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Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man

Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man is a book written by British geologist, Charles Lyell in 1863. The first three editions appeared in February, April, and November 1863, respectively. A much-revised fourth edition appeared in 1873. Antiquity of Man, as it was known to contemporary readers, dealt with three scientific issues that had become prominent in the preceding decade: the age of the human race, the existence of ice ages, and Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Lyell used the book to reverse or modify his own long-held positions on all three issues. The book drew sharp criticism from two of Lyell's younger colleagues – paleontologist Hugh Falconer and archaeologist John Lubbock – who felt that Lyell had used their work too freely and acknowledged it too sparingly. It sold well, however, and (along with Lubbock's 1865 book Prehistoric Times) helped to establish the new science of prehistoric archaeology in Great Britain.

Background
Lyell had been consistently skeptical of evidence for high human antiquity since the early 1830s, and distanced himself from the theory of ice ages after a brief flirtation with it in the early 1840s. He attacked the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck in detail in his book Principles of Geology. New developments in all three areas forced him to reconsider these positions in the late 1850s and early 1860s, and became the subject matter for Antiquity of Man.

Content
The section about man summed up the evidence for human antiquity that had been brought to light by British geologists in 1858-59, and integrated it with archaeological evidence from the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age.

The section about glaciation integrated continental ice ages into the larger picture of the Quaternary Period that Lyell had built up in his earlier works.

The section about evolution recapitulated Darwin's arguments and endorsed them, though not enthusiastically. It acknowledged that human bodies might have evolved, but left open the possibility of divine intervention in the origins of human intellect and moral sense.

Controversy
Hugh Falconer, a key player in the establishment of human antiquity, charged that Lyell – a minor player in the process – had misleadingly cast himself in the lead while ignoring the contributions of others. He raised his charges in the pages of the weekly journal The Athenaeum, and pressed them with a vehemence that some of his colleagues found distasteful.

John Lubbock, a young but rising scientific star and a member of Darwin's inner circle, charged that Lyell had incorporated large amounts of material that Lubbock had published in articles and was then reworked into a book of his own. His criticism was largely private, but well known in the scientific circles in which both moved.

Lyell gradually changed the text of Antiquity of Man to blunt some of their criticisms, but throughout the process held that he had been wrongly accused.

Impact
Antiquity of Man had its greatest impact in the years immediately after its publication. Lyell's presentation and endorsement of the new evidence for human antiquity firmly established the theory as scientific orthodoxy. His integration of both ice ages and a very old human race into the (geologically) recent history of the Earth was novel for its time, as was his presentation of archaeological data that from continental Europe. Until the early 1860s, "archaeology" had been synonymous, in England, with the study of antiquity and the Middle Ages through artifacts. Antiquity of Man expanded it to include the study of prehistory.

The book's three-part structure meant, however, that it was quickly supplanted by more detailed works that followed in its wake. Lubbock's Prehistoric Times (1865), Darwin's The Descent of Man (1871), James Archibald Geike's The Great Ice Age (1874) and William Boyd Dawkins' Early Man in Britain (1880) became the standard works on the fields to which Lyell had introduced a generation of mid-Victorian readers.


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Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet

Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet is an album by the Miles Davis Quintet which was released c. January 1960 through Prestige Records. It was recorded in two sessions on May 11 and October 26, 1956 that produced four albums — this one, Relaxin' with the Miles Davis Quintet, Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet and Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet.

Track 2 is a composition written for Davis by Eddie Vinson (see Blue Haze for more details). "Trane's Blues" (also known as "Vierd Blues", a tongue-in-cheek reference to Blue Note founder Francis Wolff's heavily accented verdict on it), also credited to Davis, is in fact a John Coltrane composition (originally titled "John Paul Jones", and from an earlier session led by bassist Paul Chambers; before the closing statement of theme, Coltrane and Davis play a bit of Charlie Parker's "The Hymn").

Background
As his star rose in 1955, Davis formed a new quintet, featuring saxophonist John Coltrane, pianist Red Garland, bassist Paul Chambers, and drummer Philly Joe Jones. In order to fulfill contractual obligations, he recorded lengthy, spontaneous songs with the quintet, which were released over four albums—Workin, Cookin, Relaxin', and Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet.

Track listing
Prestige – LP 7166:

All tracks recorded on May 11, 1956, except "Half Nelson", recorded on October 26.

