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Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval

From 1909 until the Spanish Civil War, naval construction in Spain was monopolized by the Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval – (SECN) also Spanish Society for Naval Construction (SECN). During this time the majority of its shares were owned by the United Kingdom firm (John Brown and Vickers-Armstrong ), and therefore almost all ships built by the company were developed after Royal Navy designs.

History
Ten years after the Spanish–American War of 1898,  in which Spain lost Cuba and the Philippines, the Antonio Maura Government, in an attempt to restore the Spanish Navy and Spanish shipbuilding industry, hired the Spanish Society for Naval Construction, whose major investors were a British-Spanish-Association taking contracts In the following proportions: 40% Vickers Sons and Maxim, 30% the Marquis of Comillas of the Spanish Transatlantic Company, 30%  the Biscay Furnace Company, all the previously state owned shipbuilding yards, workshops, foundries and dry docks at Ferrol were handed over to the technical expertise of some of finest British shipbuilder companies: John Brown, Vickers and Armstrong now in charge of building the new Spanish Fleet.

For a period of sixteen years, all the technicians were exclusively British, and the situation was not altered till 1925 when the management was taken over by Spanish engineers, as one of the new policies introduced by the then newly created government, including ministers both civil and military, of the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1930). The arrival of the British coincided with the construction of a local electric-powered trolley streetcar's line (1924–1961).

In sight of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, and because there was fear of social unrest in the naval station, the Foreign Office in London, organized a ship to repatriate all the remaining British citizens and on 22 July 1936 HMS Witch (D89) departed from Ferrol back to Britain.

Many British technical advisors continued to work in the Spanish shipbuilding yards, workshops, foundries and dry docks (on both sides) during the war.

Between 1958 and 1960, SECN built 23 electric railcars and 12 trailers for use on metre gauge railways operated by FEVE.

Sites of SECN Shipyards and Iron-works in Spain between 1909 and 1936/45

 * Ferrol
 * Gijon
 * Bilbao
 * Valencia
 * Cartagena
 * Cádiz

title: Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval


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Islaja

Merja Kokkonen (born 19 May 1979), better known by her stage name Islaja, is a singer-songwriter and musician from Helsinki, Finland. Besides her solo career, she is a member of free improv and psychedelic folk bands Avarus, Kemialliset Ystävät, and the trio Hertta Lussu Ässä.

She has been compared to Björk, Syd Barrett, and Nico.

Her music is psychedelic and intimate using a large variety of instruments. She is a multi-instrumentalist.

As of 2017, she is based in Berlin.

Discography

 * Meritie (Fonal, 2004)
 * Palaa aurinkoon (Fonal, 2005)
 * Ulual Yyy (Fonal, 2007)
 * Blaze Mountain Recordings (Ecstatic Peace, 2008)
 * Keraaminen Pää (Fonal, 2010)
 * S U U (Monika Enterprise, 2014)
 * Tarrantulla (Svart Records, 2017)

Also appears on

 * Beginner's Guide to Scandinavia (3CD, Nascente 2011)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Islaja


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Mamfe

Mamfe or Mamfé is a city in and the capital of Manyu, a division of the Southwest Region in Cameroon. It is 74 km from the border of Nigeria, on the Manyu River. It has a population of 42,500 (2024 estimates)

It is known as a centre for traditional religion (e.g., Obasinjom and Ekpe Society) and traditional medicine. Mamfe used to be known for bad infrastructure within the city limits, especially the roads, but in recent times the roads have been tarred and are currently in good condition. The roads leading in and out of the city have also been tarred e.g., Mamfe - Bamenda, Mamfe - Kumba, Mamfe - Ekok.

The Peace Corps has maintained a presence in the Mamfe area since they entered the country in 1962. Since 2017, Mamfe has been a frequent battleground in the Anglophone Crisis. The city saw heavy fighting in December 2017, when the Cameroonian Army battled the Ambazonia Defence Forces for control over Mamfe and the surroundings. In May 2020, separatist fighters assassinated the newly-elected mayor, Ashu Priestly Ojong. As of January 2023, suspected separatist fighters stormed Mamfe and set a Total petrol station on fire.

Etymology
The name "Mamfe" comes from the [Bayangi language]. When Germans first arrived in the area via the Cross River, the Germans greeted a local man at the Egbekaw River site who was carrying sand from the shore and tried interrogating him about where they were. The Banyang man didn't understand and only said in his dialect, "Mamfie fah?" ("Where should I put it?"). The Germans heard this as "Mamfe" and named the area so.

Demographics
The Egbekaw village is the native/pioneer of Mamfe town. The inhabitants speak a Bayang language as their mother tongue, called Nyang, although English is the official language spoken along with Pidgin and several other dialects, including Ejagham. The city is also noteworthy for the high proportion of Nigerians who live there.

Education
Mamfe has no university yet, but the Catholic university is now under construction. The Mamfe Girls College was Cameroon's first all-female boarding school. There is also a teachers' training college, and several vocational schools.

Cuisine
Popular local foods in Mamfe include eru and fu-fu, plantains with ndole, and fu-fu and ogbono soup, koki and plantains.

Climate
Mamfe has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am). As Mamfe is in a river valley, humidity can be over 90% and temperatures can exceed 120 F (49 °C) during the Dry Season (February - April). During the rest of the year, temperatures remain in the 80-90s (27 to 37 °C) and only fall during the Rainy Season, sometimes to 70F (21 °C).

The climate can be very uncomfortable for travellers, but tourism is beginning in the area, though small. Points of interest are the old German bridge, the Mamfe Cross, the Mamfe River by boat, and the Mamfe Cathedral. Hotels are few, but can and do accommodate western travellers.

Notable people

 * George Elokobi (b. 1986), professional footballer
 * Pauline Nalova Lyonga, education minister
 * Late Chief Solomon Ashu Arrey of Ossing (1905-2005)
 * Senator Mfaw Tabetando Ndiepnso
 * Matilda Nkwo, First Miss Cameroon, 1977, Miss Commonwealth Nigeria, 1988
 * Honorable Enow Tanjong ( first governor of the region post colonization and Former member of parliament representing the Manyu people, Built the first church n the area.)

title: Mamfe


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Bali, Cameroon

Bali is a town and commune in Cameroon, lying west of Bamenda. It has a population of 32,000 (2001 estimate). Formerly the centre of a kingdom, it is known for its palace and its regular festival.

title: Bali, Cameroon


text:
Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It

Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It is an interactive fiction video game written by Jeff O'Neill and published by Infocom in 1987. It was released simultaneously for MS-DOS, Commodore 64, and other platforms. Nord and Bert was unique among Infocom games in that it used the game engine to present wordplay puzzles rather than an adventure story. It was Infocom's twenty-seventh game.

Plot
Each chapter of Nord and Bert is dedicated to a different style of wordplay. The first seven chapters can be played in any order, since each exists as an independent "short story" unrelated to the other chapters; to begin the eighth, however, the player must provide seven "passwords" provided by completing each of the other sections.

The only effort made to interlink the separate parts of the game is as follows: reality has somehow been altered around the town of Punster. Idioms and clichés are suddenly manifesting themselves quite literally, and it falls to the player, as it always does, to sort things out.

The sections of the game:
 * "The Shopping Bizarre" - this portion takes place in a grocery store where normal products have been replaced by outlandish homonyms. The player must change all the oddities back to their original form by simply typing the correct names. For instance, when confronted with a large, awkward-looking mammal sporting hooves and antlers that smells of fudge, the player must type "chocolate mousse" (a homonym for "moose").
 * "Playing Jacks" - this section is rather short and unfocused, and involves a gadget called the "Jack of All Traits" (which is, of course, a play on the phrase "Jack of all trades"). When presented with a series of unusual situations, this item proves useful by displaying attributes of other items whose name contains "Jack". For instance, when a mermaid tangled in fishing line washes ashore, the player can turn the Jack of All Traits into a Jackknife and cut the lines.
 * "Buy the Farm" - this chapter takes place around a farm and requires the player to use a variety of clichéd expressions literally, for instance BEAT SWORDS INTO PLOWSHARES or BUY A PIG IN A POKE.
 * "Eat Your Words" - another section of idioms presented literally, this time revolving around a diner. The player must alternately insult and apologize to a waitress by using phrases such as GIVE THE WAITRESS THE EVIL EYE or EAT HUMBLE PIE. When the waitress is sufficiently exasperated, she allows the player to enter the kitchen, where the chef is murderously hostile until the player "leaves the cook to his own devices" and "gores his ox".
 * "Act the Part" - the player must take part in a 50s-style sitcom and perform visual gags and bits of slapstick comedy, including giving someone a "hotfoot" and playing along with knock-knock jokes.
 * "Manor of Speaking" - this chapter takes place in a house filled with bizarre rooms. Although this section has several puzzles reminiscent of Infocom's "straightforward" interactive fiction games, they are played for surreal humor. As an example: a room called The Kremlin has a talking portrait of Karl Marx. The player must wind a clock and place it inside a box, and then enter the Kremlin. The portrait of Marx assumes that the ticking box is a bomb and falls off the wall, revealing a safe which can be opened using the clock's "winding" key.
 * "Shake a Tower" - this section ties a number of situations into an absurd story using spoonerisms. The tangled phrase can be entered by itself, such as "pretty girl" for "gritty pearl". Sometimes certain actions must be performed first, such as feeding stones to set up the change from "fed rocks" to a "red fox".
 * "Meet the Mayor" - the final chapter can only be played after the rest of the game has been successfully completed. Elements of many of the preceding sections are mixed here as the player tries to convince Punster's mayor to sign a law. Some puzzle solutions are phrases that are merely hinted at by the surroundings, such as "Possession is nine-tenths of the law" or "taking something under false pretenses."

