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LGBT rights in Serbia

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Serbia face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal in Serbia, and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is banned in areas such as employment, education, media, and the provision of goods and services, amongst others. Nevertheless, households headed by same-sex couples are not eligible for the same legal protections available to opposite-sex couples.

In May 2014, Amnesty International identified Serbia as one of a number of countries where there is a marked lack of will to tackle homophobia and transphobia, noting that public authorities had repeatedly banned pride marches on the basis of violent threats from homophobic groups. They had also failed to protect LGBT individuals and organizations from discrimination, including verbal and social media threats and physical attacks. The Belgrade Pride successfully took place in September 2014 in Belgrade. Since then, successful pride parades have been held every year, with local mayors and some government ministers regularly attending. In 2021, the association ILGA-Europe ranked Serbia 23rd in terms of LGBT rights out of 49 observed European countries.

In June 2017, Ana Brnabić became the Prime Minister of Serbia, as the first woman and first openly gay person to hold the office, and the second female LGBT head of government overall (after Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir of Iceland). She was also the first Serbian Prime Minister to attend a pride parade.

Revolutionary Serbia (1804–1813)
Although religious laws existed prohibiting same-sex love and relationships, expressions were common in both Orthodox Christian and Islamic society. The primary expression of same-sex love for Orthodox Christians were brotherhood unions known as "Pobratimstvo" (Adelphopoiesis). The early nineteenth century saw a time of relative turmoil for Serbia, with sporadic periods of stability. In 1804, Serbia gained its autonomy from the Ottoman Empire following two uprisings. Karađorđe's Criminal Code (Карађорђев криминални законик) was subsequently promulgated by the Serbian Jurisprudential Council (Praviteljstvujušči sovjet serbski) sometime in late spring or early summer 1807, and remained in force until 7 October 1813, when the Ottoman Empire re-gained control of Serbia. The Code penalised certain issues related to marital life and sexuality (such as forced marriage, rape, separation/divorce without the approval of a clerical court, and infanticide). It did not, however, mention same-sex sexual activity; and so homosexuality became effectively legal for a period of six years.

Principality of Serbia (1815–1882)
In 1858, the Ottoman Empire, of which Serbia was nominally a vassal, legalized same-sex sexual intercourse.

However, the progressive reforms introduced by Prince Alexander Karađorđević and Prince Mihailo were overturned when Miloš Obrenović returned to power. In the first post-medieval Criminal Code of the Principality of Serbia, named "Kaznitelni zakon" (Penalty Act), adopted in 1860, sexual intercourse "against the order of nature" between males became punishable by from 6 months' to 4 years' imprisonment. Like in many other countries' legal documents of the time, lesbian sexuality was ignored and not mentioned.

Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)
In 1918, Serbia became a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. At first, the new state effectively inherited the different laws that applied to the different territories that joined together (often contradictory). Eventually, the new Yugoslav Criminal Code of 1929 banned "lewdness against the order of nature" (anal intercourse) between both heterosexuals and homosexuals.

SFR Yugoslavia (1945–1992)
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia restricted the offence in 1959 to only apply to homosexual anal intercourse, and the maximum sentence was reduced from 2 to 1 year's imprisonment.

In 1977, same-sex sexual intercourse was legalized in the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, while male same-sex sexual intercourse remained illegal in the rest of the Socialist Republic of Serbia (including the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo). In 1990, Vojvodina was reincorporated into the legal system of Serbia, and male homosexuality once again become a criminal offence.

FR Yugoslavia / Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006)
In 1994, male homosexual sexual intercourse was officially decriminalised in the Republic of Serbia, a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, though amendment of subsection 1 of article 110 (act against order of nature) of the then Criminal Code, which effectively restrained the offence to only acts done under force or coertion. At the same time, subsection 4, which set a ban on male same-sex acts for men ages 14 to 18, with a prison sentence of up to one year, was added. Thus, the age of consent was set at 18 years for anal intercourse between males and 14 for other sexual practices. An equal age of consent of 14 was introduced on 1 January 2006 with the current Criminal Code, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.

Recognition of same-sex relationships
While same-sex couples have never been recognized by law, the new Serbian Constitution adopted in November 2006, explicitly defines marriage as being between a man and a woman (Article 62). However, other forms of recognition, such as civil unions or domestic partnerships, are not explicitly mentioned nor prohibited.

In June 2019, plans were announced to legalise domestic partnerships between same-sex couples by amending the Civil Code. Same-sex couples would be able to enjoy several legal rights, including joint property and alimony. They would not be granted inheritance or adoption rights, nor undergo surrogacy arrangements. The legislation remains pending. In July 2019, a lesbian couple, Jelena Dubović and Sunčica Kopunović, from the northern city of Novi Sad, attempted to register a civil partnership at the municipal registrar's office, but were turned away. They filed a lawsuit, though legal experts believe it is unlikely that they will win the case.

In November 2020, Minister for Human and Minority Rights and Social Dialogue Gordana Čomić announced that the Law on same-sex partnerships will be in parliament in the first half of 2021. The draft law was presented for public consultation in February 2021 but was rejected by the Serbian parliament.

Adoption and parenting
Same-sex couples cannot legally adopt. In early 2019, the Serbian Ministry of Health imposed a ban on those with a "history of homosexual relations during the last five years" from donating reproductive cells for artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation.

On 23 April 2021, the Ministry of Health deleted the provision which determines the donor of reproductive cells for artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation cannot be a person with a "history" of homosexual relations.

Discrimination protections
Until 2002, Serbia had no legal protections specifically aimed at LGBT rights.

In 2002, the National Assembly approved the Broadcasting Act (Закон о радиодифузији, Zakon o radiodifuziji) which prohibits Serbian broadcasting agencies from spreading information encouraging discrimination, hate and violence based on sexual orientation (among other categories).

In 2005, through a change in the Labor Act (Закон о раду, Zakon o radu), discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment was banned. That same year, Parliament approved the Act on Higher Education (Закон о високом образовању, Zakon o visokom obrazovanju), which guarantees equal rights regardless of sexual orientation in those institutions (among other categories).

On 26 March 2009, Parliament approved a unified anti-discrimination law, known as the Anti-Discrimination Act of 2009 (закон о забрани дискриминације, Zakon o zabrani diskiminacije), which prohibits, among other categories, discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and transgender status in all areas. The law specifically defines discrimination as follows:

the terms "discrimination" and "discriminatory treatment" shall be used to designate any unwarranted discrimination or unequal treatment, that is to say, [omission] in relation to individuals or groups, as well as members of their families or persons close to them, be it overt or covert, on the grounds of race, skin colour, ancestors, citizenship, national affiliation or ethnic origin, language, religious or political beliefs, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, financial position, birth, genetic characteristics, health, disability, marital and family status, previous convictions, age, appearance, membership in political, trade union and other organisations and other real or presumed personal characteristics

On 5 July 2011, the Parliament approved a youth act, prohibiting discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation. The law regulates measures and activities undertaken by local governments at improving the social status of youth and creating conditions for addressing their needs and interests.

Laws against anti-LGBT speech
Since 2003, there has been legislation (part of the Information Act (Закон о јавном информисању, Zakon o javnom informisanju)) specifically in place to counter verbal discrimination based on sexual orientation within the media. The same prohibition formed part of the Broadcasting Act adopted in 2002; however, it was never effectively observed, with the Radiodiffusion Agency (an independent government agency) having failed to take any action against offenders. More widely, the Anti-Discrimination Act of 2009 prohibits hate speech on the basis of sexual orientation across wider Serbia society. With the adoption of the new amendments to the Anti-Discrimination Act in 2021, sex characteristics were included as a basis for prohibition of discrimination which makes Serbia the second country in the region to do so.

