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Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry

Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, or simply Morals and Dogma, is a book of esoteric philosophy published by the Supreme Council, Thirty Third Degree, of the Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction of the United States. It was compiled by Albert Pike, was first published in 1871 and was regularly reprinted thereafter until 1969. An upgraded official reprint was released in 2011, with annotations by Arturo de Hoyos, the Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction's Grand Archivist and Grand Historian.

Contents

Morals and Dogma has been described as "a collection of thirty-two essays which provide a philosophical rationale for the degrees of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. The lectures provided a backdrop for the degrees by giving lessons in comparative religion, history and philosophy".

The original printing had 861 pages of text, while a 218-page Digest-Index was added by Trevanion W. Hugo, 33°, in 1909. Its thirty-two chapters discuss the philosophical symbolism of a degree of Scottish Rite Freemasonry in extensive detail. In Pike's original Preface, he noted:

In preparing this work, the Grand Commander has been about equally Author and Compiler; since he has extracted quite half of its contents from the works of the best writers and most philosophic or eloquent thinkers. Perhaps it would have been better and more acceptable if he had extracted more and written less.

He continued:

Everyone is entirely free to reject and dissent from whatsoever herein may seem to him to be untrue or unsound.

Though it discusses the minutiae of Masonic ritual at length, it is written so as not to reveal the Masonic secrets. Ritual motions and objects are named and elaborated upon, but not described. In his allocution of 1947, Pike's successor, Grand Commander John Henry Cowles, noted that some Masonic publications had used large extracts from the text, which practice he sought to curtail by adding the following words to the title page: 'Esoteric Book, for Scottish Rite use only; to be Returned upon Withdrawal or Death of Recipient' (Transactions of the Supreme Council, 33°, S.J. (1947), p. 38). Although Morals and Dogma is an esoteric book, it was not a secret one; Pike's original preface was clear that any Mason could own the book, but only Scottish Rite Masons would be encouraged to own one.

There are 32 chapters, one for each of the degrees in the Southern Jurisdiction, except for the 33°. These chapters generally consist of comparative religion, philosophy, comparative etymologies, symbolism, and numerology. The primary themes are the "Secrets" or the "Great Mysteries" and their symbolism and rituals. It is stated that nothing in the book is meant to unveil any of the secrets of Freemasonry but to simply hint or shed light. An emphasis on religious and cultural tolerance is shown throughout the work, emphasizing that the root of all religions is the same (according with the Prisca Theologia doctrine). These common traits and symbols in all religions are explained in detail, beginning with the Orphic Egg or Cosmic Egg, and then moving towards ancient Egyptian, Phoenician, Buddhist, and Hindu texts, and the Abrahamic religions.

A copy of Morals and Dogma was given to new members of the Southern Jurisdiction from the early 1900s until the mid-1970s. In 1974, it was replaced by Clausen's Commentaries on Morals and Dogma, written by Henry Clausen, 33°, Sovereign Grand Commander, which in 1988 was itself replaced by A Bridge To Light, by Rex Hutchens, 33°, G∴C∴, which book continues to be given to initiates into the Scottish Rite in the Southern Jurisdiction. With the release of the authorized edition of 2011, Morals and Dogma is once more being given to new Scottish Rite Masons in the Southern Jurisdiction.

During Pike's lifetime the Northern Jurisdiction based many of their degrees upon Pike's rituals, although they subsequently revised them many times, and never presented initiates with Morals and Dogma, nor any of the subsequent commentaries.

Influences and plagiarism allegations
One of Pike's influences was the French author Éliphas Lévi, the pen name of Alphonse Louis Constant. Lévi was a prolific writer on occult topics who, in Pike's day, was considered an expert on pagan mysteries and Gnosticism. However, since his death, others have questioned his expertise. For instance, occult scholar, A. E. Waite, after researching Levi's texts relating to the Kabalah, wrote: "I do  not  think  that  he  [Lévi]  ever  made  an  independent statement upon any historical fact to which the least confidence could be given with prudence.".

In his book Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie (1855), Lévi claimed that Freemasonry had its roots in ancient pagan rituals, and Pike accepted many of these claims. According to Chris Hodapp, "whole passages of Levi's book [were] made into Pike's".

French philosopher René Guénon noticed that "a considerable part of ... Morals and Dogma of Freemasonry is clearly plagiarized from Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie by the French occultist Éliphas Lévi". Craig Heimbichner and Adam Parfrey write that Pike "seemed untroubled by the need to properly attribute text that he borrowed or lifted" and that in Morals and Dogma "Pike plagiarized from the French occultist Eliphas Lévi."

While Pike borrowed extensively from Lévi, he extracted even more prose from the works of the Rev. Orville Dewey, Rev. Theodore Parker, George Oliver, Charles Francois Dupuis, and Jacques Matter. The Annotated Edition by Arturo de Hoyos cites paragraph-by-paragraph virtually all the sources which amount to over a hundred other authors.

Republication history

Eventually Morals and Dogma entered the public domain and like many public domain works, it was reprinted many times by various publishers. In August 2011, the Supreme Council, 33°, S.J., announced that they had published a new annotated edition. Titled Albert Pike’s Morals and Dogma: Annotated Edition, the work was prepared by Arturo de Hoyos, 33° the Scottish Rite's Grand Archivist and Grand Historian. The text is reprinted in full, with about 4000 scholarly notes on difficult passages, touching on historical, religious, and philosophical issues. The new edition is augmented by subject headings, and illustrations from the original books Pike used, new paragraph numbers, and corrections based upon original texts.


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User talk:Hermitian/archive

Welcome to my talk page.

Some pointers
Hey there, I am not on the welcoming committee, but wanted to drop you a quick note with some links to pointers for new folks here on Wikipedia. Enjoy:

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump. · Katefan0(scribble) 14:34, Apr 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

Thanks. I'm sure that will all be very helpful. Hermitian 16:16, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

NAMBLA
Are you a pedophile?

 * No, I'm a debunker of obvious nonsense.

Then you must see that NAMBLA's "platform" is nonsence. Would you trust a child to the care of one of it's member's.

 * Wikipedia is a repository of verifiable facts which can be authenticated through authoritative outside sources. It is not a repository of either of our opinions on political platforms or babysitting.

Most if not all gay right org's don't recognize NAMBLA.

 * Wikipedia isn't a repository of that either, although it is clearly stated in the article. Hermitian 22:06, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

Wikipedia isn't a repository of pedophiles using it's NPOV stance to insert talking points into it's articles... oh wait, nevermind, it is.

I couldn't agree more except to add that many children use to study for school.--PSYact 23:09, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

 * The world of full of people who think that discussion of the sexuality of minors in any terms other than vitriolic condemnation is some sort of plot by "pedophiles" to advance their cause. These people would be better off choosing "Oprah" than "Wikipedia" to fill their entertainment needs. Hermitian 23:55, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

Hope you never have kids, but if you have any boys, I know a great babysitting service that is always ready to meat your needs. They don't run Oprah enough, so I have to find other ways to fill the time, like persecuting these "poor", "opressed" "pedophiles".--PSYact 00:07, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia is not a place for you to "persecute" (those you believe to be) pedophiles. Feel free to add additional verifiable facts to the NAMBLA article, but I will revert personal opinion and name-calling.  Have a nice day.  Hermitian 00:13, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

Experimentation

 * Math

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Hermitian/archive


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Wągrowiec County

Wągrowiec County (powiat wągrowiecki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Greater Poland Voivodeship, west-central Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Wągrowiec, which lies 49 km north-east of the regional capital Poznań. The county also contains the towns of Skoki, lying 16 km south of Wągrowiec, and Gołańcz, 18 km north-east of Wągrowiec.

The county covers an area of 1040.8 km2. As of 2006 its total population is 67,606, out of which the population of Wągrowiec is 24,681, that of Skoki is 3,866, that of Gołańcz is 3,342, and the rural population is 35,717.

Neighbouring counties
Wągrowiec County is bordered by Nakło County to the north-east, Żnin County to the east, Gniezno County to the south-east, Poznań County to the south, Oborniki County to the west, and Chodzież County and Piła County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into seven gminas (one urban, two urban-rural and four rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Wągrowiec County


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User:Hermitian

Welcome to my user page

(test)

title: User:Hermitian


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Windsor International Airport

Windsor International Airport is located in the southeast portion of the city of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. The airport serves a mixture of scheduled airline flights and general aviation, and is a popular point of entry into Canada for private and business aircraft. The airspace above the airport is exceptionally busy because of the proximity to Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) arrivals and departures are handled by Detroit approach control.

The airport is classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). CBSA officers at this airport can handle aircraft up to 325 passengers, and can handle up to 450 if the aircraft is unloaded in stages.

History
The airport opened in 1928 as, named after Hiram Walker, a 19th-century whiskey distiller and distributor of the Canadian Club brand.

In 1967, the airport was added to the national portfolio of Canadian airports, citing its increasing importance as a regional airport hub for Southwestern Ontario, serving the areas between Detroit, Michigan, and London, Ontario, and well expanding beyond its original roots as a mere landing strip.