Personnel

 * Miles Davis – trumpet
 * John Coltrane – tenor saxophone (except 1)
 * Red Garland – piano
 * Paul Chambers – bass, cello
 * Philly Joe Jones – drums

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet


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Shahaji

Shahaji Bhosale (18 March 1594 – 23 January 1664) was a 17th century Indian military leader who served the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, the Bijapur Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire at various points in his career. As a member of the Bhonsle dynasty, Shahaji inherited the Pune and Supe jagirs (fiefs) from his father Maloji, who previously served the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. During the Mughal invasion of the Deccan, Shahaji joined the Mughal forces and served under Emperor Shah Jahan for a short period. After being deprived of his jagirs, he defected to the Bijapur Sultanate in 1632 and regained control over Pune and Supe. In 1638, he received the jagir of Bangalore after Bijapur's invasion of Kempe Gowda III's territories. Afterwards, he became the chief general of Bijapur and oversaw its expansion.

Shahaji brought the house of Bhosale into prominence and was the father of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the princely states of Tanjore, Kolhapur, and Satara were ruled by Shahaji's descendants.

Early life
Shahaji was the son of Maloji Bhosale, a Maratha warrior and nobleman who had been awarded the jagirs of Pune and Supe, Ellora, Dheradi, Kannrad and some more villages in the districts of Jafrabad, Daulatabad and Ahmadabad by Sultan Murtuza Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar. According to Shiva Digvijay, a text considered to be a modern forgery by historians such as Jadunath Sarkar and Surendra Nath Sen, Maloji's wife Umabai allegedly prayed in the tomb of Sufi Pir Shah Sharif of Ahmadnagar to be blessed with a son. Later when Maloji and Umabai settled in Devagiri, Umabai went on to give birth to two sons, first of whom was Shahaji and second one was Sharifji, born two years later. Both were named after the Pir's own titles.

Shahaji was betrothed to Jijabai, the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhav, the Maratha Deshmukh of Sindkhed in the service of Ahmadnagar's Nizamshahi Sultanate, when both of them were children.

Early career
Like his father Maloji, Shahaji served in the army of Malik Ambar, the prime minister of Ahmadnagar Sultanate. At the time of Maloji's death in 1622, 26-year old Shahaji was a minor commander in Malik Ambar's army. By 1625, he held the high military position of Sar Lashkar, as suggested by a letter sent from Pune on 28 July.

Ahmadnagar was involved in conflicts against the northern Mughal Empire and other Deccan Sultanates, and Shahaji kept switching his loyalty between these states. For example, sometime before the Battle of Bhatvadi in 1624, Shahaji and some other Maratha leaders defected to the Mughals, but shortly before the battle they returned to Ahmadnagar. Malik Ambar's army defeated a combined Mughal-Bijapur force in the battle. Subsequently, a quarrel arose between Shahaji and his cousin Kheloji Bhonsle, and in 1625 Shahaji shifted his allegiance to Bijapur, likely because he was dissatisfied with Ahmadnagar rewarding his relatives more than him. He retained his jagir in the Pune region, which was disputed between Ahmadnagar and Bijapur. A letter dated 10 January 1626 indicates that he still held the position of Sar Lashkar.

Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Shahaji's patron in Bijapur, died in September 1627. Adil Shah, a Muslim, was tolerant towards Hindus like Shahaji and saw Ahmadnagar as a buffer state between his kingdom and the Mughal Empire. After his death, an orthodox Muslim faction that advocated for an alliance with the Mughals against Ahmadnagar grew stronger in Bijapur. Amid these circumstances, Shahaji returned to Ahmadnagar in early 1628 under the patronage of Malik Ambar's son Fatah Khan. The power of Ahmadnagar had been declining after Malik Ambar's death in 1626, but Shahaji held a higher position there than the one he held in Bijapur. Meanwhile, the newly-crowned Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan launched a fresh campaign against Ahmadnagar. In 1629, Shahaji led a 6,000-strong cavalry force against the Mughals in the Khandesh region but was defeated.

In 1630, Shahaji's in-laws and patrons were murdered as a result of factional politics in the Ahmadnagar court, leading to Shahaji's defection to the Mughals along with a 2,000-strong cavalry unit. The Mughals sent him to occupy Junnar and Sangamner and gave these districts to him as a jagir.

War against the Mughals
In 1632, Malik Ambar's son Fatah Khan placed a puppet ruler on the Ahmednagar throne and allied with the Mughals. As a reward, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan granted him the jagir that had been earlier allotted to Shahaji. Shahaji then left the Mughal service and began to plunder the region around Pune. When the Mughals sent an army against him, he took shelter with Hussein Shah the governor of Junnar and subsequently returned to Bijapur service.

