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George Morland

George Morland (26 June 1763 – 29 October 1804) was an English painter. His early work was influenced by Francis Wheatley, but after the 1790s he came into his own style. His best compositions focus on rustic scenes: farms and hunting; smugglers and gypsies; and rich, textured landscapes informed by Dutch Golden Age painting.

Much of his work was intended for reproduction in prints, from which his publishers made a good deal more money than he did. Despite being a heavy drinker who enjoyed a rackety lifestyle, he was enormously prolific, though the quality of his work increasingly suffered. After many troubles with debts in his last decade, he died at the age of 41.

Biography

George Morland was born in London on 26 June 1763. He was the son of Henry Robert Morland, and grandson of George Henry Morland, said by Cunningham to have been lineally descended from Sir Samuel Morland, while other biographers go so far as to say that he had only to claim the baronetcy in order to get it. Morland began to draw at the age of three years, and at the age of ten (1773) his name appears as an honorary exhibitor of sketches at the Royal Academy. He continued to exhibit at the Free Society in 1775 and 1776, and at the Society of Artists in 1777, and then again at the Royal Academy in 1778, 1779 and 1780.

His talents were carefully cultivated by his father, who was accused of stimulating them unduly with a view to his own profit, shutting the child up in a garret to make drawings from pictures and casts for which he found a ready sale. The boy, on the other hand, is said to have soon found a way to make money for himself by hiding some of his drawings, and lowering them at nightfall out of his window to young accomplices, with whom he used to spend the proceeds in frolic and self-indulgence. It has been also asserted that his father, discovering this trick, tried to conciliate him by indulgence, humouring his whims and encouraging his low tastes.

He was set by his father to copy pictures of all kinds, but especially of the Dutch and Flemish masters. Among others he copied Fuseli's Nightmare and Reynolds's Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy. He was also introduced to Sir Joshua Reynolds, and obtained permission to copy his pictures, and all accounts agree that before he was seventeen he had obtained considerable reputation not only with his friends and the dealers, but among artists of repute. A convincing proof of the skill in original composition which he had then attained is the fine engraving by William Ward, after his picture of The Angler's Repast, which was published in November 1780 by John Raphael Smith.

It is said that before his apprenticeship to his father came to an end, in 1784, Romney offered to take him into his own house, with a salary of £300, on condition of his signing articles for three years. But Morland, we are told, had had enough of restraint, and after a rupture with his father he set up on his own account in 1784 or 1785 at the house of a picture dealer, and commenced that life which, in its combination of hard work and hard drinking, is almost without a parallel.

Morland soon became the mere slave of the dealer with whom he lived. His boon companions were "ostlers, potboys, horse jockeys, moneylenders, pawnbrokers, punks, and pugilists." In this company the handsome young artist swaggered, dressed in a green coat, with large yellow buttons, leather breeches, and top boots. "He was in the very extreme of foppish puppeyism", says Hassell; "his head, when ornamented according to his own taste, resembled a snowball, after the model of Tippey Bob, of dramatic memory, to which was attached a short, thick tail, not unlike a painter's brush." His youth and strong constitution enabled him to recover rapidly from his excesses, and he not only employed the intervals in painting, but at this time, or shortly afterwards, taught himself to play the violin. He made also an effort, and a successful one, to free himself from his task-master, and escaped to Margate, where he painted miniatures for a while. In 1785 he paid a short visit to France, whither his fame had preceded him, and where he had no lack of commissions.

Returning to London, he lodged in a house at Kensal Green, on the road to Harrow, near William Ward, intercourse with whose family seems for a time to have had a steadying influence. It resulted in his marriage with Miss Anne Ward (Nancy), the sister of his friend, in July 1786, and the bond between the families was strengthened a month later by the marriage of William Ward and Morland's sister Maria. The two newly married couples set up house together in High Street, Marylebone, and Morland for a while appeared to have become a reformed character.

He was now becoming known by such engravings from his pictures as the large 'Children Nutting' (1783), and several smaller and more sentimental subjects published in 1785, like the ' Lass of Livingston.' To 1786, the year of his marriage, is said to belong the series of 'Letitia or Seduction' (well known from the engravings published in 1789), in which with much of the narrative power of Hogarth, but with softer touches, the 'Progress' of Letitia is told in six scenes admirable in design, and painted with great skill, finish, and refinement. About this period he was fond of visiting the Isle of Wight, where he painted his best coast scenes, and studied life and character in a low public-house at Freshwater Gate, called the Cabin. In 1786 he painted The Wreck of the Haswell, an oil on canvas. It shows women and children clutching what little of the ship remains afloat while a crewman's eyes tell the eventual fate of his half-submerged body. It clearly conveys the terror and hopelessness that must grip people when they know they're taking their last breath.

Later life

After three months the double household was broken up by dissensions between the ladies, and Morland took lodgings in Great Portland Street, and afterwards moved to Camden Town, where he lived in a small house in Pleasing Passage, at the back of the tavern known as Mother Black Cap. The attractions of the neighbouring inns, and of the Assembly Rooms at Kentish Town, now proved too strong for him, and he returned to all his bad habits. A long illness of his wife, following her confinement and death of the child, further weakened the influence of home, and he neglected and ultimately left his wife, though he seems to have made her an allowance as long as he lived.

When he finally separated from her it is not easy to determine, and his course afterwards was so erratic that it is difficult to trace it with minuteness and order. He moved from Pleasing Passage to Warrens Lane, and seems for some time to have made his headquarters at Paddington. It was here probably that he painted the celebrated picture of 'The Inside of a Stable,' now in the National Gallery, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1791. The stable is said to be that of the White Lion Inn at Paddington, opposite to which he lived. At this time he was at the plenitude of his power, and dissipation had not impaired the sureness of his touch, his unusually fine sense of colour, or the refinement of his artistic feeling. He exhibited again in 1793 and 1794, but though he still painted finely he had become completely the prey of the dealers, painting as it were from hand to mouth to supply himself with funds for his extravagances.

His art was so popular that, comparatively small as was the price which he actually received for his labour, he might have easily lived for a week on the earnings of a day. He was besieged by dealers who came to him, as it is said, with a purse in one hand and a bottle in the other. The amount of work he got through was prodigious. He would paint one or two pictures a day, and once painted a large landscape with six figures in the course of six hours. Every demand that was made upon him, whether a tavern score or the renewal of a bill, was paid by a picture. And they were good pictures too, generally worth many times the value of the account to be settled, and always popular in engravings.

