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Cactus Air Force

Cactus Air Force refers to the ensemble of Allied air power assigned to the island of Guadalcanal from August 1942 until December 1942 during the most heavily contested phases of the Guadalcanal Campaign, particularly those operating from Henderson Field. The term "Cactus" comes from the Allied code name for the island. In 1943, the Cactus Air Force was absorbed into AirSols, a joint command of Allied air units in the Solomon Islands.

Background
On 7 December 1941, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack crippled much of the U.S. Pacific battleship fleet and led to a state of war between the two nations. In launching this war, Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet, seize possessions rich in natural resources, and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far-flung empire. Japanese forces also attacked and took control of Hong Kong, the Philippines, Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, Wake Island, New Britain, and Guam.

Two attempts by the Japanese to extend their defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific were thwarted in the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) and the Battle of Midway (June 1942). These two strategic victories for the Allies provided an opportunity to take the initiative and launch a counter-offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific. The Allies chose the Solomon Islands, specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida.

Allied strategists knew the Japanese Navy occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and constructed a seaplane base near there. During early July 1942, the Japanese Navy began constructing a significant airfield near Lunga Point on nearby Guadalcanal island. After completion, these bases would protect Japan's major base at Rabaul, threaten Allied supply and communication lines across the South Pacific to Australia and New Zealand, and establish a staging base for potential offensives against the New Hebrides, Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia.

The Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Navy Admiral Ernest King, Commander-in-Chief of the United States Fleet. King proposed the counter-offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the United States and Australia, and to use them as starting points for a campaign with the goal of isolating the new and major Japanese base at Rabaul while supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. All of this had the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines. American Admiral Chester Nimitz, the Allied Commander-in-Chief for all forces in the Pacific, created the South Pacific theater of operations, with Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley placed in command on 19 June 1942, to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons.

On 7 August 1942, the First Marine Division landed on Tulagi and Guadalcanal at Lunga Point, capturing the uncompleted Japanese airfield, and marking the first counter-offensive by the Allies in the Pacific Theater. The Allies continued construction on the airfield immediately using captured Japanese equipment. On 12 August, the airfield was renamed Henderson Field, for Major Lofton R. Henderson, killed during the Battle of Midway, the first Marine Corps pilot killed during the battle. By 18 August, Henderson Field was ready for operation.

Henderson Field

Immediately after landing on Guadalcanal, Marines from the 1st Engineer Battalion worked around the clock using captured Japanese heavy equipment to complete construction of the airfield. The first plane to land was a US Navy PBY Catalina that touched down on August 12 to assess the condition of the field. At that time the field was 2600ft long, good enough for fighters but still too short and soft for bombers. Three days later the first Seabee unit arrived with a Carryall which dramatically sped up construction. The field was declared ready for flight operations on August 18. As the first planes arrived, Henderson Field could barely be described as an airfield. It was an irregular blob cut out of the island growth, half-in and half-out of a coconut grove, with a short runway, and few revetments to protect the aircraft from shrapnel. Upon landing on Henderson Field on 4 September, Commanding Officer of Marine Aircraft Group 25, Colonel W. Fiske Marshall described the scene -- "looked like a Doré drawing of hell."

The runway was a northwest to southeast running, 2400 ft long gravel surface with an extra 1000 ft of Marston Mat frequently pockmarked with craters from Japanese artillery and naval gunfire. The strip was in such poor condition that it caused as many losses to aircraft as enemy action. In the heat, the field was a bowl of black dust which fouled the warplanes' engines; during rain, the airfield quickly turned muddy, miring planes in liquid muck. Major Marion Carl described it as "...the only place on Earth you could stand up to your knees in mud and still get dust in your eyes." The heavier SBD dive bombers had it the worst, since their hard rubber tires, designed for aircraft carrier landings and take-offs, ripped up the runways like plowshares. Wooden wheels were experimented with, but these did not fare any better. The runway was extended and widened several times during the long Guadalcanal campaign, and it was 3800 ft long and 150 ft wide by 4 September.

Henderson Field was also very close to the thinly-held lines of the U.S. First Marine Division, so security was always a concern. There were no fuel trucks, aircraft hangars, or repair buildings. Damaged aircraft were cannibalized for spare parts, and with no bomb hoists, all aircraft munitions had to be hand-loaded onto the warplanes. Fuel, always critically low, had to be hand pumped out of 55 gallon drums. After the arrival of fuel trucks, aviation gasoline still had to be hand-pumped into the trucks.

On 9 September 1942, the U.S. 6th Naval Construction Battalion (SeaBees) opened up a second runway about 1 mi to the east of Henderson Field's original runway. This new runway, called "Fighter 1", consisted of tamped-down sod, and it was about 4600 ft long and 300 ft wide. The Marine fighter squadrons operated out of Fighter 1, while the rest of the aircraft operating out of Henderson Field continued to use the original runway, referred to as "Bomber Field No. 1".

Henderson Field's facilities improved around 15 November, after it was officially a Marine Corps Air Base. Proper runways were installed using shipped-in ground-up coral, since the local coral was deemed rotten and slushy.

Living conditions
Living conditions on Guadalcanal were some of the most difficult faced by Marine aviation. Pilots and mechanics lived in mud-floored tents in a flooded coconut plantation called "Mosquito Grove." Most contracted tropical diseases such as malaria, dysentery, dengue fever, or fungal infections.

The misery was accompanied by mortal danger. The airfield was bombed nearly every day around noon by Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers flying at 20000 ft in a perfect "Vee formation" escorted by fighter planes. It was frequently shelled as well, by Japanese artillery in the day and Japanese warships at night. The worst night of bombardment was on 13–14 October 1942—two Japanese battleships fired more than 700 heavy shells into Henderson Field, providing cover for the Japanese Navy's landing of Imperial Marines and army reinforcements further west on Guadalcanal. The bombardment killed six CAF pilots.

Commanders
From the time of the first Marine squadron landed on 20 August until 25 August, there was no commanding officer for Marine air, which instead reported directly to General Vandegrift. The Marines had not designated an air operations commander, the Army already had a squadron present and the field acquired the air of a naval base after they were promised to certain naval units. The first Marine commander was Colonel William W. Wallace, but he retained command temporarily. Cactus Air Force technically was under the command of Rear Admiral John S. McCain, who commanded all land based Allied aircraft in the South Pacific. Vandegrift and his operational commanders, however, exercised local command over the Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson Field.

On 3 September 1942, the fortunes of the beleaguered aviators changed with the arrival of Brigadier General Roy Geiger on board the first Marine Aircraft Group 25 plane to land on the island, an R4D Skytrain. As the "Commander, Aircraft, Guadalcanal" (ComAirCACTUS) and the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, Geiger established his headquarters in a wooden Japanese pagoda on a hill about 200 yd from the airfield. Through his energy, example, and sheer force of personality, he raised the collective spirits of the squadron's survivors. He was described as "...curt, cold, and some said ruthless....he was determined to squeeze the ultimate ounce of performance from men and machines". During his time in command, press-releases said there was a "sense of desperation but never defeatism," Ultimately, the strain of command and harsh living conditions seriously fatigued, both mentally and physically, the 57-year-old Geiger. Geiger turned over the command on 7 November to his Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Louis E. Woods.

Brigadier Woods, a 21-year aviation veteran, commanded the Cactus fliers during the lowest point of the campaign. He quickly transformed from a "kindly colonel to a blood thirsty brigadier general." The day after Christmas, Woods turned the Cactus command to Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy, Commanding General of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing.

Japanese
The majority of the Japanese aircraft engaged by the Cactus Air Force were from Imperial Japanese Navy air units. On 7 August, during the Guadalcanal campaign, 5th Air Attack Force, under Rear Admiral Sadayoshi Yamada, operated from Rabaul, New Britain, and Lae, Papua New Guinea, and were responsible for naval air operations in eastern New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The 5th was a hybrid organization consisting of attached units from the 25th Air Flotilla, and reported to the 11th Air Fleet (also called the "Base Air Force"), under Nishizo Tsukahara. On the morning of 7 August, the 5th's air strength consisted of 39 fighters, 32 medium bombers, 16 dive bombers, and 17 seaplanes, including the 15 seaplane aircraft at Tulagi destroyed in the initial Allied air strikes during the landings on Tulagi and Guadalcanal.

The 5th's principal bomber unit was the 4th Air Group operating Mitsubishi G4M Type 1 "Betty" bombers. Twenty-four of the fighter aircraft in the 5th belonged to the Tainan Kōkūtai under Captain Masahisa Saito. The Tainan contained some of the top-scoring Japanese fighter aces, and flew the A6M2 Zero fighter. With 55 pilots and 24 aircraft, only the most experienced and able Tainan pilots were allowed to consistently participate in combat operations. The dive bombers (Aichi D3A1 "Vals") and the rest of the fighters (A6M3 Zeros) belonged to the 2nd Air Group. Most of the dive bombers were lost during the 7 and 8 August strikes on the Allied landing forces. Also on 7 and 8 August, the Misawa Air Group of the 6th Air Attack Force (also called the 26th Air Flotilla) under Vice Admiral Seigo Yamagata from Tinian with 27 Type 1 bombers joined the 5th Air Attack Force at Rabaul. Around the same time, Admiral Tsukahara moved from Tinian to Rabaul to supervise air operations against Allied forces around Guadalcanal.

The 4th and Misawa Air Groups took heavy losses during attacks on the Allied landing fleets off Guadalcanal on 7 and 8 August, losing 24 bombers and 153 crewmen killed while the Tainan Air Group lost four Zeros and four pilots. Until reinforcements could arrive, the 5th Air Attack Group was unable to continue attacking Marine positions on Guadalcanal, giving the U.S. time to prepare the captured airfield at Lunga Point uninterrupted by air attack. On 20 August 19, Type 1s from the Kisarazu Air Group of the 6th Air Attack Force arrived at Kavieng. On 2 September, ten Type 1s from the Chitose Air Group of the 24th Air Flotilla joined them at Kavieng. Both groups participated in subsequent bombing raids on Guadalcanal. Thirteen Zeros and pilots from the 6th Air Group joined the 2nd Air Group at Rabaul on 31 August, flying combat missions over Guadalcanal on 11 September.

From 1 October until the end of the war, the 11th Air Fleet was commanded by Jinichi Kusaka, also located at Rabaul. Some notable pilots flying with the 11th Air Fleet included Hiroyoshi Nishizawa and Junichi Sasai.

A force of Japanese seaplanes called the R-Area Air Force was created on 28 August under Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jojima, and operated from Rabaul as well as forward operating bases at Buin, the Shortland Islands, and Rekata Bay, Santa Isabel. The R-Area aircraft came from the four squadrons assigned to the Japanese seaplane tenders Kamikawa Maru, Chitose, Sanyo Maru, and Sanuki Maru. The R-Area Air Force mainly provided cover for Japanese convoys delivering troops and supplies to Guadalcanal, conducted reconnaissance missions around the Solomon Islands' area, and occasionally attacked Henderson Field. Also, air units from Japan's Combined Fleet's aircraft carriers, including Shōkaku, Junyō, Zuikaku, and Ryūjō, either operating from land bases with the 11th Air Fleet, or operating from the carriers, engaged Cactus Air Force aircraft during the Guadalcanal campaign.