From 1630 to 1632, northern Maharashtra suffered from a severe famine, part of the Mahadurga famine. Bijapur sent an army to assist Ahmadnagar against the Mughals, who had besieged the Daulatabad fort, but the Mughals emerged victorious and captured Daulatabad in 1632, the capital of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. Shahaji retreated and took control of an area in the southern part of the Sultanate. This area included lands in the triangle formed by connecting the cities of Nashik, Pune, and Ahmadnagar. Unlike southern Maharashtra, which was directly administered by the Bijapur government, this region was politically unstable because of the constant warfare between Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and the Mughals. The political control of the region had changed at least ten times from 1600 to 1635 with the government infrastructure in the area largely destroyed. Shahaji's control over the area was very weak, but he managed to maintain an army of 2,000-10,000 men and provided services to the Ahmadnagar troops fleeing their state after the Mughal conquest.

Meanwhile, in Daulatabad, the Mughals imprisoned the nominal king of Ahamadnagar. Shahaji installed 10-year old Murtaza of the Ahamadnagar royal family as the titular puppet ruler and appointed himself chief minister. Within a year, Shahaji's army captured Junnar and a large part of the northern Konkan region. Shahaji resided in Junnar and raised an army, which at its height numbered 12,000 soldiers. The strength of the army kept changing because of the changing loyalties of the various subordinate chiefs including Ghatge, Kate, Gaikwad, Kank, Chavan, Mohite, Mahadik, Pandhre, Wagh, and Ghorpade. Shahaji set up his capital at Shahabad and gained control of several large forts. A contemporary Brahmin newsletter from Bijapur states that the area controlled by Shahaji, not including his jagir of Pune and Indapur, yielded 7.5 million rupees in annual revenue. This estimate was based on the potential rather than the actual revenue; the area had been devastated by war and famine and the actual revenue collected was likely far less. The warring armies had destroyed several villages in the area to deny their enemies income, and most of the remaining villages yielded taxes only when forced to do so. According to the newsletter, Shahaji's forces included a 3,000-man cavalry plus an additional 2,000-man contingent from Bijapur.

By 1634, Shahaji had started raiding the area near the Mughal-controlled Daulatabad, prompting the Mughals to initiate a major campaign against him. In the ensuing battle of Parenda (1634), in which Maratha soldiers fought on both sides, the Mughals defeated the Bijapur army led by Shahaji. In early 1635, the Mughal army forced Shahaji to retreat from the Daulatabad area, capturing his supply train and 3,000 of his soldiers. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan personally arrived in Deccan with a large army, compelling Shahaji to leave northern Maharashtra. Shahaji lost control of several cities, including Junar and Nashik, and retreated to Konkan.

Bijapur had two political factions. The first, which Shahaji sided with, favoured resisting Mughal influence in Deccan. The second favoured establishing peace with the Mughals by recognizing their control over parts of the former Ahmadnagar territory. In 1636, the second faction emerged more powerful, and a peace treaty was signed between Bijapur and the Mughal Empire. As part of this treaty, Bijapur agreed to help the Mughals subjugate Shahaji, or depute him away from the Mughal frontier if he chose to serve Bijapur. The Mughals besieged the Mahuli fort where Shahaji and Murtaza, the pretender to the Ahmadnagar throne, were residing. In October 1636, Shahaji surrendered Mahuli and Junnar to the Mughals and returned to the Bijapur service. As a result, the Mughals controlled a major part of present-day Maharashtra, including Pune and Indapur.

In Bangalore
Shahaji was allowed to retain his jagir in the Pune region but was barred from living in the area as part of the Mughal-Bijapur treaty. The jagir was placed under the nominal administration of his son Shivaji, with his subordinate Dadoji Kondadev as its manager. Shahaji was transferred to the southern part of the Bijapur Sultanate. Shahaji spent the last 20 years of his life in the south, where the Bijapur and the Golconda Sultanates were trying to capture territories from the declining Vijayanagara Empire.

