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Straight razor

A straight razor is a razor with a blade that can fold into its handle. They are also called open razors and cut-throat razors. The predecessors of the modern straight razors include bronze razors, with cutting edges and fixed handles, produced by craftsmen from Ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom (1569 — 1081 BC). Solid gold and copper razors were also found in Ancient Egyptian tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC.

The first steel-edged cutthroat razors were manufactured in Sheffield in 1680. By the late 1680s, early 1690s, razors with silver-covered handles along with other Sheffield-made products known as "Sheffield wares" were being exported to ports in the Gulf of Finland, approximately 1200 miles (1931 km) from Sheffield. From there, these goods were probably sent to Finland and even Russia. By 1740, Benjamin Huntsman was making straight razors complete with decorated handles and hollow-ground blades made from cast steel, using a process he invented. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later, albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist considerations. In England, razor manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt Huntsman's steel-making process and only did so after they saw its success in France.

After their introduction in 1680, straight razors became the principal method of manual shaving for more than two hundred years, and remained in common use until the mid-20th century. Straight razor production eventually fell behind that of the safety razor, which was introduced in the late 19th century and featured a disposable blade. Electric razors have also reduced the market share of the straight razors, especially since the 1950s. A 1979 comparative study of straight and electric razors, performed by Dutch researchers, found that straight razors shave hair approximately 0.002 in. (0.05mm) shorter than electrics.

Since 2012, production of straight razors has increased multifold. Straight razor sales are increasing globally and manufacturers have difficulty satisfying demand. Sales started increasing since the product was featured in the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall and have remained high since. Straight razors are also perceived as a better value and a more sustainable and efficient product. Dovo in Germany reports that since a production low of less than 8,000 units per year in 2006, the company sells 3,000 units per month, and has 110,000 orders with production lead time of three years. The increased sales have also led to an increase in the number of associated trades and artisans such as bladesmiths, leather craftsmen, and potters.

Forums and outlets provide products, directions, and advice to straight razor users. Straight razor manufacturers exist in Europe, Asia, and North America. Antique straight razors are also actively traded. Straight razors require considerable skill to hone and strop, and require more care during shaving. Straight razor design and use was once a major portion of the curriculum in barber colleges.

History
Various forms of razors were used throughout history, which are different in appearance but similar in use to modern straight razors. In prehistoric times clam shells, shark's teeth, and flint were sharpened and used for shaving. Drawings of such blades were found in prehistoric caves. Some tribes still use blades made of flint to this day. Excavations in Egypt have unearthed solid gold and copper razors in tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The Roman historian Livy reported that the razor was introduced in ancient Rome in the 6th century BC by legendary king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Priscus was ahead of his time because razors did not come to general use until a century later.

The first narrow-bladed folding straight razors were listed by a Sheffield, England manufacturer in 1680. By the late 1680s, early 1690s, razors with silver-covered handles along with other Sheffield-made products known as "Sheffield wares" were being exported by John Spencer (1655–1729) of Cannon Hall, a wealthy landowner and industrialist, to ports in the Gulf of Finland, approximately 1200 miles (1931 km) from Sheffield. From there, these goods were probably sent to Finland and even Russia. By 1740, Benjamin Huntsman was making straight razors complete with decorated handles and hollow-ground blades made from cast steel, using a process he invented. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later; albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist sentiments. The English manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt the process and only did so after they saw its success in France. Sheffield steel, a highly polished steel, also known as 'Sheffield silver steel' and famous for its deep gloss finish, is considered a superior quality steel and is still used to this day in France by such manufacturers as Thiers Issard. After their introduction in 1680, straight razors became the principal method of manual shaving for more than two hundred years, and remained in common use until the mid-20th century. Electric razors have also cut into the straight razor's market share, especially since the 1950s.

A variant of the European straight-edge was developed by a brother of Ghezo and it was employed as a weapon by the Dahomey Amazons. This variant was significantly larger and carried over the shoulder. When folded, the razor measured about 24–30 inches long and it weighed over 20 pounds. When extended, the blade measured 4–5 feet.

Straight razors eventually fell out of fashion. Their first challenger was manufactured by King C. Gillette: a double-edged safety razor with replaceable blades. These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, although they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. As shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.

Since 2012, production of straight razors has increased multifold. Straight razor sales are increasing globally and manufacturers have difficulty satisfying demand. Straight razor sales are increasing because they are perceived as a better value and more efficient product.

DOVO Solingen in Germany reports that since a production low of less than 8,000 units per year in 2006, the company sells 3,000 units per month, and has 110,000 orders with production lead time of three years. The Dovo spokesman commented that around 2006, “we were producing less than 8,000 straight razors per year, The tradition of straight razor manufacturing had almost come to an end.” Dovo explains, that after the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall, sales of straight razors increased multifold, and that "built into a wave of sustained overdemand that we are still riding today". The increased sales have also led to an increase in the number of associated trades and artisans such as bladesmiths, leather craftsmen, and potters.

Design criteria
The design of the straight razor is based on the grind of the blade, the width and length of the blade, the handle, which also affects the balance of the razor, the material of the blade, and the finish and degree of polish of the blade material.

Straight grinds range from true wedge, through near wedge, quarter hollow, half hollow, full hollow, and extra hollow. As the grind gets more hollowed, the blade becomes more flexible and the edge more delicate, making it shave closer but require more skill in sharpening and use, and reducing its suitability for heavy beards.

Blades are usually categorised by grind, size, and blade shape.

Sizing of a standard straight razor is usually close to 3 inches of blade length, but this does vary. Blades are described by the depth from spine to edge, measured in eights of an inch. 3/8 is a very narrow razor mostly used for detail work, with 5/8 and 6/8 being the most commonly seen sizes. It is very rare to see old razors bigger than 8/8 however there are some out there at 10/8 or larger.

The other major factor is the point shape. The most common is the round or Dutch point, with the French point being fairly common. The square point is also known as an American point, and is more common on razors from the USA. There is also the Spanish point, Spike point, and Barber's Notch.