Release
The Nord and Bert packaging includes Home on the Range, a physical booklet of wordplay-themed cartoons drawn by Kevin Pope (who also illustrated the front and back of the game package). The cartoons illustrate several of the types of puzzles in the game, with each cartoon corresponding to a section of the game.

Reception
Computer Gaming World described Nord and Bert as "a sophisticated game for mature people who like wordplay". Its reviewer did not enjoy Nord and Bert as much as the "more complete" previous Infocom games, stating that the game often did not accept seemingly valid word play responses. He suggested that the game might be used to teach word play to students. Compute! more favorably reviewed the game, praising its humor, the puzzles' creativity, and the fact that individual games could be finished in a brief period. Compute!'s Gazette also liked the wordplay, stated that the game "should appeal to most everyone", and especially recommended it to those who avoided other text adventures. Antic's reviewer was critical, stating "I cannot recommend this game" because puzzles could not be solved by logic alone. He concluded, "I give Infocom an A for originality but will spend my money on something else".


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Rockford Peaches

The Rockford Peaches were a women's professional baseball team who played from 1943 through 1954 in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League. A founding member, the team represented Rockford, Illinois.

The Peaches were one of two teams to play in every AAGPBL season, the other being the South Bend Blue Sox. They played their home games at Beyer Stadium on 15th Avenue in Rockford. The team's uniform consisted of a peach colored dress featuring the Rockford city seal centered on the chest, along with red socks and cap. In later years, the Peaches wore a white home uniform with black socks and cap.

History
One of the more successful teams in the AAGPBL, the Dollys won the league championship in 1945, 1948, 1949, and 1950 and had its share of star players. Dyes were hard to come by towards the end of the war and the team chose to dye their white uniforms a light shade of peach, which inspired the team nickname.

Peaches players who were named to the All-Star teams from 1946 to 1954 included Dorothy Kamenshek, Lois Florreich, Dorothy Harrell, Carolyn Morris, Alice Pollitt, Ruth Richard, Rose Gacioch, Eleanor Callow, and Joan Berger. Pitcher Olive Little hurled the first no-hitter both in team and league history. In addition, Florreich was the pitching champion in 1949 during the league's overhand era, and Gladys Davis won the league batting crown in the 1943 inaugural season, while Kamenshek earned the honors in the 1946 and 1947 seasons.

When former player Eileen Burmeister was asked why The Peaches supposedly favored theatricality over technical skill, she replied, "If God meant for us to play baseball, He would've made us any good at it.".

The last living player of the first Peaches roster in AAGPBL, pitcher Mary Pratt, died on May 6, 2020, at the age of 101.

All-time roster

 * Bold denotes members of the inaugural roster

 * Velma Abbott
 * Melba Alspaugh
 * Amy Applegren
 * Ange Armato
 * Beverly Armstrong
 * Charlene Barnett
 * Joan Berger
 * Rita Briggs
 * Christine Bruce
 * Jean Buckley
 * Lorraine Bunton
 * Shirley Burkovich
 * Eileen Burmeister
 * Aldine Calacurcio
 * Eleanor Callow
 * Mary Carey
 * Betty Carveth
 * Bea Chester
 * Jean Cione
 * Muriel Coben
 * Clara Cook
 * Donna Cook
 * Dorothy Cook
 * Betty Jane Cornett
 * Dorothy Cramer
 * Louella Daetweiler
 * Barbara Anne Davis
 * Gladys Davis
 * Mildred Deegan
 * Wanita Dokish
 * Cartha Doyle
 * Beverly Dustrude
 * Louise Erickson
 * Elizabeth Farrow
 * Dorothy Ferguson
 * Helen Filarski
 * Alva Jo Fischer
 * Lorraine Fisher
 * Lois Florreich
 * Anita Foss
 * Betty Jane Fritz
 * Rose Gacioch
 * June Gilmore
 * Thelma Golden
 * Annie Gosbee
 * Dorothy Green
 * Carol Habben
 * Audrey Haine
 * Dorothy Harrell
 * Josephine Hasham
 * Ruby Heafner
 * Lillian Hlavaty
 * Margaret Holgerson
 * Marjorie Hood
 * Lillian Jackson
 * Donna Jogerst
 * Marguerite Jones
 * Marilyn Jones
 * Margaret Jurgensmeier
 * Dorothy Kamenshek
 * Joan Kaufman
 * Jacquelyn Kelley
 * Adeline Kerrar
 * Marguerite Kerrigan
 * Nancy King
 * Irene Kotowicz
 * Dolores Lee
 * Josephine Lenard
 * Barbara Liebrich
 * Olive Little
 * Claire Lobrovich
 * Jean Lovell
 * Shirley Luhtala
 * Betty Luna
 * Gloria McCloskey
 * Ethel McCreary
 * Marie Mansfield
 * Hazel Measner
 * Naomi Meier
 * Berith Melin
 * Bernice Metesch
 * Ruth Miller
 * Anne "Annie" (Mihelich) Henry
 * Betty Moczynski
 * Dorothy Moon
 * Mary Moore
 * Carolyn Morris
 * Doris Nelson
 * Helen Nelson
 * Helen Nicol
 * Helen Nordquist
 * Cynthia Normine
 * Anna Mae O'Dowd
 * Pauline Oravets
 * Shirley Palesh
 * Suzanne Parsons
 * Barbara Payne
 * Migdalia Pérez
 * Marjorie Peters
 * Betty Jean Peterson
 * Hattie Peterson
 * Alice Pollitt
 * Mary Pratt
 * Donna Reid
 * Ruth Richard
 * Ruth Ries
 * Kay Rohrer
 * Jenny Romatowski
 * Irene Ruhnke
 * Margaret Russo
 * Sarah Jane Sands
 * Dorothy Sawyer
 * Edna Scheer
 * Marilyn Schmidt
 * Violet Schmidt
 * Minnie Simons
 * Josephine Skokan
 * Helen Smith
 * Mae Starch
 * Jackie Stallings
 * Elma Steck
 * Margaret Stefani
 * Lee Surkowski
 * Rella Swamp
 * Georgia Terkowski
 * Barbara Thompson
 * Gene Travis
 * Betty Tucker
 * Joan Tysver
 * Virginia Ventura
 * Zonia Vialat
 * Helen Waddell
 * Betty Warfel
 * Mildred Warwick
 * Rossey Weeks
 * Marie Wegman
 * Helen Westerman
 * Margaret Wigiser
 * Hazel Wildfong
 * Janet Wiley
 * Vilma Williams
 * Verna Wilson
 * Lorraine Wuethrich
 * Betty Yahr

A League of Their Own
The Rockford Peaches feature in the 1992 film A League of Their Own by Penny Marshall. However, all of the characters in the film are fictitious. The team did not play in the 1943 league championship, as depicted in the film. In real life, the Racine Belles faced the Kenosha Comets in 1943; the Peaches won their first title in 1945. The formation of the AAGPBL and the Rockford Peaches are also centered in the 2022 TV series ''A League of Their Own.

title: Rockford Peaches


text:
Talk:Harvard–Radcliffe Chorus

Copyright
Hi there,

The text that was submitted which is now being listed as a "possible copyright violation" is not copyrighted material. It comes from the official Harvard-Radcliffe Chorus website, where no copyright mark exists. The text is written by the student leaders of the chorus, of which I am the emirtus president. There are no violations of any copyright since the text is intentionally published into the public domain. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ivymike21 (talk • contribs) 11:27, 18 April 2005

 * I concur. I've reverted to your original edit and have added "cleanup" notices that will alert other editors to bring this in line with the site's style conventions.  Sorry 'bout the mix-up. - Lucky 6.9 17:47, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Harvard–Radcliffe Chorus


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Campo, Cameroon

Campo is a town on the Atlantic Ocean coast of southern Cameroon, where it is the main border town for travel to Equatorial Guinea. The town is just north of the mouth of the Ntem River, that is to say the right bank of that river.

It lies near the Campo Ma'an National Park. Campo has traces of German colonial heritage, most notably in the public building on the beachfront near the city centre. Campo hosts the Campo Subdivision of the Ocean Division and its sub-divisional officer (SDO). The town has road links to Kribi along the coast and to Ma'an and Ebolowa via the road through Campo Ma'an National Park.

Tourism is increasing in Campo, mostly of visitors to the National Park. The town hosts the Headquarters of the National Park where entrance fees need to be paid.

title: Campo, Cameroon


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Crush fetish

A crush fetish is a fetish and a paraphilia in which sexual arousal is associated with observing objects being crushed or being crushed oneself. The crushed objects vary from inanimate items (e.g., food), to injurious and/or fatal crushing of invertebrates (e.g., insects, snails, worms, spiders), or vertebrates (e.g., birds, reptiles, mammals).

In the most severe cases, crushing has involved homicide or extended torture until death of restrained animals including dogs, cats, pigs, and monkeys. Animal welfare organisations, such as the Humane Society of the United States, condemn this practice and consider it extremely disturbing. Additionally, links between animal abuse and violence towards humans are being researched, with animal abuse perhaps being a precursor to further violence, and animal cruelty cases have been tracked by the American FBI since 2016. The motivation for these acts may be in the financial gain derived from producing a film of the acts, which is sold on the Internet to crush fetishists who find the content sexually gratifying and perhaps entertaining, a tailored genre known as "crush film". Those in impoverished areas may be more likely to produce and star in this content due to financial gain.

There are currently no laws specifically forbidding the crushing of animals, but the production or trade of crush erotica involving live vertebrates is illegal in many countries, including the United States, Italy and the United Kingdom. In the United States, interstate commerce in (hard) crush videos has been illegal since 2010, and many other countries also have banned them.