Having established peace with the Mughals in the north, the Bijapur government directed its military to the southern frontier. An army led by the general Rustam-i-Zaman Ranadulla Khan invaded Mysore with Shahaji serving as a subordinate commander. During each campaigning season between 1637–1640, Bijapur forces crossed the Krishna and the Tungabhadra rivers, and entered Mysore. The Bijapuri forces defeated several Nayakas, local chiefs who administered the area after the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire. In December 1638, the Bijapur forces seized Bangalore, which was given as a jagir to Shahaji. Shahaji was also given charge of the Kolar, Hoskote, Doddaballapura, and Sira areas by Ranadulla Khan, in consultation with the Bijapur ruler Muhammad Adil Shah. Shahaji chose Bangalore as his headquarters because of its secure fortress and good climate. While Shahaji was unable to retain control of this entire territory after the departure of the main Bijapur army, the Bijapur army's annual expeditions continued to bring more territories under his control.

The rulers of Bijapur exercised little control over the Bangalore region, and Shahaji ruled the area almost independently. The ruler of Bijapur trusted him and even called him "the pillar of the state" in a letter. However, in 1639, Shahaji appears to have been involved in a conflict against the Bijapur government. Records show that the Bijapur ruler Muhammad Adil Shah ordered the Deshmukh of Lakshmeshwara to support commander Sidi Mooflah in arresting the "relations, dependents, servants and horses" of Shahaji. However, few further details are available about this episode.

Shahaji's relations with the Bijapur ruler improved in the subsequent years, and in 1641, he supported the Bijapur government in suppressing a revolt by the Hindu chiefs. He joined an army led by the Bijapur general Afzal Khan that captured the fort of Basavapatna from Keng Nayak. The Bijapur army captured several other forts, including Vellore, during this campaign. A letter from Bijapur dated 30 January 1642 expressed appreciation for Shahaji's services in the Karnataka region.

Not much is known about Shahaji's activities during 1642-1645; he likely stayed at his jagir in Bangalore and may have been involved in Bijapur's recapture of the Ikkeri fort in 1644. He likely also stayed at Kolar and Doddaballapura and spent summers at Nandi. Sometime between 1642 and 1644, Shahaji's wife Jijabai and his son Shivaji visited him in Bangalore. During this period, Shahaji arranged Shivaji's marriage to Soyrabai and held a grand wedding ceremony in Bangalore. He also presented his entire family, including his two sons by his second wife, at the Bijapur court. Jijabai and Shivaji returned to Pune shortly after. Shahaji's elder son Shambuji (also called Sambhaji) and another son Venkoji from his other wife Tukabai stayed with him in Bangalore.

Shahaji beautified Bangalore by commissioning several gardens and also built a palace called Gowri Mahal, which, according to popular tradition, was located in the present-day Basavanagudi extension.

Shahaji appointed several Brahmins from the Pune region to the Bangalore administration. Meanwhile, Dadoji Kondadev revived the taxation system in Pune and remitted surplus revenue to Shahaji's treasury in Bangalore.

Later life
Amid the rise of Muslim orthodoxy in Bijapur, the relationship between Shahaji, a Hindu, and the Bijapur government kept changing. In 1644, the Bijapur labelled Shahaji a rebel - an August 1644 letter from the Bjiapur asks Kanoji Nayak Jedhe, the Deshmukh of Bhor, to assist government representatives in defeating Dadoji Kondadev, who was campaigning in the Kondana area. The government also instructed another Deshmukh, Khopde, to seize Shahaji's estates, but these orders were apparently withdrawn before implementation. A similar situation arose in 1646.

In 1648, during a Bijapur campaign to support the rebellion of the Nayakas against the Vijayanagara king Sriranga III, Shahaji was arrested for acting against the interests of Bijapur. While the forces of Bijapur and Golconda laid siege to the Jinjee fort, Shahaji had started acting independently of Bijapur commander Mustafa Khan and started negotiating with the Nayakas of Jinjee, Madurai, and Tiruchirapalli. He even sought service with the Golconda government. Shahaji was brought to the capital Bijapur in chains and forced to surrender the forts of Kondana and Bangalore. While texts written under Maratha patronage such as Shiva-Bharat state that Shahaji was arrested because of a rebellion conducted by his son Shivaji, Bijapur records do not support this claim. Whatever the case, Shahaji was pardoned within a year.

Little information is available about Shahaji's life from 1648 to 1660. He appears to have moved out of Bangalore, where his son Ekoji was stationed. Shahaji himself was stationed at Kanakagiri, and his son Sambhaji was killed during a revolt by the chief (Rajah) of Kanakagiri in 1654. During this period, Shahaji participated in Bijapur's war against Golconda.