Inexperienced users should use either the round point, or a razor with a muted toe (the very tip of the edge rounded slightly) as an unmuted square or spike is prone to nicking the skin of an Inexperienced shaver.

The "handle" on a straight razor is not a handle at all, but a protector to prevent the delicate edge being damaged when not in use, and to prevent accidental cuts from the sharp blade.

Construction is in the form of two scales, held by the pivot pin through the tang, and pinned through a wedge at the other end. Scales are thin as they must be flexible, typical scales are 2-3mm thick and usually made from some form of synthetic (nowadays usually acrylic, but on older razors celluloid, Bakelite, xylonite, and others are common), bone, horn, or ivory on older razors. Some cheaper razors had compressed leather scales, and a few are found with thin metal scales or wooden scales.

The blade material is usually a high carbon steel or a stainless steel. Traditionally, carbon steel was used, but stainless steels are popular in modern times due to the ease of maintenance.

Parts description
The parts of a straight razor and their function are described as follows: the narrow end of the blade rotates on a pin called the pivot, between two protective pieces called the scales or handle. The upward curved metal end of the narrow part of the blade beyond the pivot is called the tang and acts as a lever to help raise the blade from the handle. One or two fingers resting on the tang also help stabilize the blade while shaving. The narrow support piece between the tang and the main blade is called the shank, but this reference is often avoided because it can be confusing since the shank is also referred to as tang. The shank sometimes features decorations and the stamp of the brand. The top side and the underside of the shank can sometimes exhibit indentations known as fluting, or jimps for a more secure grip. The curved lower part of the main blade from the shank to the cutting edge is called the shoulder. The point where the shoulder joins the cutting edge is called the heel. The endpoint of the cutting edge at the front of the blade, opposite to the heel, is called the toe. A thick strip of metal running transversely at the junction where the main blade attaches to the shank is called the stabiliser. The stabiliser can be double, single, or can be absent in some razor models. The first stabiliser is usually very narrow and thicker and runs at the shank-to-blade junction, covering the shank and just spilling over to the shoulder. The second stabiliser can be distinguished since it is considerably wider, thinner, and longer, appearing after the first stabiliser and running lower toward the heel.

The arched, non-cutting top of the blade is called the back or the spine while the cutting part of the blade opposite the back is called the cutting edge. Finally the other free end of the blade, at the opposite end of the tang on the spine, is called the point and, sometimes, the head or the nose.

There are usually two, but sometimes three, pins in the handle. The middle pin, if present, is plastic coated and is called the centre plug. Its function is to stabilise the sides of the handle so that they cannot be squeezed in the middle and acts as a bridge between them. When folded into the scales, the blade is protected from accidental damage, and the user is protected from accidental injury. During folding, the back of the blade, being thick and normally with a curved cross-section, acts as a natural stopper and prevents further rotation of the blade out of the handle from the other side. The frictional force between the scales and the tang applied about the pivot is called the Tension and it determines how freely the blade rotates about the point of rotation. A proper amount of tension should be present, for safety reasons, to ensure that the blade does not spin freely when opening or closing.

Construction
Straight razors consist of a blade sharpened on one edge and a handle attached to the blade through a pin. The blade can then rotate in and out of the handle. The blade can be made of either stainless steel, which is resistant to rust but can be more difficult to hone, or high-carbon steel, which is much easier to hone, obtains a sharper edge but will rust more easily than stainless steel if neglected. Cheap stainless steel straight razors from Asia and more expensive stainless steel and carbon steel razors from Europe are available.

A razor blade starts as a shape called the blank supplied by the steel manufacturer.

Forging
The blank of the blade is produced by forging steel ingots or steel available in other forms such as wire, springs, etc.. After the blank is formed, the first step is to clean it using a heavy forge. The material used for open razors is steel with a minimum carbon content of 0.6%. This percentage of carbon content ensures optimum hardness, flexibility and resistance to wear. Following the forging stage, a hole is drilled in the tang at the pivot point. This is a crucial step, since after the steel hardening process it would be impossible to drill. This process requires great skill.

Hardening and tempering
The steel is hardened through a special process where the forged steel blade is heated up to approximately 760 C dependent on the specific steel. This heating enables fast and uniform heating of the steel at the optimum temperature for maximum hardness. The tempering stage follows the hardening process, where the blade is heated in a bath of oil at a temperature between 200-400 C. Tempering imparts the steel its flexibility and toughness according to the phase diagrams for steel. There are three types of steel blade according to the level of tempering it has received. Hard-tempered, medium-tempered and soft-tempered. Hard-tempered edges last longer but sharpening them is difficult. The converse is true for soft-tempered blades. The characteristics of medium-tempered blades are in-between the two extremes. Carbon steel blades can reach a maximum hardness of 61 HRC on the Rockwell scale.

Grinding
Following the processes of hardening and tempering, the blanks are ground, according to the two fundamental blade cross sectional area profiles.

Finishing
Subsequent to grinding, the blade is polished to various degrees of gloss. The finest finish, used in the most expensive razors, is the mirror finish. Mirror finish is the only finish used if gold leafing is to be part of the decoration of the blade.

Satin finish requires less polishing time and therefore is not as expensive to produce. This finish is mostly used with black acid etching. Satin finish can sometimes be applied, as a compromise, to the back of the blade while the mirror finish and gold leafing are applied to the more visible front of the blade. This way the blade will not be as expensive as a fully mirror finished one. Metal plating, using nickel or silver, is also used, but it is not preferred; the plating eventually erodes through use, revealing the underlying metal, which is often of inferior quality. Nickel-plated blades are very difficult to hone repeatedly and are made for mainly aesthetic reasons though lacking functionality.

Blade decoration
The blade is decorated by engraving or gold leafing depending on the price. Less expensive blades undergo an electrolytic black acid engraving process. For more expensive blades, gold leafing applied by hand is employed, following a traditional process.

