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Maryknoll Society

The Maryknoll Society is (also known as the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers and officially as Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America; Latin: Societas de Maryknoll pro missionibus exteris) is a Catholic society of apostolic life for men founded in the United States to serve as missionaries to the poor and marginalized.

The society was founded in 1911 by Thomas Frederick Price, James Anthony Walsh, and Mary Joseph Rogers. The name Maryknoll comes from the hill outside the Village of Ossining, Westchester County, New York, which houses the headquarters of all three. Members of the societies are usually called Maryknollers.

Maryknollers are sometimes known as the "Marines of the Catholic Church" for their reputation of moving into rough areas, living side-by-side with the indigenous peoples and learning the language. Maryknollers focus on "combating poverty, providing healthcare, building communities and advancing peace and social justice" in the countries they serve and have built numerous orphanages, primary schools and secondary schools. Because of the way in which Maryknollers have especially engaged in social justice, Maryknoll is also sometimes seen as a movement that represents missionary service concerned with positive action for indigenous people. In the mid-20th century, this movement came to be associated with liberation theology.

The Christophers and The Maryknoll Affiliates are both associated with the Maryknoll Movement. Maryknoll is also the current name of the semi-monthly magazine which the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers publish.

The Maryknoll name is shared by a number of related Catholic organizations, including the Maryknoll Sisters, and the Maryknoll Lay Missioners. The organizations are independent entities with shared history that work closely together in the joint focus of the overseas mission activity of the Catholic Church particularly in East Asia, the United States, Latin America, and Africa.

Background
Prior to 1906, the United States was on a roster of Catholic mission territories compiled by the Vatican. It was part of an era of heavy migrations of European Catholics to the United States and there was a cultural hostility to Roman Catholicism. The establishment of Maryknoll for foreign missions came at a time when the Catholic church was focusing its energies on that anti-Catholic bias within the United States. "Out of the 17,000 Americans serving as Catholic priests at the time, for example, the number serving in foreign missions was 14."

In 1907, Father James Walsh of Boston began publishing The Field Afar, a mission magazine that would later become Maryknoll. The following year, Mary "Mollie" Josephine Rogers (later Mother Mary Joseph, MM) began helping Walsh with editing, translating and writing.

In 1910, Father Thomas Price was facing the failure of his attempt to begin a Catholic order for domestic mission work in the South. Price was overwhelmed with fundraising on top of his actual mission work and the many responsibilities he had as the order Superior. Price and Walsh had corresponded and met in person that year at a conference in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The pair immediately began planning a national foreign mission seminary. They were complementary in character; Walsh had a knack for organization and planning things on a grand scale while Price was a "Tarheel" from North Carolina who was personable and charismatic.

Foundation of the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers: 1911–1919
The two received permission to travel to Rome, where Pope Pius X granted their request to found a new society on June 29, 1911.

Walsh immediately put an ad in The Field Afar: "Youths or young men who feel a strong desire to toil for the souls of heathen people and who are willing to go afar with no hope of earthly recompense and with no guarantee of a return to their native land are encouraged to write." In 1912, The Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America (CFMSA) was launched in a rented property Hawthorne, New York, with a total of six men. Thomas McCann was the first candidate to become a full brother member of the Maryknoll Society on November 21, 1912.

That September, Rogers had relocated to New York to continue work on the magazine. She and five other women "secretaries" began living together at Hawthorne. Rogers emerged as their natural leader and envisioned the women as missioners in their own right and not merely serving in supportive roles to the men.

"Mary's Knoll" and Foundation of the Teresians
Walsh and Price had immediately begun a search for a permanent home for their new society. They contracted for a parcel in Pocantico Hills in July, 1912 but John D. Rockefeller, who owned the property on the other side and did not want a seminary as a neighbor, contested the purchase in court. In August, CFMSA gave up the parcel in return for a financial arrangement. Walsh and Price found a 93-acre hill in Ossining that included three houses and a barn and was now affordable due to the Rockefeller windfall. Wary of another incident of bias, Rogers, dressed as a "Lady from Boston" and accompanied by a lawyer, negotiated the sale. Walsh, dressed as her chauffeur, waited for two hours with the car.

They made the purchase on August 20, 1912, for $44,500, a lower price than what had been offered for the previous parcel. Price dedicated the property to the Blessed Virgin Mary and the name "Mary's Knoll" was coined. The hilltop had two homesteads at a distance from each other, the larger one became the first Seminary and the other was set aside for the "secretaries". A carriage house with quarters was converted into the chapel. The barn was allocated to the brothers and seminary students.

A few weeks later, Walsh asked the "secretaries" how they wished to be organized after the move to Maryknoll. They had been paid $25 a month by Walsh and Price for their work, which Walsh promised to continue, but he now asked them to make a decision if they wanted to continue as laywomen or to transform into a community living under Religious vows. "Do you wish Mollie to direct you, i.e., under my direction?… Write me on this subject…"  Each of the women responded affirmatively. Rogers replied to her colleagues, "I want you to know how wholly I belong to you in every hour of the day and night, to serve you, to love you, to watch over you and with you, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, for of myself I can do nothing."

On October 15, 1912, the women joined Rogers, who had moved to Maryknoll directly after the purchase to cook and help organize. They dubbed their building at Maryknoll "St. Teresa's Lodge". A postcard from a traveling priest in England was addressed to them as the Teresians, and the nickname stuck. The Teresians began studying with the Scranton Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary as they planned to petition for official recognition from Rome. They designed uniforms with the Chi Rho symbol but rarely wore them and, under the advice of a retreat leader, used the Missal for their prayers – a rare occurrence among women at that time.

Maryknoll now had nine men serving as brothers in addition to McCann. They named their building at Maryknoll "St. Michael's" Residence and themselves "The Brothers of St. Michael". Like the Teresians, most brothers spent much of those early years building, maintaining and updating the buildings at Maryknoll.

Michael Hoban, bishop of Scranton, Pennsylvania, invited Maryknoll to establish a school in the city. In 1913, Maryknoll Preparatory Seminary was founded on Clay Avenue and students attended classes at St. Thomas College. Raymond Lane, who made his profession that year in the inaugural class, wrote that the success of the venture was greatly due to residents of Scranton who supported the new seminary with meals, transportation, and donations. In 1915 the lease expired and the students joined the community outside Ossining for a year. In 1916, Walsh, after some difficulty, acquired 179 acres in Clarks Summit, PA and a school set up in an old farm house on the property. It became known as the Venard for Théophane Vénard. Price took charge of the Venard its first year, taking one of the Teresians to assist the new community.

First and second departures to China
World War I ended in 1918 and three Maryknoll priests were ready to make the first Maryknoll mission to China. James Edward Walsh, Francis X. Ford, and Bernard F. Meyer along with Price as Mission Superior departed for China on September 7, 1918.

Walsh and Meyer arrived first, Price and Ford some weeks later. Their first stop in Asia was Hong Kong (a British colony at the time), to acclimate briefly with the Paris Foreign Missions Society, which was the predominant Catholic organization in China. From Hong Kong, they went to Yeungkong and started their missionary work in China from there. Although he was only successful at learning a few words in the local dialects, Price quickly set the tone for the mission and those that would follow; "Father Price liked China equally with us, but he had one enthusiasm only... all those precious souls that make up the vast population of common people that we went to help and to save. He gave this emphasis in a way that was very simple and yet highly important, and that was by taking very seriously every little piece of work that was done for the people – the simplest service in the Church, even though it should be attended by only a handful, the insistence on a complete schedule of church services for them just as if he had been in the biggest parish in his own country; the immediate planning for whatever they needed in the matter of religious, educational, medical and other help, even though plans could not be immediately realized, the most patient and courteous reception for every visitor; the scrupulous visits to the outlying villages, even though some of them contained only a few apparently hopeless apostates; and, in general, the placing of himself, his mission and all his energies and resources at the complete service of the people.

In short, Father Price knew why he went to China, and if we did not know it, we soon learned it from his example. I think this emphasis has persisted throughout the development of our missions, and I believe that his short and sacrificial mission career was a providential means in bringing this about."

Daniel Leo McShane led the second Departure Group in 1919. McShanes's first assignment was to assist Meyer. When the Maryknollers arrived, they discovered that Chinese orphanages did not accept infants or sick children. An orphanage was begun in Yeungkong in 1920. McShane was then sent to be the pastor of Luoding and immediately set up an orphanage for abandoned children there, as well, despite local opposition. The abandoned babies were almost all female and traditionally drowned before the Maryknollers built facilities and began offering a few cents for every child. Soon the Yeungkong orphanage was averaging 450 baptisms a year and the Luoding facility close to a thousand.

Death of founder Thomas Price: 1919
In August 1919, Price became seriously ill. With no adequate medical facilities in the area, he was transported to St. Paul's Hospital, Hong Kong. It was a long and arduous journey from Yeungkong by primitive means. Price was admitted on August 19, 1919 and underwent an operation in early September. The treatment was too late and Price died as a result of a burst appendix on September 12, 1919. His body was buried in the priests' plot in St. Michael's Cemetery in Happy Valley, Hong Kong. In 1936, his body was exhumed and transferred to the cemetery at Maryknoll, New York. James E Walsh was named Superior of the mission following Price's death.

Maryknolls Today
As of 2008, there are over 475 Maryknoll priests and brothers serving in countries around the world, principally in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Throughout their history, especially in the first half of the 20th century, Maryknoll missioners played a large role in the Catholic Church in East Asia where some missioners still work. Maryknoll also has extensive connections with many Latin American countries, where it has long worked to help alleviate poverty and bring constructive changes to the life of Latin America's poor.

Maryknoll Seminary Building

The Maryknoll Seminary Building is located in Ossining, Westchester County, New York. The building currently houses the headquarters of Maryknoll missions. The building has distinctive design, specifically with pagodas built into its architecture, to honor its founding purpose as a mission order to the Far East.