August
On August 20, the first Marine aircraft landed at Henderson Field. Part of Marine Aircraft Group 23 flying from the escort aircraft carrier USS Long Island, they included 18 x F4F Wildcat fighter planes of VMF-223 led by Major John L. Smith and 12 x SBD Dauntless dive bombers of VMSB-232 led by Lt. Colonel Richard Mangrum. These warplanes conducted combat missions the following day.

They were joined on August 22 by the U.S. Army's 67th Pursuit Squadron under Major Dale Brannon, with five Army P-400s (an "export" version of the P-39); and on August 24, by 11 x SBD dive bombers from the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise because they were unable to land on their carrier, which was damaged in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. At the end of August, these warplanes were joined by 19 more Wildcats from VMF-224 under Major Robert E. Galer, and a dozen more SBD dive bombers from VMSB-231, also part of the Marine Air Group 23. This varied assortment of Army, Marine, and Navy pilots and warplanes were the foundation of the Cactus Air Force.

The first air-to-air combat for Cactus Air Forces took place on August 21 and ended with mixed results. Japanese Zeros from the Tainan Air Group on a bomber escort mission (the bombers were searching for American carriers south of Guadalcanal) passed over Henderson Field on their way back to Rabaul, and six of these were met by four Cactus Air Force F4F Wildcats at 14000 ft. Major Smith claimed the first air-to-air victory for the CAF, but two other pilots crashed while landing their damaged aircraft, with both of the Wildcats deemed a total loss except for salvaged parts. The Japanese suffered no losses. That same night, an SBD Dauntless blew a tire on take-off, causing it to ground loop and crash for another aircraft loss.

On 24 August, during the naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons between aircraft carrier forces of Japan and the U.S. east of the Solomon Islands, Japanese Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo sent the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) light carrier Ryūjō ahead of the main Japanese warship force to send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field. The Ryūjō mission was likely in response to a request from Nishizo Tsukahara, the naval commander at Rabaul, for help from the Japanese combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field. At 12:20 and 200 mi northeast of Guadalcanal, the Ryūjō launched six "Kate" bombers and 15 A6M Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 "Betty" bombers and 14 Zero fighters from Rabaul. Unknown to the Ryūjō force, the Rabaul aircraft encountered severe weather, and returned to their base at 11:30am. The Ryūjō's aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14:23pm, and tangled with 14 Marine Wildcats and four Army P-400s while bombing the airfield. In the resulting engagement, three Kates, three Zeros, and three Marine fighters were shot down... but no damage was done to Henderson Field. Two Marine pilots were killed in the engagement as well as eight Japanese aircrewmen. All of these Japanese aircraft were eventually lost because, while they were attacking Henderson Field, the Ryūjō was sunk by aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga, forcing the Japanese aircraft to ditch upon returning to the previous location of their carrier.

On 31 August, the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine. Returning to Pearl Harbor for drydock repairs, most of the Saratoga's aircraft and aircrewmen remained behind at Espiritu Santo. Admiral McCain planned to send some of these aircraft to reinforce the Cactus Air Force at Guadalcanal.

September
On 2 September, the U.S. Marine 3rd Defense Battalion began operating an air search radar at Henderson Field, which, along with reports from the coastwatchers, helped provide early warning of incoming Japanese warplanes.

By 3 September, the day of Geiger's arrival, the CAF consisted of only 64 flyable airplanes. Due to the heavy losses that the CAF had sustained, Admiral McCain decided to immediately deploy the USS Saratoga's fighter squadrons to Guadalcanal. On 4 September 24 F4Fs of VF-5 flew from Espiritu Santo to Henderson Field.

From 1 September through 8 September the Japanese aviation units at Rabaul concentrated on providing air cover for Japanese Army forces operating along the Kokoda Track on New Guinea, during the Kokoda Track campaign. On 9 September the Japanese resumed air operations against Henderson Field, with the objective of destroying the CAF and isolating the American forces on Guadalcanal.

Between 21 August and 11 September, the Japanese raided Guadalcanal a total of ten times, losing 31 aircraft destroyed and seven more heavily damaged, primarily due to the defensive efforts of CAF fighter planes. Most of the Japanese aircrewmen in the destroyed aircraft were killed. During this same time, the CAF Marine Corps fighter squadrons lost 27 aircraft with nine pilots killed.

On 12 September 25 Bettys and 15 Zeros from Rabaul raided Henderson Field. Alerted by the coastwatcher Donald Kennedy, and by the radar at Henderson Field, 20 Wildcat fighters from the Marine and Navy fighter squadrons took off to intercept this raid. In the resulting battle, two Betty bombers were shot down by Marine anti-aircraft fire, and four Bettys and one fighter were shot down by the Wildcats. One U.S. Navy pilot died attempting to land his damaged fighter back at Henderson Field following the action.

That night the field was shelled by the Japanese cruiser Sendai and three destroyers in support of the Japanese Army attacks on the Lunga perimeter – the first night of the Battle of Edson's Ridge. This shelling killed two pilots from VMSB-232 and one pilot from VMSB-231, but it did not damage any aircraft or the airfield.

On 13 September 18 Wildcats arrived at Henderson Field from the carriers USS Hornet and USS Wasp. The morning of this same day, Tsukahara sent a reconnaissance mission of two Type 2 aircraft escorted by nine Zeros to find out if the Japanese Army had captured Henderson Field during the night. The Zeros tangled with Cactus Air Force fighters from VMF-223, VMF-224, and VF-5, losing four Zeros along with their pilots. The CAF lost four fighters, two in combat and two to accidents with two CAF pilots killed. An afternoon raid the same day by 27 Bettys and 12 Zeros attacked Henderson Field at 14:00 and again resulted in intense clashes with the Cactus defenders. In the skirmish, two Betty bombers were lost and two were heavily damaged, with three crewmen killed and six captured. Two Wildcats were lost, one each from VMF-212 and VF-5, with both pilots killed. On that same day, two R Area floatplane Zeros from Rekata Bay swept over Lunga Point and shot down a scout plane SBD from VMSB-231, killing both of its crewmen. Another CAF scout SBD from VS-3 ditched in the ocean that afternoon during their search patrol, and both crewmen were lost. Later that day, 12 VS-3 SBDs and six VT-8 TBF Avenger torpedo planes arrived at Henderson Field as reinforcements.

On 14 September, the R Area force attacked Henderson throughout the day with a total of 24 float fighters and bombers, losing eight of them with no losses to the CAF. A fighter sweep by seven 2nd Air Group Zeros from Rabaul also attacked Lunga that day, losing one aircraft and pilot. A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft was also shot down over Guadalcanal that day. The only CAF loss was one VMF-223 Wildcat that wrecked on takeoff, seriously injuring the pilot.

From 15 to 27 September, bad weather over the Bismarck Islands caused a lull in the air campaign over Guadalcanal, with no Japanese air raids. During this period, both sides reinforced their respective air units. The Japanese delivered 85 fighters and bombers to their air units at Rabaul, while the Americans brought in 23 fighters and bombers to Henderson Field. On 20 September, the Japanese counted 117 total aircraft at Rabaul while the CAF tallied 71 aircraft at Henderson Field.

October
On the evening of October 13-14, the Japanese Battleships Kongō and Haruna sailed into Ironbottom Sound and proceeded to shell Henderson Field with 14-inch shells. After the 90-minute bombardment, 41 Americans were killed, and the Cactus Air Force possessed only five SBDs and 7 Wildcats that were still operational.

November
The CAF reached its peak of combat power on 12 November with 47 fighters, 23 tactical bombers, and 12 medium bombers. On the morning of November 14, scout planes from the USS Enterprise (CV-6) spotted a large number of Japanese troop transports north of New Georgia headed for Guadalcanal. Every available Cactus aircraft supported by additional carrier aviation and B-17s flying from Espiritu Santo attacked the convoy. Four transports were sunk that afternoon and three more were set on fire and turned back north into New Georgia Sound. Two of these burning transports sank later that evening. After a month and a half of enduring continual shelling at night, the CAF got their first crack at a Japanese battleship on 15 November, after the first night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, in which Hiei's steering was disabled. Unable to flee, Hiei was repeatedly attacked by aircraft from Henderson Field and from the USS Enterprise (CV-6). After suffering numerous direct hits, and being set ablaze, the Hiei was scuttled by the Japanese.

The first aviation unit from another country arrived at Henderson Field on 26 November 1942: No. 3 Squadron RNZAF, with Lockheed Hudson light bombers for reconnaissance work.

December
On 26 December there were 161 aircraft of all types at Guadalcanal.

Tactics employed
U.S. Navy and Marine fighter pilots, with little high-altitude experience, were at a disadvantage because their F4F Wildcat was slower, heavier, less maneuverable, and a slow climber compared to the agile Japanese A6M Zero. The American pilots learned quickly to not dogfight the Zero. Instead, if they became engaged with one, they would give it a quick diving firing-burst, then dive away to regroup, climb, and attack again. Cactus pilots constantly refined their tactics and techniques, relying on teamwork in dogfights, improving their gunnery to remain effective against the Zero pilots.

Because of the Zero's maneuverability, American pilots quickly adapted hit-and-run tactics similar to those used by the American Flying Tigers in China and Burma. They also used a two-plane flight section, a technique developed by the U.S. Navy fighter pilots John Thach and Edward O'Hare, and dubbed the "Thach Weave." The two aircraft remained in the same general area, and, if Zeroes showed up, they had a better chance of engaging the aircraft on the tails of their wingmen.

According to one American pilot, "One Zero against one Grumman is not an even fight, but with mutual support, two Grummans are worth four or five Zeros."

The Wildcat had merits. It was well-protected compared to the lightly armored Zero, had a self-sealing fuel tank, and possessed adequate firepower with six .50-caliber M-2 Browning machine guns. U.S. Marine pilots, skeptical since the Battle of Midway, placed a great deal of confidence in their aircraft.

Because they could not effectively dogfight the Zeroes, Henderson Field's defenders could not gain air superiority to thwart Japanese attacks. They realized the best thing they could do was disrupt up each day's raid, whittle down the Japanese, then break-off to fight another day. With this in mind, their primary targets became the bombers rather than the fighters, and many of the tactics introduced were devised by Marine Major John L. Smith. The American pilots always sought to begin their attack at least 5000 ft above the Japanese formations, and they concentrated their attacks on trailing aircraft. This gave them good angles to shoot at the exposed fuel tanks of the Japanese bombers, and it presented a difficult gunnery problem for the bombers, since the high overhead passes of the American fighters put them into the blindspots of the Japanese gunners. This tactic also caused the escorting Japanese fighters to climb and burn more of their fuel, thus reducing their limited time over Guadalcanal.

From 3 September to 4 November 1942, the Cactus Air Force claimed 268 Japanese planes downed in aerial combat, and the damage inflicted on others is estimated to be as great.

