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Religious violence

Religious violence covers phenomena in which religion is either the subject or the object of violent behavior. All the religions of the world contain narratives, symbols, and metaphors of violence and war. Religious violence is violence that is motivated by, or in reaction to, religious precepts, texts, or the doctrines of a target or an attacker. It includes violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or events. Religious violence includes both acts which are committed by religious groups and acts which are committed against religious groups.

The term has proven difficult to define, however. Violence is a very broad concept, because it is used against both human and non-human entities. Furthermore, violence can have a wide variety of expressions, from blood shedding and physical harm to violation of personal freedoms, passionate conduct or language, or emotional outbursts like fury or passion. Adding to the difficulty, religion is a complex and modern Western concept, one whose definition still has no scholarly consensus. In general, however, religion is considered an abstraction which entails beliefs, doctrines, and sacred places.

Religious violence, like all forms of violence, is a cultural process which is context-dependent and highly complex. Thus, oversimplifications of religion and violence often lead to misguided understandings of the causes for acts of violence, as well as oversight of their rarity. Violence is perpetrated for a wide variety of ideological reasons, and religion is generally only one of many contributing social and political factors that may foment it. For example, studies of supposed cases of religious violence often conclude that the violence was driven more by ethnic animosities than by religious worldviews. Due to the complex nature of religion, violence, and the relationship between them, it is often difficult to discern whether religion is a significant cause of violence.

Indeed, the link between religious belief and behavior has proven difficult to define. Decades of anthropological, sociological, and psychological research have all concluded that behaviors do not directly follow from religious beliefs and values because people's religious ideas tend to be fragmented, loosely connected, and context-dependent, just like other domains of culture and life.

Religions, ethical systems, and societies rarely promote violence as an end in of itself. At the same time, there is often tension between a desire to avoid violence and the acceptance of justifiable uses of violence to prevent a perceived greater evil that permeates a culture.

History of the concept of religion
Religion is a modern Western concept not used before the 1500s when the compartmentalized concept of religion arose, where religious entities are considered separate from worldly ones. Furthermore, parallel concepts are not found in many cultures, and there is no equivalent term for "religion" in many languages.

Ancient sacred texts like the Bible and the Quran did not have a concept of religion in their original languages, nor did their authors or the cultures to which they belonged. Likewise, there is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not draw clear distinctions between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.

The modern concept of religion as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recent invention in the English language. Such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation, as well as more prevalent colonization and globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures and non-European languages. For example, in Asia, it was Europeans who first applied the terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", and "Confucianism" in the 19th century.

Thus, scholars have found it difficult to develop a consistent definition of religion, with some giving up on the possibility of a definition and others rejecting the term entirely. Still others argue that regardless of its definition, it is not appropriate to apply it to non-Western cultures.

Definition of violence
Violence is a complicated concept which broadly carries descriptive and evaluative components that range from harming non-human entities to human self-harm. Religious scholar Ralph Tanner cites the definition of violence in the Oxford English Dictionary as "far beyond [the infliction of] pain and the shedding of blood". He argues that, although violence clearly encompasses injury to persons or property, it also includes, "the forcible interference in personal freedom, violent or passionate conduct or language [and] finally passion or fury".

Similarly, a study of the Crusades' impacts on the Muslim world concludes: The word "violence" can be defined to extend far beyond pain and shedding blood. It carries the meaning of physical force, violent language, fury, and, more importantly, forcible interference.

Old Testament scholar Terence Fretheim expands on this, writing:

For many people, ... only physical violence truly qualifies as violence. But, certainly, violence is more than killing people, unless one includes all those words and actions that kill people slowly. The effect of limitation to a "killing fields" perspective is the widespread neglect of many other forms of violence. We must insist that violence also refers to that which is psychologically destructive, that which demeans, damages, or depersonalizes others. In view of these considerations, violence may be defined as follows: any action, verbal or nonverbal, oral or written, physical or psychical, active or passive, public or private, individual or institutional/societal, human or divine, in whatever degree of intensity, that abuses, violates, injures, or kills. Some of the most pervasive and most dangerous forms of violence are those that are often hidden from view (against women and children, especially); just beneath the surface in many of our homes, churches, and communities is abuse enough to freeze the blood. Moreover, many forms of systemic violence often slip past our attention because they are so much a part of the infrastructure of life (e.g., racism, sexism, ageism).

Relationship between religion and violence
According to philosopher of religion Steve Clarke, "currently available evidence does not allow us to determine whether religion is, or is not, a significant cause of violence". He lists multiple problems that make it impossible to establish a causal relationship, such as difficulties in distinguishing motive/pretext and inability to verify if they would necessarily lead to any violent action, the lack of consensus on definitions of both violence and religion among scholars, and the inability to see if the presence of religion actually adds or subtracts from general levels of violence, since no society without religion has ever existed to compare with.

In his book Sacred Fury: Understanding Religious Violence, religious sociologist Charles Selengut characterizes the phrase "religion and violence" as "jarring", asserting that "religion is thought to be opposed to violence and a force for peace and reconciliation". He acknowledges, however, that "the history and scriptures of the world's religions tell stories of violence and war even as they speak of peace and love". Similarly, religious scholar Ralph Tanner describes the combination of religion and violence as "uncomfortable", asserting that religious thinkers generally avoid the conjunction of the two and argue that religious violence is "only valid in certain circumstances which are invariably one-sided".

According to historian Matthew Rowley, three hundred contributing causes of religious violence have been discussed by scholars. In his study of causes of religious violence, though, he cautions that "violence in the name of God is a complex phenomenon and oversimplification further jeopardizes peace because it obscures many of the causal factors". In another article, Rowley lists 15 ways to address the complexity of violence, both secular and religious, and he also claims that secular narratives of religious violence tend to be erroneous or exaggerated due to their oversimplification of religious people and religious people's beliefs, their rationale based on false dichotomies, and their ignorance of complex secular causes of supposed "religious violence". He writes that when one is discussing religious violence, they should also note that the overwhelming majority of religious people do not get inspired to engage in violence.

In contrast, religious scholar Hector Avalos simplifies religious causes of violence to access over four scarce resources: divine will and knowledge, primarily through scripture; sacred space; group privileging; and salvation. Not all religions have or use these four resources. He believes that religious violence is particularly untenable because these resources are never verifiable, and, unlike claims to scarce physical resources like water or land, it cannot be adjudicated objectively.

Regina Schwartz, scholar of English literature, Judaism, and Christianity, argues that all monotheistic religions are inherently violent because of an exclusivism that inevitably fosters violence against those that are considered outsiders. In a review of her book Curse of Cain for The New Yorker, Lawrence Weschler asserts that Schwartz is concerned not just with the violent legacy of Abrahamic religions, but with their genocidal legacy as well.

Michael Jerryson, scholar of comparative religion and religious violence, argues that scholarship on religion and violence sometimes overlooks non-Abrahamic religions. This tendency leads to considerable problems, one of which is the support of faulty associations. For example, he finds a persistent global pattern of alignment in which religions such as Islam are viewed as causes of violence and religions such as Buddhism are viewed as causes of peace.

Another lens with which to view religious violence is through political violence, which religion can often play a central role in. This is especially true of terrorism, in which acts of violence are committed against unarmed non-combatants in order to inspire fear and achieve political goals. Terrorism expert Martha Crenshaw suggests that religion is a mask used by political movements which seek to draw attention to their causes and gain support. Crenshaw outlines two approaches when observing religious violence in order to grasp its underlying mechanisms. One approach, called the instrumental approach, sees religious violence as acting as a rational calculation to achieve some political end. Thus, she claims that increasing the costs of performing such violence will help curb it. Crenshaw's other approach sees religious violence as stemming from the organizational structure of religious communities, with the heads of these communities acting as political figureheads. Crenshaw suggests that threatening the internal stability of these organizations (perhaps by offering them a nonviolent alternative) will dissuade religious organizations from performing political violence. A third approach sees religious violence as the result of community dynamics rather than a religious duty. Systems of meanings which are developed within these communities allow religious interpretations to justify violence, so acts like terrorism occur because people are part of communities of violence. In this way, religious violence and terrorism are performances which are designed to inspire an emotional reaction from both those in the community and those outside of it.

Behavioral studies
Decades of research conducted by anthropologists, sociologists, and psychologists have established that "religious congruence", the assumption that religious beliefs and values are tightly integrated in an individual's mind or that religious practices and behaviors follow directly from religious beliefs or that religious beliefs are chronologically linear and stable across different contexts, is actually rare, despite being commonly assumed. People's religious ideas are fragmented, loosely connected, and context-dependent, as in all other domains of culture and in life. The beliefs, affiliations, and behaviors of an individual are complex activities that have many sources, including culture.