Martyrs

 * Francis Xavier Ford, Maryknoll martyr. Fr. Ford was one of the first four Maryknollers to arrive in China in 1918 and died in a Canton prison in 1953. A primary school named Bishop Ford Memorial School was founded by the Maryknoll Fathers in Hong Kong in 1952. The school is now run by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong

Other notable Maryknollers

 * Maryknoll Seminary alumni
 * Roy Bourgeois was ordained to the priesthood in the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers in 1972, after which he worked with the poor in Bolivia until 1975. An outspoken critic of US foreign policy in Latin America, he founded the non-profit human rights organization, School of the Americas Watch (SOA Watch) in 1990. In 2005 he was awarded the Thomas Merton Award for his work. Following his participation in a women's ordination-to-the-priesthood ceremony in August 2008, he was warned of possible excommunication latae sententiae, marking the beginning of a four-year-long period of discussion and negotiation between Bourgeois and the Church, through the Maryknoll Society. Finally, on November 19, 2012, it was announced that Bourgeois had been officially canonically dismissed from both the Maryknoll Society, and the Roman Catholic priesthood, effective October 4, 2012.
 * Everett Francis Briggs, Maryknoll missionary, studied the history of the Monongah Mining Disaster of December 6, 1907 described as "the worst mining disaster in American History". After discovering there was no memorial, he sought to ensure that the victims of the tragedy were not forgotten.
 * Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann, Foreign Minister of Nicaragua in the Sandinista government. Pope John Paul refused to meet him during his papal visit to the country on 4 March 1983, as he remained in that government contrary to Church discipline.
 * Patrick Joseph Byrne, Apostolic Delegate to Korea from 1949 to 1950 who died in the custody of the Communists in Korea.
 * Fr. Vincent Robert Capodanno former Maryknoll missionary, Servant of God, and Medal of Honor winner during the Viet Nam War as a Navy Chaplain attached to the US Marines. He did his missionary work in Taiwan.
 * Fr. Robert W. Greene, served in China; placed under house arrest on Oct. 15, 1950; banished from China and marched under guard to Hong Kong on Apr. 13, 1952. Later authored best-selling novel "Calvary in China" about his work and incarceration, published in 1953.
 * Fr. Joseph G. Healey serves in Kenya. He is noted for his innovative use of proverbs and other local verbal arts in ministry.
 * James Keller, founder of The Christophers.
 * Thomas Melville, a former Maryknoll priest, Catholic activist, one of the nine Catholic activists of Catonsville Nine
 * Bishop Adolph John Paschang, Maryknoll missionary. A primary school named Bishop Paschang Memorial School was set up by Fr. John M. Mcloughlin, M.M. in Hong Kong in 1969. The school is still run by the Maryknoll Fathers in Hong Kong
 * Thomas Frederick Price, one of the two Maryknoll founders. Fr Price was one of the first four Maryknollers to arrive in China in 1918. Price Memorial Catholic Primary School was founded in Hong Kong for his labour in missionary work.
 * Bishop James E. Walsh, Maryknoll missionary. Fr James Edward Walsh was one of the first four Maryknollers to arrive in China in 1918. Consecrated bishop of Kongmoon in 1927, he was imprisoned in 1959 and released in 1970 due to the improving US-China relationship. He became the last American missionary to be released by the Communist Chinese government. A primary school named Bishop Walsh Primary School was set up by the Maryknoll Fathers in Hong Kong in 1963. The school is now run by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong

An ex-Maryknoll priest, now deceased, recently was reported to have sexually abused a young boy for about eight years during the 1960s when he was assigned to parishes in Westchester County. This filing was reported in the June 13, 2019 issue of The Journal News.

Another former Maryknoll priest, also deceased, has been cited for child sex abuse allegations in the Virginia Diocese of Richmond. He is one of six clergy recently added to the list priests from the diocese cited for 'credible and substantiated' allegations of sexual abuse against a minor. The announcement was made during June 2019.

A deceased Maryknoll priest, was accused of abuse in a claim filed during 2019 by the son of lay missioners who lived close to the Maryknoll campus in Ossining, New York. The family ate their meals at the Maryknoll dining room. The claim was reported in the January 13, 2020 issue of The Journal News.

Schools in Hong Kong
Several notable schools in Hong Kong were founded by Maryknollers; and several are still run by them.

Founded by the Maryknollers
The last three schools were in fact founded by the Maryknoll Sisters. Maryknoll Convent School is still managed by them in Hong Kong. However, sponsorship of the two Marymount schools was transferred to Christian Life Community. Nevertheless, these three schools are frequently viewed as members of the Maryknoll family in Hong Kong.
 * Bishop Ford Memorial School, a co-educational primary school. This is the first ever school founded by the Maryknoll Fathers in Hong Kong after the Second World War. It was founded in 1952 after the Maryknoller, Fr. Francis Xavier Ford for his mission in China. This school is now managed by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong,
 * Kwun Tong Maryknoll College, a secondary school for boys, now managed by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong,
 * Bishop Walsh Primary School, a co-educational primary school. This school was founded in 1963 after the Maryknoller, Bishop James Edward Walsh, who had suffered a lot for his mission in China. This school is now managed by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong,
 * Pope Pius XII Primary School, a co-educational primary school in Hong Kong, founded in 1953, closed in 1979. Her legacy is inherited by Chai Wan Kok Catholic Primary School and Sham Tseng Catholic Primary School, both now run by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong)
 * St. Patrick's School, a co-educational primary school, now managed by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong,
 * St. Patrick's Catholic Primary School (Po Kong Village Road), formerly PM section of St Patrick's School, also a co-educational primary school, now managed by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong
 * Marymount Secondary School initially known as the Holy Spirit School, then the Maryknoll Sisters' School, a secondary school for girls founded in 1927. This is the very second school set up by Maryknollers in Hong Kong.
 * Marymount Primary School, a primary school for girls,
 * Maryknoll Convent School, primary and secondary school for girls.

(The first school managed by the Maryknollers in Hong Kong was called St. Louis Industrial School, between 1921 and 1927, run by Fr Raymond Lane and Brother Albert Staubli. Management of the school was handed over to the Salesians in 1927 and later renamed as St Louis School. Likewise, the first school founded by the Maryknollers in China was called St. Thomas School, a primary school in Yangjiang (previously known as Yeungkong) with the first graduation held in July 1923. The second school founded by the Maryknollers in China was called Sacred Heart School, also a primary school, set up by Fr Bernard F. Meyer in Gaozhou (previously known as Kochow), with inauguration held on 5 October 1923. and first graduation in 1926 Fr Adolph John Paschang once served in this Sacred Heart School in Gaozhou. )

Still run by Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers

 * Maryknoll Secondary School, formerly known as Maryknoll Technical Secondary School, a co-educational secondary school,
 * Maryknoll College (Senior Form), formerly known as Maryknoll Technical Secondary Evening School, a private co-educational evening school, senior forms only,
 * Maryknoll Fathers' School secondary section, a co-educational secondary school,
 * Maryknoll Fathers' School (Primary Section), a co-educational primary school,
 * Bishop Paschang Catholic School, formerly known as Bishop Paschang Memorial School, a co-educational primary school. This school was founded after the late Maryknoller, Bishop Adolph John Paschang, who had suffered a lot for his missionary work in China.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Ethylparaben

Ethylparaben (ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate) is the ethyl ester of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Its formula is HO-C6H4-CO-O-CH2CH3. It is a member of the class of compounds known as parabens.

It is used as an antifungal preservative. As a food additive, it has E number E214.

Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate, the sodium salt of ethylparaben, has the same uses and is given the E number E215.

title: Ethylparaben


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User:Fir0002/Fir0002 gallery

The Gallery of Fir0002!
Some of best photos (IMO) that I have uploaded to Wikipedia My work can be seperated into two categories (or eras!) - my Kodak Photos, and my current Canon 20D photos

Featured Pictures
I have 72 Featured Pictures so far, and they can be viewed at my Featured Picture Gallery

title: User:Fir0002/Fir0002 gallery


text: User talk:24.196.109.46

title: User talk:24.196.109.46


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Sodium orthophenyl phenol

Sodium orthophenyl phenol is a compound used as a disinfectant. It is the sodium salt of 2-phenylphenol.

As a food additive, it has E number E232.

title: Sodium orthophenyl phenol


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Reconfigure

To reconfigure refers to:

 * Reconfigurable computing: changing the data path of a computing system in addition to the control flow
 * Control reconfiguration: changing the loop structure and controller parameters in an automatic control loop
 * Reconfigurable antenna: changing the antenna physically or electrically to control its antenna properties

title: Reconfigure


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Timeline of the British Army

This timeline covers the main wars, battles and engagements and related issues for the Scottish, English and British Army, from 1537 to the present. See also Timeline of British diplomatic history.

1500–1599

 * 1537 – The Overseers of the Fraternity or Guild of St George received a royal charter from Henry VIII on 25 August, when letters patent were received authorising them to establish a perpetual corporation for the defence of the realm to be known as the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery of Longbows, Crossbows and Handgonnes. This body was known by a variety of names since, but today is called the Honourable Artillery Company, and is the oldest regiment in continuous service in the British Army.
 * 1539 – The Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineer Regiment is first mustered before becoming a militia force for the county of Monmouth. When the new Police was formed in the 19th century, the regiment switched to the Royal Engineers Reserve, becoming the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers Militia the senior regiment of the Reserve Army.
 * 1572 – The Buffs were formed from London's urban militia to support the Protestants in Holland, where they remained until the outbreak of the Anglo-Dutch war in 1665, at which point they were disbanded for refusing the oath of loyalty to the Dutch States General. They fled to England and reformed as 'The Holland Regiment' in the British Army. The unit is now part of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment.

1600–1699

 * 1633 – The Royal Regiment of Foot (later the Royal Scots) is placed on the Scottish Establishment, later becoming the oldest infantry regiment in the British Army.
 * 1642 – Marquis of Argyll's Royal Regiment was raised by Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll for service in Ireland, renamed in 1650 Lyfe Guard of Foot and reformed as the Scottish Regiment of Foot Guards in 1661 (later the Scots Guards).
 * 1650 – George Monck's Regiment is formed (later the Coldstream Guards), becoming the oldest infantry regiment in continuous service in the British Army but not under the monarch.
 * 1656 – Lord Wentworth's Regiment is formed (later the Grenadier Guards), later becoming the most senior infantry regiment in the British Army because of the long serving loyalty to the monarch during the English Civil War.
 * 26 January 1661 – King Charles II issues warrant, becoming the acknowledged beginning of the British Army. This concerned an assemblage of English regiments and Scottish regiments brought south with Charles II. The British Army would not formally exist, however, for another 46 years, as Scotland and England remained two independent states, each with its own Army.
 * 1 October 1661 – The Tangier Regiment is formed, later The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, the most senior English line infantry regiment in the British Army.
 * 1684 – The English withdraw from the Colony of Tangier.
 * 1688 – The War of the Grand Alliance begins.