Coastwatchers
Because of the limited number of aircraft and fuel available during the early stages of the campaign, the CAF was unable to maintain a standing combat air patrol over Henderson Field. Therefore, CAF needed early warnings of incoming Japanese aircraft so their aircraft were in the air during Japanese air attacks. Members of the Australian Coastwatchers, including W. J. Read in northern and Paul Mason in southern Bougainville, Donald Kennedy on New Georgia, and Geoffrey Kuper on Santa Isabel relayed as Japanese airplane formations were heading for the island, giving the defenders on Guadalcanal time to get airborne. On 16 August, Lieutenant Commander Hugh A. Mackenzie of the Royal Australian Navy, the Deputy Staff Intelligence Officer for the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, established a radio station at Henderson Field to monitor coastwatcher transmissions and relay their warnings to the CAF. Admiral Bull Halsey said the coast-watchers "saved Guadalcanal".

Several coastwatchers were stationed around Guadalcanal, including Martin Clemens (a local official for the British Solomon Islands Protectorate), Leif Schroeder, Donald Macfarlan, Ken Hay, and Ashton Rhoades. On August 14, Clemens entered the Marine lines at Lunga Point and et with General Vandegrift. The general placed him in charge of native administration and intelligence operations outside the Marine lines. These coastwatchers, with help from native Solomon Islanders, helped rescue and return several Allied pilots during the campaign.

Aftermath
The Cactus Air Force's dive bombers and torpedo planes sank or destroyed 17 large enemy vessels, including one Japanese battleship, one heavy cruiser (the Kinugasa), one light cruiser (the Yura), three destroyers (the JAPANESE DESTROYER Asagiri, Murakumo, and Natsugumo), and twelve transports, possibly sank three destroyers and one heavy cruiser, and heavily damaged 18 other ships, including one heavy cruiser and five light cruisers. The largest vessel was the battleship Hiei, which was finished off by the CAF, along with aircraft from the Enterprise, and B-17s from Espiritu, after being crippled by American cruisers and destroyers during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.

The fifteen Marine combat squadrons on Guadalcanal during this time suffered 94 pilots killed or missing-in-action, with another 177 evacuated with wounds or with sickness (especially severe malaria). Losses for Japanese aircraft during the Guadalcanal campaign are unknown. Japanese records show that several Marine and Army pilots were captured on Guadalcanal after being shot down over enemy-occupied jungle areas, but none of the pilots survived their captivity.

Medal of Honor recipients
Six aviators who served in the "Cactus Air Force" received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Battle of Guadalcanal (August 1942 – February 1943):

 * John L. Smith
 * Robert E. Galer
 * Joe Foss
 * Harold W. Bauer
 * Jefferson J. DeBlanc
 * James E. Swett

Order of battle
All aviation units on Guadalcanal were subordinate to Commander, Aircraft, Guadalcanal (ComAirGuadal).

Allied Aircraft

 * Grumman F4F Wildcat
 * Douglas SBD Dauntless
 * Grumman TBF Avenger
 * Grumman J2F-5 Duck
 * Bell P-39 Airacobra
 * Consolidated PBY Catalina
 * Lockheed Hudson (RNZAF)

Books

Web

 * . Republished on HistoryNet.com.
 * - History of U.S. Army air units involved in Guadalcanal campaign.
 * . Republished on HistoryNet.com.
 * - History of U.S. Army air units involved in Guadalcanal campaign.
 * - History of U.S. Army air units involved in Guadalcanal campaign.
 * - History of U.S. Army air units involved in Guadalcanal campaign.

title: Cactus Air Force


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São Pedro (Funchal)

São Pedro (Portuguese for "Saint Peter") is a civil parish in the municipality of Funchal in the island of Madeira. The population in 2011 was 7,273, in an area of 1.49 km².

São Pedro is located north of Sé and central to the municipality, surrounded by the parishes of Santo António, Santa Luzia, Imaculado Coração de Maria, São Roque and São Martinho.

Notable people

 * Cristiano Ronaldo

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: São Pedro (Funchal)


text:
Adirondack Mountain Club

The Adirondack Mountain Club (ADK) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1922. It has approximately 30,000 members. The ADK is dedicated to the protection and responsible recreational use of the New York State Forest Preserve, parks, wild lands, and waters; it conducts conservation, and natural history programs. There are 27 local chapters in New York and New Jersey. The club has worked to increase state holdings in the Adirondack Park and to protect the area from commercial development.

History
The idea of forming the ADK was conceived by Meade C. Dobson, an official of the New York State Association of Real Estate Boards and the secretary of the Palisades Interstate Park Trail Conference, who felt there was need for a private organization that could help the State develop trails and shelters to make remote areas of the Adirondacks more accessible to hikers and backpackers. Encouraged by support from George D. Pratt, Conservation Commissioner of New York State, and William G. Howard, Superintendent of Forests, Dobson invited other like-minded individuals to an organizational meeting.

The initial meeting, attended by 40 people, took place on December 5, 1921, in the log cabin atop the Abercrombie & Fitch sporting goods store in New York City. An organization committee was formed, including representatives of outing, recreational, educational, government, and business interests. The club's objectives were to develop and maintain hiking trails, to construct and maintain campsites and permanent camps, to publish trail maps and guidebooks, and to educate the public regarding the conservation of natural resources and prevention of forest fires.

In its early years when there were few trails, ADK supplemented the work of the New York State Conservation Department by clearing and marking 140 miles of trails. One of the first trails constructed by club members was the 133-mile Northville-Placid Trail which traverses the Adirondacks in a north-south orientation.

Gifford Pinchot, first chief of the U.S. Forest Service, was an early member, and Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt were life members of the ADK.

In an introduction to the club's 20th anniversary Annual Report in 1942, then president Roosevelt wrote "[This is] an appropriate time to emphasize the Club's initial statement of policy, adhered to and acted upon vigorously throughout the years, that 'the Adirondack Forest preserve belongs to the people of the State of New York' and that 'we believe in a continuing policy that shall give the widest and wisest use of the Forest to all.' "

The Adirondack Mountain Club has worked to make sites more accessible. In August 2023, they opened two accessible sites at the Wilderness Campground at Heart Lake.

Beginning in 2020, the group planned to work on the Long Trail up Mt. Jo, and in October 2023, they finished their work on the new trail. On October 14, the ADK had a ribbon cutting ceremony and 50 members hiked up the trail to celebrate. The trail is near Lake Placid, and more than 18,000 visitors come to the trail annually, which le to the trail needing restored. The trail restoration was funded by the Regional Office of Sustainable Tourism Local Enhancement and Advancement Fund.

Activities
The club maintains two lodges, the Adirondak Loj in North Elba and the Johns Brook Lodge in Keene Valley, which provide bunkrooms and private rooms, and communal meals as well as campsites. Johns Brook, at the foot of the Great Range, is accessible only by hiking, with the easiest route being a 3.5 mi hike from Keene Valley. ADK offers extensive programming all across New York State all year around. Activities include hiking, biking, paddling, snowshoeing, skiing and much more.

title: Adirondack Mountain Club


text:
Frog and Wombat

Frog and Wombat is a 1998 independent children's film written and directed by Laurie Agard, about two 12-year-old girls named Jane and Allison who investigate a murder in their hometown, which they believe was committed by the middle school principal. Their investigations become more and more involved, to the point where they sneak into the principal's car and hide in it to reach his house. As they get closer to discovering the truth, he kidnaps Allison. But before he can take her to a mental hospital while outrunning Jane in a golf cart, she bashes his car and causes it to collide with a tree by coming to her rescue. The principal is arrested, taken to the police station by the police officers, and imprisoned in a county jail for kidnapping Allison.

The title derives from the nicknames the girls use over a walkie-talkie, as they refer to themselves and each other as "Frog" and "Wombat".

title: Frog and Wombat


text:
Zayn al-Din Gorgani

Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn Husayn Gorgani (c. 1040–1136), also spelled al-Jurjani, was a Persian 12th century royal Islamic physician from Gorgan, Iran. In addition to medical and pharmaceutical sciences, he was also an adept in theological, philosophic, and ethical sciences. Jurjani was a pupil of Ibn Abi Sadiq and Ahmad ibn Farrokh. He arrived at the court in the Persian province of Khwarazm in the year 1110 when he was already a septuagenarian. There he became a court physician to the governor of the province, Khwarazm-Shah Qutb al-Din Muhammad I, who ruled from 1097 to 1127. It was to him that he dedicated his most comprehensive and influential work, the Persian-language compendium Zakhirah-i Khvarazm'Shahi.

Jurjani continued as court physician to Khwarazm'Shah Qutb al-Din's son and successor, Ala al-Din Atsiz, until at some unspecified time he moved to the city of Merv, the capital of the rival Seljuq Sultan Sanjar (ruled 1118–1157), where he died nearly at 100 lunar years of age.

Jurjani composed a number of important medical and philosophical treatises, in both Persian and Arabic, most of them written after he moved to Khwarazm at the age of 70 lunar years.

Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm
Al-Jurjani wrote the Persian medical encyclopedia, Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm (also known as The Treasure of Khwarazm Shah), sometime after 1110, when he moved to the northern Persian province of Khwarezm. Much of his work was dependent on Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (c. 1025), along with al-Jurjani's own ideas not found in the Canon. The work is composed of ten volumes covering ten medical fields: anatomy, physiology, hygiene, diagnosis and prognosis, fevers, diseases particular to a part of the body, surgery, skin diseases, poisons and antidotes, and medicaments (both simple and compound). In endocrinology, in particular, al-Jurjani was one of "the first to associate exophthalmos with goitre," which was not repeated until Caleb Parry (1755–1822) in 1825, and later by Robert James Graves (1796–1853) and Carl von Basedow (1799–1854). Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and palpitation.

On "Drugs recommended for lice control," Gorgani recommends the following method:

"A) Keeping oneself clean

B) Wearing Cotton and Silk Clothing

C) Changing them Frequently

D) Using anointments composed of the following drugs which work as desiccating agents: 1) Fruits of sumac with Olive Oil. 2) leaves and roots of Rumex 3) Alum (vitriol) with olive oil. 4) leaves of Melia azedarach.  5) leaves of pomegranate; 6) leaves of colocynth 7) leaves of myrtle 8) leaves of Thymus Serpyllum 9) leaves of flax [Linum Usitatissimum] 10) leaves of Acorus Calamus.  9) Leaves of flax [Linum Usitatissimum] 10) leaves of Acorus Calamus and finally 11) Cinnamon with olive oil, specially with the oil of Cathamus Tinctorius and oil radish."

Most of the above botanicals have recently been shown to possess especially insecticidal properties.