Career

From 1788 to 1792 inclusive, over a hundred engravings after Morland were published. They included 'A Visit to the Child at Home' and 'A Visit to the Boarding School,' two compositions of remarkable refinement and elegance, and a number of charming scenes of children's sports, like 'Children Birdnesting,' 'Juvenile Navigation,' 'The Kite entangled,' 'Blind Man's Buff,' and 'Children playing at Soldiers.' Equalling if not exceeding these in popularity were scenes of moral contrast, like 'The Fruits of early Industry and Economy' (1789) and 'The Effects of Extravagance and Idleness' (1794), the 'Miseries of Idleness' and the 'Comforts of Industry,' both published in 1790, and subjects appealing to national sentiment, like 'The Slave Trade' (1791) and 'African Hospitality.' Five hundred copies of the engraving of 'Dancing Dogs' (1790) were sold in a few weeks, and one dealer gave an order for nine dozen sets of the four plates of 'The Deserter' (1791). Elegant and refined subjects gradually gave place exclusively to scenes from humble life in town and country, including the coast with fishermen and smugglers, sporting scenes, but more frequently, in a plain but seldom a coarse manner, the life of the cottage, the stable, and the inn-yard, with lively groups of natural men and women, and still more natural horses, donkeys, dogs, pigs, poultry, and other animals. About 250 separate engravings from his works appeared in his lifetime.

Although the publishers reaped the benefits of their large sale, Morland's credit and resources enabled him for some years to lead the rollicking life he loved without much pressure of care. At one time he kept eight saddle horses at the White Lion. As time went on debts increased and creditors became more pressing, and he lived a hunted life, only able to escape from the bailiffs by his knowledge of London and the assistance of friends and dealers. He flitted from one house to another, residing among other places at Lambeth, East Sheen, Queen Anne Street, the Minories, Kensington, and Hackney. At Hackney his seclusion aroused the suspicion that he was a forger of bank notes, and his premises were searched at the insistence of the bank directors, who afterwards made him a present of 40l. for the inconvenience caused by their mistake.

Dealers and innkeepers also would keep rooms ready for him to paint in, supplied with the necessary materials, and there was generally some dealer at hand ready to carry off his pictures before they were dry, often before they were finished. Morland was not, however, much more scrupulous in his dealings than the dealers themselves, and a picture begun under contract with one would be parted with to another who had money in his hand, if the rightful owner was not there to claim it. In this way a number of pictures got into the market commenced by Morland, and finished by inferior hands, while hundreds of copies were made and sold as originals. 'I once saw,' says Hassell, 'twelve copies from a small picture of Morland's at one time in a dealer's shop, with the original in the centre.' Another dealer (according to Redgrave), in whose house he painted under contract in the morning for several years (commencing about 1794), had each morning's work regularly copied. Occasionally Morland managed to escape from both dealers and bailiffs. Once he paid a visit to Claude Lorraine Smith in Leicestershire. He was apprehended as a spy at Yarmouth. He painted the sign of an inn called the Black Bull, somewhere on the road between Deal and London.

In November 1799, Morland was at last arrested for debt, but was allowed to take lodgings 'within the rules,' and these became the rendezvous of his most discreditable friends. During this mitigated confinement he sank lower and lower. He is said to have often been drunk for days together, and to have generally slept on the floor in a helpless condition. It is probable that these stories are exaggerated, for he still produced an enormous quantity of good work. 'For his brother alone,' says Redgrave, 'he painted 192 pictures between 1800 and 1804, and he probably painted as many more for other dealers during the same period, his terms being four guineas a day and his drink.' Another account says that 'during his last eight years he painted 490 pictures for his brother, and probably three hundred more for others, besides making hundreds of drawings. His total production is estimated at no less than four thousand pictures.

In 1802, he was released under the Insolvent Debtors Act, but his health was ruined and his habits irremediable. About this time he was seized with palsy and lost the use of his left hand, so that he could not hold his palette. Notwithstanding he seems to have gone on painting to the last, when he was arrested again for a publican's score, and died in a sponging-house in Eyre Street, Cold Bath Fields, on 27 October 1804. His wife died three days afterwards, and both were buried together in the burial-ground attached to St. James's Chapel in the Hampstead Road.

Works
The finest of Morland's pictures were executed between 1790 and 1794, and amongst them his picture The inside of a stable (Tate Britain, London) may be reckoned as a masterpiece. In the last eight years of his life Morland produced some nine hundred paintings, besides over a thousand drawings.

He exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy from 1784 down to 1804. Amongst these was the remarkable 1788 picture Execrable Human Traffic or the Affectionate Slaves. Two years later he exhibited a companion picture showing Africans caring for shipwrecked Europeans. They were subsequently published as prints and served to promote abolitionism.

Morland was a close friend of fellow artist William Armfield Hobday (1771–1831) who painted a portrait of the artist which is still intact. William Collins was an informal pupil and later wrote a biography.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Chesterton, G. K (Ed.). Famous Paintings, Volume 2 (Cassell, 1913), Nos. 1 & 16.
 * John Hassell. Memoirs of the life of the late George Morland (London: J. Cunee, 1806).
 * Richardson, Ralph. George Morland, painter, London (1763-1804) (London: E. Stock, 1895),
 * J. T. Nettleship. George Morland: and the evolution from him of some later painters (London: Seeley, 1898).
 * Baily, J. T. H. & Hardie, Martin. George Morland; a biographical essay (London, Otto, 1906).
 * Williamson, G. C. George Morland; his life and works (London: Bell & sons, 1907).
 * Wilson, David Henry. George Morland (Walter Scott publishing co., 1907).
 * Gilbey, Sir Walter, & Cuming, E. D. George Morland, his life and works (Adam & Charles Black, 1907).
 * Cuming, E. D. George Morland: sixteen examples in colour of the artist's work (London : A.& C. Black, 1910).
 * Henderson, B.L.K. Morland and Ibbetson (Philip Allan, London, 1923).
 * Winter, D. George Morland: 1763-1804 (Stanford University, 1977).
 * Henderson, B.L.K. Morland and Ibbetson (Philip Allan, London, 1923).
 * Winter, D. George Morland: 1763-1804 (Stanford University, 1977).

title: George Morland


text:
Yeti (band)

Yeti were an English rock band, founded in 2004 by John Hassall, of The Libertines. Hassall met Brendan Kersey, Andrew Deian and Mark Underwood (formerly Harmony Williams) through mutual friends, and the line-up was completed when drummer Graham Blacow responded to a classified advertisement. The band is based in North London.

Career
Yeti began with Hassall as the main songwriter, but soon Underwood started writing and singing a few of his own (including lead-off track on One Eye on the Banquet, "The Last Time You Go" and "Insect-Eating Man"), while Deian has also penned several tracks, including their single "Don't Go Back to the One You Love" and "Jermyn Girls". The NME compared the band's sound to "early" Beatles, The La's, The Kinks, The Byrds, The Coral, The Zombies, Love and early "pre-Rough Trade" Libertines.

Their debut single "Never Lose Your Sense Of Wonder" was released in March 2005, and sold out within 3 days. It reached top 30 in the UK Singles Chart. It was named "Single of the Week" by The Guardian and the NME. "Keep Pushin' On" was released on 29 August 2005 under Moshi Moshi Records and reached No. 57.