1700–1799

 * 1702 – War of the Spanish Succession begins.
 * 1707 – Kingdom of Great Britain is formed. Scottish and English armies merged to create the British Army.
 * 1722 – Royal Regiment of Artillery is formed.
 * 1742 – War of the Austrian Succession begins.
 * 1743 – Battle of Dettingen, King George II becomes the last British monarch to lead his troops into battle.
 * 1746 – Battle of Culloden, The British Army, made from Scottish,English and Irish soldiers and led by the Duke of Cumberland, fights the last major battle on British mainland soil against French supported Scottish rebel Jacobites.
 * 1751 – A numerical system is introduced into the Army, such as 1st Regiment of Foot, 2nd Regiment of Foot, etc.
 * 1755 – Seven Years' War begins.
 * 1759 – Battle of Minden, the Duke of Brunswick leads an Anglo-German army against the French.
 * 1759 – British forces, led by General James Wolfe, take French Quebec.
 * 1775 – American War of Independence begins.
 * 17 June – Battle of Bunker Hill
 * 1776 – British victory at the Battle of Long Island.
 * 1777 – British victory at the Battle of Brandywine.
 * 1777 – British defeat at the Battle of Saratoga.
 * 1781 – British defeat at the siege of Yorktown.
 * 1793 – War on revolutionary France declared
 * 1795 – Capture of Ceylon.
 * 1796 – slave forces in Haiti led by Toussaint L'ouverture British Forces defeated
 * 1798 – Large-scale rebellion in Ireland.
 * 1799 – Capture of Seringapatam.

1800-1898

 * 1801 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is formed.
 * French Revolutionary Wars (A campaign to expel a French invasion force in Egypt) takes place.
 * 1803 – The Napoleonic Wars begin.
 * 1803 – Second Anglo-Maratha War begins, ends 1805
 * 1 September – Battle of Aligarh
 * 11 September – Battle of Delhi
 * 23 September – Battle of Assaye
 * 1 November – Battle of Laswari
 * 28 November – Battle of Argaon
 * 15 December – Battle of Gawilghur
 * 1806 – Seizure of the Cape of Good Hope.
 * – An abortive (initially unauthorised) invasion of Spanish South America begins.
 * 1808 – The Peninsular War begins.
 * 16 January – Battle of Corunna
 * 1810
 * 24 July – Battle of the Côa
 * 25 July – Siege of Almeida (1810)
 * 27 September – Battle of Bussaco
 * 1811
 * 19 February – Battle of the Gebora
 * 3 April – Battle of Sabugal
 * 14 April – Siege of Almeida (1811)
 * 3 May – Battle of Fuentes de Onoro
 * 16 May – Battle of Albuera
 * 25 May – Battle of Usagre
 * 28 October – Battle of Arroyo dos Molinos
 * 1812 – The War of 1812 against the United States begins.
 * 7 January – Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo
 * 16 March – Battle of Badajoz (1812)
 * 11 April – Battle of Villagarcia
 * 11 June – Battle of Maguilla
 * 22 July – Battle of Salamanca
 * 23 July – Battle of Garcia Hernandez
 * 11 August – Battle of Majadahonda
 * 19 September – Siege of Burgos
 * 23 October – Battle of Venta del Pozo
 * 1813
 * 21 June – Battle of Vitoria
 * 7 July – Siege of San Sebastián
 * 25 July – Battle of the Pyrenees
 * 25 July – Battle of Roncesvalles (1813)
 * 25 July – Battle of Maya
 * 28 July – Battle of Sorauren
 * 7 October – Battle of the Bidassoa (1813)
 * 19 November – Battle of Nivelle
 * 9 December – Battle of the Nive
 * 1814 – The Gurkha War begins.
 * 15 February – Battle of Garris
 * 27 February – Battle of Orthez
 * 10 April – Battle of Toulouse (1814)
 * 14 April – Battle of Bayonne
 * 1815
 * 8 January – Battle of New Orleans
 * 16 June – Battle of Quatre Bras
 * 18 June – The Battle of Waterloo takes place, ending in defeat for the French.
 * 1819
 * 16 August – The Peterloo Massacre takes place.
 * 1839 – First Anglo-Afghan War begins ends 1842
 * 23 July – Battle of Ghazni
 * September – Siege of Kahun
 * 1842
 * 6 January – Battle of Gandamak
 * 15 January – Massacre of Elphinstone's Army
 * August – Battle of Kabul (1842)
 * 1854 – The Crimean War begins; ends in 1856.
 * 19 September – The siege of Sevastopol begins.
 * 20 September – The Battle of Alma takes place.
 * 25 October – The Battle of Balaklava takes place; Charge of the Light Brigade.
 * 5 November – The Battle of Inkerman takes place.
 * 1855
 * 8 September – The siege of Sevastopol ends.
 * 1857 – The Indian Mutiny begins.
 * 30 May – Indian rebels begin the siege of Delhi, siege of Lucknow
 * 5 June – Siege of Cawnpore begins
 * 8 June – Battle of Badli-ki-Serai, siege of Delhi
 * 30 June – Siege of Lucknow begins, Battle of Chinhat
 * 25 August – Battle of Najafgarh
 * 11 October – Battle of Agra
 * 19 November – Second Battle of Cawnpore
 * 1858
 * Central India Campaign (1858)
 * 1 March – Capture of Lucknow
 * 1859 – Due to fear of invasion by France, a volunteer movement begins, known as the Volunteer Rifle Corps.
 * 1870 – The Army withdraws from Australia and New Zealand.
 * 1871 – The Army adopts the Martini-Henry rifle, replacing the Snider.
 * – Abolition of the purchase of commission.
 * 1878 – Second Anglo-Afghan War begins, ends 1880
 * 21 November – Battle of Ali Masjid
 * 15 December – Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment
 * 1879 – The Anglo-Zulu War takes place.
 * 22 January – British force defeated at Battle of Isandlwana.
 * – The defence of Rorke's Drift begins; eleven Victoria Crosses would be gained in the process.
 * 1880
 * 19 April – Battle of Ahmed Khel
 * 27 July – Battle of Maiwand
 * 1 September – Battle of Kandahar
 * 20 December – First Boer War begins ends 23 March 1888
 * 20 December – Action at Bronkhorstspruit takes place
 * 1881 – Mahdist War begins, ends 1889
 * 28 January – Battle of Laing's Nek
 * 1 July – General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell-Childers reforms of the Army's organisation, came into effect.
 * 1884
 * 13 March – Battle of Tamai
 * 22 March – Battle of Tofrek
 * 1885
 * January – Battle of Abu Klea
 * 28 January – General Charles George Gordon is killed by Mahommed Ahmed (the self-proclaimed Mahdi) after his siege of Khartoum; British relief force arrives two-days later.
 * 8 February – Battle of Schuinshoogte
 * 10 February – Battle of Kirbekan
 * 27 February – Battle of Majuba Hill
 * 30 December – Battle of Ginnis
 * 1889 – The Maxim machine gun is introduced.
 * 3 August – Battle of Toski
 * 1896
 * 7 June – Battle of Ferkeh
 * 1898
 * 8 April – Battle of Atbara
 * 2 September – Battle of Omdurman
 * 24 November – Battle of Umm Diwaykarat

Second Boer War

 * 1899
 * 11 October – War is declared.
 * 20 October – The first major battle of the war takes place at Talana Hill.
 * December – "Black Week", in which the Army suffered a series of defeats, takes place.
 * 1900
 * 28 February – The siege of Ladysmith is lifted.
 * 1 April – The Irish Guards is formed in honour of the Irish regiments in the Boer War.
 * 17 May – The siege of Mafeking comes to an end.
 * 1902
 * 31 May – War ends with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging.
 * 1905 – The 5th Battalion, The Royal Garrison Regiment is the last British battalion to leave Canada.
 * 1908 – The Territorial Force (later Army) is formed.
 * 1911
 * 1 April – Following an order issued on 28 February, the Air Battalion Royal Engineers is formed.
 * 1912 – The Vickers machine gun is introduced into the Army; it remains in service until 1968.
 * 13 May – The Air Battalion Royal Engineers becomes the Royal Flying Corps. It remains part of the Army.

First World War

 * 1914
 * 4 August – Britain declares war on Germany.
 * August – British Expeditionary Force begins to deploy to France.
 * 19 October – The First Battle of Ypres begins in Belgium.
 * 1915
 * 26 February – The Welsh Guards becomes the last Foot Guards regiment to be formed.
 * 25 April – Landings at Helles, Gallipoli.
 * 10 August – Landings at Suvla Bay, Gallipoli.
 * 22 October – The Machine Gun Corps is formed.
 * 1916
 * April – The Easter Rising in Dublin takes place.
 * 1 July – The First Day of the Somme begins; about 60,000 casualties are incurred, 20,000 of whom had been killed.
 * 1917
 * 28 July – The Heavy Branch of the Machine Gun Corps is split off to form the Tank Corps (later the Royal Tank Regiment).
 * 8 November – About 200 men of the Warwickshire Yeomanry and Worcestershire Yeomanry charge with sabres drawn and defeat an Ottoman battery and a large group of Ottoman infantry at Huj. It was one of the last cavalry charges by the British Army.
 * 20 November – The Battle of Cambrai begins; sees the first large-scale use of tanks.
 * December – The Capture of Jerusalem takes place.
 * 1918
 * 11 November – The First World War ends with the signing of the Armistice.

Interwar Period

 * January 1919 – Anglo-Irish War begins; British forces combat guerilla operations by the Irish Republican Army.
 * 1919 – British Army takes part in Allied intervention during Russian Civil War.
 * 28 June 1920 – Winston Churchill as the Secretary of State for War signed the royal warrant which gave the sovereigns approval for the formation of a 'Corps of Signals'. Six weeks later in August, King George V conferred the title 'Royal Corps of Signals'.
 * 31 July 1922 – Six Irish regiments (5 infantry and one cavalry) are disbanded due to the establishment of the Irish Free State.
 * 1929 – The British Army of the Rhine in Germany is withdrawn.
 * 1935 – Abyssinian Crisis takes place; Army deploys substantial reinforcements to Africa and the Middle East.
 * 1936 – uprising in Palestine begins.
 * 4 April 1939 – The Royal Armoured Corps is formed.

