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Craigmillar Castle

Craigmillar Castle is a ruined medieval castle in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is 3 mi south-east of the city centre, on a low hill to the south of the modern suburb of Craigmillar. The Preston family of Craigmillar, the local feudal barons, began building the castle in the late 14th century and building works continued through the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1660, the castle was sold to Sir John Gilmour, Lord President of the Court of Session, who breathed new life into the ageing castle. The Gilmours left Craigmillar in the 18th century for a more modern residence, nearby Inch House, and the castle fell into ruin. It is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland as a scheduled monument, and is open to the public.

Craigmillar Castle is best known for its association with Mary, Queen of Scots. Following an illness after the birth of her son, the future James VI, Mary arrived at Craigmillar on 20 November 1566 to convalesce. Before she left on 7 December 1566, a pact known as the "Craigmillar Bond" was made, with or without her knowledge, to dispose of her husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley.

Craigmillar is one of the best-preserved medieval castles in Scotland. The central tower house, or keep, is surrounded by a 15th-century courtyard wall with "particularly fine" defensive features. Within this are additional ranges, and the whole is enclosed by an outer courtyard wall containing a chapel and a doocot (dovecote).

Origins
The lands of Craigmillar were granted to the monks of Dunfermline Abbey by King David I in the 12th century. The Preston family were first granted land in the area by King David II in 1342 and held 2/3 of the estate. In a further grant of 1374, King Robert II gave the remaining lands of Craigmillar to Sir Simon de Preston, Sheriff of Midlothian. It was Simon's son, Simon Preston, or his grandson, Sir George Preston, who began work on the tower house which now forms the core of the castle. This was in place by 1425, when a charter was sealed at Craigmillar by Sir John Preston. The courtyard wall was probably added by Sir William Preston (d. 1453), who had travelled in France, and drew on continental inspiration for his new work. He also brought back the arm of Saint Giles, which he presented to the High Kirk of Edinburgh, where the Preston Aisle is named for him. In 1479, John Stewart, Earl of Mar, brother of King James III was held prisoner at Craigmillar, accused of practising witchcraft against the King. He later died in suspicious circumstances.

16th century
In 1511 Craigmillar was erected into a barony, and the outer courtyard was built around this time, possibly by another Simon Preston (d.1520), Member of Parliament for Edinburgh in 1487, who had succeeded in 1478. In September 1517, during an outbreak of plague in Edinburgh, the infant James V of Scotland moved to safety at Craigmillar. His French guardian De la Bastie had new locks made for his chamber and the two iron gates, and a stable was built for the king's mule. The family chapel within the outer court was first recorded in 1523. During the so-called Rough Wooing of Henry VIII of England, the English attempted to impose, by military force, a marriage between Edward, Prince of Wales, and the young Mary, Queen of Scots. Craigmillar Castle was burned by English troops under the Earl of Hertford on 8 May, after he had sacked Edinburgh. Sir Simon Preston (d.1569) had the castle repaired, with domestic ranges in the courtyard being remodelled. Preston served as Lord Provost of Edinburgh for several years, and was a loyal supporter of Queen Mary, who appointed him to her Privy Council.

Queen Mary stayed at Craigmillar twice. In September 1563 she met the English ambassador Thomas Randolph at the castle, with the Earl of Moray and William Maitland. She stayed from 20 November to 7 December 1566, still in poor health following a serious illness in October, and, according to Philibert du Croc, suffering from depression. She gave an audience to a diplomat from Savoy, Jean, Count de Brienne, who had arrived for the baptism of Prince James. Mary is traditionally said to have slept in the small former kitchen within the tower house, although it is more likely that she occupied larger accommodation in the relatively new east range.

Several of her noblemen were with her at Craigmillar in November 1566, and suggested to her that her unpopular husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, could be removed, either by divorce or by other means. An agreement, the "Craigmillar Bond", was signed by Mary's Secretary of State William Maitland of Lethington, and several nobles including the earls of Bothwell, Argyll and Huntly. The earls met in Argyll's bedchamber in the castle, and then continued the discussion in Bothwell's room. Then they discussed the idea of a divorce with Mary in her chamber. The bond does not survive, but set out the conspirator's intent to remove Darnley. Although Mary made it clear that she was unhappy with Darnley, she was not part of the conspiracy, and was probably unaware of the plot to kill her husband. It was initially intended that Darnley would lodge at Craigmillar when he returned to Edinburgh, although he opted to stay at Kirk o' Field in the town, where he was murdered on 10 February 1567.