Hate crime laws
On 24 December 2012, the Serbian Parliament approved changes to the Penal Code to introduce the concept of a "hate crime", including on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. The first conviction under the law came in 2018.

Gender identity and expression
On 28 July 2011, the Parliament approved a change in the Health Insurance Act (Закон о здравственом осигурању, Zakon o zdravstvenom osiguranju), based on which sex change surgeries became partially covered by the statewide basic medical insurance plan, beginning in 2012.

In 2012, The New York Times proclaimed Belgrade as a hub for sex reassignment surgery, as prices for such procedures are far lower than in neighbouring and Western countries.

Before 2019, transgender people in Serbia were allowed to change their legal gender only after having undergone sex reassignment surgery. Since 2019, it has been possible to change legal gender with a confirmation from a psychiatrist and an endocrinologist after a year of hormone replacement therapy, without undergoing any surgical procedure. Government-financed health insurance covers up to 65% of the surgery, while the remainder is financed by the patient. According to Jovanka Todorović, a program coordinator at Gayten-LGBT, about 80% of Serbian transgender people are not willing to go through surgery. Some choose to have hormone replacement therapy, which is not financed by health insurance. In addition, a reported 90% of LGBT individuals in Serbia argue that medical institutions are not adequately responding to their needs.

Military service
In 2010, the Serbian Army agreed that gay and bisexual men and women may openly serve in the professional army, but that news was not broadcast widely across media.

Organizations
Many LGBT organizations have been founded in Serbia, especially in Belgrade and Novi Sad, though also in Niš, Kragujevac, Subotica, Šabac and Zrenjanin.

The first known LGBT organization in Serbia, Arkadija, was founded in 1990 in Belgrade. It shut down in 1995. That same year, Labris was established. Over the years, Labris has become one of Serbia's most prominent LGBT advocacy groups, regularly meeting with local government officials to discuss discrimination and violence prevention, raising awareness of LGBT rights through educational campaigns and public events, and campaigning for increased legal rights for same-sex couples.

Other groups include Gayten LGBT, founded in 2000 in Belgrade, Gay Straight Alliance (Gej Strejt Alijansa), based in Belgrade, Association Duga (Asocijacija Duga), based in Šabac and the region, and Belgrade Pride (Beograd Prajd), established in 2011.

LGBT Vojvodina, Novi Sad Lesbian Organization, and LGBT Novi Sad are among several groups working in the northern region of Serbia, Vojvodina.

GOOSI, based in Belgrade, advocates on behalf and campaigns in favor of LGBT people with disabilities.

Online communities and news portals, sorted by founding date, descending

 * 1998: Gay-Serbia.com
 * 2001: Adriatic LGBT Activism, formerly known as Yugoslavian LGBT Activism
 * 2001: GayEcho, formerly known as Queeria
 * 2008: GayRomeo, version in Serbian
 * 2011: Optimist LGBT magazine
 * 2012: Szerbiai Magyar LMBT Csoport, the Hungarian LGBT community in Serbia
 * 2012: Gay Serbia Guide

Social conditions
Gays and lesbians continue to face discrimination and harassment in Serbia. The majority of Serbian people retain strong attitudes against homosexuality. There have been numerous instances of violent gay-bashing, the most extreme during the first Belgrade Gay Pride in 2001.

Several pride events have had to be cancelled. Pride Day celebrations in Belgrade in 2004, and another in Novi Sad in 2007, were cancelled because of the inability to provide adequate safety against violence due to resource constraints. The 2009 Belgrade Pride was also cancelled for similar reasons, as police could not guarantee the safety of the participants. The Second Belgrade Pride parade went ahead on 10 October 2010, with the participation of around a thousand people. However, it was met with violent reaction culminating in the Belgrade anti-gay riot attended by 6,000 anti-gay protesters and extreme nationalist group members.

Official medical textbooks that classify homosexuality under "sexual deviations and disorders" were in circulation and widely used. After several requests to do so, the Serbian Medical Society finally stated that same-sex orientation is not a disease in an official letter to Labris, a Serbian LGBT organization, in 2008. Homosexuality has been removed from the official list of diseases since 1997, when Serbia started applying ICD-10.

The protection of LGBT people in Serbia is further complicated by the existence of various nationalist and neo-Nazi associations like "Obraz", "1389" and "Stormfront", which are supported by some right-wing political parties. These groups have, on several occasions, made their threats to LGBT people publicly known though the media, and the police are increasingly reacting to deter such threats publicly.

The development of LGBT rights and culture in Serbia is supported by LGBT sites such as GayEcho and Gay-Serbia and the oldest Adriatic LGBT Activism mailing list in the region.

2016–present
In August 2016, Ana Brnabić was appointed Minister of Public Administration and Local State Governments, becoming the first openly lesbian minister in Serbia. In June 2017, Serbian President Aleksandar Vučić appointed Brnabić to be the Prime Minister. She was sworn in on 29 June 2017. Her appointment received criticism and opposition from both left-wing and right-wing groups. Left-wing groups accused Brnabić of being a "puppet" to the President and that her sexual orientation would serve as a cover-up for human rights abuses. Right-groups opposed her nomination because of her sexual orientation.

In 2017, a prominent Serbian LGBT activist, Boban Stojanović, received asylum in Canada after documenting approximately 1,000 different pages of violence directed at him and his partner. In an interview in April 2018, Stojanović's partner said the violence put a lot of pressure on them, compelling the couple to leave Serbia.

In September 2017, Prime Minister Brnabić took part in the pride parade in Belgrade. At the event, Brnabić said: "The government is here for all citizens and will secure the respect of rights for all citizens."

In February 2019, Milica Đurđić, Brnabić's partner, gave birth to a son named Igor. According to Agence France-Presse, "Ana Brnabić is one of the first prime ministers whose partner has given birth while in office... and the first in the world in a same-sex couple".

On 17 May 2019, on the occasion of International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia, several hundred people gathered in the center of Novi Sad for what was described as the northern Serbian city's first gay pride rally. The event was organized by the local nongovernmental group, Exit, with the support of city officials.

Public opinion
According to the Commissioner for the Protection of Equality, research carried out in 2012 showed that 48% of Serbs believed that homosexuality is an illness.

According to a 2017 poll carried out by ILGA, 59% of Serbians agreed that gay, lesbian and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as straight people, while 24% disagreed. Additionally, 64% agreed that they should be protected from workplace discrimination. 21% said that people who are in same-sex relationships should be charged as criminals, while 55% disagreed. As for transgender people, 63% agreed that they should have the same rights, 65% believed they should be protected from employment discrimination and 51% believed they should be allowed to change their legal gender. Additionally, a majority of Serbians would accept an LGBT neighbour.

According to 2018 data from the Equal Rights Association, 26 percent of the country's population would cease contact with a person if they learned that person was LGBT, 38 percent of population believed that homosexuality was a disease, 48 percent of parents would seek medical treatment for their LGBT child, 70 percent opposed the right of an LGBT person to inherit the property of their deceased partner, and 90 percent opposed child adoption by LGBT person.

According to 2017 data from the research conducted by Centre E8, 44.0% of females agree that same-sex marriage should be legal (14.8% totally agree and 29.2% agree) while 38.2% oppose (15.0% totally oppose and 23.2 oppose). At the same time, 32.6% of male respondents agree that same-sex marriage should be legal (12.8% totally agree and 19.6% agree) while 50.8% oppose (26.2% totally oppose and 24.6% oppose).