Second World War

 * 3 September 1939 – Britain enters the Second World War when it declares war, along with its Allies, on Nazi Germany.
 * September 1939 – British Expeditionary Force begins to land in France.
 * 17 May 1940 – The Local Defence Volunteers (later the Home Guard) is formed.
 * 20 May 1940– In France, British armoured units counter-attack at Arras.
 * 26 May 1940 – The Dunkirk evacuation begins; over 330,000 British and French soldiers are evacuated by 4 June.
 * 22 June 1940 – The Parachute Corps (later The Parachute Regiment) is formed.
 * April 1941 – Germany invades Crete; Army and Commonwealth forces eventually evacuated by Royal Navy.
 * 25 December 1941 – The garrison at Hong Kong surrenders to the Japanese.
 * 15 February 1942 – Singapore garrison surrenders to Japanese forces.
 * 23 October 1942 – Second Battle of El Alamein takes place; Montgomery's British Eighth Army defeats the Afrika Korps in offensive.
 * 10 July 1943 – The Allied invasion of Sicily begins.
 * 3 September 1943 – Invasion of Italian mainland begins.
 * March 1944 – The Japanese launch their offensive against India; battles of Imphal and Kohima takes place.
 * 1 April 1944 – The Special Air Service Regiment is formed to administer existing SAS units.
 * 6 June 1944 – in airborne operations prior to D-Day landings, Pegasus and Horsa Bridges are taken by D Company, 2nd Ox & Bucks, and the Merville gun battery is destroyed by the 9th Parachute Battalion.
 * 6 June 1944 – The D-Day landings take place; British Army lands at Gold and Sword; some British units allocated to Canadian beach at Juno.
 * 18 July 1944 – Allied armoured offensive, Operation Goodwood, begins.
 * September 1944 – Operation Market Garden takes place.
 * 24 March 1945 – Airborne crossing of the Rhine, Operation Varsity, takes place.
 * 8 May 1945 – VE Day.
 * 2 September 1945 – Formal surrender of Japan.

1945–1990

 * 1 January 1948 – Four Gurkha regiments are transferred from the Indian Army to the British Army, forming the Brigade of Gurkhas.
 * 28 February 1948 – The 1st Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry becomes the last British regiment to leave India.
 * 1948 – The Malayan Emergency begins.
 * 1948 – The Army withdraws from Palestine.
 * 1 January 1949 – National Service, the new name for conscription, is introduced.
 * 1 February 1949 – The Women's Royal Army Corps is formed.
 * 1950 – The Korean War begins.
 * 22 April 1951 – The Battle of the Imjin River takes place.
 * 1952 – The Mau Mau uprising in Kenya begins.
 * 1953 – The Army withdraws its garrison from Bermuda.
 * 1954 – The last troops leave Trieste, having been there since 1945 as part of British Forces Element Trieste.
 * 1955 – Occupying troops leave upon Austrian independence.
 * June 1956 – Last British troops leave the Suez Canal Zone, Egypt.
 * 31 October 1956 – Operation Musketeer, the invasion of Suez begins.
 * 5 November – 3rd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment dropped at El Gamil airfield.
 * 6 November – Amphibious landings take place; Army Centurion tanks land in support.
 * 1 September 1957 – The Glider Pilot Regiment was merged with the Air Observation Post Squadrons to form the Army Air Corps.
 * 1957 – The Sandys Review of the armed forces takes place.
 * 16 July 1958 – Independent Parachute Brigade Group (less 3 Para), air-landed in Amman, Jordan from Cyprus.
 * 1961 – Army deploys troops to Kuwait after its request for British to deter invasion by Iraq.
 * 1962 – The Brunei uprising takes place.
 * 1963 – Last National Serviceman is discharged from the Army.
 * 1967 – Withdrawal from Aden after a period of time known as the Aden Emergency.
 * 1968 – The only year in the century when the British Army lost no soldiers in action.
 * August 1969 – British troops deployed to Northern Ireland to assist in stopping sectarian violence. It is the beginning of "The Troubles".
 * 5 May 1980 – Special Air Service ends the Iranian Embassy siege.
 * 2 April 1982 – Falklands War begins.
 * 28 May – 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (2 Para) defeat Argentinians at Goose Green.
 * 8 June – Bombing of RFA's Sir Galahad, Sir Tristram kills 48, including 32 Welsh Guards.
 * 12 June – 3 Para defeats the Argentinians at Mount Longdon.
 * 14 June – 2 Para takes Wireless Ridge.
 * 14 June – 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards defeat Argentinians at Mount Tumbledown.
 * 14 June – Falkland Islands are liberated upon the surrender of Argentinian forces.

1990–present

 * 1991 The Gulf War begins; Army contributes 28,000 troops.
 * 1991 – The last British Army regiment leaves Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Regiment is subsequently placed on the Army's regular establishment.
 * 6 April 1992 – the WRAC was disbanded and its members integrated into various British Army units.
 * 1 October 1992 – I (BR) Corps is disbanded and replaced by the Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps.
 * 1992 – British forces deployed to Bosnia as part of UNPROFOR.
 * 31 March 1994 – The British Army of the Rhine is disbanded and replaced by British Forces Germany.
 * 1994 – The main force of the Army garrison in Belize is withdrawn; small detachment remains as part of British Army Training and Support Unit Belize.
 * 1994 – 1st Battalion, The Queen's Lancashire Regiment becomes the last British battalion to leave Berlin.
 * 30 June 1997 – 1st Battalion, The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) becomes the last British unit to leave Hong Kong.
 * 1998 – The Strategic Defence Review white paper is published.
 * 1999 – Kosovo War begins.
 * 2000 – 2 PARA arrived in Freetown, Sierra Leone to evacuate British, Commonwealth and EU citizens.
 * 2000 – The Army deploys to the Republic of Macedonia.
 * 7 October 2001 – U.S. invasion of Afghanistan begins. The SAS was, initially, the main Army contribution.
 * December 2001 – Major-General John McColl takes command of ISAF in Afghanistan.
 * 20 March 2003 – The US-led invasion of Iraq begins.
 * 27 March 2003 – The largest tank engagement by the British Army since WWII takes place; 14 Challenger 2 tanks of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards destroy 14 Iraqi T-55s.
 * 6 April 2003 – British forces, led by 7 Armoured Brigade (known as 'The Desert Rats') enter Iraq's second city of Basra.
 * 21 July 2004 – The defence white paper "Delivering Security in a Changing World" is published.
 * March 2005 – Private Johnson Beharry, of the 1st Battalion, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment is awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions in Iraq.
 * 6 April 2005 – The Special Reconnaissance Regiment becomes operational.
 * 7 March 2007 – Corporal Bryan Budd, of the 3rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, is posthumeously awarded the Victoria Cross.
 * March 2007 – Operation Achilles launched to clear Helmand province of the Taliban.
 * 31 July 2007 – Operation Banner ends after 38 years of deployment.
 * 30 April 2009 – British Army withdraws from Iraq, Operation Telic continues mainly by Royal Navy personnel.
 * 10 July 2009 – Five men from 9 Plt, C Coy, 2 RIFLES died and ten were wounded, over half of the entire patrol, in what was the worst casualty toll for a British foot patrol during the war in Afghanistan.
 * Summer 2012 – British forces support the police and provide specialist capability during the London 2012 Olympics.
 * 16 March 2013 – L/Cpl James Ashworth, of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards is posthumeously awarded the Victoria Cross.
 * October 2014 – British Army begins training Iraqi and Peshmerga forces to combat ISIL as part of Operation Shader.
 * 26 October 2014 – Combat operations in Afghanistan come to an end, Camp Bastion is handed over to the Afghan National Army.
 * 1 January 2015 – Army begins training and mentoring Afghan forces and providing force protection as part of NATO's Resolute Support Mission.
 * 26 February 2015 – L/Cpl Joshua Leakey, of the Parachute Regiment is awarded the Victoria Cross.
 * May 2016 – British Army deployment begins in Malakal and Bentiu, South Sudan to support the United Nations Mission in South Sudan.
 * 17 March 2017 – British Army begins deploying to Estonia and Poland in support of NATO Enhanced Forward Presence.
 * 22 May 2017 – Operation Temperer is put into effect following the Manchester Arena bombing.
 * February 2020 – Completion of the withdrawal of British Forces Germany.
 * April 2020 – British Army begins deploying troops to Mali to form a Long Range Reconnaissance Group (LRRG) Task Group as part of MINUSMA.
 * 13 August 2021 – Operation Pitting begins, 600 military personnel deployed to Kabul International Airport.
 * 15 August 2021 – Fall of Kabul, Taliban control Afghanistan.
 * 28 August 2021 – Evacuation of British nationals, embassy staff and eligible Afghans ends.
 * 25 November 2021 – The Future Soldier programme is published.
 * 1 December 2021 – The Ranger Regiment is formed.
 * 24 February 2022 – Russia invades Ukraine.
 * July 2022 – Operation Interflex launched, British Army begins training Ukrainian service personnel in the UK.
 * 8 September 2022 – Death of Queen Elizabeth II, King Charles III accedes to the throne and becomes Commander-in-Chief of the British Army.
 * 18 September 2022 – Thousands of British Army personnel form part of HM The Queen's funeral procession.
 * 6 April 2023 – The Yorkshire Regiment becomes The Royal Yorkshire Regiment.
 * September 2023 – Exercise Iron Titan takes place, the largest British Army exercise for over twenty years.
 * October 2023 – 1st Battalion The Princess of Wales’s Royal Regiment is rapidly deployed to Kosovo in response to heightened regional tension.

title: Timeline of the British Army


text:
Wally Nelson

Wallace Floyd Nelson (27 March 1909 – 23 May 2002) was an American civil rights activist and war tax resister. He spent three and a half years in prison as a conscientious objector during World War II, was on the first of the "Freedom Rides" (then called the "Journey of Reconciliation") enforcing desegregation in 1947, and was the first national field organizer for the Congress of Racial Equality.

For their role as civil rights activists, they received the Courage of Conscience Award from The Peace Abbey in Sherborn, Massachusetts. Wally & Juanita were also founding members of the Valley Community Land Trust in western Massachusetts. A no-interest loan fund is now held by the trust in Wally's memory. Wally Nelson died at the age of 93 after more than a half-century of war tax resistance and activism.

Early life
Wally Nelson was born in Altheimer, Arkansas, on March 27, 1909, to Lydia and Duncan William Nelson. His family moved to Little Rock, Arkansas, when he was about six. He was a younger son in a larger family of sharecroppers, which shaped some of Nelson's values.

Later, he went north with his brother in Batavia, Ohio, and attended a somewhat integrated high school there. He helped to integrate the welcoming party for incoming freshmen, to which black students had previously been excluded.

In 1933, after graduating high school, he moved to Chicago and became active in Methodist youth activities, attended a 1934 student anti-war strike, and joined the American Youth Congress. He was courted by the Communist Party but declined to join on the grounds that he had committed to nonviolence. He was one of those who took the Oxford Pledge, vowing that "Because war is anti-human, anti-social, and anti-Christian, I will not support my country at war."

