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Lucien Carr

Lucien Carr (March 1, 1925 – January 28, 2005) was a key member of the original New York City circle of the Beat Generation in the 1940s and also a convicted manslaughterer. He later worked for many years as an editor for United Press International.

Early life
Carr was born in New York City; his parents, Marion Howland (née Gratz) and Russell Carr, were both offspring of socially prominent St. Louis families. His maternal grandfather was Benjamin Gratz, a St. Louis capitalist who was engaged in the rope making business and was descended from Michael Gratz, who was among the first Jewish settlers of Philadelphia and was prominent in Philadelphia's social life. After his parents separated in 1930, young Lucien and his mother moved back to St. Louis; Carr spent the rest of his childhood there.

At the age of 12, Carr met David Kammerer (b. 1911), a man who would have a profound influence on the course of his life. Kammerer was a teacher of English and a physical education instructor at Washington University in St. Louis. Kammerer was a childhood friend of William S. Burroughs, another scion of St. Louis wealth who knew the Carr family. Burroughs and Kammerer had gone to primary school together, and as young men they traveled together and explored Paris's nightlife: Burroughs said Kammerer "was always very funny, the veritable life of the party, and completely without any middle-class morality." Kammerer met Carr when he was leading a Boy Scout Troop of which Carr was a member, and quickly became infatuated with the child.

Over the next five years, Kammerer pursued Carr, showing up wherever the young man was enrolled at school. Carr would later insist, as would his friends and family, that Kammerer had been hounding Carr sexually with a predatory persistence that would today be considered stalking. Whether the attentions of a man fourteen years his senior were frightening or flattering to the underage Carr is now a matter of some debate among those who chronicle the history of the Beat Generation. What is not in dispute is that Carr moved quickly from school to school: from the Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, to Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, to the University of Chicago, and that Kammerer followed him to each one. The two of them socialized on occasion. Carr always insisted, and Burroughs believed, that he never had sex with Kammerer; Jack Kerouac biographer Dennis McNally wrote that Kammerer "was a Doppelgänger whose sexual desires Lucien would not gratify; their connection was an intertwined mass of frustration that hinted ominously of trouble."

Carr's University of Chicago career abruptly ended after he put his head into a gas oven. He explained away this act as a "work of art," but the apparent suicide attempt, which Carr's family believed was catalyzed by Kammerer, led to a two-week stay in the psychiatric ward at Cook County hospital. Carr's mother, who had moved to New York City, brought her son there and enrolled him at Columbia University, close to her home.

If Marion Carr had sought to distance her son from David Kammerer, she did not succeed. He soon quit his job and followed Carr to New York, moving into an apartment on Morton Street in the West Village, one block from William Burroughs' residence; the two older men remained friends.

Columbia and the Beats
As a freshman at Columbia, Carr was recognized as an exceptional student with a quick, roving mind. A fellow student from Lionel Trilling's humanities class described him as "stunningly brilliant. ... It seemed as if he and Trilling were having a private conversation." He joined the campus literary and debate group, the Philolexian Society.

It was also at Columbia that Carr befriended Allen Ginsberg in the Union Theological Seminary dormitory on West 122nd Street (an overflow residence for Columbia at the time), when Ginsberg knocked on the door to find out who was playing a recording of a Brahms trio. Soon after, a young woman Carr had befriended, Edie Parker, introduced Carr to her boyfriend, Jack Kerouac, then twenty-two and nearing the end of his short career as a sailor. Carr, in turn, introduced Ginsberg and Kerouac to one another – and both of them to his older friend with more first-hand experience at decadence: William Burroughs. The core of the New York Beat scene had formed, with Carr at the center. As Ginsberg put it, "Lou was the glue."

Carr, Kerouac, Ginsberg and Burroughs explored New York's grimier underbelly together. It was at this time that they fell in with Herbert Huncke, an underworld character and later writer and poet. Carr had a taste for provocative behavior, for bawdy songs and for coarse antics aimed at shocking those with staid middle-class values. According to Kerouac, Carr once convinced him to get into an empty beer keg, which Carr then rolled down Broadway. Ginsberg wrote in his journal at the time: "Know these words, and you speak the Carr language: fruit, phallus, clitoris, cacoethes, feces, foetus, womb, Rimbaud." It was Carr who first introduced Ginsberg to the poetry and the story of 19th century French poet Arthur Rimbaud. Rimbaud would be a major influence on Ginsberg's poetry.

Ginsberg was plainly fascinated by Carr, whom he viewed as a self-destructive egotist but also as a possessor of real genius. Fellow students saw Carr as talented and dissolute, a prank-loving late-night reveler who haunted the dark pockets of Chelsea and Greenwich Village until dawn, without making a dent in his brilliant performance in the classroom. On one occasion, asked why he was carrying a jar of jam across the campus, Carr simply explained that he was "going on a date." Returning to his dorm in the early hours another morning to find that his bed had been short-sheeted, Carr retaliated by spraying the rooms of his dorm-mates with the hallway fire-hose – while they were still sleeping.

Carr developed what he called the "New Vision," a thesis recycled from Emersonian transcendentalism and Parisian Bohemianism which helped undergird the Beats' creative rebellion:

 * 1) Naked self-expression is the seed of creativity.
 * 2) The artist's consciousness is expanded by derangement of the senses.
 * 3) Art eludes conventional morality.

For ten months, Kammerer remained a fringe member of this simmering crowd, still utterly infatuated with Carr, who sometimes avoided him and on other occasions indulged Kammerer's attentions. On one occasion he may even have brought Kammerer to a session of Trilling's class. Accounts of this period report that Kammerer's presence and lovelorn devotion to Carr made many of the other Beats uncomfortable. On one occasion, Burroughs found Kammerer trying to hang Kerouac's cat. Kammerer's psyche was evidently decaying; he was barely scraping by, helping a janitor clean his building on Morton Street in exchange for rent. In July 1944, Carr and Kerouac began talking about shipping out of New York on a Merchant Marine vessel, a scheme which drove Kammerer frantic with anxiety at the possibility of losing Carr. In early August, Kammerer crawled into Carr's room via the fire escape and watched him sleep for half an hour; he was caught by a guard as he crawled back out again.

Killing in Riverside Park
On August 13, 1944, Carr and Kerouac attempted to ship out of New York to France on a merchant ship. They were aiming to fulfill a fantasy of travelling across France in character as a Frenchman (Kerouac) and his deaf-mute friend (Carr) and hoped to be in Paris in time for the liberation by the Allies. Kicked off the ship by the first mate at the last minute, the two men drank together at the Beats' regular bar, the West End. Kerouac left first and bumped into Kammerer, who asked where Carr was; Kerouac told him.

Kammerer caught up with Carr at the West End, and the two men went for a walk, ending up in Riverside Park on Manhattan's Upper West Side.

According to Carr's version of the night, he and Kammerer were resting near West 115th Street when Kammerer made yet another sexual advance. When Carr rejected it, he said that Kammerer assaulted him physically, and gained the upper hand in the struggle due to his larger size. In desperation and panic, Carr said, he stabbed the older man by using a Boy Scout knife from his St. Louis childhood. Carr then tied his assailant's hands and feet, wrapped Kammerer's belt around his arms, weighted the body with rocks, and dumped it in the nearby Hudson River.

Next, Carr went to the apartment of William Burroughs, gave him Kammerer's bloodied pack of cigarettes, and explained the incident. Burroughs flushed the cigarettes down the toilet and told Carr to get a lawyer and to turn himself in. Instead, Carr sought out Kerouac, who with the aid of Abe Green (a protégé of Herbert Huncke) helped him dispose of the knife and some of Kammerer's belongings before the two went to a movie (Zoltan Korda's The Four Feathers) and to the Museum of Modern Art to look at paintings. Finally, Carr went to his mother's house and then to the office of the New York District Attorney, where he confessed. The prosecutors, uncertain whether the story was true or whether a crime had even been committed, kept him in custody until they had recovered Kammerer's body. Carr identified the corpse and led police to where he had buried Kammerer's eyeglasses in Morningside Park.

Kerouac, who was identified in The New York Times coverage of the crime as a "23-year-old seaman", was arrested as a material witness, as was Burroughs, whose father posted bail. However, Kerouac's father refused to post the $100 bond to bail him out. In the end, Edie Parker's parents agreed to post the money if Kerouac would marry their daughter. With detectives serving as witnesses, Edie and Jack were married at the Municipal Building, and after his release, he moved to Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan, Parker's hometown. Their marriage was annulled in 1948.

Carr was charged with second-degree murder. The story was closely followed in the press since it involved a well-liked, gifted student from a prominent family, New York's premier university, and the scandalous elements of rape and homosexuality. The newspaper coverage embraced Carr's story of an obsessed homosexual preying on an appealing heterosexual younger man, who finally lashed out in self-defense. The Daily News called the killing an "honor slaying", an early example of what was later called the 'gay panic defense.' If there were subtle shadings to the tale of Carr's five-year saga with Kammerer, the newspapers ignored them. Carr pleaded guilty to first-degree manslaughter, and his mother testified at a sentencing hearing about Kammerer's predatory habits. Carr was sentenced to a term of one to twenty years in prison. He served two years in the Elmira Correctional Facility in Upstate New York and was released.

Carr's Beat crowd (which Ginsberg called "the Libertine Circle") was, for a time, shattered by the killing. Several members sought to write about the events. Kerouac's The Town and the City is a fictional retelling, in which Carr is represented by the character "Kenneth Wood." A more literal depiction of events appears in Kerouac's later Vanity of Duluoz. Soon after the killing, Allen Ginsberg began a novel about the crime, which he called The Bloodsong, but his English instructor at Columbia, seeking to preclude more negative publicity for Carr or the university, persuaded Ginsberg to abandon it. According to the author Bill Morgan in his book The Beat Generation in New York, the Carr incident also inspired Kerouac and Burroughs to collaborate in 1945 on a novel entitled And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks, which was published for the first time in its entirety in November 2008.

The 2013 film Kill Your Darlings is a fictionalized account of the killing in Riverside Park that tells a version of the murder similar to the version that is portrayed in And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks. In the film, Kammerer is portrayed as deeply in love with Carr to the point of obsession. Carr is portrayed as a young man who is very conflicted by his feelings towards Kammerer and struggles to break ties. Their relationship is further complicated by Carr using Kammerer to write his school essays and Kammerer using the essays to stay attached to Carr.