During the Marian Civil War, Captain Melville and two of his soldiers, who fought for Mary's cause, were killed in the grounds of the castle on 2 June 1571 when a barrel of gunpowder exploded. In 1572, Regent Mar used Craigmillar as a base while besieging Edinburgh Castle, which was held by supporters of the exiled Queen. Stable were built for a company of light horsemen.

King James VI visited Craigmillar himself when he was the guest of Sir David Preston. In September 1589 James had been at Seton Palace expecting the arrival of Anne of Denmark, and came to Craigmillar still waiting for news of his bride, "as a kind lover spends the time in sighing". It was at Craigmillar that he decided to sail to Norway to meet his Queen, delayed by contrary winds. In 1591, Agnes Sampson was accused of placing a charmed wax image in a dovecote at Craigmillar to help her friend Barbara Napier.

The Gilmours
On the death of Sir Robert Preston in 1639, Craigmillar passed to a distant cousin, David Preston of Whitehill. His son sold the castle out of the family, and it was bought by Sir John Gilmour (d.1671) in 1660, who purchased the neighbouring estate of The Inch at the same time. A Royalist, Gilmour was rewarded following the Restoration of King Charles II, becoming Lord President of the Court of Session in 1661. He remodelled the west range to provide more modern accommodation in the 1660s, but in the early 18th century, the Gilmours left the castle for Inch House, just west of Craigmillar. It was claimed that two of the laird's daughters continued to live in Craigmillar Castle after the rest of the family had left. Afterwards, Craigmillar Castle formed a romantic feature in the park of the Inch estate. It was ruined by 1775, when the antiquarian and poet John Pinkerton wrote Craigmillar Castle: an Elegy. The castle became a popular tourist attraction from the late 18th century, and was drawn by numerous artists. A proposal to renovate the building for the use of Queen Victoria was put forward in 1842, but came to nothing. Victoria herself visited the castle in 1886, and much restoration work was undertaken by its then owner, Walter James Little Gilmour (d.1887).

Craigmillar Castle has been in state care since 1946, and is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland. The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument and the grounds of the castle are included on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, the national register of historic gardens.

Description
At the core of Craigmillar Castle is the 14th-century L-plan tower house, built on a rocky outcrop. Wrapped around this is the 15th-century courtyard wall, with ranges of buildings at the south-east, east, and west. Beyond the wall is a lower outer wall, enclosing a broad outer courtyard. This contained gardens and a chapel. Further gardens lay to the south, where the outline of a fish pond can be seen.

The tower house
The four-storey tower forms the keep of the castle, although it originally stood alone. It measures 15.8 m by 11.6 m, with a projecting wing, or jamb, of 8.5 m by 3.5 m, to the south. The walls are up to 3.3 m thick, and the second and fourth storeys have vaulted ceilings. The tower is built on the edge of a rock outcrop, with the original entrance door protected by a natural cleft in the rock. This would have been spanned by a wooden bridge, until it was filled in when the curtain wall was built. Above the door are the arms of the Preston family. A stair leads up from the entrance to a guard room in the jamb, which would probably have had "murder holes" through which missiles could be dropped on any attackers who gained entry. At ground floor level are cellars, which formerly had a timber loft above. The dividing wall and doors at either end are later additions.

On the second floor is the hall, with a kitchen occupying the jamb, and later passages connecting to the east and west ranges. The hall has a large carved stone fireplace of around 1500, and once had a timber ceiling, probably painted. The kitchen was replaced by a larger one in the 16th-century east range, and converted into a bedroom. A smaller fireplace was inserted into the large kitchen hearth, and larger windows added. The next storey, accessed via a spiral stair, contained a windowless room in the vault above the hall ceiling. Above the kitchen is the lord's bedroom, the only original private chamber in the building. The stairs continue to give access to the parapet walks around the stone-flagged roof. A further storey was added to the jamb in the sixteenth century, containing a single chamber. The exterior of the castle formerly had two timber balconies, or viewing platforms, one overlooking the gardens to the south, and one looking east across the Lothian countryside.