According to 2021 data by Civil Rights Defenders, while support for same-sex marriage remains low (26%), when broken down into individual rights anticipated to be regulated by the Law on Same Sex Union, there is widespread support for each right (59%-73%). 80% of citizens believe LGBTI+ persons should have at least some rights anticipated to be regulated by the Law on Same Sex Union, the second highest among all Western Balkan countries (after Montenegro, which adopted legislation on same-sex registered partnerships in 2020). In the case of almost every right, support is significantly higher among younger (18-29) and University-educated respondents from Belgrade and Vojvodina. Attitudes towards almost all issues related to the LGBTI+ community have remarkably improved in Serbia over the past 5 years. While improvements have been noted, the research shows homophobia is still prevalent on several major accounts across society, such as that 57% believe homosexuality is a disease. Over 2/3 of responds believe peaceful Pride marches should be allowed to take place in Belgrade.

title: LGBT rights in Serbia


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Turkish Air Force

The Turkish Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. It traces its origins to June 1911 when it was founded as the Aviation Squadrons by the Ottoman Empire. It was composed of the Army Aviation Squadrons founded in 1911, and the Naval Aviation Squadrons founded in 1914 which used seaplanes. The Air Force as a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces was founded by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 23 April 1920.

In 1998, the Turkish Armed Forces announced a program of modernization worth US$160 billion over a twenty-year period in various projects, with $45 billion earmarked for the overhaul of the Turkish Air Force, and included the commissioning new combat aircraft (consisting of multi-role and fifth generation stealth fighters) and helicopters (consisting of heavy lift, attack, medium lift and light general purpose helicopters).

, according to International Institute for Strategic Studies, the Turkish Air Force has an active strength of 50,000 military personnel and operates approximately 295 manned fixed-wing aircraft, 35 helicopters, and 52 unmanned aerial vehicles. In terms of aircraft quantity, it is the largest air force in Europe.

The world's first black pilot, Ahmet Ali Çelikten, and the world's first female fighter pilot, Sabiha Gökçen, both served in the Turkish Air Force.

Initial stages
The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. In 1911 the former commander of the Action Army Mahmud Sevket Pasa achieved to send some Turkish military officers to the French Bleriot aviation school. The same year the establishment of a Turkish airforce was taken into consideration. During the Italo-Turkish War of 1911, the Ottomans had to admit their disadvantage of not possessing an air force. Subsequently, the Ottomans employed German and French engineers who helped them to establish an air force with a dozen airplanes. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons participated in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918). The fleet size reached its apex in December 1916, when the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons had 90 active combat aircraft. Some early help for the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons came from the Imperial German Fliegertruppe (known by that name before October 1916), with future Central Powers 13-victory flying ace Hans-Joachim Buddecke flying with the Turks early in World War I as just one example. The General Inspectorate of Air Forces (Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği) By July 1918, the Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as the General Inspectorate of Air Forces.

After the Armistice of Mudros and the occupation of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies in 1919, some Turkish aviators tried to build new units in Istanbul, İzmir, Konya, Elazığ and Diyarbakır with planes left over from World War I and tried to bring together flight personnel. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish pilots joined the Konya Air Station (Konya Hava İstasyonu). With the formation of the Grand National Assembly (GNA) by Mustafa Kemal and his colleagues on April 23, 1920, in Ankara, and the reorganization of the army, the Branch of Air Forces (Kuva-yı Havaiye Şubesi) was established under the Office of War (Harbiye Dairesi) of the GNA. A few damaged aircraft belonging to the GNA were repaired, and afterwards used in combat.

In July 1922, it was reorganized as the Inspectorate of Air Forces (Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettişliği) at Konya.

Inspectorate of Air Forces

After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923, plans were made to form a modern air force. Originally consisting of three normal and one naval aviation units, and an air school, the number of units was increased to 10 normal and three naval aviation units. Starting in 1924, personnel were sent abroad for flight education. In 1925, the Air School was re-established in Eskişehir and its first students graduated that same year. In the same year, the Air Force was deployed to take part in a campaign aimed to suppress the Sheikh Said rebellion. The Inspectorate of Air Forces was reorganized as the Undersecretariat of the Ministry of Defense in 1928 and new schools were found for non-pilot personnel. Some personnel were sent to the United Kingdom and France for training; others were sent to the United States and Italy in 1930.

From 1932, the air regiments were considered to be a separate combat arm and started training its own personnel. Turkish aviators wore blue uniforms from 1933.

The Air War College (Hava Harp Akademisi) was established in 1937.

Air Force Command
By 1940, Turkish air brigades had more than 500 combat aircraft in its inventory, becoming the largest air force in the Balkans and the Middle East. The growing inventory of air brigades required another structural change, which was made in 1940. The Air Undersecretariat under the Ministry of National Defense for logistical affairs and the General Staff for educational affairs were united to form the Air Force Command (Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı) in 1944. Thus, the Air Force became a separate branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The first Commander of the Turkish Air Force was General Zeki Doğan. Turkey did not enter World War II on the side of the Allies until February 1945. However, the Turkish Armed Forces went on full alert and were prepared for war following the military alliance between neighbouring Bulgaria and the Axis Powers which was formalized in March 1941, and the occupation of neighbouring Greece by the Axis Powers in April 1941. Within a year, Turkey's borders were surrounded by German forces in the northwest and west, and Italian forces in the southwest. The Turkish Air Force made daily reconnaissance flights over Bulgaria, Greece, the Greek Islands in the Aegean Sea, and the Dodecanese Islands which then belonged to Italy, to monitor the positions of the Axis forces. The large cities in western Turkey were darkened at nights, and anti-aircraft guns and searchlights were deployed for defence against possible enemy planes. Almost all available money in the Turkish Government Treasury was used to purchase new weapons from any available provider in the world. The Turkish Air Force received large numbers of new aircraft in this period, including Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I/V/IX/XIX, Curtiss Falcon CW-22R/B, Fairey Battle-I, Avro Anson-I, Hawker Hurricane I/II, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk, Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk, Westland Lysander-I, Consolidated B-24D Liberator B-24, Bristol Blenheim IV/V, Bristol Beaufort, Bristol Beaufighter Mk.I/X, Focke-Wulf Fw 190-A3, Martin 187 Baltimore, De Havilland DH.98 Mosquito Mk.III/IV, Douglas B-26B/C Invader, P-47D Thunderbolt and Douglas C-47A/B Dakota.

The Air Machinist School (Hava Makinist Okulu) was reorganized as Aircraft Maintenance School (Hava Uçak Bakım Okulu) on 2 January 1950 to unite schools responsible for training non-pilot Air Force personnel. In 1950 it also was decided to upgrade the Air Force fleet through the inclusion of jets. Eight pilots were sent to the United States for jet pilot training. They graduated in 1951 and started training jet pilots in the Turkish Air Force. In the same year, the 9th Fighter Wing (9uncu Ana Jet Üssü) was founded in Balıkesir as Turkey's first fighter wing; the 191st, 192nd, and 193rd squadrons being the first ones which were established. Further training in the United States followed, usually involving jet manufacturers. In 1951 the Air Force Academy was formed with integrating some air schools in Eskişehir and its first academic year started on 1 October 1951. In 1956 the Hava Eğitim Kolordu Komutanlığı (Air Education Corps Command) was founded and all education was united under this command. The command was renamed as Hava Eğitim Komutanlığı (Air Education Command) in 1957.

Upon Turkey's membership to NATO in 1952, the process of modernization was accelerated. In 1962 the Taktik Hava Kuvveti (Tactical Air Force) was founded by upgrading the Hava Tümeni (Air Division) units to corps-level organizations.