Classification
Crush fetishists have used terms to classify crushing on the basis of the victim subjected to the crushing:

 * 'Object crush' – crushing of food, toys, electronics and other non-living items.

 * 'Soft crush' – crushing of invertebrates and fish. This is the most common form. Most exclusive soft crush fetishists prefer to distinguish themselves from hard crush fetishists, believing that hard crush fetishists give them an unduly negative reputation.

 * 'Hard crush' – crushing of amphibians, reptiles, avians, and mammals. This is considered to be more cruel than soft crush as terrestrial vertebrates are believed by some to have a greater capacity to suffer pain.

General
Crush films are videos produced for sexual gratification of crush fetishists.

In crush films, the crushing agent is typically a woman, who will concentrate her body weight upon her feet to compress the object against the floor. The feet are typically dressed in sexually suggestive dominatrix-like footwear, such as high-heels and lace stockings, but other footwear or bare feet may be used. This recalls elements of both foot fetishism and BDSM culture.

Jeff Vilencia is one known director of crush films, such as Smush! Vilencia, along with many other fetishists, has loved to see invertebrates crushed since a young age; he claims that when he was two–three years old, he repeatedly attempted to get people to step on him.

Legal status
The legality of crush films and the actual practice of crushing varies by region; however, many have been posted on web sites and are available for download via the Internet, making the control of their distribution difficult.

The production or trade of crush erotica involving vertebrates is condemned by opponents of animal cruelty and is illegal in many countries including the United States.

United States
In 1999, the United States Congress enacted a statute affecting the legality of crush films which criminalized the creation, sale, and possession of depictions of animal cruelty, though with an exception for "any depiction that has serious religious, political, scientific, educational, journalistic, historical, or artistic value." In 2008, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit invalidated the ban on the sale and possession of such films (if not otherwise obscene) as a violation of the Constitution's guarantee for freedom of speech. The United States Supreme Court affirmed the Third Circuit's decision in United States v. Stevens, finding the law unconstitutional because the law was so broad and vague that it included any portrayal of an animal in or being harmed such as by hunting or disease. On November 28, 2010, bill H.R. 5566, which prohibits interstate commerce in animal crush films, was passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate, and on December 9, the bill was signed by President Obama becoming the Animal Crush Video Prohibition Act of 2010.

On September 8, 2015, a Houston woman pleaded guilty in the nation's first federal animal crush video case.

On November 25, 2019, President Donald Trump signed the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT Act) into law, making animal “crushing” and sexual abuse of animals a federal felony if the offense is in or affecting foreign or interstate commerce, or if it is committed on federally owned property, such as national parks, federal prisons, and military bases. While the law does not supersede state or local ordinance, a PACT conviction does provide for federal fines and imprisonment of up to seven years. The PACT act defines animal crushing as when "one or more living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles or amphibians is purposely crushed, burned, drowned, suffocated, impaled or otherwise subjected to serious bodily injury."

United Kingdom
The first arrest in the UK was made in 2002. The industry is estimated to generate hundreds of thousands of pounds' worth of sales.

China
In 2006 an Internet crush video surfaced in which a woman stomps on a kitten with stiletto high-heels. Eventually the woman drives her heel into the kitten's eye and penetrates the eye socket, leading to loss of blood and the death of the kitten. Internet users discovered and revealed the identity of the woman, and revealed that the cameraman was a provincial television employee. The nurse posted an apology on the Luobei city government website, claiming that she was susceptible to persuasion to crush the kitten, being despondent from her recent divorce. Both the nurse and the cameraman lost their jobs as a result of the incident, although their actions were not illegal under the country's animal cruelty laws.

title: Crush fetish


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Talk:Anti-American sentiment in Europe and Asia

Is this page necesaary? It was created by an anon IP and seems the items within (after a cleaning up) could possibly be rolled in to Anti-american sentiment. Turnstep 17:30, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)


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User:Pstaudt-fischbach

I was working in the field of silicon semiconductor technology for 20 years. Since several years I switched to photovoltaics using now CdTe as active layer. At wikipedia I'm mainly interested in SPC and everything related, including the translation into other languages.

de:Benutzer:pstaudt-fischbach

title: User:Pstaudt-fischbach


text:
Korup National Park

Korup National Park is in the Southwest Province of Cameroon and extends over 1,260 km2 of mostly undisturbed primary forest. It is reputedly one of Africa’s oldest and richest tropical forests in terms of floral and faunal diversity. It is the most accessible rainforest national park in Cameroon with basic lodging infrastructure and a large network of trails open to visitors. The park is a popular birdwatching destination and famous for primate viewing (including species such as the drill, Preuss's red colobus, red-eared guenon and Nigeria chimpanzee). Researchers from various disciplines have been conducting biological studies in Korup for over three decades, generating a wealth of information on rainforest ecosystems.

Location
The Korup National Park is in the Southwest Province of Cameroon and lies between 4°54' and 5°28' N latitude and 8°42’ to 9°16’ E longitude. It is 50 km north of the Bight of Biafra and 20 km from the edge of the mangrove swamps of the Rio Del Rey estuary. It shares about 15 km of its western boundary with the Cross River National Park's Oban Division in Nigeria. The area surrounding the park also contains Ejagham, Nta Ali and Rumpi Hills forest reserve.

History
In October 1937, the Korup forest was established as a ‘native administration forest reserve’ by Order No. 25. In October 1986, the Korup forest was made a national park by Presidential Decree No. 86/1283; at the same time the boundaries of the forest reserve were extended eastwards to include the villages of Ekundu Kundu, Ikenge and Bareka Batanga to cover the current surface area of 1260 km2.

The idea of creating KNP was conceived in the early 1970s by Steve Gartlan and Thomas Struhsaker who were both studying forest primates in southwest Cameroon at the time. In 1971 Struhsaker and Gartlan made a proposal to the government of Cameroon, that Korup be decalred a national park along with the Douala-Edéa reserve. The Cameroon government made no immediate reaction to their proposal. In 1977, Gartlan met Phil Agland, who wanted to make a documentary about the country's forests for conservation purposes. Agland spent the next five years making a film about the Korup forest.

Phil Agland's award-winning film Korup: An African Rainforest, broadcast on British Television in November 1982 and subsequently around the world, brought the ecology of Korup to an international audience and spearheaded the campaign that was to secure the first British Government contribution of £440,000 through the ODA to rainforest conservation in 1986. In 1987, the Korup Project, an internationally funded integrated conservation and development project, provided support to the newly established park. The Korup Project area included a support zone and the forest reserves of Ejagham, Nta Ali and Rumpi Hills. In 2003, the Korup Project ended, leaving the Korup National Park management with little to no financial and logistical support. This affected the park management's ability to efficiently protect the wildlife from illegal hunting. As of 2006 however, Korup National Park is one of the three focus areas of the "Program of Sustainable Management of Natural Resources – South-West Province" (PSMNR-SWP), a bilateral cooperation between the Governments of Cameroon and Germany. With the renewed attention and support granted to Korup National Park, anti-poaching patrols have been becoming regular once again. As a partner in PSMNR-SWP, WWF-Cameroon has an advisory role on conservation and environmental education in Korup region, while the German Development Service (DED) oversees rural sustainable development activities.

Management
Administratively, the majority of Korup National Park is under the jurisdiction of the Ndian Division of Southwest Province, Cameroon. The park is managed by the Cameroon Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. The park's management currently consists of a Conservator and approximately 27 game guards. The headquarters are in the town of Mundemba, which is located 8 km east from the park's only official entrance at Mana bridge. A game guard post is located at the bridge. A tourist information center is in the center of Mundemba town.

A five-year management plan was developed for Korup in 2002, stating that the overall goal of the park is the conservation of the biodiversity and integrity of all physical and ecological processes of Korup forest. This is to be achieved through law enforcement, promotion of sustainable land use practices and rural development within local communities, and support for low environmental impact tourism which would generate economic and social benefits to local people.

Climate
Korup has a pseudo-equatorial climate with two seasons instead of four: a pronounced dry season from December to February with average monthly rainfall less than 100 mm and an extended and intense rainy season approximately from May to October. Annual rainfall between 1973 and 1994 measured near southeastern region of the park averaged 5,272 mm (range 4,027–6,368 mm). The heaviest rainfalls are typically in August (some years exceeding 10,000 mm). Temperature varies little throughout the year with mean monthly maximum temperature in the dry season being 31.8 °C and in the wet season 30.2 °C. The northern sections of the park receive considerably less rainfall (~2500–3000 mm).

Topography
Korup soils are generally coarse-grained, sandy, well drained and low in nutrients. Their acidic nature and low organic matter make them unfavourable sites for subsistence farming and cash-crop plantations, explaining the low levels of farming disturbance in the park, which remains mostly primary forest. The elevation of the park is low (50 m) in the southern section, rising steadily northwards with increasingly rugged terrain, reaching its highest point at Mt. Yuhan (1,079 m) near the old site of the now relocated Ikondokondo village. To the north, the terrain is characterized by low rolling hills with gentle slopes. Most (82%) of the park lies within an elevation of 120 to 850 m.

A dense network of streams drains Korup region into three major river systems: a) the Korup and Akpassang Rivers, b) the Ndian River, and c) Bake-Munaya River. Many of the smaller streams inside the KNP are seasonally dry during the peak of the dry season.

Human presence
There are currently five villages located inside KNP with a total population in 1999 of approximately 900 people (Erat: 447, Esukutan: 202, Ikenge: 179, Bareka-Batanga: 52, and Bera: 26). In 2000, the Korup village of Ikondokondo (Ekundukundu?) was resettled outside the park as part of a currently suspended plan to resettle all villages. There are 23 additional villages within 3 km from the KNP boundary, an area often referred to as KNP's Peripheral Zone (PZ). The combined population of KNP and PZ villages is approximately 2,700 with a population density of approximately 2 persons/km2. The main livelihood activities in the rural areas is subsistence and cash-crop farming (oil palms, cocoa), fishing, hunting and, to some extent, trading.