He began attending Ohio Wesleyan University in 1940, and also began working on integration campaigns being organized by the Congress of Racial Equality, in part by trying to be served at restaurants and other establishments to see if they were obeying the local antidiscrimination ordinance.

Imprisonment
After being initially denied, Nelson eventually won conscientious objector status from the draft board, and when he was drafted he was assigned to a Civilian Public Service camp as an alternative to military service. Soon after beginning at the camp he realized it was a mistake, as he did not want to co-operate with the war effort by working for the government on the home front. After a year at the labor camp he left, on 1 July 1943, along with five other dissenters.

He went to Detroit, Michigan, and worked on anti-discrimination campaigns with the Congress of Racial Equality. Soon after his arrival there, he and his companions were arrested for having left Civilian Public Service. A hostile judge handed down maximum sentences: five years imprisonment.

He served seventeen months in county jail before being transferred to federal prison. It was during this time that he met his future wife, Juanita Morrow. She came to Cuyahoga County Jail as a reporter, working on a story on jail conditions. He and his cellmate asked to meet her and after that they kept in touch through the mail.

During his imprisonment, he went on a hunger strike after federal prison authorities insisted that he eat at a Jim Crow table in the prison. He again launched a hunger strike when he was transferred to Danbury federal prison, for more comprehensive reasons of opposition to the prison system. He said, "You've got me in jail; you're responsible for this, and I'm not going to eat until I am on the other side of these walls." During this hunger strike he went for eighteen days without eating anything at all. After this, they started to force feed him. The first time that the guards force fed him, they purposefully made the tubes too large, making this process torturous for Nelson. The tubes went through his nose and directly into his stomach. After this event, Nelson had to be hospitalized for his injuries. It had made him very sick, and he lost a lot of weight. The force feedings went on for 89 days, until Nelson was finally released from prison.

Freedom Ride
Nelson Participated in the first Freedom Ride (then referred to as the Journey of Reconciliation) in which people purposefully rode in the "wrong" seats (blacks in the front, whites in the back) in 1947 to test a new Supreme Court ruling banning the enforcement of segregation on interstate public transportation (several arrests and even convictions of riders proved that the ruling was not being obeyed). He rode with a number of notable Freedom Riders such including Bayard Rustin, Conrad Lynn, James Peck, Igal Roodenko, Homer Jack, and George Houser. All of the participants were men; they decided the idea of black men being with white women would be cause too much outrage and be too dangerous. Many of the men who took part in the original Freedom Ride were men who had also been imprisoned for being Conscientious Objectors and refusing to work in the labor camps.

Other
In 1948, Nelson cofounded the Peacemakers. This was a national organization dedicated to active non-violence as a way of life. He and his wife Juanita began their practice of refusing to pay taxes used for armaments and killing, they did this for the rest of their lives. They did so alongside civil rights activist Eroseanna Robinson, who worked on both desegregation and the war protest movement. The three were dubbed the "Elkton Three" after they were arrested together while trying to integrate a restaurant in Maryland.

Over time, the Nelsons came to adopt the income-reduction method of war tax refusal. They cut their expenses dramatically — building a house with salvaged materials and without electricity or plumbing, and growing the majority of their own food on a half-acre of land. Eventually they came to live on less than $5,000 per year.

The Nelsons joined a (controversially interracial) communal home with fellow-Peacemakers Ernest Bromley and Marion Bromley in Gano, Ohio, where they would live until 1956.

In 1948, Wally helped to organize the Cincinnati Committee on Human Relations, which worked to desegregate institutions there. In the early 1950s Nelson served as the first national field officer for the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). For this job he directed many workshops on non-violent direct action in Washington, D.C. He left CORE after the organization took a more conservative turn in 1954.

In 1957 the Nelsons spent a few months at the racially integrated Koinonia Farm in Americus, Georgia, and continued to work with that project for the next decade.

Starting in 1960, the Nelsons worked with Operation Freedom, which helped to support black Americans who were facing organized reprisals and boycotts from white supremacists if they attempted to register to vote.

In 1968, he fasted once again, for 21 days, this time in support of the United Farm Workers campaign for just wages and working conditions for Farm Laborers.

The Nelsons began to experiment with more deliberate voluntary simplicity in an off-the-grid home in Ojo Caliente in New Mexico in the early 1970s. They moved to Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1974, building a 16′×24′ (36 m2) cabin with salvaged materials and without electricity or plumbing, and growing the majority of their own food on a half-acre (2,000 m2) of land. Eventually they came to live on less than $4,000 per year. During this time they were some of the founders of such things as the Valley Community Land Trust, the Pioneer Valley War Tax Resisters, and the Greenfield Farmer's Market.

From 1989 to 1993, the Nelsons helped to resist the IRS seizure and sale of the home of war tax resisters Randy Kehler and Betsy Corner.

Wally annually participated in the war-tax protest in front of the Greenfield Post office on Tax day.

Death
Nelson Died on May 23, 2002, in Greenfield, Massachusetts at the age of 93.

title: Wally Nelson


text: User talk:61.141.229.4

title: User talk:61.141.229.4


text: User talk:24.61.214.102

title: User talk:24.61.214.102


text:
Talk:Religious order (Catholic)

lots of stuff but explains nothing
There's a heck of a lot of material here, but the article never really explains what an "order" is. Kinda basic info glaringly missing. Saying they are  "a category of Catholic religious institutes"  is absolutely useles unless you already know what an order is. That they're distinguished by vows is similarly un-useful. The Dissident Aggressor 03:33, 2 October 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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still needs improvement
while many of the previously mentioned issues have been resolved or improved, there is still a lot of work to do on this article! aspects such as the impact, history, and practices of religious orders should be expanded on Sawyer-mcdonell (talk) 18:21, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

Trappists founded in 1664
Mistake in the 2d chart. Trappists were established in 1664. (chart says 1098 which is for Cistercian) Zygcyb (talk) 22:24, 5 November 2022 (UTC)

 * The problem is that the Annuario pontificio (which is cited as the source) says fro the Trappists "Fond 1098; riform. 1664" (founded 1098, reformed 1664). Noel S McFerran (talk) 23:23, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Trappists are Cistercians, reformed. So you are both right. Elizium23 (talk) 23:24, 5 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Religious order (Catholic)


text:
Juanita Morrow Nelson

Juanita Morrow Nelson (August 17, 1923 – March 9, 2015) was an American activist and war tax resister.

She co-founded the group Peacemakers in 1948. She was the author of A Matter of Freedom and Other Writings (1988).

Early life
Nelson was born on 17 August 1923 in Cleveland, Ohio, to Eula and Oscar Morrow.

By her own account, at the age of sixteen (1939) she and her mother boarded a train in Cleveland, Ohio and were sent to the "colored" cars to the rear. Incensed by the deplorable conditions of the coach, young Juanita fumed for a while then decided to move to the "white" coaches toward the front. These coaches had comfortable seats, no trash and foul smells, and were well kept. "I sat there a while and when nothing happened, I decided to move forward to the next car. I sat a while in each of the white cars moving to the front of the train to show them that I was as good as any passenger. No one said anything until a black conductor said that he was concerned about what might happen to me, that I might get hurt or something. I went on until I had sat in all of the white cars and then went back to my mother in the colored coach. I didn't do anything, nothing had changed, but I felt a lot better about myself."

She enrolled in Howard University and was active in the NAACP Youth Group there. While a student there in 1943, she was arrested for trying to eat at the whites-only lunch counter at United Cigar Store and Luncheon on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. This was among the earliest sit-ins of the American Civil Rights Movement.

She left Howard University in 1943 to attend Western Reserve University, majoring in journalism. She graduated in 1946.

Adult life
She was an organizer for the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), helping to found the Cleveland, Ohio, chapter of that organization, and working on the campaign to integrate the Euclid Beach amusement park. She moved to Chicago in 1947, continuing her work with the local CORE chapter there and also working as secretary for the national organization. She would continue to work with CORE until 1954.

In 1948 Juanita began her lifelong relationship with Wally Nelson, whom she met when she interviewed him in jail while she was working as a journalist. Wally was the first Field Secretary for CORE. With Wally, Juanita planned and participated in the first 'Freedom Rides' in the late 1940s, leading to the Southern Freedom Movement, also known as the Civil Rights Movement.

Together they began engaging in war tax resistance. "When we became tax resisters in 1948," they wrote, "it included not filing, not answering notices to supply information and making sure we had something to refuse." In 1948, they attended the founding conference of Peacemakers, an organization that pioneered the modern war tax resistance movement in the United States.

They joined a (controversially interracial) communal home with fellow-Peacemakers Ernest Bromley and Marion Bromley in Gano, Ohio, where they would live until 1956. Juanita was jailed for the first time during a nonviolent direct action campaign to try to desegregate the Coney Island (Cincinnati, Ohio) amusement park.

In 1957 the Nelsons spent a few months at the racially integrated Koinonia Farm in Americus, Georgia, and continued to work with that project for the next decade.

One account says: "In 1959 Juanita became the first woman in modern times to be apprehended for war tax refusal. She made her court appearance in the bathrobe she was wearing when apprehended at her home." Juanita was released the same day, and the government never did collect the money they claimed she owed them.

Over time, the Nelsons came to adopt the income-reduction method of war tax resistance. "Living on a reduced income is related to our refusal only as a progression of awareness, that our entire economic life is tied into violence. It seemed logical that the less we participated, the less we'd be giving to that system." Along with Wally, Juanita and another war tax resister, Eroseanna Robinson, were also arrested and dubbed the "Elkton Three" when they attempted to integrate a restaurant in Maryland.

Their critique of the economic system included a condemnation of usury — at one point, Juanita convinced the Pioneer Valley War Tax Resisters that interest payments were ethically insupportable. She then went into the bank that held the organization's small account "to ask that we not be credited with interest [and to] return the interest we had previously collected." The bank, after considerable puzzlement, eventually gave in to the request.

Wally and Juanita Nelson spent a few months at the Koinonia Farm in 1957 and continued to work with that project for the next decade.

Starting in 1960, the Nelsons worked with Operation Freedom, which helped to support black Americans who were facing organized reprisals and boycotts from white supremacists if they attempted to register to vote.

The Nelsons began to experiment with more deliberate voluntary simplicity in an off-the-grid home in Ojo Caliente in New Mexico in the early 1970s. They moved to Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1974, building a 16′×24′ (36 m2) cabin with salvaged materials and without electricity or plumbing, and growing the majority of their own food on a half-acre (2,000 m2) of land. Eventually they came to live on less than $4,000 per year. As they aged, they wrote, "we may soon face some difficult decisions… We have no insurance. In latter years we've had our share of medical problems. Hospitalizations are covered by aid to the indigent. We talk with doctors before they take us on. Mostly they don't charge; sometimes we agree on something up to twenty percent of the fee. Our greatest insurance has been the outpouring of support from many, many younger friends (and some older ones)."