In 1974 the Air Force was employed during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. With the arrival of the first batch of 40 third generation F-4E Phantom II fighter jets ordered in 1972 and acquired between 1974 and 1978, the Air Force was reorganized. This was followed by a second order in 1978 of another batch of 40 units (32 F-4Es and 8 RF-4Es, deliveries began in 1980). Another batch of 70 more F-4Es were acquired between 1981 and 1987, and 40 more F-4Es were acquired between 1991 and 1992, as well as 46 more RF-4E reconnaissance aircraft. In total, the Turkish Air Force received 236 F-4 Phantom II (182 F-4E and 54 RF-4E) aircraft. In 1997, IAI was selected to upgrade 54 of Turkey's F-4E fighter aircraft to the F-4E Terminator 2020 standard. The upgraded aircraft were delivered between 1999 and 2003; of these, 26 aircraft were upgraded in Israel and the remaining 28 were upgraded in Turkey.

In 1983 Turkey ordered the fourth-generation F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter aircraft and started receiving them in 1987. The Turkish Air Force has received a total of 270 F-16C/D aircraft in its inventory, all of them Block 30/40/50 models. Turkey is one of five countries that locally produce F-16 fighter jets.

In 1995, the Turkish Air Force took part in NATO's Operation Deliberate Force.

Turkey provided 18 F-16s for the NATO campaign against Serbia during Operation Allied Force in 1999. Of these, 11 TAI-built F-16s were stationed at the NATO base in Aviano, Italy, while the other 7 were based in Ankara, Turkey. All were equipped with laser-guided bombs using the LANTIRN night vision system. Turkish jets had previously patrolled Balkan airspace, providing protection for attacking aircraft. During this allied air campaign, TAI-built F-16s set a world CAP record by patrolling for 9 hours and 22 minutes above the Balkan theatre. Normally, CAP missions last between 3 and 4 hours.

Turkey participated in the United Nations peacekeeping mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina, employing two squadrons (one in the Ghedi fighter wing, and after 2000 one in the Aviano fighter wing). They returned to Turkey in 2001.

In 2006, 4 Turkish F-16 fighter jets were deployed for NATO's Baltic Air Policing operation.

In December 2007, the Turkish Air Force initiated Operation Northern Iraq, which continued until the end of February 2008, eventually becoming a part of Operation Sun. At the initial phase of this operation, on December 16, 2007, the TuAF used the AGM-65 Maverick and AGM-142 Popeye/Have Nap during a night bombardment for the first time.

In August 2011, the Turkish Air Force launched multiple aerial raids against the PKK in Iraq, striking 132 targets in six days. In 2013, the Turkish Air Force began striking ISIL targets in Syria and Iraq. In July 2015, during Operation Martyr Yalçın, the Turkish Air Force launched air strikes against ISIL and PKK targets in Syria and Iraq.

On 22 June 2012, during the Syrian civil war, a Turkish RF-4E Phantom II reconnaissance aircraft was shot down by a Syrian surface-to-air missile and crashed into the Mediterranean Sea; both the pilot and the navigator lost their lives. On 23 March 2014, a Turkish F-16 shot down a Syrian MiG-23 near the Turkey-Syria border; the Syrian pilot was reported to have safely ejected from the aircraft. On 24 November 2015, a Turkish F-16 shot down a Russian Su-24 strike aircraft which, according to Turkish authorities, had violated Turkish airspace by crossing the Turkey-Syria border. The Russian government contested those claims, stating that the aircraft never entered Turkish airspace. The pilot and navigator both ejected from the aircraft; the navigator was rescued, but the pilot was shot and killed by Syrian rebel ground fire while descending by parachute. The incident sparked a crisis in Turkey's relations with Russia, which were restored in 2016 when Turkish President Erdoğan expressed his regret and condolences to Russian President Putin.

Other important air strikes by the Turkish Air Force in recent years include Operation Euphrates Shield (2016–2017), Operation Olive Branch (2018–2019), Operation Peace Spring (2019), Turkish intervention in Libya (2020), Operation Spring Shield (2020), and Operation Claw Sword (2022).

Turkish Air Force and NATO
The Turkish Air Force contributes personnel and aircraft to the command centers and air bases of NATO and actively participates in the exercises of the alliance in Europe and North America.

The headquarters of NATO's Allied Air Component Command for Southern Europe (formerly designated as AIRSOUTH and originally headquartered in Naples, Italy) was established in İzmir, Turkey, on 11 August 2004. Allied Air Command İzmir was deactivated on 1 June 2013, when the Allied Air Command (AIRCOM) at the Ramstein Air Base in Germany became the sole Allied Air Component Command of NATO.

Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO.

Fighter and reconnaissance aircraft
In 1984, the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) was established and Turkey started to produce fighter aircraft locally under license, including a total of 232 F-16 Fighting Falcon (Block 30/40/50) aircraft for the Turkish Air Force. Making it one of the only five countries in the world which produce the fourth generation jet fighter. The air force had previously received 8 F-16s that were purchased directly from the United States, bringing the total number of F-16s received by the air force to 245. In 2007 TAI built 30 F-16 Block 50+ aircraft for the airforce and applied the CCIP modernization program to 117 of its Block 40 and 50 F-16s, bringing them to the Block 50+ configuration.

Dozens of TAI-built F-16s were also exported to other countries, particularly in the Middle East. A total of 46 TAI-built F-16s have been exported to the Egyptian Air Force under the Peace Vector IV Program (1993–1995), making it TAI's second-largest F-16 customer after the Turkish Air Force.

On July 11, 2002, Turkey became a Level 3 partner of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) development program, and on January 25, 2007, Turkey officially joined the production phase of the JSF program, agreeing to purchase a total of 116 F-35 Lightning II aircraft (100 F-35A CTOL for the Turkish Air Force and 16 F-35B STOVL for the Turkish Naval Forces).

Turkey placed an initial order for 30 F-35 Lightning IIs, six of which were completed as of 2019 and two more were at the assembly line in 2020. The first four F-35As were delivered to Luke Air Force Base between 21 June 2018 and 5 April 2019 for the training of Turkish pilots.

On 17 July 2019, the U.S. Senate passed a defense spending bill which prevents the Turkish Air Force from obtaining the F-35 stealth fighter aircraft due to the country's acquisition of the S-400 missile system from Russia. As of 2023, the U.S. has not refunded the $1.4 billion payment made by Turkey for purchasing the F-35A fighters and instead offered to support the sale of Block 70 F-16 fighter jets and the modernization program for the F-16 fleet of the Turkish Airforce.

Airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft
A total of four Boeing 737 AEW&C Peace Eagle (Barış Kartalı) aircraft (together with ground support systems) were ordered by the Turkish Air Force, with an option for two more aircraft. TAI is the primary subcontractor for the Peace Eagle parts production, aircraft modification, assembly and tests. Another subcontractor, HAVELSAN, is responsible for system analysis and software support.

Signed on 23 July 2003, the contract to Boeing was valued at US$1.385 billion, which was later reduced by US$59 million because some of the requirements were not met. The down payment to Boeing amounted to US$637 million. The project consists of the delivery of 737-700 airframes, ground radars and control systems, ground control segments for mission crew training, mission support and maintenance support.

Peace Eagle 1 was modified and tested by Boeing Integrated Defense Systems in Seattle, Washington, USA. Peace Eagle 2, 3 and 4 were modified and tested at the facilities of TAI in Ankara, Turkey, with the participation of Boeing and a number of Turkish companies. As of mid-2007, systems integration was ongoing and airworthiness certification works continued. In September 2007, Boeing completed the first test flight of Turkey's AEW&C 737.