Recent history
In 2006, Serco Aviation Services, Inc., announced that they would request early termination of their airport management contract with the City of Windsor, as Windsor Airport had been losing around CAD$40,000 per month. The City of Windsor accepted Serco's withdrawal and prepared to operate the airport itself, but with a large deficit. On July 1, 2007, Serco handed over operations of the airport to the City of Windsor. Windsor City Council had approved of an ad hoc group to run the airport on behalf of the city, named "Your Quick Gateway (Windsor) Inc." (after the airport's ICAO call letters, YQG). This private organization was formed by the Windsor City Council, and was supposed to be a "temporary band-aid solution" until another operator was found. However, on November 14, The Windsor Star reported that since Your Quick Gateway had been so successful in managing the airport, posting a small profit in the process, it would be given permission to operate the facility indefinitely in this manner.

The airport has additional land bounded by farm land along Division Road and Lauzon Parkway for future airport expansion.

In 2012, The Windsor Star reported that airport traffic had increased over 160% since 2008, with over 250,000 passengers passing through the airport in 2012, its busiest year ever. This has widely been attributed to aggressive efforts to attract more flights to existing destinations, and to new destinations. In 2011, Porter Airlines began flying from Windsor to Toronto (Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport) and Porter declared that Windsor is one of its most successful new markets. However, 37% of the local market still uses Detroit Metro Airport as its airport of choice.

In early October 2013, the City of Windsor announced it would invest $14.1 million into the airport to create a multi-modal cargo terminal. The project is expected to create approximately 105 jobs for the City of Windsor and has the potential to create thousands of jobs. The first tenant for the new cargo hub at Windsor Airport would be FedEx which signed a 20-year lease to run the hub and it was moved into the facility by December 1, 2015. In 2016 the airport handled 331,000 passengers.

In June 2020, Air Canada ended its Windsor to Montreal service due to the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada.

Tenants

 * 364 Royal Canadian Air Cadets
 * Windsor Flying Club
 * Canadian Historical Aircraft Association
 * Journey Air/ Great Lakes Flight Centre
 * Georgian Express
 * Skyservice fixed-base operator (FBO)
 * AAR Corp. - airframe maintenance (MRO)

General

 * Latitude/Longitude: 42° 16' 32" N, 82° 57' 20" W
 * Elevation: 622 ft
 * Magnetic variation: 7° W

The airport is operated by Your Quick Gateway on behalf of the City of Windsor, is certified by Transport Canada, and operates as an airport of entry with Canadian customs services available. There is a landing fee for some aircraft.

Runways

 * Runway 07/25: 9000 by, asphalt, lighted, PAPI type 2 approach lighting for both ends
 * Runway 12/30: 5150 by, asphalt, lighted, PAPI type 2 approach lighting for both ends

Communications

 * Remote Communications Outlet (RCO): London Radio, 123.375 MHz
 * Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS): 134.5 MHz
 * Ground control: 121.7 MHz
 * Tower: 124.7 MHz (mandatory frequency when tower is closed)
 * IFR arrivals and departures: Detroit Approach Control, 124.9 MHz
 * Visual Flight Rules (VFR) advisories: Windsor-area Detroit Approach Control, 126.85 MHz

Navigation aids

 * Non-directional beacons (NDB): Windsor (QG), 353 kHz, 250° 3.8 NM to airport; Laurel (ZQG), 398 kHz, 70° 4.0 NM to airport
 * Instrument landing system (ILS): runway 25 (IQG)

Fixed-base operator (FBO)
Parking is available from the airport operator; there is a charge for parking longer than six hours.
 * Great Lakes Flight Centre (Esso Avitat): 122.95 MHz—100LL avgas and Jet-A fuel

Fire and rescue
Category 6 ARFF coverage is provided by airport employees. Two E-One ARFF crash vehicles are stationed at the airport firehall. Essex-Windsor EMS provides medical assistance at the airport.

title: Windsor International Airport


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Raylene

Stacey Bernstein, known professionally as Raylene, is an American former pornographic actress.

Early life
Bernstein was born and raised in Glendora, California. She is of Italian and Mexican descent on her mother's side. Her father is of Polish and Austrian descent.

As a child, Bernstein attended Christian schools. She was an honors student in high school and graduated at age 16, two years early. She wanted to pursue Christian studies at Azusa Pacific University and become a Christian high school teacher, but did not have enough money or time to do so.

Bernstein began acting when she was five years old. With help from her uncle, who is a producer, she appeared on Hunter and 21 Jump Street. She made a non-speaking appearance on an episode of the late nite HBO sketch comedy series Mr. Show titled "Show Me Your Weenis" in which she played an anonymous groupie at the wild house party of a fictional hair metal rock band.

Career
Bernstein entered the adult film industry in 1996 and did her first scene with Mark Davis in Shane’s World #4. She was a contract performer for Vivid Entertainment between May 1998 and November 2001.

Bernstein retired from making pornographic films in 2001 to become a real estate agent, and later retired from striptease in 2004. While working in real estate, Bernstein brokered a sale to the AIM Health Care Foundation. In response to financial hardship, she made a comeback with Raylene's Dirty Work in 2009, as documented in the 2012 film After Porn Ends. In 2014, she announced via Twitter that she had again retired.

Personal life
Bernstein was briefly married to Brad Hirsch, brother of Vivid Entertainment co-chairman Steve Hirsch.

Awards

 * 1999 XRCO Award – Starlet of the Year
 * 2001 AVN Award – Best Actress (Film) – Artemesia (tied with Taylor Hayes – Jekyll and Hyde)
 * 2008 AVN Hall of Fame
 * 2017 XRCO Hall of Fame

title: Raylene


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User:Talrias/Templates/Box free/facfailed

  failed to become a featured article.

Some suggestions for improvement may have been made during the nomination process; please use them to help with improving this article to bring it up to featured article quality.


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Talk:Mohel

Comments on "Functions" Section
The last two paragraphs under the section title Functions are a direct quotation (not quoted) from the book "god is not Great," by Christopher Hitchens. At the very least, a quotation should be added, but it seems more appropriate to change/delete these paragraphs, especially since they are written in the first person. I'm not an expert on this topic, so I'll leave that for someone else. I came to this page for more information after reading the paragraph in Hitchens' book. —Preceding unsigned comment added by NukEucliD (talk • contribs) 21:42, 5 May 2009 (UTC)

Related topics
It seems to me that the article on genital modification and mutilation is appropriate as a related topic.
 * Circumcision is more specifically related, covers the topic better. Jayjg (talk) 23:05, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Orthodox
More information on Orthodox Judaism's view of circumcision is available here: Bris Milah circumcision and information about the ceremony is available here: Mohel circumcision - procedure of ceremony

Pop Culture: Freakshow
This reference to the television show "freakshow" is totally irrelevant. It is merely a reference to a mention of the subject in a television show, in a bizarre context that does not inform and does not add anything to anybody's sum knowledge. It is not even representative of "pop culture". The show (intentionally) distorts the whole idea. While I have no problem with the inclusion of strange or unusual concepts, or even jokes, the value of this particular entry is very questionable. I move for deletion. -- Jane Q. Public 06:51, 20 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I vote to keep (not that this is a formal vote) -- it's no more "irrelevant" than any others in the list. I think that the goal of the creators of the show (both "Jewish", by the way, and having had the procedure performed on them) is to raise awareness of the ritual. I also fail to see how it doesn't represent pop culture. Ciotog 16:58, 20 January 2007 (UTC)
 * On further reflection, the whole list is unnecessary for the article. Ciotog 23:39, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Trivia section
I removed the trivia section, as it was overwhelming the rest of the article. The last version that had the trivia section is here, in case any items can be integrated back. Ciotog 23:38, 10 April 2007 (UTC)
 * If you have objections to my removing or minimizing the trivia section, this is the place to put them. I did not make a unilateral decision - Jane Q. Public expressed a concern about the section, and I linked to the WP:TRIV in my first edit. I also placed a link to the last version that had the trivia section intact so that it could be integrated back in a better form than it is now. I will be requesting arbitration for this matter. Ciotog 14:51, 14 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Just do what you want to. You own the page. I have now stopped watching it. Wahkeenah 21:50, 14 April 2007 (UTC)
 * No-one "owns the page" - I would like to reach consensus about the pop culture section. Sorry if I sounded brusque, sometimes the kids are hounding me when I'm editing :) What I'd like to do is go back to the minimized version of the pop culture section, and if any entries are seen to be too short they can be expanded. I don't think a synopsis of entire episodes is necessary though. Ciotog 09:56, 15 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Anything can be the butt of a joke. I believe that including a "pop culture" or other trivia section merely (excuse me) trivializes the subject matter. Try putting a pop culture section into the article on jesus and see how long it stays there. I don't think that there is anything salvageable in this section that belongs in an encyclopedia article. Phil burnstein (talk) 17:13, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

Plural of mohel
Isn't mohelims a bit redundant? I would think that if one mohel isn't enough you get two mohelim. The "s" just pluralises a plural. Would that then make four men prepared to carry out the mitzhvah?Guille 00:22, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

Duty of the father
"Biblically, the infant's father is commanded to perform the circumcision himself." Someone I've talked with has disputed this. I notice there is no source for this statement. As such whomever added it could you reference where it says this? Tyciol (talk) 23:37, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

Why no mention of "Metzitzah"
Sometimes the mohel performs "Metzitzah" which is when he sucks the baby's penis to remove blood. Why is this traditional and controversial aspect not mentioned? I tried to add a sentence about this but it was instantly removed. Seems like an attempt at hiding the ugly truth by those with a conflict of interest. --90.221.107.153 (talk) 23:49, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

Maybe it was just removed by someone who thought it sounded bizarre and assumed it was vandalism 86.130.193.91 (talk) 16:44, 2 June 2010 (UTC)