Sharpening
Sharpening is the final stage in the process. At first the blade is sharpened on a grinding wheel. Following that the blade can be honed by holding the blades against the flat side of rotating round stones, or by drawing the blade across stationary flat stones. The cutting edge is finished using a strop. Sharpening is usually not completed during manufacturing, instead being done after purchase.

Handle materials and their properties
Handle scales are made of various materials, including mother-of-pearl, Bakelite, celluloid, bone, plastic, wood, horn, acrylic, ivory and tortoise shell. Celluloid can spontaneously combust at elevated temperatures. Buffalo horn tends to deform with time and it possesses form memory so it tends to warp. Mother of pearl is a brittle material and can exhibit cracks after some use. Resin impregnated wooden handles are water resistant, do not deform and their weight complements the blade's to provide good overall balance for the razor. Snakewood, Brosimum guianense, is also suitable for long term and intensive use.

The mechanical properties of bone make it a good handle material. Handles were once made of elephant ivory, but this has been discontinued, though fossil ivory, such as mammoth, is still sometimes used, and antique razors with ivory scales are occasionally found (it is illegal to kill elephants for their ivory, but it is legal to buy an ivory-handled razor made before 1989).

Blade geometry and characteristics
The geometry of the blade can be categorised according to three factors: the blade width and weight, the shape of the profile of the point of the razor, and the type of grinding method used for the blade (as grinding method determines the degree of curvature—and therefore hollowness, or thinness—of the sides of the cross section of the blade).

Point types

Straight razors are, at first, categorised according to their blade profiles, from the head of the spine to the blade toe, based on their point, or nose, type. The following are the main types of blade profiles called points, or nose shapes:
 * 1) Square, spike or sharp point, so-called because the blade profile is straight and terminates at a very sharp point at the toe, perpendicular to the cutting edge of the razor. This type of blade is used for precise shaving in small areas but, at the risk of pinching the skin, it requires some experience in handling. Spike point differs from square point as the angle at the edge of the blade is less than 90 degrees. resulting in a blade profile which appears slanted backwards at the toe. The spike end point of the profile at the toe may be ground by the user to make it rounder, but that may indicate a lack of skill in handling the razor.
 * 2) Barber's notch. The Barber's notch point features a large rounded tip at the toe of the blade followed by a short concave and rounded arch, while its upper edge at the head of the spine is rounded and smaller in size than the curve at the toe. The upper, rounded, edge of Barber's notch was designed to aid in pulling the blade from the scales. Barber's notch is essentially a round-nose blade profile with a concave arch (notch) on its upper part to aid in lifting the blade from the scales.
 * 3) Round point (or Dutch). As the name implies the point profile is symmetrically curved from head to toe in a circular arc shape and therefore it lacks any sharp end points. As such it is a more forgiving blade than the other types and, although lacking pinpoint accuracy at the blade toe, it is more forgiving, and is recommended for relatively inexperienced users. There are also secondary edge types that derive from a combination of round nose characteristics, such as half round point incorporating round edges joined by a linear segment.
 * French point.jpg
 * 1) French (or oblique) point. Its point profile is asymmetrically curved from head to toe, and resembles a quarter circle or ellipse, but with a sharper-angled curve near the head of the blade than the other points. The end line of the profile, at the toe of the blade, can vary between spike and curved. Compared to the rest of the points, the French point may help shave "difficult spots" such as under the nose, due to its sharply angular profile at the head which creates more clearance in tight areas.
 * Spanish point.jpg
 * 1) Spanish point. The profile of the Spanish point has a small, rounded tip at the head, followed by a long concave arch, ending in a small rounded edge at the toe. This point should be used with care when shaving or stropping, as it tends to "bite" due to its pronounced edges.

Grinding method
The second category refers to the type of grinding method used and, since it affects the curvature of the blade cross section, includes the following two main types of blade grinds: The combination of the types found in these two classification categories can, in theory, lead to a wide variety of blade types such as round point hollow ground, square point flat ground etc., but in practice some points are combined with a specific grind. As an example, a French point blade is usually flat ground. A hollow grind produces a thinner blade than the flat grind because it removes more material from the blade (hollows or thins the blade more). The hollow-ground blade flexes more easily and provides more feedback on the resistance the blade meets while cutting the hair, which is an indicator of blade sharpness. Hollow-ground blades are preferred by most barbers and some high-end razor manufacturers limit their production exclusively to hollow ground razors.
 * 1) Hollow grind, indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are concave.
 * 2) Flat or straight grind, indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are linear. This cross section most closely resembles a wedge and therefore this blade is sometimes called the wedge.

Blade width
The third and final category refers to blade width. The width of the blade is defined as the distance between the back of the blade and the cutting edge. It is expressed in units of eighth of an inch. The sizes vary from 3/8 in up to 7/8 in, rarely 8/8 in. A wider blade can carry more lather, much like a scoop, during multiple successive shaving strokes and thus it allows the user more shaving time and minimises blade rinse cycles. The disadvantage of the wider blade is that it is not as manoeuvrable as a narrower blade. A narrow blade can shave tight facial spots such as under the nose, but it must be rinsed more often. The most popular blade width size is 5/8 in. The width of the blade can also affect its sharpness. The wider the blade, the greater the thermal deformation that can occur due to changing temperatures, a fact that can lead to loss of edge sharpness.

Blade weight
The weight of the blade is inversely proportional to the pressure that is applied during shaving. The heavier the blade, the lighter the pressure that needs to be applied during shaving.

Length, stability, and balance
The degree of hollowness and thus the cross sectional area (thickness) of the blade vary depending on the grinding method used. Higher degree of hollowness in the blade implies a thinner cross section and this affects the stability (bending or buckling properties) of the blade; the thinner the blade the more flexible it is. The length and weight of the blade and handle and their relation to each other determines the balance of the straight razor. The cutting area of the razor is proportional to the length of the blade, therefore, a longer blade requires less frequent honing since its cutting edge does not deplete as fast as that of a shorter blade.