Dissenting opinions
In a letter to New York magazine, published on June 7, 1976, Patricia Healy (née Goode), the wife of the Irish writer T. F. Healy, put forth a strident defense of Kammerer. Her letter was a rebuttal to an article by Aaron Latham that had appeared in the magazine. She had been a student at Barnard College while the Beat Generation was coalescing in the 1940s in New York City. At the time, she knew several key members of that literary movement, including Burroughs, Kerouac, and Carr, but not Ginsberg.

In her rebuttal, she painted a radically different portrait of Kammerer (with whom she said she had been particularly close) and his relationship with Carr. Refuting the common depiction of Kammerer as fringe figure within the Beat movement, she characterized him as a guiding light within that literary circle. She said his informal lectures had inspired many of the Beats, particularly Kerouac, whom she accused of ingratitude for never acknowledging his debt to Kammerer. She discredited what she termed "the Lucien myth," that Carr had been the victim of Kammerer's relentless obsession and stalking. On the contrary, she asserted it was Kammerer who wanted to be rid of Carr, whom he referred to as "that little bastard." On one occasion, she wrote, she accompanied Carr to Kammerer's apartment, where he hostilely told Carr never to come around again. The resulting altercation culminated with Kammerer punching the younger man and knocking him to the floor. Healy's letter also hinted that Carr had frequently sought Kammerer's help in writing his Columbia term papers.

Healy also maintained that Kammerer—far from his frequent depiction as a homosexual predator—was very much heterosexual, as evidenced, she said, by his pursuit of a "kept woman" of his acquaintance.

In Carr's obituary in The Guardian (February 8, 2005), Eric Homberger questioned Carr's account of the killing:

"Central to Carr's defence was that he was not gay, and that Kammerer, an obsessive stalker, threatened sexual violence. Once the story of a predatory homosexual was presented in court, Carr became a victim and the murder was framed as an honor killing. There was no one in court to question the story or offer a different version of the relationship.

Much of the story, however, is doubtful; perhaps now, with Carr's death, it may be possible to disentangle the strands of insinuation, legal spin and lies. There is no independent proof that Kammerer was a predatory stalker; there is only Carr's word for the pursuit from St. Louis to New York. There is persuasive evidence that Kammerer was not gay. Carr enjoyed his ability to manipulate the older man, and got him to write essays for his classes at New York's Columbia University. A friend remembers Kammerer slamming the door of his apartment in Carr's face, and telling him to get lost.

There is much evidence to suggest that Carr had been a troubled and unstable young man. While at the University of Chicago, he attempted to commit suicide with his head in an unlit gas oven, and told a psychiatrist that it had been a performance, a work of art. In New York, Carr gave Ginsberg, who had been raised respectably in New Jersey, where his father was a teacher, a new language of eroticism and danger. Ginsberg carefully wrote in his journal the key terms of the "Carr language": fruit, phallus, clitoris, cacoethes, faeces, foetus, womb, Rimbaud."

Settling down
After his prison term, Carr went to work for United Press (UP), which later became United Press International (UPI), where he was hired as a copy boy in 1946. He remained on good terms with his Beat friends, and served as best man when Kerouac impetuously married Joan Haverty in November 1950. Carr has sometimes been credited with having provided Kerouac with a roll of teleprinter paper "pilfered" from the UP offices, on which Kerouac then wrote the entire first draft of On the Road in a 20-day marathon fueled by coffee, speed, and marijuana. The scroll was real, but Carr's share of this first draft tale is probably a conflation of two different episodes; the 119-foot first roll, which Kerouac wrote in April 1951, was actually many different large sheets of paper trimmed down and taped together. After Kerouac finished that first version, he moved briefly into Carr's apartment on 21st Street, where he wrote a second draft in May on a roll of United Press teleprinter, and then transferred that work to individual pages for his publisher.

Carr remained a diligent and devoted employee of UP / UPI. In 1956, when Ginsberg's "Howl" and Kerouac's On the Road were about to be national sensations, Carr was promoted to night news editor.

Leaving behind his youthful exhibitionism, Carr came to cherish his privacy. In one well-noted gesture, Carr asked Ginsberg to remove his name from the dedication at the start of "Howl." The poet agreed. Carr even became a voice of caution in Ginsberg's life, warning him to "keep the hustlers and parasites at arm's length." For many years, Ginsberg would visit the UPI offices and press Carr to cover the various causes with which Ginsberg had allied himself. Carr continued to serve Kerouac as a drinking buddy, a reader and critic, reviewing early drafts of Kerouac's work and absorbing Kerouac's growing frustrations with the publishing world.

Carr married Francesca von Hartz in 1952, and the couple had three children: Simon, Caleb, and Ethan (in 1994, Caleb published The Alienist, a novel which became a best-seller.) They divorced and he later married Sheila Johnson.

"When I met him in the mid-50s," wrote jazz musician David Amram, Carr "was so sophisticated and worldly and fun to be with that even while you always felt at home with him, you knew he was always one step ahead and expected you to follow." According to Amram, Carr remained loyal to Kerouac to the end of the older man's life, even as Kerouac descended into alienation and alcoholism.

Lucien Carr spent 47 years, his entire professional career, with UPI, and went on to head the general news desk until his retirement in 1993. If he was famous as a young man for his flamboyant style and outrageous vocabulary, he perfected an opposite style as an editor, and nurtured the skills of brevity in the generations of young journalists whom he mentored. He was known for his oft-repeated suggestion, "Why don't you just start with the second paragraph?" Carr was reputed to have strict acceptable standards for a good lede (lead paragraph), his mantra being "Make 'em laugh, make 'em cry, make 'em horny" (or variations of this).

Carr died at George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C. in January 2005 after a long battle with bone cancer.

title: Lucien Carr


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Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Rope tricks

Rope tricks
I'm taking a chance on this one, I know. This is an image of a nuclear detonation at 1ms after zero time showing "rope tricks". Exposure is 3 µs. I know the image suffers from moire due to effects of scanning a halftone image (and I would be grateful if someone can clean it up), but I feel the subject matter is so unique and fascinating it might be overlooked. This is probably the highest quality image available of this phenomenon.

 * Nominate and Support.--Deglr6328 06:49, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * If you can scan the image at a higher resolution and upload it as a low-compression jpg or no-compression png, I can probably remove the moire patterns. -- brian0918  ™  15:22, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Sadly, I don't have the original image.--Deglr6328 00:33, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Nominate and Support.--Zxcvbnm 00:49, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm ....pretty sure ...I nominated but I'll take what I can get :o) !!--Deglr6328 01:00, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support I have always found this microsecond phenomenon fascinating Denni ☯ 02:30, 2005 Apr 9 (UTC)
 * Support, though if a cleaner image can be developed, without the moiré pattern, I will be even more enthusiastic. I've had a quick look at Michael Light's 100 Suns, published in 2003, and agree this photo illustrates rope tricks and the "mottling" effect superbly.  The Tumbler-Snapper test series comprised six detonations beginning in April 1952 at the Nevada Test Site.  Sandover 02:34, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks for mentioning that book - I've ordered it from Amazon. Ground 15:01, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Support Add significantly and is titillating. Circeus 02:46, Apr 9, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support.  brian0918  ™  03:14, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support --Fir0002 10:06, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. Wow. Enochlau 14:10, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Support -- Chris 73 Talk 12:14, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support Its fascinating, alright. TomStar81 05:48, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

+10 / -0 -- Solipsist 12:02, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This image needs source information before it can be promoted — +10 / -0 -- Solipsist 06:21, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Info from http://www.radiochemistry.org/history/nuke_tests/tumbler_snapper/ added to image info to support PD attribution as US government photo- Bevo 14:35, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't know how to conclusively PROVE that this image was taken by a govt. employee but I have seen it published in several places with statements that it is a gov. image. Really, I don't know how it could be anything else. The image was taken at some time in 1952. I am unaware of the DOD ever allowing ANY private individual or organization to image bomb tests with ultrafast rapatronic equipment, let alone allowing them to take such images so early on in the testing in the early '50s. It would be a hige security risk. I am 99.999% certain this is a gov. work and in the public domain. :)--Deglr6328 16:41, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Addendum. Here is a statemtnt by Michael Light, the author of 100 suns, which gives insight to where he obtained the rapatronic images for his book. "At the still picture branch of the United States National Archives at College Park, Maryland, head archivist Kate Flaherty was unfailingly helpful during all aspects of research at that great institution, as were her staff members Theresa Roy and Sharon Culley. Roger Meade, chief archivist at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, went above the call of duty to make material available and help identify some of its more arcane aspects. At Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, archivists Steve Wofford, Beverly Bull and Maxine Trost helped with image research. Nick Broderick, classification analyst at Lawrence Livermore, kindly provided final identification of notoriously difficult to attribute ultra-high-speed Rapatronic images made by E.G.&G. Thanks as well to filmmaker Peter Kuran for additional identification help with Rapatronic images." --Deglr6328 16:54, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Please place a copy of that text with your "signature" in this images's info page. Thx! - Bevo 18:03, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * And just so I'm clear, the photo credit should go to 'E.G. & G'? -- Solipsist 18:53, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * The cameras were built by EG&G. http://www.egginc.com/ is their homepage.  http://simplethinking.com/home/rapatronic_photographs.htm has more detail on their use. - Bevo 21:21, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * No, definitley not. The images were made with a camera produced by E.G.&G. but that's all. They were taken by a scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. --Deglr6328 23:37, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Lake Entiat

Lake Entiat (also known as Rocky Reach Reservoir) is a reservoir between Chelan County and Douglas County in North Central Washington, USA, that is formed above Rocky Reach Dam (built 1962), a hydroelectric dam on the Columbia River. The reservoir is 17 mi north of Wenatchee and stretches upstream to the Wells Dam. Lincoln Rock State Park is on its south shore.

Turtle Rock Island

A prominent feature in Lake Entiat is the 150-acre Turtle Rock Island, located northeast of Lincoln Rock State Park. Originally part of the mainland on the south bank of the Columbia, this rocky outcrop became an island when the lake formed. U.S. Highway 2 formerly ran through the area that became the island, and remnants of the road may still be seen in aerial photos. The island is now a nature preserve and fish hatchery, with access only by boat.

title: Lake Entiat


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File:RockInOpposition flyer.jpg

Summary
Flyer for the first Rock in Opposition festival at the New London Theatre, London, on 12 March 1978.