From 1989 to 1993, the Nelsons helped to resist the IRS seizure and sale of the home of war tax resisters Randy Kehler and Betsy Corner.

For their role as farmers, civil rights activists, pacifists, war tax resisters, their love & generosity and their spirited life of service to the movements of social justice, activist nonviolence and peace, Juanita Nelson and her husband, Wally Nelson received the Courage of Conscience Award from The Peace Abbey in Sherborn, Massachusetts.

On March 9, 2015, Nelson died at the age of 91.

Quotes

 * "Why am I going to jail? Why am I going to jail in a bathrobe? What does it matter in the scheme of things whether or not you put on your clothes? Are you not making, at best, a futile gesture, at worst, flinging yourself against something which does not exist? Is freedom more important than justice? Of what does freedom of the human spirit consist, that quality on which I place so much stress?"
 * "It is, as far as I can see, an unpleasant fact that we cannot avoid decision-making. We are not absolved by following the dictates of a mentor or of a majority. For we then have made the decision to do that — have concluded because of belief or of fear or of apathy that this is the thing which we should do or cannot avoid doing. And then we share in the consequences of any such action. Are we doing more than trying to hide our nakedness with a fig leaf when we take the view expressed by a friend who belonged to a fundamental religious sect? At the time he wore the uniform of the United States Marines. 'I'm not helping to murder,' he said. 'I'm carrying out the orders of my government, and the sin is not mine.' I could never tell whether there was a bitter smile playing around his lips or if he was quite earnest. It is a rationalization commonly held and defended. It is a comforting presumption, but it still appears to me that, while the seat of government is in Washington, the seat of conscience is in me. It cannot be voted out of office by one or a million others."

title: Juanita Morrow Nelson


text:
The Coast of Utopia

The Coast of Utopia is a 2002 trilogy of plays: Voyage, Shipwreck, and Salvage, written by Tom Stoppard with focus on the philosophical debates in pre-revolution Russia between 1833 and 1866. It was the recipient of the 2007 Tony Award for Best Play. The title comes from a chapter in Avrahm Yarmolinsky's book Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism (1959).

The trilogy, nine hours in total, premiered with Voyage on 22 June 2002 at the National Theatre's Olivier auditorium in repertory, directed by Trevor Nunn. The openings of Shipwreck and Salvage followed on 8 July, and 19 July, completing its run on 23 November 2002. In 2006, directed by Jack O'Brien, the plays debuted on Broadway at the Vivian Beaumont Theater at Lincoln Center, New York City, where it closed on 13 May 2007 after a combined total of 124 performances.

The trilogy has also been performed in Russia; it opened at Moscow's Russian Academic Youth Theatre in October 2007, directed by Alexey Borodin.

The trilogy received its Japanese premiere at Theater Cocoon, Bunkamura in Tokyo on 12 September 2009 and completed its run (including 10 one-day marathon performances) on 4 October 2009. The production was directed by Yukio Ninagawa.

London premiere
Directed by Trevor Nunn, the trilogy premiered with Voyage at the Olivier Theatre in London on 22 June 2002, followed by Shipwreck and Salvage with a six-month run ended on 23 November 2002.

Reviewing the play in The Guardian, drama critic Michael Billington wrote, "Tom Stoppard's The Coast of Utopia in the Olivier is a bundle of contradictions. Comprising three three-hour plays, it is heroically ambitious and wildly uneven. ... But I wouldn't have missed it for worlds and at its heart it contains a fascinating lesson about the nature of drama." He further commented on Stoppard the dramatist, "I think it is time we began to appreciate Stoppard not for his intellectual legerdemain, but for what he is actually best at: exploring the mystery of existence, the anguish of the human heart and the strange fact that it is our apprehension of death that gives joy and intensity to life."

Broadway debut
The trilogy's Broadway debut was directed by Jack O'Brien at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in New York City. The cast included Brían F. O'Byrne, Richard Easton, Jennifer Ehle, Billy Crudup, Ethan Hawke, Josh Hamilton, Martha Plimpton, David Harbour, Jason Butler Harner and Amy Irving. Viewed as "the season's ultimate snob ticket", the production ran from November 2006 to May 2007 with a combined total of 124 performances.

In his review for The New York Times, Ben Brantley called the production "brave and gorgeous", adding that "I wouldn't call it [the play] a major work of art. In literary terms I wouldn't even rank it with Mr. Stoppard's best (in which I include the Broadway-bound Rock 'n' Roll). But as directed by Jack O'Brien and acted and designed by a stellar team of artisans, Utopia is a major work of theatrical craftsmanship, a luscious advertisement for the singular narrative seductiveness of drama."

The production was nominated for ten Tony Awards and won seven, breaking the Tony record for the most awards given to a play.

Characters and cast
The following table indicates the roles played by the main cast in London, New York, and Moscow, respectively. Several principal actors played multiple roles in each of the three plays.

Historical figures
The play is well known for including a cast of more than 70 characters, many based on historical figures of the period.
 * Major Characters
 * Mikhail Bakunin
 * Vissarion Belinsky
 * Alexander Herzen
 * Nikolay Ogarev
 * Ivan Turgenev

 * Minor Characters
 * Konstantin Aksakov
 * Louis Blanc
 * Pyotr Chaadayev
 * Nikolay Chernyshevsky
 * Timofey Granovsky
 * Georg Herwegh
 * Ernest Charles Jones
 * Gottfried Kinkel
 * Lajos Kossuth
 * Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin
 * Karl Marx
 * Giuseppe Mazzini
 * Nikolai Polevoy
 * Alexander Pushkin
 * Arnold Ruge
 * Stepan Shevyryov
 * Nikolai Stankevich
 * Malwida von Meysenbug
 * Stanisław Gabriel Worcell

title: The Coast of Utopia


text:
Georgian grammar

Georgian grammar has many distinctive and extremely complex features, such as split ergativity and a polypersonal verb agreement system.

Georgian has its own alphabet. In this article, a transliteration with Latin letters will be used throughout.

Morphosyntactic alignment
Georgian syntax and verb agreement are largely those of a nominative–accusative language. That is, the subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike when it comes to word order within the sentence, and agreement marks in the verb complex. Nominative–accusative alignment is one of the two major morphosyntactic alignments, along with ergative-absolutive.

However, Georgian case morphology (that is, the declension of nouns using case marks) does not always coincide with verbal alignment. Georgian has often been said to exhibit split ergativity; morphologically speaking, it is said that it mostly behaves like an ergative–absolutive language in the Series II ("aorist") screeves. That means that the subject of an intransitive verb will take the same case markings as the direct object of a transitive verb. However, this is not a fully accurate representation.

This is because Georgian has yet another level of split ergativity. In the aorist series, intransitive verbs behave differently. Second conjugation verbs behave as would normally be expected in an ergative language; the subject is declined in the least-marked case, the nominative case (terminologically equivalent in this instance to absolutive cases in other languages). Third conjugation verbs behave as if they belonged to an accusative system; the most-marked case (the ergative) marks the subject. The division between second and third conjugations is a convenient way to remember the difference, but in fact they both contain intransitive verbs, and as a whole the behaviour of these verbs follows an active alignment. In an active language, intransitive verbs are subdivided into two classes. The division is usually based on semantic criteria regarding the nature of the subject and the verb; for example, if the subject identifies an agent (an active or intentional performer of the action of the verb), then it might be marked with one case (e.g. the ergative), while if the subject identifies an experiencer of the event or one who does not actively initiate it, then it might be marked with another case (e.g. the absolutive or nominative). What might be called the "most active" case, then, marks the subject of a transitive verb, while the "least active" or "most patientive" case is that used to mark a direct object. This is precisely what happens in Georgian, in the restricted environment of the second or third conjugation verbs in the aorist series.

In Georgian, the classification of verbs according to the agentive or patientive nature of their subject has to do with performing an action, regardless of whether the subject is in control or not. (There are some exceptions to this; weather verbs and verbs of emission of light and sound are usually zero-place predicates, and thus have no agent at all.) The division between classes is conventional and rigid; each verb receives the class that typically corresponds to it. Where the subject is typically an active performer, it is marked as ergative, even if in some specific instances the action might be outside the control of the subject. Therefore, Georgian active alignment is said to be of the "split-S" type.

Case system
Georgian has seven grammatical cases: nominative, ergative (also known in the Kartvelological literature as the narrative (motxrobiti) case, due to the rather inaccurate suggestion of regular ergativity, and that this case generally only occurs in the aorist series, which usually moves the narrative forward), dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative.

The nominative, ergative and dative are core cases, and due to the complex morphosyntactic alignment of Georgian, each one has several different functions and also overlap with each other, in different contexts. They will be treated together with the verb system.

The non-core cases are genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative.

 * The genitive case is the equivalent of the preposition of or the possessive clitic -s in English. In the phrase "the republic of Georgia", the word "Georgia" is in the genitive case: Sakartvelos' resp'ublik'a.
 * The instrumental case corresponds to the preposition with in English, as in "he is cutting with a knife", where the word "knife" is in the instrumental case. It also occurs with the objects of certain postpositions.
 * The adverbial case commonly marks adverbial phrases. It is also used in some other contexts, especially when using names of languages. For example, in the sentence "Can you translate this into Georgian?", Georgian is in the adverbial case.
 * The vocative case is used when addressing someone. For example, a mother calls her child with bat'ono? (meaning "sir?").

Nouns
The declension of a noun depends on whether the root of the noun ends with a vowel or a consonant. If the root of the noun ends with a vowel, the declension can be either truncating (roots ending with -e or -a) or non-truncating (roots ending with -o or -u). In the truncating declensions, the last vowel of the word stem is lost in the genitive and the instrumental cases. The table below lists the suffixes for each noun case, with an example next to it.

(* truncation of the last vowel occurs)

In the case of a word that ends in an -o, the -o may disappear completely or reduce to a -v and the consonant case endings are used; with the exception of the vocative case, which it itself becomes a -v. An example of this is the word teorbo (music), which becomes teorbo-v in the vocative case.