Transverse stabiliser
For hollow-ground blades stability is augmented by a transverse stabiliser in the form of one or two narrow strips of thicker metal running from the back of the blade to the end of the shoulder (at the junction where the blade meets the shank). This piece, if present, is simply called the stabiliser (single or double) and indicates a hollow ground blade, since a flat ground blade is massive and stable enough to not need a stabiliser. A double stabiliser implies $1/1$ (full) hollow ground blade. The stabiliser protects the blade from torsional bending in the transverse direction (transverse spine).

Longitudinal stabiliser
In addition to the transverse stabiliser, a longitudinal stabiliser is sometimes created in the form of a ridge parallel to the cutting edge and the blade is ground in two areas or bevels, each with different degrees of hollowness or curvature; the area between the back of the blade and the ridge is typically less hollow featuring a larger radius of curvature, also called the "belly", and the area between the ridge and the cutting edge which is more hollow i.e. with a smaller radius of curvature. These two beveled areas have different curvatures and in a well-made razor they transition seamlessly in the ridge (belly) and the cutting edge respectively. Sometimes there are three bevels.

The ridge stabilizes the blade against torsional flexing in a direction perpendicular to its longitudinal axis by acting as a lengthwise spine for the blade. The distance between the ridge and the back of the blade is inversely proportional to the hollowness of the blade and is described in fractional terms in ascending steps of 1⁄4 as, for example, 1⁄4 hollow, 1⁄2 hollow, or $4/4$ or $1/1$ (full hollow). Full hollow indicates that the stabilizing ridge is very close to the midsection of the blade and the farthest from the cutting edge compared to the other grades. This is considered the most expensive blade.

At the highest end of hollow ground, more hollow than even the $1/1$ grade, is the so-called singing razor, so named because its blade produces a specific resonant tone when plucked, similar to a guitar string, however such use is not recommended as it can distort the cutting edge. Its manufacturing process is so demanding that a full 25% of the blades get rejected as not meeting standards.

Stability and sharpness
There is a tradeoff between stability and long term blade sharpness. A full hollow ground ($1/1$) blade can keep a very sharp edge even after a great number of honing cycles because of its high degree of hollowness but it is more susceptible to torsional bending because it is thinner. A partially hollow blade (1⁄2 or 1⁄4 for example) cannot sustain the same degree of sharpness for as long, because as the cutting edge erodes it can eventually reach the stabilising ridge faster where there is more material and thus the cutting-edge bevel cannot be maintained without excessive honing of the stabilising ridge to remove the additional material, which could also destabilise the rest of the blade. However, the partially hollow blade is more stable because its additional material makes it stiffer, and thus more resistant to deformation. In addition a flat ground blade, since by definition is not hollow (curved) at all, is the most stable of the blades but because its cross sectional area is the largest it also feels heavier than hollow ground and this can affect the feel and balance of the razor.

Balance
A razor is well balanced if when opened it balances about its pivot pin, indicating that the torques about the pivot point, caused by the corresponding weight distributions of the blade and the handle about the pivot pin, counterbalance each other. A well-balanced razor is both safer to handle when open and easier to shave with.

Effects of blade geometry on performance
The characteristics of each blade type determine the type of recommended uses for each blade as well as their performance and maintenance routines.

Each type has its own strengths and weaknesses depending on the requirements of use. Extra hollow blades such as singing blades are the thinnest and therefore they provide the best possible shave from all the other types. However they are also very flexible and therefore not suitable for tasks requiring increased pressure to the blade such as heavy beard growth etc. Care should also be taken when stropping so that the thin blade will not be overly stressed, since it cannot withstand abuse as well as lower grades. Flat ground razors are very stable and as such they can handle tough shaving jobs since they do not easily deform under pressure and they can take rough handling such as heavy stropping and honing.

Although a wider blade is not as manoeuvreable as a narrower one, especially in tight spots, it is better to purchase a wider blade, since honing eventually reduces the width of the blade with use, a fact that can shorten the life of a straight razor with a narrow blade. On the other hand, the width of the blade is proportional to the blade distortion that can occur due to temperature fluctuations; this can lead to more frequent stropping and honing, because blade deformation due to thermal stress can lead to loss of cutting edge sharpness.

Usage
Shaving is done with the blade at approximately an angle of thirty degrees to the skin and in a direction perpendicular to the edge; an incision requires the movement of the blade to be sideways or in a direction parallel to the edge. These circumstances are always avoided by the shaver, who always shaves in a direction perpendicular to the cutting edge of the blade. A popular shaving method is the 14 stroke shave, which details the order and direction of each stroke to shave your face in 14 strokes.

To be most effective, a straight razor must be kept extremely sharp. The edge is delicate, and inexpert use may bend or fold over the razor's edge. To unfold and straighten the microscopic sharp edge, one must strop the blade on leather periodically. A 1979 comparative study of straight and electric razors, performed by Dutch researchers, found that straight razors shave hair approximately 2/1000 in. (0.05mm) shorter than electrics.

To sharpen or finish the blade using a suspended strop, the razor is pushed toward the suspension ring while both the back and the cutting edge lie flat on the strop and with the back of the blade. No pressure should be applied on the cutting edge. A strop may be two sided with leather on one side and cloth on the other side. The cloth is used for blade alignment and sharpening. The leather is for finishing. The stropping process involves sliding the razor blade flat on the strop; upon reaching the end of the cloth or leather near the suspension ring, the blade is turned about its back (clockwise for a right-handed barber; counter-clockwise for a left-handed one) until the cutting edge touches the strop. It is then pulled toward the rectangular handle of the strop with back and cutting edge flat on the strop as before. The blade is moved in a slightly diagonal direction so to give every point of the edge a chance to touch the strop, without applying too much pressure. This process aligns the cutting edge properly with the back of the blade, avoiding "bumps" on the cutting edge. Rotating the blade on the strop about the cutting edge can damage it because such use will impact the micro-alignment of the edge. Depending on use and condition, the blade can be sharpened occasionally by using a razor hone. Strops prepared with pastes containing fine grit are also used for honing but are not recommended for the inexperienced user, as they can easily rake off the edge if they apply the wrong amount or exert too much pressure.