The ticket below the flyer (to expand, see source below) reads: "FIVE ROCK GROUPS THE RECORD COMPANIES DON'T WANT YOU TO HEAR." The hands are those of a record company executive ripping down the poster.

 * Poster designer: Steve Stapleton
 * Source: http://www.francofabbri.net/pagine/StormyRecensioni.htm

title: File:RockInOpposition flyer.jpg


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User:Konstantin~enwiki

{| border="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" align="center" We currently have   articles!
 * style="background:#ffd750;"|This is my userpage...
 * style="background:#ffd750;"|This is my userpage...
 * style="background:#ffd540;"|
 * style="background:#ffd540;"|

Info will come in the future... None in the English Wikipedia so far None in the English Wikipedia so far None so far read below* You can also reach me here what about the exhibition En Dunkel Historia at the Sjöhistoriska museet in Stockholm ? still on until April 2007. Have a visit on their website, may be it diserves a little comment and a link on the Swedish slave trade wikipedia's page ? (which i can not do as not fluent in swedish!) Best regards, Doulcy 10:30, 13 March 2007 (UTC) Remember... Wikipedia rules!
 * style="background:#ffd423;"|A little about me
 * style="background:#ffd423;"|A little about me
 * style="background:#ffd403;"|Projects I've started
 * style="background:#ffd403;"|Projects I've started
 * style="background:#ffd423;"|Projects I am participating in
 * style="background:#ffd423;"|Projects I am participating in
 * style="background:#ffd453;"|Bookmarks
 * style="background:#ffd453;"|Bookmarks
 * style="background:#ffd453;"|Articles I've contributed to and am very satisfied with
 * The swedish slave trade
 * The swedish slave trade
 * style="background:#ffd550;"|
 * style="background:#ffd550;"|
 * My userpage on the Swedish Wikipedia
 * My userpage at Commons
 * My userpage at Wikisource
 * style="background:#ffd423;"|To do
 * I suggest that you mention also the biography that was consulted for your work on the Swedish slave trade page.
 * I suggest that you mention also the biography that was consulted for your work on the Swedish slave trade page.
 * style="background:#ffd550;"|[[Image:NonFreeImageRemoved.svg<|left|75px|right|]]
 * style="background:#ffd550;"|[[Image:NonFreeImageRemoved.svg<|left|75px|right|]]

sv:Användare:Konstantin

title: User:Konstantin~enwiki


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Born to Kill (1947 film)

Born to Kill (released in the U.K. as Lady of Deceit and in Australia as Deadlier Than the Male) is a 1947 RKO Pictures American film noir starring Lawrence Tierney, Claire Trevor and Walter Slezak with Esther Howard, Elisha Cook Jr., and Audrey Long in supporting roles. The film was director Robert Wise's first film noir production, preceding his later work on The Set-Up (1949) and The Captive City (1952).

Plot
San Francisco socialite Helen Brent has established residence in Reno, Nevada in order to obtain a divorce decree and is lodging in a boarding house owned by the feisty Mrs. Kraft. Helen meets Laury Palmer, a next-door neighbor, and Mrs. Kraft's best friend, who confides that she has accepted a date with a man named Danny in order to incite jealousy in her new beau, Sam Wilde.

Sam sees them together that evening. Later, he enters Laury's house and confronts Danny. He bludgeons Danny to death and then kills Laury.

Helen discovers the bodies and flees to San Francisco, but does not contact the police. She meets Sam and is attracted to his self-assurance. Neither knows the other's part in the events. Back in Reno, Mrs. Kraft hires private detective Albert Arnett to find Laury's killer.

Several days later, Sam arrives unexpectedly at the mansion where Helen is living. It is owned by Georgia Staples, Helen's wealthy foster sister and the heir to her father's newspaper. Georgia finds Sam attractive, and Sam tells his friend Marty Waterman that he will marry Georgia for her money and the opportunity for higher social standing. Helen is distraught at their wedding.

Helen tells Sam that she loves her sister but hates her for her money, and then Sam kisses her. Marty has traveled to San Francisco for the wedding, and detective Arnett has tailed him there. After he interrogates the staff, Helen reveals information about Sam's activities.

Georgia and Sam fight over his demand to run the newspaper, as she knows that he has no relevant experience. However, he wants the job so that he can manipulate people. He says that Helen understands this because "your roots are down here where mine are" and that they are soulmates. After admitting to Helen that he has not married Georgia for love and, claiming that she has a similar relationship with her fiancé Fred Grover, Sam passionately kisses Helen.

After overhearing a call to Helen from Reno, Sam believes that she is plotting against him, but Helen secretly bribes Arnett to ignore Sam's role in the murders. After Mrs. Kraft travels to San Francisco to meet with Arnett, Marty visits her. He then visits and chats with Helen, but Sam becomes jealous after seeing him leaving her room. He leads her to the dunes on the outskirts of town, and just before Marty can stab her, Sam appears and kills him.

The police interrogate the household about Marty's murder, and Helen reluctantly provides an alibi for Sam. Helen meets with Mrs. Kraft, who now knows that Sam killed Laury, and threatens her life if she informs the police. A terrified Mrs. Kraft realizes that she must abandon the search for Laury's killer but spits on Helen as she departs.

Helen meets Sam and informs him that she will extract the money to pay Arnett from Fred. However, Fred cancels their engagement, accusing Helen of having lost her heart, and she panics. When Helen cannot pay Arnett, he tells her that the police will soon arrive for Sam. She reveals Sam's murders to Georgia, who refuses to believe her and realizes that Helen did not tell the truth about Sam until she had lost Fred. Georgia angrily accuses Helen of only loving her for her money. To demonstrate that Sam does not love Georgia, Helen kisses him as he enters the room. Helen exclaims to Sam that Georgia must be eliminated for them to be happy. The police arrive, and Georgia reveals that it was Helen who called them. Sam shoots Helen just before he is shot and killed by the police.

The next day, Arnett reads a newspaper headline announcing that Helen was killed by Sam.

Cast

 * Lawrence Tierney as Sam Wilde
 * Claire Trevor as Helen Brent
 * Walter Slezak as Albert Arnett
 * Phillip Terry as Fred Grover
 * Audrey Long as Georgia Staples
 * Elisha Cook Jr. as Marty Waterman
 * Isabel Jewell as Laury Palmer
 * Esther Howard as Mrs. Kraft
 * Kathryn Card as Grace
 * Tony Barrett as Danny
 * Grandon Rhodes as Inspector Wilson
 * Martha Hyer as Maid (uncredited)
 * Ellen Corby as Maid (uncredited)
 * Jason Robards Sr. as Conductor (uncredited)
 * Napoleon Whiting as Porter (uncredited)

Production
Preproduction for the film began in early February 1945, more than two years before its release. RKO hired author Steve Fisher to write a screenplay based on James Gunn's 1943 novel Deadlier Than the Male. By April the studio had replaced Fisher and enlisted screenwriters Eve Greene and Richard Macaulay to compose the script as a team and to manage it through production.

Casting began in August 1945 and Lawrence Tierney was RKO's first choice following his powerful performance in Dillinger, released four months earlier. Although RKO wanted Tallulah Bankhead for the role of Helen Brent, she was unavailable. In January 1946, the part went to Claire Trevor, whose work in the previous year's Murder, My Sweet had impressed studio executives. The working title of the project was still Deadlier Than the Male, which appeared in a series of official release charts. RKO did not officially change the title to Born to Kill for domestic release until December 1946.

Filming began on May 6, 1946, with exterior scenes shot first on location at El Segundo Beach and later in San Francisco. As early as July, it was reported that the film was ready to be scheduled for release. These notices proved premature because the studio experienced delays in arriving at a satisfactory final cut. In October 1946, RKO announced that scheduled November 7 previews at a national trade show and at exchange centers were being postponed. A general release date of November 10, 1946 was postponed as well.

Postproduction problems persisted until the final weeks before the film's distribution to theaters.

Themes
Born to Kill is a rare film noir in that it is shown through a woman's eyes. This female subjectivity enables a more nuanced view of the femme fatale, a central motif in film noir, rather than that which is typical of the genre. Although the archetypical film noir femme fatale's sexuality is often merely a tool to manipulate men for material gain, Helen is a more complicated figure. She is drawn to Sam's brutality although she is also interested in Fred's money. Instead of leading the male protagonist into darkness and ruin, she is compromised by Sam.

Release
On the day before the film's official release, Tierney made headlines for his involvement in a drunken brawl and for violating probation related to an earlier conviction for public drunkenness. Tierney's frequent offscreen troubles also attracted greater scrutiny of his films by state review boards and local censors, some of which sought to ban Born to Kill in their communities.

Censors in places such as Ohio, Chicago and Memphis rejected the film. The National Legion of Decency considered the film objectionable for its acceptance of divorce but did not condemn the film outright.

Although some industry publications predicted box-office success for the film, RKO production head Dore Schary publicly distanced the studio from the film just days after its release. Schary vowed to lessen the "arbitrary use of violence" in RKO films and pledged that the studio would no longer produce "gangster pictures" such as Born to Kill. RKO reported a net loss of $243,000 after the film's initial run.

The furor regarding Born to Kill and the same year's Shoot to Kill prompted the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) to revise its Production Code to strengthen restrictions relating to crime films. At a meeting of its board of directors on December 3, 1947, the MPAA voted to bar 14 "'objectionable and unsuitable'" films released between 1928 and 1947 from theatrical reissue, including Born to Kill. The MPAA also approved the immediate deletion from its official title registry of more than two dozen films with titles deemed "salacious or indecent."

In 1948, 12-year-old Howard Lang was convicted for using a switchblade and a piece of concrete to kill a seven-year-old boy outside Chicago the previous year. Lang's lawyers argued that he had watched Born to Kill less than three weeks prior to the homicide and that the film's violence triggered a form of temporary insanity. The Illinois Supreme Court overturned Lang's conviction, finding that he was too young to understand his actions. He was then acquitted following a retrial, but the judge recommended laws to censor violent films and hold theater managers liable for exhibiting them.

Reception

In a contemporary review for The New York Times, critic Bosley Crowther called the film "a smeary tabloid fable" and "an hour and a half of ostentatious vice," concluding: "Surely, discriminating people are not likely to be attracted to this film. But it is precisely because it is designed to pander to the lower levels of taste that it is reprehensible."

