Gamlebyen in Oslo, Norway, was known as Oslo until 1925
 * Oslo, Minnesota, a small city in northwest Minnesota, United States
 * Oslo, Dodge County, Minnesota, an unincorporated community in southeast Minnesota, United States
 * Oslo, Florida, an unincorporated community in Florida, United States
 * Oslo (Hackney), an East London kitchen-bar-venue based in Hackney
 * Oslo Beach, a seaside village on the South Coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Music

 * oslo., a British post-punk band
 * Oslo (band), a Californian rock band
 * Oslo (duo), runners-up in French Popstars in 2013, made up of Eugénie and Vincent
 * "Oslo", a song by the Disciples from Smoking Kills (album)
 * "Oslo", a song by Tumi and the Volume from Tumi and the Volume (album)
 * "Oslo", a song by Blonde Redhead from their 2010 album Penny Sparkle

Other uses

 * Oslo (play), a 2016 play by playwright J.T.Rogers
 * Oslo (film), a 2021 film adaptation of the play
 * Oslo, a character in the French show Skyland
 * Open Source and Linux Organization, a project by Hewlett-Packard
 * Optics Software for Layout and Optimization

title: Oslo (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Julius Scriba

Untitled
I have written a temporary stub for Scriba at Julius Scriba/Temp. --Historian 07:33, Apr 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * The main article has been replaced by the temporary stub. RedWolf 16:58, Apr 30, 2005 (UTC)
 * The article has been expanded and should be re-rated --MChew 15:18, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Julius Scriba


text:
John Schultz (footballer, born 1938)

John Schultz (born 28 September 1938) is a former Australian rules footballer who represented in the Victorian Football League (VFL) between 1958 and 1968.

He had been a champion high-jumper at Caulfield Grammar School, winning the senior high jump at the 1955 Associated Grammar Schools Combined Athletics Meeting (as had South Melbourne's Jim Taylor in 1948). He also played for the school's First XVIII, a team which also contained other future VFL players, Ron Evans of Essendon and Ron Cabble of Hawthorn.

VFL career
Schultz was recruited by Footscray from countryside Boort, having previously played briefly with Caulfield Grammarians Football Club in the Victorian Amateur Football Association (he broke his arm at the opening bounce of the first Caulfield Grammarians' practice match of the 1956 season).

Schultz won the Brownlow Medal in 1960 (when only 21 years old) by one vote from 's Kevin Murray. He was Footscray's best and fairest player five times (1960, 1962, 1964–66). Schultz played for Victoria 21 times, and was an All-Australian in 1961.

Schultz was considered a "gentle giant", known as much for his fairness as for his brilliance. An effective knock ruckman, he was acclaimed for good tackling, elegant marking and hard, fair bumping. Roy Wright, another "gentle giant" and Brownlow medallist, helped him early in his career: "after lining up on Roy Wright in one of my first matches, he came to the dressing rooms after the match and gave me a few hints on things I did and didn't do right". Compared with others of his day, Schultz had exceptional stamina and he seemed to be able to run just as quickly at the end of a match as he had at its beginning.

In 1961, Footscray, playing a fast game using the soon-to-be-outlawed "flick pass", won through to their second Grand Final, this time against, who were playing in their first Grand Final. On a hot day, in front of over 100,000 spectators, the Hawks, dubbed Kennedy's Commandos for their fanatical approach to fitness, overran the Bulldogs in the second half to claim their first VFL premiership.

Schultz played as an amateur. He played his entire VFL with the legendary Ted Whitten as his captain, and retired in 1968, aged only twenty-nine, to help manage the family grocery business.

His younger brother Robert, also from Caulfield Grammar School, played two senior games for Footscray in 1963.

Post-VFL career
Fittingly for a man who was known for his fairness and never once reported, Schultz later served on the league tribunal. He once said, "I love nothing more than seeing someone shake another player's hand after a tough game – that's the ultimate in sportsmanship." In 1996 Schultz was inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame with the following citation:
 * Rucking giant who never let the side down. Set the standard for the modern ruckman.

In April 1970, when Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip watched a match of VFL football at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Schultz was chosen by the VFL to sit between them to explain aspects of the game.

In 2002, Schultz was named in the back pocket of the Footscray/Western Bulldogs Team of the Century.