Works
Some of his works are:
 * 1) Zakhireh-i Kharazmshahi, a ten volume encyclopedia of medical sciences
 * 2) Khafi Alayee, a summary of Zakhireh-i Kharazmshahi
 * 3) Al-Iqraz al-Tebbieh and Al-Mabahis al-Alaieh,
 * 4) Tib Yadegar
 * 5) Kitab-fi-Hifz al-Sihat (Book on Preserving Health)
 * 6) Book on Anatomy
 * 7) Zubdah al-Tib, a discussion of medicine and pharmacology (Arabic)
 * 8) Al tazkereh al-Ashrafyeh fi Asnaah al-Tebbieh, an Arabic translation of Khafi Alayee
 * 9) Al-Tib al-Mulkuki
 * 10) Kitab al-Manbah or Al-Risalah al-Manbah, a book on ethics and resisting desires and passions,
 * 11) Kitab Tadbir al-Yaum va Laylah, a book on ethics and morality,
 * 12) Kitab Nameh, about ethics
 * 13) Fi al-Qias, a philosophical work
 * 14) Fi al-Tahlil, another philosophical work
 * 15) Al-Zakhireh al-Kharazmshahieh, a translation of Zakhireh-i Kharazmshahi into Arabic
 * 16) Al-Kazemieh, a philosophical treatise
 * 17) Al-Javiah al-Tebbiah va al Mabahes al-alaiyeh, (authorship disputed)
 * 18) Kitab fi al-Rad al-Phalasifah

title: Zayn al-Din Gorgani


text: Category:Tourist attractions in Lincolnshire


text: Category:Buildings and structures in Lincolnshire


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Aramis (personal rapid transit)

The Aramis was an experimental personal rapid transit (PRT) system developed in France for deployment in the Paris area. Aramis included the unique feature of non-mechanical platooning that allowed the small cars to run as virtual trains in areas of higher transit density. This would allow the system to maintain high throughput in busy areas, with the trains breaking up into individual cars and going their separate ways as they approached their destination. In spite of considerable development, the platooning system was never made to work properly, and the cars tended to bump and jar in testing. The project was eventually shut down in November 1987, its place taken by the conventional Véhicule Automatique Léger system developed through the same period.

Phase 0 of Aramis began in 1969. During Phase 0, the patent was processed, a test site was determined, and the Aramis development committee was created. Phase 1 started in 1974. During Phase 1, more test sites were researched, variable-reluctance motor was developed and Aramis' competition was eliminated. Phase 2a began in 1977. During Phase 2a, Aramis was simplified for economic reasons. Phase 3A started in 1978, and during phase 3A tests of the system's main components were run, and more site analyses took place at test locations. Phase 3B was the final phase for Aramis; it started in 1982. During the report for phase 3B, Aramis looked like it was in good shape; however, at the end of phase 3B Aramis was abandoned.

Technical development was conducted by "Engins Matra" company, which then became Matra Transport (and later absorbed by Siemens under the same "Siemens Transportation Systems", now a part of Siemens mobility). The project was financed by the French agency DATAR (délégation interministérielle à l'aménagement du territoire et à l'attractivité régionale; English: Inter-ministerial Delegation for Territorial Planning and Regional Attractiveness).

The project met with various failures, for both social and technological reasons. In Bruno Latour's book on the subject, Aramis, or the Love of Technology, the author explores the various shortcomings that led to the stillbirth of the project. The original intention for Aramis was to be an ideal urban transportation system based on private cars in constant motion and the elimination of unnecessary transfers. This new form of transportation was intended to be as secure and inexpensive as collective transportation.

The proposed system had custom-designed motors, sensors, controls, digital electronics, software and a major installation (the "CET") in southern Paris. The demonstration of the technology in 1970 was a success. What set Aramis apart from other personal rapid transit projects were non-material couplings. Non-material couplings were linking elements that would allow each vehicle to be self-contained, while moving in unison. Unlike trains, individual Aramis were not physically attached.

The 1972 prototype featured a piece of track 800–1000 meters long, a fixed station, a movable station that would have included a workshop, a control post, a reception building, a parking lot, and five full scale cars (two for passengers, three reserved for measuring instruments).

Social concerns made the development of Aramis difficult; the safety of passengers was at risk because of the lack of security in private cars.

Point-to-point travel for passengers, an essential feature of Personal Rapid Transit, was removed from the specifications around 1973 because of the extra cost of the turnouts.

title: Aramis (personal rapid transit)


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Frederick Groves

Frederick Groves may refer to:

 * Frederick Groves (footballer, born 1891), English footballer who played for Glossop, Arsenal, Brighton and Charlton Athletic
 * Frederick Groves (footballer, born 1892) (1892–1980), English footballer who played for Huddersfield Town, Sheffield United and Pontypridd
 * Fred Groves (actor) (1880–1955), British actor
 * Fred Groves (politician) (1924–1995), Canadian politician

title: Frederick Groves


text: Category:History of Lincolnshire

title: Category:History of Lincolnshire


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Demeter (disambiguation)

Demeter is the grain goddess in Greek mythology.

Demeter may also refer to:

Science and technology

 * Demeter (moon), former name of Lysithea, a satellite of Jupiter
 * 1108 Demeter, an asteroid
 * Demeter (satellite), a French micro-satellite launched in 2004 for developing earthquake prediction
 * Law of Demeter, a software development design guideline

Arts and entertainment

 * Demeter (cat), character from the musical Cats by Andrew Lloyd Webber
 * Demeter, a 300 BC elegy by Philitas of Cos
 * "Demeter", a 1999 sonnet by Carol Ann Duffy
 * Demeter, the fictional Romanian ship which brought Count Dracula to England in Bram Stoker's novel Dracula
 * Demeter, a freighter vessel in the Egosoft video game series X
 * Demeter, a terrain bot in Windows game Active Worlds

Brands and companies

 * Demeter Fragrance Library, a fragrance company
 * Demeter International, a certification organization for biodynamic farming

Other

 * Demeter (surname)
 * USS Demeter (ARB-10), USS battle damage repair ship

title: Demeter (disambiguation)


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Kleshas (Buddhism)

Kleshas (क्लेश; किलेस kilesa; ཉོན་མོངས། nyon mongs), in Buddhism, are mental states that cloud the mind and manifest in unwholesome actions. Kleshas include states of mind such as anxiety, fear, anger, jealousy, desire, depression, etc. Contemporary translators use a variety of English words to translate the term kleshas, such as: afflictions, defilements, destructive emotions, disturbing emotions, negative emotions, mind poisons, and neuroses.

In the contemporary Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist traditions, the three kleshas of ignorance, attachment, and aversion are identified as the root or source of all other kleshas. These are referred to as the three poisons in the Mahayana tradition, or as the three unwholesome roots in the Theravada tradition.

While the early Buddhist texts of the Pali Canon do not specifically enumerate the three root kleshas, the three poisons (and the kleshas generally) came to be seen as the very roots of samsaric existence.

Pali literature
In the Pali Canon's discourses (sutta), kilesa is often associated with the various passions that defile bodily and mental states. In the Pali Canon's Abhidhamma and post-canonical Pali literature, ten defilements are identified, the first three of which – greed, hate, delusion – are considered to be the "roots" of suffering.

Sutta Piṭaka: mental hindrances
In the Pali Canon's Sutta Piṭaka, kilesa and its correlate upakkilesa Beyond the etymological relationship between and semantic closeness of kilesa and upakkilesa (e.g., see Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25, p. 139, entry for upakkilesa at ), the below-referenced Samyutta Nikaya collection entitled " Kilesa -sayutta" (SN 27) does not use kilesa in its actual suttas but, in fact,  upakkilesa . Bodhi (2000), pp. 1012–14, 1100 n. 273, specifically makes note of the lexical differences between these two Pali words and chooses to translate kilesa as "defilement" and upakkilesa as "corruption." Similar, in Bodhi (2000), p. 1642, SN 47.12, upakkilesa is translated as "corruption" whereas, as indicated below, in Bodhi (2005), p. 416, this same Pali word in the same sutta is translated as "defilement." Consistent with Bodhi (2005), as seen below, Thanissaro (1994) also translates upakkilesa as "defilement."

The related correlate sankilesa (or sakilesa) is also translated as "defilement" by Bodhi (e.g., 2000, pp. 903–4; 2005, pp. 55–6), Thanissaro (2004) and Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-5, entry for "Sankilesa"). In SN 22.60 (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 903–4), sankilesa is contextualized by: "By being enamoured with [form], [beings] are captivated by it, and by being captivated by it they are defiled." In this sutta, sankilesa is juxtaposed with purification (visuddhi) which is contextualized by: "Experiencing revulsion [in the impermanence of form's pleasure], [beings] become dispassionate, and through dispassion they are purified." are affective obstacles to the pursuit of direct knowledge (abhijñā) and wisdom (pañña).

For instance, the Samyutta Nikaya includes a collection of ten discourses (SN 27, Kilesa-sayutta) that state that any association of "desire-passion" (chanda-rāgo) with the body or mind is a "defilement of mind" (cittasse'so upakkileso):
 * "Monks, any desire-passion with regard to the eye is a defilement of the mind. Any desire-passion with regard to the ear... the nose... the tongue... the body... the intellect is a defilement of the mind. When, with regard to these six bases, the defilements of awareness are abandoned, then the mind is inclined to renunciation. The mind fostered by renunciation feels malleable for the direct knowing of those qualities worth realizing."

More broadly, the five hindrances – sensual desire (kāmacchanda), anger (byāpāda), sloth-torpor (thīna-middha), restlessness-worry (uddhacca-kukkucca), and doubt (vicikicchā) – are frequently associated with kilesa in the following (or a similar) manner:

Additionally, in the Khuddaka Nikaya's Niddesa, kilesa is identified as a component of or synonymous with craving (taṇhā) and lust (rāga).

Abhidhamma: ten defilements and unwholesome roots
While the Sutta Pitaka does not offer a list of kilesa, the Abhidhamma Pitaka's Dhammasangani (Dhs. 1229ff.) and Vibhanga (Vbh. XII) as well as in the post-canonical Visuddhimagga (Vsm. XXII 49, 65) enumerate ten defilements (dasa kilesa-vatthūni) as follows:
 * 1) greed (lobha)
 * 2) hate (dosa)
 * 3) delusion (moha)
 * 4) conceit (māna)
 * 5) wrong views (micchāditthi)
 * 6) doubt (vicikicchā)
 * 7) torpor (thīna)
 * 8) restlessness (uddhacca)
 * 9) shamelessness (ahirika)
 * 10) recklessness (anottappa)

The Vibhanga also includes an eightfold list (aha kilesa-vatthūni) composed of the first eight of the above ten.

Throughout Pali literature, the first three kilesa in the above tenfold Abhidhamma list (lobha dosa moha) are known as the "unwholesome roots" (akusala-mūla or the root of akusala); and, their opposites (alobha adosa amoha) are the three "wholesome roots" (kusala-mūla or the root of kusala). The presence of such a wholesome or unwholesome root during a mental, verbal or bodily action conditions future states of consciousness and associated mental factors (see Karma).