The inner courtyard
The mid-15th-century curtain wall encloses a courtyard around 10 m across, and is up to 1.8 m thick. Externally, the curtain wall measures 40 m by 27 m. Round towers are located at each corner, with a postern, or side gate, located at the base of the south-east tower. The towers have keyhole-shaped gun holes, intended for decoration as well as defence. The round-arched gate is in the north wall. Over it are the arms of the Preston family, with the royal arms of Scotland above. The walls are defended by machicolations, spaces through which missiles could be dropped on attackers, and battlement walks give access to the entire length of the wall. On the inside of the wall, traces of windows suggest that there was once a south range of buildings in the courtyard. There is no well in the courtyard, but a stone trough runs through the curtain wall, allowing water to be brought into the castle.

The east range
The east range occupies the south-east and east sides of the inner courtyard. The original east range, contemporary with the courtyard wall, was rebuilt in the 16th century and linked to the tower house by a new, broad spiral stair. The building at the south-east adjoins the tower house, and comprises two chambers on the first floor. Cellars below were occupied by a bakehouse and a possible prison. A corridor connects the tower to large, vaulted kitchens in the east range, also accessible via a straight stair from the courtyard. Another depiction of the Preston family arms, supported by monkeys, appears above the door to the east range. Below the kitchens are vaulted cellars, containing a blocked-up postern gate through the courtyard wall. Above, a long gallery occupied the second floor, although only the lower walls of the gallery survive.

The west range
The west range was entirely rebuilt by the Gilmours, in the 1660s, to provide a spacious suite of modern accommodation, to suit Sir John's position as a senior judge. The roof slates were brought in 1661 from Stobo, carried by horses from Peebles. The ground floor contained a large central drawing room dining room, with large windows, and a carved stone fireplace. This room would also have had plaster ceilings and other decorative features. To the north was a kitchen, and to the south a chamber, with a wine cellar below. The first floor had four bedrooms. Another new stair was built, connecting the west range with the tower house. The door to this tower has a classical pediment, above which is a 20th-century plaque, erected by a descendant of the Gilmours, and bearing the arms of Sir John Gilmour and his wife. The west range is now roofless, the internal floor is also gone, and the large windows have been blocked up.

The outer court and gardens
The outer walls, dating from the early mid-16th century, are smaller and less formidable than the inner walls, but they enclose a much larger area. A round tower at the north-east corner has gun holes and a doocot, or pigeon house, upstairs. The family chapel was built around 1520, and dedicated to St Thomas Becket. It is now a roofless burial aisle, still used by the Gilmour family. Gardens occupied the east and west parts of the courtyard, with the western terrace overlooked by the large windows of the west range. The barn at the north-west of the courtyard was converted into a Presbyterian church, for the village of Liberton, in 1687. South of the castle were informal gardens and orchards, with the bases of 16th-century viewing towers remaining at the corners of this drystone-walled enclosure. The former fish pond, shaped like a letter P for Preston, is a nationally significant archaeological garden feature, due to its rarity. In the 1820s, a plan was drawn up to lay out picturesque landscape gardens between Inch House and the castle, which would have incorporated "Queen Mary's Tree", a Sycamore supposedly planted by Mary, Queen of Scots. Much of the woodland within the castle estate dates from the early to mid 19th century.

title: Craigmillar Castle


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Japan–British Exhibition

The Japan-British Exhibition of 1910 (日英博覧会) took place at White City, London in Great Britain from 14 May 1910 to 29 October 1910. It was the largest international exposition that the Empire of Japan had ever participated in and was driven by a desire of Japan to develop a more favorable public image in Britain and Europe following the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It was also hoped that the display of manufactured products would lead to increased Japanese trade with Britain. Japan made a successful effort to display its new status as a great power by emphasizing its new role as a colonial power in Asia.