Schultz is still heavily involved at the Bulldogs, serving as a mentor to the playing group. He was given the honour of handing the Premiership cup to Easton Wood, Luke Beveridge and Robert Murphy after the Western Bulldogs won the 2016 AFL Grand Final.

Personal life
Schultz lives in Shoreham, a town on the Mornington Peninsula. He was married to Elaine, who came from Durham Ox, the town next to Boort, until she died in 2013.

title: John Schultz (footballer, born 1938)


text:
User talk:B1sh

Someone called Bish, knows about Charfield...:-) hmm sounds familiar Bob aka Linuxlad 07:34, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

=
bish makes a sweepingly low bow and his hat falls off.

Hi Bob! :-)

title: User talk:B1sh


title: User:69.158.142.129


title: User:216.249.53.163


text:
Dudleya

Dudleya, commonly known as liveforevers (Spanish: siemprevivas) is a genus of rosette-forming succulent plants in the stonecrop family, Crassulaceae, consisting of about 68 taxa in southwestern North America and Guadalupe Island. The species come in many forms, some large and evergreen, others geophytic and deciduous. Yet, despite their dramatic variations in appearance, most species readily hybridize. The flowers of Dudleya have parts numbered in fives, with the petals arranged in tubular, star-shaped, and bell-shaped forms and, when fruiting, are filled with tiny, ovoid-crescent-shaped seeds.

The genus evolved as neoendemics, from ancestors in the stonecrop genus, Sedum. The ancestors radiated southward from Sedum during the creation of the dry summer climate, in the California region, five million years ago. Early botanists classified the larger species as Echeveria and Cotyledon, while the geophytic species were placed under Sedum. Taxonomic efforts, started by Joseph Nelson Rose and Nathaniel Lord Britton, created three genera; these initial genera were all eventually subsumed into Dudleya, proper, following Reid Moran's investigations into the genus. Phylogenetic research is still at an early stage in the genus, and is complicated by the fact that many species are becoming endangered and over-harvested (poached).

Dudleya is a relatively obscure genus, in comparison to other, more widely-cultivated succulents; converging interests, by succulent collectors, native plant enthusiasts and gardeners alike, have led to the wider cultivation of many species as ornamental plants. In the wild, many species of Dudleya are vulnerable, as land development and poachers often threaten particularly niche populations of plants. Poached plants are often shipped to East Asia, especially South Korea, where hybridisation and cultivation of succulents is very popular. Conservationists, nurseries and governments combat Dudleya poaching through propagation programs and protection laws.

Characteristics and subgenera
This genus is the only taxon of the Sedeae tribe to have evolved sympodial branching.

The genus is traditionally divided into three subgenera, two of which were formerly their own genera. The subgenera consist of Dudleya, Stylophyllum, and Hasseanthus.

Epicuticular wax
One of the most famous features of some Dudleya is their waxy coating. Numerous species have their foliage covered in an epicuticular wax, or farina. This waxy coating is usually white, chalky, and mealy, and is the namesake in many epithets, like chalk dudleya, powdery liveforever, and giant chalk dudleya. The wax on the giant chalk dudleya is a surface with some of the highest ultraviolet reflectivity ever discovered in plants. When exposed to water, the wax may coat drops on leaves, preventing their evaporation. The farina is mostly composed of pentacyclic triterpenoids.

Other members, such as D. viscida and D. anomala, have a clear, sticky layer on their foliage. This adhesive layer ultimately helps the plant protect its leaves from the sun, much like ones with "white" wax. It accomplishes this solar protection by allowing dust to adhere to the sticky layer on the leaves, which coats the foliage with dust and debris, blocking solar radiation.

Early history
The earliest species of the genus described was Cotyledon caespitosa, by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1803, which would later be known as Dudleya caespitosa. The same species would later be described again as Sedum cotyledon by Joseph Franz von Jacquin in 1811, and in 1840 Thomas Nuttall described both Echeveria pulverulenta (Dudleya pulverulenta) and Echeveria lanceolata (Dudleya lanceolata). The differing generic placements of these early descriptions suggest that taxonomic disagreements over the genus had an early start, with some of these generic placements persisting even after the proper description of the genus by Britton and Rose.

Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose's revision of the North American Crassulaceae upended many of the early taxonomic classifications, with the newly-minted genus Dudleya containing 60 species, of which 41 were newly described by Britton and Rose. The two also defined the related genera Stylophyllum, which contained 12 species, and Hasseanthus, with 4 species. The primary differences between Dudleya and Stylophyllum were between the leaf shape, floral structure and petal orientation, whilst Hasseanthus was characterized by a different vegetative structure and more niche adaptations, primarily corm-like stems and deciduous leaves.

In the 1930s, Alwin Berger revised the status of Dudleya and Stylophyllum into a sectional ranking within Echeveria, while merging the Hasseanthus genera into Sedum. This was in part due to a belief that Dudleya had evolved from Echeveria radiating northward from Mexico, evidenced by the similar tubular corollas, while Hasseanthus possessed aesthetic similarities to Sedum, primarily flowers with broadly-spreading petals. Stylophyllum was believed to occupy a transitory position between Dudleya and Hasseanthus. These conclusions were widely accepted by botanists for the first half of the 20th century, until proper molecular and phylogenetic analyses began to appear.

Reid Moran, Charles H. Uhl and early phylogenetics
In 1942, Reid Moran, a botanist with a longstanding interest in the genera, offered a new revision of the taxa. Moran recognized Dudleya as being distinct from Echeveria, and merged Stylophyllum as a subgenera along with Eududleya (which was changed to just subgenus Dudleya). Moran still recognized Hasseanthus as a separate genus, but realized that it was closely related to Dudleya. With assistance from cytologist Charles H. Uhl, Moran came to the conclusion that Dudleya and Hasseanthus were related closer to each other than they were to Echeveria or Sedum.

As Moran and Uhl conducted more cytological and taxonomic research on the genus, it became clear that Hasseanthus was also a subgenera of Dudleya, citing the karyological uniformity and the formation of hybrids between the genera. In contrast, while Echeveria and Sedum freely hybridize within themselves and each other, all attempts at hybridizing Dudleya with Echeveria have failed. Uhl came to the conclusion that there are probably no intergeneric hybrids with Dudleya, believing that Dudleya had split from Echeveria far enough that intergeneric reproductive success was unlikely. Despite Uhl's research, he still believed that Dudleya had evolved northward from Mexico with Echeveria, probably some time before the formation of the summer-dry climate of California, making Dudleya a paleoendemic.

Modern classifications and phylogenetic research
Around 1993, one of the only literary treatments of the genus was written, Paul H. Thomson's Dudleya and Hasseanthus Handbook. In the book, Thompson made numerous changes and adjustments to species, and described several new species. The book included a large number of photographs, extensive descriptions, and horticultural practices for the care of Dudleya, derived from a long interest growing, visiting and collecting the plants. However, he failed to follow the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature guidelines for describing new taxa, forgoing designated type specimens, which invalidated his treatment. His treatment also contains extensive pseudoscientific material, including references to the lost continents of Atlantis, Lemuria and Mu, a belief that cosmic rays and divine intervention directly induced the chromosome counts and evolution of Hasseanthus and Dudleya, and criticism of paleontologists and the scientifically accepted age of the Earth.

Later research challenged the notion that Dudleya and Echeveria formed two distinct lineages within Echeverioideae. Joachim Thiede instead proposed that Dudleya evolved completely independently from Echeveria, evolving from relatives within the Leucosedum clade like Sedum moranii. This places Dudleya as a neoendemic that evolved recently with the formation of the summer-dry climate in California. This was evidenced by the similarities of seed-surface ornamentation between Dudleya and Sedum, which is unlike Echeveria, and the reproductive isolation between Echeveria and Dudleya.

Research in the 21st century has supported the hypothesis of Dudleya 's relation to Sedum. Phylogenetic analysis has given weight to this hypothesis, concluding that Dudleya is much closer to North American members of Sedoideae than to Echeverioideae. The plant Sedum spathulifolium, which co-exists with Dudleya in Oregon and California, has been shown in multiple phylogenetic reconstructions to be a sister taxon to Dudleya, although it may not be the true sister taxon, as larger samplings are needed. Berger's hypothesis of a relationship between Hasseanthus and Sedum may still prove true, as in addition to morphological similarities, the Hasseanthus-type taxa could be basal to the genus. However, no truly conclusive evidence of significant divergence within Dudleya exists, and it remains unclear which groups are basal or derived.