Cecelia Ager of PM wrote:

"As unsavory and untalented an exhibition of deliberate sensation-pandering as ever sullied a movie screen. RKO made it, the Johnson office [in Hollywood] sanctioned it, the Palace is now playing it. It muddles them all with dishonor...Were Born to Kill merely a third rate picture hoping nevertheless to entertain, it could be passed by with a sigh. But it is third rate aiming—and with a blunderbuss—to shock, and so it provokes shudders, and not of fear."

Irving Kaplan of Motion Picture Daily found "weaknesses in several departments" of "the heavy-handed melodrama" although he focused his attention on the performances of the "tough and ruthless" Tierney and the "captivating and calculating" Trevor:

"The picture itself is one of those affairs which winds up with five corpses ... Portrayals generally betray a tendency toward over-acting and grotesque emphasis, perhaps to achieve over-all melodrama, while the dialogue, in spots, appears forced and weighted with flourishes."

The Film Daily cautioned theater owners about the "homicidal drama," describing it as "a sexy, suggestive yarn of crime with punishment, strictly for the adult trade." William R. Weaver of the Motion Picture Herald found the film's overall look "painstaking and polished" and Robert Wise's direction successful in maintaining "a steady pace" but concluded: "Produced for melodrama fans, [the film] contains enough killing for anybody, but furnishes less than adequate reasons for it."

Some modern-day film critics view Born to Kill in a positive light. Author Michael Keaney describes the film as compelling despite its "hard-to-swallow plot," stating: "This one is all Tierney. He's outstanding as one of the most violently disturbed psychos in all of film noir, giving even Robert Ryan in Crossfire a run for his money."

Reviewing the film in 2006 for Slant Magazine, critic Fernando F. Croce focused on Wise:

"The usually meek Robert Wise trades his chameleonic tastefulness for full-on, jazzy misanthropy in this nasty melodrama ... Wise swims in the genre's amorality, scoring a kitchen brawl to big-band radio tunes, terrorizing a soused matron at a nocturnal beach skirmish, and leaving the last word to Walter Slezak's jovially corrupt detective."

Writing for Film Monthly in 2009, Robert Weston also praised Wise's direction:

"This was the first and the nastiest of the noirs directed by Robert Wise ... Wise came to the genre with a background in the Val Lewton horror team and the expressionistic films of Orson Welles, so he was the right tool for the job when it came to film noir ... As the title suggests, Born to Kill is a film about the grimmest corners of the human condition, the wicked place where sex, corruption and violence join hands and rumba round in darkness."

Director Guillermo del Toro has credited Born to Kill as a primary influence on his 2021 film Nightmare Alley, noting that "a couple of the murders in the movie are shocking, even in 2022."

Has been shown on the Turner Classic Movies show 'Noir Alley' with Eddie Muller.

title: Born to Kill (1947 film)


text: Category:Sierra Leonean politicians

title: Category:Sierra Leonean politicians


text:
Born to Kill

Born to Kill may refer to:

Film

 * Born to Kill (1947 film), a film noir directed by Robert Wise
 * Born to Kill (1967 film), a Spaghetti Western directed by Antonio Mollica
 * Born to Kill (1974 film) or Cockfighter, a film directed by Monte Hellman
 * Born to Kill (1996 film), a South Korean action film

Music

 * "Born to Kill", a song by Scotch from Evolution
 * "Born to Kill", a song by The Damned from Damned Damned Damned
 * "Born to Kill", a song by Gillan from Double Trouble
 * "Born to Kill", a song by the Matthew Good Band from Beautiful Midnight
 * "Born to Kill", a song by The Thermals from Desperate Ground
 * "Born to Kill", a song by Rick Ross from Port of Miami 2

Television

 * "Born to Kill" (CSI: Miami), an episode of the TV series CSI: Miami
 * Born to Kill (Bubblegum Crisis), an episode of the anime series Bubblegum Crisis
 * Born to Kill?, a factual British TV series about serial killers
 * Born to Kill (TV series), a 2017 British drama series

Other uses

 * Born to Kill (gang), a 1980s/1990s Vietnamese gang in New York City
 * "Born to Kill", a catch-phrase from the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket

title: Born to Kill


text:
User talk:Rawhead

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Questions, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
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I hope you'll stick around and help improve our coverage of Mesoamerica. I've been one of the main editors here on Mesoamerican topics, mostly for lack of someone better. I replied on Talk:Quetzalcoatl, your further ideas are very welcome. Best wishes, -- Infrogmation 07:00, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Rawhead


text:
Cerknica

Cerknica (Circonio, Zirknitz ) is a town in the Karst region of southwestern Slovenia, with a population of 4,018 (2016 census). It is the seat of the Municipality of Cerknica. It belongs to the traditional region of Inner Carniola.

Name
Cerknica was first attested in written sources as Circhinitz in 1040 (and as Czirknicz in 1145, Cyrknitz in 1261, and Cirnizza in 1581). The name is derived from *Cerkvnica, a univerbation of *Cerkvna (vas) 'church village'. A church was established very early in Cerknica, probably already in the 9th century. The original structure was burned down in an Ottoman attack in 1472.

Churches
There are three churches in Cerknica. The parish church is dedicated to the Nativity of Mary. It stands at the top of a hill in the center of Cerknica at the site of a former fortification against Ottoman raids. It is a late Gothic hall church, a triple-naved structure with lierne vaulting built between 1480 and 1520 at the site of an earlier church that was burned during an Ottoman attack in 1472. A Baroque chapel was added to the church in the 18th century and the church's furnishings date from the 19th century.

The other two churches are chapels of ease dedicated to John the Baptist and Saint Roch. Saint John the Baptist Church is a cemetery church south of the main settlement. A chapel was mentioned at the site in a visitation report of 1581; the church itself was built in 1642. It has a rectangular nave, a polygonal chancel walled on three sides, and a bell tower. The interior combines groin vaulting and barrel vaulting with spandrels. Saint Roch's Church stands in the northern part of Cerknica. It was built between 1630 and 1644 at the site of a plague chapel dating to 1578. It has a rectangular nave, a polygonal chancel walled on three sides, and a bell tower. The altar painting of Saint Roch is a 1763 work by Anton Cebej.

Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Cerknica include:
 * France Arhar (born 1948), banker and politician
 * Jože Udovič (1912–1986), poet

title: Cerknica


text:
Criticism of socialism

Criticism of socialism is any critique of socialist economics and socialist models of organization and their feasibility, as well as the political and social implications of adopting such a system. Some critiques are not necessarily directed toward socialism as a system but rather toward the socialist movement, parties, or existing states. Some critics consider socialism to be a purely theoretical concept that should be criticized on theoretical grounds, such as in the economic calculation problem and the socialist calculation debate, while others hold that certain historical examples exist and that they can be criticized on practical grounds. Because there are many types of socialism, most critiques are focused on a specific type of socialism, that of the command economy and the experience of Soviet-type economies that may not apply to all forms of socialism as different models of socialism conflict with each other over questions of property ownership, economic coordination and how socialism is to be achieved. Critics of specific models of socialism might be advocates of a different type of socialism.

According to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, an economic system (specifically centralized economic planning) that does not use money, financial calculation, and market pricing would be unable to effectively value capital goods and coordinate production, and therefore in his view socialism is impossible because it lacks the necessary information to perform economic calculation in the first place. Another central argument leveled against socialist systems based on economic planning is based on the use of dispersed knowledge. Socialism is unfeasible in this view because information cannot be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result in distorted or absent price signals; this is known as the economic calculation problem. Other economists criticize models of socialism based on neoclassical economics for their reliance on the faulty and unrealistic assumptions of economic equilibrium and Pareto efficiency.

Some philosophers have criticized the aims of socialism, arguing that equality erodes away at individual diversities and that the establishment of an equal society would have to entail strong coercion. Many critics point to the mass killings under communist regimes as an indictment of socialism; some socialists respond that they were aberrations, point to mass deaths they argued were caused by capitalism and imperialism, and some say that they are not the socialist model they support. Economic liberals and right-libertarians view private ownership of the means of production and the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute. As a result, they perceive public ownership of the means of production and economic planning as infringements upon liberty.

Distorted or absent price signals
The economic calculation problem is a criticism of central economic planning which exists in some forms of socialism. It was first proposed in 1854 by the Prussian economist Hermann Heinrich Gossen. It was subsequently expounded in 1902 by the Dutch economist Nicolaas Pierson, in 1920 by Ludwig von Mises and later by Friedrich Hayek. The problem referred to is that of how to distribute resources rationally in an economy. The free market relies on the price mechanism, wherein people individually have the ability to decide how resources should be distributed based on their willingness to give money for specific goods or services. The price conveys embedded information about the abundance of resources as well as their desirability (supply and demand) which in turn allows—on the basis of individual consensual decisions—corrections that prevent shortages and surpluses. Mises and Hayek argued that this is the only possible solution and without the information provided by market prices socialism lacks a method to rationally allocate resources. Those who agree with this criticism argue it is a refutation of socialism and that it shows that a socialist planned economy could never work. The debate raged in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by economic historians as "the Socialist Calculation Debate".

Mises argued in a famous 1920 article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods, therefore they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to declare "that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth". Mises developed his critique of socialism more completely in his 1922 book Socialism, An Economic and Sociological Analysis.

Mises argued that a socialist system based upon a planned economy would not be able to allocate resources effectively due to the lack of price signals. Because the means of production would be controlled by a single entity, approximating prices for capital goods in a planned economy would be impossible. His argument was that socialism must fail economically because of the economic calculation problem—the impossibility of a socialist government being able to make the economic calculations required to organize a complex economy. Mises projected that without a market economy there would be no functional price system which he held essential for achieving rational and efficient allocation of capital goods to their most productive uses. According to Mises, socialism would fail as demand cannot be known without prices. These arguments were elaborated by subsequent Austrian economists such as Hayek and students such as Hans Sennholz. In 1977, Hayek argued that "prices are an instrument of communication and guidance which embody more information than we directly have" and "the whole idea that you can bring about the same order based on the division of labor by simple direction falls to the ground. ... [I]f you need prices, including the prices of labor, to direct people to go where they are needed, you cannot have another distribution except the one from the market principle".

Hungarian economist János Kornai has written that "the attempt to realize market socialism ... produces an incoherent system, in which there are elements that repel each other: the dominance of public ownership and the operation of the market are not compatible".