On 4 June 2008, it was announced that Turkish Aerospace Industries completed the first in-country modification of a Boeing 737-700 into an airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) platform for Turkey's Peace Eagle program.

The first Peace Eagle aircraft, named Kuzey (meaning North) was formally accepted into Turkish Air Force inventory on 21 February 2014. The remaining three aircraft will be named Güney (South), Doğu (East) and Batı (West).

The six-year delay was a result of Boeing experiencing difficulties while developing some features required by the Turkish Air Force. Turkey demanded compensation of US$183 million from Boeing for the delay. The payment of the penalty is requested in the form of increased start-up support period from an initially planned two years to five years, as well as three years of software maintenance service and around US$32 million in spare parts.

Aerial refueling tanker aircraft
In 1994 the Turkish Air Force signed a deal to lease two and purchase seven Boeing KC-135R Stratotanker aerial refueling tanker aircraft. Following the arrival of all seven purchased aircraft, the two leased KC-135Rs were returned to the United States.

All seven KC-135R Stratotanker aircraft of the Turkish Air Force have received the Pacer CRAG (Compass, Radar And GPS) upgrade.

The KC-135R-CRAG Stratotanker aerial refueling tanker aircraft of the Turkish Air Force are operated by the 101st Squadron, stationed at the Incirlik Air Base.

Military transport aircraft

Turkey is a partner nation in the Airbus A400M Atlas production program.

The Turkish Air Force has ordered a total of ten A400M Atlas aircraft. The first two A400M Atlas were delivered to the Turkish Air Force in 2014. All A400M Atlas deliveries to the Turkish Air Force were completed by 2018.

TAI produces several components of the A400M Atlas, including the middle-front fuselage, emergency exit doors, rear fuselage upper panels, rear upper escape doors, ailerons and spoilers; which are sent to the Airbus Military factory in Spain for assembly.

The Turkish Air Force also uses the C-130 Hercules, C-160 Transall and CASA CN-235 military transport aircraft.

The transport helicopters used by the Turkish Armed Forces include the Boeing CH-47 Chinook, Sikorsky S-70 Black Hawk and Eurocopter AS532 Cougar.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

, the Turkish Air Force operates HALE UCAVs such as the Baykar Akıncı, and MALE UCAVs such as the TAI Aksungur, TAI Anka, and the IAI Heron. The jet-engined UCAV Baykar Kızılelma is developed for the Turkish Air Force and Turkish Naval Forces; its maiden flight was successfully completed on December 14, 2022. Having been unable to purchase the armed version of Predator UCAVs from the United States, Turkey has fitted these drones with indigenous MAM series munitions, while the Baykar Akıncı HALE UCAV can also be armed with the SOM cruise missile.

The runway tests of TAI Anka-3, a jet-powered, flying wing type UCAV with stealth technology, began in April 2023. Its maiden flight was successfully completed on December 28, 2023.

Satellites
As of 2024, the Turkish Air Force operates the military intelligence satellites Göktürk-2 (in orbit since 2012), Göktürk-1 (since 2016), and Türksat 5A (since 2021), while Göktürk-3 is scheduled to be launched and placed into orbit in 2025. Göktürk-2 is a 2m resolution reconnaissance satellite for use by the National Intelligence Organization, launched in 2012. Göktürk-1 is a 0.8m resolution reconnaissance satellite for use by the Turkish Armed Forces, launched in 2016. Some electro-optical parts that were required for the Göktürk-1 (0.8m resolution) satellite were beyond TAI's technological know-how, thus a foreign partner was sought. The official bidders for the project were EADS Astrium (U.K.), OHB-System (Germany) and Telespazio (Italy); and the contract was won by Telespazio of Italy.

Göktürk-2 was launched from the Jiuquan Launch Area 4 / SLS-2 in China by a Long March 2D space launch vehicle at 16:12:52 UTC on December 18, 2012. It was placed into a low Earth orbit of 686 km at 16:26 UTC. The first signal from Göktürk-2 was received at 17:39 UTC by the Tromsø Satellite Station, northern Norway.

Göktürk-1 was launched later, after numerous delays due to political and business disputes, at 13:51:44 UTC on December 5, 2016, from the Guiana Space Center, on Vega flight VV08 of the European Space Agency's Vega rocket.

In 2013 Turkey approved the construction by Roketsan of its first satellite launching center, initially for low earth orbit satellites.

In 2015, Turkey and Ukraine signed a space program cooperation agreement worth billions of dollars.

Türksat 5A was launched on January 8, 2021, at 02:15:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral (CCSFS), SLC-40. It greatly extended the range of drone operations from the west of Europe to the east of Kazakhstan, with more resistance against jamming, rejection and wiretapping; high-definition live streams of targets and commanding of munitions drops.

Formation and structure
For a long period, the combat units of the Turkish Air Force were organized into a 1st Air Force (deployed in the western part of the country and headquartered in Eskişehir) and a 2nd Air Force (deployed in the eastern part of the country and headquartered in Diyarbakır). On August 5, 2014, the two have been fused into the newly formed Combatant Air Force and Air Defence Command with headquarters in Eskişehir. Due to its involvement in the coup d'état attempt on July 15, 2016, the 4th Main Jet Air Base Command near Ankara was disbanded and its F-16s were dispersed to other bases.

Air Force Command HQ (Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı Karargâhı) (Ankara)