Selected species

 * Dudleya abramsii
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. abramsii – Abrams' liveforever
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. affinis – San Bernardino Mountains liveforever
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. bettinae – Betty's dudleya
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. calcicola – limestone dudleya
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. murina – Mouse-gray dudleya
 * Dudleya abramsii subsp. setchellii – Santa Clara Valley dudleya
 * Dudleya acuminata – Vizcaino liveforever
 * Dudleya albiflora– White-flower liveforever
 * Dudleya anomala – Todos Santos liveforever
 * Dudleya anthonyi – Anthony's liveforever
 * Dudleya attenuata – Orcutt's liveforever, tapertip liveforever
 * Dudleya arizonica – Arizona chalk dudleya. Formerly a subspecies of Dudleya pulverulenta.
 * Dudleya blochmaniae – Blochman's liveforever, Blochman's dudleya
 * Dudleya brevifolia – Short-leaved liveforever, short-leaved dudleya. Formerly a subspecies of D. blochmaniae.
 * Dudleya brittonii – Britton's dudleya, giant chalk dudleya
 * Dudleya caespitosa – Coast dudleya, sea lettuce, sand lettuce
 * Dudleya campanulata – Punta Banda liveforever
 * Dudleya candelabrum – Candleholder liveforever
 * Dudleya candida – Coronados liveforever
 * Dudleya cedrosensis
 * Dudleya crassifolia – Thick-leaf dudleya
 * Dudleya cultrata – Knife-leaved liveforever, maritime succulent liveforever
 * Dudleya cymosa – Canyon liveforever
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. agourensis – Agoura Hills dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. crebrifolia – San Gabriel River dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. costatifolia – Pierpoint Springs dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. cymosa – Coast Range dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. marcescens – Marcescent dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa. subsp. ovatifolia – Santa Monica Mountains dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. paniculata – Diablo range dudleya
 * Dudleya cymosa subsp. pumila – Transverse ranges liveforever
 * Dudleya densiflora – San Gabriel Mountains liveforever
 * Dudleya edulis – Fingertips, lady fingers, San Diego dudleya
 * Dudleya farinosa – Bluff lettuce, powdery liveforever, powdery dudleya
 * Dudleya formosa – La Mision liveforever
 * Dudleya gatesii – Gates' liveforever
 * Dudleya gnoma – Munchkin dudleya
 * Dudleya greenei – Greene's dudleya
 * Dudleya guadalupensis – Guadalupe liveforever
 * Dudleya ingens – Baja liveforever, rock liveforever
 * Dudleya hendrixii – Hendrix's liveforever
 * Dudleya lanceolata – Lanceleaf liveforever.
 * Dudleya linearis – San Benito Island liveforever
 * Dudleya multicaulis – Many-stemmed dudleya
 * Dudleya nubigena – Cape liveforever
 * Dudleya nesiotica – Santa Cruz Island liveforever
 * Dudleya pachyphytum – Cedros Island dudleya
 * Dudleya palmeri – Palmer's liveforever
 * Dudleya parva – Conejo dudleya
 * Dudleya pauciflora– Few-flower liveforever
 * Dudleya pulverulenta – Chalk lettuce, chalk dudleya, chalk liveforever
 * Dudleya rigida – Sierra de la Laguna liveforever
 * Dudleya rigidiflora – Playa Maria liveforever
 * Dudleya rubens – Red flowering liveforever
 * Dudleya saxosa – Panamint liveforever
 * Dudleya saxosa subsp. collomiae – Gila County liveforever
 * Dudleya saxosa subsp. aloides – Desert liveforever
 * Dudleya saxosa subsp. saxosa – Panamint liveforever
 * Dudleya stolonifera – Laguna Beach liveforever
 * Dudleya traskiae – Santa Barbara Island liveforever
 * Dudleya variegata – Variegated liveforever
 * Dudleya verityi – Verity's liveforever
 * Dudleya virens – Alabaster plant, Island liveforever
 * Dudleya viridicata – Colonet liveforever
 * Dudleya viridis
 * Dudleya viscida – Sticky dudleya

Etymology
The genus is named after William Russel Dudley, the first head of the botany department at Stanford University. The term liveforever may refer to the longevity and hardiness of some plants in the wild.