Meanwhile, Shivaji, who now administered Shahaji's jagir in the Pune region, began acting independently of the Bijapur government and started capturing territories of Bijapur vassals around Pune. Shivaji claimed to be a servant of the Bijapur government and justified his actions by arguing that he was governing these territories better than the deposed rulers did. However, the ruler of Bijapur doubted Shivaji's loyalty and Shahaji distanced himself from his son's actions. A letter from Bijapur, dated 26 May 1658, returns to Shahaji the control of his former jagir of Bangalore and assures him that he will not be punished for the rebellion of his son. Some writers have speculated that Shahaji and Shivaji collaborated to establish an independent kingdom, but no contemporary sources support this theory. The majority of historians believe that Shahaji did not support his son's rebellion. In 1659, the Bijapur government sent a 12,000-strong army led by Afzal Khan against Shivaji, but Shivaji emerged victorious in the conflict. Between the years 1659 and 1662, Shahaji travelled to Pune as a mediator between Shivaji and Bijapur, meeting his son for the first time in 12 years. This was also Shahaji's last meeting with Shivaji, as Shahaji died in early 1664 in a hunting accident.

Patronage to scholars
At his court in Bangalore, Shahaji patronized several scholars, including Jayarama Pindye, who composed Radha-Madhava-Vilasa Champu and Parnala-Parvata-Grahan-Akhyana. Jayarama had heard about Shahaji's generosity to poets from traveling bhats (poets) who were returning to their homes in the north. He traveled from Nashik to Bangalore, and was introduced to Shahaji's court by a man named Shivaraya Gosvamin. Jayarama presented 12 coconuts before Shahaji, signifying his knowledge of 12 languages. Under Shahaji's patronage, Jayarama composed Radha-Madhava-Vilasa Champu (c. 1660 or earlier), a multi-lingual collection of poems. The work names and cites poets in 35 languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Persian, Kannada, Hindi, and Urdu. Jayarama compares Shahaji to Partha in heroism, Vikramarka in generosity, and Bhoja in learning. He makes grandiloquent claims, such as that "hundreds and thousands" of scholars and poets from all over the world came to Shahaji's court to seek his patronage. In a Dingal-language poem, he describes a scene in which the king of Amber learns of Shahaji's greatness from poets and announces his intention to present gifts to Shahaji if Shahaji ever visited Amber; which according to scholar Sumit Guha is a purely imaginary scenario but shows how Bards were responsible for propagating a transregional reputation. According to a Sanskrit poem in the collection, when Jayarama requested leave from Shahaji's court to go on a pilgrimage to Kashi and other places, Shahaji told him to take whatever wealth he desired before leaving. Jayarama credits Shahaji with reviving the Sanskrit language and states that Shahaji himself composed a part of a stanza in Sanskrit; his sons Sambhaji and Ekoji also composed lines to test Jayarama's poetic skills.

Poets cited in the Radha-Madhava-Vilasa Champu include Sbuddhi-Rav, a native of Ghatampur, who compares Shahaji to Krishna holding up the Govardhan Hill to protect the people. Other prominent personalities in Shahaji's court included Prabhakarabhatta (the purohit), Naropant Hanumanthe, and his sons Janardana-pant and Raghunath-pant.

Legacy
Shahaji's tomb is located at Hodigere, near Channagiri in Karnataka.

In popular culture

 * In Raja Shivchatrapati (2008), a Marathi historical TV serial aired on Star Pravah, Avinash Narakar played the role of Shahaji Raje.
 * In Bharat Ek Khoj, Shahaji was portrayed by Achyut Potdar.

title: Shahaji


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Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet

Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet is a studio album by the Miles Davis Quintet which was released in July 1957 through Prestige Records. The recording sessions were at Rudy Van Gelder's studio in Hackensack, New Jersey in 1956. As the musicians had to pay for the studio time (a result of a rather modest contract with Prestige), their recordings are practically live. Two sessions on 11 May and 26 October 1956 resulted in four albums — this one, Relaxin' with the Miles Davis Quintet, Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet and Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet.

It was the first of the four LPs to be released. In response to the album title, Davis said, "After all, that's what we did—came in and cooked." Reid Miles designed the album's cover and Phil Hays provided the illustration.

Reception
In a review for AllMusic, Lindsay Planer wrote: "As these recordings demonstrate, there is an undeniable telepathic cohesion that allows this band... to work so efficiently both on the stage and the studio... The immediate yet somewhat understated ability of each musician to react with ingenuity and precision is expressed in the consistency and singularity of each solo as it is maintained from one musician to the next without the slightest deviation."