Some strops have a linen or canvas back.

Shaving soap in a cup is traditionally lathered and applied using a rotating in-and-out motion of a shaving brush, usually made of boar or badger bristles. In the heyday of straight razor shaving, wealthy users maintained a weekly "rotation" of seven razors to reduce wear on any one piece. Straight razors were often sold in special boxes of seven labelled for the days of the week.

Modern use
Straight razors are still manufactured. DOVO, of Solingen, Germany, and Thiers Issard of France are two of the best-known European manufacturers. Boeker of Solingen is yet another cutlery manufacturer known for their straight razors. Wusthof and Henckels are two prominent knife manufacturers in Solingen who also produced straight razors. Thiers Issard and Hart Steel are famous for their decorated blades and their Damascus steel. Feather Safety Razor Co. Ltd. of Osaka, Japan, makes a razor with the same form as a traditional straight, but featuring a disposable blade that can be installed through an injector-type system. Artisans also make handcrafted custom straight razors based on their own designs, the designs of their customers, or by finishing old blanks of blades.

Modern straight-razor users are known to favor them for a variety of reasons. Some are attracted to the nostalgia of using old and traditional methods of shaving. Others wish to avoid the waste of disposable blades.

Still others argue that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade, including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke, because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multi-blade razors.

They also do not have to be rinsed as often, because their blade acts like a scoop and carries the lather on it during multiple shaving strokes, while the multi-blade razors are not nearly as efficient at such a task because of their considerably smaller blade geometry. Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors, which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily clogged, even with relatively short stubble.

In addition, multi-edge razors can irritate the skin due to their multi-blade action, and this can lead to a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, colloquially known as razor bumps. One of the recommended actions for those so affected is to switch to single blade use.

Others simply like the good results and the satisfaction of maintaining the blade themselves. Yet others cite aesthetic reasons in addition to the practical ones. A well-made blade, in a nice handle with a well-crafted etching and decorated shank, carries a sense of craftsmanship and ownership difficult to associate with a disposable blade cartridge.

Finally, a well-kept razor can last for decades, and can become a family heirloom that can be passed from parent to child. For all of these reasons, devotees of the straight razor make for an active market.

Owing to health concerns, some areas require barbers who provide straight-razor shaving to use a version that employs a disposable or changeable blade system. In this type of straight razor the razor blade is changed and disposed of after each service. Various jurisdictions in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Turkey and the United States, however, permit the professional use of straight razors.

The 2012 James Bond film, Skyfall, has renewed interest in straight razors due to a scene when the agent shaves with one and his co-star Naomie Harris helps him finish shaving while remarking that “sometimes the old ways are the best”. Online straight razor retailers have reported increased sales ranging from 50% to over 400% due to the exposure generated by the film.

The increase in sales is part of an overall growth in demand for straight razors, since about 2008, which has also seen an increase in the number of barbers offering straight razor shaves. The phenomenon seems to be driven by renewed nostalgia for things retro such as the straight razor which evokes simpler notions of the past such as the "macho" image associated with its use and also the skill required to shave with it which can be a source of pride.

Cost
As compared to the disposable and cartridge razors, straight razors are more economical, despite a higher initial cost, because if properly cared for, no additional cost is incurred, as compared to disposable razors where new cartridges must be periodically procured.

Environment
Straight razors are more environmentally friendly than other types of razors since the latter come with packaging that may have to be thrown away along with the razors, and, in the case of electric razors, batteries that are typically disposed of after they expire. Straight razors produce no waste and they require only a strop for honing.

Handling and honing
The various straight razor honing and stropping directions and handling techniques are illustrated by the drawings below.

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I am a member of the association of member's advocates. I joined because I was a member of a conflict resolution team in high school and believe that this will help me. Mediation is sometimes the best way to resolve differences. Anyway, feel free to post me a message on my talk page if you need any help.

Legal
I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

title: User:Flgook


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Composite monitor

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. —Korath (Talk) 04:29, Apr 13, 2005 (UTC)

Composite monitor
Two big problems with this article: 1) I've never heard of a monitor that output a video signal, and 2) composite video input is a feature of a monitor (usually considered a minor one), not a type of monitor. --Carnildo 03:42, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Rhobite 04:43, Apr 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and cleanup. I changed "output" to "input" as this was an obvious error. I've heard the term "composite monitor" used often before - it refers both to some professional video monitors designed for composite signals, and to some older computer monitors, such as the Commodore 1702 monitor that was often utilized with the Commodore 64 computer. There's enough meat here for a real article, but it will have to be largely rewritten. I'll see what I can do over the next few days. Firebug 04:53, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * When I said outputs the signal, I meant people can see the picture when the monitor is used therefore it is outputted visually rather than to other devices however some composite monitors have output jacks to relay video signals from connected AV devices to connected VCRs. --TheSamurai 22:34, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and expand. Older PCs (in the CGA days) also sometimes used composite monitors. Might want to merge with monitor though, I'll leave that up to Firebug for now. Radiant_* 08:53, Apr 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, cleanup and expand. Megan1967 09:39, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with monitor.Gorrister 19:01, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. (as per Firebug, Radiant & Megan) P Ingerson 19:42, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Sometimes, monitors with composite or S-video imputs don't have a TV tuner built in. This page has some history of when composite video was implemented on video monitors for home use.  So keep it. --TheSamurai 22:05, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Keep.  Good reasoning, Samurai!! - Lucky 6.9 03:41, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, of course. As a former owner of a Commodore 128, I know a little about composite monitors.   — J I P | Talk 18:58, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I am an officianauto of devices that output a composite video signal and ones that output a channel 3/4 signal. NES 2 and Atari 2600 are mentioned in this article.  Please mention the Commodore 128 also. --TheSamurai 02:40, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - The article needs major cleanup, though --Zappaz 00:27, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Right-in/right-out