The name of the subgenera Stylophyllum is an allusion to the pencil-shaped leaves of the type species, Stylophyllum edule, now known as Dudleya edulis.

The name of the subgenera Hasseanthus was in honor of Dr. Hermann E. Hasse, a surgeon and collector of California flora. Dudleya virens subsp. hassei is also named after him.

Nomenclature

 * English: Dudleya, liveforever
 * Spanish: siempreviva, mezcalito
 * Tiipai: milhka’mey (wide-leaf); milh kajmila (narrow-leaf)
 * Paipai: awi mielh

Pollinators and flower morphology
The pollinators of Dudleya are mostly hummingbirds and bees, although this has been inferred in some species only from flower morphology. The genus exhibits a wide array of diverse flower varieties, even within species complexes. The flowers are mostly hermaphroditic, although some individuals may have sterile anthers. Plants with long, tubular, reddish flowers, mostly in the subgenus Dudleya, are adapted towards pollination via hummingbirds, while short, spreading, yellow flowers favor pollination by insects. Despite the evolution of long flowers towards hummingbirds, the long flowers also show no performance disadvantage in pollination environments exclusively composed of insects. While the long flowers may provide an evolutionary advantage for more effective pollination, more energy is required to produce the larger amounts of floral tissue.

The flower morphology of Dudleya also corresponds with the aforementioned groups of Hasseanthus, Stylophyllum, and Dudleya. The flowers in Hasseanthus and Stylophyllum are broad, white to yellow, and spreading, with bumblebees and bees as primary pollinators, and hummingbirds as occasional pollinators. As these species grade towards the subgenus Dudleya, the petals begin to fuse at the base, with the flowers becoming tubular and red, due to an association with hummingbird pollinators. This shift in pollinators corresponds to larger nectar volumes and higher energy contents in accordance with the demands of hummingbird pollinators.

Seeds
Seed morphology also differs between Dudleya. Larger Dudleya have noticeably smaller seeds; this is likely a result of an evolutionary tradeoff. The investment in growing large allows plants to retain moisture in periods of drought, at the cost of energy placed into reproduction. Other reasons for smaller seeds may also be due to allocation of resources into vegetative reproduction via pup rosettes, instead of sexual reproduction. In contrast, the small, inconspicuous, Hasseanthus-type members produce the largest seeds in the genus. These larger seeds are not distributed very far, which contributes to the restricted ranges of the Hasseanthus subgenus.

Distribution and habitat
Dudleya species are widespread and diverse in their range, but are typically found in rock outcroppings, cliff faces, or road cuts, where their leaves help them store water in a setting too dry for most types of plants. Most are small and inconspicuous when not in bloom. The two predominant habitats where plants of this genera may be found are by the coast or mountains. Dudleya favor moderate temperatures, summer dormancy, winter precipitation, and rocky habitats, which means they may be found in diverse, disjunct locales from oceanic bluffs on the California coast to sky islands in Arizona. Regions where Dudleya can be found include The Californias, Arizona, coastal Sonora and Oregon, and southern Utah and Nevada. The diversity of species of Dudleya is centered in Southern California and northern Baja California.

Watering
In horticulture, Dudleya should be planted at an angle. This allows accumulated water to drain from the nestlike center of the plant, thus preventing microbial decay. Dudleya should not be watered from directly above, as this may damage their chalky coating known as farina, which is present on numerous species. During the late fall to early spring period of growing, watering should be done frequently in order to promote good growth and flower development. Plants grown with exposure to rainfall, provided they are in a Mediterranean climate, they may obtain optimum moisture. In contrast, plants grown indoors or in greenhouses should be watered to ensure that the plant maximizes growth.

During the dormant period, from late spring to fall, watering should be limited to bi-weekly intervals, but not completely cut out. In nature, plants may completely desiccate themselves during the dormant period. Deciduous members of the genus in the Hasseanthus grouping should not be watered at all during dormancy.

Growing medium
Growing mediums should attempt to imitate the preferred soil of each species in nature. The most essential element for the medium is good drainage. Good drainage is important, as Dudleya are very susceptible to mold and fungi. How quickly the medium drains should be determined by the amount of shade in the location, which affects the rate of evaporation that the soil will go through. Thus, well-shaded Dudleya must have excellent drainage.