Chris May of All About Jazz commented: "Cookin' may not have had the big budget and glossy marketing CBS brought to Davis' subsequent releases, but... it contains some of the most alive and moving music he ever recorded... His lyricism remains dark and brooding, but it's so rich it sings."

Writing for The Music Box, John Metzger called the album "essential," stating that it "precisely showcased the ensemble's full range and potential," and praising the "absolutely extraordinary" communication amongst the musicians.

Track listing
Prestige – LP 7094:

Personnel

 * Miles Davis – trumpet, bandleader
 * Paul Chambers – double bass
 * John Coltrane – tenor saxophone (except 1)
 * Red Garland – piano
 * Philly Joe Jones – drums

title: Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet


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Actual cubic feet per minute

Actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) is a unit of volumetric flow. It is commonly used by manufacturers of blowers and compressors. This is the actual gas delivery with reference to inlet conditions, whereas cubic foot per minute (CFM) is an unqualified term and should only be used in general and never accepted as a specific definition without explanation. Since the volumetric capacity refers to the volume of air or other gas at the inlet to the unit, it is often referred to as "inlet cubic feet per minute" (ICFM).

Actual cubic feet per minute is the volume of gas and air flowing anywhere in a system independent of its density. If the system were moving air at exactly the "standard" condition, then ACFM would equal Standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). However, this usually is not the case as the most important change between these two definitions is the pressure. To move air, either a positive pressure or a vacuum must be created. When positive pressure is applied to a standard cubic foot of air or other gas, it gets smaller. When a vacuum is applied to a standard cubic foot of gas, it expands. The volume of gas after it is pressurized or rarefied is referred to as its "actual" volume.

The term cubic feet per minute (CFM) is ambiguous when it comes to the mass of gas that passes through a certain point because gas is compressible. If the pressure is doubled, then, for an ideal gas, the mass of the gas that passes by will also be double for the same rate of flow in cubic feet per minute. For instance, a centrifugal fan is a constant CFM device or a constant volume device, meaning that, at a constant fan speed, a centrifugal fan will pump a constant volume of air rather than a constant mass. This means that the air velocity in a system is fixed even though mass flow rate through the fan is not.

Standard cubic feet per minute
Standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) is a volumetric flow-rate corrected to a set of "standardized" conditions of pressure, temperature, and relative humidity. The standard conditions are often defined as 14.7 psia, temperature 70°F and relative humidity 0%, but the conditions may vary depending on the "standard" used. (See Standard conditions for temperature and pressure).

Normal cubic feet per minute
Normal cubic feet per minute (NCFM) refers to air at normal conditions, such as 14.7 psia, 68°F, 36% relative humidity. However, there is not an agreed upon definition for what constitutes normal conditions.

Free air delivery
Free air delivery (FAD) indicates delivered air, referred to as "free air", at inlet conditions.

Centrifugal fan rating
Ratings found in centrifugal fan performance tables and curves are based on standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). Fan manufacturers define standard air as clean, dry air with a density of 0.075 pounds mass per cubic foot, with the atmospheric pressure at sea level of 29.92 inches of mercury and a temperature of 70°F. Selecting a centrifugal fan to operate at conditions other than standard air requires adjustment to both static pressure and brake horsepower. The volume of air will not be affected in a given system because a fan will move the same amount of air regardless of the air density. If a centrifugal fan is to operate at a non-standard density, then corrections must be made to static pressure and brake horsepower. At higher than standard elevation, usually sea level, and higher than standard temperature (70°F), air density is lower than standard density (0.075 pounds per cubic foot). Centrifugal fans that are specified for continuous operation at higher temperatures need to be selected taking into account air density corrections. Again, a centrifugal fan is a constant volume device that will move the same amount of air at two different temperatures.

If, for example, a centrifugal fan moves 1,000 CFM at 70°F it will also move 1,000 CFM at 200°F. The air volume delivered by the centrifugal fan is not affected by density. However, since the 200°F air weighs much less than the 70°F air, the centrifugal fan will create less static pressure and will require less brake horsepower. When a centrifugal fan is specified for a given CFM and static pressure at conditions other than standard, an air density correction factor must be applied to select the proper size fan to meet the new condition. Since 200°F air weighs only 80% of 70°F air, the centrifugal fan will create less pressure. To get the actual pressure required at 200°F, the designer would have to multiply the pressure at standard conditions by an air density correction factor of 0.8 (i.e., 0.8/ 1.0) to get the system to operate correctly. To get the actual horsepower at 200°F, the designer would have to multiply the brake horsepower at standard conditions by the air density correction factor.