The band was also featured in magazines such as Vogue, Arena, GQ, Spin, Dazed & Confused and Clash. In December 2005, Yeti played "Noise and Confusion 05" – their biggest show to date – at the Cardiff Millennium Stadium, opening for Oasis and Foo Fighters. This was followed by a string of supporting shows on Oasis' European Tour in February 2006. Yeti featured in the 2006 advertising campaign for the Italian fashion label "Energie".

Yeti returned to action at the end of October 2006 and released a limited edition EP, One Eye on the Banquet, playing a series of small gigs within the UK throughout the final months of 2006.

In early 2007, Kersey left the band and joined London band The Early Years, with Hassall taking over on his favoured bass.

The band played their first show as a four-piece at the Proud Gallery in London in August 2007. Yeti released a compilation album, Yume!, in Japan on 29 August 2007, and the band played shows in Tokyo, Fukuoka, Kyoto, Sapporo and Yokohama in September 2007 to promote the record. Yume! was a commercial success and peaked at number 3 in the Japanese HMV Foreign chart.

The band completed a thirty date UK tour, with support from London band The Foxes, to promote their album, The Legend of Yeti Gonzales. The album was recorded live with only a handful of overdubs onto a 16 track tape recorder without any mastering. It was released in June 2008, and received favourable reviews from the NME, "Clash" and Daily Mirror. Yeti split sometime towards the end of 2008/09.

Albums

 * The Legend Of Yeti Gonzales – 23 June 2008; Get Up & Go Records

Compilation albums

 * Yume!, 29 August 2007 (Japan only), (Vinyl Junkie)

EPs

 * One Eye on the Banquet, 30 October 2006

Singles

 * "Never Lose Your Sense Of Wonder", 28 March 2005 (Moshi Moshi)
 * "Keep Pushin' On", 29 August 2005 (Moshi Moshi)
 * "Don't Go Back to the One You Love", 26 May 2008 (Get Up & Go Records)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yeti (band)


text: User talk:66.124.190.226

title: User talk:66.124.190.226


text:
California Love

"California Love" is a song by American rapper 2Pac featuring fellow American rapper-producer Dr. Dre and American singer Roger Troutman of the funk group Zapp. The song was released as 2Pac's comeback single after his release from prison in 1995 and was his first single as the newest artist of Death Row Records. The original version is featured on the UK version of his fourth album, All Eyez on Me (1996), and is one of 2Pac's most widely known and most successful singles. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks (as a double A-side single with "How Do U Want It") and also topped the charts of Italy, New Zealand, and Sweden. The song was posthumously nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group in 1997.

Writing, samples and background
"California Love"'s first recording sessions began in November 1995. It was one of two songs produced by Dr. Dre on All Eyez on Me—the other one being "Can't C Me". The first version of the song has three verses featuring Dr. Dre's rapping. The only copy of this session is now in the possession of DJ Jam, Snoop Dogg's personal concert DJ. 2Pac first heard Dr. Dre's session while at Dre's in-house studio and asked Dre to put him on the song. Producer Laylaw also did an additional remix of the song which is often erroneously credited to Dr. Dre and has been suggested to be one of the reasons for the fallout between Dre and 2Pac a few months later. The original was released as a double-A side single together with "How Do U Want It" and intended for the Dr. Dre album The Chronic II, while the remix was included on 2Pac's All Eyez on Me. The song was made and written in Dr. Dre's in house studio, 2Pac came in and wrote his verse straight away; it took him just 15 minutes to write his verse. The weekend after the song was completed the video was then recorded.

The original version contains a sample taken from Joe Cocker's 1972 song "Woman to Woman". The remix version contains a sample taken from Kleeer's 1984 song "Intimate Connection". The chorus, "California knows how to party", was sung by Roger Troutman using his characteristic talk box and was taken from the 1982 song "West Coast Poplock" by Ronnie Hudson & The Street People which was written by Ronnie Hudson and Mikel Hooks. In the song where Troutman sings "shake it, shake it baby", he interpolates the chant he used on his 1982 Zapp single, "Dance Floor".

Composition
Sheet music for "California Love" shows the key of G minor, and a moderate tempo of 92 beats per minute.

Critical reception
Michael Hill from Cash Box noted that 2Pac and Dr. Dre "are clicking some smooth lyrics together over this killer ass dance track. This track is smoking, and with the introduction of funk royalty Roger Troutman on the vocoder, it simply bursts into flames. If you haven't heard one of the six mixes available, be patient because it's bound to reach your area soon." Will Hermes from Entertainment Weekly viewed it as "a West Coast rump shaker". Victoria Segal from Melody Maker wrote, "Vocoders. The squelchiest synths. Slippery background harmonies. Shake it baby. You are in a disco dotted with palm trees, smothered in Gracelands-style soft furnishings and dancing with a coked-out Ray Liotta, looking like hell at the end of Good Fellas. That's 'California Love'." Ralph Tee from Music Week RM Dance Update rated the song four out of five, describing it as "a fusion of funk and hip hop on this excellent rap cut about the splendour of the US's sunshine state." He added further, "Dr. Dre's production sparkles on this potential hit which takes the vocoder and horns from Zapp's 'So Ruff So Tuff' (Roger Troutman also appearing in the Mad Max-style video) and on its best mix the sticky bassline from Kleeer's 'Intimate Connection' underlines it all."

Music videos
Two versions of the music video were filmed. Shakur's longtime friend, actress Jada Pinkett Smith, came up with the concept inspired by the 1985 film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome. She was expected to direct the video, but she removed herself from the project and was replaced by Hype Williams. The video was filmed November 10-13, 1995 in El Mirage, California. It takes place in a desert in the year 2095. The casting includes actor Clifton Powell as the evil tribal chief, actor Chris Tucker (then known for his role in the 1995 film Friday), Tony Cox as the dwarf soldier, and Roger Troutman (formerly with the band Zapp) carrying a talk box. It ends with a cliffhanger cut by a "To Be Continued" closing. An alternative version, featuring the remix song re-cut, removes the final caption and features 2Pac and Dr. Dre naming West Coast towns.

The second video is based on the remix version of the song from the album All Eyez on Me and is a continuation of the video's story. The premise is that the desert scenes of the previous videos were merely a nightmare 2Pac was having. When he wakes up, he finds himself in his bed beside a young woman. He calls Dr. Dre on a cordless phone, who tells him to get over to his summer house because he's throwing a house party. The rest of the music video takes place as if it were a home video celebrating 2Pac's welcome to Death Row and features several cameos, notably Roger Troutman who is now playing the piano, and guest appearances from DJ Quik, Big Syke, Deion Sanders, Danny Boy, Nadia Cassini, Jodeci, B-Legit and E-40. The video was shot in Compton, California.

The first video can be found on the DualDisc of All Eyez on Me and the second video can be found on Tupac: Live at the House of Blues DVD. It also won the 1996 MOBO Award for Best Video. The music video was released in December 1995.

Live performances
2Pac performed the song live on January 6, 1996 at Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans during the Tribute to Eazy-E tour. He then performed the song live with Roger Troutman on Saturday Night Live on February 17, 1996. Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg performed the song during the Super Bowl LVI halftime show on February 13, 2022. Dr. Dre and Kendrick Lamar performed the song at The Pop Out: Ken & Friends show on June 19, 2024.