 * Combatant Air Force and Air Missile Defense Command (Muharip Hava Kuvveti ve Hava Füze Savunma Komutanlığı) (Eskişehir)
 * 1st Main Jet Base Command (1. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Eskişehir)
 * 111th Squadron "Panther" (111. Filo "Panter") - F-4E 2020T Terminator (last operational F-4 unit)
 * 112th Squadron "Devil" (112. Filo "Şeytan") (temporarily disbanded in anticipation of F-35As )
 * 113th Squadron "Gazelle" (113. Filo "Ceylan") - F-16C/D Block 30/50 Fighting Falcon  (SNIPER and DB.110 recon pods-specialised. The former 113th Squadron "Light" ("Işık") flying RF-4E has been disbanded in 2014, but the disbandment of the 4th Main Jet Base in Ankara-Akıncı has resulted in the relocation and rebadging of its reconnaissance 142nd Squadron "Gazelle" (142. Filo Ceylan) to Eskişehir )
 * 401st Test Squadron (401. Test Filosu) - F-16C/D Block 30/40, F-4E 2020 (weapons testing and evaluation squadron, took over this role from the 132nd Squadron )
 * 201st Liaison and SAR Squadron "Attack" (201. İrtibat ve Arama-Kurtarma Filosu "Atak") - CN-235M-100, AS-532UL Mk.1
 * 3rd Main Jet Base Command (3. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Konya)
 * 131st Squadron "Dragon" (131. Filo "Ejder") - B-737-7ES AEW&C (AEW squadron)
 * 132nd Squadron "Dagger" (132. Filo "Hançer") - F-16C/D Block 50 Fighting Falcon (in 2014 the unit has been designated as a weapons and tactics training squadron. However, after the 2016 restructuring of the TuAF units this might has changed, as the Turkish DHA news agency has reported, that 12 F-16s of the squadron have participated in bombing missions in Northern Syria as part of Operation Olive Branch in January 2018. )
 * 133rd Aerobatic Squadron "Turkish Stars" (133. Akrotim Filo "Türk Yıldızları") - NF-5A/B 2000 Freedom Fighter
 * 135th Liaison and SAR Squadron "Fire" (135. İrtibat ve Arama-Kurtarma Filosu "Ateş") - AS-532UL Mk.1+
 * 5th Main Jet Base Command (5. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Merzifon)
 * 151st Squadron "Bronze" (151. Filo "Tunç")  - F-16C/D Block 40/50 Fighting Falcon (HARM-specialised)
 * 152nd Squadron "Raider" (152. Filo "Akıncı") - F-16C/D Block 40 Fighting Falcon (relocated to Incirlik Air Base to free facilities at Merzifon for the relocation of 4th Main Jet Base's 143rd Squadron from Ankara-Akıncı, but retained as part of 5th Main Jet Base Command)
 * 153rd Squadron "Forefather" (153. Filo "Öncel") - F-16C/D Block 30/40 Fighting Falcon (F-16 OCU, the former 4th Main Jet Base's (in Ankara-Akıncı) 143rd Squadron in the OCU role, relocated to Merzifon and rebadged as the 153rd.)
 * 5th Main Jet Base Command SAR Flight "Angel" (5. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı Arama-Kurtarma Kolu "Melek") - AS-532UL Mk.1+
 * 6th Main Jet Base Command (6. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Bandırma)
 * 161st Squadron "Bat" (161. Filo "Yarasa") - F-16C/D Block 40/50+ Fighting Falcon (LANTIRN-specialised)
 * 162nd Squadron "Harpoon" (162. Filo "Zıpkın") - F-16C/D Block 40 Fighting Falcon
 * 6th Main Jet Base Command SAR Flight (6. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı Arama-Kurtarma Kolu) - AS-532UL Mk.1+
 * 7th Main Jet Base Command (7. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Malatya-Erhaç)
 * 171st Squadron "Corsair" (171. Filo "Korsan") (temporarily disbanded, to convert to F-35A)
 * 172nd Squadron "Hawk" (172. Filo "Şahin") (temporarily disbanded, to convert to F-35A)
 * 173rd Squadron "Dawn" (173. Filo "Şafak") (recon squadron, RF-4E/TM(G) phased out of service, to operate armed TAI Anka UAVs)
 * 7th Main Jet Base Command SAR Flight "Burak" (7. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı Arama-Kurtarma Kolu "Burak") - AS-532UL Mk.1+
 * 8th Main Jet Base Group Command (8. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Diyarbakır)
 * 181st Squadron "Leopard" (181. Filo "Pars") - F-16C/D Block 40TM/Block 50+ Fighting Falcon (LANTIRN-specialised)
 * 182nd Squadron "Accipiter" (182. Filo "Atmaca") - F-16C/D Block 40 Fighting Falcon
 * 202nd Liaison and SAR Squadron "East" (202. İrtibat ve Arama-Kurtarma Filosu "Şark") - CN-235M-100, AS-532UL Mk.1+
 * 9th Main Jet Base Command (9. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Balıkesir)
 * 191st Squadron "Cobra" (191. Filo "Kobra") - F-16C/D Block 50 Fighting Falcon
 * 192nd Squadron "Tiger" (192. Filo "Kaplan") - F-16C/D Block 50+ Fighting Falcon
 * 9th Main Jet Base Command SAR Flight (9. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı Arama-Kurtarma Kolu) - AS-532UL Cougar Mk.1+
 * 10th Tanker Base Command (10. Tanker Üs Komutanlığı) (Incirlik)
 * 101st Tanker Squadron "Asena" (101. Tanker Filosu "Asena") - KC-135R Stratotanker
 * 14th UAV Systems Base Command (14. İnsansız Uçak Sistemleri Üs Komutanlığı) (Batman)
 * TAI Anka, IAI Heron, Karayel, Harpy, I-GNAT ER
 * Air Defence Command (Hava Savunma Komutanlığı)
 * 15th Missile Base Command (15. Füze Üs Komutanlığı) (Alemdağ-Istanbul)
 * Anti-aircraft Training Command (Şile)
 * S400 Group Command (S400 Grup Komutanlığı) (Akıncı-Ankara)
 * 15th Missile Base Command (15. Füze Üs Komutanlığı) (Alemdağ-Istanbul)
 * xxth Missile Base Command (xx. Füze Üs Komutanlığı) (Birecik-Şanlıurfa)
 * one more base will be established possibly in Anamur-Mersin
 * 9 x Aerial Surveillance Radar Post Commands (Ahlatlıbel-Ankara; Körfez-Kocaeli; Karabelen-İzmir; Çanakkale; Erzurum; Datça-Muğla; Ayancık-Sinop; İskenderun-Hatay; Rize)
 * 13 x Airfield Commands (reserve air bases) (Akhisar, Antalya, Batman, Dalaman, Erzurum, Afyon, Çorlu, Muş, Ağrı, Sivas, Sivrihisar, Van, Yalova)
 * Air Training Command (Hava Eğitim Komutanlığı) (İzmir)
 * 2nd Main Jet Base Command (2. Ana Jet Üs Komutanlığı) (Çiğli-İzmir)
 * 121st Squadron "Bee" (121. Filo "Arı") - T-38A Talon (advanced flying training)
 * 122nd Squadron "Scorpion" (122. Filo "Akrep") - KT-1T (basic flying training)
 * 123rd Squadron "Chick" (123. Filo "Palaz") - SF-260D ((initial flying training)
 * 124th Squadron "Pioneer" (124. Filo "Öncü") (borrows a/c from the other squadrons) (instructor training, standartidation and instrumental flying training)
 * 125th Squadron "Panther" (125. Filo "Panter") - CN-235M-100, UH-1H Iroquois (transport and helicopter training)
 * Air Training Command Liaison Squadron (Hava Eğitim Komutanlığı İrtibat Filosu) (İzmir-Adnan Menderes Airport)
 * 203rd SAR Squadron "Aegean" (203. Arama Kurtarma Filosu "Ege") - CN-235M-100
 * Air Warfare School (Hava Harp Okulu, the Air Force academy) (Yeşilköy-Istanbul)
 * Training Corps (Eğitim Kıtaatı)
 * Sparrow Flight (Serçe Kol) - T-41D Mescalero
 * Search and Rescue Flight (Arama-Kurtarma Kolu) - UH-1H Iroquois
 * Yalova Glider Camp (Yalova Planör Kampı) - SZD-50-3
 * Air Force Technical Schools Command (Hava Teknik Okullar Komutanlığı) (Gaziemir Air Base, İzmir)
 * Air Force NCO Schools Command (Hava Sınıf Okulları Komutanlığı) (Gaziemir Air Base)
 * Air Force Basic Training Brigade Command (Hava Er Eğitim Tugay Komutanlığı) (Kütahya)
 * Air Logistical Command (Hava Lojistik Komutanlığı) (Etimesgut-Ankara)
 * 11th Air Transportation Main Base Command (11. Hava Ulaştırma Ana Üs Komutanlığı) (Etimesgut-Ankara)
 * 211th Squadron "Globetrotter" (211.Filo "Gezgin") - various CN-235 variants, including ELINT, EW, MedEvac and VIP
 * 212th Special Squadron "Eagle" (212. Özel Filo "Doğan") - A330, A319, Ce. 550/ Ce.560, Ce.650, G.IV-SP - government and high command executive fleet
 * 12th Air Transportation Main Base Command (12. Hava Ulaştırma Ana Üs Komutanlığı) (Erkilet-Kayseri)
 * 221st Squadron "Breeze" (221. Filo "Esen") - A-400M, C-160D)
 * 222nd Squadron "Flame" (222.Filo "Alev") - C-130B/E)
 * 1st Air Supply and Maintenance Center Command (1. Hava İkmal Bakım Merkezi Komutanlığı) (Eskişehir)
 * 2nd Air Supply and Maintenance Center Command (2. Hava İkmal Bakım Merkezi Komutanlığı) (Kayseri)
 * 3rd Air Supply and Maintenance Center Command (3. Hava İkmal Bakım Merkezi Komutanlığı) (Ankara)
 * Military Air Traffic Control Command (Hava Malzeme Transit Komutanlığı) (Istanbul)
 * Air Museum Command (Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi) (Istanbul)

Squadrons
The above commands consist of:
 * 19 Combat squadrons
 * 1 Reconnaissance squadron
 * 6 Training squadrons
 * 6 Transportation squadrons
 * 1 Tanker squadron
 * 8 Surface-to-air missile (SAM) squadrons

Insignia

 * OF3, OF2, & OR2 translate to "Head of 1000", "Head of 100", and "Head of 10" respectively.