Flora
The forests of Korup appear to be ancient and rich in paleoendemics, having survived the dry period of Pleistocene area as part of the Cross River-Mayombe Refugium. Vegetation was classified by Letouzey as primarily Biafran coastal forest dominated by Caesalpinioideae trees, a Leguminosae subfamily. There is no evidence of any major historical human disturbance and at least the south part of the park is likely primary forest. Floristically, Korup is very rich with over 1,100 tree, shrub, herb and liana species described to date and high levels of endemism (30%). Large emergent trees, reaching up to 50 m tall, puncture a mostly continuous but uneven canopy layer of predominantly Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Olacaceae, Scytopetalaceae and Verbenaceae trees at about 15 to 25 m. The understory layer is quite dense with both lianas and small trees (dominated by Rubiaceae species), while the herbaceous layer (mainly Acanthaceae, Araceae, Commelinaceae, Graminae, Marantaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae) is mostly sparse. Plant ecological processes in Korup are strongly seasonal with flowering typically occurring between January and July (peak March–May), followed by peak fruiting season. The degree of flowering and fruiting varies considerably between years for most species. Mast fruiting occurs in intervals of more than a year.

Fauna
Korup National Park is reputedly one of the richest lowland African forests in terms of faunal richness and diversity, especially for birds, reptiles, amphibians and butterflies. The species list of mammals consists of 161 species in 33 families, of which the primate community accounts for 14 species (8 diurnal and 6 nocturnal).

Tourist infrastructure
Korup National Park is one of the most accessible rainforest protected areas in Cameroon. Day hikes or multiple day trips can be organized from the town of Mundemba, by visiting the tourist informational office located at the center of the town. Entrance in the park is only permitted with a local guide. There are fixed day, overnight, camping and guide/porter fees. There are three camp sites open to tourists, where visitors can arrange stay either at a tent (bring your own) or at one of the lodges (with basic wooden beds – windows have simple screening). Each camp site is located near a stream which serves as source of cooking water (boil or filter to drink) and for refreshing baths. There are basic pit toilets.

Role of Civil Society (NGOs)
The Korup Rainforest Conservation Society (K.R.C.S) is an active conservation advocacy and participatory forest management oriented group in the area. The group is made of mostly local pro-conservation minded persons and some honorary members (from different parts of the world) who are committed to contributing their expertise in ensuring the integrity of the tropical rain forest through need-based problem solving research as well as increasing participation of locals in conservation activities in a bid to reduce conflicts and improve local livelihoods. Since 2009 KRCS has been very instrumental in assisting visiting researchers with guidance, research permits applications, finding experienced local field assistants as well as elaborating village development and land-use planning, ensuring the recruitment of several locals in different capacities in park activities and playing an active role in environmental education and advocacy for conservation and especially against conversion of neighboring biodiversity rich forest into palm plantation together with international organisation such as Pro-wildlife and WWF-CPO. Recently the activities of KRCS have been boosted by the 2012 Conservation Leadership programme (CLP)Awards; a partnership between CI, FFI, WSC and BirdLife International.

Other details
The Film Greystoke - The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes starring Christopher Lambert and Andie MacDowell was shot in the park in 1984 before its establishment.

Charles, Prince of Wales inaugurated the park in 1986, and there is a sign not far from the entrance over Mana bridge that marks the point where he reached during his brief visit.

Mana Bridge, which serves as the gateway to Korup National Park, was built by a group of international volunteers on an Operation Raleigh expedition in 1989. The group of more than 100 volunteers spent 3 months in Cameroon building the bridge as well as undertaking wildlife surveys in the forest and adventures by canoe in the Rumpi Hills.

title: Korup National Park


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Talk:Horse latitudes

Explainations?
My question is simple. How horse latitudes occur? 202.93.211.86 (talk) 07:03, 18 February 2012 (UTC)

(random heading)
(inserted for presumed readability ... said: Rursus ( m borke³ ) 07:15, 3 November 2009 (UTC))

 * should we rename this article to Horse latitudes? That would go along with Roaring Forties (usually the plural is used for both terms). -- Yogi de 17:34, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I read elsewhere that the term originates from the fact that becalmed ships in these regions would seek to lighten their ships in fear of prolonged journeys, casting their horses overboard as jetsam.
 * The article beating a dead horse offers a plausible explanation for the name. Esn 05:50, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Since horses drink a lot, they were tossed overboard in the becalmed seas to conserve water. "The Doors" wrote a song about it called "Horse Latitudes."
 * These "horses overboard" stories are unsubstantiated claptrap and if decent cites are not found, I'll remove them. Did many exploration era ships carry horses?  I doubt it - and if they did, they would have been far too valuable to throw overboard.  A more logical explanation is that in these calm latitudes the ships' speeds were reduced to that of carthorses.--Ossipewsk (talk) 23:00, 21 November 2007 (UTC)
 * The German article supports the "horse overboard" theory and is what I've heard for years as the only relevant explanation. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossbreiten —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.247.99.240 (talk) 05:58, 7 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Horses may be valuable, but after a week of no real movement in the sea, a horse is the best thing to keep a crew alive due to fresh water conservation and food some fresh food(horse meat). Though if the sailors were to tell the owner of the horse that they ate part of the horse and threw the rest overboard they would be in trouble and possibly be in debt.  Therefore, this theory may be true and thus it would never be recorded.  Nevertheless, horses require a lot of food and water, more than humans.  Throwing one overboard would really make a difference in water usage weekly!

I was always under the impression that the horse latitudes were located where atmospheric circulation (see whole atmosphere convection cells)involved descending air mass with no component of lateral motion resulting in relativily little surficial wind. As explorers crossed this latitude the ships would slow do to reduced wind speed. I was under the impression that on occasion they would be forced to throw over horses in order to reduce total load (reducing mass reduces inertia)and enabling light breezes to accelerate the ship. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.94.131.53 (talk) 23:50, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

Contradiction
The article provides two different explanations for the name. They can't both be right. If the first explanation is not known to be true, the article should say so, and if it is known to be true then the second explanation shouldn't be there. Also, beating a dead horse contains yet another probably untrue explanation. Jibjibjib 11:03, 13 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Straight from the Weather Studies introduction to atmospheric science 3ed it says "...Ships setting sail from Spain to the New World were often caught in this predicament[refers to center of highs], and crews were forced to jettison their cargo of horses when supplies of water and food ran low. For this reason, early mariners referred to this region of calm air as the horse latitudes..."(page 229) 71.115.231.8 (talk) 21:45, 30 May 2009 (UTC)

 * Though I've never heard the Sataspes explanation, it is conceivable that some colloquialisms have origins lost to history, in which case it seems reasonable to offer the competing theories for the origin of the phrase. Billfruge 05:54, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with Billfruge. The author describes the unverifiable nature of the two competing etymology theories sufficiently well so as not to mislead any reader, renders an opinion as to which of the two is more likely (and it is clear that this is the author's opinion), and presents the reader with the opportunity to accept either or neither of the two. Reecejo (talk) 03:36, 25 June 2010 (UTC)

/* Etymology */
Sataspes still says he ''was a Persian navigator and cavalry commander whose name is derived from Sat (=100 sad) and Asp (= Horse, Asb). He is also credited with originating the term "horse latitudes".'' I've never heard the "throw 'em overboard" theory until now, but have read the reverse: at the proper time of year, the horse latitudes are favorable for the transport of horses to the New World. I'll be back if I ever find a cite. --Pawyilee (talk) 17:33, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

folk etymology
Based on the definition of folk etymology in the link ("a change in a word over time resulting in the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more familiar form"), I don't see how the "becalmed horse ship theory" is an example of folk etymology. Perhaps "folk etymology" is being used as a synonym for "false etymology", i.e., the author thinks the theory is b.s.? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sergevan (talk • contribs) 03:44, 8 October 2011 (UTC)

Etymology - The Doors Song
The song "Horse Latitudes" from the album Strange Days (The Doors album) is based on (and probably popularized) the explanation about throwing horses from a becalmed ship "When the still sea conspires an armor/.../And the first animal is jettisoned". Maybe it should be mentioned in the etymology section. Rps (talk) 11:32, 30 June 2020 (UTC)

Horse latitudes cannot be the same as subtropical high
In current academia, the term "horse latitudes" is different from the term "subtropical high". Subtropical high refers to the large scale high pressure systems. The systems are not simply "ridges", especially in the East Asia region. I've cancelled the subtropical high redirect link. Ustczyh9 (talk) 16:48, 13 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Horse latitudes


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Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group

The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group is a United States government interagency group, which is tasked with locating, identifying, inventorying, and recommending for declassification classified U.S. records relating to Nazi German and Imperial Japanese war crimes.

The group was created by the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act (NWCDA), passed in 1998, and the Japanese Imperial Government Disclosure Act of 2000 (JIGDA). The Interagency Working Group (IWG) has declassified an estimated 8 million pages of documents from the Office of Strategic Services, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and Army intelligence. The group issued three reports to Congress between 1999 and 2007.

Some of the declassified documents center on reports of the Japanese exploitation of 'comfort women' before and during World War II, and the FBI and CIA's investigations of Adolf Hitler's possible survival of the war.

History
The group was created by the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, passed in 1998, and the Japanese Imperial Government Disclosure Act of 2000. Between 1999 and 2016, the working group declassified and opened to the public an estimated 8 million pages of documents, including 1.2 million pages of Office of Strategic Services records, over 100,000 pages of Central Intelligence Agency files, more than 350,000 pages of Federal Bureau of Investigation subject files, and nearly 300,000 pages of Army intelligence files. The IWG has issued three reports to Congress (in October 1999, March 2002, and April 2007), and it issues news releases and occasional newsletters.