Visuddhimagga: round of defilements
The 5th-century CE commentarial Visuddhimagga, in its discussion of "Dependent Origination" (Pali: paticca-samuppada) (Vsm. XVII), presents different expository methods for understanding this teaching's twelve factors (nidana). One method (Vsm. XVII, 298) divides the twelve factors into three "rounds" (vaa): In this framework (see Figure to the right, starting from the bottom of the Figure), kilesa ("ignorance") conditions kamma ("formations") which conditions results ("consciousness" through "feelings") which in turn condition kilesa ("craving" and "clinging") which condition kamma ("becoming") and so on. Buddhaghosa (Vsm. XVII, 298) concludes:
 * the "round of defilements" (kilesa-vaa)
 * the "round of kamma" (kamma-vaa)
 * the "round of results" (vipāka-vaa).
 * So this Wheel of Becoming, having a triple round with these three rounds, should be understood to spin, revolving again and again, forever; for the conditions are not cut off as long as the round of defilements is not cut off.

As can be seen, in this framework, the round of defilements consists of:
 * ignorance (avijjā)
 * craving (taṇhā)
 * clinging (ūpādānā).

Elsewhere in the Visuddhimagga (Vsm. XXII, 88), in the context of the four noble persons (ariya-puggala, see Four stages of enlightenment), the text refers to a precursor to the attainment of nibbana as being the complete eradication of "the defilements that are the root of the round" (vaa-mūla-kilesā).

Three poisons
The three kleshas of ignorance, attachment and aversion are referred to as the three poisons (Skt. triviṣa) in the Mahayana tradition and as the three unwholesome roots (Pāli, akusala-mūla; Skt. akuśala-mūla )  in the Theravada tradition. These three poisons (or unwholesome roots) are considered to be the root of all the other kleshas.

Five poisons
In the Mahayana tradition, the five main kleshas are referred to as the five poisons (Sanskrit: pañca kleśaviṣa; Tibetan-Wylie: dug lnga).

The five poisons consist of the three poisons with two additional poisons: pride and jealousy. Altogether, the five poisons are:

Six root kleshas of the Abhidharma
The Abhidharma-kośa identifies six root kleshas (mūlakleśa):
 * Attachment (raga)
 * Anger (pratigha)
 * Ignorance (avidya)
 * Pride/Conceit (māna)
 * Doubt (vicikitsa)
 * Wrong view/False view/Opinionatedness (dṛiṣṭi)

In the context of the Yogācāra school of Buddhism, Muller (2004: p. 207) states that the Six Klesha arise due to the "...reification of an 'imagined self' (Sanskrit: )".

Mahaparinirvana Sutra
The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra lists approximately 50 kleshas, including those of attachment, aversion, stupidity, jealousy, pride, heedlessness, haughtiness, ill-will, quarrelsomeness, wrong livelihood, deceit, consorting with immoral friends, attachment to pleasure, to sleep, to eating, and to yawning; delighting in excessive talking and uttering lies, as well as thoughts of harm.

Two obscurations
Mahayana literature often features an enumeration of "two obscurations" (Wylie: sgrib gnyis), the "obscuration of conflicting emotions" (Sanskrit: kleśa-avaraṇa, Wylie: nyon-mongs-pa'i sgrib-ma) and the "obscuration concerning the knowable" (Sanskrit: jñeya-avaraṇa, Wylie: shes-bya'i sgrib-ma).

Contemporary glosses
Contemporary translators have used many different English words to translate the term kleshas, such as: afflictions, passions, destructive emotions, disturbing emotions, etc.

The following table provides brief descriptions of the term kleshas given by various contemporary Buddhist teachers and scholars:

Overcoming the kleshas
All Buddhist schools teach that through Tranquility (Samatha) meditation the kilesas are pacified, though not eradicated, and through Insight (Vipassana) the true nature of the kilesas and the mind itself is understood. When the empty nature of the Self and the Mind is fully understood, there is no longer a root for the disturbing emotions to be attached to, and the disturbing emotions lose their power to distract the mind.

Alternative translations
The term kleshas has been translated into English as:
 * Afflictions
 * Mental afflictions
 * Mental disturbances
 * Afflictive emotions
 * Conditioning factors
 * Destructive emotions
 * Defiled emotions
 * Defilements
 * Dissonant emotions
 * Disturbing emotions
 * Disturbing emotions and attitudes
 * Negative emotions
 * Dissonant mental states
 * Kleshas
 * Passions
 * Poisons
 * Mind poisons
 * Worldly desires

title: Kleshas (Buddhism)


text: User talk:66.73.1.132

title: User talk:66.73.1.132


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Template:MinorPlanetNameMeaningsDisclaimer

As minor planet discoveries are confirmed, they are given a permanent number by the IAU's Minor Planet Center (MPC), and the discoverers can then submit names for them, following the IAU's naming conventions. The list below concerns those minor planets in the specified number-range that have received names, and explains the meanings of those names.

Official naming citations of newly named small Solar System bodies are approved and published in a bulletin by IAU's Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature (WGSBN). Before May 2021, citations were published in MPC's Minor Planet Circulars for many decades. Recent citations can also be found on the JPL Small-Body Database (SBDB). Until his death in 2016, German astronomer Lutz D. Schmadel compiled these citations into the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (DMP) and regularly updated the collection.

Based on Paul Herget's The Names of the Minor Planets, Schmadel also researched the unclear origin of numerous asteroids, most of which had been named prior to World War II. New namings may only be added to this list below after official publication as the preannouncement of names is condemned. The WGSBN publishes a comprehensive guideline for the naming rules of non-cometary small Solar System bodies.


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Čoka

Čoka (Чока, ; Csóka, ; Tschoka; Čoka) is a town and municipality located in the North Banat District of the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. The town has a population of 3,119 and the municipality has 8,556 inhabitants.

History
The first written record about Čoka was made in 1247. It was part of a feudal tenure of which landowners were often changed. Later the settlement was abandoned due to the dense Cuman incursions at the end of the 13th century, but it was rebuilt again in the 14th century. In 1552, it was under Ottoman administration. At that time, it had a sparse population of 13 people, and at the end of the 16th century, the hamlet dwellers numbered 4 Serb families.

In the first half of the 18th century, the Ottoman administration was replaced by the Habsburg one and according to 1717 data, there were 40 Serb houses in the village of which number increased to 192 until the middle of the 18th century, and in 1787, the number of population increased to 1,191 people. In 1796, the tenure owner Lőrinc Marcibányi had Hungarians settled here that Slovaks followed then., which resulted in a rapid population growth and as early as the middle of the 19th century, the population numbered 2,739 people which increased to 4,239 until 1910. According to 1910 census, Hungarians were the dominant ethnic group in the village, while there existed a sizable ethnic Serb community as well.

As of 1918, Čoka is part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed to Yugoslavia). Until the end of World War II, it was part of Novi Kneževac municipality. Shortly afterwards, it became the seat of an own municipality, whereby it became an industrial centre of the region as well, receiving a large influx of new population. In 1991, it had a population of 5,244 people but In the next decade, the number of dwellers started to dwindle and the 2002 census recorded only 4,707 people in the settlement.

Inhabited places
Čoka municipality includes the town of Čoka and seven villages. The villages are:
 * Padej (Hungarian: Padé)
 * Jazovo (Hungarian: Hódegyháza)
 * Banatski Monoštor (Hungarian: Kanizsamonostor)
 * Vrbica (Hungarian: Egyházaskér)
 * Crna Bara (Hungarian: Feketetó)
 * Sanad (Hungarian: Szanád)
 * Ostojićevo (Hungarian: Tiszaszentmiklós)

Note: For the inhabited places with an absolute or relative Hungarian ethnic majority, the names are also given in Hungarian.

Demographics
According to the 2022 census results, the municipality of Čoka has 8,556 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups
Five local communities have a Hungarian majority: Čoka, Padej, Jazovo, Banatski Monoštor, and Vrbica. Crna Bara has a relative Hungarian majority. Sanad and Ostojićevo have Serb majorities, although the latter has over 20% Hungarians, while Čoka, Padej and Crna Bara have over 20% Serbs.

The ethnic composition of the municipality:

Twin towns – sister cities
Čoka is twinned with:
 * 🇷🇸 Arilje, Serbia
 * 🇭🇺 Bordány, Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Decs, Hungary
 * 🇷🇴 Deta, Romania
 * 🇷🇸 Sokobanja, Serbia
 * 🇵🇱 Wisła, Poland

title: Čoka


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Al Pitrelli

Al Pitrelli (born September 26, 1962) is an American guitarist, best known for his work with the Trans-Siberian Orchestra, Megadeth, Alice Cooper and Savatage. He has performed with various acts as a band member, session musician and touring member, including Michael Bolton, Celine Dion, Asia, Dee Snider, Kathy Troccoli, Taylor Dayne, Blue Öyster Cult, Exposé and Joe Lynn Turner.

Early career (1982–1999)
Pitrelli attended the Berklee College of Music in Boston in the early 1980s, where future Alice Cooper bandmate and keyboardist Derek Sherinian was his dorm roommate. While at Berklee, Pitrelli formed an original 1980s metal band with classmates that included Venom guitarist Mike Hickey. After dropping out of Berklee, Pitrelli worked as a session musician and taught guitar lessons in Manhattan and in Bellmore, New York. His first major label gig was performing with Michael Bolton, helping him support his single "Fool's Game". Pitrelli said of the single, "This was when Michael Bolton was still trying to be Sammy Hagar and not Engelbert Humperdinck."

In 1989, Pitrelli featured as second guitar on the song "Uptown" on bassist Randy Coven's first album "Funk Me Tender". He then joined Coven and drummer John O'Reilly as a formal member of the Randy Coven Band to release Sammy Says Ouch! This lineup would also release an album titled CPR under the band name Coven, Pitrelli, Reilly. Pitrelli was Alice Cooper's guitarist and musical director from 1989 to 1991, having been recommended to the band by Steve Vai, and appeared on the Trashes The World video album, in addition to co-writing the song "Burning Our Bed" from the Hey Stoopid (1991) album. He later joined Dee Snider's band Widowmaker for two albums in the early/mid–1990s, and also briefly played with Stephen Pearcy of Ratt in a band called Vertex. Pitrelli also joined Asia, appearing on their albums Aqua (1992) and Aria (1994). He would go on to be featured on many New York sessions, including for Celine Dion, Kathy Troccoli, Taylor Dayne and Exposé. From February to March 1999, Pitrelli toured with Blue Öyster Cult as a substitute for Allen Lanier.

Savatage (1995–2000, 2002, 2015, 2023)
Pitrelli joined Savatage in 1995, around the same time as guitarist Chris Caffery returned to the band, who had previously been part of the band around the release of Gutter Ballet in 1989. Pitrelli played guitar on the albums Dead Winter Dead (1995) and The Wake of Magellan (1997), and performed some lead guitar work on Poets and Madmen (2001), despite being a member of Megadeth at the time. On the latter album, Pitrelli was played the outro of "Stay with Me a While", the main solos of "Morphine Child" and "The Rumor", the first part of the main solo in "Commissar" and its outro. He left Savatage in 2000 join Megadeth and rejoined the band following Megadeth's disbandment in 2002. Savatage split up later that year, but reunited for an appearance at Wacken Open Air in 2015 and the recording of a new album in 2023.