Air Movement and Control Association fan rating
The centrifugal fan performance tables provide the fan revolutions per minute (RPM) and brake horsepower requirements for the given CFM and static pressure at standard air density (0.075 pounds per cubic foot). When the centrifugal fan performance is not at standard conditions, the performance must be converted to standard conditions before entering the performance tables. Centrifugal fans rated by the Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) are tested in laboratories with test setups that simulate installations that are typical for that type of fan. Usually they are tested and rated as one of four standard installation types as designated in AMCA Standard 210.

AMCA Standard 210 defines uniform methods for conducting laboratory tests on housed fans to determine airflow rate, pressure, electric power and energy efficiency, at a given speed of rotation. The purpose of AMCA Standard 210 is to define exact procedures and conditions of fan testing so that ratings provided by various manufacturers are on the same basis and may be compared. For this reason, fans must be rated in SCFM.

title: Actual cubic feet per minute


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Quantum 1/f noise

Quantum 1/f noise is an intrinsic and fundamental part of quantum mechanics. Fighter pilots, photographers, and scientists all appreciate the higher quality of images and signals resulting from the consideration of quantum 1/f noise. Engineers have battled unwanted 1/f noise since 1925, giving it poetic names (such as flicker noise, funkelrauschen, bruit de scintillation, etc.) due to its mysterious nature. The Quantum 1/f noise theory was developed about 50 years later, describing the nature of 1/f noise, allowing it to be explained and calculated via straightforward engineering formulas. It allows for the low-noise optimization of materials, devices and systems of most high-technology applications of modern industry and science. The theory includes the conventional and coherent quantum 1/f effects (Q1/fE). Both effects are combined in a general engineering formula, and present in Q1/f noise, which is itself most of fundamental 1/f noise. The latter is defined as the result of the simultaneous presence of nonlinearity and a certain type of homogeneity in a system, and can be quantum or classical. The conventional Q1/fE represents 1/f fluctuations caused by bremsstrahlung, decoherence and interference in the scattering of charged particles off one another, in tunneling or in any other process in solid state physics and in general.

Other noise data sets
It has also recently been claimed that 1/f noise has been seen in higher ordered self constructing functions, as well as complex systems, both biological, chemical, and physical.

The theory
The basic derivation of quantum 1/f was made by Peter Handel, a theoretical physicist at the University of Missouri–St. Louis, and published in Physical Review A, in August 1980.

Several hundred papers have been published by many authors on Handel's quantum theory on 1/f noise, which is a new aspect of quantum mechanics. They verified, applied, and further developed the quantum 1/f noise formulas. Aldert van der Ziel, the nestor of the electronic noise field, verified and applied it in many devices and systems, together with dozens of his PhD students. It is described in the last of his 12 books: "Noise in electronic devices and circuits" published by Wiley in 1986. He also updated and generalized many verifications, practical applications, etc., in his authoritative 1988 review "Unified Description of 1/f Noise" in Proceedings of IEEE.

Denials of the theory
In 1986 and 1987, two independent groups of theorists of the field, Group-1: Theo Nieuwenhuizen, Daan Frenkel and Nico G. van Kampen; Group-2: Laszlo B. Kish and Peter Heszler; concluded that Handel's theory explaining the quantum 1/f effect was incorrect for both physical and mathematical reasons. Shortly thereafter an independent set of arguments showing that the "quantum 1/f noise" explanation of electronic 1/f noise was certainly incorrect was included in a standard review article on 1/f noise by Michael Weissman. Nieuwenhuizen, et al., state in the conclusion of their paper, "As the theoretical basis for Handel's quantum theory of 1/f noise appears to be lacking, we must conclude that the agreement with experiments is fortuituous" and, in this way, they are indicating that some of the published experimental results are suspicious. Though there have been attempts to answer some of the objections to Handel's theory, quantum 1/f noise is considered to be a non-existent effect by the majority of scientists that are familiar with its theory. The difficulty is that here a judgment based on fundamental science requires the knowledge of quantum electrodynamics however most of noise scientists are solid state physicists or engineers. Science citation index shows over 20 thousand papers annually with "noise" and/or "fluctuation"(s) keywords. The opinion of the above-mentioned relevant experts in the field of noise is that, until the publication rate on the non-existent quantum 1/f noise effect stays around 1 paper/year, it is more economical to refer to the old denials than to write up new refusals.

title: Quantum 1/f noise


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State Rail Authority

The State Rail Authority, a former statutory authority of the Government of New South Wales, operated and maintained railways in the Australian state of New South Wales from July 1980 until December 2003.