Myth of religious violence
American Catholic theologian William T. Cavanaugh has argued in his book The Myth of Religious Violence that "attempts to separate religious and secular violence are incoherent". He asserts that "the idea that religion has a tendency to promote violence is part of the conventional wisdom of Western societies and it underlies many of our institutions and policies, from limits on the public role of churches to efforts to promote liberal democracy in the Middle East". Cavanaugh challenges this conventional wisdom, arguing that there is a "myth of religious violence", by asserting that:

 * Religion is not a universal and transhistorical phenomenon. What counts as "religious" or "secular" in some context is a function of configurations of power both in the West and in lands colonized by the West. The distinctions of "Religious/Secular" and "Religious/Political" are modern Western inventions.
 * The invention of the concept of "religious violence" helps the West reinforce superiority of Western social orders to "nonsecular" social orders, namely Muslims at the time of publication.
 * The concept of "religious violence" can be and is used to legitimate violence against non-Western "Others".
 * Peace depends on a balanced view of violence and recognition that so-called secular ideologies and institutions can be just as prone to absolutism, divisiveness, and irrationality.

Historian and religious studies scholar Jeffrey Burton Russell generally concurs with Cavanaugh in his book Exposing Myths about Christianity, arguing that numerous cases of supposed religious violence, such as the Thirty Years War, the French Wars of Religion, the Protestant-Catholic conflict in Ireland, the Sri Lankan Civil War, and the Rwandan Civil War, were all primarily motivated by social, political, and economic issues rather than religion.

Religious studies scholars John Morreall and Tamara Sonn have extended Russell's claims by arguing that all cases of violence and war include social, political, and economic dimensions. They posit that since there is no consensus on definitions of "religion" among scholars and since there is no way to isolate "religion" from the rest of the more likely motivational dimensions, it is incorrect to label any violent event as "religious". Since dozens of examples exist from the European wars of religion that show that people from the same religions fought each other and that people from different religions became allies during these conflicts, the motivations for these conflicts were not about religion, they claim. Russell adds that the fact that these wars of religion ended after rulers agreed to practice their religions in their own territories means that the conflicts were more related to political control than people's religious views.

Robert Pape, a political scientist who specializes in suicide terrorism, has made this case for modern suicide attacks, which are often labeled as "religious" by media outlets. Pape compiled the first complete database of every documented suicide bombing from 1980–2003. He argues that news reports about suicide attacks are profoundly misleading, arguing, "There is little connection between suicide terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism, or any one of the world's religions". After studying 315 suicide attacks carried out over the last two decades, he concludes that suicide bombers' actions stem fundamentally from political conflict, not religious beliefs.

Author Karen Armstrong, of Irish Catholic descent, echoes these sentiments by arguing that so-called religious conflicts such as the Crusades, the Spanish Inquisition, and the European wars of religion were all deeply political conflicts at their cores rather than religious ones, especially since people from different faiths became allies and fought against each other in no consistent fashion. She claims that the Western concept of the separation of church and state, first advocated by Reformer Martin Luther, laid a foundation for viewing religion and society as divided, when in reality, religion and society were intermixed to the point that no one made such a distinction, nor was there a defining cut between such experiences in the past. She argues the during the Enlightenment, religion began to be seen as individualistic and private, despite the fact that modern secular ideals like the equality of all human beings and intellectual and political liberty were historically promoted in religious idioms of the past.

Anthropologist Jack David Eller has also asserted that religion is not inherently violent, arguing that "religion and violence are clearly compatible, but they are not identical"; that "violence is neither essential to nor exclusive to religion"; and that "virtually every form of religious violence has its nonreligious corollary". Moreover, he argues that religion "may be more a marker of the [conflicting] groups than an actual point of contention between them".

On the other hand, historians such as Jonathan Kirsch have likened religious persecutions like the European inquisitions to persecutions in Stalin's Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, McCarthy blacklists, and other secular events.

John Teehan, scholar of the philosophy and cognitive science of religion, takes a position that integrates the two sides of this debate. He describes the traditional response in defense of religion as "draw[ing] a distinction between the religion and what is done in the name of that religion or its faithful". Teehan argues, "this approach to religious violence may be understandable but it is ultimately untenable and prevents us from gaining any useful insight into either religion or religious violence". He takes the position that "violence done in the name of religion is not a perversion of religious belief ... but flows naturally from the moral logic inherent in many religious systems, particularly monotheistic religions ...". However, Teehan acknowledges that "religions are also powerful sources of morality". He asserts, "religious morality and religious violence both spring from the same source, and this is the evolutionary psychology underlying religious ethics".

Secularism as a response to religious violence
Byron Bland, scholar of conflict and peacemaking, asserts that one of the most prominent reasons for the "rise of the secular in Western thought" was the reaction against the religious violence of the 16th and 17th centuries. He asserts, "The secular was a way of living with the religious differences that had produced so much horror. Under secularity, political entities have a warrant to make decisions independent from the need to enforce particular versions of religious orthodoxy. Indeed, they may run counter to certain strongly held beliefs if made in the interest of common welfare. Thus, one of the important goals of the secular is to limit violence". Theologian William T. Cavanaugh writes that what he calls, "the myth of religious violence", as a reason for the rise of secular states may be traced to earlier philosophers, such as Spinoza, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Cavanaugh delivers a detailed critique of this idea in his 2009 book The Myth of Religious Violence: Secular Ideology and the Roots of Modern Conflict.

Secular violence
Gender and sexuality scholar Janet Jakobsen writes, "just as religion and secularism are relationally defined terms—terms that depend on each other—so also the legitimization of violence through either religious or secular discourse is also relational". She argues that the idea that "religion kills" is used to legitimate secular violence, and that, similarly, the idea that "secularism kills" is used to legitimate religious violence. According to John Carlson, critics who are skeptical of "religious violence" contend that excessive attention is often paid to acts of religious violence compared to acts of secular violence, and that this leads to a false essentializing of both religion as being prone to violence and the secular as being prone to peace. According to Janet Jakobsen, secularism and modern secular states are much more violent than religion, and modern secular states in particular are usually the source of most of the world's violence. Carlson states that by focusing on the destructive capacity of government, Jakobsen "essentializes another category - the secular state - even as she criticizes secular governments that essentialize religion's violent propensities". Tanner states that secular regimes and leaders have used violence to promote their own agendas. Violence committed by secular governments and people, including the anti-religious, have been documented including violence or persecutions focused on religious believers and those who believe in the supernatural. In the 20th century, estimates state that over 25 million Christians died from secular antireligious violence worldwide.

Religions have been persecuted more in the past 100 years than at any other time in history. According to Geoffrey Blainey, atrocities have occurred under all ideologies, including in nations which were strongly secular such as the Soviet Union, China, and Cambodia. Talal Asad, an anthropologist, states that equating institutional religion with violence and fanaticism is incorrect and that devastating cruelties and atrocities done by non-religious institutions in the 20th century should not be overlooked. He also states that nationalism has been argued as being a secularized religion.

Abrahamic religions

Hector Avalos argues that, because religions claim to have divine favor for themselves, both over and against other groups, this sense of self-righteousness leads to violence because conflicting claims of superiority, based on unverifiable appeals to God, cannot be objectively adjudicated.

Similarly, Eric Hickey writes, "the history of religious violence in the West is as long as the historical record of its three major religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, with their mutual antagonisms and their struggles to adapt and survive despite the secular forces that threaten their continued existence."

Regina Schwartz argues that all monotheistic religions, including Christianity, are inherently violent because of their exclusivism which inevitably fosters violence against those who are considered outsiders. Lawrence Wechsler asserts that Schwartz is not just arguing that Abrahamic religions have a violent legacy, instead, she is arguing that their legacy is actually genocidal in nature.

Christianity

Before the 11th century, Christians had not developed the doctrine of "Holy war", the belief that fighting itself might be considered a penitential and spiritually meritorious act. Throughout the Middle Ages, force could not be used to propagate religion. For the first three centuries of Christianity, the Church taught the pacifism of Jesus and notable church fathers such as Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian of Carthage even went as far as arguing against joining the military or using any form of violence against aggressors. In the 4th century, St. Augustine developed a "Just War" concept, whereby limited uses of war would be considered acceptable in order to preserve the peace and retain orthodoxy if it was waged: for defensive purposes, ordered by an authority, had honorable intentions, and produced minimal harm. However, the criteria he used was already developed by Roman thinkers in the past and "Augustine's perspective was not based on the New Testament." St. Augustine's "Just War" concept was widely accepted, however, warfare was not regarded as virtuous in any way. Expression of concern for the salvation of those who killed enemies in battle, regardless of the cause for which they fought, was common. In the medieval period which began after the fall of Rome, there were increases in the level of violence due to political instability. By the 11th century, the Church condemned this violence and warring by introducing: the "Peace of God" which prohibited attacks on clergy, pilgrims, townspeople, peasants and property; the "Truce of God" which banned warfare on Sundays, Fridays, Lent, and Easter; and it imposed heavy penances on soldiers for killing and injuring others because it believed that the shedding of other people's blood was the same as shedding the blood of Christ. During the 9th and 10th centuries, multiple invasions occurred in some regions in Europe and these invasions lead them to form their own armies in order to defend themselves and by the 11th century, this slowly lead to the emergence of the Crusades, the concept of "holy war", and terminology such as "enemies of God". By the time of the Crusades, "Despite all the violence during this period, the majority of Christians were not active participants but were more often its victims" and groups which used nonviolent means to peacefully dialogue with Muslims were established, like the Franciscans.