Proponents of laissez-faire capitalism argue that although private monopolies do not have any actual competition, there are many potential competitors watching them and if they were delivering inadequate service, or charging an excessive amount for a good or service, investors would start a competing enterprise. The anarcho-capitalist economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe argues that in the absence of prices for the means of production, there is no cost-accounting which would direct labor and resources to the most valuable uses. According to Tibor Machan, "[w]ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals".

According to economist Milton Friedman: "The loss part is just as important as the profit part. What distinguishes the private system from a government socialist system is the loss part. If an entrepreneur's project doesn't work, he closes it down. If it had been a government project, it would have been expanded, because there is not the discipline of the profit and loss element".

Proponents of chaos theory argue that it is impossible to make accurate long-term predictions for highly complex systems such as an economy.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon raises similar calculational issues in his General Idea of the Revolution in the 19th Century, but he also proposes certain voluntary arrangements which would also require economic calculation. Leon Trotsky, a fierce proponent of decentralized economic planning, argued that centralized economic planning would be "insoluble without the daily experience of millions, without their critical review of their own collective experience, without their expression of their needs and demands and could not be carried out within the confines of the official sanctums" and "[e]ven if the Politburo consisted of seven universal geniuses, of seven Marxes, or seven Lenins, it will still be unable, all on its own, with all its creative imagination, to assert command over the economy of 170 million people". In contrast to the lack of a marketplace, market socialism can be viewed as an alternative to the traditional socialist model. Theoretically, the fundamental difference between a traditional socialist economy and a market socialist economy is the existence of a market for the means of production and capital goods. Socialist market abolitionists reply that while advocates of capitalism and the Austrian School in particular recognize equilibrium prices do not exist, they nonetheless claim that these prices can be used as a rational basis when this is not the case, hence markets are not efficient. According to market abolitionists socialists, decentralized planning allows for a spontaneously self-regulating system of stock control (relying solely on calculation in kind) to come about and that in turn decisively overcomes the objections raised by the economic calculation argument that any large scale economy must necessarily resort to a system of market prices.

Suppression of economic democracy and self-management
Central planning is also criticized by elements of the radical left. Libertarian socialist economist Robin Hahnel notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.

As Hahnel explains: "Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best-case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impending markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power".

Slow or stagnant technological advance
Economist Milton Friedman argued that socialism, by which he meant state ownership over the means of production, impedes technological progress due to competition being stifled. He noted that "we need only look to the United States to see where socialism fails" by observing that the "most technologically backward areas are those where government owns the means of production".

Friedman claimed that socialism advocated the abolition of a free markets and money- and risk-based reward systems, a claim disputed by some socialists. Friedman argues that without such a money- and risk-based reward system, many capitalist inventors, whom Friedman holds would nonetheless exist within socialism, would not risk time or capital for research. Friedman believed that this was one of the reasons for the United States patent system and copyright law, arguing: Socialism has proved no more efficient at home than abroad. What are our most technologically backward areas? The delivery of first class mail, the schools, the judiciary, the legislative system—all mired in outdated technology. No doubt we need socialism for the judicial and legislative systems. We do not for mail or schools, as has been shown by Federal Express and others, and by the ability of many private schools to provide superior education to underprivileged youngsters at half the cost of government schooling. ...

We all justly complain about the waste, fraud and inefficiency of the military. Why? Because it is a socialist activity—one that there seems no feasible way to privatize. But why should we be any better at running socialist enterprises than the Russians or Chinese?

By extending socialism far beyond the area where it is unavoidable, we have ended up performing essential government functions far less well than is not only possible but than was attained earlier. In a poorer and less socialist era, we produced a nationwide network of roads and bridges and subway systems that were the envy of the world. Today we are unable even to maintain them.

Reduced incentives
One criticism of socialism is that, in any society where everyone holds equal wealth, there can be no material incentive to work because one does not receive rewards for a work well done. They further argue that incentives increase productivity for all people and that the loss of those effects would lead to stagnation. Some critics of socialism argue that income sharing reduces individual incentives to work and therefore incomes should be individualized as much as possible.

In The Principles of Political Economy (1848), John Stuart Mill wrote: "It is the common error of Socialists to overlook the natural indolence of mankind; their tendency to be passive, to be the slaves of habit, to persist indefinitely in a course once chosen. Let them once attain any state of existence which they consider tolerable, and the danger to be apprehended is that they will thenceforth stagnate; will not exert themselves to improve, and by letting their faculties rust, will lose even the energy required to preserve them from deterioration. Competition may not be the best conceivable stimulus, but it is at present a necessary one, and no one can foresee the time when it will not be indispensable to progress."

Mill later altered his views and adopted a socialist perspective, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defense of a socialist outlook and defending some socialist causes. Within this revised work, he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Nonetheless, some of his views on the idea of flat taxation remained, albeit in a slightly toned-down form.

Reduced prosperity
Austrian school economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe argued that countries where the means of production are nationalized are not as prosperous as those where the means of production are under private control ("prosperous" is defined in terms of GDP). However, not all socialists subscribe to the idea of nationalization, some preferring socialisation instead.

Another Austrian school economist, Ludwig von Mises, argued that aiming for more equal incomes through state intervention necessarily leads to a reduction in national income and therefore average income. Consequently, he says that the socialist chooses the objective of a more equal distribution of income on the assumption that the marginal utility of income to a poor person is greater than that to a rich person. According to Mises, this mandates a preference for a lower average income over inequality of income at a higher average income. He sees no rational justification for this preference, and he also states that there is little evidence that the objective of greater income equality is achieved.

Mises also says: "The only certain fact about Russian affairs under the Soviet regime with regard to which all people agree is: that the standard of living of the Russian masses is much lower than that of the masses in the country which is universally considered as the paragon of capitalism, the United States of America. If we were to regard the Soviet regime as an experiment, we would have to say that the experiment has clearly demonstrated the superiority of capitalism and the inferiority of socialism".

Social and political effects
In The Road to Serfdom, Friedrich Hayek argued that the more even distribution of wealth through the nationalization of the means of production cannot be achieved without a loss of political, economic, and human rights. He argued that to achieve control over means of production and distribution of wealth it is necessary for such socialists to acquire significant powers of coercion. Hayek argued that the road to socialism leads society to totalitarianism and argued that fascism and Nazism were the inevitable outcome of socialist trends in Italy and Germany during the preceding period. Thus, held Hayek, moving leftward from capitalism to socialism is actually moving rightward, from capitalism to fascism. These ideas are encapsulated in the "horseshoe theory". A similar argument has been made by critics such as Dinesh D'Souza, who hold that because the full German name of the German Nazi Party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, and because "Nationalsozialistische" translates to "National Socialism," fascism is actually a type of socialism, and so many socialists are Nazis.

Peter Self criticizes the traditional socialist planned economy and argues against pursuing "extreme equality" because he believes it requires "strong coercion" and does not allow for "reasonable recognition [for] different individual needs, tastes (for work or leisure) and talents". Self holds that while a socialist planned economy provides substantially greater freedom than is present in capitalism—under which the vast majority of people are coerced by the threat of starvation to work for the profit of a small capitalist class—adding markets to socialism improves freedom and efficiency. Accordingly, Self recommends market socialism instead of either capitalism or non-market socialism. Philosopher David Schweickart has described similar views.

Mark J. Perry of the conservative American Enterprise Institute (AEI) argued that socialism means giving up freedom for more security. Perry also argued that "Socialism is the Big Lie of the twentieth century. While it promised prosperity, equality, and security, it delivered poverty, misery, and tyranny. Equality was achieved only in the sense that everyone was equal in his or her misery."

Critics of socialism cite the Soviet Union and Venezuela as examples of countries where socialism has failed.

Claims of leadership corruption
Some critics of socialism see socialism as a type of political state organization instead of as a type of socioeconomic structure (as is traditional). These thinkers generally criticize what they term "socialist states" rather than "socialism."

Milton Friedman argued that the absence of private economic activity would enable political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers, powers that, under a capitalist system, would instead be granted by a capitalist class, which Friedman found preferable. In his campaign against Labour candidate Clement Attlee in the 1945 general election, Winston Churchill claimed that socialism requires totalitarian methods, including a political police, to achieve its goals.

Mass killings
Many commentators on the political right point to the mass killings under communist regimes, claiming them as an indictment of socialism. The Black Book of Communism has been one of the most elaborate popular works to make this point.

Defenders of socialism state that the mass killings under communist regimes were aberrations caused by specific authoritarian regimes and not caused by socialism itself. Nathan J. Robinson, editor-in-chief of the left-wing progressive Current Affairs magazine, has defended socialism from criticism, arguing of "a libertarian socialist tradition that has always been strongly opposed to the authoritarian 'socialism' that many governments have espoused".

title: Criticism of socialism


text:
Torre del Mangia

The Torre del Mangia is a tower in Siena, in the Tuscany region of Italy. Built in 1338-1348, it is located in the Piazza del Campo, Siena's main square, next to the Palazzo Pubblico (Town Hall). When built it was one of the tallest secular towers in medieval Italy. At 102 m it is now Italy's second tallest after Cremona Cathedral's Torrazzo (112 m), the Asinelli tower in Bologna at 97 m being third.

History
The tower was built to be exactly the same height as Siena Cathedral as a sign that the church and the state had equal power.

The name refers to its first bellringer, Giovanni di Balduccio, nicknamed Mangiaguadagni (‘Profit eater’) either for his spendthrift tendency, idleness or gluttony.

Sections
The tower has visually distinct levels, from the bottom:
 * 1) a marble loggia at the base
 * 2) a long red brick shaft
 * 3) a stone section that flares out slightly
 * 4) a short pale-gray upper loggia
 * 5) a marble (uppermost) structure.

The loggia where the tower meets the Piazza del Campo, known as the Cappella di Piazza, was added in 1352 to fulfil a vow to the Holy Virgin by Sienese survivors of the Black Death. The corner pilasters attained their current form in 1378, the sculptures decorating them being executed in 1378-1382 by Mariano d'Angelo Romanelli e Bartolomeo di Tommé. The simple wooden ceiling once covering the loggia was replaced by the current Renaissance marble vault in 1461-1468 by Antonio Federighi, also responsible for the bizarre decorations of the coronation. In 1537-1539 Il Sodoma painted a fresco above the altar, now housed in the town museum in the Palazzo Pubblico.