Accolades
"California Love" was voted the 11th best single of 1996 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual critics poll run by The Village Voice. Robert Christgau, the poll's creator, ranked it 10th in his own year-end list. The song's first video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video in 1996. It achieved number 9 of the top 10 on MTV's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made list in 1999. In April 2005 it reached the Bronze medal spot on MTV2 and XXL's 25 Greatest West Coast Videos. It also achieved number 1 on the French MTV's "100 Greatest Rap Music Videos" in 2006. It went number 51 on VH1's countdown of the 100 Greatest songs of the 90s in 2007.

Personnel

 * Writer – Tupac "2Pac" Shakur (2nd Verse); James "J-Flexx" Anderson (first verse)
 * Keyboards – Sean "Barney" Thomas
 * percussion – Carl "Butch" Small
 * Producer, mixing, featuring (rap) – Dr. Dre
 * Vocals, talkbox – Roger Troutman
 * Background vocals – Danette Williams, Dorothy Coleman, Barbara Wilson
 * Engineer – Keston E. Wright
 * Engineer – Rick Clifford
 * Assistant Engineer: Alvin McGill
 * Production assistant – Larry Chatman
 * Video direction – Hype Williams

title: California Love


text:
Edwin B. Astwood

Edwin Bennett Astwood (December 19, 1909 – February 17, 1976) was a Bermudian-American physiologist and endocrinologist: his research on endocrine system led to treatments for hyperthyroidism, first published in 1943 in what has subsequently been called a "landmark" paper. In 1949 he showed that methimazole was superior to alternative therapies for Graves' disease and this became a standard treatment for the condition.

He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1949. In 1948, he was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. He died of cancer on February 17, 1976, in Hamilton, Bermuda.

title: Edwin B. Astwood


text:
Talk:Robert Ford (Canadian diplomat)

Untitled
what about the Robert Ford that killed Jesse James? theres no link to that Robert Ford. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.41.55.2 (talk) 00:40, 11 April 2005 (UTC)

Requested move 10 February 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: move the page to Robert Ford (Canadian diplomat) at this time, per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 22:09, 17 February 2019 (UTC)

Robert Ford (poet) → Robert Ford (diplomat) – His main biography focuses on his career as a diplomat, and Canadian encyclopedia entry prioritises his work over his poetry. Ambassador to the Soviet Union for sixteen years is pretty notable, and I don't see his poetry reaching such a level of notability. Pontificalibus 14:59, 10 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Support per nomination. I would also support the combined form Robert Ford (diplomat and poet), but if consensus prefers a one-word qualifier, then Robert Ford (diplomat) should take precedence over Robert Ford (poet).   Roman Spinner (talk • contribs) 22:29, 10 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Support Robert Ford (Canadian diplomat) (since Robert Stephen Ford was also a diplomat). Clear primary career. He was ambassador to the USSR, one of the most important diplomatic postings, for sixteen years, for crying out loud! Double disambiguators are never advisable. -- Necrothesp (talk) 13:09, 12 February 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Robert Ford (Canadian diplomat)


text:
Fiscus

Fiscus (Latin for "basket") was the treasury of the Roman Empire. It was initially the personal wealth of the emperors, funded by taxation on the imperial provinces, assumption of estates and other privileges. By the third century it was understood as a state fund rather than a personal one, albeit under the emperor's control. It is the origin of the English term "fiscal."

Origins
Augustus divided Rome's territory between senatorial provinces, whose tributes ended up in the aerarium (the already existing state's chest), and imperial provinces, whose incomes ended up into the fiscus, the emperor's chest. Upon the latter chest fell the most burdensome costs, namely the ones for army and fleet, bureaucracy and grants to urban plebs (distribution of wheat or moneys).

The imperial provinces, under Augustus' reform, were the provinces non pacatae (i.e., the border provinces) who Augustus had advocated under his direct administration. Those provinces, that later started to be called provinciae Caesaris, were entrusted to equites and agents of the emperor with the title of procuratores Augusti.

Despite this separation, the emperor had the right to transfer moneys from the aerarium to the fiscus.

Several historians believe that there were only ten senatorial provinces, that is one third of the total number of the imperial ones. This fact would prove that the fiscus were much richer and relevant than the aerarium already from its birth.

Administration
The head of the fiscus in the first years was the a rationibus, originally a freedman due to Augustus' desire to place the office in the hands of a servant free of the class demands of the traditional society. In succeeding years the corruption and reputation of the freedman forced new and more reliable administrators. From the time of Hadrian, any a rationibus hailed from the Equestrian Order (equites) and remained so through the 3rd century and into the age of Diocletian.

Under the Flavian dynasty, a new official, rather than the a rationibus, was in charge of the fiscus, called procurator fisci (or procurator a rationibus Augusti). He had some tasks like drawing up a state's financial statement and forecasting empire's incomes and outcomes. He also managed the assets of the emperor (patrimonium principii), the army's expenditures, the allocation of wheat, the restoration of aqueducts, temples and streets. At last he had the crucial role of establishing the annual quantity of metal to be minted.

Fiscus' incomes
The incomes of the emperor's chest could derive from taxes or from other sources.

Incomes from taxes

 * The first noteworthy tax is the provincial tax imposed to the imperial provinces. It is essentially a 10% of the entire amount of taxes due, imposed only on those able to generate profits (females, children and old people were not subjected). These incomes were especially used for national defense.
 * There was also the vicesima hereditatium, a tax of 5% of the inheritances.
 * Another important tax was the dogana, with a variable percentage going from 1.5% up to 5%.
 * Luxury objects imported from the east, for instance spices, silk and precious stones were subject of a customs tax 25% of their value.
 * The last one was on the turnover, but it isn't known in which measure.

Non-fiscal incomes

 * Incomes received as inheritance by the emperor. This type was one of the most relevant income sources for the fiscus; it was a custom among the Romans to leave as inheritance something to the emperor.
 * The lost portion of an inheritance (bona caduca), that is the part of the inheritance that couldn't be received by the heir. There were some reasons for which someone couldn't receive the whole inheritance or part of it. For example, the Lex Papia Poppaea Nuptialis (9 BC) established that some people couldn't inherit, namely: the caelibes (unmarried men between 25 and 60 years old and unmarried women between 20 and 50 years old) they lost the 100% of their capacity to inherit, the orbi (married people without sons) who lost the 50% of their capacity to inherit, the pater solitarius (i.e. who had sons from a previous marriage but didn't marry again) for them the lost capacity isn't known. There are also laws concerning the unworthiness of the heirs.
 * The vacant inheritance (bona vacantia), that is the case in which the inheritance was without any heirs, neither legal nor designated. If the deceased was a citizen of one of the imperial provinces the fiscus became owner (but, in this case, it also inherited any eventual debts).
 * The inheritance of the “implicit guarantor”. Is a very peculiar kind of guarantor who was relevant in case the deceased asked him (but with an unspecified formula) to transfer the inheritance once received. This disposition was meant to avoid the use of this figure, because it was usually used to avoid some other legislative dispositions.
 * State's assets incomes: national mines’ incomes and leasing of public lands (tributum soli).
 * Incomes from the sale of war's treasuries.
 * Incomes from the discovery of treasuries, the half of the treasure found in the imperial provinces had to be delivered to the fiscus .
 * Incomes from fines.
 * The goods of the convicted (bona damnatorum), i.e. all the good of people sentenced to deprivation of life or freedom or citizenry right, had to be delivered to the fiscus.