Today, the relationship between Christianity and violence is the subject of controversy because one view advocates the belief that Christianity advocates peace, love and compassion despite the fact that in certain instances, its adherents have also resorted to violence. Peace, compassion and forgiveness of wrongs done by others are key elements of Christian teaching. However, Christians have struggled since the days of the Church fathers with the question of when the use of force is justified (e.g. the Just war theory of Saint Augustine). Such debates have led to concepts such as just war theory. Throughout history, certain teachings from the Old Testament, the New Testament and Christian theology have been used to justify the use of force against heretics, sinners and external enemies. Heitman and Hagan identify the Inquisitions, Crusades, wars of religion, and antisemitism as being "among the most notorious examples of Christian violence". To this list, Mennonite theologian J. Denny Weaver adds "warrior popes, support of capital punishment, corporal punishment under the guise of 'spare the rod spoil the child,' justifications of slavery, world-wide colonialism under the guise of converting people to Christianity, the systemic violence against women who are subjected to the rule of men." Weaver employs a broader definition of violence that extends the meaning of the word to cover "harm or damage", not just physical violence per se. Thus, under his definition, Christian violence includes "forms of systemic violence such as poverty, racism, and sexism".

Christian theologians point to a strong doctrinal and historical imperative against violence that exists within Christianity, particularly Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, which taught nonviolence and "love of enemies". For example, Weaver asserts that Jesus' pacifism was "preserved in the justifiable war doctrine which declares that all war is sin even when it is occasionally declared to be a necessary evil, and in the prohibition of fighting by monastics and clergy as well as in a persistent tradition of Christian pacifism".

Many authors highlight the ironical contradiction between Christianity's claims to be centered on "love and peace" while, at the same time, harboring a "violent side". For example, Mark Juergensmeyer argues: "that despite its central tenets of love and peace, Christianity—like most traditions—has always had a violent side. The bloody history of the tradition has provided images as disturbing as those provided by Islam, and violent conflict is vividly portrayed in the Bible. This history and these biblical images have provided the raw material for theologically justifying the violence of contemporary Christian groups. For example, attacks on abortion clinics have been viewed not only as assaults on a practice that Christians regard as immoral, but also as skirmishes in a grand confrontation between forces of evil and good that has social and political implications.", sometimes referred to as spiritual warfare. The statement attributed to Jesus "I come not to bring peace, but to bring a sword" has been interpreted by some as a call to arms to Christians.

Maurice Bloch also argues that the Christian faith fosters violence because the Christian faith is a religion, and religions are violent by their very nature; moreover, he argues that religion and politics are two sides of the same coin—power. Others have argued that religion and the exercise of force are deeply intertwined, but they have also stated that religion may pacify, as well as channel and heighten violent impulses

In response to the view that Christianity and violence are intertwined, Miroslav Volf and J. Denny Weaver reject charges that Christianity is a violent religion, arguing that certain aspects of Christianity might be misused to support violence but that a genuine interpretation of its core elements would not sanction human violence but would instead resist it. Among the examples that are commonly used to argue that Christianity is a violent religion, J. Denny Weaver lists "(the) Crusades, the multiple blessings of wars, warrior popes, support of capital punishment, corporal punishment under the guise of 'spare the rod and spoil the child,' justifications of slavery, world-wide colonialism in the name of converting people to Christianity, the systemic violence against women who are subjected to the rule of men." Weaver characterizes the counter-argument as focusing on "Jesus, the beginning point of Christian faith,... whose Sermon on the Mount taught nonviolence and love of enemies; who nonviolently faced his death at the hands of his accusers; whose nonviolent teaching inspired the first centuries of pacifist Christian history and was subsequently preserved in the justifiable war doctrine that declares that all war is sin even when it is occasionally declared to be a necessary evil, and in the prohibition of fighting by monastics and clergy as well as in a persistent tradition of Christian pacifism."

Miroslav Volf acknowledges the fact that "many contemporaries see religion as a pernicious social ill that needs aggressive treatment rather than medicine from which a cure is expected." However, Volf contests the claim that "(the) Christian faith, as one of the major world religions, predominantly fosters violence." Instead of this negative assessment, Volf argues that Christianity "should be seen as a contributor to more peaceful social environments." Volf examines the question of whether or not Christianity fosters violence, and he has identified four main arguments which claim that it does: that religion by its nature is violent, which occurs when people try to act as "soldiers of God"; that monotheism entails violence, because a claim of universal truth divides people into "us versus them"; that creation, as in the Book of Genesis, is an act of violence; and the argument that the intervention of a "new creation", as in the Second Coming, generates violence. Writing about the latter, Volf says: "Beginning at least with Constantine's conversion, the followers of the Crucified have perpetrated gruesome acts of violence under the sign of the cross. Over the centuries, the seasons of Lent and Holy Week were, for the Jews, times of fear and trepidation; Christians have perpetrated some of the worst pogroms as they remembered the crucifixion of Christ, for which they blamed the Jews. Muslims also associate the cross with violence; crusaders' rampages were undertaken under the sign of the cross." In each case, Volf concluded that the Christian faith was misused in order to justify violence. Volf argues that "thin" readings of Christianity might be used mischievously to support the use of violence. He counters, however, by asserting that "thick" readings of Christianity's core elements will not sanction human violence, instead, they will resist it.

Volf asserts that Christian churches suffer from a "confusion of loyalties". He asserts that "rather than the character of the Christian faith itself, a better explanation as to why Christian churches are either impotent in the face of violent conflicts or are active participants in them is derived from the proclivities of its adherents which are at odds with the character of the Christian faith." Volf observes that "(although) they are explicitly giving ultimate allegiance to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, many Christians in fact seem to have an overriding commitment to their respective cultures and ethnic groups."

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has an early history of violence. It was motivated by Anti-Mormonism and began with the religious persecution of the Church by well respected citizens, law enforcement, and government officials. Ultimately, this persecution lead to several historically well-known acts of violence. These ranged from attacks on early members, such as the Haun's Mill massacre following the Mormon Extermination Order to one of the most controversial and well-known cases of retaliation violence, the Mountain Meadows massacre. This was the result of an unprovoked response to religious persecution whereby an innocent party which was traveling through Church occupied territory was attacked on 11 September 1857.

Islam

Islam has been associated with violence in a variety of contexts, especially in the context of Jihad. In Arabic, the word jihād translates into English as "struggle". Jihad appears in the Qur'an and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of Allah (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)". The context of the word can be seen in its usage in Arabic translations of the New Testament such as in 2 Timothy 4:7 where St. Paul expresses keeping the faith after many struggles. A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is mujahideen. Jihad is an important religious duty for Muslims. A minority among the Sunni scholars sometimes refer to this duty as the sixth pillar of Islam, though it occupies no such official status. In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, Jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion. For some the Quran seem to endorse unequivocally to violence. On the other hand, some scholars argue that such verses of the Quran are interpreted out of context.

According to a study from Gallup, most Muslims understand the word "Jihad" to mean individual struggle, not something violent or militaristic. Muslims use the word in a religious context to refer to three types of struggles: an internal struggle to maintain faith, the struggle to improve the Muslim society, or the struggle in a holy war. The prominent British orientalist Bernard Lewis argues that in the Qur'an and the hadith jihad implies warfare in the large majority of cases. In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that "one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct".

According to Irfan Omar, Islam has a history of nonviolence and negotiation when dealing with conflicts: for instance, early Muslims experienced 83 conflicts with non-Muslims and only 4 of these ended up in armed conflict.

Terrorism and Islam
In western societies the term jihad is often translated as "holy war". Scholars of Islamic studies often stress the fact that these two terms are not synonymous. Muslim authors, in particular, tend to reject such an approach, stressing the non-militant connotations of the word.

Islamic terrorism refers to terrorism that is engaged in by Muslim groups or individuals who are motivated by either politics, religion or both. Terrorist acts have included airline hijacking, kidnapping, assassination, suicide bombing, and mass murder.