Airbus A330 MRTT
Since 2021, there is a plan to replace the existing KC-135R Stratotanker aerial refueling tanker aircraft with the Airbus A330 MRTT.

Eurofighter Typhoon
In November 2023, Turkey announced plans to acquire 40 Eurofighter Typhoons from the United Kingdom. The sale has been approved by all partners except Germany, due to disagreements between Ankara and Berlin on a number of political issues. In February 2024, media reports indicated that Turkey's interest in the procurement of Typhoons remains, despite progress being made on the purchase of 40 new F-16Vs.

Project MIUS

Bayraktar Kızılelma fighter drone and the flying wing type TAI Anka-3 strike drone are the two jet-powered, low-observable UCAVs developed as part of Project MIUS.

Bayraktar Kızılelma completed its first flight on 14 December 2022, while TAI Anka-3 completed its first flight on 28 December 2023.

 TAI Hürkuş  Advanced basic trainer, which Hürkuş 2 newly developed model of the aircraft developed from the previous B variant is expected to enter the inventory after 2025. 55 aircraft was ordered.

TAI Hürjet
An advanced jet trainer named the TAI Hürjet is under development, and is planned to start replacing the T-38 Talon and CF5 by 2025. The prototype made its first flight on 25 April 2023.

TAI TF Kaan

In 2011, Turkey's Undersecretariat for Defense Industries signed an agreement with TAI for a fifth generation fighter aircraft to ultimately replace the F-16 Fighting Falcon. In June 2021, the Turkish Air Force made an official presentation of the TF-X program to the media, which later became known as the TAI TF Kaan. The aircraft is designed and developed as a low-observable, twin-engine, all-weather air superiority fighter by TAI and BAE Systems as its sub-contractor. The TAI TF Kaan is planned to complement and eventually replace the F-16s of the Turkish Air Force and to be exported to foreign nations. The runway tests of the prototype began on 16 March 2023. The aircraft's maiden flight was successfully completed on 21 February 2024.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Turkish Air Force


text:
Old Colony Railroad

The Old Colony Railroad (OC) was a major railroad system, mainly covering southeastern Massachusetts and parts of Rhode Island, which operated from 1845 to 1893. Old Colony trains ran from Boston to points such as Plymouth, Fall River, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, Fitchburg, Lowell and Cape Cod. For many years the Old Colony Railroad Company also operated steamboat and ferry lines, including those of the Fall River Line with express train service from Boston to its wharf in Fall River where passengers boarded luxury liners to New York City. The company also briefly operated a railroad line on Martha's Vineyard, as well as the freight-only Union Freight Railroad in Boston. The OC was named after the "Old Colony", the nickname for the Plymouth Colony.

From 1845 to 1893, the OC network grew extensively largely through a series of mergers and acquisitions with other established railroads, until it was itself acquired by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad under lease agreement on March 1, 1893, for its entire 617 mi network. After this date, all trains, lines, and stations became known as the "Old Colony Division" of the huge "New Haven" system. During this period, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad enjoyed a virtual monopoly on all passenger and freight rail service in southern New England.

Passenger service on the New Haven's Old Colony Division ended in 1959, except for the main line between Boston and Providence, which continues to be used for passenger service by Amtrak and the MBTA. Since 1997, other former OC lines have been reopened to passenger service, including the MBTA's Old Colony Lines with service from Boston to Plymouth and Middleborough/Lakeville. In 2007, MBTA passenger service was restored on the Greenbush Line between Braintree and Greenbush Station in Scituate. The MBTA currently has plans to also restore passenger service to Fall River and New Bedford as part of the South Coast Rail project.

Other parts of the former OC system continue to be used for freight service by CSX Transportation and other short line railroads, including the Massachusetts Coastal Railroad which operates on Cape Cod and in southeastern Massachusetts. Parts of the former OC on Cape Cod are also still used to operate the Cape Cod Central Railroad tourist train from Hyannis to Buzzards Bay during the summer and fall months. Another tourist railroad, the Old Colony and Newport Scenic Railway operates on part of the former OC from Newport on Aquidneck Island.

Several abandoned portions of the OC have been converted into multi-use rail trails. These include the East Bay Bike Path in Rhode Island, as well as others in Lowell, Mansfield, Fairhaven, and the Cape Cod Rail Trail on Cape Cod.

Old Colony Railroad (1844–1854)
By the early 1840s, the city of Boston had six major rail lines connecting it with other places including Lowell, Maine, Fitchburg, and Salem to the north, Worcester to the west and Providence, Rhode Island to the southwest. The southeastern part of Massachusetts had yet to be served by a rail link to Boston.

On March 16, 1844, the Old Colony Railroad Corporation was formed to provide a rail connection between Boston and Plymouth. Construction of the line began in South Boston in June 1844 and the 36.8 mi line opened to Plymouth on November 10, 1845. The extension from South Boston to the newly completed Kneeland Street Station in Boston opened on June 19, 1847. Kneeland Street also served as the headquarters for the OC until the 1893 consolidation.

There had previously been an Old Colony Railroad formed in 1838 for a line between Taunton and New Bedford, but the name was changed to the New Bedford and Taunton Railroad in 1839 before service began in 1840. This line would later become part of OC in 1879.

John Sever of Kingston, Massachusetts, served as the first president of the Old Colony Railroad Corporation from 1844-1845. Nathan Carruth served as the second president of the corporation from 1845 to 1848. Carruth was a successful businessman and enthusiastic supporter of the expansion of railroads in Massachusetts and elsewhere in New England. With the opening of the Old Colony line through Dorchester in 1845, Carruth became actively involved in the development of the area. He built an estate on the east side of Dorchester Avenue called Beechmont/Beaumont which would become one of the first railroad suburbs in America.

All OC locomotives were named until 1884, after which they were simply numbered. Among the early engines were the Mayflower, Governor Carver, Governor Bradford, and Miles Standish. The new railroad company also built the Samoset Hotel near the end of its line in Plymouth. In 1847, the OC completed a short 6.2 mi connector line from its main line at Whitman to the Fall River Railroad line at Bridgewater Junction. On April 1, 1849, OC signed a lease of the South Shore Railroad for a period of five years. By 1851, traffic on the line had increased enough to warrant the opening of a second track running between Boston and South Braintree.

Old Colony and Fall River Railroad (1854–1863)
The OC and Fall River Railroad merged with a joint stock vote on June 20, 1854, forming the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad Company, which provided a two-pronged line from Boston to Plymouth and Boston to Fall River, splitting at South Braintree. Alexander Holmes from Kingston served as company president during this period, from 1854 to 1866.