Fertilizers may be used to maintain good color and growth, but they should be diluted.

Clay is preferable to plastic pots when growing the plants due to the advantages with water drainage. Plastic pots may also kill the plants by overheating the roots.

Mealybugs and aphids are main pests of Dudleya. Powdery mildew has also been recorded in cultivated Dudleya.

Shade
The amount of shade a species of Dudleya requires is dependent on the location. Plants growing in coastal regions may require little shade at all, whilst plants growing in the deserts, inland valleys and mountains will require shade. The majority of plants in the genus will appreciate north-facing sites and shade during the heat of the day. During the summer months, 50% shade may be beneficial for plants. If a cold-tolerant Dudleya is grown during a freeze or snow, it should be shaded as not to damage the plant, as a quick thaw may be detrimental.

Propagation
Unlike their related genera Echeveria, many Dudleya cannot be propagated through leaf cuttings. Propagation is mostly achieved via offsets, germination by seed, or in nurseries, plant tissue culture.

Sexual reproduction
Dudleya seeds are crescent shaped and near-microscopic, and can be collected by taking the dried flower buds and crushing the ovules inside, which can contain hundreds of seeds. Seeds can be sown into a soilless medium, such as pumice or vermiculite, after which germination can occur within a week to 10 days.

Asexual reproduction
Vegetative reproduction may occur in multiple ways:

 * 1) The rosette of the plant divides into two, eventually branching off to develop two separate rosettes.
 * 2) Plantlets will form in the axillary buds of old leaves around the primary rosettes, forming as many as 10 new rosettes.
 * 3) After a wildfire, when the plant has its main rosettes burned off, new ones will emerge from either the stem or the roots, forming a new plant within a single growing season.
 * 4) Rosettes emerge out of a long, horizontal root. This is commonplace when the plant has been decapitated on a cliff face, leaving only the long roots, which send out rosettes.
 * 5) Plants multiply via stoloniferous growth. Many Dudleya may send out stoloniferous rosettes, but they do not root. Only does the Laguna Beach Liveforever (Dudleya stolonifera) sprout roots out of stoloniferous plantlets, yet this can be difficult or impossible to induce in captivity.
 * 6) When the underground portion of the plant is lost to root rot, but the rosette and part of the caudex survive, the parts above the decayed roots can be removed cleanly, and planted provided they send out roots. Conversely, should the top of the rosette die but the lower stem still live, the deceased portion may be removed, a depression will remain in the caudex where the decayed rosette was removed, and at the edges new buds will sprout.
 * 7) Propagation via leaves. Only certain species, like those of the Hasseanthus subgenus and others like Dudleya parva, will root. Most Dudleya will not reproduce from leaves, with the leaves simply dying after being severed.
 * 8) Plant tissue culture methods are also available, and becoming more advanced. Currently, plant tissue culture is used for Dudleya propagation in commercial and conservation settings.

Kumeyaay and Paipai
The indigenous peoples of the Kumeyaay and Paipai region utilized the genus for both medicinal and agricultural purposes. The tender, succulent leaves were chewed on to alleviate thirst, or used to treat calluses and corns. The budding inflorescences, in their early stages, were used as food, with a sweet flavor and juicy texture. The roots were pounded up and soaked in water, used as an astringent to "tighten the gums." The roots were also boiled whole as a decoction for asthma.

Conservation
Several species of Dudleya are threatened by urban development in Coastal California and Mexico, and anthropogenic-induced wildfires. However, one of the most critical threats to Dudleya species is poaching, partially caused by a demand from East Asian succulent collectors paying lucrative prices for certain Dudleya species. The population of Verity's liveforever (Dudleya verityi), which was nearly wiped out during the 2013 Springs Fire, was targeted by poachers.