The tension reached a climax on 11 September 2001 when Islamic terrorists flew hijacked commercial airplanes into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The "War on Terror" has triggered anti-Muslim sentiments within most western countries and throughout the rest of the world. Al-Qaeda is one of the most well-known Islamic extremist groups, created by Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden. Al-Qaeda's goal is to spread the "purest" form of Islam and Islamic law. Based on his interpretation of the Quran, bin Laden needed to do "good" by inflicting terror upon millions of people. Following the terrorist attacks on 11 September, bin Laden praised the suicide bombers in his statement: "the great action you did which was first and foremost by the grace of Allah. This is the guidance of Allah and the blessed fruit of jihad." In contrast, echoing the overwhelming majority of people who interpreted these events, President Bush said on 11 September, "Freedom itself was attacked this morning by a faceless coward. ... And freedom will be defended. Make no mistake, the United States will hunt down and punish those responsible for these cowardly acts."

Controversies surrounding the subject include disagreements over whether terrorist acts are self-defense or aggression, national self-determination or Islamic supremacy; whether Islam can ever condone the targeting of non-combatants; whether some attacks described as Islamic terrorism are merely terrorist acts committed by Muslims or terrorist acts motivated by nationalism; whether Wahhabism are at the root of Islamic terrorism, or simply one cause of it; how much support for Islamic terrorism exists in the Muslim world and whether support of terrorism is only a temporary phenomenon, a "bubble", now fading away.

Judaism
As the religion of the Jews, who are also known as Israelites, Judaism is based on the Torah and the Tanakh, which is also referred to as the Hebrew Bible, and it guides its adherents on how to live, die, and fight via the 613 commandments which are referred to as the 613 Mitzvahs, the most famous of which are the Ten Commandments, one of which is the commandment You shall not murder.

The Torah also lists instances and circumstances which require its adherents to go to war and kill their enemies. Such a war is usually referred to as a Milkhemet Mitzvah, a "compulsory war" which is obligated by the Torah or God, or a Milkhemet Reshut a "voluntary war".

Criticism
Burggraeve and Vervenne describe the Old Testament as being full of violence and they also cite it as evidence for the existence of both a violent society and a violent god. They write that, "(i)n numerous Old Testament texts the power and glory of Israel's God is described in the language of violence." They assert that more than one thousand passages refer to Yahweh as acting violently or supporting the violence of humans and they also assert that more than one hundred passages involve divine commands to kill humans.

On the basis of these passages in the Old Testament, some Christian churches and theologians argue that Judaism is a violent religion and the god of Israel is a violent god. Reuven Firestone asserts that these assertions are usually made in the context of claims that Christianity is a religion of peace and the god of Christianity is one who only expresses love.

Other views
Some scholars such as Deborah Weissman readily acknowledge the fact that "normative Judaism is not pacifist" and "violence is condoned in the service of self-defense."However, the Talmud prohibits violence of any kind towards one's neighbour. J. Patout Burns asserts that, although Judaism condones the use of violence in certain cases, Jewish tradition clearly posits the principle of minimization of violence. This principle can be stated as "(wherever) Jewish law allows violence to keep an evil from occurring, it mandates that the minimal amount of violence must be used in order to accomplish one's goal."

The love and pursuit of peace, as well as laws which require the eradication of evil, sometimes by the use of violent means, co-exist in the Jewish tradition.

The Hebrew Bible contains instances of religiously mandated wars  which often contain explicit instructions from God to the Israelites to exterminate other tribes, as in  or. Examples include the story of the Amalekites, the story of the Midianites , and the battle of Jericho.

Judging biblical wars
The biblical wars of extermination have been characterized as "genocide" by several authorities,  because the Torah states that the Israelites annihilated entire ethnic groups or tribes: the Israelites killed all Amalekites, including men, women, and children (1 Samuel 15:1–20); the Israelites killed all men, women, and children in the battle of Jericho(Joshua 6:15–21), and the Israelites killed all men, women and children of several Canaanite tribes (Joshua 10:28–42). However, some scholars believe that these accounts in the Torah are exaggerated or metaphorical.

Arab-Israeli conflict
During the Palestine-Israeli conflict, a small number of people have used the Torah (Tanakh) as a way to justify killing Palestinians, but the IDF has said "That we don't condone the killing of innocent Palestinians".

Palestinians as "Amalekites"
On several occasions, fundamentalists have associated Palestinians with biblical antagonists, particularly with the Amalekites. For example, Rabbi Israel Hess has recommended that Palestinians be killed, based on biblical verses such as 1 Samuel 15.

Neo-paganism
In the United States and Europe, neo-pagan beliefs have been associated with many terrorist incidents. Although the majority of neo-pagans oppose violence and racism, folkish factions of Odinism, Wotanism, and Ásatrú emphasize their Nordic cultural heritage and idolize warriors. For these reasons, a 1999 Federal Bureau of Investigation report on domestic terrorism which was titled Project Megiddo described Odinism as "[lending] itself to violence and [having] the potential to inspire its followers to violence." As of 2017, the Southern Poverty Law Center has recognized at least two active neo-pagan hate groups in the United States. Many white supremacists (especially those in prison) are converting to Odinism at increasing rates, citing the impurity of Christianity and the failure of previous groups to accomplish goals as the primary reasons for their conversion. Similarities between Odinism and other extremist groups such as Christian Identity facilitate conversions. The targets of neo-pagan violence are similar to those of white supremacist terrorists and nationalist terrorists, but an added target includes Christians and churches.

Notable incidents

 * Murder of Alan Berg — Defunct American white supremacist group the Order was founded by avid practitioners of Wotanism such as David Lane and Robert Jay Mathews. Lane was convicted of the 1984 murder of Jewish radio host Alan Berg.
 * Church burnings — A wave of church burnings, such as during the early Norwegian black metal scene in the 1990s, has been cited as an act of neo-pagan terrorism. The arsons coincided with a resurgence in the popularity of European black metal. This genre of music featured the imagery and ideas of neo-paganism, Satanism, and nationalism. The targets were Christian churches, and up to 28 churches were targeted during this period. Popular black metal musician Varg Vikernes, a noted neo-pagan and nationalist, was convicted of three of these arsons and charged with a fourth attempt.
 * Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting — Frazier Glenn Miller Jr. shot and killed three people at a Kansas Jewish community center in 2014. Prior to becoming an Odinist, Miller Jr. was a member of the Ku Klux Klan.

Conflicts and wars

Some authors have stated that "religious" conflicts are not exclusively based on religious beliefs but should instead be seen as clashes of communities, identities, and interests that are secular-religious or at least very secular.

Some have asserted that attacks are carried out by those with very strong religious convictions such as terrorists in the context of a global religious war. Robert Pape, a political scientist who specializes in suicide terrorism argues that much of the modern Muslim suicide terrorism is secularly based. Although the causes of terrorism are complex, it may be safe to assume that terrorists are partially reassured by their religious views that their god is on their side and that it will reward them in Heaven for punishing unbelievers.

These conflicts are among the most difficult to resolve, particularly when both sides believe that God is on their side and that He has endorsed the moral righteousness of their claims. One of the most infamous quotes which is associated with religious fanaticism was uttered in 1209 during the siege of Béziers, a Crusader asked the Papal Legate Arnaud Amalric how to tell Catholics from Cathars when the city was taken, to which Amalric replied: "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius", or "Kill them all; God will recognize his."

Ritual violence
Ritual violence may be directed against victims (e.g., human and nonhuman animal sacrifice and ritual slaughter) or self-inflicted (religious self-flagellation).

According to the hunting hypothesis, created by Walter Burkert in Homo Necans, carnivorous behavior is considered a form of violence. Burkett suggests that the anthropological phenomenon of religion grew out of rituals that were connected with hunting and the associated feelings of guilt over the violence that hunting required.

title: Religious violence


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Frank Inn

Frank Inn, born Elias Franklin Freeman (May 8, 1916 – July 27, 2002), was an American animal trainer. He trained several animals for television programs and movies, including the dogs in the Benji series and the cat Orangey. He also trained the dog in Honey, I Shrunk the Kids.

Personal life
Elias Franklin Freeman was born in Camby, Indiana, to a Quaker family. He left home at age 17, changed his name to Frank Inn, and sought his fortune in Hollywood. He learned to train animals while recovering from a serious car accident in Culver City, California.

Inn was married to the former Juanita Heard for 50 years, from 1946 until her death in 1996. They had three children. After Juanita's death, Inn retired and devoted his time to writing poetry, assembling a museum of memorabilia from his long career, and training a new generation of animal wranglers.

Inn died on July 27, 2002, at the age of 86 after a brief illness. He kept the ashes of many of his beloved animals after they had died, and it was his wish to have these buried with him at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills). He had a special coffin made to accommodate the animal urns.