Deletion of "Other "Section
I deleted the section which just repeats a couple of jokes because it is trivia which is discouraged by Wikipedia rules. While it is not always necessary to delete trivia section in this case it was for several reasons. Policy does recommend incorporating trivia sections into articles. These jokes lead to no further understanding of the subject and thus there is really no place I can see where it should be incorporated into other sections. The jokes are very "Jewish" in nature and thus a gentile audience may not get it, violating the worldview guideline

What would make it encyclopedic if there is a reliable source stating that humor is commonly used to deflate the tension of the situation etc. Edkollin (talk) 23:20, 18 June 2010 (UTC)

"Women" section heading
When I saw the section heading "Women", my first thought was "female circumcision -- yikes, I didn't think Jews did that!" I had to read the body to realize it was talking about women performing the procedure, not receiving it. I'm changing it to "Women as mohels". This comment is to explain my reasoning, in more detail than the log message allows. Erics (talk) 17:12, 27 January 2011 (UTC)
 * For the record, I don't believe Jews do that, and never have believed it. I've never heard a single shred of evidence to suggest that they might.  My only reason for mentioning them in the same sentence was to illustrate just how problematic the old heading might be... Erics (talk) 20:52, 27 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Oh my, aren't we bending all over backwards for the sake of political correctness... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.168.131.203 (talk) 07:09, 15 September 2011 (UTC)

Mohel in humor
Some mention could be made of the fact that the Mohel figures prominently in Eastern European Jewish humor. E.g. the Mohel who had clocks and watches in his store windows, and when a goy wanted to buy a watch he had to explain that he was a Mohel not a watchmaker. -- 92.226.93.64 (talk) 00:53, 18 May 2012 (UTC)
 * That's one, and other one is, "The rabbi gets the wages and the mohel gets the tips." ←Baseball Bugs What's up, Doc? carrots→ 01:02, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

Use of mohels by non-Jews
It's a practice currently on the increase, according to this article in The Atlantic (June 2015). The Telegraph (March 2015) reported that the British Royal Family (including QEII, who had Prince Charles circumcised) as well as many other non-Jewish upper-class British families have employed mohels for generations, although the practice has decreased in recent decades.

There should also be mention of how mohels are compensated, with fees ranging typically from $360-$1,000 dollars, although the price is usually not fixed and depends on what the family can afford. Many mohels will perform circumcisions for free if there is financial exigency. Could this be mentioned? Vesuvius Dogg (talk) 22:04, 21 December 2015 (UTC)

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Guide number

[[File:Vivitar 285 guide numbers.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A scene will be properly illuminated for every combination of fstop and distance shown on this flash device's exposure calculation dial, each of which equals the same guide number.

The guide number here (full power setting, ISO 100, and normal-angle coverage) is 37 for calculations made in meters (yellow arrow) and 120 for feet (orange). For instance, on the foot scale, × 30 ft = 120, as do both  × 15 ft and  × 7.5 ft. In meters,  × 26 m = 37 as do  × 1.7 m and every combination between.]]

When setting photoflash exposures, the guide number (GN) of photoflash devices (flashbulbs and electronic devices known as "studio strobes", "on-camera flashes", "electronic flashes", "flashes", and "speedlights") is a measure photographers can use to calculate either the required fstop for any given flash-to-subject distance, or the required distance for any given fstop. To solve for either of these two variables, one merely divides a device's guide number by the other.

Though guide numbers are influenced by a variety of variables, their values are presented as the product of only two factors as follows:

 * Guide number = f-number × distance

This simple inverse relationship holds true because the brightness of a flash declines with the square of the distance, but the amount of light admitted through an aperture decreases with the square of the f-number. Accordingly, as illustrated at right, a guide number can be factored to a small fnumber times a long distance just as readily as a large fnumber times a short distance.

Guide numbers are not an absolute measure of flash power (a property called luminous energy) because they are influenced by other variables, notably the camera's ISO setting (film speed) and flash coverage angle. For any given ISO setting and coverage angle however, an inherently more powerful flash device featuring a guide number that is, for instance, twice as great will permit subjects to be properly exposed from twice as far away for any given fstop, or conversely, will permit scenes at a given distance to be properly exposed at an fnumber twice as great.

The guide number system, which manufacturers adopted after consistent-performing mass-produced flashbulbs became available in the late 1930s, has become nearly superfluous due to the ubiquity of electronic photoflash devices featuring variable flash output and automatic exposure control, as well as digital cameras, which make it trivially easy, quick, and inexpensive to adjust exposures and try again. Still, guide numbers in combination with flash devices set to manual exposure mode remain valuable in a variety of circumstances, such as when unusual or exacting results are required and when shooting non-average scenery.

Different models of flash devices available on the market have widely varying maximum-rated guide numbers. Since guide numbers are so familiar to photographers, they are near-universally used by manufacturers of on-camera flash devices to advertise their products' relative capability. However, such a practice demands industry-wide standardization of both the ISO setting and illumination angle underlying the ratings; this has only been partially realized. For the most part, manufacturers state guide numbers relative to a sensitivity of ISO 100. However, manufacturers sometimes rate guide numbers at ISO 200, which makes them 41% greater. Furthermore, the illumination angles underlying manufacturers' ratings vary greatly, which can make it particularly difficult to compare models.

Units of measure
Throughout most of the world where the metric system (SI) is observed, guide numbers are expressed as a unitless numeric value like 34, even though they are technically a composite unit of measure that is a two-factor product: fnumber⋅meters. As such, guide numbers can be reduced either to distance in meters or to fstops depending on how one uses the guide number in a calculation.

In the U.S. however, photographers typically measure distances in feet and require guide numbers scaled accordingly. To serve the U.S. market, manufacturers of flash devices typically provide foot-based guide numbers and add nomenclature such as feet, ft, or the foot symbol (   ′ ) to unambiguously denote that fact, e.g. Guide number: 92′. Another common practice when flash devices are marketed in the U.S. is to provide two guide numbers—which can be expressed in a variety of formats—so distances and fnumbers may be calculated using either feet or meters, e.g. Guide number: 30 m   /   98 ft.

Though nomenclature conventions such as these can make guide numbers misleadingly appear to be length-based units of measure, they serve as notations to eliminate ambiguity as to which length-based system of measurement underlies the guide numbers. As with metric-based guide numbers, foot-based guide numbers are a two-factor unit of measure except the units are fnumber⋅feet.

To convert a guide number given in meters to feet, divide by 0.3048. To convert a guide number given in feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048.

Calculating with guide numbers
It is easy to use guide numbers to calculate either an aperture or a flash-to-subject distance. Consider a flash device with a rating of 28 meters (which might be marked "92 feet", "28 DIN", "28/92", "92", etc.).

Suppose a photographer has a flash device with a guide number of 44 (m) / 144 (ft), sets the camera's aperture to, and wants to know the required flash-to-subject distance; he merely divides the guide number by 4. Thus, a subject 11 meters or 36 feet away will be correctly illuminated (GN 44 (m) ÷ = 11 m, and GN 144 (ft) ÷ = 36 ft). For the same guide number and an aperture of, the light source must be 5.5 meters or 18 feet from the subject.

Alternatively, if one has an established flash-to-subject distance and wants to find the required f-number, one divides the guide number by the distance. Example: Guide number = 48                         (m) and the distance is 6 meters; one needs and aperture of  (GN 48 ÷ 6 m = ).

Example for finding a distance
Suppose a photographer wants to shoot with an aperture of and the guide number is 28 (m) / 92 (ft). The flash device must be 10 meters (33 feet) from the subject.
 * In metric: GN 28 ÷ = 10 m
 * In U.S. customary units: GN 92 ÷ = 33 ft

Example for finding an aperture
Suppose a photographer's flash-to-subject distance is 9.75 meters (32 feet) and the guide number is 39 (m) / 128 (ft). The aperture must be.
 * In metric: GN 39 ÷ 9.75 m =
 * In U.S. customary units: GN 128 ÷ 32 ft =

Details
The magnitude of guide numbers is a function of the following four variables:
 * 1) The total luminous energy (in lumen⋅seconds) emitted by the flash head (which is itself the product of the duration and the average luminous flux of a flash). See Glossary, below for illumination terminology.
 * 2) The solid angle subtended by the circular- or rectangular-profile beam as it leaves the flash head (the average of the beam's X- and Y-axis angles).
 * 3) The ISO sensitivity setting.
 * 4) Filters (either on the flash or on the camera lens). See Effect of filters, below.

The above variables fall into two classes that influence the magnitude of guide numbers:

 * 1) Those that affect the non-distance-related intensity of a flash arriving at a scene (a property called illuminance, measured in lux) or its duration; namely its power setting, flash coverage angle, and color gels in front of the flash head.
 * 2) Those that affect the camera's non-aperture-related light sensitivity; namely lens filters and the ISO rating of the film/imaging sensor.

Changing either the fstop or the flash-to-subject distance does not affect guide numbers because, by definition, choosing a different value for one factor is automatically accompanied by a reciprocal adjustment in the other.

Most modern flash devices can operate at guide numbers less than their maximum ratings via either manual adjustment of their power settings in binned steps, by an in-flash automatic light sensing feature, or by being cued by the camera's sensor; both the latter options make continuously variable adjustments. Manual attenuation settings are usually steps in powers of 0.5 (full fstops) that commonly extend five to eight fstops deep (power levels of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8 ....1/256). To calculate how reductions in power levels affect guide numbers, see Effect of power settings, below.