Pluralisation
The plural number is marked with the suffix -eb, which appears after the root of the noun and before the case suffix. Some examples are:

 * The nominative case of men in Georgian is constructed as, k'ats+eb+i, while the ergative case would be, k'ats+eb+ma.
 * The nominative case of trees in Georgian (xe, root ending with truncating vowel -e) is, xe+eb+i, while the dative case would be, xe+eb+s.
 * The nominative case of girls in Georgian (gogo, root ending with non-truncating vowel -o) is, gogo+eb+i, while the instrumental case would be, gogo+eb+it.

The plural suffix is not used when the noun is preceded by a quantifier of some kind, such as a cardinal number. Therefore, for example, "five men" in Georgian is expressed as, "xuti (5) k'atsi", not "xuti k'atsebi". Additionally, in certain formal contexts, Georgian uses Old Georgian case endings distinct from those of modern Georgian: k'atsta saloni ("men's salon") lit. salon of men.

Pronouns
The following table lists the declension of all six personal pronouns.

As can be seen from the table, all the cases of the third persons except the nominative case can be expressed in two different ways; with or without an "i" at the beginning of the pronoun. The extra letter "i" adds a directional meaning. The closest English equivalent could be the distinction between his, her and that. An example can be "her pencil" versus "that (girl)'s pencil." In English "that" can never behave as a personal pronoun, but in Georgian, the additional letter "i" makes that possible.

Adjectives
The declension of adjectives is different from that of nouns, but like that of nouns depends on whether the root of the adjective ends with a consonant or a vowel: a vowel-final-stem adjective is identical in all cases, while a consonant-final-stem adjective changes from case to case. (Put another way, one might say that vowel-final-stem adjectives do not actually decline for case.) The following table presents declensions of the adjectives did- ("big") and ch'aghara- ("grey-haired") with the noun datv- ("bear").

While often used as modifiers, adjectives can also have stand-alone substantive force in Georgian: one could say mindoda lurji ts'igni ("I would like the blue book") or just mindoda lurji ("I would like the blue one").

Possessive adjectives
The possessive adjectives (equivalent to English my, your, etc.) are declined like other consonant-stem-final adjectives, except for a final -s in the dative, instrumental, and adverbial forms of the first- and second-person possessive adjectives. There are no second- and third-person vocative forms.

Adpositions
Georgian by and large has postpositions rather than prepositions. Most of these are cliticized to the ends of nouns. They might be written separately or together with the noun. Prepositions do exist, but they are very few in number, and tend to be calques from Russian that entered the language during the Soviet period.

Each postposition governs (requires) a specific case of the noun, akin to the usage of prepositions in German or Latin. Only one postposition governs the nominative case (-vit "like"), and there are no postpositions that govern the ergative or the vocative cases. Here are some examples of postpositions:

1 The postposition -vit could also take the dative case in its elongated form (with an insertion of -a- in between the case suffix and the postposition).

2 In the usage of postposition -shi the dative case suffix -s is dropped.

3 In the usage of postposition -dan the instrumental case suffix -t is dropped.

4 In the usage of postposition -mde the adverbial case suffix -d is dropped.

Examples
The Georgian nominal has a series of morpheme slots that must be filled in a specific order:

 * noun root + plural suffix + case suffix (+ postposition)

Verbal system
The Georgian verbal system is extremely complex, especially when compared to those of most Indo-European languages. Rather than using the terms "tense", "aspect", "mood", etc. separately, linguists prefer to use the term "screeve" to distinguish between different time frames and moods of the verbal system. A screeve is a set of six verb forms inflected for person and number.

Verbs are traditionally divided into four classes: transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, verbs with no transitive counterparts (medial verbs) and indirect verbs. There are numerous irregular verbs in Georgian, but they all belong to one of these classes. Each class uses different strategies to build the verb complex, with irregular verbs employing somewhat different formations.

Transitive verbs (Class 1 verbs)
Class 1 verbs generally have a subject and a direct object. Some examples are "eat", "kill" and "receive". This class also includes causatives (the equivalent of "make someone do something") and the causative verbal form of adjectives (for example, "make someone deaf").

There are a few verbs in Class 3 that behave like transitive verbs of Class 1 in terms of their conjugations, such as sneeze and cough (see below).

Intransitive verbs (Class 2 verbs)
Intransitive verbs only have a subject and no direct object (though a few govern an indirect object marked simply with the dative case). Most verbs in this class have a subject that does not perform or control the action of the verb (for example, "die", "happen"). The passive voice of Class 1 transitive verbs belong in this class too, for example "be eaten", "be killed" and "be received". In addition, the verbal form of adjectives also have their intransitive counterparts: the intransitive verb for the adjective "deaf" is "to become deaf".

Medial verbs (Class 3 verbs)
Verbs in Class 3 are usually intransitive verbs, but unlike Class 2 verbs, they mark their subject using the ergative case. Most verbs of motion (such as "swim" and "roll") and verbs about weather (such as "rain" and "snow") belong to this class. Although these verbs are described as not having transitive counterparts (such as "cry"), some of them still have direct objects, such as "learn" and "study". Verbs that are derived from loan words also belong to this class.

The intransitive verbs in Classes 2 and 3, when taken together, seem to be conjugated differently based on a form of active alignment (see the section on morphosyntactic alignment).

Indirect verbs (Class 4 verbs)
Verbs that convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. The verbs "want" and "can" also belong to this class. Other common examples of Class 4 verbs are "sleep", "miss", "envy" and "believe". These verbs typically mark the subject with the dative and the object with the nominative.

Stative verbs
Stative verbs do not constitute a class per se, but rather refer to a state, and their conjugations are very similar to those of indirect verbs. For example, when one says, "the picture is hanging on the wall", the equivalent of "hang" is a stative verb.

Irregular verbs
There are numerous irregular verbs in Georgian; most of them employ the conjugation system of Class 2 intransitive verbs. Irregular verbs use different stems in different screeves, and their conjugations deviate from the conjugations of regular intransitive verbs. Some irregular verbs are: "be", "come", "say", "tell" and "give".

Screeves
There are three series of screeves in Georgian: first, second and third series. The first series has two subseries, which are called the present and the future subseries. The second series is also called the aorist series, and the third series is called the perfective series. There are a total of eleven screeves.

The present indicative is used to express an event at the time of speaking ("S/he is verbing"). It is also used to indicate an event that happens habitually ("S/he verbs").

The imperfect screeve is used to express an incomplete or continuous action in the past ("S/he was verbing"). It is also used to indicate a habitual past action (i.e. "S/he (regularly/often/sometimes) verbed", "S/he would verb", "S/he used to verb").

The present subjunctive screeve is used to express an unlikely event in the present and is usually used as a relative clause ("That s/he be verbing").

The future screeve is used to express an event that will take place in the future ("S/he will verb").

The conditional screeve is used together with if ("S/he would verb or "S/he would have verbed").

The future subjunctive screeve is used to express an unlikely event in the future and is usually used as a dependent clause.

The aorist screeve is used to indicate an action that took place in the past ("S/he verbed"). It is also used in imperatives (Verb!).

The optative screeve has many uses:
 * In negative imperatives ("Do not verb!").
 * In obligations ("S/he must verb").
 * In hypothetical conditions ("If s/he verbed (optative), X would happen (conditional)").
 * In exhortations ("Let's verb").

The present perfect screeve is used to indicate an action, which the speaker did not witness ("S/he has verbed").

The pluperfect screeve is used to indicate an action which happened before another event ("S/he had verbed").

The perfect subjunctive screeve is mostly for wishes ("May s/he verb!").

Verb components
Georgian is an agglutinating language. Agglutination means that affixes each express a single meaning, and they usually do not merge with each other or affect each other phonologically. Each verb screeve is formed by adding a number of prefixes and suffixes to the verb stem. Certain affix categories are limited to certain screeves. In a given screeve, not all possible markers are obligatory. The components of a Georgian verb form occur in the following order:

Preverb
Preverbs can add either directionality or an arbitrary meaning to the verb. To this extent they resemble the derivational prefixes of Slavic verbs. For example, while mi-vdivar means "I am going", mo-vdivar means "I am coming". Preverbs appear in the future, past and perfective screeves; they are generally absent in the present screeves. Preverbs indicating direction and orientation:

Verb personality
One, two or three grammatical persons can be indicated in the Georgian verb. The performer of an action is called the subject or the agent, and affected persons are patients or objects (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated.

To indicate subjects and objects the special markers are used, which are listed in the following tables.

The S2 and O3 marker h- evolved from earlier x-, which was first attested in the 5th century.

The h variant appears for the first time in the Tsqisi (წყისი) inscription (616–619 y.y.) and from the second half of the 8th century it becomes predominant. From the 9th century the h → s transformation is documented before the dental stops (d, ṭ, t) and affricates (ʒ, ċ, c, ǯ, č', č).

In Modern Georgian before vowels the h- marker vanishes.

In general, in Modern Georgian the S2 and O3 h-/s- prefixes have a tendency to fade away.

The oldest S2 x- is preserved with three verbal stems:
 * ar "to be" → xar "you are"
 * ved/vid "to come/go" → mo-x-ved-i "you came", mo-x-vid-odi "you would come"
 * val "to come/go" → mo-x-val "you will come"

Here is presented subject markers' usage example:

In the case of v-ts'er-t, ts'er-t, and ts'er-en, the -t and -en are the subject plurality markers.

Here is presented object markers' usage example"

In the case of g-i-nd-a-t and u-nd-a-t, the -t is the plural marker.

Georgian's polypersonalism allows the involvement of as many as three action participants to be expressed unambiguously within a single word. For example, while it takes at least four words to say "I wrote them it" in English ("I" being the subject, "it" being the direct object, "them" being the indirect object), in Georgian this can be said in one word: davuts'ere.

Version marker
Right after the nominal marker can come a "version" marker. Phonologically, version markers consist of any one of the vowels except for /o/. Version markers are semantically diverse. They can add either an unpredictable lexical meaning to the verb, or a functional meaning including causativity, passive voice, subjective version, objective version and locative version. For example, while v-ts'er means "I write it", v-u-ts'er means "I write it to him/her" (objective version), v-a-ts'er means "I write it on him/her" (locative version), and v-i-ts'er means "I write it (for myself)" (subjective version).

Verb root
The length of the verb root typically ranges from one to seven phonemes, with the longest root consisting of 15. Some consist of consonants only. The common root of the verbs meaning 'open', 'receive', 'take', and 'take a picture' is -gh-. "Lexical derivation" (or "word formation") is accomplished through the use of preverbs, version markers, and thematic suffixes. Some derivations of -gh- are seen in the sentences mi-v-i-gh-e ts'erili, 'I received the letter' and ga-a-gh-eb k'ars, 'you will open the door' (derivational affixes are bolded).