The upper-middle part in stone was built by Agostino di Giovanni to the design of one Mastro Lippo pittore, probably identifiable with Lippo Memmi. It consists of a parapet resting on corbels. The pronounced petal-like arches between the corbels have led writers to describe the structure as a tulip or lily.

The clock on the lower part of the shaft was added in 1360. There are three bells, the largest one is called the "Sunto" - an abbreviation of assunto, a reference to the assumption of the Virgin. The bell plays a notable role in the celebrations of the Palio.

The walls of the tower are approximately 3 m thick on each side.

Towers inspired by the Torre del Mangia
A number of towers have been inspired by the Torre del Mangia. These include:

 * The Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower (nicknamed Old Joe) at the University of Birmingham, UK, was inspired by the Torre del Mangia, and couples a similar design with Victorian redbrick styles.

 * A strongly influenced clock tower built for the Waterbury Union Station in Waterbury, Connecticut. Designed by McKim, Mead & White and completed in 1909, it today houses the headquarters of the region's daily newspaper.

 * The all-granite Pilgrim Monument at Provincetown, Massachusetts is a scaled-down near replica of the Torre del Mangia, but for its materials and height. Designed by Willard T. Sears, it was built from 1907 to 1910 to commemorate the 21 November 1620 landing of the Mayflower Pilgrims there.  The 77 m monument is the tallest all-granite structure in the United States.

 * The Dock Tower in Grimsby, North East Lincolnshire, UK. Built in 1852 and standing, 94 m tall, the vertical reservoir provided hydraulic tower to open the lock gates of the Royal Dock. Although obsolete from 1892 onward, it remains a proud monument to the town and its rich fishing history.

 * The tower at the Pine Street Inn at the South End of Boston, Massachusetts, formerly a fire station and fire watch tower, is also modelled on the Torre del Mangia. Boston's tower, which is 48 m tall, designed and built in 1892 by Edmund March Wheelwright, is made of brick like the Italian original and was originally designed as part of the central fire station and used as a fire lookout.

 * The main building of the Spanish business & law school, ICADE, in Madrid, is topped with a clock tower modelled on the Torre de Mangia.

title: Torre del Mangia


text:
Antillanca ski resort

Antillanca is a ski resort in the Puyehue National Park, Los Lagos Region, in southern Chile. The nearest city is Osorno, 98 kilometers away.

Antillanca gets its name from the Mapudungun "antü llangka", which means "pearl of the sun".

Location
This ski resort is located in the Puyehue National Park, on the slope of the Casablanca Volcano, near the Puyehue and Aguas Calientes hot springs, all belonging to the Antillanca volcanic complex.

Runs and lifts
Antillanca has 14 marked tracks, 3 for beginners, 4 for intermediates, 6 for advanced and 1 for experts. With a total of 400 hectares of skiable area, the longest is 2800 meters long. In addition to these, there are 14 other natural tracks of different levels of difficulty.

There are 5 mechanical means that allow access to slopes, 1 two-seater chairlift and 4 ski lifts.

Services
The resort has several services associated with skiing and snowboarding: equipment rental, ski and snowboard school, mechanical workshop, among others. There is also a cafeteria and a medical center to support practitioners.

The complex also has a 45-room hotel and a refuge with 85 rooms. The hotel has a heated swimming pool, restaurant, bar, cafeteria and gym.

title: Antillanca ski resort


text:
User:Headcase88/myskin.css

/*
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 * Copyright Gabriel Wicke - http://wikidev.net/
 * License: GPL
 * Headcase(88) style! v0.1, still lots of rough edges. Feel free to use it (obviously)
 * Loosely based on http://www.positioniseverything.net/ordered-floats.html by Big John
 * and the Plone 2.0 styles, see http://plone.org/ (Alexander Limi,Joe Geldart & Tom Croucher,
 * Michael Zeltner and Geir BÃ¦kholt)
 * All you guys rock :)
 * All you guys rock :)

width: 100%; float: right; margin: 0 0 0.6em -12.2em; padding:0; }   margin: 2.8em 0 0 12.2em; padding: 0em 1em 1.5em 1em; background: Black; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-right: none; color: #CCCCCC; line-height: 1.5em; position: relative; z-index: 2; } /* the left column width is specified in class .portlet */
 * 1) column-content {
 * 1) content {
 * 1) column-one { padding-top: 160px; }

/* Font size:
 * We take advantage of keyword scaling- browsers won't go below 9px
 * More at http://www.w3.org/2003/07/30-font-size
 * http://style.cleverchimp.com/font_size_intervals/altintervals.html

body { font: x-small sans-serif; background: #333333 url("headbg.jpg") 0px 0px no-repeat; color: #999999; margin: 0; padding: 0; }

/* scale back up to a sane default */ font-size:127%; width: 100%; margin: 0; padding: 0; } .visualClear { clear: both; }
 * 1) globalWrapper {

/* general styles */

table { font-size: 100%; background: Black; } a { text-decoration: none; color: #00CC00; background: none; } a:visited { color: #009900; } a:active { color: Orange; } a:hover { text-decoration: underline; } a.stub { color: #990099; } a.new, a.new:visited,
 * 1) p-personal a.new { color:#CC0000; }
 * 1) p-personal a.new:visited { color:#990000; }

img { border: none; vertical-align: middle; } p { margin: 0.4em 0em 0.5em 0em; line-height: 1.5em; }

p img { margin: 0; }

hr { height: 1px; color: #909090; background-color: #909090; border: 0; margin: 0.2em 0 0.2em 0; }

h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { color: #CCCCCC; background: none; font-weight: normal; margin: 0; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; } h1 { font-size: 188%; } h2 { font-size: 150%; } h3, h4, h5, h6 { border-bottom: none; font-weight: bold; } h3 { font-size: 132%; } h4 { font-size: 116%; } h5 { font-size: 100%; } h6 { font-size: 80%; }

ul { line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin: 0.3em 0 0 1.5em; padding:0; list-style-image: url("bullet.gif"); } ol { line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.3em 0 0 3.2em; padding:0; list-style-image: none; } li { margin-bottom: 0.1em; } dt { font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; } dl{ margin-top: 0.2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } dd { line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; }

fieldset { border: 1px solid #2f6fab; margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; padding: 0em 1em 1em 1em; line-height: 1.5em; } legend { background: Black; padding: 0.5em; font-size: 95%; } form { border: none; margin: 0; }

textarea { border: 1px solid #2f6fab; color: #C0C0C0; background-color: black; width: 100%; padding: 0.1em; overflow: auto; font-size: 140% } /* hide this from ie/mac and konq2.2 */ @media All { head:first-child+body input { visibility: visible; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; color: #CCCCCC; background-color: black; vertical-align: middle; padding: 0.2em; } }

input.historysubmit { padding: 0 0.3em 0.3em 0.3em !important; font-size: 94%; cursor: pointer; height: 1.7em !important; margin-left: 1.6em; }

input[type="radio"], input[type="checkbox"] { border:none; }

select { border: 1px solid #303030; color: #C0C0C0; vertical-align: top; } abbr, acronym, .explain { border-bottom: 1px dotted Black; color: #C0C0C0; background: none; cursor: help; } q { font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; } /* disabled for now blockquote { font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; }*/ code { background-color: #f9f9f9; } pre { padding: 1em; border: 1px dashed #2f6fab; color: #C0C0C0; background-color: #303030; line-height: 1.1em; }

/*
 * the main content area

font-size: 84%; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 0 0 1.4em 1em; color: #606060; width: auto; } span.subpages { display: block; }
 * 1) siteSub { display: none; }
 * 2) contentSub {

/* Some space under the headers in the content area */ margin-bottom: 0.3em; } .firstHeading { margin-bottom:0.1em; }
 * 1) bodyContent h1, #bodyContent h2 { margin-bottom:0.6em; }
 * 2) bodyContent h3,
 * 3) bodyContent h4,
 * 4) bodyContent h5 {

/* user notification thing */ .usermessage { background-color: #009999; border: 1px solid #00FFFF; color: #00FFFF; font-weight: bold; margin: 2em 0em 1em 0em; padding: 0.5em 1em; vertical-align: middle; }   text-align: center; font-size: 95%; padding: 0 0.9em 0 0.9em; } .error { color: red; font-size: larger; }   border:1px solid #333333; background-color:#000000; padding:5px; margin-top: 1em; clear: both; } /* currently unused, intended to be used by a metadata box in the bottom-right corner of the content area */ .documentDescription { /* The summary text describing the document */ font-weight: bold; display: block; margin: 1em 0em; line-height: 1.5em; } .documentByLine { text-align: right; font-size: 90%; clear: both; font-weight: normal; color: #76797c; }
 * 1) siteNotice {
 * 1) siteNotice p { margin: none; padding: none; }
 * 1) catlinks {

/* emulate center */ .center { width: 100%; text-align: center; }   margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } /* small for tables and similar */ .small, .small * { font-size: 94%; } table.small { font-size: 100% }
 * .center * {

/*
 * content styles

/*border:1px solid #2f6fab;*/ border:1px solid #333333; background-color:#000000; padding:5px; font-size: 95%; }   margin-top: 0.7em; font-size: 94%; }
 * 1) toc {
 * 1) toc .tocindent { margin-left: 2em; }
 * 2) toc .tocline { margin-bottom: 0px; }
 * 3) toc p { margin: 0 }
 * 4) toc .toctoggle { font-size: 94%; }
 * 5) toc .editsection {

/* images */ div.floatright, table.floatright { clear: right; float: right; margin: 0; position: relative; border: 0.5em solid White; border-width: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; } div.floatright p { font-style: italic; } div.floatleft, table.floatleft { float: left; margin: 0.3em 0.5em 0.5em 0; position: relative; border: 0.5em solid White; border-width: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0; } div.floatleft p { font-style: italic; } /* thumbnails */ div.thumb { margin-bottom: 0.5em; border-style: solid; border-color: White; width: auto; } div.thumb div { border:1px solid #cccccc; padding: 3px !important; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-size: 94%; text-align: center; overflow: hidden; } div.thumb div a img { border:1px solid #cccccc; } div.thumb div div.thumbcaption { border: none; text-align: left; line-height: 1.4; padding: 0.3em 0 0.1em 0; background: black; color: #cccccc; } div.magnify { float: right; border: none !important; background: none !important; } div.magnify a, div.magnify img { display: block; border: none !important; background: none !important; } div.tright { clear: right; float: right; border-width: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; } div.tleft { float: left; margin-right:0.5em; border-width: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0; } .urlexpansion, .hiddenStructure { display: none; } img.tex { vertical-align: middle; } span.texhtml { font-family: serif; }