On March 25, 2005, President George W. Bush signed into law legislation pushing back the group's sunset date to March 2007. Documents related to the project have been released as late as 2017.

Nazi War Crimes
Documents declassified under the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, which began to be released online by the early 2010s, included hundreds of pages of documents compiled by the FBI and CIA in relation to the health, psychological profile, and possible whereabouts of Adolf Hitler in the unlikely event of his survival following the end of World War II. Additional documents related to Hitler's possible survival were released in late 2017 in tandem with the release of files related to the investigation of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Earlier in 2017, excerpts from Kennedy's diary were published online revealing that he believed in mid-1945 that Hitler might have survived the end of the war in Europe.

Japanese Imperial Government
Agencies were advised that particular attention should be given to locating any records related to "so-called 'comfort women' program, the Japanese systematic enslavement of women of subject populations for sexual purposes." However, the IWG expressed its disappointments because the IWG uncovered and released few Asian theatre records. Thus, the IWG apologized to the Global Alliance for Preserving the History of WWII in Asia which was involved in the commencement of this project.

The IWG published a report titled Researching Japanese War Crimes, Introductory Essays. In the report, the IWG analyzed the reason why comfort women documents were scarce: "Licensed prostitution was legal in prewar Japan, and Allied officials viewed the small part of the overseas system they uncovered as an extension of homeland practices. Prosecuting Japanese soldiers for rape, a notorious crime everywhere the army set foot, took precedence over investigating the circumstances of "comfort women," who were seen as professional prostitutes, not as unwilling victims coerced into brothels by employees of the Japanese military."

The report further stated that this practice was not charged with criminal acts: "In part to reduce local resentment against Japan and in part to prevent the spread of venereal disease among its ranks, the Japanese military contracted private vendors to set up "comfort stations" for the troops as early as 1932. Again, this practice was known to the Allies but no criminal charges were filed at the trials."

There was one exception, for an offense occurring in the Dutch East Indies.

Research cost and scale
As of 2007, the IWG estimated that the implementation of the two Disclosure Acts costed $30 million. From a total of 620 million pages, U.S. Government agencies screened over 100 million pages for relevance under the NWCDA and screened over 17 million pages under the JIGDA. Only a small percentage of these screened pages were found to be responsive to the Disclosure Acts: nearly 8.5 million pages of documents were relevant to the NWCDA, and over 142,000 pages were relevant to the JIGDA.

Membership
The members of the group are appointed by the president. Members include: • Steven Garfinkel, Chair

• Thomas Baer, head of Steinhardt Baer Pictures Company

• Richard Ben-Veniste, a partner at Mayer Brown

• Christina Bromwell, Office of the Secretary of Defense

• Elizabeth Holtzman, former Congresswoman from New York

• William Hooton, Federal Bureau of Investigation

• William H. Leary, National Security Council

• Eli Rosenbaum, Director of the Office of Special Investigations, Department of Justice

• Paul Shapiro, Director, Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

• Marc J. Susser, The Historian, Department of State

• Mary Walsh, Central Intelligence Agency


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Diawling National Park

The Diawling National Park lies in south west Mauritania around the Senegal River delta. During the rainy season, much of the park consists of large lakes. It is known for having over 220 species of identified birds, including pelicans, black storks, and flamingos, and also for its fish.

Geography and establishment
Diawling National Park was established in 1991. The park sprawls over an area of 16,000 hectares, all of which was once a floodplain. The Senegal River acts like a boundary between the park and the Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary, which was established in 1971. The Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary is located in the Republic of Senegal. The opposition to the establishment of the Diawling National Park came mostly from the local inhabitants, who feared a similar fate as that of the populace of Djoudj. They were fearful of the consequences of a protected area, which would mean that grazing and fishing would be prohibited or limited, ending a way of life that their tribes had always known.

Diawling is part of a Trans-Border Biosphere Reserve that is a popular bird nesting site because of the combination of fresh and salt water at the Senegal River delta. The park also has a significant population of primates, wart hogs and wild donkeys.

Some of the region's worst malaria is found in this area, due to the construction some years ago of a dam built in the area. Bilharzia and invasive plant species have also taken hold.

Diawling National Park is home to a remarkable variety of birds. The species found here include northern pintail (Anas acuta), northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), African spoonbill (Platalea alba), great egret (Casmerodius albus), great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), Arabian bustard (Ardeotis arabs), pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), slender-billed gull (Larus genei), Caspian tern (Sterna caspia), greater hoopoe-lark (Alaemon alaudipes) and Sudan golden sparrow (Passer luteus).

Mammals
Nature and man combined to obliterate some species in Diawling. Some of the larger mammals perished due to prolonged drought and excessive hunting. The last remaining West African lion (Panthera leo leo) in Diawling was shot in 1970, and the last sighting of the red-fronted gazelle was in 1991. Today, the only mammals in the park are spotted hyenas, African golden wolves, warthogs, African wildcats, Cape hares and patas monkeys. Other species like the manatee, crocodile, and hippopotamus disappeared with the construction of the dam.

Climate change
In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included Diawling National Park in the list of African natural heritage sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century, but only if climate change followed RCP 8.5, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over 4°C., and is no longer considered very likely. The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them. Even if the warming is limited to 1.5°C, global sea level rise is still expected to exceed 2-3 m after 2000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~0.75 m with a range of 0.5-1 m) well before the year 4000.

title: Diawling National Park


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Athletic trainer

An athletic trainer is a certified and licensed health care provider who practices in the field of sports medicine. Athletic training has been recognized by the American Medical Association (AMA) as an allied health care profession since 1990.

As defined by the Strategic Implementation Team of the National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA) in August 2007:

"'Athletic training is practiced by athletic trainers, health care providers who collaborate with physicians to optimize activity and quality of life for patients both of the physically active and sedentary population. Athletic training encompasses the prevention, diagnosis and intervention of emergency, acute and chronic medical conditions involving impairment, functional limitations and disabilities.'""Athletic training encompasses the prevention, examination, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of emergent, acute or chronic injuries and medical conditions. Athletic training is recognized by the American Medical Association (AMA), Health Resources Services Administration (HRSA) and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) as an allied health care profession."

To become an athletic trainer, one must have a master's degree from an accredited professional level education program and then sit for and pass the Board of Certification (BOC) examination. By 2023, all accredited professional programs will be required to provide a master's level education. Each state then has its own regulatory agencies that control the practice of athletic training in their state. Most states (43) require an athletic trainer to obtain a license in order to practice in that state, 4 states (Hawaii, Minnesota, Oregon, West Virginia) require registration, 2 states (New York, South Carolina) require certification, while California has no state regulations on the practice of athletic training. Areas of expertise of certified athletic trainers include:
 * Apply protective or injury-preventive devices such as tape, bandages, and braces
 * Recognize and evaluate injuries
 * Provide first aid or emergency care
 * Develop and carry out rehabilitation programs for injured athletes
 * Plan and implement comprehensive programs to prevent injury and illness among athletes
 * Perform administrative tasks such as keeping records and writing reports on injuries and treatment programs

Services rendered by the athletic trainer take place in a wide variety of settings and venues, including actual athletic training facilities, primary schools, universities, inpatient and outpatient physical rehabilitation clinics, hospitals, physician offices, community centers, workplaces, and even the military. Emerging settings for athletic training include surgical fellowship opportunities.

Educational programs
The Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education (CAATE) oversees the curriculum standards of all accredited Professional (entry level) and all the institutions. The standards dictate the content of both didactic and clinical practice portions of the educational program. Content areas include:
 * Risk Management and Injury Prevention
 * Pathology of Injuries and Illnesses
 * Orthopedic Clinical Examination and Assessment
 * Medical Conditions and Disabilities
 * Acute Care of Injuries and Illnesses
 * Therapeutic Modalities
 * Conditioning and Rehabilitative Exercises
 * Psychosocial Intervention and Referral
 * Nutritional Aspects of Injuries and Illnesses
 * Healthcare Administration
 * Professional Development and Responsibility
 * Healthcare Professional Development and Responsibility

Post-professional programs
There are several post-professional masters-level athletic training programs. These programs are for credentialed athletic trainers who desire to become scholars, researchers, and advanced practice professionals. Schools with post-professional athletic training masters programs include: A.T. Still University, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Illinois State University, Indiana State University, Indiana University, University of Kentucky, Michigan State University, Western Michigan University, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Ohio University, University of Oregon, California University of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson University, Temple University, Old Dominion University, University of Toledo, University of Virginia, University of Missouri, Weber State University, University of Michigan, University of North Georgia and Winona State University.

There are doctoral programs in athletic training, each with different curricular emphasis. Athletic training program in doctoral education is offered by the University of Idaho, Florida International University, A.T. Still University, Indiana State University, Ohio University, Temple University, and Moravian University.

Treatment population and settings
Athletic trainers treat a broad population, from the amateur and professional athlete to the typical patient in need of orthopaedic rehabilitative care. The NATA describes typical clients groups as,

 * Recreational, amateur and professional athletes
 * Individuals who have sustained musculoskeletal injuries
 * Those seeking strength, conditioning, fitness and performance enhancement
 * Others designated by the physician.