Career
Inn's career as an animal trainer spanned more than 50 years. His first professional work was as an assistant trainer of Skippy, the dog who played Asta in the Thin Man movie series.

In 1943, he assisted Rudd Weatherwax in the training of Pal, the dog who originated the movie role of Lassie. In the early 1950s, Inn left the Weatherwax animal training organization and began to work as an independent trainer. His animal stars included Orangey, a cat who was in the films Rhubarb (1952), The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957), The Diary of Anne Frank (1959), and Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), and appeared in the television series Our Miss Brooks with Eve Arden, and in Batman as a cat belonging to Eartha Kitt's villain Catwoman; Cleo, a basset hound who was in the film Bell, Book and Candle (1957) and in Jackie Cooper's 1950s television show, The People's Choice; Arnold Ziffel, the pig from Green Acres; the chimps from Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp, the dog and two cats from The Secret Lives of Waldo Kitty, Tramp the dog of My Three Sons and many of Elly May Clampett's exotic "critters" on The Beverly Hillbillies. He and Juanita additionally trained a captive male African lion for particular episodes of The Addams Family.

Possibly his most famous animal was Higgins, a fluffy brown mutt he rescued from an animal shelter in Burbank, California. The dog, which Inn believed to be a cross between a miniature poodle, a cocker spaniel, and a small terrier (either a miniature Schnauzer or a Border terrier), starred in Petticoat Junction in the 1960s, and in the feature films Mooch Goes to Hollywood (1971) and Benji (1974). A sequel, For the Love of Benji (1977), starred Higgins's daughter Benjean, also trained by Inn. Benjean portrayed the title role in the following three Benji movies.

In addition to his assistant trainers Gerry Warshauer and Karl Miller, Juanita Inn also helped Frank with animal training; she was listed in the opening credits of Benji and given credit as an animal trainer in Oh! Heavenly Dog, a 1980 movie starring Benjean.

Frank Inn also took on small character roles in films that featured his trained animals. He portrayed a studio security guard (uncredited) in Mooch Goes to Hollywood in 1971, appeared as himself in Benji the Hunted in 1987, and played a cook in the 1976 camel comedy Hawmps!. He can also be seen working as Benjean's trainer in the 1980 documentary Benji at Work, and the voice of Juanita Inn can be heard calling Benjean from off-camera during the behind-the-scenes description of a complex multi-part stunt that required the dog to approach a building, try to enter, and then run away as if driven off.

A true animal lover, Inn could not bear to see healthy animals euthanized, so he took them in. Those with acting ability he and his assistants kept and trained; the others he gave to friends and admirers as pets. Inn said that at one time he and his helpers had one thousand animals under their care, and the feeding bills alone came to $400 per day.

Honors
The International Association of Canine Professionals honored Frank Inn as their first inductee into the IACP Hall of Fame.

The Patsy Award (Picture Animal Top Star of the Year) was originated by the Hollywood office of the American Humane Association in 1939 to honor animal performers in four categories: canine, equine, wild and special. During his career, Inn's animals won 40 Patsy Awards, two of them multiple times: Orangey the cat won twice, for Rhubarb and Breakfast at Tiffany's; and Arnold the Pig won for three successive years on Green Acres from 1966 to 1968.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Frank Inn


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Long run

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:31, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Long run
This article is basically a footnote to the Economics article, and ought to be merged in (if it is in fact correct). I can't see how it could justify a whole article to itself. -- Dcfleck 02:05, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)
 * Keep. I created this article as a stub after running across red wiki links to it in a few economics articles. It's a very important concept in finance/economics/accounting. After it was VfD'ed, I did a little work on the article to touch it up, but I don't want to give the impression of trying to alter the vote. There are quite a few core concepts in economics that can be described as footnotes, but they don't merit deletion. Debit and Credit (accounting) are both simple accounting concepts, but they shouldn't be aggregated into Accounting as footnotes.Feco 02:24, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * On the contrary: Try to alter the vote by improving the article. This isn't an election or a test.  It's a discussion. Uncle G 15:48, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)
 * Hey, if you can make a decent article out of it, go for it. As I initially saw it, I don't think it needed its own article. On the other hand, if it can be described simply with a single line of text or two, might it better belong in Wiktionary? -- Dcfleck 02:29, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)
 * in the spirit of honest VfD, I'll refrain from doing a major touchup until after VfD is finished. I expect that most people will vote keep... it not, I'll add writing a thourough article to my to-do list. In my opinion, it's more than a dicdef, because it applies to several diff. economic frameworks w/ different effects on analysis. Feco
 * It's not somehow dishonest to improve the article whilst it is being discussed. Indeed, that is encouraged.  Please read WP:GVFD. Uncle G 15:48, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)
 * Comment: how could this page omit the famous quote by John Maynard Keynes: "In the long run, we are all dead"? —Wahoofive | Talk 03:01, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. I will refrain from voting until Feco (or someone else) has a stab at rewriting this article. Keep; good expansion, valid stub. --TenOfAllTrades | Talk 02:46, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Well done Feco for improving this article. Capitalistroadster 02:15, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I've tried to make the entry a little clearer for us non-economics types. Because of its revised and expanded state, I will change my vote to Keep. (I nominated this entry for deletion, by the way.) -- Dcfleck 12:21, 2005 Apr 13 (UTC)
 * Keep. Valid economic topic. I came looking for it after seeing a reference to "long run" in a recent Brad DeLong posting ("Our Twin Financial Puzzles: The Long Run May Come Like a Thief in the Night"). --Calton | Talk 23:43, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep: If this gets deleted at some point someone will create it based off of Daniel_Keys_Moran and then all of the economics articles are going to end up linked to something completely irrelevant. Worth it for the stub and a place for disambiguation Wikibofh 23:49, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep: The article might be bad... but it doesn't have to be. gren 03:43, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Chaviva Hošek

Chaviva Milada Hošek, ; (born 6 October 1946) is a Canadian academic, feminist and former politician.

Background
Hošek was born in Chomutov, Czechoslovakia. Her mother was imprisoned in Auschwitz during World War II. The family initially moved to Israel but then emigrated to Montreal in 1952. She received her undergraduate degree from McGill University and earned a doctorate in English literature from Harvard in 1973.

She worked as a professor of English Literature at Victoria University in the University of Toronto for thirteen years, achieved tenured status and served on the University's governing council. In 1985 she was appointed co-chairman of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's National Economic Conference. In 1986 she resigned from the university and went to work for Gordon Capital Corp. as a pension consultant. An active feminist, she served as president of the National Action Committee on the Status of Women from 1984 to 1986. She later described her time at the NAC as "the harshest political experience I ever had", claiming that the group was polarized by internal divisions during this period. Hošek was named B'nai Brith Woman of the Year in 1984 and received the YWCA Woman of Distinction Award in 1986 for Community and Public Service.

Politics
In the 1987 Ontario election, Hošek won a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario as the Liberal Member of Provincial Parliament for the Toronto riding of Oakwood, defeating Ontario New Democratic Party incumbent Tony Grande by 1,331 votes. She was appointed to David Peterson's cabinet as Minister of Housing and embarked on a program to expand social housing.

In the spring of 1989, Hošek was implicated in the Patti Starr affair. Starr, a close associate of Hošek, was a Liberal fundraiser who was head of the National Council of Jewish Women (Toronto Section) and had misused her position to contribute funds illegally to the 1987 election campaigns of several Liberal MPPs. Peterson shuffled his cabinet on August 1, 1989, and Hošek was not included. Hošek did not receive funds from Starr but several key members of the Housing Ministry were implicated in the scandal. Hošek had also made an unpopular decision not to reappoint former Toronto mayor John Sewell to the board of the Metro Toronto Housing Authority.

The Peterson government was defeated in the 1990 Ontario election, Hošek lost her riding to Tony Rizzo of the NDP by 2,280 votes.

Later life
Hošek became director of the Liberal Party of Canada's caucus research bureau in 1990. Along with Paul Martin, she co-authored Creating Opportunity, as the party's campaign platform for the 1993 federal election was called. After Liberal leader Jean Chrétien became Prime Minister of Canada, Hošek was appointed Director of Policy and Research in the Prime Minister's Office, and wrote the Liberal platforms for the 1997 and 2000 federal elections

In 2001, Hošek left the PMO to become president and CEO of the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research. She retired from this position in May 2012.

On October 27, 2002, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Ottawa.

On October 5, 2006, she was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada.

On June 25, 2009, she received an honorary doctorate from York University (Ontario).