Background
A proposal was made in 1908 for an Exhibition to be held in London to celebrate and reinforce the Anglo-Japanese Alliance on a grass-roots level. It was strongly supported by Japanese Foreign Minister Jutaro Komura, who was aware that there still was a general conception in the West of Japan as a backward and undeveloped country, despite the Boxer Rebellion and the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese Diet voted an enormous sum to sponsor the Exhibition in 1909, despite the fact that the Treasury had been drained from the Russo-Japanese War, and the economy was on the verge of bankruptcy.

Baron Ōura Kanetake, who was then Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, was the President of the Japanese committee organizing the exhibition. His British counterpart was Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk.

The Japanese display covered 242700 sqft, three times the space Japan occupied at the previous Paris Exhibition of 1900, not including an additional 222877 sqft for two large Japanese gardens. There were some 2,271 Japanese exhibitors.

The Imperial Japanese Navy sent the Japanese-built cruiser Ikoma (which was anchored at Gravesend in Kent) to underscore that the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was primarily a naval alliance and to stress that Japan was a formidable military power worthy of partnership with Great Britain.

A visit by Queen Alexandra in mid-March, in advance of the opening, added publicity and royal prestige to the Exhibition. The death of King Edward VII caused the opening to be delayed until 14 May. By the time the event closed on 29 October, over 8 million visitors had attended.

The Exhibition was widely known in London as 'the Japanese Exhibition' rather than 'the Japan–British Exhibition', as there was minimal British content.

Exhibits
The Japanese gardens had to be constructed from scratch at the Exhibition site. Since authenticity was regarded as of the utmost importance, trees, shrubs, wooden buildings, bridges, and even stones were brought in from Japan.

One of the many aims of the Exhibition was to introduce the civilization of Japan to the western world, showing past, recent present and projected future. The intent was to show that Japan was not a country that had suddenly leapt from a state of semi-barbarism to one of high civilization in the middle of the nineteenth century, but had always been “progressive”, and that the modernization of Japan since 1868 was only a natural progression. This was illustrated with twelve impressively full-sized dioramas with wax figures, showing the progression of Japanese history.

Each of the Japanese government ministries was represented, along with the Japanese Red Cross and the post office, showing displays of the modern systems and facilities used by the governmental departments.

Displays about Taiwan, Korea, the Kwantung Leased Territory, and 10 Ainu from Hokkaidō were meant to demonstrate that Japan was following in Great Britain's footsteps as an imperial power to improve the lives of the ‘natives’ in its colonies. Almost 500 Japanese firms sent items to London. Care was taken only to display the highest possible quality, to offset popular images that Japanese products were cheaply made and tawdry.

Artists represented included ceramicists Yabu Meizan and Miyagawa Kozan as well as the cloisonné artists Namikawa Sōsuke, Kawade Shibatarō and Ando Jubei. Lacquer artist Tsujimura Shoka (1867–1929) won a gold medal for a box decorated in hiramaki-e with a stylised depiction of an asunaro plant. The Samurai Shokai Company won a gold medal for a set of metalwork pieces.

In addition to manufactured goods, traditional and modern fine arts, and arts and crafts were well represented, including nihonga (Japanese-style) and yōga (Western-style) painting, sculpture, lacquerwares, and woodcuts. One of the most popular craftsmen in the Exhibition was Horikawa Kozan, a celebrated potter. He was invited to demonstrate pottery-making and repair priceless antiquities, some of which had been in the possession of British collectors for generations.

A sumo exhibition tournament was also organized with thirty-five wrestlers from the Kyoto-based sumo association on the opening day of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance commemoration. The group leader, a local yokozuna named Ōikari Montarō, also performed a ring entering ceremony. The group then embarked on a three-and-a-half-year European tour.

The most remarkable British exhibit was the full sized gyroscopically balanced Brennan mono-rail, which gave rides of around 40 passengers at a time around a 1-mile track, and which was awarded the Grand Prize as the best exhibit. During the exhibition Winston Churchill (then Home Secretary) rode upon the car, and drove it for one circuit, he was so impressed that he arranged for the Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith and David Lloyd George among others to travel on the mono-rail in early November.