Services rendered by the athletic trainer take place in a wide variety of settings and venues. These may include:

 * Athletic training clinics
 * Schools (K-12, colleges, universities)
 * Outpatient Rehabilitation Clinics
 * Hospitals
 * Physician offices
 * Community facilities
 * Workplaces (commercial and government)
 * Military installations and veteran medical facilities
 * Professional sport organizations
 * Performing arts

title: Athletic trainer


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Nathuram Mirdha

Nathuram Mirdha (20 October 1921 – 30 August 1996) was an Indian politician, freedom fighter, social reformer and popular farmer leader from Marwar region in Rajasthan. He was elected as member of Lok Sabha for six terms between 1971 to 1997 from Nagaur. He served as member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly. He was a popular face of Jat Politics in Rajasthan. He is also Known as Gandhi of Rajasthan. He served in the Union Council of Ministers in 1979-80 and 1989–90. He was Chairman of Maharaja Suraj Mal Institute, New Delhi for ten years.

Education
Mirdha passed his matriculation from Darbar High School, Jodhpur. He earned an M.A. (Economics) and completed an LLB degree in 1944 from Lucknow University.

Farmer leader
Mirdha organised a massive farmer gathering at Jodhpur under the Chairmanship of Chhotu Ram. He joined the Institution of farmers "Kisan Sabha" founded by Baldev Ram Mirdha as Secretary in 1946. He was made the Revenue minister in the Jodhpur state. Nathuram Mirdha had an intimate association with Justice Kan Singh Parihar.

Freedom fighter and political leader
On 15 August 1947, with the independence of India, a popular Ministry was installed in Jodhpur. Recognising the importance of the Kisan Sabha, Mirdha, as its general secretary, was included in the Ministry. He won his first assembly election in 1952 from Merta assembly constituency with a huge majority. He was a Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly from 1952 to 1967 and 1984 to 1989 and held several important portfolios in the Government of Rajasthan. He is known for strengthening agriculture and cooperative sectors in Rajasthan. Commencing from 1972, he was returned to the Lok Sabha six times. He served in the Union Council of Ministers in 1979-80 and 1989–90. He served also as the Chairman of the National Agricultural Prices Commission.

Chairman of National Agricultural Prices Commission
As Chairman of National Agricultural Prices Commission, he implemented a number of schemes in the interest of farmers.

He was Chairman of Maharaja Suraj Mal Institute, New Delhi for ten years.

Family
He was married to Kesar Devi in 1936 and they had two sons and two daughters.

 * His younger son Bhanu Prakash Mirdha was elected to the Lok Sabha in 1996. – Senior Farmer's Leader Rajasthan
 * Manish Mirdha- Grandson of Nathuram Mirdha- Young Congress leader Nagaur
 * Jyoti Mirdha- Granddaughter of Nathuram Mirdha- Young Congress leader and she was MP from Nagaur in 15th Loksabha

Nathuram Mirdha died on 30 August 1996 in New Delhi, aged 75.

title: Nathuram Mirdha


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title: User:*nondescript


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Banc d'Arguin National Park

The Banc d'Arguin National Park (حوض أركين, Parc national du Banc d'Arguin) of Bay of Arguin lies in Western Africa on the west coast of Mauritania between Nouakchott and Nouadhibou and is the former mouth of the Tamanrasset River. The World Heritage Site is a major site for migratory birds and breeding birds, including flamingos, pelicans and terns. Much of the breeding is on sand banks including the islands of Tidra, Niroumi, Nair, Kijji and Arguim. The surrounding waters are some of the richest fishing waters in western Africa and serve as nesting grounds for the entire western region.

The Banc d'Arguin National Park is a Nature reserve that was established in 1976 to protect both the natural resources and the valuable fisheries, which makes a significant contribution to the national economy, as well as scientifically and aesthetically valuable geological sites, in the interests of and for the recreation of the general public.

The park's vast expanses of mudflats provide a home for over one million migrant shorebirds from northern Europe, Siberia and Greenland. The region's mild climate and absence of human disturbance makes the park one of the most important sites in the world for these species. The nesting bird population is also noted for its great numbers and diversity. Between 25,000 and 40,000 pairs belonging to 15 species, making the largest colonies of water birds in West Africa.

Conservation

The extensive intertidal flats of Parc National du Banc d’Arguin shelters on the most pristine seagrass beds on earth. Human impact is still at its minimum compared to the other intertidal systems along the East Atlantic Flyway. Only a small indigenous community is allowed to fish in the Park boundaries using relatively primitive techniques and tools. No motorized boats are permitted in the area. Over the last decade, however, the international shark/ray market made its way to PNBA. Locals started to target these species even though it is not allowed. It is perhaps the most challenging issue facing conservation in the park.

People
The local population comprises about 500 or so Imraguen tribesmen that live in seven villages within the park. They base their economy on subsistence fishing using traditional methods.

Fauna
The park is host to one of the world's most diversified communities of nesting piscivorous birds in the world. At least 108 bird species have been recorded, representing both Palaearctic and Afrotropical realms. Wintering shorebirds number over three million and include greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), red knot (Calidris canutus), common redshank (Tringa totanus) and bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica).

Along with the regions in north such as the Cintra Bay and Dakhla Peninsula, the area is one of the most important wintering grounds for Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia leucorodia). Breeding birds include white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), reed cormorant (Phalacrocorax africanus), gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica), Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia), royal tern (Sterna maxima) and common tern (Sterna hirundo), together with several species or subspecies with an African distribution, such as grey heron (Ardea cinerea monicae) and Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia balsaci) and western reef heron (Egretta gularis).

For marine mammals, endangered species can be seen here all-year round; for example, Mediterranean monk seals, Atlantic humpback dolphins and bottlenose dolphins. Other species can be seen here are orca, the killer whales, pilot whales, Risso's dolphins, dolphins (common, rough-toothed). Fin whales and harbor porpoises are also known to visit the area. Possibly, highly coastal whale species such as North Atlantic right whales, now-extinct Atlantic gray whales were used to be seen here as well. Other baleen whales possibly occur here include; humpbacks, seis, blues, Brydes's, and minkes, as they have been seen in either coastal or offshore waters.

Banc d'Arguin is rich in fish and the rare false shark ray is only known from this region.

Flora
Battering surf and shifting sand banks characterize the entire length of the shoreline. The Ras Nouadhibou (formerly Cap Blanc) peninsula, which forms Dakhlet Nouadhibou (formerly Lévrier Bay) to the east, is fifty kilometers long and up to thirteen kilometers wide. The peninsula is administratively divided between Morocco (see Glossary) and Mauritania, with the Mauritanian port and railhead of Nouadhibou located on the eastern shore (see fig. 11). Dakhlet Nouadhibou, one of the largest natural harbors on the west coast of Africa, is forty-three kilometers long and thirty-two kilometers wide at its broadest point. Fifty kilometers southeast of Ras Nouadhibou is Arguin. In 1455 the first Portuguese installation south of Cape Bojador (in the present-day South Morocco) was established at Arguin. Farther south is the coastline's only significant promontory, seven-meter-high Cape Timiris. From this cape to the marshy area around the mouth of the Senegal River, the coast is regular and marked only by an occasional high dune.

On coastal dunes vegetation is rare. At the foot of ridges, however, large tamarisk bushes, dwarf acacias, and swallowworts may be found. Some high grass, mixed with balsam, spurge, and spiny shrubs, grows in the central region. The north has little vegetation.

Climate
The Coastal Zone, or Sub-Canarian Zone, extends the length of the approximately 754-kilometer-long Atlantic coast. Prevailing oceanic trade winds from the Canary Islands modify the influence of the harmattan, producing a humid but temperate climate. Rainfall here is minimal; in Nouadhibou it averages less than three centimeters annually and occurs between July and September. Temperatures are moderate, varying from mean maxima of 28 °C and 32 °C for Nouadhibou and Nouakchott, respectively, to mean minima of 16 °C and 19 °C.

Geology
The depositional profile of the northern Banc d'Arguin describes a flat-topped platform, on which extensive carbonate deposits developed largely in water depths <10 meters below sea level. Vast areas of the Banc d'Arguin are covered by mixed carbonate–siliciclastic sediments dominated by barnacles and mollusk remains plus admixed eolian siliciclastics. These sediments accumulate into extensive shoals, occasionally causing water depths below 5 m several dozens kilometers offshore the present shoreline. The bank edge forms a sharp morphological step, suddenly deepening from 10–20m down to 30–50m, and separates the inner shelf environments (<5–10m; carbonate bank) from those of the outer shelf. Assemblages formed by benthic foraminifers and mollusks and monospecific bivalve shell accumulations with admixed eolian silt characterize the platform cover in the outer shelf.

In the central and southern outermost shelf, silt-sized quartzose materials form confined bodies referred to as the Arguin and Timiris Mud Wedges. These deposits started to form with transgressional inundation early in the Holocene and have grown continuously and rapidly over the past 9 kyrs. Locally, the mud wedge deposits are incised by gullies and canyons towards the shelf break lying at around 80–110m. The southernmost Golfe d'Arguin describes a homoclinal ramp profile with vast intertidal plains around Tidra Island.

History

Because of its rich fishery and strategic location, the territory has been highly coveted and disputed by the European colonial powers of Portugal, France, England, Brandenberg/Prussia and Holland. A scene inspired by the account of survivors Alexandre Corréard and Jean-Baptiste-Henri Savigny was made the subject of a painting in 1819 by Théodore Géricault called "The Raft of the Medusa", which is displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France.
 * The Wreck of Medusa – La Méduse was a French frigate that ran aground at high tide off Banc d'Arguin on 2 July 1816.

Despite the Almoravid domination of Spain in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, there seems to be little evidence of contact during that time between Mauritania and Europe. The inhospitable coastline of Mauritania continued to deter voyagers until the Portuguese began their African explorations in the fifteenth century. Lured by legends of vast wealth in interior kingdoms, the Portuguese established a trading fort at Arguin, southeast of Cap Blanc (present-day Ras Nouadhibou), in 1455. The king of Portugal also maintained a commercial agent at Ouadane in the Adrar in an attempt to divert gold traveling north by caravan. Having only slight success in their quest for gold, the Portuguese quickly adapted to dealing in slaves. In the mid-fifteenth century, as many as 1,000 slaves per year were exported from Arguin to Europe and to the Portuguese sugar plantations on the island of São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea.