Shutter speeds do not factor into guide number calculations with electronic flash and, for the most part, have no effect on exposures. See Effect of shutter speeds, below.

Guide numbers are not affected by scene reflectance. Guide numbers are a function of the illuminance and duration of a flash (a property called luminous exposure that have lux⋅seconds as their units of measure) arriving at a scene as measured by an incident-light meter (pictured at right), not the amount leaving the scene. This often seems counterintuitive to hobbyists who incorrectly assume that cameras' built-in reflected-light meters are a definitive measure of exposure. However, this principle underlies why using a camera with a through-the-lens meter to photograph a park bench surrounded by sunlit snow underexposes the image, making the bench appear nearly black and the snow as dark as grass and foliage. This is because reflected-light meters are calibrated for an average scene reflectance of 18 percent and can't "know" when a scene has non-average reflectance. See also Gray card and Light meter.

Guide number distances are always measured from the flash device to the subject; if the flash device is detached from the camera, the position of the camera is irrelevant. Furthermore, unless a flash device has an automatic zoom feature that follows the setting of a camera's zoom lens, guide numbers do not vary with the focal length of lenses.

Note that manufacturers of flash devices may provide guide numbers ratings specified relative to ISO 200, which increases them by the square root of the difference, or a 41 percent increase relative to those given at ISO 100. See Effect of ISO sensitivity, below. When comparing or shopping for flash devices, it is important to ensure that the guide numbers are given in the same ISO sensitivity, are for the same coverage angle, and reduce to the same unit of distance (meters or feet). When these three variables have been normalized, guide numbers can serve as an relative measure of intrinsic illuminating energy rather than an inconstant metric for calculating exposures.

Effect of power settings
Most modern electronic flash devices have manually adjustable power settings. Moreover, virtually all modern on-camera flash devices that have manually adjustable power settings also provide either a built-in mechanical circular calculator (such as shown in the photo at the top of this article) or a digital display that automatically shows the effect power levels have on fstop and distance (guide number).

Nevertheless, for those who want to master the math, guide numbers diminish from their full-power ratings as the square root of their fractional setting per the following formula:

 * $$Full\ power\ GN\times\sqrt{{y}/{x}}=Reduced\ power\ GN$$

 * …where
 * $$y$$ is the numerator in the fraction of the power setting
 * $$x$$ is the denominator in the fraction of the power setting

The following is a step-by-step example of using the above formula: Suppose your full-power guide number is 48 (it is irrelevant if it is scaled for meters or feet for this purpose) and the flash device is set to 1/16  th power. Divide 1 by 16 to obtain 0.0625. Take the square root of that (the $$\sqrt{x}$$ button on a calculator), which equals 0.25, and multiply that by the guide number of 48 to obtain a reduced-power guide number of 12.0.

The mathematical relationship between guide numbers and power levels can also be understood using the below alternative formula, which is suitable whenever the numerator in the fractional power setting is 1 (which is usually the case with flash devices):

 * $$Full\ power\ GN\div\sqrt x =Reduced\ power\ GN$$

 * …where
 * $$x$$ is the denominator in the fraction of the power setting

Example: Suppose your full-power guide number is 51 and your flash device is set to 1/32  nd power. Take the square root of 32 (the $$\sqrt{x}$$ button on a calculator), which equals approximately 5.657. Divide 51 by 5.657 to obtain a reduced-power guide number of 9.0.

Effect of flash angle (zoom setting)
Many flash devices have auto- or manual-adjust zoom features that permit the illumination angle to be widened (lessening the guide number) to fully illuminate the image area of wide-angle lenses, or narrowed (increasing the guide number) for telephoto lenses. Such coverage angles may be given in degrees but are often expressed as being equivalent to lens focal lengths for full-frame, 35 mm cameras. Manufacturers' advertising practices vary as to the angle of coverage underlying their guide number ratings, in large part because some flash devices can be zoomed whereas others are fixed.

Virtually all modern on-camera flash devices with zoomable flash heads also have either a built-in mechanical circular calculator (such as shown in the photo at the top of this article) or a digital display; both automatically show the effect zoom levels have on fstop and distance (guide number).

Nonetheless, when comparing or shopping for flash devices with zoom heads, it would certainly be helpful if it were possible to mathematically convert advertised guide numbers from one manufacturer's flash angle (zoom level) to another manufacturer's flash angle. This is because guide numbers are often—though not always—given at their most zoomed setting and not all flash devices can zoom to the same extent.

Unfortunately, the optics of flash heads are complex; each manufacture's designs not only have illumination areas that are slightly different, but are the product of differing relative proportions of transmission, diffusion, reflection, and refraction among their optical elements (flash tube, reflector, Fresnel lens, and add-on wide-angle adapter). Accordingly, there is no universal formula for precisely calculating how guide numbers diminish from, for instance, a 105 mm setting to 50 mm or 35 mm settings. One may consult the users guide for a specific flash device to obtain guide numbers for different zoom settings.

The below table illustrates the variation in guide numbers depending on zoom level for some select, relatively high-power zoom-capable flash devices.

Note A: Flash angle is equivalent to the denoted lens focal length for a full-frame 35 mm camera.

Effect of ISO sensitivity
Among other variables like illumination angle (for devices with zoomable flash heads) and power setting, guide numbers are a function of the ISO sensitivity (film speed or ISO setting on a digital camera). Guide numbers change as the square root of the difference in ISO sensitivity. Accordingly, a greater ISO sensitivity yields a greater guide number.

To allow photographers to properly calculate exposures, even older, base-model flash devices have at least a tabular table on the device showing its guide number for a limited range of common ISO sensitivities. Today, the state of the art has advanced so that with the exception of the least expensive models, virtually all modern on-camera flash devices feature either a built-in mechanical circular calculator (such as shown in the photo at the top of this article) or—more modern yet—a digital display; both methods automatically calculate the effect ISO settings have on fstop and distance (guide number). Such features make it exceedingly easy to find a suitable combination of fstop and distance so photographers seldom need to concern themselves with the mathematical details underlying how their flash devices' guide number changes with different ISO sensitivities.

Still, it can be helpful when comparing flash devices to understand how guide numbers vary with ISO sensitivity. Usually manufacturers state their products' guide number ratings relative to an ISO sensitivity of 100. However, some manufacturers of flash devices may provide guide numbers ratings specified relative to ISO 200, which increases its guide number by 41 percent relative to those given at ISO 100.

The below table shows the proportional change in a flash device's guide number relative to both ISO 100 and ISO 200.

Note that the extremely high guide numbers shown in the right-hand portion of the table have a limited real-world ability to extend flash distances. As the above photo illustrates, the fnumber × distance reciprocal relationship breaks down when on-camera flash devices that are set to full or near-full power are used in combination with cameras set to very high ISO sensitivities and large apertures (exceedingly long distances). ISO settings like 102,400 can yield guide numbers in excess of 1220 (m)   /   4000 (ft) that seldom if ever permit extremely long-range flash photography due to particulates and aerosols typically present in outside air that fog images with haze glare and attenuate the reach of the light. Except in unusual atmospheric conditions, extraordinarily large guide numbers will produce suitable results only by either positioning the flash device off-axis from the camera by a fair distance or by shooting at the smallest apertures.

Note B: The ISO sensitivities shown in this table are their common nomenclature values; their actual underlying values may be slightly different, such as ISO 250, which is actually approximately 252.

Effect of filters
Filters reduce guide numbers regardless of whether they are gels placed over the flash device or are lens filters on the camera. Flash devices may come with detachable color-correction gels or filters to match the color of the flash with different types of ambient lighting such as incandescent and fluorescent. Some modern flash devices can even detect when color-correction gels have been attached and automatically compensate for their effect on guide numbers.

Unless a hot shoe-mounted electronic flash device's power can be controlled by a camera via through-the-lens metering (TTL), guide numbers must be manually compensated for the effect of on-lens filters. For instance a typical polarizing filter, which attenuates 1–1.5 fstops, will diminish guide numbers to 71–60% of their unfiltered rating.

Guide numbers diminish as the square root of filter attenuation in fstops, as per the following formula:

 * $$GN\times\sqrt{0.5^{n}}=Filtered\ GN$$

 * …where $$n$$ equals the filter's rated loss in fstops.

The following is a step-by-step example of using the above formula: Suppose your guide number is 32 (it is irrelevant if it is scaled for meters or feet for this purpose) and the rated filter loss is 1.5 fstops. Take 0.5 and raise it to the power of 1.5 (using the $$x^y$$ button on a scientific calculator), which equals roughly 0.35355. Take the square root of that (the $$\sqrt{x}$$ button), which equals approximately 0.595, and multiply that by the guide number of 32 to obtain a filtered guide number of 19.0.

The below table provides some common filter values.

When a flash device is set to manual (M) or automatic (A) exposure mode and is not being controlled via the camera's through-the-lens metering, a convenient way to compensate for the effect of a lens-mounted filter is to set the ISO rating on a camera to a higher value than the flash device. For instance, if a polarizing filter attenuates by 1 fstop and the flash device is set to ISO 100, then the camera can simply be set to ISO 200. The extra camera sensitivity compensates for the loss due to the filter.

The formula governing this relationship is as follows:

 * $$Flash\ ISO\times2^{n}=Camera\ ISO$$

 * …where $$n$$ equals the camera filter's rated loss in fstops.