Trans-Siberian Orchestra (1995–present)
In 1995, Pitrelli was asked by Savatage's producer Paul O'Neill to join his new project, the Trans-Siberian Orchestra. Pitrelli has been a core member of the band since their debut album, Christmas Eve and Other Stories, was released in 1996. In addition to being the band's main lead guitarist, he is also the live musical director. TSO's 2007 tour program describes Pitrelli's "edgy playing and vast musical lexicon" as key components for contributing to the band's constant boundary-pushing progressive rock stylings. Pitrelli's leads are notable on "Tracers" and the instrumental "Toccata – Carpimus Noctem", the latter being a piece he co-wrote. Both songs form part of the group's fifth rock opera, on their 2009 album Night Castle. Following founder O'Neill's death in 2017, Pitrelli has continued performing with the band while O'Neill's role has been taken over by his family.

Megadeth (2000–2002)
Pitrelli was a member of Megadeth from 2000 to 2002, replacing guitarist Marty Friedman. He joined the band in the middle of their Risk tour and played his first show with Megadeth on 11 January 2000, two days after Friedman's final show. Pitrelli performed on their 2001 album The World Needs a Hero, co-writing the song "Promises" and playing most of the album's guitar solos. He later appeared in an episode of VH1's Behind the Music focusing on Megadeth. Pitrelli also performed with the band for the recording of the Rude Awakening live album that was released in 2002. Following Megadeth's disbandment in April 2002 due to an arm injury sustained by frontman Dave Mustaine, Pitrelli rejoined Savatage and continued his work with Trans-Siberian Orchestra.

Trans-Siberian Orchestra

 * Christmas Eve and Other Stories (1996)
 * The Christmas Attic (1998)
 * The Ghosts of Christmas Eve (2000)
 * Beethoven's Last Night (2000)
 * The Lost Christmas Eve (2004)
 * Night Castle (2009)
 * Dreams of Fireflies (2012)
 * Tales of Winter: Selections from the TSO Rock Operas (2013)
 * Letters From The Labyrinth (2015)

Megadeth

 * Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years (2000)
 * The World Needs a Hero (2001)
 * Rude Awakening (2002)
 * Still Alive... and Well? (2002)
 * Greatest Hits: Back to the Start (2005)
 * Anthology: Set the World Afire (2008)
 * Warheads on Foreheads (2019)

Alice Cooper

 * Alice Cooper Trashes The World (1990)
 * Classicks (1995)

Savatage

 * Dead Winter Dead (1995)
 * The Wake of Magellan (1998)
 * Poets and Madmen (2001)

Danger Danger

 * Rare Cuts (2003)

Hotshot

 * The Bomb (2005)

Asia

 * Aqua (1992)
 * Aria (1994)

Place Called Rage

 * Place Called Rage (1995)

Randy Coven

 * Funk Me Tender (1989)
 * Sammy Says Ouch! (1990)

Coven, Pitrelli, O'Reilly

 * CPR (1992)

Morning Wood

 * Morning Wood (1994)

O'2L

 * O'2L
 * Doyle's Brunch
 * Eat a Pickle

Widowmaker

 * Blood and Bullets (1992)
 * Stand By for Pain (1994)

Vertex

 * Vertex (1996)

Guitar Battle

 * Guitar Battle (1998)

title: Al Pitrelli


text:
Thomas Mardaga

Thomas Joseph Mardaga (May 14, 1913 – May 28, 1984) was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as bishop of the Diocese of Wilmington in Delaware from 1968 until his death in 1984. He previously served as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Baltimore in Maryland from 1966 to 1968.

Early life
Thomas Mardaga was born on May 14, 1913, in Baltimore, Maryland, to Thomas and Agnes (née Ryan) Mardaga. He received his early education at the parochial school of St. Ann Parish in Baltimore. He attended St. Charles College in Catonsville, Maryland before studying for the priesthood at St. Mary's Seminary in Baltimore.

Mardaga was ordained a priest for the Archdiocese of Baltimore by Archbishop Michael J. Curley on May 14, 1940. Mardaga then served as a curate at St. Paul Parish in Baltimore until being transferred to the Basilica of the Assumption, where he later became rector. In addition to his pastoral work, he served as archdiocesan director of the Catholic Youth Organization and the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, executive secretary of the Catholic Charities Fund, and a member of the archdiocesan board of consultors. Mardaga was named a domestic prelate by the Vatican in 1963.

Auxiliary Bishop of Baltimore
On December 9, 1966, Mardaga was appointed auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Baltimore and titular bishop of Mutugenna by Pope Paul VI. He received his episcopal consecration on January 25, 1967, from Cardinal Lawrence Shehan, with Bishops John Russell and Thomas Murphy serving as co-consecrators, at the Cathedral of Mary Our Queen in Baltimore. As an auxiliary bishop, he continued to serve as rector of the Basilica of the Assumption.

Bishop of Wilmington
Following the death of Bishop Michael Hyle, Mardaga was named the sixth bishop of the Diocese of Wilmington on March 9, 1968. His installation took place at St. Elizabeth Church in Wilmington, Delaware on April 6, 1968. During his 16-year tenure, Mardaga continued the implementation of the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, establishing a council for the laity and participating in ecumenical work. He also reorganized the diocesan curia and created a ministry for migrant workers.

Thomas Mardaga died on May 28, 1984, at age 71 from cancer at St. Francis Hospital in Wilmington.

title: Thomas Mardaga


text:
Formosa Airlines

Formosa Airlines was a Taiwanese regional airline operating an extensive network of domestic routes out of its bases at Taipei Songshan Airport and Kaohsiung International Airport. Its headquarters were in Taipei.

History
The company was founded on 5 May 1966 as Yung Shing Airlines, and revenue operations commenced on 1 July. For the first decade of its existence, only crop dusting services were offered, before turning towards passenger flights. With its small fleet of Britten-Norman Islander and Cessna 404s, Yung Shing Airlines served a number of domestic destinations, most notably linking Taitung City with outlying Orchid Island and Green Island. In 1983, the Dornier 228 joined the fleet, which would remain an important part for the airline's operations throughout the years.

On 8 August 1987, the company was renamed Formosa Airlines (reflecting the historic name for Taiwan) and moved its headquarters to Taipei, with the city's Songshan Airport becoming its primary base. In 1988, Formosa Airlines became the first Far Eastern operator of the Saab 340, with a capacity of 37 passengers its by then-largest aircraft type. by 1996, this subfleet had grown to nine planes. Plans for turning the airline into a Hong Kong-registered company in order to be able to transport passengers between Taiwan and China were brought forth in 1989, but did not materialize. Formosa Airlines became a jet aircraft operator in 1995, when two 109-seat Fokker 100s were acquired, along with 5 smaller Fokker 50 turboprop airliners.

In July 1996, China Airlines acquired a 41 percent stake in Formosa Airlines and took over the management, aiming at thus improving Formosa's inferior safety record (see below) and developing Kaohsiung International Airport into a domestic hub. When EVA Air, the major competitor of China Airlines, merged its domestic subsidiaries to create Uni Air in 1998, a similar merger was announced for Formosa Airlines and Mandarin Airlines, with the latter name to be kept. On 8 August 1999, the merger was finalized: Formosa Airlines with its then 620 employees and a number of short haul aircraft were combined with Mandarin's, with all long haul planes of Mandarin Airlines being handed over to China Airlines.

Destinations
During the 1990s, Formosa Airlines operated scheduled flights to the following domestic destinations:

Fleet
Prior to merger:
 * 9 Saab 340 (1 crashed)
 * 2 Dornier 228 (both crashed)
 * 7 Fokker 50
 * 2 Fokker 100

Historic fleet

 * DC-6
 * BN-2
 * Cessna 404 Titan

Accidents and incidents

 * On 9 October 1983, a Britten-Norman Islander (registered B-12202) of Yung Shing Airlines was damaged beyond repair in a landing incident at Orchid Island Airport. The twelve people on board survived.
 * Another accident at Orchid Island involving a Formosa Airlines aircraft (the company had been renamed by then) occurred on 14 August 1990. A cargo-configured Dornier 228 (registered B-12268) was approaching the airport when it crashed 15 meters short of the runway threshold, killing the two pilots.
 * On June 27, 1989, a Cessna 404 was climbing but the engine failed, the airline crashed into a residential area near Kaohsiung Airport killing 11 of the 12 onboard and 1 fatality on the ground, the cause was an engine failure.
 * On 28 February 1993, the six people—two pilots and four passengers—on board a Dornier 228 (registered B-12238) died when the aircraft crashed into the sea during a landing attempt at Orchid Island in heavy rain.
 * Another Formosa Airlines Dornier 228 (registered B-12298) was damaged beyond repair when its undercarriage collided with an airport fence in a landing attempt at Green Island Airport on 14 June 1993. The 20 passengers and two pilots that had been on the scheduled passenger flight from Taitung City survived.
 * In 1995, Formosa Airlines suffered the write-off of two of its Dornier 228s in only three days. On 15 June, a belly landing incident occurred at Taitung Airport at 15:07 local time. The airplane with the registration B-12288 had originated at Green Island. On 18 June, the pilots of the airliner registered B-12208 lost control during taxiing at Green Island Airport, resulting in the Dornier running into a ditch. Each flight had 17 passengers on board, all of which survived.
 * On 5 April 1996, six passengers of Flight 7613 from Taipei lost their lives when the aircraft, a Dornier 228 registered B-12257, crashed into the sea off Matsu Beigan Airport at 16:25 local time. In poor visibility conditions, the pilots had descended too steeply. There were eleven survivors.
 * The worst accident in the history of Formosa Airlines happened on 10 August 1997, again on the Taipei-Matsu route. At 08:33 local time, Flight 7601 (a Dornier 228, registered B-12256) hit treetops and a water tower following an aborted landing attempt in a heavy rainstorm. All persons on board (two pilots and fourteen passengers) died when the airplane crashed 1 kilometer off Matsu Beigan Airport and erupted into fire.
 * Following another air disaster of Flight 7623, killing 13 people on 18 March 1998, Formosa Airlines was grounded until 1 April, as it was determined that the pilots had not complied with the standard operating procedure. The Saab 340 (registered B-12255) with eight passengers and five crew members on board crashed a few minutes into a scheduled passenger flight from Hsinchu to Kaohsiung, at 19:32 local time. During the pre-flight check, the pilots had noticed that several systems were unavailable, including the autopilot and electronic flight instrument system (EFIS). Violating the minimum equipment list, according to which the aircraft should have been considered to be in a non-flyable condition, the pilots decided to take-off nevertheless. In flight, the aircraft proved to behave in an unpredicted way, as the leading edges of the wings could not be kept at equal temperatures because of the failing bleed air supply, causing a loss of control.

title: Formosa Airlines


text:
Csóka

Csóka (meaning "Western jackdaw") is Hungarian word and may refer to:

 * Hungarian name for Čoka, a town in North Banat District, Serbia
 * Hungarian name for Stârcu, a village in Ceanu Mare Commune, Cluj County, Romania

People with the surname

 * Antonei B. Csoka, biogerontologist

title: Csóka


text:
Elk Mountains

Elk Mountains may refer to:

 * Elk Mountains (Colorado), United States
 * Elk Mountains (Idaho), United States
 * Elk Mountains (Nevada), United States
 * Elk Mountains (New Mexico), United States
 * Elk Mountains (North Carolina), United States
 * Elk Mountains (South Dakota), United States
 * West Elk Mountains, Colorado, United States

title: Elk Mountains


text:
Category:Swiss nobility

See also: Swiss nobility

title: Category:Swiss nobility


text:
United Nations Development Fund for Women

The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM, Fonds de développement des Nations unies pour la femme, Fondo de Desarrollo de las Naciones Unidas para la Mujer) was established in December 1976 originally as the Voluntary Fund for the United Nations Decade for Women in the International Women's Year. Its first director was Margaret C. Snyder. UNIFEM provided financial and technical assistance to innovative programmes and strategies that promoted women's human rights, political participation and economic security. Since 1976 it supported women's empowerment and gender equality through its programme offices and links with women's organizations in the major regions of the world. Its work on gender responsive budgets began in 1996 in Southern Africa and expanded to include East Africa, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central America and the Andean region. It worked to increase awareness throughout the UN system of gender responsive budgets as a tool to strengthen economic governance in all countries. In 2011, UNIFEM merged with some other smaller entities to become UN Women.