Archives
There is a Chaviva Hosek fonds at Library and Archives Canada.

title: Chaviva Hošek


text:
The Lost World of Mitchell & Kenyon

The Lost World of Mitchell & Kenyon is a BBC documentary series produced in conjunction with the British Film Institute. Three one-hour episodes were broadcast on BBC One in January 2005 and released on Region 2 DVD soon after. The episodes are titled as follows: 1. Life and Times 2. Sport and Pleasure 3. Saints and Sinners

The series showcases films made by Mitchell and Kenyon, lost for almost a century, rediscovered in 1994 and restored by the BFI. Most of the films are simply records of life, sport and culture at the beginning of the 20th century.

Dan Cruickshank presents and narrates the series; in addition, descendants of some of the people featured in the original films provide commentaries upon them; and (in what many critics considered the series' weakest feature) scenes from the life and work of filmmakers Sagar Mitchell and James Kenyon are dramatized in speeded-up form like incorrectly screened silent movies (although the actual film excerpts are shown at the correct speed).

The series is notable for being shot in 4:3 format to match the films' original aspect ratio, unlike many modern documentary series which crop all non-widescreen footage into 16:9.

This is one of a number of BFI television series featuring footage from the BFI National Archive and produced in partnership with the BBC:
 * The Lost World of Mitchell & Kenyon
 * Mitchell & Kenyon in Ireland
 * The Lost World of Friese-Greene
 * The Lost World of Tibet

title: The Lost World of Mitchell & Kenyon


text:
Talk:SunTrust Banks

I have my 401K through SunTrust. I’ve fallen on financial hard time and may need to withdraw it out. Is there a fine. 2605:A601:A3A8:7C00:680A:5826:F34E:5FCB (talk) 01:22, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:SunTrust Banks


text:
Contributory negligence

In some common law jurisdictions, contributory negligence is a defense to a tort claim based on negligence. If it is available, the defense completely bars plaintiffs from any recovery if they contribute to their own injury through their own negligence.

Because the contributory negligence doctrine can lead to harsh results, many common law jurisdictions have abolished it in favor of a "comparative fault" or "comparative negligence" approach. A comparative negligence approach reduces the plaintiff's damages award by the percentage of fault the fact-finder assigns to the plaintiff for their own injury. For example, if a jury thinks the plaintiff is 30% at fault, the plaintiff's damages award will be reduced by 30%.

History
The doctrine of contributory negligence was dominant in U.S. jurisprudence in the 19th and 20th century. The English case Butterfield v. Forrester is generally recognized as the first appearance, although in this case the judge held the plaintiff's own negligence undermined their argument that the defendant was the proximate cause of the injury. Whether contributory negligence is construed as negating proximate causation or as an affirmative defense, the effect is the same either way: the plaintiff's contributory negligence bars recovery.

Burden of proof
In some jurisdictions, in order to successfully raise a contributory negligence defense, the defendant must prove the negligence of a plaintiff or claimant. In others, the burden of proof is on a plaintiff to disprove their own negligence.

Even if the plaintiff was negligent, the tortfeasor may still be held liable if they had the last clear chance to prevent the injury, meaning even though the plaintiff was negligent the defendant was the last person with a clear opportunity to take action that would have prevented the plaintiff's injury from occurring.

Examples of contributory negligence
Example 1: A pedestrian crosses a road negligently and is hit by a driver who was driving negligently. Since the pedestrian has also contributed to the accident, they may be barred from complete and full recovery of damages from the driver (or their insurer) because the accident was less likely to occur if it hadn't been for their failure to keep a proper lookout.

Example 2: Another example of contributory negligence is where a plaintiff actively disregards warnings or fails to take reasonable steps for his or her safety, such as diving in shallow water without checking the depth first.

Pleading requirements
In some jurisdictions, such as United States federal courts, contributory negligence must be pleaded in the defendant's answer to the complaint as an affirmative defense. But in some jurisdictions it may be applied by the court in a tort matter irrespective of whether it was pleaded as a defense.

Availability
The contributory negligence defense is not available to a tortfeasor whose conduct rises above the level of ordinary negligence to intentional or malicious wrongdoing.

The classic version of contributory negligence, where a plaintiff who is even 0.01% negligent is barred from recovery, nowadays is referred to as "pure contributory negligence." Some states have adopted a "modified" or "mixed" version of contributory negligence where the plaintiff is only barred from recovery if he or she was more than a certain percentage at fault (typically, more than 50% at fault for their own injury).

Australia
In Australia, civil liability is governed by the Australian common law and the relevant statutes of the States and Territories. Most jurisdictions have enacted legislation that covers findings of non-absolute contributory negligence otherwise known as comparative negligence. In New South Wales, upon a finding by the court of contributory negligence, the award of damages is reduced by the same percentage as the plaintiff's own negligence. For example, if the plaintiff was 50% negligent in causing the accident, but would otherwise be entitled to $100,000 in damages, a court will award only $50,000. A court is also permitted to find 100% contributory negligence is applicable in which case the plaintiff is not entitled to any damages. However, a finding of 100% contributory negligence has never been upheld by an appeal court in Australia and the provision of the Civil Liability Act has received been identified by some judges and academics as a strange provision. Determining the extent of the contributory negligence is subjective and heavily dependent on the evidence available. Parties will often work to negotiate a mutually satisfactory percentage figure when engaging in alternative dispute resolution (such as mediation). If the matter does not settle, a percentage figure is ultimately assigned by the court at the hearing.

In Australia, contributory negligence is available when the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to its own injuries. Also refer to Pennington v Norris for second test.

United States
In the United States, the pure contributory negligence only applies in Alabama, Maryland, North Carolina and Virginia. The District of Columbia largely follows the contributory negligence model, but with exceptions for motor vehicle accidents involving pedestrians and bicycles. Indiana applies pure contributory negligence to medical malpractice cases and tort claims against governmental entities. In the other 45 states in the U.S., plaintiff's recovery is simply diminished by the extent to which they contributed to the harm under principles of comparative negligence, with some states using a mixed model of comparative and contributory negligence. A state with a mixed model may, for example, prevent a plaintiff from recovering damages if the plaintiff is determined to bear more than 50% of the responsibility for the injury.

It is not a defense to any intentional tort.

United Kingdom
In England and Wales, it is not possible to defeat a claim under contributory negligence and therefore completely deny the victim compensation. It does however allow for a reduction in damages recoverable to the extent the court sees fit.

In England and Wales, it is not a defense to the tort of conversion or trespass to chattels.

India
In India compensation in favour of a victim becomes reduced in proportion with their own negligence.

title: Contributory negligence


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Audrey Tang

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:35, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Autrijus Tang
Non-notable hacker, vanity? RickK 02:08, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete likely vanity, although I respect anyone who implements a procedural language with functional language. Gazpacho 02:11, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, vanity. Megan1967 07:26, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Abstain, because I'm biased (I work on Perl 6 and Pugs). Autrijus lives in Taiwan; whois says that the page's creator has an American IP.  Vanity seems unlikely. —Brent Dax 07:39, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, I don't think it's vanity. He wrote Pugs. I think Wikipedia should list notable programmers. See Chuck Moore or Yukihiro Matsumoto. Google has 17,800 results for "Autrijus Tang". Mushroom 14:30, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, does sound notable, cleanup for NPOV as necessary. Kappa 20:19, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, much more encyclopedic than porn images, and we seem to keep those. JYolkowski 21:06, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak keep. Vaguely notable programmer. JuntungWu 14:02, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Doesn't seem notable. --NormanEinstein 14:47, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak keep, probably because I use Perl so much. I rewrote the extant text to be more 3rd-person NPOV. -- Dcfleck 15:23, 2005 Apr 16 (UTC)
 * Abstain, because that's me. It is by no means vanity -- I was not aware of this page until I stumbled by it myself. I'm neutral on whether to keep this or not; if the vote is for keep, I'd be happy to contribute relevant, non-vanity materials to this page. Autrijus 07:19, 2005 Apr 17 (UTC)
 * Keep. Moderately well-known programmer. Tim Rhymeless (Er...let's shimmy)  08:51, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Moderately well-known programmer, doing absolutely amazing things with small amounts of code in Pugs (and his other code is pretty cool too). Knobunc 14:15, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Autrijus is well-known in the perl community for being phenomenally productive and his recent work on Pugs has only served to increase the mythos :-).  --PerlPilot 20:54 (UTC), Apr 18, 2005
 * Keep. chocolateboy 21:41, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Born into brothels

Does anyone know what happened to the profits from the movie? They made a few mil, and I'm wondering if the makers are living it rich, or if it's being used to help Indians...
 * They're paying tuition for the kids, are building a school for children of prostitutes in India, and started a foundation (see external link on page) Bruxism 04:17, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Born into brothels


text:
Fort Douglas (Canada)

Fort Douglas was the Selkirk Settlement (Red River Colony) fort and the first fort associated with the Hudson's Bay Company near the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine rivers in today's city of Winnipeg.