Here is a step-by-step example of using this formula: Suppose a filter attenuates by 11/3 fstops and the flash device is set to ISO 100. Take 2 and raise it to the power of 1.3333 (using the $$x^y$$ button on a scientific calculator), which is approximately 2.5198, and then multiply that by 100, which equals about 252. The nearest standard camera setting is ISO 250.

With electronic flash
When electronic flash devices based on flashtube technology are used with most modern cameras (those with focal-plane shutters), shutter speed has no effect on guide numbers. See also Shutter (photography).

This is because even at the most powerful settings, flash durations seldom exceed a few milliseconds (thousandths of a second). With focal-plane shutters, a flash begins shortly after the shutter curtain has fully opened and must extinguish before the curtain begins to close. Selecting any shutter speed faster than the camera's rated Xsync speed, which is often between 1/60  th and 1/200  th of a second (from as long as 16.7 milliseconds to as little as 5.0 milliseconds) causes the shutter curtain to begin wiping closed across the film or sensor before the flash has extinguished. When this happens, an underexposed, gradated band appears along an edge of the image—often trailing off darker towards the left or bottom, as seen in the photo at top right.

Conversely, longer exposures also have no effect on guide number. After the flash has extinguished, longer shutter speeds will only increase the contribution from continuous ambient light, which can lead to ghosting with moving subjects. See also Flash synchronization.

With flashbulbs
Shutter speeds used to (and still do today) influence guide numbers when using flashbulbs due to their relatively long flash durations. Vintage flashbulbs, though no longer made, are still available and have a niche following, largely because even medium-size bulbs such as the once-popular General Electric Synchro-Press No. 11 had huge light outputs on the order of 23,000 lumen⋅seconds—far exceeding the most powerful of today's hot shoe-mounted electronic flash devices. At a relatively slow shutter speed of 1/25  th of a second (40 milliseconds), the GE No. 11 had a guide number of 97.5 (m)   /   320 (ft) at ISO 100 when using a typical 6- or 7-inch-diameter (150–175 mm) polished reflector. With peak powers often between one and two million lumens, many young baby boomers chased after fairylike retinal bleached spots (a symptom of flash blindness) for minutes after having their pictures taken at close distance with flashbulbs of the era.

If one wanted the benefit of all the light produced by a flashbulb (highest possible guide number), relatively long exposure times were required because most flashbulbs didn't stop producing useful amounts of light until 20–90 milliseconds (ms) after electrical current was applied. The GE No. 11 flashbulb for instance, was a Class M (medium peak) bulb, which were designed to produce peak luminous fluxes 20 ms after firing (see the graph at lower right). The No. 11 was intended for leaf shutter-type cameras and M sync photoflash triggering, which gave M bulbs a head start by delaying the opening of the shutter so any given camera's fastest exposure time would be centered at the 20 ms point (an 18.75 ms delay for instance, for a definitional camera capable of 1/400  th second exposures, or 2.5 ms). The GE No. 11 stopped producing useful amounts of light roughly 50 ms after current was applied. Thus, a camera with a fastest shutter speed of 1/400  th of a second (one that began exposures 18.75 ms after a bulb was fired with M sync triggering), and which was set to 1/25  th of a second, would close its shutter 59 ms after triggering a flashbulb (18.75 ms + 40 ms = 58.75 ms) and would achieve the maximum rated guide number from the No. 11.

So long as one used flashbulbs with leaf shutter-type cameras, faster exposures and larger apertures could be used to minimize motion blur or reduce depth of field at the expense of guide number. In the case of the GE Synchro-Press No. 11 with M sync for instance, shutter speeds as long as 1/50  th of a second still diminished its guide number, though it still managed an impressive 140 (ft) at a 1/400  th second exposure. This relationship between shutter speed and guide number was reflected in the guide number tables printed on flashbulb packaging after the industry-wide adoption of the guide number system, as exemplified by the below-left table for the No. 11.

Cameras with focal-plane shutters—even if they had PC connectors with X, F, M, or S-sync delays ("xenon sync" with zero delay and flashbulbs with peak delays of 5, 20, and 30 ms)—could not be used at speeds that attenuated guide numbers with most types of flashbulbs because their light curves were characterized by rapid rise and fall rates; the second shutter curtain would begin wiping shut during a period of rapid change in scene illuminance, causing uneven exposure across the image area that varied in nature depending on exposure duration and the type of bulb. With the GE SynchroPress No. 11 for instance, a modern camera with a focal-plane shutter and X sync would require a shutter speed of 1/15  th of a second (67 ms) to obtain an even exposure across the entire image area—and a not-insignificant boost in the guide number by capturing all the luminous energy to the left of the 20 ms peak.

A notable exception to this limitation with focal-plane shutters was when using FP sync in combination with "flat peak" (FP) bulbs, which had 19–20 ms rise times followed by broad, relatively level plateaus in their light output curves. The FP bulbs, like GE's No. 6, allowed extraordinary flexibility with shutter speeds, ranging from the slowest speeds on the dial to the fastest where only a narrow slit passed over the film—at the expense of course, of guide number.

Fill flash: Guide numbers vs. distance
When filling in shadows outdoors, powerful flash devices (those with inherently greater guide numbers when compared at the same ISO sensitivity and coverage angle) can be useful because they permit photographers to increase the maximum flash-to-subject distance, such as when taking group photos. Clearly, more power helps because the sun is such a bright, unadjustable light source against which a flash device must compete. However, a contributing factor is that many modern cameras with focal-plane shutters can sync with flash devices at speeds no faster than 1/60  th of a second; such a relatively long exposure requires particularly small apertures and/or low ISO sensitivities, both of which constrain how far a camera and its on-camera flash can be from the subject.

The tables below show the distances at which deep shadows will be filled with one fstop less than the sunlit portions of the scene, which is a common fill level. The exposures given here assume average frontlit subjects under bright or hazy sun with distinct shadows for photos taken between 2 hours after sunrise and 2 hours before sunset. The continuous-light portion of fill-flash photos

The continuous-light exposures underlying the above tables are in accordance with Eastman Kodak Company's guidelines for exposing film. For example, as exemplified by the technical data sheet for their Kodak Professional Ektar 100 film (PDF here), scenes that are lit by bright or hazy sun with distinct shadows and which are shot between 2 hours after sunrise and 2 hours before sunset are an illuminance of 40,960 lux (EV 14 @ ISO 100). For this illuminance, Kodak recommends settings (ISO 100,, 1/125  th of a second) that equal a luminous exposure of 328 lux⋅seconds.

This exposure level applies proportionally across the full gamut of Kodak's color and panchromatic B&W films where—at 40,960 lux and —a film speed of ISO 200 is properly exposed when a scene receives a luminous exposure of 164 lux⋅seconds, ISO 400 requires 82 lux⋅seconds, and so forth.

Kodak's guidance for a proper continuous-light exposure for all film speeds, scene illuminance, and camera settings reduces as follows:

 * $${\frac{E_v\cdot t\cdot S}{f^2}}=k$$

 * …where,
 * Ev is scene illuminance in lux (e.g. 40,960; 81,900; and 111,000). A table of lux values vs. EV @ ISO 100 is available here, by Sekonic.
 * t is exposure time in seconds (e.g. 0.008 for 1/125  th of a second)
 * S is ISO arithmetic speed or sensitivity (e.g. 100, 200, and 400)
 * f is the f-number (e.g. 8 for an fstop of . Common fstops from the ${\sqrt{2}}^{\ n}$ series include, , , , , , , , , , and )
 * k is a constant equaling 256

When utilizing fill flash, where balancing flash and continuous light can be difficult, the following four derivatives of this continuous-light exposure equation can be useful:

$${\sqrt{\frac{E_v\cdot t\cdot S}{k}}}=f$$ $${\frac{{f^2}\cdot {k}}{E_v\cdot t}}=S$$ $${\frac{{f^2}\cdot {k}}{t\cdot S}}=E_v$$ $${\frac{{f^2}\cdot {k}}{E_v\cdot S}}=t$$ (take $1⁄t$ to obtain the denominator of the fractional shutter speed)

For any combination of lighting, film, and camera settings that conforms to one of the above five equations, a proper luminous exposure is calculated as follows:
 * $$E_v\cdot t=H_v$$

 * …where,
 * Ev is scene illuminance in lux (e.g. 40,960; 81,900; and 111,000)
 * t is exposure time in seconds (e.g. 0.008 for 1/125  th of a second)
 * Hv is luminous exposure in lux⋅seconds

 Note that Kodak's exposure guidelines—for photographs taken in typical settings without the benefit of incident-light meters—are for pictures shot during a broad portion of the day with even some light haze in the sky; this is half as bright as the clear-sky, near-noon, open-area, "sunny rule", which is EV 15 at ISO 100, or 81,900 lux. Notwithstanding differences in the assumed daylight illuminance, a proper continuous-light exposure is still governed by the same mathematical relationship where (Ev⋅t⋅S)/f 2 = k.

Flash exposures vs. continuous-light exposures

Importantly, Eastman Kodak Company's exposure recommendations for electronic flash are slightly different from those for continuous-light exposures. Kodak calculates exposures for electronic flash devices according to the following formula:

 * $$GN=\sqrt{\frac{BCPS\times ISO}{20}}$$

 * …where,
 * GN is guide number
 * BCPS is beam candlepower seconds
 * ISO is ISO arithmetic speed or sensitivity (e.g. 100, 200, and 400)

See Characterizing the Output of Photographic Flash Units, by Douglas A. Kerr (PDF here) for more.