With the merger of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns in 1580, the Spaniards became the dominant influence along the coast. In 1638, however, they were replaced by the Dutch, who were the first to begin exploiting the gum arabic trade. Produced by the acacia trees of Trarza and Brakna and used in textile pattern printing, this gum arabic was considered superior to that previously obtained in Arabia. By 1678 the French had driven out the Dutch and established a permanent settlement at Saint Louis at the mouth of the Senegal River, where the French Company of the Senegal River (Compagnie Française du Sénégal) had been trading for more than fifty years.

The Moors, with whom the Europeans were trading, considered the constant rivalries between European powers a sign of weakness, and they quickly learned the benefits of playing one power against the other. For example, they agreed simultaneously to give monopolies to the French and the Dutch. The Maures also took advantage of the Europeans whenever possible, so that when the French negotiated with the amir of Trarza to secure a monopoly on the gum Arabic trade, the amir in exchange demanded a considerable number of gifts. Thus began the custom, an annual payment expected by the Maures for doing business with a government or a company. By 1763 the British had expelled France from the West African coast, and France recovered control only when the Congress of Vienna in 1815 recognized French sovereignty over the coast of West Africa from Cap Blanc south to Senegal.

title: Banc d'Arguin National Park


text:
User talk:Ivymike21

Harvard
Hi! Thanks for contacting me. If the Harvard article is, in fact, public domain, it needed to be listed as such. I'll make a note on the copyvio page. Chances are it'll be reverted back to your original version as a result. Best, Lucky 6.9 17:38, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Simpsons
I'm glad you made your "conservatives like The Simpsons now" addition to The Simpsons. I was just watching it today (the "rancho relaxo" one) and was just thinking "this show really is incredibly conservative, deep down". The article could use a quote or a link to a reference of some notable conservative or conservative group praising The Simpsons. -- John Fader (talk | contribs) 20:28, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Public domain
Hi. In response to this edit of yours, and noticing the above conversation, I wonder if you are confused about what public domain means. It does not mean "made widely available". Please refer to linked article for more information. If you actually have proof that those press releases have been released into the public domain, please provide it at Copyright problems instead of removing the copyright-violation warnings. Jkelly 19:28, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

 * If you would like to work on an article that has a copyvio notice on it, you can do so by following the copyvio-notice's link to the Temp subpage. In this case, it is at Hannah_Teter/Temp.  I have already moved your contribution there.  Jkelly 21:47, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Hannah Teter
Please do not keep undoing other people's edits without discussing them first. This is considered impolite and unproductive. If you continue, you may be blocked from editing Wikipedia under the three-revert rule, which states that nobody may revert an article to a previous version more than three times in 24 hours. (Note: this also means editing the page to reinsert an old edit. If the effect of your actions is to revert back, it qualifies as a revert.) Thank you. Jkelly 21:52, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Also, please see discussion at Wikipedia talk:Copyright problems. Jkelly 21:52, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Thank you for beginning to discuss the matter, even if that beginning wasn't a stellar model of assuming good faith. As I noted above, I have raised the issue at Wikipedia talk:Copyright problems.  Please feel free to chime in there in an attempt to convince other editors that I should break with process and not wait a week before removing the copyright infringement.  Jkelly 22:01, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

As a courtesy for other editors on Wikipedia, please sign your talk page and user talk page posts. By adding four tildes (~) at the end of your comments, your user name or IP address and the date will be automatically added. Jkelly 22:15, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Wikiality and The Simpsons neologisms
List of neologisms on The Simpsons is a pile of crap, isn't it? AfD it and I'll absolutely vote delete. In regards to your notions as to my motives, well, you're wrong, but your assertion is largely non-falsifiable so I won't waste much time trying to refute your opinion. JDoorj a m    Talk 19:52, 1 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Oh, I suppose I misunderstood your point about the Simpsons neologisms. Wikipedia doesn't keep a list of "The Word" subjects; why would we start with this one?  What makes this one stand out?  JDoorj a m     Talk 20:03, 1 August 2006 (UTC)
 * You're absolutely wrong. People add things all the time, and they're deleted all the time.  Have you seen WP:AFD?  or [WP:CSD]]?  Just because people add a thing, or because a group swarms an article, does not mean a subject is worth including.  Notable secondary sources need to comment on anything for its inclusion to even be considered on Wikipedia.  If they don't, it's grounds for removal from the project.  Anything not rising to that standard should have citations added to it, or should be removed altogether.  It's not up to a small, dedicated mob to decide whether something is notable.  That's why we have WP:CITE.  If you want a site where anyone can enter anything they want because they found it interesting, put it on antiwikipedia.com.  JDoorj a m     Talk 20:20, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

Sockpuppetry case
You have been accused of sockpuppetry. Please refer to Suspected sock puppets/Ivymike21 for evidence. Please make sure you make yourself familiar with notes for the suspect before editing the evidence page. BostonMA talk 23:23, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

 * You have removed the sock puppetry notice from your user page. Please reread the "notes for the suspect" where it states:
 * If the accuser has listed evidence against you, you are not allowed to remove the notice from your page for ten days. You are allowed to respond to each and every accusation on the evidence page but are not allowed to remove accusations.
 * I am restoring the notice. --BostonMA talk  06:52, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

 * November 12 --BostonMA talk 13:55, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

Ok, Nov 12 then. Though that seems silly. The matter is settled and they've blocked my other account indefinitely. I'm pretty aggrivated since I didn't break any rules with the other account.

 * The rules that you broke with the sockpuppet account are:
 * sock puppets may not be used to give the impression of more support for a viewpoint. This includes ... using more than one account in a discussion at ... Wikipedia:Articles for deletion, ..., or on talk pages.
 * Multiple accounts should not be used as a way of avoiding the scrutiny of your fellow editors by ensuring you leave no audit trail.
 * All users, ... are proscribed from operating a "bad hand" account for the purpose of policy violations or disruption.
 * You used a "good hand" account to make safe edits, then used your "bad hand" account to remove an AfD tag.

 * You stated an untruth with your alternate account in this comment
 * "I categorically deny that I am a sock puppet or meat puppet of utzchips, or any other wikipedian." (emphasis added)
 * I hope that you will reflect on these issues so that you may improve as an editor of Wikipedia. Sincerely, --BostonMA talk  15:59, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

Godspot
A template has been added to the article Godspot, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but the article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice explains why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may contest the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page. Also, please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. Bryson430 16:55, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Cold Generation Y
I have nominated Cold Generation Y, an article you created, for deletion. I do not feel that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Cold Generation Y. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Ten Pound Hammer and his otters • (Broken clamshells•Otter chirps) 21:02, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Ivymike21! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to insure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. if you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 21:27, 8 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Constance DeFotis -

Proposed deletion of Constance DeFotis

The article Constance DeFotis has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Doesn't meet notability for people. The entire article relies on information presented through her place of employment.

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on |the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. The Undead Never Die (talk) 10:58, 16 August 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:01, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of The Albino Code

The article The Albino Code has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Non notable film with nothing to support it having its own article."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Donaldd23 (talk) 00:25, 16 June 2020 (UTC)

Nomination of The Albino Code for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article The Albino Code is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/The Albino Code until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Donaldd23 (talk) 14:26, 15 July 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ivymike21


text:
User:Ecopalooza

Ecopalooza is a name inspired by the word Lollapalooza - used in the early 1900s, meaning outstanding, unusual, or different.

ECOPALOOZA is an Outstanding celebration of ecological sustainability and bioregional awareness in Ukiah, CA - Mendocino County and the Redwood North Coast Bioregion of California.

ECOPALOOZA Tribe Community Online (see External Links - below)

title: User:Ecopalooza


text:
San Juan Nepomuceno

San Juan Nepomuceno is the Spanish name for Saint John of Nepomuk

 * San Juan Nepomuceno (1765), a 74-gun Spanish ship of the line that took part in the Battle of Trafalgar, under the command of Brigadier Don Cosme Damian Churruca
 * San Juan Nepomuceno, Bolívar, a municipality in Bolívar department of Colombia
 * San Juan Nepomuceno, Mexico, a mining area in San Joaquín Municipality, Querétaro
 * San Juan Nepomuceno, Paraguay

title: San Juan Nepomuceno


text:
Talk:Go West

Untitled
I deleted the lyrics to Go West by The Village People / Pet Shop Boys, because it's copyrighted material. 85.76.152.179 17:39, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Sorry, it's-a me, User:JIP. I forgot to sign in.   — J I P | Talk 17:40, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

housekeeping
"Go West" and "Go West, young man" should be the same. Currently the former is a disambiguation page, the latter a redirect to Manifest Destiny. This should be corrected - the simple solution is to make Go West, young man redirect to Go West, but I'm not sure that's the best solution. -Pete 07:04, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

Attribution
It is by no means a generally accepted fact that the phrase, "Go West, young man" derives from John B. L. Soule. See the discussion of the controversy on the page for the phrase, and see the discussion of this topic in the Yale Book of Quotations (2006). Encyclopedic entries should not make controversial assertions as if they were fact and especially without a citation and a fair treatment of all sides of an issue. Morrillonline (talk) 13:02, 14 February 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Go West


text:
Warburg effect (oncology)

In oncology, the Warburg effect is the observation that most cancer cells release energy predominantly not through the 'usual' citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria as observed in normal cells, but through a less efficient process of 'anaerobic glycolysis' consisting of a high level of glucose uptake and glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation taking place in the cytosol, not the mitochondria, even in the presence of abundant oxygen. This observation was first published by Otto Heinrich Warburg, who was awarded the 1931 Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme". The precise mechanism and therapeutic implications of the Warburg effect, however, remain unclear.