About
UNIFEM was an autonomous organization working closely with the UN Development Programme (UNDP), although the resolution also specified that the fund's resources should supplement, not substitute for, the responsibilities of other United Nations development cooperation agencies. UNIFEM helped fund projects that aided women and their families. UNIFEM developed a strategy of aiding women to become their "own agents for change rather than recipients of charity." UNIFEM also helped to ensure that UN programmes followed guidelines developed by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). UNIFEM was also involved in recognizing women's rights as human rights. It advocated gender equality around the world. UNIFEM also saw women's rights as an issue of peace and security.

UNIFEM operated on a budget of voluntary contributions to the organization. The organization was based in New York City. Different countries and regions had their own committees within UNIFEM. UNIFEM was one of the smaller agencies at the UN and was situated lower in the UN hierarchy, according to Canadian politician Stephen Lewis.

History
The First World Conference on Women in 1975 influenced the creation of UNIFEM. World governments saw the need to put resources into dealing with women's issues after the First Conference. The United Nations Voluntary Fund for the Decade for Women (UNVFDW) was established by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1976 right after the conference. Margaret Snyder started working as the leader of the organization in 1978.

1980s
The UNVFDW was given an expanded mandate by the General Assembly in February 1985, when it became the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). Under resolution 39/125, the new fund was called on to support and advocate for innovative and catalytic activities that would give voice and visibility to the women of the developing world.

Funding for UNIFEM projects doubled in size between 1985 and 1988.

1990s
In the 1990s, UNIFEM became involved in broadening its scope. The organization began a campaign to define "women's rights as human rights" and how violence against women was also an economic development issue. UNIFEM hired researchers such as Roxanna Carrillo to demonstrate how violence against women was linked to a lack of women's access to economic opportunity. The campaign for "women's rights as human rights" was especially effective. UNIFEM began working on projects to reduce gender based violence and also to raise awareness of the problem.

Also in the 1990s, African Women in Crisis (AFWIC) was created by UNIFEM to focus on issues facing people in Africa. AFWIC helped women who were displaced due to violence or emergencies in their own countries. AFWIC expanded on work begun by Laketch Dirasse in East Africa.

The work of UNIFEM helped shape the issues addressed at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995. Women at the conference decided that it was important that they "claim formal power to directly shape public policy".

UNIFEM created a trust fund to help support twenty-three projects to combat gender-based violence and war crimes against women. The fund began funding projects in 1997.

2000s
UNIFEM was granted "executing agency status" by UNDP in 2000. This allowed the organization to complete and work on projects for UNDP that related to women's rights and gender equality.

UNIFEM released a new biennial report, Progress of the World's Women in 2001. The report outlined what UNIFEM had achieved in previous decades. Also in 2001, in conjunction with International Alert, UNIFEM launched the Millennium Peace Prize for Women.

Noeleen Heyzer, head of UNIFEM, asked for the creation of an international commission on violence against women.

On January 26, 2006, UNIFEM nominated Nicole Kidman as its goodwill ambassador.

The last executive director of UNIFEM was Inés Alberdi.

2010s
In January 2011, UNIFEM was merged into UN Women, a composite entity of the UN, with International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues (OSAGI), and Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW).

Executive directors
Executive directors of the organization have been:


text:
Young Socialists (Netherlands)

The Young Socialists in the PvdA (Jonge Socialisten in de PvdA, JS) is a Dutch social-democratic youth organisation. The JS is a politically independent organisation, but is affiliated with the Labour Party (PvdA). Members must be between 12 and 28 years old. Members are not required to be a member of the Labour Party.

JS used to be a democratic socialist organisation that promotes the full participation of young people in society. Since 2007 however, the JS has adapted social democracy as their ideology, calling for "a peaceful and just world with happy and committed people."

The JS has a very diverse and active memberbase and is entirely run by young people. They organise trainings on different topics ranging from intercultural learning, European integration, human rights, theater, etc. They have debates, public awareness campaigns and excursions and also publish their own magazine, called LAVA. JS is a member organisation of International Union of Socialist Youth and Young European Socialists.

List of Chairpersons

 * 2023-present: Iris Vrolijks
 * 2022-2023: Bob den Ouden
 * 2022: Lukas van Dongen
 * 2020-2022: Andrej van Hout
 * 2019-2020: Luna Koops
 * 2018-2019: Twan Wilmes
 * 2016-2018: Lieke Kuiper
 * 2014-2016: Bart van Bruggen
 * 2012-2014: Toon Geenen
 * 2011-2012: Rick Jonker
 * 2010-2011: Jelle Menges
 * 2009-2010: Mohammed Mohandis
 * 2008-2009: Sven Stevenson
 * 2007-2008: Michiel Emmelkamp
 * 2006-2007: Peter Scheffer
 * 2005-2006: Ruben Zandvliet
 * 2004-2005: Remy Wilshaus
 * 2003-2004: Loes Ypma
 * 2002-2003: Servaz van Berkum
 * 2001-2002: Jasper Fastl
 * 2000-2001: Sander Zboray
 * 1999-2000: Eddy Bekkers
 * 1997-1999: Omar Ramadan
 * 1996-1997: Fanny Bod
 * 1994-1996: Tjeerd van Dekken
 * 1992-1994: Sharon Dijksma
 * 1990-1992: Mark de Koning
 * 1988-1990: Marcel Hoogland
 * 1986-1988: Erwino Ouwerkerk
 * 1983-1986: Michiel Zonneveld
 * 1982-1983: Margo Vliegenthart
 * 1979-1982: Rob van Gijzel
 * 1977-1979: Felix Rottenberg

title: Young Socialists (Netherlands)


text:
Federal Rules of Evidence

First adopted in 1975, the Federal Rules of Evidence codify the evidence law that applies in United States federal courts. In addition, many states in the United States have either adopted the Federal Rules of Evidence, with or without local variations, or have revised their own evidence rules or codes to at least partially follow the federal rules.

History
The law of evidence governs the proof of facts and the inferences flowing from such facts during the trial of civil and criminal lawsuits. Before the twentieth century, evidence law was largely the product of decisional law. During the twentieth century, projects such as the California Evidence Code and the Uniform Rules of Evidence encouraged the codification of those common law evidence rules. In 1965, Chief Justice Earl Warren appointed an advisory committee of fifteen to draft the new rules. The committee was composed of U.S. lawyers and U.S. legal scholars.

The Federal Rules of Evidence began as rules proposed pursuant to a statutory grant of authority, the Rules Enabling Act, but were eventually enacted as statutory law.

The United States Supreme Court circulated drafts of the FRE in 1969, 1971 and 1972, but Congress then exercised its power under the Rules Enabling Act to suspend implementation of the FRE until it could study them further. After a long delay blamed on the Watergate scandal, the FRE became federal law on January 2, 1975, when President Ford signed An Act to Establish Rules of Evidence for Certain Courts and Proceedings,,.

The law was enacted only after Congress made a series of modifications to the proposed rules. Much of the debate on the Rules stemmed from concerns that came to lawmakers' attention due to the Watergate scandal, particularly questions of privilege. Some of the most prominent congressional amendments when Congress adopted the rules included:

 * Prior Inconsistent Statement – Rule 801(d)(1)(A): Congress amended the proposed rule so that the "rule now requires that the prior inconsistent statement be given under oath subject to the penalty of perjury at a trial, hearing, or other proceeding, or in a deposition. The rule as adopted covers statements before a grand jury."
 * Privileges – Rule 501: Although the original proposal included thirteen rules providing for various privileges, Congress struck all of them. To guide privileges in the federal courts, Congress adopted Rule 501.  The rule specified that except as otherwise provided by Act of Congress or by other federal rules, privileges in the federal courts would be "governed by the principles of the common law as they may be interpreted by the courts of the United States in the light of reason and experience". Rule 501 meant that the entire purpose of the FRE (to provide clarity and supersede prior case law) was defeated in the specific context of the law of privileges.  Thus, to this day, attorneys practicing in U.S. federal courts must carefully research current case law to determine the contours of available privileges in the particular circuit and district in which their case is being heard.  In contrast, the California Evidence Code, from which the original proposal had been drawn, had expressly codified all evidentiary privileges and then displaced the common law, so that any further privileges in the courts of that state would have to come from the California State Legislature.
 * Impeachment by Conviction – Rule 609(a): The rule specified when a party could use evidence of a prior conviction to impeach a witness. Congress reformed most of Rule 609(a),  to specify when a court could exercise discretion to admit evidence of a conviction which was a felony, but that the court must admit the prior conviction if the crime was one involving "dishonesty or false statement".

The Advisory Committee Notes still function as an important source of material used by courts to interpret the Rules.

Even though the Federal Rules of Evidence are statutory, the Supreme Court is empowered to amend the Rules, subject to congressional disapproval. However, amendments creating, abolishing, or modifying privileges require affirmative approval by Congress under.

Purpose
In general, the purpose of rules of evidence is to regulate the evidence that the jury may use to reach a verdict. Historically, the rules of evidence reflected a marked distrust of jurors. The Federal Rules of Evidence strive to eliminate this distrust, and encourage admitting evidence in close cases. Even so, there are some rules that perpetuate the historical mistrust of jurors, expressly limiting the kind of evidence they may receive or the purpose for which they may consider it.

At the same time, the Rules center on a few basic ideas – relevance, unfair surprise, efficiency, reliability, and overall fairness of the adversary process. The Rules grant trial judges broad discretion to admit evidence in the face of competing arguments from the parties. This ensures that the jury has a broad spectrum of evidence before it, but not so much evidence that is repetitive, inflammatory, or confusing. The Rules define relevance broadly and relax the common-law prohibitions on witnesses' competence to testify. Hearsay standards are similarly relaxed, as are the standards for authenticating written documents. At the same time, the judge retains power to exclude evidence that has too great a danger for unfair prejudice to a party due to its inflammatory, repetitive, or confusing nature or its propensity to waste the court's time.