Nature of the fiscus
There are three different theories about the nature of the fiscus.

The first theory takes the fiscus as the private capital of the emperor.

The second theory states that the fiscus was a public capital entrusted to the emperor to maintain public order. It should have been used only for public welfare aims. Supporting this thesis there are the facts that some emperors, like Augustus, made its accounting public, that the emperor could leave as inheritance the fiscus only to his heir to the throne, and that Pertinax defined the fiscus as public.

According to the third theory the fiscus was owned neither by the emperor nor by the people, but it was essentially a legal person. The emperors could use it only for public interest reasons. As a legal person it could be creditor or debtor, plaintiff and defendant. In support of this thesis it's showed that there was a proper legal structure around it. Nerva established one specific magistrate (praetor) designated to judge over the legal cases between private individuals and fiscus. The legal agents of the fiscus were the rationalis (and the procurator fisci from the Flavian dynasty ages); nevertheless the judicial actions themselves were made by the advocatus fisci, role created by Hadrian. They were appointed to defend its reasons in trial. According to this evidence the emperor never appeared in trial nor was he judged.

Reforms and developments
From its very introduction the fiscus started a continuous process of enforcement with respect to the aerarium, until the word aerarium ended up representing only the municipal chest of Rome.

With Diocletian came a series of massive reforms, and total control over the finances of the empire fell to the new stronger central government. With these reforms the distinction between aerarium and fiscus was definitely abolished, even though some historians believe this union was already realized under the empire of Septimius Severus.

In the late imperial period, probably under Constantine, the fiscus was renamed largitiones, and it was entrusted to the comes sacrarum largitionum (count of the sacred largess) a proper appointed minister of finance. He maintained the general treasury and the intake of all the revenues.

Other fisci
Beside the fiscus but independently from it Vespasian created the fiscus Alexandrinus and the fiscus Asiaticus to receive Egyptian and Asian revenues, formerly directed to the aerarium.

He also created the fiscus Iudaicus, to which the Jewish population was subjected.

title: Fiscus


text:
Never Summer Mountains

The Never Summer Mountains (from Arapaho: Ni-chebe-chii) are a mountain range in the Rocky Mountains in north central Colorado in the United States consisting of over twenty named peaks. The range is located along the northwest border of Rocky Mountain National Park, forming an S-turn in the continental divide between the headwaters of the Colorado River in Rocky Mountain National Park and the upper basin of the North Platte River (North Park). The range is small and tall, covering only 25 sqmi with a north–south length of 10 mi with over ten distinct peaks rising more than 12000 ft. The range straddles the Jackson-Grand county line for most of its length, and stretches into Jackson and Larimer county at its northern end. A panoramic view of the range is available from sections of Trail Ridge Road in Rocky Mountain National Park. One of the northernmost peaks, Nokhu Crags, is prominently visible from the west side of Cameron Pass.

Geology
Most rocks in the Never Summer Mountains are younger than the surrounding Rocky Mountains. Volcanic and intrusive processes 24–29 million years ago created the Never Summer and Rabbit Ears Range to the west. Today, what remains are weathered fragments of much larger volcanoes; primarily igneous granitic formations along with preceding metamorphic content. Most of the highest peaks in the range are granodiorite that was uplifted during the Miocene epoch. The range's highest summit, Mount Richthofen, is the remnant of an andesite volcanic plug. The Nokhu Crags in the north are mostly vertically-oriented Pierre Shale dating from Cretaceous times. A large thrust fault underneath the Kawuneeche Valley thrust older Precambrian rocks on top of the younger Cretaceous rocks on the east side of the range. The southern peaks are Miocene-aged granite, and finally Precambrian-aged biotite gneiss and schist.

Beginning two million years ago, glaciers began carving the jagged peaks of the Never Summer Mountains. Successive waves of glaciation continued to reshape the mountains until the Pinedale Glaciation ended twelve-thousand years ago.

The peaks are enormous weathered masses of granitic rock heavily covered with green and orange lichens surrounded on all sides by large fields of talus shed from the original peaks. Many alpine lakes are nestled amongst the peaks. Most woody vegetation is low-growing and stunted. Few trees grow at the higher altitudes and Krummholz abounds.

History
Paleo-Indians were the original human inhabitants of the area. Ute resided in the area for hundreds of years, then later Arapaho migrated into the region from the north. With the arrival of more and more European settlers, Native Americans were pushed off these land beginning in the mid-1800s.

In 1879 prospectors discovered silver on Mount Shipler, starting a small mining rush. A mining town was platted and given the name Lulu City, located at 40.44556°N, -105.84806°W. Other small settlements were founded in the area, including Dutchtown, located high in Hitchens Gulch. The population swelled as high as 5,000 miners and business owners catering to those miners. However, low grade ore, combined with difficult transportation and lack of a local smelter to process the ore, conspired against the boom. By late 1883 the mining rush ended and the miners moved on. The last miners in Dutchtown left by 1884. Today remnants of the towns and mines are accessible by hiking trails.

In 1890 a project called the Grand Ditch began. The ditch is a 16.2 mi water diversion project. Streams and creeks that flow from the highest peaks are diverted into the ditch, which flows over La Poudre pass, delivering the water into the Atlantic Basin for the use of eastern plains farmers. The ditch wasn't completed until 1936. The ditch diverts between 20 and 40% of the runoff from the Never Summer Mountains and significantly impacts the ecology in the valley below. In May 2003 a 100 ft section of the ditch breached causing the water to cascade down the slopes and into the Colorado River. The flood left a visible scar on the mountainside.

In 1914, the Colorado Mountain Club brought members of the Arapaho tribe to the region. Tribal members who spent their youth in the area were asked the Arapaho language names for the various peaks, lakes and other geographic features. They called the range Ni-chebe-chii, translated contemporaneously as "Never-No-Summer". The Colorado Geographic Board settled on Never Summer Mountains for the name. The current updated translations are "It is Never Summer" or "Never Summer (Place)".

Many of the peaks in the range are named after cloud types, such as Mount Cirrus and Mount Cumulus.

Recreation
The range is frequented by hikers and backpackers in the summer, and skiers and snowshoers in the winter. The area sees some mountaineering activity, but the rock tends to be rotten (or choss) and the routes are dangerous. The Colorado River Trailhead in Rocky Mountain National Park has trails that lead to the Grand Ditch and remains of Lulu City. Trails from Cameron Pass lead to the Michigan Lakes, Lake Agnes and the Nokhu Crags area. Trails in nearby Routt National Forest lead to the Never Summer Wilderness on the western and southern edges of the range.