 This formula means that under the same conditions used above for Kodak Professional Ektar 100 film (ISO 100 and ), a proper electronic flash exposure equals only 270 lux⋅seconds (one candlepower equals 0.981 candela, which equals 0.981 lux⋅second at a distance of one meter). This slightly reduced flash exposure (versus the continuous-light value of 328 lux⋅seconds) compensates for reflections off light colored ceilings, which is typical for indoor flash photography.

Outdoors mixing of continuous-light and GN-based fill flash

This all means that in outdoor settings, flash devices must be roughly nine-percent closer $(\sqrt{270/328}=90.7\%)$ than their indoor-rated guide numbers indicate in order to obtain a full-rated luminous exposure. The above fill-flash tables give distances that have been adjusted accordingly.

Also bear in mind that the distances given in the above tables do not obey the fnumber × distance formula when using the fstops shown in the first column because the fill-flash contribution is one fstop less than the sunlit portions of the scene—a 50% underexposure. The values may be correctly calculated by hand when the apertures shown in the first column are larger (numerically smaller fnumber) by one fstop. Those larger apertures, when expressed in industry-standard nomenclature, are, , (  +⅓), and  but have the following more precise values underlying the above tables: , , , and  ${(\sqrt{2}}^{\ 7}$ , ${\sqrt{2}}^{\ 6}$ , ${\sqrt{2}}^{\ 5\tfrac{1}{3}}$ , and ${\sqrt{2}}^{\ 5})$.

As can be seen by referring to the above tables, if a photographer has a camera with an X-sync speed of 1/125  th of a second, is shopping for a flash device, and desires the capability to fill shadows from up to 2.5 meters (8 feet) away, a flash device with a guide number of at least 22 (m)   /   72 (ft) will be required.

Note that increasing the ISO sensitivity of a digital camera (or choosing a faster film speed) will not increase the distances given in these tables because the extent to which ISO sensitivity affects the exposure in the fill-flash areas of an image will equally affect the sunlit ones. For any given shutter speed, a flash device can only fill shadows to 50% the contribution from the sun out to a certain distance; at a camera's Xsync shutter speed, no change in ISO sensitivity—and accompanying fstop setting—can influence this proportional relationship.

History
General Electric introduced the guide number system in 1939 concurrently with the introduction of a compact, wire-filled flashbulb called the No. 5. This compelling new way of easily and accurately calculating photoflash exposures was quickly adopted by manufacturers of a wide variety of photographic equipment, including flashbulbs, film, cameras, and flashguns.

The first flashbulb was introduced in 1925 and was filled with flash powder. In 1929, Sashalite Limited in London invented the "Sashalite" flashbulb, which was filled with a crumpled wad of aluminum foil so thin (about one-tenth the width of a human hair) it could not be picked up with fingers. The Sashalite, which was manufactured under contract by General Electric Co., Ltd. in London, came with an instruction sheet directing photographers to insert the Sashalite into "an ordinary electric torch" and to set their shutter to either "Bulb" or "Time". When Sashalite's instructions mentioned setting a shutter to its "Bulb" setting, the company was not referring to glass flashbulbs but to rubber bulbs. The Sashlite flashbulb was introduced at a time when the equipment typically used for professional indoor portraiture was a large-format studio view camera and a flash-lamp with flash powder in its tray. Advanced hobbyists in 1909—decades before the first flashbulbs—could buy portable folding cameras, made by Conley Camera Company, from Sears Roebuck for $4.75–$21.50 (equivalent to $–$ in ). With the exception of entry-level models, both view-type and folding cameras of this era came with a detachable pneumatic shutter release with a rubber bulb on the end, as seen at right on the $11.75 Model C. With the exception of their entry-level shutter, Conley's shutters—like the Conley Automatic (inset, far right)—had a "B" setting. Though mechanically timed exposures too could be triggered by squeezing the shutter release bulb, "bulb" exposures had the same momentary action as camera shutters have today, as per this description from Sears Roebuck's 1909 Cameras [&] Photographic Supplies, which devoted three pages to the features and operation of Conley's shutters:

"With the indicator set to B, the shutter opens when the bulb is pressed and remains open as long as the pressure is maintained (“bulb” exposure), a very convenient means of making time exposures of only a few seconds' duration."

The Eastman Kodak Company sold cameras before the flashbulb era too. Though their entry level consumer cameras came without the option of a pneumatic shutter release, Kodak retained the convention of using "B” on shutters for the momentary actuation setting but referred to it as "Brief Time" in brochures for cameras like their Folding Autographic Brownies, as well as in instruction manuals for products like their 1 & 1A Pocket "Kodaks" Juniors. "Brief time" was also used in reference works like Newnes Photographers' Pocket Reference Book (1955). The instruction sheet further suggested an aperture of for Sashalite's larger flashbulb and  for the smaller. However, apparently assuming photographers using their product would be doing so in a relatively narrow range of distances common to portraiture, made no mention of flash-to-subject distance. The instruction sheet then directed the photographer as follows:

<span style="font-style:roman;font-family:Georgia,serif>"Then simply: 1. Open the camera shutter. 2. Flash the "Sashalite" bulb. 3. Close the camera shutter."

In 1932, Philips introduced what was arguably the first modern flashbulb with wire fill under the trade name "Hydronalium". Philips' technology was licensed in 1937 by Wabash Photolamp Corporation and introduced to the U.S. market as Superflash bulbs. Shortly later, in 1939, General Electric under their MAZDA brand introduced their very successful, golf ball-size, wire-filled, bayonet-base, Midget No. 5.

Prior to GE's inverse of the squares innovation, photographers and publications—via tedious trial and error with different flashbulbs and reflectors—generated tables providing a large number of aperture-distance combinations. For instance, a 1940 edition (written too late to incorporate guide numbers) of the Complete Introduction to Photography by the Journal of the Photographic Society of America featured an exposure table for foil-filled flashbulbs, which is shown below. The parenthetical values in bold were not part of the original table; they show the equivalent guide number for each aperture-distance combination. Note the scatter in the guide number values in each column; the data for the right-most flashbulb setup has over a three-quarter fstop variation from high to low.

Bear in mind that the above table is for only one film speed. For end users, obtaining proper exposures with flashbulbs was an error-prone effort as they mentally interpolated between distances and fstop combinations that weren't very accurate in the first place. Had the guide number system existed by this point, the above table would not have required the left-most column showing distances and would have required only one row (showing guide numbers) under each heading.

By 1941, two years after GE introduced the guide number system, guide number ratings for products like the GE No. 11 were being discussed in books like Flash in Modern Photography. By 1944, the 16th edition of Wall's Dictionary of Photography featured a guide number table. Perhaps so as to not intimidate readers, that table still showed numerous combinations of distances and apertures, but it also featured a new column showing the guide number that every cell in its row equalled. The guide number system underlying that table drove slightly finer increases, averaging a factor of $$\sqrt{2}$$ each, from one distance to the next (6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 feet) so each step would be accompanied—by definition—by an increase in aperture of precisely one fstop. Not surprisingly, the data scatter was as tight as mathematical rounding to the nearest foot permitted.

By late 1949, authors catering to hobbyists were using guide numbers in articles in a routine fashion, as exemplified by the January 1950 issue of Popular Photography, as follows:

<span style="font-style:roman;font-family:Georgia,serif>"The system I use is to decide upon lens opening (as demanded by depth of field) and, working with the guide number of the bulb, figure out how far the flash should be from the subject."

Upon introducing the new inverse of the squares concept in 1939, General Electric initially referred to the new system as "Flash Numbers". Two years later, Flash in Modern Photography (1941) used the term "guide number" on page 47, on the very next page used the term "Flash Number" (title case), and later still used the term "flash number" (lowercase). Terminology was similarly mixed in the United Kingdom for years after the introduction of the guide number system; circa 1954, "Flash Factor", "Flash number" (and sometimes "Guide number") were in use.

Glossary
Luminous flux (or luminous power): Symbol: Φv (pronounced Phi sub vee) Unit: Lumen Definition: In the context of flash devices, is the measure of the power of eye-adjusted visible light being emitted. In common vernacular, it is the rate at which a flash device emits light during a flash. Luminous energy: Symbol: Qv Unit: Lumen⋅second Definition: In the context of flash devices, is the measure of the total energy, or quantity, of eye-adjusted visible light emitted over a period of time. In common vernacular, it is the total amount of light released over the course of a flash. Illuminance: Symbol: Ev Unit: Lux (lumens per square meter) Definition: In the context of photography, is the measure of the intensity, or concentration per unit area, of eye-adjusted visible light impinging upon a surface. In common vernacular, it is the brightness of light measured at the surface of a photographic subject. Luminous exposure: Symbol: Hv Unit: Lux⋅second Definition: In the context of photography, is the measure of the total energy, or quantity, of eye-adjusted visible light that impinged upon a unit area over a specified period of time. In common vernacular, it is the product the brightness of light measured at the surface of a photographic subject times the duration of that light.

title: Guide number


text:
Afghanistan Liberation Organization

Afghanistan Liberation Organization (, Sazman-i Rihayi Afghanistan, abbr. ALO) is a Maoist political group in Afghanistan. It was founded by Faiz Ahmad and some others in 1973. ALO is one of several organizations that grew out of the Sholaye Javid (شعلهٔ جاوید, Eternal Flame) movement. ALO was originally named Revolutionary Group of the Peoples of Afghanistan (گروه انقلابی خلقهای افغانستان, RGPA); it was renamed in 1980.