Structure
There are 68 individually numbered rules, divided among 11 articles:

 * 1) General Provisions
 * 2) * Rule 101. Scope; Definitions
 * 3) * Rule 102. Purpose
 * 4) * Rule 103. Rulings on Evidence
 * 5) * Rule 104. Preliminary Questions
 * 6) * Rule 105. Limiting Evidence that is Not Admissible Against other Parties or for Other Purposes
 * 7) * Rule 106. Remainder of or Related Writings or Recorded Statements
 * 8) Judicial Notice
 * 9) * Rule 201. Judicial Notice of Adjudicative Facts
 * 10) Presumptions in Civil Actions and Proceedings
 * 11) * Rule 301. Presumptions in Civil Cases Generally
 * 12) Relevancy and Its Limits
 * 13) * Rule 401. Test for Relevant Evidence
 * 14) * Rule 402. General Admissibility of Relevant Evidence
 * 15) * Rule 403. Excluding Relevant Evidence for Prejudice, Confusion, Waste of Time, or Other Reasons
 * 16) * Rule 404. Character Evidence; Other Crimes, Wrongs or Acts
 * 17) * Rule 405. Methods of Proving Character
 * 18) * Rule 406. Habit; Routine Practice
 * 19) * Rule 407. Subsequent Remedial Measures
 * 20) * Rule 408. Compromise Offers and Negotiations
 * 21) * Rule 409. Offers to Pay Medical and Similar Expenses
 * 22) * Rule 410. Pleas, Plea Discussions, and Related Statements
 * 23) * Rule 411. Liability Insurance
 * 24) * Rule 412. Sex–Offense Cases: The Victim's Sexual Behavior or Predisposition.
 * 25) * Rule 413. Similar Crimes in Sexual–Assault Cases
 * 26) * Rule 414. Similar Crimes in Child–Molestation Cases
 * 27) * Rule 415. Similar Acts in Civil Cases Involving Sexual Assault or Child Molestation
 * 28) Privileges
 * 29) * Rule 501. Privilege in General
 * 30) * Rule 502. Attorney–Client Privilege and Work Product; Limitations on Waiver
 * 31) Witnesses
 * 32) * Rule 601. Competency to Testify in General
 * 33) * Rule 602. Need for Personal Knowledge
 * 34) * Rule 603. Oath or Affirmation to Testify Truthfully
 * 35) * Rule 604. Interpreter
 * 36) * Rule 605. Judge's Competency as a Witness
 * 37) * Rule 606. Juror's Competency as a Witness.
 * 38) * Rule 607. Who May Impeach a Witness
 * 39) * Rule 608. A Witness's Character for Truthfulness or Untruthfulness
 * 40) * Rule 609. Impeachment by Evidence of a Criminal Conviction
 * 41) * Rule 610. Religious Beliefs or Opinions
 * 42) * Rule 611. Mode and Order of Examining Witnesses and Presenting Evidence
 * 43) * Rule 612. Writing Used to Refresh a Witness's Memory
 * 44) * Rule 613. Witness's Prior Statement
 * 45) * Rule 614. Court's Calling or Examining a Witness
 * 46) * Rule 615. Excluding Witnesses
 * 47) Opinions and Expert Testimony
 * 48) * Rule 701. Opinion Testimony by Lay Witnesses
 * 49) * Rule 702. Testimony by Expert Witnesses
 * 50) * Rule 703. Basses of an Expert's Opinion Testimony
 * 51) * Rule 704. Opinion on an Ultimate Issue
 * 52) * Rule 705. Disclosing the Facts or Data Underlying an Expert's Opinion
 * 53) * Rule 706. Court–Appointed Expert Witnesses
 * 54) Hearsay
 * 55) * Rule 801. Definitions that Apply to this Article; Exclusions from Hearsay
 * 56) * Rule 802. The Rule Against Hearsay
 * 57) * Rule 803. Exceptions to the Rule Against Hearsay–Regardless of Whether the Declarant is Available as a Witness
 * 58) * Rule 804. Exceptions to the Rule Against Hearsay–when the Declarant is Unavailable as a Witness
 * 59) * Rule 805. Hearsay Within Hearsay
 * 60) * Rule 806. Attacking and Supporting the Declarant's Credibility
 * 61) * Rule 807. Residual Exceptions
 * 62) Authentication and Identification
 * 63) * Rule 901. Authenticating or Identifying Evidence
 * 64) * Rule 902. Evidence that is Self–Authenticating
 * 65) * Rule 903. Subscribing Witness's Testimony
 * 66) Contents of Writings, Recordings, and Photographs
 * 67) * Rule 1001. Definitions that Apply to this Article.
 * 68) * Rule 1002. Requirement of the Original
 * 69) * Rule 1003. Admissibility of Duplicates
 * 70) * Rule 1004. Admissibility of Other Evidence of Content
 * 71) * Rule 1005. Copies of Public Records to Prove Content
 * 72) * Rule 1006. Summaries to Prove Content
 * 73) * Rule 1007. Testimony or Statement of a Party to Prove Content
 * 74) * Rule 1008. Functions of the Court and Jury
 * 75) Miscellaneous Rules
 * 76) * Rule 1101. Applicability of the Rules
 * 77) * Rule 1102. Amendments
 * 78) * Rule 1103. Title

The Rules embody some very common concepts, and lawyers frequently refer to those concepts by the rule number. The most important concept – the balancing of relevance against other competing interests – is embodied in Rule 403.

"The court may exclude relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed by a danger of one or more of the following: unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, misleading the jury, undue delay, wasting time, or needlessly presenting cumulative evidence."

One of the most common competing interests is the danger of prejudice. An example of otherwise relevant testimony being barred for the danger of unfair prejudice is as follows: A person is on trial for committing a crime. The defendant's alibi is that he was at a meeting of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan during the time the crime was committed. The defendant has numerous witnesses who can place him at this meeting. The relevant part of this testimony is that the defendant was at a place other than the scene of the crime at the time the crime was committed. On cross examination it is generally relevant to delve into specifics about any alleged alibi such as who was there, what type of meeting it was etc. to ensure the defendant is being truthful. However the relevance of what type of meeting the defendant was attending to weighing the credibility of the story in this example is substantially outweighed by a danger of unfair prejudice as the majority of Americans would view the defendant's participation in the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan to be immoral and is therefore inadmissible.

While the rules proscribe certain testimony from being admissible for one purpose, but it may be admissible for another. An example of this is Rule 404, specifically 404(b) as it pertains to specific instances of a person's conduct. While 404 generally prohibits use of prior acts and crimes to show that a defendant acted in accordance with those prior acts or crimes, 404(b) provides:

1. 404(b) Other crimes, wrongs, or acts. (2) Permitted uses; notice in a criminal case. This evidence may be admissible for another purpose, such as proving motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, absence of mistake, or lack of accident.

Essentially testimony about an act a person has committed in the past is not admissible for the purposes of showing it is more likely that they committed the same act, however it could be admissible for another purpose, such as knowledge or lack of mistake. For example, in a DUI case, the prosecutor may not admit evidence of a prior instance of driving impaired to show that the defendant acted in conformity and drove impaired on the day he is charged with doing so. However such evidence may be admissible if the defense has argued the defendant had no knowledge driving impaired was a crime. Evidence of his prior arrest, conviction, or other circumstances surrounding his prior instance of impaired driving then becomes admissible to rebut the claim of "mistake." The testimony is now being offered not for conformity but to demonstrate knowledge or lack of mistake.

Other common-law concepts with previously amorphous limits have been more clearly delineated. This is especially true regarding hearsay evidence. Among scholars and in historical judicial decisions, four related definitions of "hearsay" emerged, and the various exceptions and exemptions flowed from the particular definition preferred by the scholar or court. The Federal Rules of Evidence settled on one of these four definitions and then fixed the various exceptions and exemptions in relation to the preferred definition of hearsay.

On the other hand, the law of privileges remains a creature of federal common law under the Rules, rather than the subject of judicial interpretation of the text of the rule. Just as the Uniform Rules of Evidence had, the advisory committee draft of the rules that the Supreme Court formally transmitted to Congress codified nine evidentiary privileges – required reports, attorney-client, psychotherapist-patient, husband-wife, communications to clergymen, political vote, trade secrets, official secrets, and identity of informer. When debate over the privileges included in the proposed Rules threatened to delay adoption of the Rules in their entirety, Congress replaced the proposed codified privileges with what became Rule 501.

"Except as otherwise required by the Constitution of the United States or provided by Act of Congress or in rules prescribed by the Supreme Court pursuant to statutory authority, the privilege of a witness, person, government, State, or political subdivision thereof shall be governed by the principles of the common law as they may be interpreted by the courts of the United States in the light of reason and experience. However, in civil actions and proceedings, with respect to an element of a claim or defense as to which State law supplies the rule of decision, the privilege of a witness, person, government, State, or political subdivision thereof shall be determined in accordance with State law." The scope of the privileges under the Rules thus is the subject of federal common law, except in those situations where state law supplies the rule to be applied. Accordingly, the Supreme Court is ultimately responsible for determining which privileges exist. In the years since the adoption of the Rules, the Court has both expressly adopted a privilege, in Jaffee v. Redmond,, and expressly declined to adopt a privilege, in University of Pennsylvania v. EEOC,.

When it comes to the FRE 106, under Adams, if a party seeks to enter into evidence additional parts of the writing or recording, the additional parts need not be "admissible" (i.e. comport with the other rules of evidence).

Restyling
On December 1, 2011, the restyled Federal Rules of Evidence became effective.

Since the early 2000s, an effort had been underway to restyle the Federal Rules of Evidence as well as other federal court rules (e.g. the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure). According to a statement by the advisory committee that had drafted the restyled rules, the restyling was not to make substantive changes to the evidentiary rules but was instead purely stylistic. On April 26, 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court approved the restyled amendments to the Federal Rules of Evidence. Under the Rules Enabling Act, the restyled amendments took effect.

2019 Amendment
On December 1, 2019, there was an amendment to Rule 807 Residual Exception, which provides the court more discretion to admit statements under Rule 807. The amendment was proposed and accepted on April 25, 2019. Previously the "equivalence" standard was difficult for the court system to apply, so it was eliminated and replaced with considering corroborating evidence in a uniform approach.

2020 Amendment
On December 1, 2020, there was an amendment to Rule 404(b) Crimes, Wrongs, or Acts, to provide additional notice requirements in the prosecution of a criminal case. The amendment was proposed and accepted on April 27, 2019. It also makes note that the writing requirement for notice can be satisfied by an electronic notice.

2023 Amendment
On December 1, 2023, a further amendment went into effect. Rules 106, 615, and 702 were affected.

title: Federal Rules of Evidence