Mountain Peaks

 * 1) Baker Mountain
 * 2) Bowen Mountain
 * 3) Braddock Peak previously known as "Bald Mountain"
 * 4) Cascade Mountain
 * 5) Green Knoll
 * 6) Howard Mountain
 * 7) Iron Mountain
 * 8) Jackstraw Mountain
 * 1) Lead Mountain
 * 2) Little Yellowstone
 * 3) Lulu Mountain
 * 4) Mineral Point
 * 5) Mount Cindy
 * 6) Mount Cirrus
 * 7) Mount Cumulus
 * 8) Mount Mahler
 * 9) Mount Nimbus
 * 10) Mount Neota
 * 11) Mount Richthofen
 * 12) Mount Stratus
 * 13) Never Summer Peak
 * 14) Nokhu Crags
 * 15) Parika Peak
 * 16) Porphyry Peak
 * 17) Radial Mountain
 * 18) Red Mountain
 * 19) Ruby Mountain
 * 20) Seven Utes Mountain
 * 21) Specimen Mountain
 * 22) Static Peak
 * 23) Teepee Mountain (Summit post.org)
 * 24) Thunder Mountain (SummitPost.org)

Adjacent Peaks

 * 1) Shipler Mountain

Potentially Unofficial or Possibly Imaginary Peaks

 * 1) Bearpaws Peak
 * 2) Blue Ridge
 * 3) Farview Mountain
 * 4) Flat Top Mountain
 * 5) Gravel Mountain

title: Never Summer Mountains


text:
User:Monado

Monado
I live in the province of Ontario in Canada. I have relatively wide general knowledge, with plenty of lacunae of ignorance, and an interest in science.

title: User:Monado


text:
Vehicle registration plates of Austria

Austrian car number plates are mandatory vehicle registration plates displaying the registration mark (Kennzeichen) of motor vehicles in Austria. They are used to verify street legality, proof of a valid liability insurance and to identify and recognise the vehicle.

Appearance
The licence plates are made of metal; the imprinted text is in black letters and digits on a white background. Since November 1, 2002 the common design comprises a blue section on the left with the EU circle of stars and the country code ('A') like other vehicle registration plates of the European Union. On the top and bottom, there are red-white-red tribands, the national colours of Austria. Two plates have to be present on each car (front and rear). Dealer plates show white letters on a green background, temporary plates show white letters on a cyan background, and foreign trailers show white letters on a red background. For motorbikes and cars with smaller areas for plates, smaller licence plates are available with two lines of text. Moped plates are in different appearance and shape, they show white letters on a red background.

Lettering system
The alphanumeric format for registration plates is "XX ∇=provincial emblem number+letter(s)" or "XX ∇=provincial emblem personalised letters+number";
 * XX - one or two letters which indicate the local registration office (district where the registered possessor resides). As a general rule, State capitals have one letter; other districts have two letters.
 * the coat of arms of the Austrian state the district belongs to (here shown as "∇"); diplomatic vehicles have a dash (–) instead, federal official vehicles wear the Austrian Federal Eagle.
 * A three to six-letter/number sequence which uniquely distinguishes each of the vehicles displaying the same initial area code. The letter Q is excluded from all sequences.

There are several lettering schemes:
 * The letter/number sequence must contain at least three characters (at least one digit and one letter). In countryside districts, the maximum is five characters. Regular plates start with a digit and end with a letter. Personalized plates, which can be obtained by paying an extra fee, are ordered vice versa. (exceptions: see below)
 * The letter/number sequence of state capitals contains up to six characters (at least one digit one letter with a minimum of four characters) (e.g. ).
 * Until the year 2000 the plates were issued by the district administrations, who used a variety of lettering schemes, e.g. one digit and three letters (e.g.  in the Feldkirch district), two digits and two letters (e.g.   in the Wels-Land district) or three digits and one letter.
 * Since 2000 the vehicle registration have been carried out by car insurance companies on behalf of the government. The branch offices of these companies issue the plates, which show three digits and two letters (e.g. ) in each district or four digits and two letters in state capitals respectively.
 * Army, diplomats, police etc. have a number up to five digits only (starting with 1, incrementing)
 * There are standardized abbreviations for special types of cars. But most of them are in use in Vienna only:
 * Bundesbahnen (Federal Railways), only with Index "W", e.g.
 * Bestattung (funeral services)
 * E-Werk (electric power company)
 * Freiwillige Feuerwehr (volunteer firemen)
 * Feuerwehr (firemen)
 * Gaswerk (gas power company)
 * Gütertransport (vehicles transporting goods)
 * Stadt Innsbruck (municipal vehicles of Innsbruck)
 * Kleintransport (private vehicles transporting parcels)
 * Linienomnibus (public service buses)
 * Landesregierung (Local government of Niederösterreich)
 * Landesregierung (Local government of Tyrol)
 * Magistrat Wien (Local government of Vienna)
 * Mietwagen (private hire car or bus service [with driver])
 * Rettungsdienst (ambulance vehicles)
 * Rotes Kreuz (Red Cross)
 * Taxi (taxis)

Personalised plates
In Austria, it is possible to obtain a customized registration plate by payment of €228.30 for registration and €21.00 for the plates themselves. An example of a customized plate is. In general, the alphanumeric combination that goes after the coat of arms must consist of at least three characters and begin with a letter and end with a number. The letters and numbers must each be grouped together in a block. This makes such plates easily distinguishable from standard ones.

Electric plates
Since 2017, electric plates have been introduced in Austria, these special plates are given only to electric vehicles and are exempt from parking charges in Vienna, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, Wels, Linz, Graz, Mödling, Zell am See, Klosterneuburg and Krems.

Export transit plates
Export transit plates are vehicle plates that are issued to vehicles that are being exported, the plate is used for vehicles that need to get to their desired export destination, but are not allowed to use regular licence plates because they have been deregistered abroad. For motor vehicles the cost of an export transit plate is €197.3. The export transit plates are valid for 3 to 21 days.

History
From 1906 until 1919, the plates always composed one letter followed by Roman numerals and three numbers (e.g. "BXV 639"). Temporary admission plates always followed by prefix. The prefixes are G= Bosnia and Herzegovina, U= Hungary, Z= All other countries.

From 1919 until 1930, the plates format is the same as before but became authority supplied.

From 1930 until 1939, the plates comprised one letter followed by five digits. (e.g. ) The thousands of digits encoded the districts.

From 1939 until 1945, the plates comprised two letters followed by a hyphen and seven digits. (e.g. ) This followed the Nazi German system.

From 1945 until 1946, the plates comprised by a state coat of arms followed by maximum six numbers. They were only issued in the USSR-occupied zone.