History
On April 27, 1978, military officers loyal to the PDPA launched an uprising on the orders of Hafizullah Amin in what would become known as the Saur Revolution. Despite bringing the Communist Khalqists into power, many smaller socialist groups rejected the Khalqists' rule for various reasons from the Pashtun hegemony of the new government, mistreatment of ethnic minorities, and their Soviet influence. On August 5, 1979, a united front of anti-Khalqist Marxists (including the ALO) and moderate Islamists attempted a uprising in southern Kabul. The uprising lasted 5 hours and was brutally crushed by the Khalqist government's MiG aircraft, artillery and tanks

It was highly critical of the Soviet–Afghan War and actively fought against what it considered social imperialism. In June 1979, RGPA convened the Mujahedin Freedom Fighters Front of Afghanistan together with Islamist elements, as a united front against the pro-Soviet government. Along with some other Islamist groups, RGPA directed a rebellion in Kabul and other cities on 5 August 1979, that became known as the Bala Hissar uprising. The uprising was suppressed by the government and tens of ALO cadres were killed and arrested. Some of the central committee members like Mohammad Mohsin, Mohammad Dawod and others were executed in the Pul-e-Charkhi prison.

ALO had many fronts against the Soviets and pro-Soviet Afghan communists in different parts of Afghanistan and was attacked by both the Soviet forces and the fundamentalist groups of Mujahideen. They lost over 120 cadres during the war.

Faiz Ahmad himself was assassinated on 12 November 1986, along with 6 other comrades, by the Hizb-e Islami militia of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.

The organization still exists as of 2024.

title: Afghanistan Liberation Organization


text: User:Talrias/Templates/Box free/comment

title: User:Talrias/Templates/Box free/comment


text:
User:Netoholic/Templates

All the below should be prefaced with a simple  == Article status ==  header at the top of the page.

Featured article after PR and VFD

 * Featured article
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title: User:Netoholic/Templates


text:
Tomahawk (geometry)

The tomahawk is a tool in geometry for angle trisection, the problem of splitting an angle into three equal parts. The boundaries of its shape include a semicircle and two line segments, arranged in a way that resembles a tomahawk, a Native American axe. The same tool has also been called the shoemaker's knife, but that name is more commonly used in geometry to refer to a different shape, the arbelos (a curvilinear triangle bounded by three mutually tangent semicircles).

Description
The basic shape of a tomahawk consists of a semicircle (the "blade" of the tomahawk), with a line segment the length of the radius extending along the same line as the diameter of the semicircle (the tip of which is the "spike" of the tomahawk), and with another line segment of arbitrary length (the "handle" of the tomahawk) perpendicular to the diameter. In order to make it into a physical tool, its handle and spike may be thickened, as long as the line segment along the handle continues to be part of the boundary of the shape. Unlike a related trisection using a carpenter's square, the other side of the thickened handle does not need to be made parallel to this line segment.

In some sources a full circle rather than a semicircle is used, or the tomahawk is also thickened along the diameter of its semicircle, but these modifications make no difference to the action of the tomahawk as a trisector.

Trisection

To use the tomahawk to trisect an angle, it is placed with its handle line touching the apex of the angle, with the blade inside the angle, tangent to one of the two rays forming the angle, and with the spike touching the other ray of the angle. One of the two trisecting lines then lies on the handle segment, and the other passes through the center point of the semicircle. If the angle to be trisected is too sharp relative to the length of the tomahawk's handle, it may not be possible to fit the tomahawk into the angle in this way, but this difficulty may be worked around by repeatedly doubling the angle until it is large enough for the tomahawk to trisect it, and then repeatedly bisecting the trisected angle the same number of times as the original angle was doubled.

If the apex of the angle is labeled $\overline{AD}$, the point of tangency of the blade is $\overline{AC}$, the center of the semicircle is $A$, the top of the handle is $B$, and the spike is $C$, then triangles $△ACD$ and $△ADE$ are both right triangles with a shared base and equal height, so they are congruent triangles. Because the sides $D$ and $E$ of triangle $△ABC$ are respectively a tangent and a radius of the semicircle, they are at right angles to each other and $△ABC$ is also a right triangle; it has the same hypotenuse as $△ACD$ and the same side lengths $\overline{BC} = \overline{CD}$, so again it is congruent to the other two triangles, showing that the three angles formed at the apex are equal.

Although the tomahawk may itself be constructed using a compass and straightedge, and may be used to trisect an angle, it does not contradict Pierre Wantzel's 1837 theorem that arbitrary angles cannot be trisected by compass and unmarked straightedge alone. The reason for this is that placing the constructed tomahawk into the required position is a form of neusis that is not allowed in compass and straightedge constructions.

History
The inventor of the tomahawk is unknown, but the earliest references to it come from 19th-century France. It dates back at least as far as 1835, when it appeared in a book by Claude Lucien Bergery, Géométrie appliquée à l'industrie, à l'usage des artistes et des ouvriers (3rd edition). Another early publication of the same trisection was made by Henri Brocard in 1877; Brocard in turn attributes its invention to an 1863 memoir by French naval officer Pierre-Joseph Glotin.

title: Tomahawk (geometry)


text:
Erro (crater)

Erro is a lunar impact crater that lies beyond the eastern limb of the Moon, on the far side as seen from the Earth. It lies along the eastern fringes of the uneven plain that joins Mare Marginis to the northwest with Mare Smythii to the west-southwest. This part of the surface is sometimes brought into sight of observers on the Earth due to libration. However even at such times not much detail can be seen, as the surface is viewed from the edge.

Nearby craters of note include Babcock to the west-southwest, Saenger to the east-southeast and Dreyer to the north-northwest.

The crater is named after the Mexican astronomer Luis Enrique Erro.

This crater has a low, broken rim that only projects a small distance above the surface. The somewhat uneven surrounding plains have intruded into the interior of this crater, leaving a level, nearly featureless floor. The most intact sections of the rim lie along the northern and northeastern sides. The satellite crater Erro V is attached to the outer rim to the northwest, and there is a smaller crater along the southern rim. There is a small craterlet in the northeastern part of the interior floor.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Erro.

title: Erro (crater)


text:
Talk:Devin Townsend

Personal life
Coquitlam is an actual city, with its own municipal government, not a suburb of Vancouver. Tried changing it but gor flagged 70.41.76.107 (talk) 05:01, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

sourcing
there are a few long sections of notable personal trivia, completely without source. we're going to have to trim this down to reliable sources, and i encourage all interested editors to source and cite correctly before re-adding obscure content.

no sleep till bedtime, Augmented Seventh (talk) 23:40, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Devin Townsend


text: User talk:68.19.43.236

title: User talk:68.19.43.236


text:
First Football League (Croatia)

The Prva nogometna liga (First football league), commonly Prva NL or '''1. NL''', is the second tier of the football league system in Croatia. The league was formed in 1991 with the breakup of Yugoslavia and the dissolution of the Yugoslav Second League. The 1. NL is operated by the Croatian Football Federation, which also was formed in 1991, contributing (along with the newly formed Football Association of Slovenia) to the dissolution of the Football Association of Yugoslavia.

Between the 2001–02 season and 2005–06 season, the league was split in two divisions, one being the Northern Croatian Second League and the other being the Southern Croatian Second League. Each of these two leagues comprised twelve teams playing under a system pretty much identical to the one in the HNL. However, since the start of the 2006–07 season, the First Football League consisted of at least twelve teams from the entire country. Relegation from this division is into the 2. NL.

From the inaugural merged season in 2006–07 until 2021–22, the division was known as the Second Football League (Druga nogometna liga), but was renamed as were the other leagues of the Croatian football system for the start of the 2022–23 season.

Winning clubs
Key

title: First Football League (Croatia)


text: User talk:82.40.62.206

title: User talk:82.40.62.206


text:
Talk:Copperhead (politics)

Untitled
I agree71.231.140.145 (talk) 04:45, 18 May 2010 (UTC) The warning here is not needed. We should assume that readers are relatively intelligent and mature enough to deal with strong language.

 * I have tried to bring in the latest scholarship and much more detail about the Copperheads, along with a solid bibliography and reference to a fascinating online primary source. Rjensen 17:45, 18 December 2005 (UTC)

Good day Gentlemen and Ladies.

I think the following section of a sentence near the opening of the entry should be modified;

"[Copperheads]...hated Blacks, blamed the abolitionists, ".

"Hated" Blacks is not necessarily a very professional nor explanitory choice of words. "Were extremely predjudice towards Blacks", "Were vociferous defenderds of chattle slavery (or of the subjecgation of Blacks". Anything else but "hated".

"Blamed the abolitionists" should read "held the abolitionist responsible for initiating the sectarian tension which ultimately led to secession" or something similar would be appropriate.