The Cedros Island liveforever (Dudleya pachyphytum) is a rare and extremely specialized Dudleya endemic to Cedros Island. In 2016, Korean nationals began moving to Bahia Tortugas, a locality in Baja California Sur, to facilitate the poaching and shipping of the plants. The species was seriously threatened after Mexican soldiers discovered poachers taking nearly 5,000 rosettes in a tractor-trailer. It was suspected the poachers rappelled onto the succulent's location via helicopter, as D. pachyphytum occupies a nearly inaccessible habitat. In 2019, the deaths and injuries of several fishermen from Bahía Tortugas who were on Cedros Island was allegedly the result of Dudleya trafficking, a conflict with the Sinaloa Cartel, or both. In 2020, the Mexican Navy in the Second Naval Region revealed that two fishermen were killed after a dispute emerged over the trafficking of the rare plant.

Bluff lettuce (Dudleya farinosa) was also targeted by poachers in numerous large-scale operations. Although not particularly rare, the size of the poaching operation pose a serious ecological threat. Starting in 2017, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, along with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, discovered large amounts of D. farinosa being shipped out of the country. South Korean and Chinese nationals have both been arrested in the smuggling of D. farinosa. According to nursery owners responsible for legally exporting Dudleya, buyers in Asia desired plants directly from the wild, owing to the aesthetic quality of their long caudices and weathered leaves.

The candleholder dudleya (Dudleya candelabrum), native to the northern Channel Islands, was reported to have been poached, with the thieves shipping plants to South Korea.

In response to the poaching of Dudleya, California State Assembly member Chris Ward proposed Bill AB-223, sponsored by the California Native Plant Society, which would make it illegal to poach Dudleya from state or private lands without a permit. The California Native Plant Society and conservationists have also initiated propagation programs to oversaturate the market as a means to deter poachers. On September 28, 2021, governor Gavin Newsom signed AB-223 into law.

title: Dudleya


text:
User talk:Lugnad

I am in my local library archives -> User_talk:Lugnad/archive2005 User talk:Lugnad/archive2009 User talk:Lugnad/archive2010 User talk:Lugnad/archive2015

July 2016
Welcome to Wikipedia. I noticed that your username, "Lugnad", may not meet Wikipedia's username policy because you said on ANI that you received an email at http://lugnad.ie/, which is the same as your username here.. If you believe that your username does not violate our policy, please leave a note here explaining why. As an alternative, you may ask for a change of username by completing this form, or you may simply create a new account for editing. Thank you. Gestrid (talk) 23:39, 20 July 2016 (UTC)

 * I have given this some thought and have decided to remain Lugnad.
 * It was attractive to close off Lugnad. Once I was a very active poster. Then my health declined, it is unlikely that I will post as well as I used to.
 * My first reaction was shock and surprise. I had no idea that there was a rule saying that you cannot have a web site with the same domain name as your Wikipedia username.  But there it is: in the “nutshell” summary:
 * English Wikipedia username policy summary The following types of usernames are prohibited: Promotional usernames: Are the name of a company, organization, group, website, or
 * That seems conclusive.
 * Or is it?
 * The summary of the policy is not the policy. So what does the policy say?  It reads:
 * While plain domain names (without .com, .co.kr, etc.) are sometimes acceptable, such as when the purpose is simply to identify the user as a person, they are inappropriate if they promote a commercial Web page.
 * Lugnad is a “plain domain name”. It identifies a person: “me”.  There is nothing commercial about lugnad.ie
 * My understanding of the “policy” rather than the “summary”, is that I am allowed to have a non-commercial website with the domain name “lugnad.ie” and I am allowed to post on Wikipedia with the user-id “Lugnad”. If you don’t agree we can do a request for comment.  But I can always fall back on the “grandfather rule”.  I reckon that the user-id and the web site both predate this rule.
 * Regards Lugnad (talk) 01:49, 23 January 2017 (UTC)
 * I apologize. That warning was left months ago when I wasn't as well-acquainted with Wikipedia's policies as I am now. Had I only just now run across your username for the first time, I would not have left that message.  —   Gestrid  ( talk ) 02:30, 23 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Don't worry, I have not been active because of health issues. At  College? it seems so long ago.  Actually - it is long ago.  I have just been questioned by a history prof about my part in a demonstration (specifically the Battle of Hume Street).  Now it is your generation's turn to do something good. Lugnad (talk) 02:50, 23 January 2017 (UTC)

ANI Discussion
I've started a discussion at ANI regarding the email you received from WikiWiz. -- Gestrid (talk) 05:31, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Lugnad