From 1947 until 1989, the plates comprised one or two letters to indicate the state or federal code followed by up to six digits (e.g. ), the first number block was reserved for vehicles, the second one was the serial, when they run out of serials they began to issue. The background is black with white characters for private vehicles (unknown for all other vehicles). One or two letters are the prefixes set by state and federals, they are:
 * Burgenland
 * Bundesheer (Federal Army)
 * Graz
 * Carinthia
 * Linz
 * Lower Austria
 * Upper Austria (the dash after the letter O prevents misunderstandings with the number 0)
 * Post & Telekom Austria (Federal Mail and Telekom)
 * Salzburg (state)
 * Styria (the only prefix with a lower case letter)
 * Tirol
 * Vorarlberg
 * Vienna (Wien)

== Diplomatic codes ==

title: Vehicle registration plates of Austria


text:
Saint Quadragesimus

Saint Quadragesimus (d. 590AD) was, according to tradition, a shepherd who lived at Policastro, Italy, and served as a subdeacon. Not much else is known of him, and he is remembered solely for the miracle of raising a dead man to life. He was mentioned under 26 October in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology, but is not listed in the latest editions.

Surio, in his Historiae seu vitae sanctorum (vol XI (November), pp. 956–957, Marietti, 1879), writes: "The first person to refer to this saint by name was Saint Gregory the Great, in Book Three of his Dialogues, chapter 17. From this source...Baronio got the name of Quadragesimus, as he affirms himself..."

Of Quadragesimus, Gregory the Great writes:

"Not long since in our time, a certain man called Quadragesimus was subdeacon in the church of Buxentin, who in times past kept a flock of sheep in the same country of Aurelia: by whose faithful report I understood a marvellous strange thing, which is this. At such time as he led a shepherd's life, there was an holy man that dwelt in the mountain of Argentario: whose religious conversation and inward virtue was answerable to the habit of a monk, which outwardly he did wear. Every year he travelled from his mountain to the church of St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles: and in the way took this Quadragesimus' house for his lodging, as himself did tell me. Coming upon a day to his house, which was hard by the church, a poor woman's husband died not far off, whom when they had, as the manner is, washed, put on his garments, and made him ready to be buried, yet it was so late, that it could not be done that day: wherefore the desolate widow sat by the dead corpse, weeping all night long, and to satisfy her grief she did continually lament and cry out. The man of God, seeing her so pitifully to weep and never to give over, was much grieved, and said to Quadragesimus the subdeacon: 'My soul taketh compassion of this woman's sorrow, arise, I beseech you, and let us pray': and thereupon they went to the church, which, as I said, was hard by, and fell to their devotions. And when they had prayed a good while, the servant of God desired Quadragesimus to conclude their prayer; which being done, he took a little dust from the side of the altar: and so came with Quadragesimus to the dead body; and there he began again to pray, and when he continued so a long time, he desired him not, as he did before, to conclude their prayers, but himself gave the blessing, and so rose up: and because he had the dust in his right hand, with his left he took away the cloth that covered the dead man's face; which the woman seeing, earnestly withstood him, and marvelled much what he meant to do: when the cloth was gone, he rubbed the dead man's face a good while with the dust, which he had taken up; and at length, he that was dead received his soul again, began to open his mouth and his eyes, and to sit up, and as though he had awakened from a deep sleep, marvelled what they did about him; which when the woman, that had wearied herself with crying, beheld, she began then afresh to weep for joy, and cry out far louder than she did before: but the man of God modestly forbad her, saying: 'Peace, good woman, and say nothing, and if any demand how this happened, say only, that our Lord Jesus Christ hath vouchsafed to work his pleasure.' Thus he spake, and forthwith he departed from Quadragesimus, and never came to his house again. For, desirous to avoid all temporal honour, he so handled the matter, that they which saw him work that miracle, did never see him more so long as he lived."

title: Saint Quadragesimus


text:
Intermittent explosive disorder

Intermittent explosive disorder (sometimes abbreviated as IED, also referred to as episodic dyscontrol syndrome) is a behavioral disorder characterized by explosive outbursts of anger and/or violence, often to the point of rage, that are disproportionate to the situation at hand (e.g., impulsive shouting, screaming or excessive reprimanding triggered by relatively inconsequential events). Impulsive aggression is not premeditated, and is defined by a disproportionate reaction to any provocation, real or perceived. Some individuals have reported affective changes prior to an outburst, such as tension, mood changes, energy changes, etc.

The disorder is currently categorized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) under the "Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders" category. The disorder itself is not easily characterized and often exhibits comorbidity with other mood disorders, particularly bipolar disorder. Individuals diagnosed with IED report their outbursts as being brief (lasting less than an hour), with a variety of bodily symptoms (sweating, stuttering, chest tightness, twitching, palpitations) reported by a third of one sample. Aggressive acts are frequently reported to be accompanied by a sensation of relief and in some cases pleasure, but often followed by later remorse.

Pathophysiology (Intermittent Explosive Disorder)
Impulsive behavior, and especially impulsive violence predisposition, have been correlated to a low brain serotonin turnover rate, indicated by a low concentration of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This substrate appears to act on the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus, which is the target for serotonergic output from the dorsal and median raphe nuclei playing a role in maintaining the circadian rhythm and regulation of blood sugar. A tendency towards low 5-HIAA may be hereditary. A putative hereditary component to low CSF 5-HIAA and concordantly possibly to impulsive violence has been proposed. Other traits that correlate with IED are low vagal tone and increased insulin secretion. A suggested explanation for IED is a polymorphism of the gene for tryptophan hydroxylase, which produces a serotonin precursor; this genotype is found more commonly in individuals with impulsive behavior.

IED may also be associated with damage or lesions in the prefrontal cortex, with damage to these areas, including the amygdala and hippocampus, increasing the incidences of impulsive and aggressive behavior and the inability to predict the outcomes of an individual's own actions. Lesions in these areas are also associated with improper blood sugar control, leading to decreased brain function in these areas, which are associated with planning and decision making. A national sample in the United States estimated that 16 million Americans may fit the criteria for IED.

DSM-5 diagnosis
The current DSM-5 criteria for Intermittent Explosive Disorder include:
 * Recurrent outbursts that demonstrate an inability to control impulses, including either of the following:
 * Verbal aggression (tantrums, verbal arguments, or fights) or physical aggression that occurs twice in a week-long period for at least three months and does not lead to the destruction of property or physical injury (Criterion A1)
 * Three outbursts that involve injury or destruction within a year-long period (Criterion A2)
 * Aggressive behavior is grossly disproportionate to the magnitude of the psychosocial stressors (Criterion B)
 * The outbursts are not premeditated and serve no premeditated purpose (Criterion C)
 * The outbursts cause distress or impairment of functioning or lead to financial or legal consequences (Criterion D)
 * The individual must be at least six years old (Criterion E)
 * The recurrent outbursts cannot be explained by another mental disorder and are not the result of another medical disorder or substance use (Criterion F)

It is important to note that DSM-5 now includes two separate criteria for types of aggressive outbursts (A1 and A2) which have empirical support:
 * Criterion A1: Episodes of verbal and/or non-damaging, nondestructive, or non-injurious physical assault that occur, on average, twice weekly for three months. These could include temper tantrums, tirades, verbal arguments/fights, or assault without damage. This criterion includes high frequency/low-intensity outbursts.
 * Criterion A2: More severe destructive/assaultive episodes which are more infrequent and occur, on average, three times within a twelve-month period. These could be destroying an object without regard to value, assaulting an animal or individual. This criterion includes high-intensity/low-frequency outbursts.