Japanese
A number of the Japanese visitors felt that the display showing a “typical Japanese village” to be an embarrassment, depicting as it did the life of peasants in northeast Japan. Although not far from the truth, this was not the impression that Japan wished to convey to the Western public. These comments dominated in Japanese newspapers leading to the prevalent negative opinion that 'the exhibition was a failure'. Korehiro Kurahara, a member of the Japanese House of Representatives, spoke before the National Diet on January 25, 1911 disapproving of the exhibition. The Japanese were most concerned with how best Japan could convince the British public that it was worthy to be considered a modern and civilized ally and equal to any western nation.

Some Japanese correspondents in London also stated that certain exotic and entertaining 'attractions', in the shape of sideshows organized by the entrepreneur who organized the Exhibition were vulgar, and had been calculated to bring discredit to Japan. Moreover, the exhibition of the Ainu and Taiwanese natives together with their native dwellings was regarded as controversial and demeaning.

Consequently, in Japanese history, mention of the Japan–British Exhibition of 1910 is often neglected in favor of other events that year, such as Captain Nobu Shirase's Antarctic expedition.

British
The negative views of the Exhibition in Japanese newspapers were in contrast to those of almost all British newspapers, which gave wide and detailed coverage and contained favorable reviews, especially on some of the exhibits of fine arts and the gardens.

Aftermath
The final stage of the Exhibition was the disposal of the exhibits. These fell into three categories: those to be sent back to Japan (400 boxes in three separate shipments), those to be presented to various institutions (over 200 boxes divided between thirty recipients), and those to be sent to other cities in Europe where international exhibitions were projected for the near future (Dresden and Turin, both in 1911).

The Chokushimon (Gateway of the Imperial Messenger) (four-fifths replica of the Karamon of Nishi Hongan-ji in Kyoto) was moved to Kew Gardens a year later, where it still can be seen.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Japan–British Exhibition


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Victorinus (Roman governor)

Victorinus is the recorded name of a vicarius of Roman Britain probably serving between 395 and 406. He is mentioned by the Gaul Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in his De reditu i, 493-510 who had met him later in Gaul around 417.

Victorinus had probably ruled prior to the usurpation of Marcus in 406. After serving in Britain and Italy, he had retired to Aquitania, leaving in 409 or 414 due to barbarian raids and settling in Rome.

title: Victorinus (Roman governor)


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Amerer Air

Amerer Air was a cargo airline based in Linz, Austria. It was Austria's largest dedicated cargo airline, operating services from Linz and Cologne throughout Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Its main base was Linz Airport.

History
The airline was established and started operations in 1995 with one Fokker F27 Mk500. Between 1997 and 2006 two Lockheed L-188 Electras were operated for United Parcel Service and TNT N.V. In 1999, international long distance road transport was introduced to supplement air freight activities. The airline was owned by Heinz Peter Amerer (50%) and Susanne Amerer (50%) and had 40 employees.

Fleet
The airline operated:

 * 2 Fokker F27 Mk500
 * 2 Lockheed L-188 Electra

title: Amerer Air


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Talk:Petrograd Soviet

Untitled
62.252.64.18, please register yourself. It takes only 2-3 minutes, but gives you many conveniences. Mikkalai 21:42, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Please clarify the role of Trotsky in Milrevcom and in Bolshevik's Military Organization. I saw claims (also entered in some wikipedia articles) that he was its chairman, which contradicts the current text of this article. Mikkalai 21:42, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Also, the contraction "Milrevkom" is kind of mongrel. IMO it should be either Milrevcom (english) or Voenrevkom (russian). Mikkalai 21:42, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I am registered, just not logged in ;)

 * Please change milrevkom as you see fit, I'm using MRC below.