Passive marker
In Georgian, two morphological means of converting a transitive verb to an intransitive verb (or to passive voice) are to add -d- to the end of the verb root or to add the version marker -i- (see the discussion of version markers elsewhere in this article). Respective examples: ga-a-ts'itl-e, 'you made him blush' ( -ts'itl- is the root of ts'iteli, 'red') > ga-ts'itl-d-i, 'you blushed'; class 2 verb da-v-bad-eb, 'I will give birth to him/her', > da-v-i-bad-eb-i, 'I will be born' (the -i- at the end of the verb is the suffixal nominal marker obligatory with intransitive verbs (see below)).

Thematic suffix
The language has eight kinds of thematic suffixes (also sometimes known as present-future stem formants or PFSF). The suffixes are -eb-, -ev-, -av-, -am-, -i-, -ob-, -op-, and -Ø-. When the suffixal passive marker is absent, one of these suffixes can be placed right after the root of the verb. With these suffixes the verbs gain arbitrary meanings. Thematic suffixes are present in the present and future screeves, but are absent in the past and mostly absent in the perfective screeves. For example, the root of the verb "build" is -shen-. In order to say "I am building", we have to add the thematic suffix -eb- to the end of the root: v-a-shen-eb (v- meaning that the doer is the first person (v- set nominal marker), a is the versioner, shen is the root, and eb is the thematic suffix). To say "he/she is building", we simply add the suffixal nominal marker -s after the thematic suffix: a-shen-eb-s.

Causative marker
In English, causativity is predominantly expressed syntactically, by the phrase, 'make someone verb', whereas in Georgian it is expressed morphologically. The causative marker obligatorily coöccurs with the version marker -a-. There is no single causative marker in Georgian. To ditransitivize an already transitive verb, one uses in-eb or rarely ev: ch'am, 'you eat' > a-ch'Øm-ev, 'you make him eat / You are feeding him', with the syncope of the root.

Imperfective marker
This marker (-d- for class 1 verbs, -od- for class 2 verbs) are used to build the imperfective, present and future subjunctive and conditional screeves: v-a-shen-eb, 'I am building' > v-a-shen-eb-d-i, 'I was building" (the additional -i- at the end of the verb is the suffixal nominal marker); v-ts'er, 'I am writing' > v-ts'er-d-i, 'I was writing' (as the verb "write" does not have a thematic suffix, the imperfective marker is added right after the verb root).

Suffixal nominal marker
The transitive verbs (which employ the v- set) use the suffixal nominal marker -s- (as in a-shen-eb-s, ts'er-s) for the third person singular in present and future screeves. Intransitive verbs, the past and perfective screeves of the transitive and medial verbs, and indirect verbs, employ sets of vowels: in the indicative, i (strong) or e (weak) for the first/second person, o or a for the third person; in the subjunctive, the suffixal nominal marker is the same for all persons, generally e or o or, less frequently, a. The aorist intransitive form avashene, 'I built', has the structure, a-v-a-shen-Ø-e, characterized by preverb -a- and weak suffixal nominal marker -e-.

Auxiliary verb
The auxiliary verb is only used in the present indicative and perfective screeves of indirect verbs and in the perfective screeve of transitive verbs when the direct object is first or second person(s) (these are situations, where the m- set is used for the subject of the verb, and, therefore, v- set is used to indicate the direct object). The auxiliary verb is the same verb as to be in present screeve. The verb to be for the singular persons are: Me var ("I am"), Shen xar ("You are") and Is aris/ars (as an auxiliary verb shortened version a is used) ("he/she/it is"). For example, miq'vars means "I love him/her" (the s at the end of the verb indicating that it is the third person whom the speaker loves). In order to say "I love you", the s at the end has to be replaced with xar (as, now, the direct object is the second person): miq'var-xar ("I love you"), mq'varebi-a ("I have loved him/her").

Plural marker
Depending on which set of nominal markers is employed, the appropriate plural suffix is added. It can refer to either subject or object. An example of referring to objects would be miq'var-xar-t ("I love you (plural)") and miq'var-a-n ' ("I love them").

Auxiliary verbs
In addition to the possible auxiliary verb in the verb complex, there are also separate ones. Just as in English, Georgian language has the auxiliary verbs, such as want, must (have to) and can.

 * The verb ndoma ("to want") is conjugated just like any other class 4 verbs. In order to say, "to want to do something", one can use either the infinitive form of the verb (masdari) or the optative screeve.
 * The verb unda ("must") is not conjugated. However, just like the verb want, it uses the optative screeve in "must do something." In order to say "had to," one, again, uses the same word unda, but with the pluperfect screeve.
 * The verb shedzleba ("can") is a class 4 verb, and thus conjugated accordingly. Just like the verb want, it uses either the optative screeve or the infinitive form of the verb. In order to say "will be able to" and "could," the future and the aorist screeves are used respectively. The negation of "can" in Georgian is established with a special negation particle ver which, when used, contains the meaning "cannot," and, thus, the verb shedzleba is not used with it (see the negation section of Syntax for more details).

Word order
Word order in Georgian is not very strict. One common sentence structure features the sequence subject – indirect object – direct object – verb. For example, the sentence "I am writing a letter to my mother" can be expressed as follows (the glosses use the abbreviations NOM = nominative case, DAT = dative case, PRES = present screeve):

Me dedas ts'erils vts'er.

-NOM {my mother-DAT} letter-DAT write-PRES

This sentence could also occur with the constituent order subject – verb – direct object – indirect object. Since the verb encodes information about all these arguments, any of them can always be dropped (see pro-drop, null subject). It is not uncommon for pronoun arguments to be dropped.

Yes/No questions
The only way in which an utterance is marked as a yes–no question is by altering the intonation of a statement sentence: the pitch rises towards the end of the sentence. For example:

 * Chemtan ertad moxval, 'you will come with me'
 * Chemtan ertad moxval?, 'will you come with me?'

Tag questions
Those tag questions which expect an affirmative answer may employ the particle xom in second position within the sentence. Comparing statement, yes/no question, and tag question expecting an affirmative answer:

 * Dghes k'argi amindia, 'The weather is good today'
 * Dghes k'argi amindia?, 'is the weather good today?'
 * Dghes xom k'argi amindia?, 'the weather is good today, isn't it?'

These sentences contain an -a suffixed to the word amindi 'weather'. It is a reduced form of the verb aris, 'is'. The tag question in Georgian does not include any of the three recognized negative particles (see subsection, "Negation"); the particle xom by itself conveys the meaning. However, if the answer expected is negative, then a negative particle and the full form aris are added right after xom:

 * Dghes xom ar aris k'argi amindi?, 'the weather is not good today, is it?'

There is a particle, tu, which can be used to make a question more polite. The particle tu has many meanings in Georgian; in this context it cannot be exactly translated to English. Compare:

 * Chai ginda?, 'do you want some tea?'
 * Chai tu ginda?, 'would you like some tea?'

Interrogatives
Interrogative adjectives and interrogative pronouns are declined differently. An example of an interrogative adjective in English is which, as in "which city do you like the most?", while an example of an interrogative pronoun which is in the sentence "which (one) will you take?".

Interrogative pronouns in questions have a strict word order: they appear immediately pre-verbally. For example:

 * sad ts'avida nino?
 * where went Nino
 * 'Where did Nino go?'

Some interrogative pronouns in Georgian are:

Negation
There are three kinds of negation particles in Georgian: ar, 'not', ver, 'cannot', and nu, 'do not!. Ar is the chief one. Ver is only used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the sentence is not able to carry out an action. Nu is only used when giving negative commands. Examples:

 * Tsasvla ar minda, 'I do not want to go'
 * Ver movedi, 'I could not come'
 * Nu nerviulob!, 'don't worry!'

These three particles can be modified with the suffix -ghar, to create particles meaning 'no longer, no more':

 * ar, 'not' → aghar, 'no longer, not anymore'
 * ver, 'cannot' → veghar, 'can no longer, cannot anymore'
 * nu, 'do not' → nughar, 'do no longer, do not anymore'

Examples of the use of these derived negative words:

 * Pexburts aghar vtamashob, 'I do not play football anymore'
 * Veghar vch'am, 'I cannot eat anymore'
 * Nughar iparav!, 'do not steal anymore!'

title: Georgian grammar


text:
Kaimuki, Hawaii

Kaimukī is a residential neighborhood in Honolulu, Hawaii, United States.

History
In the 19th century the area was a farm of King Kalākaua, where ostriches roamed wild over the mountain side. It later became the site of a carnation farm for funeral flowers. Now a mix of residential area with a small business district (mainly restaurants and service industries), it is located in the urbanized Honolulu region near Kahala and Diamond Head.

Kaimukī is an ancient Hawaiian name. Its name comes from Ka imu kī meaning "The ti root oven" in the Hawaiian language. The area was known for the many ovens used to bake roots of kī Cordyline fruticosa, or ti, into a sweet food similar to candy.

Kaimukī's main street is Waialae Avenue, pronounced. Several restaurants and stores are located on this street, as well as Kaimukī District Park.

Pu‘u o Kaimukī aka “Kaimuki Hill” is the predominant feature of the area and has been a reservoir, a telegraph station, an observatory, and now a park.

Architecture
The neighborhood of Kaimukī is home to historic buildings. The Kaimuki Fire Station, designed in the Spanish Mission Style by G.R. Miller, was built in 1924 and is still used as a station today. The Queen Theater, designed by Lyman Bigelow, opened in 1936 but closed in 1985.

Colleges and universities
Kapiʻolani Community College, one of ten branches of the public University of Hawaiʻi System, is located in Kaimuki as is the private Chaminade University.

Public schools
Hawaii Department of Education operates public schools. Waialae School, a public charter elementary school, is located in Kaimuki, between 19th Avenue and 20th Avenue. Kaimuki Middle School is in the area. Kaimuki High School is located in Kaimuki and serves much of the area considered to be Kaimukī. Kalani High School serves some students from Kaimukī.

Private schools
Saint Louis School for boys and Sacred Hearts Academy for girls are located in Kaimuki as well as St. Patrick School (COED K-8). Kaimuki Christian School (COED P3-11) is located on Koko Head Avenue.

Weekend educational programs
The Hawaii Japanese School - Rainbow Gakuen (ハワイレインボー学園 Hawai Rainbō Gakuen), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes in Kaimuki Middle School in Honolulu and has its offices in another building in Honolulu.

Notable residents

 * Israel Kamakawiwoʻole was raised in the neighborhood.

title: Kaimuki, Hawaii