In fermentation, the last product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is converted into lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or ethanol (alcoholic fermentation). While fermentation produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) only in low yield compared to the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation of aerobic respiration, it allows proliferating cells to convert nutrients such as glucose and glutamine more efficiently into biomass by avoiding unnecessary catabolic oxidation of such nutrients into carbon dioxide, preserving carbon-carbon bonds and promoting anabolism.

Diagnostically the increased glucose consumption by cancer cells resulting from the Warburg effect is the basis for tumor detection in a PET scan, in which an injected radioactive glucose analog is detected at higher concentrations in malignant cancers than in other tissues.

Warburg's research
Around the 1920s, Otto Heinrich Warburg and his group concluded that deprivation of glucose and oxygen in tumor cells leads to a lack of energy, resulting in cell death. Biochemist Herbert Grace Crabtree further extended Warburg's research by discovering environmental or genetic influences. Crabtree observed that yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, prefer fermentation leading to ethanol production over aerobic respiration, in aerobic conditions and in the presence of a high concentration of glucose - the Crabtree effect. Warburg observed a similar phenomenon in tumors - cancer cells tend to use fermentation for obtaining energy even in aerobic conditions - coining the term "aerobic glycolysis". The phenomenon was later termed Warburg effect after its discoverer. Warburg hypothesized that dysfunctional mitochondria may be the cause of the higher rate of glycolysis seen in tumor cells, as well as a predominant cause of cancer development.

Basis
Normal cells primarily release energy through glycolysis followed by mitochondrial citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. However, most cancer cells predominantly release energy through a high rate of glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation even in the presence of abundant oxygen. Anaerobic glycolysis is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation for producing adenosine triphosphate and leads to the increased generation of additional metabolites that may particularly benefit proliferating cells. The Warburg effect has been much studied, but its precise nature remains unclear, which hampers the beginning of any work that would explore its therapeutic potential.

Otto Warburg postulated this change in metabolism is the fundamental cause of cancer, a claim now known as the Warburg hypothesis. Today, mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are thought to be responsible for malignant transformation, and the Warburg effect is considered to be a result of these mutations rather than a cause.

Driving forces
Older hypotheses such as the Warburg hypothesis suggest the Warburg effect may simply be a consequence of damage to the mitochondria in cancer. It may also be an adaptation to low-oxygen environments within tumors, or a result of cancer genes shutting down the mitochondria, which are involved in the cell's apoptosis program that kills cancer cells.

Fermentation favors cell proliferation
Since glycolysis provides most of the building blocks required for cell proliferation, both cancer cells and normal proliferating cells have been proposed to need to activate glycolysis, despite the presence of oxygen, to proliferate. Inefficient ATP production is only a problem when nutrients are scarce, but anaerobic glycolysis is favored when nutrients are abundant. Anaerobic glycolysis favors anabolism and avoids oxidizing precious carbon-carbon bonds into carbon dioxide. In contrast, oxidative phosphorylation is associated with starvation metabolism and favored when nutrients are scarce and cells must maximize free energy extraction to survive. Such trade-offs can be theoretically associated with Giffen behavior in economics.

Evidence attributes some of the high anaerobic glycolytic rates to an overexpressed form of mitochondrially-bound hexokinase responsible for driving the high glycolytic activity. In kidney cancer, this effect could be due to the presence of mutations in the von Hippel–Lindau tumor suppressor gene upregulating glycolytic enzymes, including the M2 splice isoform of pyruvate kinase. TP53 mutation hits energy metabolism and increases glycolysis in breast cancer.

The Warburg effect is associated with glucose uptake and use, as this ties into how mitochondrial activity is regulated. The concern lies less in mitochondrial damage and more in the change in activity. On the other hand, tumor cells exhibit increased rates of glycolysis which can be explained with mitochondrial damage.

Disposal of surplus electrons
In cancer cells, major changes in gene expression increase glucose uptake to support their rapid growth. Unlike normal cells, which produce lactate only when oxygen is low, cancer cells convert much of the glucose to lactate even in the presence of adequate oxygen. This is known as the “Warburg Effect.” The exact reasons for this are not fully understood, but it has been hypothesized that cancer cells create lactate to manage excess cytosolic electrons that the mitochondria cannot process. The enzymes involved in pyruvate metabolism prioritize: 1) efficient ATP production via mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, 2) disposal of excess cytosolic electrons as lactate, and 3) biosynthesis for growth. Essentially, lactate secretion acts as disposal mechanism for surplus electrons, maintaining cellular balance.

Molecular targets
, scientists had been investigating the possibility of therapeutic value presented by the Warburg effect. The increase in nutrient uptake by cancer cells has been considered as a possible treatment target by exploitation of a critical proliferation tool in cancer, but it remains unclear whether this can lead to the development of drugs that have therapeutic benefit. Many substances have been developed which inhibit glycolysis and so have potential as anticancer agents, including SB-204990, 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG), 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA, bromopyruvic acid, or bromopyruvate), 3-bromo-2-oxopropionate-1-propyl ester (3-BrOP), 5-thioglucose and dichloroacetic acid (DCA).

A clinical trial for 2-DG [2008] showed slow accrual and was terminated. there is no evidence yet to support the use of DCA for cancer treatment.

Alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (ACCA;CHC), a small-molecule inhibitor of monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs; which prevent lactic acid build up in tumors) has been successfully used as a metabolic target in brain tumor pre-clinical research. Higher affinity MCT inhibitors have been developed and are currently undergoing clinical trials by Astra-Zeneca.

Dichloroacetic acid (DCA), a small-molecule inhibitor of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, "downregulates" glycolysis in vitro and in vivo. Researchers at the University of Alberta theorized in 2007 that DCA might have therapeutic benefits against many types of cancer.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyses the rate-limiting step in the aerobic oxidation of glucose and pyruvate and links glycolysis to the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). DCA acts a structural analog of pyruvate and activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) to inhibit pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases, to keep the complex in its un-phosphorylated form. DCA reduces expression of the kinases, preventing the inactivation of the PDC, and allowing the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA rather than lactate through anaerobic respiration, thereby permitting cellular respiration to continue. Through this mechanism of action, DCA works to counteract the increased production of lactate exhibited by tumor cells by enabling the TCA cycle to metabolize it by oxidative phosphorylation. DCA has not been evaluated as a sole cancer treatment yet, as research on the clinical activity of the drug is still in progress, but it has been shown to be effective when used with other cancer treatments. The neurotoxicity and pharmacokinetics of the drug still need to be monitored but if its evaluations are satisfactory it could be very useful as it is an inexpensive small molecule.

Lewis C. Cantley and colleagues found that tumor M2-PK, a form of the pyruvate kinase enzyme, promotes the Warburg effect. Tumor M2-PK is produced in all rapidly dividing cells and is responsible for enabling cancer cells to consume glucose at an accelerated rate; on forcing the cells to switch to pyruvate kinase's alternative form by inhibiting the production of tumor M2-PK, their growth was curbed. The researchers acknowledged the fact that the exact chemistry of glucose metabolism was likely to vary across different forms of cancer; however, PKM2 was identified in all of the cancer cells they had tested. This enzyme form is not usually found in quiescent tissue, though it is apparently necessary when cells need to multiply quickly, e.g., in healing wounds or hematopoiesis.

Reverse Warburg effect
A model called the "reverse Warburg effect" describes cells releasing energy by glycolysis, but which are not tumor cells, but stromal fibroblasts. In this scenario, the stroma become corrupted by cancer cells and turn into factories for the synthesis of energy rich nutrients. The cells then take these energy rich nutrients and use them for TCA cycle which is used for oxidative phosphorylation. This results in an energy rich environment that allows for replication of the cancer cells. This still supports Warburg's original observation that tumors show a tendency to create energy through anaerobic glycolysis.

Inverse Warburg effect
Another model has been described in tumor cells in an obesity model called Warburg effect inversion. Whereas in the reverse model, the stroma of the microenvironment produces energy-rich nutrients, in a context of obesity these nutrients already exist in the bloodstream and in the extracellular fluid (ECF). In this way, highly energetic nutrients enter directly into TCA and later into oxidative phosphorylation, while lactate and glycogenic amino acids take the opposite path to that proposed by Warburg, which is the production of glucose through the consumption of lactate.

Cancer metabolism and epigenetics
Nutrient use is dramatically altered when cells receive signals to proliferate. Characteristic metabolic changes enable cells to meet the large biosynthetic demands associated with cell growth and division. Changes in rate-limiting glycolytic enzymes redirect metabolism to support growth and proliferation. Metabolic reprogramming in cancer is largely due to the oncogenic activation of signal transduction pathways and transcription factors. Although less well understood, epigenetic mechanisms also contribute to the regulation of metabolic gene expression in cancer. Reciprocally, accumulating evidence suggests that metabolic alterations may affect the epigenome. Understanding the relationship between metabolism and epigenetics in cancer cells may open new avenues for anti-cancer strategies.

Warburg effect in non-cancer cells
A rapid increase in metabolism is needed during the activation of T lymphocytes, which reside in peripheral blood containing stable concentrations of glucose. As glucose is plentiful, T-cells are able to switch to fast use of glucose using the coreceptor CD28. This CD3/CD28 signaling parallels insulin signaling, as both lead to higher expression of glucose transporter 1 (Glut-1) on the cell surface via the activation of Akt kinase. CD28 signal transduction not only leads to higher glucose uptake but also to an increased rate of glycolysis. Most of the glucose taken up by activated T lymphocytes is metabolised to lactate and dumped out of the cells.

title: Warburg effect (oncology)


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