 * Lazimir, "the young Estonian left SR", was the first head of the MRC. An existing Ispolkom member, chairman of the Soldiers' Section and vice-chairman of the military bureau of the Ispolkom, he was an obvious choice or an "unknown paramedic" - depending on who you read. The other members of the MRC bureau were Sukharkov, Podvoiskii, Antonov-Ovseenko and Sadovskii. No Trotsky. Trotsky later claimed Lazimir was used as camouflage for the Bolshevik conspiracy, this is uncertain. Certainly the MRC was camouflage for the Bolsheviks, Antonov-Ovseenko called it a "grand formal cover for the military work of the Party." Its leaders were not important, orders and proclaimations were issued in their name without regard for the bureau's opinions. The MRC held only two official meetings. Trotsky could claim that the creation of the MRC sealed the fate of the Government, andt later (1922) say he could not remember the names of the MRC leaders "even if his life was at stake." The Bolshevik Central Committee established their Military Organization (called the Military Commitee at first) on March 10 (OS). Tasked with spreading propaganda (mainly through Soldatskaia Pravada) and agitating amongst the Petrograd garrison it was headed by Podvoiskii and Nevskii. It soon came to organize the armed workers (the Factory Militia) and soldiers who were strongly pro-Bolshevik, and deploy them as ordered by the Central Committee. The main force was part of the 1st Machine Gun Regiment, based in Vyborg and the Kronstadt sailors. Again No Trotsky. Trotsky used and directed both organizations, but he did not (AFAIK) hold an official position in either. 62.252.64.18 23:08, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Changes of the 27th of April, 2005
I have changed 'Menchevik' to 'Menshevik' as I believe that the latter is the standard spelling for Wikipedia. I have changed 'January 28' to 'February 28' as the passage refers to 'the following day' of Feb 27 I have changed 'Kerensky's Provisional Government' to 'Prince Lvov's Provisional Government' as PL was prime minister at the time in question, Keerensky came in later.

If I've been mistaken in any of these then please do correct them.

-- AAA

St. Petersburg Soviet
Do we need a separate article on the St. Petersburg Soviet of 1905? I have redirected it to this page for now. -- Petri Krohn 04:49, 17 October 2005 (UTC)
 * It is not a good solution, since Petrograd Soviet has a link to St. Petersburg Soviet. Also, the redirect is misleading, since petrograd article clearly says that these two things are not the same, and even not directly related. I am deleting the redirect. Sorry. mikka (t) 16:55, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

O. S. or N. S.
In the Formation Section in the 2nd Paragraph you say that all Dates are in Old Style, but in the Chairman Section you list both old and new style Dates for Trotsky. Please decide on one (or just use both), because it is confusing. 2A02:8109:9387:1400:3120:7ADD:3A77:26EB (talk) 23:18, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Petrograd Soviet


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Long Expedition

The Long Expedition was an 1819 attempt to take control of Spanish Texas by filibusters. It was led by James Long and successfully established a small independent government, known as the Republic of Texas (distinct from the later Republic of Texas created by the Texas Revolution). The expedition crumbled later in the year, as Spanish troops drove the invaders out. Long returned to Texas in 1820 and attempted to reestablish his control. In October 1821, Long was defeated by Spanish troops, captured and sent to Mexico City where he was killed by a guard.

Background
Beginning in 1810, Spanish territories in North and South America began to revolt. In particular, the Mexican War of Independence made it difficult for Spain to adequately protect its more remote territories such as Texas. Lured by the promise of free land and potential wealth, many men from the United States joined expeditions to try to take Texas from Spain. The expeditions were largely planned in New Orleans and variously wished to establish an independent republic in Texas or assist the revolutionaries fighting within Mexico. For the first nine years of the revolt, ownership of Texas was contested. The United States claimed that the Louisiana Purchase included all of Texas, while Spain believed the boundary rested at the Red River, leaving Texas under Spanish control. The Texans later had a revolt which led to their independence.

Preparation
In early 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, which established the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the Sabine River. Many Americans were outraged that the United States had abandoned any claim to Texas. Rhetoric was especially high in Natchez, Mississippi. James Long, a doctor, was one of the most vehement voices against the treaty. Public sentiment in Natchez soon swung to military action to take back territory they were convinced belonged to them. Men began to gather in Natchez for an invasion of Texas. They soon elected Long as their leader, although his only prior military experience had been as a surgeon in the War of 1812. The Natchez newspaper opined that "Never was [there] a more propitious moment for effecting their purpose." By the end of June, Long had received pledges for over $500,000, and about 200 men, including James Bowie and Ben Milam, had gathered for the expedition.