/*
 * classes for special content elements like town boxes
 * intended to be referenced directly from the wiki src

/* /* table standards */ table.rimage { float:right; position:relative; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:1em; text-align:center; } .toccolours { border:1px solid #333333; background-color:#000000; padding:5px; font-size: 95%; } div.townBox { position:relative; float:right; background:black; color:#CCCCCC; margin-left:1em; border: 1px solid Grey; padding:0.3em; width: 200px; overflow: hidden; clear: right; } div.townBox dl { padding: 0; margin: 0 0 0.3em 0; font-size: 96%; } div.townBox dl dt { background: none; margin: 0.4em 0 0 0; } div.townBox dl dd { margin: 0.1em 0 0 1.1em; background-color: #f3f3f3; }
 * User styles

/* .special li { line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0; padding: 0; }
 * edit views etc

/* Page history styling */ /* the auto-generated edit comments */ .autocomment { color: gray; } margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0.4em; }   background-color:#f9f9f9; border:1px dashed #aaaaaa; } /* table.diff { background:white; } td.diff-otitle { background:#ffffff; } td.diff-ntitle { background:#ffffff; } td.diff-addedline { background:#ccffcc; font-size: smaller; } td.diff-deletedline { background:#ffffaa; font-size: smaller; } td.diff-context { background:#eeeeee; font-size: smaller; } span.diffchange { color: red; }
 * 1) pagehistory span.user {
 * 1) pagehistory span.minor { font-weight: bold; }
 * 2) pagehistory li { border: 1px solid White; }
 * 3) pagehistory li.selected {
 * Diff rendering

/*    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat; padding-right: 13px; } .link-https { background: url("lock_icon.gif") center right no-repeat; padding-right: 16px; } .link-mailto { background: url("mail_icon.gif") center right no-repeat; padding-right: 18px; }   background: url("news_icon.png") center right no-repeat; padding-right: 18px; } .link-ftp { background: url("file_icon.gif") center right no-repeat; padding-right: 18px; } .link-irc { background: url("discussionitem_icon.gif") center right no-repeat; padding-right: 18px; } /* disable interwiki styling */ color: #00CCCC; background: none; padding: 0; } /* this can be used in the content area to switch off special external link styling */ background: none !important; padding: 0; } /*
 * keep the whitespace in front of the ^=, hides rule from konqueror
 * this is css3, the validator doesn't like it when validating as css2
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="http://"],
 * 2) bodyContent a[href ^="gopher://"] {
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="gopher://"] {
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="https://"],
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="mailto:"],
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="news://"] {
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="ftp://"],
 * 1) bodyContent a[href ^="irc://"],
 * 1) bodyContent a.extiw,
 * 2) bodyContent a.extiw:active {
 * 1) bodyContent a.external { color: #0066FF; }
 * 1) bodyContent .plainlinks a {
 * Structural Elements

/* .portlet { border: none; margin: 0 0 0.5em 0em; float: none; padding: 0; width: 11.6em; overflow: hidden; } .portlet h4 { font-size: 95%; font-weight: normal; white-space: nowrap; } .portlet h5 { background: transparent; padding: 0em 1em 0em 0.5em; text-transform: lowercase; display: inline; font-size: 91%; height: 1em; font-weight: normal; white-space: nowrap; } .portlet h6 { background: black; border: 1px solid #2f6fab; border-style: solid solid none solid; padding: 0em 1em 0em 1em; text-transform: lowercase; display: block; font-size: 1em; height: 1.2em; font-weight: normal; white-space: nowrap; } .pBody { font-size: 95%; background: black; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 0.8em 0.3em 0.5em; } .portlet h1, .portlet h2, .portlet h3, .portlet h4 { margin: 0; padding: 0; } .portlet ul { line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; list-style-image: url("bullet.gif"); font-size:95%; } .portlet li { padding:0; margin: 0 0 0 0; margin-bottom: 0; }
 * general portlet styles (elements in the quickbar)

/*
 * Logo properties

z-index: 3; position:absolute; /*needed to use z-index */ top: 0; left: 0; height: 155px; width: 12em; overflow: visible; }   display: block; height: 155px; width: 12.2em; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 35% 50% !important; text-decoration: none; }
 * 1) p-logo {
 * 1) p-logo h5 { display: none; }
 * 2) p-logo a,
 * 3) p-logo a:hover {

/*
 * the navigation portlet

position:relative; z-index:3; }
 * 1) p-nav {

/*   position:relative; z-index:3; }       text-align: center; } input.searchButton { margin-top:1px; padding: 0 0.4em !important; font-size: 95%; cursor: pointer; background-color: #333333; border: 1px solid #2f6fab; }   border: 1px solid #2f6fab; width:10.9em; margin: 0 0 0 0; font-size: 95%; }   padding: 0.5em 0.4em 0.4em 0.4em; }
 * Search portlet
 * 1) p-search {
 * 1) p-search {
 * 1) p-search .pBody {
 * 1) searchInput {
 * 1) p-search .pBody {

/*
 * the personal toolbar

width:100%; white-space:nowrap; padding:0 0 0 0; margin:0; position:absolute; left:0px; top:0px; z-index: 0; border: none; background: none; overflow: visible; line-height: 1.2em; }
 * 1) p-personal {

display:none; }   padding:0; margin:0; border: none; z-index:0; overflow: visible; background: none; } /* this is the ul contained in the portlet */ border: none; line-height: 1.4em; color: #2f6fab; padding: 0em 2em 0 3em; margin: 0; text-align: right; text-transform: lowercase; list-style: none; z-index:0; background: none; }   z-index:0; border:none; padding:0; display: inline; color: #2f6fab; margin-left: 1em; line-height: 1.2em; background: none; }   text-decoration: none; color: #005896; padding-bottom: 0.2em; background: none; }   background-color: White; padding-bottom: 0.2em; text-decoration: none; }
 * 1) p-personal h5 {
 * 1) p-personal .portlet,
 * 2) p-personal .pBody {
 * 1) p-personal ul {
 * 1) p-personal li {
 * 1) p-personal li a {
 * 1) p-personal li a:hover {

/* the icon in front of the user name, single quotes in bg url to hide it from iemac */ li#pt-userpage, li#pt-anonuserpage, li#pt-login { background: url('user.gif') top left no-repeat; background-repeat: no-repeat; padding-left: 20px; text-transform: none; }

/*   position:absolute; top: 1.3em; left: 11.5em; margin: 0; white-space:nowrap; width: 76%; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: visible; background: none; border-collapse: collapse; padding-left: 1em; list-style: none; font-size: 95%; }   list-style: none; }   display: inline; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: none; padding: 0 0 0.1em 0; margin: 0 0.3em 0 0; overflow: visible; background: black; }   border-color: #fabd23; padding: 0 0 0.2em 0; } /*    background-color: black; color: #00CC00; border: none; padding: 0 0.8em 0.3em 0.8em; text-decoration: none; text-transform: lowercase; position: relative; z-index: 0; margin: 0; }   z-index: 3; text-decoration: none; }   padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; } /* offsets to distinguish the tab groups */ li#ca-talk { margin-right: 1.6em; } li#ca-watch, li#ca-watch { margin-left: 1.6em; }
 * the page-related actions- page/talk, edit etc
 * 1) p-cactions {
 * 1) p-cactions {
 * 1) p-cactions .hiddenStructure { display: none; }
 * 2) p-cactions ul {
 * 1) p-cactions li {
 * 1) p-cactions li.selected {
 * little tabs at the top
 * 1) p-cactions li a {
 * 1) p-cactions li a {
 * 1) p-cactions .selected a { z-index: 3; }
 * 2) p-cactions .new a { color:#CC0000; }
 * 3) p-cactions li a:hover {
 * 1) p-cactions h5 { display: none; }
 * 2) p-cactions li.istalk { margin-right: 0; }
 * 3) p-cactions li.istalk a { padding-right: 0.5em; }
 * 4) p-cactions #ca-addsection a {

/*   position:relative; z-index:3; }
 * the remaining portlets
 * 1) p-tbx,
 * 2) p-lang {
 * 1) p-lang {

/*   background-color: black; border-top: 1px solid #fabd23; border-bottom: 1px solid #fabd23; margin: 0.6em 0em 1em 0em; padding: 0.4em 0em 1.2em 0em; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; }   display: inline; margin: 0 1.3em; } /* hide from incapable browsers */ head:first-child+body #footer li { white-space: nowrap; } margin: 0 8px; position: relative; top: -2px; /* Bump it up just a tad */ }   float: right; height: 1%; }   float: left; height: 1%; }
 * footer
 * 1) footer {
 * 1) footer {
 * 1) footer li {
 * 1) f-poweredbyico, #f-copyrightico {
 * 1) f-poweredbyico {
 * 1) f-copyrightico {

/* js pref toc */ float: left; margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; width: 13em; }   background-color:#f9f9f9; border:1px dashed #aaaaaa; }   display: block; color: #0014a6; }   clear: both; float: left; margin-top: 1em; } div.prefsectiontip { font-size: 95%; margin-top: 1em; } fieldset.operaprefsection { margin-left: 15em }
 * 1) preftoc {
 * 1) preftoc li { border: 1px solid White; }
 * 2) preftoc li.selected {
 * 1) preftoc a,
 * 2) preftoc a:active {
 * 1) prefcontrol {

/* /* tabs: border on the a, not the div */ border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: none; } /* footer icons need a fixed width */ overflow-x: auto; width: 100%; padding-bottom: 25px; }
 * IE/Mac fixes, hope to find a validating way to move this
 * to a separate stylesheet. This would work but doesn't validate:
 * @import("IEMacFixes.css");
 * > html #p-cactions li { border:none; }
 * > html #p-cactions li a {
 * > html #p-cactions li.selected a { border-color: #fabd23; }
 * > html #f-poweredbyico,
 * > html #f-copyrightico { width: 88px; }
 * > html #bodyContent,
 * > html #bodyContent pre {

/* more IE fixes */ /* float/negative margin brokenness */ display: inline; margin-bottom: 0; }
 * html #footer {margin-top: 0;}
 * html #column-content {
 * html div.editsection { font-size: smaller; }
 * 1) pagehistory li.selected { position: relative; }

/* Mac IE 5.0 fix; floated content turns invisible */ float: none; }   position: absolute; left: 0; top: 0; }   margin-left: 13.2em; }
 * > html #column-content {
 * > html #column-one {
 * > html #footer {

.printfooter { display: none; }

.sharedUploadNotice { font-style: italic; }

title: User:Headcase88/myskin.css


text:
José Argüelles

José Argüelles (born Joseph Anthony Argüelles; January 24, 1939 – March 23, 2011) was an American New Age writer and artist. He was the co-founder, along with Lloydine Argüelles, of the Planet Art Network and the Foundation for the Law of Time. As one of the originators of the Earth Day concept, Argüelles founded the first Whole Earth Festival in 1970, at Davis, California.