History
The Transport Authorities Act 1980 separated the functions of the Public Transport Commission (formerly responsible for all public transport) and established the State Rail Authority. The State Rail Authority assumed responsibility for trains, while the Urban Transit Authority responsibility for buses and ferries.

In July 1982 a new colour scheme developed by Phil Belbin of red, yellow, orange and white was unveiled, which was commonly referred to as the "candy colours". The L7 logo used by the Public Transport Commission was retained, albeit with the dark and light blue replaced with red and orange. Around this time, they also gave playing cards and soap to passengers.

Electrification
During its tenure the State Rail Authority completed a number of electrification projects:
 * Gosford – Wyong April 1982
 * Wyong – Newcastle June 1984
 * Waterfall – Port Kembla February 1986
 * Riverstone – Richmond August 1991
 * Coniston – Dapto January 1993

Rolling Stock
The State Rail Authority introduced new 80 Class, 81 Class and 86 Class locomotives used on both freight and country passenger services, K set, C set, Tangara, Millennium and V set double deck electric passenger trains and the XPT. It also placed an order for the 82 Class and 90 Class locomotives that were delivered to FreightRail in 1994. A fleet of Denning and Scania coaches was purchased to replace withdrawn country rail services.

Booz Allen Hamilton review and restructure

Following the election of the Greiner State Government in March 1988, consultants Booz Allen Hamilton were commissioned to prepare a report into NSW rail services. In November 1988, before the report was complete, the North Coast Overnight Express to Grafton, the Northern Mail to Moree and Tenterfield, the Bathurst day train, the Western Mail to Dubbo and the Canberra Monaro Express to Cooma all ceased.

After receiving the Booz Allen Hamilton report, the government released its response in July 1989 under the title CountryLink 2000. It was announced the number of staff employed on country rail operations would fall from 18,000 to 10,000, including the withdrawal of staff from 94 country railway stations and the Nyngan – Bourke, Queanbeyan – Cooma and Glen Innes – Wallangarra lines would close.

Several country passenger services ceased over the next few years including the Silver City Comet, Northern Tablelands Express, Canberra XPT, Brisbane Limited, Pacific Coast Motorail, South Coast Daylight Express, Intercapital Daylight and Sydney/Melbourne Express. These were replaced either by XPT sets, EMU/DMU sets or coaches. Coach services which had been operated by the State Rail Authority's own fleet were contracted out to private operators. The report had recommended closing all country passenger services as they were judged unviable, however this was not politically acceptable.

The State Rail Authority was divided into business units:
 * CityRail: responsible for suburban and interurban passenger services
 * CountryLink: responsible for country passenger services
 * FreightRail: responsible for freight services
 * Rail Estate: responsible for rail property

CityRail adopted a blue and yellow colour scheme including L7 logo, CountryLink a blue, white and grey scheme and FreightRail a blue and yellow scheme.

July 1996 restructure
On 1 July 1996, the State Rail Authority was restructured into four distinct entities by the Transport Administration Amendment (Rail Corporatisation and Restructuring) Act 1996 to separate infrastructure from operations as required by the Competition Policy Reform Act 1995. This was part of the process of moving to an open access regime.

The entities were:
 * Freight Rail Corporation: responsible for freight services
 * Rail Access Corporation: responsible for managing track and providing access to public and private operators
 * Railway Services Authority: responsible for track and rolling stock maintenance
 * State Rail Authority: passenger service operator consisting of CityRail and CountryLink

February 1998 restructure
Another restructure in February 1998 saw the State Rail Authority split into four operating divisions:
 * CityRail Stations
 * CountryLink
 * Operations
 * Passenger Fleet Maintenance

January 2001 restructure
In January 2001, the Rail Access Corporation and Railway Services Authority were merged into the Rail Infrastructure Corporation that took responsibility for ownership and maintenance of the infrastructure.

January 2004 restructure and wind down
In January 2004, after much criticism and public perceptions of blame shifting between units for operational failings, RailCorp was formed taking over the passenger train operations from the residual State Rail Authority (CityRail and CountryLink) and responsibility for maintaining the greater metropolitan network from the Rail Infrastructure Corporation.

By June 2006 much of the operational function had been transferred, with the State Rail Authority in the process of being wound down.

Publication
From September 1981 until June 1989, State Wide was the SRA's inhouse journal.

title: State Rail Authority