Untitled
I'm going to be moving this article back to low-budget freeway, and writing an article specific to RIRO expressways. Bear with me, I'm working on it! Snickerdo 03:42, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Origins?
I'dd love to know the origins of the term. Presumably it stands for something? Do professionals say it as an acronym or abbreviation. Etc... Samaritan 19:29, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

RIRO = right-in, right-out, the article's a bit of a mess - I think it should be moved to that and talk about those interchanges, but it started out as low budget freeway, a neologism, not sure what'll happen, quack --SPUI (talk) 20:01, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Reply to SPUI
Whoever created the low-budget freeway article is a roadgeek who has a sophisticated nomenclature POV about the term freeway. Sometimes, people will consider some divided highway with at-grade intersections a freeway just because it has no traffic lights and a speed of 65mph or more. Sometimes, the features of the highway will use less concrete hence the "low-budger" therefore is not a neologism. --SuperDude 00:57, 24 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Uh, you created it (since moved here). And it is a neologism. --SPUI (talk) 05:46, 24 May 2005 (UTC)

Examples
Do we really need that many examples? 203.218.141.99 06:04, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Us road geeks love to fill Wikipedia up with examples. ;) --EngineerScotty 00:41, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I like to think I'm as roadgeeky as the next, but I must agree with the anon. There are countless RIROs throughout the world: it's a slippery slope to provide them all.  I know I have numerous photos of RIROs at work -- I'll see about uploading them to get some photos, with which I will concurrently remove all the RIRO examples (unless anyone can provide some reason why a specific RIRO is notable over any other). --Thisisbossi 03:55, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree that the examples are not encyclopedic, so I have deleted them. --Una Smith (talk) 07:18, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

Needs a better title
This needs a better title - there's no reason for choosing right-in/right-out rather than left-in/left-out as the article name, ideally neither should be used but rather some simple alternative.

zoney ♣ talk 08:18, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Quebec Route 134

 * Is the last image in that link considered a right-in/right-out configuration. That looks to be a bit different then the Highway 35/115 exemple. -- JForget 18:58, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm not too familiar with this location specifically, so perhaps this particular location is an exception: but generally I wouldn't say that any type of interchange ramp is RIRO in the context of this article. You could argue that pretty much all interchange ramps are, technically, RIRO (apart from LILO & a couple odd-balls); but that's certainly not what is intended by the term. -- Bossi  ( talk • gallery • contrib ) 01:40, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

RIRO expressway images
I've just added images of Ontario Highway 11 to illustrate RIRO expressways. Would it make more sense to pull some of that text out to the body of the article, and possibly create a new "RIRO expressways" section? --Chaswmsday (talk) 17:48, 22 October 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Right-in/right-out


text:
Talk:Gene conversion

too technical
It currently reads
 * Gene conversion is a phenomenon in which the products of a meiotic division in an Aa heterozygous genotype are in some ratio other than the expected 1A:1a-for example 3A:1a,1a:3A,5A:3a or 3A:5a

 * What's a heterozygous genotype?
 * How can you get other rations? Is it supposed to happen or is this an error when it does?
 * Is this common?

--Segurador 18:00, 21 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Explained some of the terms, and the basic mechanism
 * Still needs more technical detail, e.g. about mismatch repair, size of converted regions, info for non-diploid genomes, etc.
 * Needs discussion of how common it is (for different genomes).
 * Also needs discussion on implications for genetic diversity and other ramifications.

Immune Systems of some species (chicken and rabits)
Don't the antibody generation systems of some species require this process to function? If I'm not mistaken homologous gene conversion is a diversification mechanism used for immunoglobulin V genes in some species.

Gene conversion could be premeiotic
According to Molecular Biology of the Cell, Vol. 8, 2511–2517, December 1997, Gene Conversion of Major Histocompatibility Complex Genes in the Mouse Spermatogenesis is a Premeiotic Event, Kari Högstrand and Jan Böhme http://www.molbiolcell.org/cgi/reprint/8/12/2511

On what basis does this wiki page say it is meiotic?

Gene conversion should not be viewed as an error
Gene conversion in my mind does not have to do anything with meiosis.It is an inherent event associated with homologous recombination, which can happen at any phase of the cell cycle, during DNA repair in non S phases, and during meiotic  or mitotic divisions . I think gene conversion is not an ERROR, but more or less a normal part of the homologous recombination process. I think gene conversion (at least for an extent of a few bases) happens more or less in every cross-over event, but because the homologous strands are usually identical his can rarely be seen.

The designation of this process is also somewhat misleading, since it applies that it is related somehow to genes, whereas they can affect any part of the genome and affects genes just by chance. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.6.169.176 (talk) 15:11, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

Strand vs. chromatid
With respect to this sentence:

"This conversion of one allele to the other is due to base mismatch repair during recombination: if one of the four strands during meiosis pairs up with one of the four strands of a different chromosome, as can occur if there is sequence homology, mismatch repair can alter the sequence of one of the chromosomes, so that it is identical to the other."