Named for Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, founder of the Selkirk Settlement, the fort was in the immediate vicinity (down river) of the rivaling North West Company's Fort Gibraltar.

History
Named for Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, founder of the Selkirk Settlement, the fort was built by Scottish and Irish settlers beginning in 1813. Completed in 1815, it was in the immediate vicinity (down river) of the North West Company establishment, Fort Gibraltar.

After the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816, during the conflict between the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company, the fort was captured by the Métis and employees of the North West Company. The fort was soon retaken by Selkirk's men and there was a short period of relative peace. Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk lived at the fort during his visit to the Selkirk Settlement (Red River Colony) in the summer of 1817. It was later used as a trading post and was the residence of the Governor of Assiniboia. Following the amalgamation of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and the North West Company (NWC) in 1821, the HBC's operations were relocated to the NWC's Fort Gibraltar, renamed Fort Garry. Fort Douglas remained the residence of the Governor of Assiniboia until it was mostly destroyed in the great Red River flood of 1826. A second flood in 1852 swept away remnants.

Legacy
Today, the site of Fort Douglas is located on Waterfront Drive in downtown Winnipeg, in Fort Douglas Park. As the heart of the Selkirk Settlement and the first significant structure in what is today Winnipeg's historic Exchange District, the site of the fort is the most important historical site in the district. The eminent Canadian historian Professor Chester Martin of the University of Manitoba, in 1924 described the site of Fort Douglas as "perhaps the most historic site in the prairie provinces."

title: Fort Douglas (Canada)


text: Category:280 BC deaths

title: Category:280 BC deaths


text:
Placidus Timmons

Brother Placidus, O.S.F., (17 April 1948 – 22 January 1997) was an Irish Catholic Franciscan Religious Brother and missionary who was shot to death at the mission school he headed in the Rift Valley Province, Kenya, in January 1997 by the local police chief.

Early life
He was born Larry Timmons in Delvin, County Westmeath, Ireland. As a young man he became a member of the Franciscan Brothers of Ireland at Clara, County Offaly. Upon entering the novitiate of that religious institute he took the name Placidus. As well as being furnished with a theological education, he held a degree from the National University of Ireland at Galway.

Missionary
In 1982, Timmons went to Kenya on missionary work, and helped oversee the construction of churches and schools in the Diocese of Nakuru. He was a highly respected schoolteacher, and worked for many years to obtain better political rights for his students and parishioners. Shortly before his death, Timmons protested the government's apparent practice of issuing new voting cards preferentially in areas that supported President Daniel arap Moi of the Kenya African National Union.

In the early morning of 22 January 1997, approximately 15 armed burglars raided the secondary school at Lare headed by Timmons, the latest in a series of violent and deadly raids that month on Franciscan establishments. Despite poor rural communication, local police arrived quickly; one of them, Francis Kimanzi Mbaya, was a man whom Timmons had accused of corruption. Mbaya fired repeatedly at Timmons, killing him instantly. The burglars were never found or arrested, and the police maintained that Timmons was shot accidentally.

The Nakuru Diocese claimed in the local newspaper that the police had arranged the raid themselves in order to silence Timmons after a confrontation with local officials over bribery and voting discrimination. The diocese administrator accused the authorities of not giving enough attention to the circumstances of the death or evidence that pointed toward a conspiracy. Mbaya was charged in the incident, but his trial was halted amid requests by Ireland and the European Union for further investigation.

The government's investigation ended in December 2000. It found that Mbaya had a chance to recognize Timmons, had not asked Timmons to surrender before firing, and had continued firing after Timmons dropped to the ground and pleaded with him to stop. It further criticized the local police for failing to investigate the incident and releasing suspects improperly. Mbaya was convicted of manslaughter in July 2004. He was sentenced to ten years in prison.

Legacy
Timmons was buried in his native country on the grounds of the Franciscan monastery at Clara, County Offaly. In 2000, a memorial plaque was also erected at the Church of the Assumption in his home town of Delvin.

title: Placidus Timmons


text: Category:335 BC births

title: Category:335 BC births


text: User talk:67.117.148.69

title: User talk:67.117.148.69


text:
Al Lucas (American football)

Albert Lucas (September 1, 1978 – April 10, 2005) was an American football player in the National Football League (NFL) and Arena Football League (AFL) who died from a game-related spinal cord injury while playing for the Los Angeles Avengers.

Early life and college career
Lucas was born in Macon, Georgia; his father was Georgia State Representative David Lucas and his mother was Macon City Councilwoman Elaine Lucas. He attended and played football for Northeast Health Science Magnet High School. While there, he set the school record with a 440-pound (200-kg) bench press. Nicknamed "Big Luke", he went on to play college football at Troy State University. Lucas also served as an assistant football coach at Northeast High. He was married to De'Shonda Lucas with one daughter, Mariah. He was a member of the Omega Psi Phi fraternity.

At Troy State, Lucas was a standout player. In his senior year (1999), he won the Buck Buchanan Award as the most outstanding defensive player in NCAA Division I-AA. He was also honored with unanimous All America and All-Southland Football League first-team selections that year, in which he compiled 126 tackles (twenty for losses), 15 "quarterback hurries", four sacks, and two forced fumbles.

Lucas played a total of 43 games for the Trojans, and finished his college career with 255 tackles (thirty-six for losses), 25 quarterback hurries, and 11.5 sacks. In addition, he saw some limited action at running back in his junior and senior seasons, scoring seven touchdowns.

NFL career
After making the team as an undrafted free agent, Lucas played in twenty games for the Carolina Panthers over the course of the 2000 and 2001 NFL seasons. He totaled 49.5 tackles, three quarterback hurries, two batted down passes, a forced fumble, and a sack. He was selected by the Frankfurt Galaxy with the fourth overall pick in the 2003 NFL Europa free-agent draft, but chose instead to begin his AFL career with the Tampa Bay Storm.

AFL career
In his rookie season with Tampa Bay, Lucas had an immediate impact on his new team. He had 19.5 tackles, three for losses, 1.5 sacks, a blocked kick, and a safety, and was a major factor in the Storm's ArenaBowl victory over the Arizona Rattlers. He was named to the AFL's All-Rookie team, and after that season, Lucas was one of the most sought-after free agents in the League, and signed a three-year contract with Los Angeles on October 27, 2003.

In the 2004 season, Lucas played in all 16 games for the Avengers and led the team's linemen with 18.5 tackles. He also had three quarterback sacks, three fumble recoveries (one for a touchdown), two batted down passes, a forced fumble, and a safety.

Death
On April 10, 2005, in a game against the New York Dragons, Lucas tackled Corey Johnson during a kickoff return with 10:17 to go in the first quarter. Replays showed that Johnson's knee hit Lucas' helmet, and Lucas did not move again after falling to the ground. Later replays and reports showed nothing abnormal on the play. Dr. William Lang, the team physician, attempted to revive him on the field. He appeared to suffer a spinal cord injury. After being treated for approximately a half an hour at the Staples Center, Lucas was rushed to nearby California Hospital Medical Center, where he was pronounced dead at 1:28pm PDT. It is unknown whether Lucas died on the field, or after treatment failed. An autopsy revealed that he died of blunt force trauma and an upper spinal cord injury.

Approximately half an hour after the game concluded, Lucas's death was confirmed by Avengers' primary team physician, Luga Podesta, who stated, "During the game today, Al Lucas suffered a presumed spinal cord injury and was brought to California Hospital Medical Center where all attempts to revive him were unsuccessful. He was pronounced dead at 1:28 p.m."

Legacy
The Avengers retired Lucas's number 76 during the 2006 season and the Tampa Bay Storm created the Mariah Lucas Scholarship Fund to benefit Lucas's daughter and wife, and the Lucas family itself started an Al Lucas Memorial Scholarship Fund which provides college scholarships to high school athletes.

The Maxwell Football Club renamed its Arena Football League Player of the Year Award to the Al Lucas Award in honor of Lucas; this award was discontinued after the 2007 season. The East Macon Park Little League field where Lucas played baseball was renamed Albert James Lucas "Big Luke" Memorial Field in 2006, and the AFL has renamed its Hero Award the Al Lucas Award.

title: Al Lucas (American football)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Midrash Mish Mosh

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete (block-compress error; pending deletion). Mindspillage (spill yours?) 16:56, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Midrash Mish Mosh
Fawcett5 marked this vfd on November 30, but never made a subpage or listed it on vfd. I'm just listing it here; do not consider this a vote. —Korath (Talk) 02:11, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable, promo. Megan1967 07:36, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
User talk:Wikifier

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Welcome, newcomer!