Just wanted to run that by people before I made the changes. Thoughts? --JohnFlaherty 20:55, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

 * "hated" seems the right word. And "Blamed the abolitionists" also seems accurate. Let's be plain, simple and accurate about the past. It is highly misleading to suggest the Copperheads used language like ""held the abolitionist responsible for initiating the sectarian tension which ultimately led to secession"" -- they did not talk that way. To put their hatred into high-falutin words is very misleading to readers. Here's how Copperhead leaders talked: "A large majority," declared an Ohio editor, "can see no reason why they should be shot for the benefit of niggers and Abolitionists." If "the despot Lincoln" tried to ram abolition and conscription down the throats of white men, "he would meet with the fate he deserves: hung, shot, or burned." [quoted in McPherson Battle Cry p 560] Rjensen 22:37, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

You're reading too much into my comments and motivation. When it comes to the Civil War, my blood runs Yankee Blue and abolitionist red. My suggested wording is NOT "highly misleading". On the contrary, it is more accurate, it is more descriptive, and IMO more professional. I doubt the wording as it is now would apear in Brittanica or World Book. --JohnFlaherty 23:51, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

 * we should not give the readers the impression that Copperheads talked nice and sounded like Taney. That is quite false. Wiki is professional when it gets the nuances right, not merely the dates. Rjensen 00:42, 31 March 2006 (UTC) I disagree completely. By any objective standard, the Nazi's hated Jews. No professional, non-fiction resource would state that "The Nazi's hated Jews".  I explains nothing.  It is amatuer.  They would discuss anti-Semitism and Aryianism, pogroms and the diaspora.--JohnFlaherty 11:32, 31 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I think you should read the studies of Copperheads -- that's more useful than Nazis or World Book.

But let's try a quote: "Hitler was a twisted product of anti-Semitic Austria, of the front lines in World War I, and of a ruinous and vindictive imposed peace. He was also a consummate demagogue, a hypnotic speaker, who recognized and brilliantly exploited popular rage, despair, and hatred of the scapegoat Jews, for whom Hitler himself had a psychotic hatred. He had a ferocious lust for power, not only national but also global. He was utterly false in his promises. He was insatiably murderous. And by early 1933 he was in absolute control of the great German nation. " hatred used twice.  War Comes Again: Comparative Vistas on the Civil War and World War II (1995) ed Boritt p 17. Rjensen 11:42, 31 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Civil war examples: "Even Frémont's father-in-law Thomas Hart Benton, despite his hatred of the Democratic leadership, urged his followers to vote for Buchanan. " [McPherson Battle Cry p 158] " Butler in New Orleans presented a paradox. On the one hand his Woman Order, his hanging of a southern gambler who had torn down the U. S. flag at the beginning of the occupation, and his imprisonment of several citizens who defied or displeased him earned everlasting southern hatred of "Beast" Butler" [ibid 623] . Or this "In The Diary of Miss Emma Holmes: 1861-1866 ( 1979) the author discusses a host of issues and individuals, and a constant theme throughout is her intense hatred of the North" [Woodworth Am Civ War Handbook p 67]; "The enemy was now personal, and hatred of him intensified to become a prime motivator in continuing the struggle. " [ibid 463] "His [writer Edmund Wilson] struggles with the Internal Revenue Service caused him to hate the U.S. government and to compare it readily to fascist or communist regimes." [ibid 190] Ot this"Rochester has its full share of the Ku-Klux spirit.... It is the spirit of hate, the spirit of murder."(Frederick Douglas in  "The Spirit of Hate" and Frederick Douglass. by Richard H. White in Civil War History. Volume: 46. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2000. Page Number: 41. Rjensen 11:50, 31 March 2006 (UTC)

Copperheads as anti-war
Yes, the Copperheads were pimarily united by their opposition to the war and all its manifestations (like draft and taxes), and continuously pushed for compromises, negotiations and peace candidates. Rjensen 02:20, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

NPOV
I've noticed that this article tries to imply that the Copperheads committed treason. Making such a claim is borderline defamatory. If it were valid about the Copperheads, its also valid about the Anti-Vietnam and Anti-Iraq movements. I would have fixed it, but I'm unsure how to reword the reference. 206.251.8.169 01:42, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

 * the issue of treason by Copperheads was raised at the time, and by historians today. If you listen you will note that anti-Iraq protestors rarely claim kinship with the Copperheads. Rjensen 03:30, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Which is exactly why the Democrat-Communists of today would want to rewrite this little bit of history. I'm suprised the Communist operatives haven't deleted this yet.68.106.254.13 12:57, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Reptilian connotation
Is there any truth to the claim that the name "Copperhead" gained political currency in no small part because its association with the feared and despised pit viper species also so called? If so, wouldn't that negative connotation warrant mentioning in the article? --Ziusudra 12:40, 22 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Editorial & cartoon in Harper's document that the value of the image was exploited. --Jerzy•t 19:30, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

Coin
I replaced copper indian-head coins with "three-cent copper Indian-head coins" and tagged it with fact, since the lk'd article describes no such coin. Cent (United States coin) does describe Indian-head pennies of the period. My recollection is that the head was of Washington, but i found some support via Google for a Liberty-head coin, perhaps the 3-cent copper-nickel alloy one in the article whose lk i rem'd. --Jerzy•t 19:30, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I just deleted the entire sentence. A quick visit to money.com reveals that there were no copper/nickel three-cent pieces minted during this era. There were copper/nickel pennies.  I suggest finding an authoritative reference for the use of a coin as a badge.Jarhed (talk) 10:30, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I inserted a reference to the coin pins today, along with a citation. --Geometricks (talk) 05:19, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Iraq War/War on Terror
It is of course obvious the amazing similarities of the "Peace Democrats" of the civil war who felt it was immoral to have a war to free slaves in the Confederate States of America and "Peace Democrats" of today who feel it is immoral to help Muslims in Iraq to have a democratic government. It is so obvious that it might not need to be mentioned, but I think it should be. The techniques and objectives are exactly the same then as they are now... Any objections to a section pointing out the similarities.Mantion (talk) 11:36, 26 December 2007 (UTC)

 * The most obvious objection is the fact that ths article is about events from 1861-1865, and you propose to inject into it a debate about events in 2007. An additional problem is that while you may find current bloggers or news columnists makng an occassional, superficial comparison, I doubt you will find such comparisons in reliable historical sources. Tom (North Shoreman) (talk) 13:41, 26 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree, but sadly Wikipedia is full of opinions not based on reliable historical sources. I thought it might be in poor taste but it is very interesting to think about.  Seeing that it is a comparison with a current event if I were to find a reliable print article that made the comparison would it be worth including?Mantion (talk) 13:57, 29 December 2007 (UTC)
 * You sound less sad, than enthusiastic to join the injection of opinion. Fix the PoV, but emulate only the WP:NPoV. If you think "full of" is accurate, you have a proper calling before you. --Jerzy•t 19:40, 29 December 2007 (UTC)
 * If you can find reliable doc'n of significant current use of the analogy, then mention it in Iraq-war articles, & lk them to (not from) the accompanying Copperheads article. --Jerzy•t 19:40, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

Specific politcal aims
While the article speaks vaguely about "peace at any price", what exactly were the specific aims of Copperheads? Did they explicitly advocate ending the war and recognizing the Confederacy as a separate nation? Did they believe that if they gained power, their attitudes towards slavery would be enough to conciliate the south into rejoining the Union? Or were they not united on a specific program? --Jfruh (talk) 00:27, 16 October 2008 (UTC) əə

 * The main political platform was peace. Technically it was peace and union, but that was mostly for propaganda purposes and I doubt the average Copperhead really cared what happened to the South after the war. They just wanted to stop dying for a war they saw as pointless and benefiting only the Bankers and Railroad titans.Bogan444 (talk) 15:36, 4 October 2010 (UTC)
 * yes but the Copperheads were not "dying" --they avoided the draft--and they were as hostile to blacks as to bankers. Rjensen (talk) 20:08, 4 October 2010 (UTC)

Stereotypes
Why is there a section on the "Profile of the average member"? Isn't that the sort of stereotyping that is very un-PC these days? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.224.13.116 (talk) 20:02, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
 * No, this is what historians do for a living. They look not just at top leaders but at the membership and support network to see who is responding to those leaders & issues. Rjensen (talk) 14:38, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

Southern Point of View
Does every article have to be written from the Northern point of view? Why can't information be presented as Southerners, the population in the South notices this overt bias. The slavery issue is settled, but Southerner's voices are NEVER heard in these articles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:306:243B:9AF9:E466:B9A1:1082:4D16 (talk) 13:06, 12 March 2017 (UTC)
 * and what is the " Southern" point of view on Copperheads??? tell us about the views of pro-Confederates,  pro-Unionists and the black Southerners. Rjensen (talk) 03:03, 13 March 2017 (UTC)

Removed 'position' from infobox
I removed 'Position- Right-wing' from the infobox. There appears to be a slow-burning edit war over this. In reading the article, it appears that the Copperheads held traditionalist viewpoints. But it is challenging to tie them to a specific ideology, at least from a modern perspective. If identified through a modern perspective, I think the Copperheads held both right-wing and left-wing views, like their opposition to central banking would be left wing and support for traditional agrarianism would be right wing. Since this is contentious and difficult to place on the political spectrum, I think the 'political ideology' identifiers is sufficient. Jip Orlando (talk) 17:08, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Copperhead (politics)


text: User:Eugene van der Pijll/Templates

title: User:Eugene van der Pijll/Templates


text:
Abdallah Djaballah

Saad Abdallah Djaballah (سعد عبدالله جاب الله (born on May 2, 1956) in Skikda) is an Algerian politician and leader of the Movement for National Reform (Ḥarakat al-Iṣlāḥ al-Waṭaniyy, also known as the MRN and El-Islah), an Islamist political party that he led in a breakout from the Islamic Renaissance Party (al-Nahda), which he had created but lost control over. Djaballah stood for the presidency twice, in 1999 and 2004. In 1999, he withdrew along with all the other opposition candidates just hours before voting began. In 2004, he came in third place in the election, with about 5 percent of the vote.

In 2011, Djaballah formed the Justice and Development Front.

title: Abdallah Djaballah