I fear that some people unfamiliar with the details may interpret "strand" to mean "one of the two strands of a DNA double helix," rather than a (double-stranded) chromatid. Given that this is reasonably technical issue, using the word "chromatid" with a link might be sufficient, but I'll leave that up to the experts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ebaskerv (talk • contribs) 21:03, 23 October 2009 (UTC)

Source not cited
I noticed that the second paragraph under "mechanism" is seemingly paraphrased sentence-by-sentence from "Biased gene conversion and the evolution of mammalian genomic landscapes" (pg 286: section "Recombination (Crossovers and Noncrossovers) Involves Gene Conversion Current"), but the source is not cited. This seems problematic as the wording and sentence structure has just been changed slightly from the original source, without attribution. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Corvus occidentalis (talk • contribs) 06:48, 13 October 2020 (UTC)

What does 'identical' mean ?
In the definition of gene conversion we use the term identical, I propose to explain further what identical means in the sentence. 92.184.104.181 (talk) 19:21, 31 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gene conversion


text: User talk:69.250.136.245

title: User talk:69.250.136.245


text: User talk:64.228.144.134

title: User talk:64.228.144.134


text:
Talk:Strela computer

Fix
I'm tempted to fix the spelling and grammar mistakes in this page, but am afraid that this will diminish the authenticity and authority of the article. linas 03:46, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * What exactly are you tempted to do? Mikkalai 16:02, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

IMHO
IMHO, Strela is not a mainframe, it is a supercomputer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 418ImATeapot (talk • contribs) 10:55, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Strela computer


text:
Waking the Tiger

Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma is a self-help book by American therapist Peter A. Levine and Ann Frederick published in 1997. It presents a somatic experiencing approach which it says helps people who are struggling with psychological trauma. The book discusses inhibition and releasing a form of "energy".

Synopsis
Waking the Tiger contains four sections: Section I: The Body as Healer; Section II: Symptoms of Trauma; Section III: Transformation and Renegotiation; and Section IV: First Aid for Trauma. Peter Levine argues in the book that it is through action instead of talking that people can assist others who are struggling with psychological trauma. He presents the somatic experiencing approach.

Peter A. Levine received a doctorate in medical biophysics from the University of California, Berkeley and has an independent psychology doctorate. In 1969 Levine encountered a graduate student, Nancy, who experienced brutalizing panic attacks, unexplainable in her view. Levine started their discussion with a typical relaxation technique. While Nancy was silently paying attention in her seat, she failed to react. When he continued attempting to get her to relax, she unexpectedly had a massive panic attack. Levine says he became immersed in her panic attack. In his mind, he suddenly saw a tiger stopped low and preparing to jump at them. Immersed in the nightmare, he ordered, "Nancy! You are being attacked by a large tiger! See the tiger as it comes toward you! Run toward that tree! Run, Nancy, run! Climb up! Escape!"

Levine said Nancy's legs began moving as if she was sprinting. Nancy said that, for her first time, she had remembered a scary childhood experience. When she was three years old she experienced a tonsillectomy during which she was secured to an operating table to prevent movement. The anesthesia could have been only partially working which caused her to feel like she was being strangled. Her experience was drilled into her and could not just be remembered while she was alert. While counseling Nancy, Levine at the time also was researching predation, which Sandra Blakeslee and Matthew Blakeslee noted could be the reason Levine pictured a tiger. Experts generally have not found evidence to support Levine's findings; he found that for prey that have completely lost the ability to move, "the sudden immobility of a highly charged nervous system compresses energy that is then 'stored' in the nervous system if not released".

When prey are able to avoid predators, however, prey will sprint away and "literally shake off the residual effects of the immobility response" while "their bodies convulse with paroxysmal spasms". There is no evidence for Levine's conclusions about the prey's responses or Nancy's response to their session. Observing Nancy, Levine concluded that her convulsions were an "instinctive and long-overdue response" to her being strapped down and scared when a child. He concluded without evidence that Nancy's panic attacks were caused by the "frozen residue of 'energy'" that remained stuck in her, not from the traumatic experience. Levine argues that humans cannot effortlessly release energy from a traumatic memory because human's triune brain structure which, shaped by feelings and acumen, frequently supersedes instinct. He said that Nancy stopped experiencing panic attacks after she had additional sessions with him that involved more convulsions".

Reception
Ruth P. Newton, a professor at the University of California, San Diego, wrote a mixed review of the book in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine. She found the case materials to be "interesting" because readers can observe how Levine "uses his theory to guide his clinical work". But Newton found that "the theory and case material are entangled by a self-help format that weakens his presentation and jeopardizes the overall organization of the book". She concluded that "the book is more appropriately used by professionals rather than directly by patients or clients". Newton strongly criticized the book's self-help therapy activities that improperly claim to help readers to overcome their frightening experiences, writing, "I shudder to imagine a patient or client who is drawn to self-help books that will heal secret traumas alone in his or her living room with an exercise that asks them to ' pretend you are in an airplane flying at 30,000 feet… [when] you suddenly hear a loud explosion…followed by complete silence'."

John Marzillier for British Psychological Society wrote that "The psychologist Peter Levine is a major figure in the trauma field. His earlier book, Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma (North Atlantic Books, 1997), aimed at a general readership, was very successful." Marzillier found that in Waking the Tiger, the "notion of 'energy' was relatively undeveloped, a weakness in his model". In Psychology Today, Cheryl Eckl called Waking the Tiger a "seminal book" in which Levine tells readers "we can learn much about trauma from observing animals in the wild".

title: Waking the Tiger


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Static image ad

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Merged entire content to pop-up ad, which banner ad directs people looking for popup information to go to, and redirected. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 17:45, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Static image ad
I can't figure out for sure what's being described here. I think it might be the use of banner ads in programs. --Carnildo 03:46, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to banner ad. I think that's what they mean. No meaningful content to merge. Dave the Red (talk) 04:22, Apr 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * I think this is referring to the ability of an advertisement image to remain at the same relative position in a browser window even if the pane is being scrolled. But it is not explained very well. Anyway, merge into banner ad the content worth saving. — RJH 17:52, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to banner ad. Gorrister 19:02, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge/Redirect. P Ingerson 19:43, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Positive thinking

Positive thinking or Positive Thinking may refer to:

 * Optimism, a mental attitude or world view that interprets situations and events as being best
 * Positive psychology, a set of coping mechanisms and a research field
 * Positive mental attitude
 * New Thought, a 19th-century American movement asserting the power of positive thinking