DSM-IV diagnosis
The past DSM-IV criteria for IED were similar to the current criteria, however, verbal aggression was not considered as part of the diagnostic criteria. The DSM-IV diagnosis was characterized by the occurrence of discrete episodes of failure to resist aggressive impulses that result in violent assault or destruction of property. Additionally, the degree of aggressiveness expressed during an episode should be grossly disproportionate to provocation or precipitating psychosocial stressor, and, as previously stated, diagnosis is made when certain other mental disorders have been ruled out, e.g., a head injury, Alzheimer's disease, etc., or due to substance use or medication. Diagnosis is made using a psychiatric interview to affective and behavioral symptoms to the criteria listed in the DSM-IV.

The DSM-IV-TR was very specific in its definition of Intermittent Explosive Disorder which was defined, essentially, by the exclusion of other conditions. The diagnosis required:
 * 1) several episodes of impulsive behavior that result in serious damage to either persons or property, wherein
 * 2) the degree of the aggressiveness is grossly disproportionate to the circumstances or provocation, and
 * 3) the episodic violence cannot be better accounted for by another mental or physical medical condition.

Differential diagnosis
Many psychiatric disorders and some substance use disorders are associated with increased aggression and are frequently comorbid with IED, often making differential diagnosis difficult. Individuals with IED are, on average, four times more likely to develop depression or anxiety disorders, and three times more likely to develop substance use disorders. Bipolar disorder has been linked to increased agitation and aggressive behavior in some individuals, but for these individuals, aggressiveness is limited to manic and/or depressive episodes, whereas individuals with IED experience aggressive behavior even during periods with a neutral or positive mood.

In one clinical study, bipolar and IED disorders co-occurred 60% of the time. Patients report manic-like symptoms occurring just before outbursts and continuing throughout. According to a study, the average onset age of IED was around five years earlier than the onset age of bipolar disorder, indicating a possible correlation between the two.

Similarly, alcoholism and other substance use disorders may exhibit increased aggressiveness, but unless this aggression is experienced outside of periods of acute intoxication and withdrawal, no diagnosis of IED is given. For chronic disorders, such as PTSD, it is important to assess whether the level of aggression met IED criteria before the development of another disorder. In antisocial personality disorder, interpersonal aggression is usually instrumental in nature (i.e., motivated by tangible rewards), whereas IED is more of an impulsive, unpremeditated reaction to situational stress.

Treatment
Although there is no cure, treatment is attempted through cognitive behavioral therapy and psychotropic medication regimens, though the pharmaceutical options have shown limited success. Therapy aids in helping the patient recognize the impulses in hopes of achieving a level of awareness and control of the outbursts, along with treating the emotional stress that accompanies these episodes. Multiple drug regimens are frequently indicated for IED patients. Cognitive Relaxation and Coping Skills Therapy (CRCST) has shown preliminary success in both group and individual settings compared to waitlist control groups. This therapy consists of 12 sessions, the first three focusing on relaxation training, then cognitive restructuring, then exposure therapy. The final sessions focus on resisting aggressive impulses and other preventative measures.

In France, antipsychotics such as cyamemazine, levomepromazine and loxapine are sometimes used.

Tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs, including fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, and sertraline) appear to alleviate some pathopsychological symptoms. GABAergic mood stabilizers and anticonvulsive drugs such as gabapentin, lithium, carbamazepine, and divalproex seem to aid in controlling the incidence of outbursts. Anxiolytics help alleviate tension and may help reduce explosive outbursts by increasing the provocative stimulus tolerance threshold, and are especially indicated in patients with comorbid obsessive-compulsive or other anxiety disorders.

Epidemiology
Two epidemiological studies of community samples approximated the lifetime prevalence of IED to be 4–6%, depending on the criteria set used. A Ukrainian study found comparable rates of lifetime IED (4.2%), suggesting that a lifetime prevalence of IED of 4–6% is not limited to American samples. One-month and one-year point prevalences of IED in these studies were reported as 2.0% and 2.7%, respectively. Extrapolating to the national level, 16.2 million Americans would have IED during their lifetimes and as many as 10.5 million in any year and 6 million in any month.

Among a clinical population, a 2005 study found the lifetime prevalence of IED to be 6.3%.

Prevalence appears to be higher in men than in women.

Of US subjects with IED, 67.8% had engaged in direct interpersonal aggression, 20.9% in threatened interpersonal aggression, and 11.4% in aggression against objects. Subjects reported engaging in 27.8 high-severity aggressive acts during their worst year, with 2–3 outbursts requiring medical attention. Across the lifespan, the mean value of property damage due to aggressive outbursts was $1603.

A study in the March 2016 Journal of Clinical Psychiatry suggests a relationship between infection with the parasite Toxoplasma gondii and psychiatric aggression such as IED.

History
In the first edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I), a disorder of impulsive aggression was referred to as a passive-aggressive personality type (aggressive type). This construct was characterized by a "persistent reaction to frustration are "generally excitable, aggressive, and over-responsive to environmental pressures" with "gross outbursts of rage or of verbal or physical aggressiveness different from their usual behavior".

In the third edition (DSM-III), this was for the first time codified as intermittent explosive disorder and assigned clinical disorder status under Axis I. However, some researchers saw the criteria as poorly operationalized. About 80% of individuals who would now be diagnosed with the disorder would have been excluded.

In the DSM-IV, the criteria were improved but still lacked objective criteria for the intensity, frequency, and nature of aggressive acts to meet criteria for IED. This led some researchers to adopt alternate criteria set with which to conduct research, known as the IED-IR (Integrated Research). The severity and frequency of aggressive behavior required for the diagnosis were clearly operationalized, the aggressive acts were required to be impulsive in nature, subjective distress was required to precede the explosive outbursts, and the criteria allowed for comorbid diagnoses with borderline personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder. These research criteria became the basis for the DSM-5 diagnosis.

In the current version of the DSM (DSM-5), the disorder appears under the "Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders" category. In the DSM-IV, physical aggression was required to meet the criteria for the disorder, but these criteria were modified in the DSM-5 to include verbal aggression and non-destructive/noninjurious physical aggression. The listing was also updated to specify frequency criteria. Further, aggressive outbursts are now required to be impulsive in nature and must cause marked distress, impairment, or negative consequences for the individual. Individuals must be at least six years old to receive the diagnosis. The text also clarified the disorder's relationship to other disorders such as ADHD and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder.

title: Intermittent explosive disorder