He is best known for his leading role in organizing the 1987 Harmonic Convergence, for inventing (with the assistance of his wife Lloydine) the perpetual Dreamspell calendar in 1990, and for the central role that he played in the emergence of the 2012 phenomenon.

Towards the end of his life, Argüelles focused on issue of consciousness, elaborating the concept of a noosphere (based on the work of Teilhard de Chardin and Vladimir Vernadsky) as a global work of art. Specifically, he envisioned a "rainbow bridge" encircling the Earth.

Early life and education
Argüelles' father, Enrique García Argüelles, was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico to Sabino García Argüelles and María Gómez Márquez. His mother, Ethel Pearl Meyer, was born to Martin John Meyer and Laura Olga Hein in Potsdam, Minnesota. Joseph Anthony (Jose) Arguelles and his twin brother Ivan W. Arguelles were born in Rochester, Minnesota on January 24, 1939. José (born Joseph) was the twin brother of the poet Ivan Argüelles and the uncle of the linguist Alexander Argüelles.

He held a Ph.D. in Art History and Aesthetics from the University of Chicago and taught at numerous colleges, including Princeton University, the University of California, Davis, the San Francisco Art Institute, and Evergreen State College.

Artist
As a painter and visual artist, he provided illustrations for numerous books, as well as mural paintings at different universities. However, his scope as an artist included his education as an Art History Professor, and his views on art as a "psychophysical aesthetic" can be found in his doctoral dissertation Charles Henry and the Formation of a Psychophysical Aesthetic (Chicago University Press, 1972). When teaching as an untenured assistant professor at the University of California, Davis, one of his final exams to his students was to create "something they believed in" — this became a living art event which eventually became the basis for the annual Whole Earth Festival, still held today at the University of California, Davis.

After experimenting with LSD in the mid-1960s, Argüelles produced a series of psychedelic art paintings that Humphrey Osmond—who originally coined the word "psychedelic"—named these "The Doors of Perception" (after Aldous Huxley's 1954 book of the same name, itself a title drawn from William Blake's early 19th-century work Milton a Poem). In a 2002 interview, Argüelles says of his artwork, "as fantastic as painting was, it was a limited medium in terms of audience."

Argüelles viewed his role as a visionary, saying "My job as a visionary is to envision the best possible outcome for humanity." He dedicated much of his life to promoting an alternative calendar based on a cycle of 13 months of 28 days each, which he believed would help bring about world peace. He and Lloydine coined the concept of "Time is Art" which became the slogan of the Planetary Art Network (PAN), suggesting that time is a vehicle for the human creative experience.

Spiritual leader
José Argüelles and his wife Lloydine were the principal organizers of the Harmonic Convergence event on August 16–17, 1987, said to have been the first globally synchronized meditation event. It focused on dates that had been identified by Tony Shearer in his book Lord of the Dawn (1971), a collection of poems in honor of the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl (associated with the planet Venus) and describing major cycles of time. Argüelles' The Mayan Factor: Path Beyond Technology (1987), was published in conjunction with the Harmonic Convergence. In it, Argüelles described a numerological system combining elements taken from the pre-Columbian Maya calendar with the I Ching and elements of shamanism. These were interspersed with parallel concepts drawn from modern sciences such as "genetic codes" and "galactic convergences". The book popularized the concept of Hunab Ku, associating the Colonial Maya concept of "One God" with an Aztec design from a woven rug Argüelles had obtained in a marketplace in Oaxaca, Mexico.

Argüelles (who called himself Valum Votan), working together with his wife Lloydine (a.k.a. Bolon Ik), produced a calendar and divination system Dreamspell: The Journey of Timeship Earth 2013 and a game/tool Telektonon: The Talking Stone of Prophecy. The former, based on the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar with special emphasis on the 260-day tzolk'in count, was the source of the Argüelles' 13 Moon/28 Day Calendar. This calendar begins on July 26 (heliacal rising of the star Sirius) and runs for 364 days. The remaining date, July 25, is celebrated in some quarters as the "Day out of Time/Peace through Culture Festival".

Argüelles attributed the origins of the calendar to "Galactic Mayas," who he believed were ancient astronauts that had visited the ancient Mayas and taught them elements of civilization. One of their leaders was an individual he called Pacal Votan, known to Mayanists as K'inich Janaab' Pakal, who was buried in an elaborate tomb at the site of Palenque.

The Law of Time
In The Discovery of the Law of Time (1989-1996) José and Lloydine Argüelles devise and promote a notion that they call the "Law of Time", in part framed by their interpretation of how Maya calendrical mathematics functioned. In this notional framework, J. & L. Argüelles claim to have identified a "fundamental law" involving two timing frequencies: one they call "mechanised time" with a "12:60 frequency", and the other "natural [time] codified by the Maya [that is] understood to be the frequency 13:20". To the Argüelles, "the irregular 12-month [Gregorian] calendar and artificial, mechanised 60-minute hour" is a construct that artificially regulates human affairs, and is out-of-step with the natural "synchronic order". José and Lloydine Argüelles propose the universal abandonment of the Gregorian calendar and its replacement with a thirteen moon, 28 day calendar, in order to "get the human race back on course" by the adoption of this calendar of perfect harmony so the human race could straighten its mind out again."

Planet Art Network
Argüelles co-founded the Planet Art Network (PAN) with Lloydine in 1983 as an autonomous, meta-political, worldwide peace organization engaging in art and spirituality. Active in over 90 countries, PAN identifies the Roerich Pact and has adopted its associated Banner of Peace as a symbol for "Peace Through Culture".

The Planet Art Network operates as a network of self-organized collectives, centralized by a shared focus of promoting the worldwide adoption of Argüelles' Dreamspell 13-Moon/28 day Calendar. The network upholds the slogan "Time is Art", suggesting that time is a vehicle for our creative experience, instead of the familiar saying "Time is Money".

The British anthropologist Will Black conducted research into Jose's Arguelles' Planet Art Network for several years. In his book Beyond the End of the World: 2012 and Apocalypse (2010), Black documents a general loss of interest in Dreamspell and in PAN in recent years. Black points out that, as general interest in the 2012 phenomenon increased as a result of the proximity of the supposed "end date," the significance of PAN and the value placed on Arguelles' ideas waned. Although Argüelles and his Dreamspell system were instrumental in encouraging people to consider the meaning of 2012, further investigation by individuals tended to provoke questioning of the Dreamspell.

First Noosphere World Forum
At the time of his death, he was the director of the Noosphere II project of the Galactic Research Institute of the Foundation for the Law of Time, inclusive of the First Noosphere World Forum, a project that involves creating a dialogue that unifies a network of organizations working to promote a positive shift of consciousness by 2012 with the vision of the whole Earth as a work of art.

Influences
Argüelles' principal teacher and mentor was the unconventional Tibetan Buddhist and former monk Chögyam Trungpa, with whom he studied at Naropa University (then the Naropa Institute) in the mid-1970s. Argüelles' significant intellectual influences included Theosophy and the writings of Carl Jung and Mircea Eliade. Astrologer Dane Rudhyar was also one of Argüelles' most influential mentors.

Argüelles cited several Native American influences, among them Hopi elders Dan Katchongva and Thomas Banyacya and Lakota medicine man Arvol Looking Horse as well as part-Cheyenne author Frank Waters; part-Lakota, former Mormon, beat generation poet Tony Shearer; and Anishinaabe spiritual leader Vincent La Duke (a.k.a. Sun Bear).

New Age influences included Chuluaqui Quodoushka founder Harley Reagan, and Brooke "Medicine Eagle" Edwards.

Later in his life, Argüelles adopted the "Banner of Peace" from a design created by the Russian painter, explorer, and mystic Nicholas Roerich to accompany the adoption of the Roerich Pact for protecting cultural properties during wartime.

Criticism
Argüelles' calendar is based on a different day-count than the traditional Maya calendar. For example, in the traditional count January 1, 2005 is 5 Muluk, while in the Dreamspell it is 2 Etznab. This is attributed to a change of 52 days in the count that Argüelles made to accommodate a "time shift' in 1992. As mathematician Michael Finley notes:

"Since the 365 day Maya haab makes no provision for leap years, its starting date in the Gregorian Calendar advances by one day every four years. The beginning of Argüelles' year is fixed to July 26. Thus his count of days departs from the haab as it was known to Maya scribes before the Spanish conquest. Argüelles claims that the Thirteen Moon Calendar is synchronized with the calendar round. Clearly, it is not."

Two critics have pointed out that many of Dreamspell's influences come from non-Maya sources, such as the 13-month/28-day calendar, a magic square devised by Benjamin Franklin, the I Ching, numerology, and assorted mystical and pseudoarchaeological works such as Erich von Däniken's Chariots of the Gods? (1970), which emphasizes theories of ancient astronauts.

Personal life
Argüelles married three times and was the father of two children, Josh and Tara, by his second wife, writer and artist Miriam Tarcov. He met and married his first wife, Elena Gustaitis, while pursuing his graduate degree at the University of Chicago in Art History. His third wife and main partner for 21 years was the dancer, choreographer and ceremonialist Lloydine Burris Argüelles (1981-2002).

After concluding his teaching career in California, Argüelles lived in Boulder, Colorado, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and Ashland, Oregon. In the year 1998, he met Stephanie South who became his biographer.

Articles and anthologies

 * (Part 1 was written by Sheldan Nidle, and a printing error resulted in some missing and duplicated pages in Part 1 of some early editions.)

title: José Argüelles


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title: Category:Ugandan politicians


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