As a proper noun

 * Positive Thinking..., a 1998 album by Acoustic Alchemy
 * Positive Thinking, a 2016 album by The Pack A.D.
 * "Positive Thinking", a song by Morecambe and Wise
 * Positive Thinking (magazine), a now defunct magazine launched in 2005

title: Positive thinking


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Clara Venice

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. – ABCD 01:17, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Clara Venice
Vanity/nonnotable, unverifiable--only 9 hits found for "Clara Venice" +Toronto, only a few of which seem to be relevant. Meelar (talk) 03:48, Apr 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * Excuse me. I have an uncontrollable need to gouge out my eyes with a hot poker after reading this.  Delete as total waste of electrons. - Lucky 6.9 04:14, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Gouge away. And delete. -- 8^D gab 07:27, 2005 Apr 7 (UTC)
 * Delete with hot poker, notability not established, article would need much more substance to be worth wikification. The next point isn't a policy reason, but delete as too deep since the article says her music's philosophy "addresses Rosensweig and ..."  Barno 15:05, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete.Gorrister 19:05, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete unless some substantiation or clarification is provided. I've lived in Toronto for 35 years and, never having heard of Clara before or her lavish entertainments, I seriously doubt that she is famous. Her blog casts serious doubt on the claim she's a philosopher, too – she seems to be a student. John FitzGerald 23:03, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Vanity Dsmdgold 10:35, Apr 9, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, nn, vanity. Vlad M V  ٭ talk 15:07, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
1914 Atlantic hurricane season

The 1914 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with only one known tropical storm. Although hurricane season typically encompasses a much larger time-span, actual activity was confined to the middle of September. The only tropical cyclone of the year developed in the region of The Bahamas on September 15 and drifted northwestward, moving inland over Florida and Georgia. Thorough warnings before the storm prevented any major damage. The 1914 season is one of only two that did not produce any hurricanes (the other being the 1907 season). Due to the lack of modern technology such as satellite imagery, information is often sparse, and an additional tropical depression may have existed in late October.

Season summary
With only one official tropical cyclone, the 1914 season was the least active tropical cyclone season on record. It is one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity (winds of 75 mph or stronger), the other being the 1907 season. The sole tropical storm's formation on September 14 represents the latest start to a hurricane season since official records began in 1851.

Information on the 1914 season is chiefly based on data from the Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT), which undertook a thorough reanalysis of hurricanes from 1911 through 1914 in 2005. Several changes, mostly of a minor nature, were made to the September tropical storm. Additionally, two other systems during the year were formally considered for inclusion into the hurricane database; one of them was deemed a potential tropical depression, but considered too weak to be classified a tropical storm. The other was assessed as a non-tropical system. The 2005 HURDAT reanalysis relied largely on historical weather maps and ship reports in place of modern technology, including satellite imagery.

The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 3, the lowest since official records began in 1851 and far below the 1911–1920 average of 58.7. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here.

Tropical Storm One
The first and only tropical storm of the season originated in a westward-moving tropical wave denoted on weather maps from September 13. Decreases in air pressure occurred throughout the Bahamas, providing "strong indications of a disturbance". The system became a tropical depression at 00:00 UTC on September 15, approximately 200 mi east of Miami, Florida. It strengthened into a tropical storm about 12 hours later, leading to the issuance of storm warnings from the east coast of Florida to as far north as Hatteras, North Carolina.

The system drifted northwest while gradually intensifying, and was situated south of the Georgia coast late on September 16. While most tropical systems in the vicinity tend to continue northward along the Eastern Seaboard, the cyclone curved westward and moved ashore near the Florida–Georgia state border after achieving a peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph. It progressed inland over southern Georgia as it quickly weakened, but its intensity leveled off after around 18:00 UTC on September 17. The storm skirted the northern Gulf of Mexico as it swerved slightly south of due west, weakening to a tropical depression over southeastern Louisiana. By early September 19, the depression had further deteriorated into an open trough—a poorly defined, elongated area of low pressure.

The storm produced widespread rainfall in the Southeastern United States, accompanied by gale-force winds along the coast, and ships reported severe conditions at sea. High tides occurred around St. Augustine, Florida, washing over the South Street Causeway. Winds from the storm dispersed large amounts of dead grass from marshes in the area. No significant damage was reported due to thorough warnings before the cyclone. A 2005 reanalysis of the storm made some minor changes to its listing in the official hurricane database, setting back the time of formation and raising the peak intensity.

Other system
In addition to the September tropical storm, a possible depression that remained below tropical storm intensity developed in late October. On October 24, a broad area of low pressure was present over the western Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. A possible center of low pressure, attached to a cold front extending southward, had formed within the larger system and moved toward the east. Another center of low pressure formed in the northwestern Caribbean on October 25 and is considered a tropical depression in contemporary research. The depression had weak winds due to the light pressure gradient in the region and, at its peak, it had a minimum central pressure of 1004 mbar. On October 26, the cold front associated with the extratropical cyclone to the north absorbed the tropical system. The next day, the extratropical system deteriorated into an open trough. Although the tropical low was reviewed for inclusion into the hurricane database as a tropical storm in 2005, it was deemed too weak.

title: 1914 Atlantic hurricane season


text:
Ethyl nitrite

The chemical compound ethyl nitrite is an alkyl nitrite with a chemical formula C2H5NO2. It may be prepared from ethanol.

 * Preparation of ethyl nitrite.png

Uses
It is used as a reagent with butanone to yield the dimethylglyoxime end product.
 * Preparation_of_dimethylglyoxime.png

Ethyl nitrite is the main ingredient in a traditional ethanol-based South African remedy for colds and flu known as Witdulsies, which is sold in pharmacies. It is known as a traditional Afrikaans remedy; the same remedy is apparently made by the Amish in the US. However, FDA has blocked over-the-counter sales of this same remedy, known in the US as sweet nitrite or sweet spirit of nitre, since 1980. Its use has been associated with fatal methemoglobinemia.

Methemoglobinemia is the primary toxic effect of ethyl nitrite. Due to ethyl nitrite's high volatility and faint smell, in the presence of ethyl nitrite vapors, it is easy to breath a high dose of it without realizing, resulting in methemoglobinemia, which may or may not be severe, or even fatal.

title: Ethyl nitrite