Here are some useful tips to ease you into the Wikipedia experience:

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You can sign your name on any page by typing 4 tildes, likes this: PrimeBOT (talk) 13:52, 21 September 2021 (UTC).

Best of luck, and have fun!

ClockworkSoul 02:11, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Spelling & grammar
I've noticed a few articles in which you've said that you were correcting grammar or spelling, but in which you've either turned good to bad (e.g., "bacteria do" to "bacteria does") or changed a perfectly correct spelling (e.g., "spelt"). Please only copy-edit articles if you're genuinely confident that your mastery of English is up to it. --Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 08:19, 14 August 2005 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:Europeangoldfinchnet.jpg
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Fair use rationale for Image:Hammerandcoop.png
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:Hammerandcoop.png. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use. Suggestions on how to do so can be found here.

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Your edit to Michael Phelps
We are unable to verify your recent edit stating that NBC reported his planned attendance at the DNC in Denver as the guest of Sen. Cardin. There is no mention of this at the websites of Phelps, Cardin, NBC, or the DNC, nor does it appear to be reported by anyone else. As you know, one of Wikipedia's core content policies is verifiability, therefore this has been removed per discussion at the article's Talk page here.  JGHowes talk  -  20:11, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Europeangoldfinch.net
A tag has been placed on Europeangoldfinch.net requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, as well as our subject-specific notability guideline for web content.

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Fair use rationale for File:Fightiinchristian.jpg
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Discussion at Talk:Alexis_Reich#Requested_move_16_September_2013
You are invited to join the discussion at Talk:Alexis_Reich. Obi-Wan Kenobi (talk) 20:24, 16 September 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:00, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free image File:Fightiinchristian.jpg
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Proposed deletion of File:Campbell1939.jpg

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title: User talk:Wikifier


text:
Talk:Amount in controversy

Need to add discussion of aggregation of claims, cite specific federal statutes. -- 8^D BD2412gab 02:11, 2005 Apr 11 (UTC)
 * Maybe more discussion on state laws... do other countries have these? -- 8^D BD2412gab 20:41, 2005 Apr 26 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amount in controversy


text:
Haqiqa

Haqiqa (Arabic حقيقة ḥaqīqa "truth") is one of "the four stages" in Sufism, shari’a (exoteric path), tariqa (esoteric path), haqiqa (mystical truth) and marifa (final mystical knowledge, unio mystica).

Shariat
Shari’a is Islamic law or Islamic jurisprudence as revealed in the Qur'an and Sunna. The first step in Sufism is following every aspect of the law perfectly. The purpose of this is to prove their love for God, by rigorous self-discipline and constant attention to their conduct. When the Sufi fully lives his or her life according to the Shari’a he or she is ready to progress to the second stage. This conformity to earthly rules is important because it recognizes that the spirit of a man or woman is affected by the actions of the body. In this way, bringing the body under the will of God also purifies the spirit and a pure spirit is essential for the second step.

Tariqat
Tariqa in Arabic means path and it denotes a Sufi brotherhood or chain or order. The orders are governed by shaykhs, spiritual leaders that mentor Sufis. Shaykhs are identified by the signs of God's grace that are evident, such as the ability to perform miracles. They take on people, usually male, that are committed to the Sufi lifestyle and want to progress further in their spiritual education. It is common for the shaykh to test a new disciple by ignoring them, assigning humiliating tasks or being rude to them. When the disciple has passed these tests, he is introduced to the awrad, a series of prayers particular to that order. These prayers must be studied before they are recited, because mistakes made in the prayer are sins. When the disciple has studied and recited the awrad for an indeterminate amount of time, he is expected to experience visions and revelation from God. Sufis believe that at this point the disciple is able to see spiritual things that are veiled from most people.

Haqiqat
Haqiqa is a difficult concept to translate. The book Islamic Philosophical Theology defines it as "what is real, genuine, authentic, what is true in and of itself by dint of metaphysical or cosmic status", which is a valid definition but one that does not explain haqiqa's role in Sufism. Haqiqa may be best defined as the knowledge that comes from communion with God, knowledge gained only after the tariqa is undertaken. For instance, a shaykh that has advanced through tariqa has haqiqa and can see into the lives of his disciples in a spiritual sense. He has knowledge of pregnancies and sicknesses before his disciples tell him. He can see beyond the physical world because of his proximity to God and possession of haqiqa. Haqiqa is less a stage in itself and more the marker of a higher level of consciousness, which precedes the next and final stage, marifa.

Marifat
Marifat (المعرفة), is knowledge acquired through experience. It is a term used by Sufi Muslims to describe knowledge of spiritual truth (Haqiqah) having lived through experiences.

In Yazidism
Like Sufism, Yazidism also makes use of the concepts of sharia, tariqa, haqiqa, and ma'rifa. In Yazidism, the concept of haqiqa ("[esoteric] truth") stands in contrast to the concept of sharia ("law" or "dogmatic legalism"), the latter which is frowned upon in Yazidi tradition.

title: Haqiqa


text:
User talk:Kwharris

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! --JYolkowski 02:14, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

title: User talk:Kwharris


text:
User talk:Kracky

Mma troll
Please stop making your homophobic comments in the Mma troll page. Each time you put such comments into the article, they will be reverted, so there's no point in repeatedly vandalizing the article. RickK 02:15, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)

I warned you. You've been blocked for 24 hours. RickK 04:18, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kracky


text:
Revision

Revision is the process of modifying and the resulting artifact.

More specifically, it may refer to:
 * Patch (computing), a relatively small modification to a computing resource such as software or file, revision (a.k.a. update) refers to any computing resource modification
 * Revision control, the management of changes to sets of computer files
 * ReVisions, a 2004 anthology of alternate history short stories
 * Revision3, a San Francisco based Internet television network
 * Revision (Boxcar album) a remix music album by synthpop group Boxcar
 * Revisions (album), an album by the band 3
 * Revision (demoparty), a demoparty which takes place on Easter in Saarbrücken, Germany
 * "Revisions" (Stargate SG-1), an episode of the Stargate SG-1 science-fiction television series
 * Revisions (anime) a 2019 anime television series
 * Final Articles Revision Convention (disambiguation), either of two International Labour Organisation conventions
 * Revision or revising, a British term for exam preparation
 * Taxonomic revision is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon
 * Revision (writing), the general process of revising written work, or a version produced by that process

title: Revision


text:
Hallowed Ground (Skin Yard album)

Hallowed Ground is the second studio album by grunge band, Skin Yard, released in 1988.

Track listing

 * 1) "Stranger" (music: House/Endino/McCullum; lyrics: McMillan) - 3:36
 * 2) "Open Fist" (music: House/Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 3:58
 * 3) "G.O.D." (music: House/Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 5:29
 * 4) "Needle Tree" (music: House/McCullum; lyrics: McMillan) - 3:13
 * 5) "Burn" (music: House/Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 4:55
 * 6) "Hallowed Ground" (music: House/Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 3:11
 * 7) "In the Black House" (music & lyrics: McMillan) - 5:36
 * 8) "Throb" (music: House/Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 5:50
 * 9) "OP4" (House/Endino/Nerm) - 4:49

The CD reissue of the album had two bonus tracks:
 * 1) "Wither" (music: House/Endino/McCullum; lyrics: McMillan) - 3:00
 * 2) "American Nightmare" (music: Endino; lyrics: McMillan) - 2:29

Personnel

 * Jack Endino - Guitar, producer, engineering
 * Daniel House - Bass
 * Scott McCullum - Drums
 * Ben McMillan - Vocals

title: Hallowed Ground (Skin Yard album)


text:
Belmiro Braga

Belmiro Braga is a city in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil close to the border with Rio de Janeiro state. It was emancipated from Juiz de Fora in 1962. As of 2020, the estimated population was 3,425 inhabitants.

Geography
The municipality is located 295 km (by road) from the capital, Belo Horizonte.

Highways

 * BR-040
 * MG-353

Relief, climate, hydrography
The average annual temperature around 19 °C, with a mean minimum of 14 °C and a mean maximum of 24 °C. The municipality is in the basin of the Paraíba do Sul river.

Demographics

 * Total Population : 3425
 * Urban: 950
 * Rural: 2477
 * Men: 1734
 * Women: 1693
 * (Source: AMM )
 * Population density (inhabitants per km²): 8.7
 * Infant mortality up to 1 year (per thousand): 24.1
 * Life expectancy (years): 71.6
 * Fertility rate (children per woman): 2.9
 * Literacy Rate : 83.4%

(Source: UNDP / 2000)

title: Belmiro Braga


text:
Talk:Hallowed Ground (Skin Yard album)

Fair use rationale for Image:Hallowed Ground album.jpg
Image:Hallowed Ground album.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 23:20, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hallowed Ground (Skin Yard album)