1819 expedition
Eli Harris led 120 men across the Sabine River to Nacogdoches. Long followed two weeks later with an additional 75 men. On June 22, the combined force declared a new government, with Long as president and a 21-member Supreme Council. The following day, they issued a declaration of independence, modeled on the United States Declaration of Independence. The document cited several grievances, including "Spanish rapacity" and "odious tyranny" and promised religious freedom, freedom of the press, and free trade. The council also allocated 10 sqmi of land to each member of the expedition, and authorized the sale of additional land to raise cash for the fledgling government. Within a month, the expedition had grown to 300 members.

The new government established trading outposts near Anahuac along the Trinity River and the Brazos River. They also began the first English-language newspaper ever published in Texas. The Texas Republican lasted only one month, August 1819.

Long also contacted Jean Lafitte, who ran a large smuggling operation on Galveston Island. His letter suggested that the new government establish an admiralty court at Galveston, and offered to appoint Lafitte governor of Galveston. Unbeknownst to Long, Lafitte was actually a Spanish spy. While making numerous promises–and excuses–to Long, Lafitte gathered information about the expedition and passed it on to Spanish authorities. By July 16, the Spanish Consul in New Orleans had warned the viceroy in Mexico City that "I am fully persuaded that the present is the most serious expedition that has threatened the Kingdom".

With Lafitte's lack of assistance, the expedition soon ran low on provisions. Long dispersed his men to forage for food. Discipline began to break down, and many men, including Bowie, returned home. In early October, Lafitte reached an agreement with Long to make Galveston an official port for the new country and name Lafitte governor. Within weeks, 500 Spanish troops arrived in Texas and marched on Nacogdoches. Long and his men withdrew. Over 40 men were captured. Long escaped to Natchitoches, Louisiana. Others fled to Galveston and settled along Bolivar Peninsula.

1821 expedition
Long joined the refugees at Bolivar Peninsula on April 6, 1820, with more reinforcements. He continued to raise money to equip a second expedition. Fifty men attempted to join him from the United States, but they were arrested by American authorities as they tried to cross into Texas. The men who had joined Long were disappointed they were paid in scrip, and they gradually began to desert. By December 1820, Long commanded only 50 men.

With the aid of Ben Milam and others, Long revitalized the Supreme Council. He later broke with Milam, and the expedition led an uncertain existence until September 19, 1821, when Long and 52 men marched inland to capture Presidio La Bahía. The town fell easily on October 4, but four days later Long was forced to surrender by Spanish troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Ignacio Pérez. He was taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City, where about six months later he was shot and killed by a guard — reportedly bribed to do so by José Félix Trespalacios.

title: Long Expedition


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User talk:Ms. havisham

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File source and copyright licensing problem with File:Hali2.jpg
Thanks for uploading File:Hali2.jpg. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, their copyright should also be acknowledged.

As well as adding the source, we also need to know the terms of the license that the copyright holder has published the file under, usually done by adding a licensing tag. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the GFDL-self tag can be used to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media meets the criteria at Non-free content, use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have created [ in your upload log]. Unsourced and untagged files may be deleted one week after they have been tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If the file is copyrighted under a non-free license (per Fair use) then the file will be deleted 48 hours after 16:00, 5 January 2011 (UTC). If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 16:00, 5 January 2011 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
Hello there. This is an automated message to tell you about the gradual phasing out of the preference entitled "Mark all edits minor by default", which you currently have enabled.

On 13 March 2011, this preference was hidden from the user preferences screen as part of efforts to prevent its accidental misuse (consensus discussion). This had the effect of locking users in to their existing preference, which, in your case, was. To complete the process, your preference will automatically be changed to  in the next few days. This does not require any intervention on your part and you will still be able to manually mark your edits as being 'minor'. The only thing that's changed is that you will no longer be able to have them marked as minor by default. For more information on what a minor edit is, see WP:MINOR or feel to get in touch.

Thank you for your understanding and happy editing :) Editing on behalf of User:Jarry1250, LivingBot (talk) 23:24, 13 March 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ms. havisham