The Fall River Railroad had been formed on August 8, 1845, with the consolidation of three companies; the Fall River Branch Railroad, the Randolph and Bridgewater Railroad and the Middleborough Railroad. The Fall River Railroad was led by Richard Borden, a prominent Fall River mill owner who wanted a direct route to Boston that did not require the use of the Boston and Providence Railroad lines. The line from South Braintree to Myricks in the town of Berkley opened on December 16, 1846, as an extension of the Fall River Branch Railroad – which had been completed in 1845.

On May 19, 1847, the first "boat train" left the OC's Kneeland Street Station in Boston bound for Fall River, where passengers would board a steamship for New York City. Over the years, the Old Colony Steamboat Express train would become the most famous line of the Old Colony Railroad, with the finest and most up-to-date engines, cars and attention to detail.

In 1863 the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad acquired the Dorchester and Milton Branch Railroad Company, which it had been leasing since 1848.

Old Colony and Newport Railway (1863–1872)
The Old Colony and Newport Railway was formed in July 1863 when the Old Colony and Fall River Railroad merged with the Newport and Fall River Railroad, which had been incorporated in 1846 to build a road from Newport, Rhode Island to the Massachusetts state line at Fall River. However, the road from Fall River to the Rhode Island state line was not authorized by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1860. The newly formed and renamed Old Colony and Newport Railway Company completed the final section of the line from Fall River to Newport which finally opened for service on February 5, 1864.

In 1865, the Old Colony and Newport Railway Company acquired the Dighton and Somerset Railroad. It completed a new, more direct route between Fall River and Boston via South Braintree on September 24, 1866. Part of the new route was over the Easton Branch Railroad between Stoughton and North Easton. In 1871 the Old Colony purchased the Easton Branch.

A portion of the old Granite Railway line was acquired in 1870 and later extended to form a loop through West Quincy off the original Plymouth line. In 1872, the Old Colony & Newport Railway Corporation built the Shawmut Railroad as a connection between the Dorchester and Milton Branch and the main line to Boston.

Old Colony Railroad (1872–1893)
The Old Colony and Newport Railway merged with the Cape Cod Railroad on May 1, 1872, and the two companies were consolidated on October 1, forming a new Old Colony Railroad Company under the leadership of Onslow Stearns, who served as president of the company from 1866 to 1877.

The 1872 merger formed a system with three main branches; Boston to Plymouth, South Braintree to Fall River and Newport, and a third splitting from the Newport branch at Middleborough to Hyannis. At this point, the newly acquired lines became known as the Cape Cod Division, with a new superintendent's office located at Hyannis.

The Cape Cod Railroad Company had been established in 1846 as the Cape Cod Branch Railroad with a line off the Fall River Railroad from Middleborough to Sandwich opening in 1848. Among the proponents of the Cape Cod Branch Railroad was Richard Borden of Fall River, who saw the new line as an opportunity to bring more traffic and business through his hometown.In 1853, the extension of the line to Hyannis was started, reaching West Barnstable on December 22, 1853. On February 22, 1854, the Cape Cod Branch Railroad was renamed the Cape Cod Railroad Company. In the spring of 1854, construction continued, with the railroad reaching Barnstable village on May 8, Yarmouth Port on May 19, and finally Hyannis on July 8, 1854. Connecting steamboat service to Nantucket commenced from Hyannis in late September and would continue until 1872, when the railroad branch to Woods Hole was opened.

The Cape Cod Central Railroad was incorporated in 1861 as a branch from the Cape Cod Railroad, running from Yarmouth east and northeast to Orleans, and opening in 1865. The Cape Cod Central was purchased by the Cape Cod Railroad April 21, 1868, and the two railroads were consolidated on July 28, 1868.

The newly formed Old Colony Railroad extended the line to Provincetown, at the very tip of Cape Cod, opening on July 23, 1873.

In 1874, Old Colony founded the Martha's Vineyard Railroad, built across 9 mi on sand of the island of Martha's Vineyard, running from the Oak Bluffs steamer wharf to Mattakeeset Lodge in Katama, Edgartown. The locomotive Active (later renamed the South Beach) was the sole operating train. This branch existed until 1896.

The Old Colony Railroad acquired the Middleborough and Taunton Railroad in 1874 and the South Shore Railroad in 1877, which it had once leased until 1854. A year later in 1878 it acquired the Duxbury and Cohasset Railroad which gave the Old Colony a connection with its original 1845 main line at Kingston. Beginning in 1874, the Old Colony operated the "South Shore, Duxbury and Cohasset and Plymouth Express" between Boston and Plymouth on this line.

In 1875, the Old Colony Railroad began operating the Fall River, Warren and Providence Railroad, which had been formed in 1863 as a merger between the Warren and Fall River and Fall River and Warren Railroad Companies. The Old Colony would later acquire this line outright in 1892.

In 1879, the Old Colony Railroad greatly expanded its network into Central Massachusetts by leasing the Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford Railroad for 999 years, then purchasing it outright in 1883. The acquisition of this line provided important connections for the Old Colony, such as with the Boston and Providence Railroad at Mansfield, the Boston and Albany Railroad at South Framingham and the Fitchburg Railroad at Fitchburg, among others. This deal also gave the Old Colony Railroad direct access to the important industrial port of New Bedford. Upon this acquisition, the lines of the former Boston, Clinton and Fitchburg Railroad became known as the Old Colony's "Northern Division", with headquarters in Fitchburg, while the older OCRR lines became known as the "Central Division" with headquarters in Boston.

In 1882 the Old Colony Railroad signed a 99-year lease on a line between Fall River and New Bedford through the towns of Dartmouth and Westport owned by the Fall River Railroad (1874) – not to be confused with its 1846 namesake.

In 1886 the Old Colony Railroad acquired the Lowell and Framingham Railroad, which before 1871 had been known as the Framingham and Lowell Railroad.

In 1887 the Old Colony Railroad acquired the Hanover Branch Railroad. On April 1, 1888, the Old Colony Railroad signed a 99-year lease agreement the Nantasket Beach Railroad with service to Hull.

Several days later, on April 7, 1888 the OCRR signed a 99-year lease on the Boston and Providence Railroad, one of New England's earliest railroads, which had been chartered in Massachusetts in 1831 and began service between Providence and Boston in 1835. This major agreement gave the Old Colony Railroad operating rights on the busy double-tracked main line between the two capital cities, along with other branches to Dedham and Stoughton. The deal also included use of the Boston and Providence Railroad's Park Square Station in Boston.

In 1891 the OCRR signed a 99-year lease of the Providence, Warren and Bristol Railroad. In December 1892, the OCRR signed a 99-year lease of the Plymouth and Middleborough Railroad properties.

In 1896 the OCRR acquired the Fall River Railroad (1874), which it had been leasing since 1882.

New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad control (1893–1969)
On March 1, 1893, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (NYNH&H) – commonly known as the New Haven Railroad – leased the entire Old Colony system for 99 years, which by then included the leased Boston and Providence Railroad and everything substantially east of it, as well as long branches northwest to Fitchburg and Lowell. Along with the lease of the New England Railroad in 1898, the 1893 lease arrangement gave the NYNH&H a virtual monopoly on rail transport in southern New England. On September 22, 1895, the New Haven converted all former Old Colony lines from left-hand running to right-hand running.

On April 6, 1902, a new alignment was opened from Broadway to Crescent Avenue station, eliminating a grade crossing of Dorchester Avenue. The former right-of-way was later paved as Old Colony Avenue. With the opening of Boston's South Station in 1899, the Kneeland Street Station was taken over by the Boston and Albany Railroad as a local freight office. It was demolished in 1918 after being deemed unsafe.

By the 1930s, the New Haven's largest freight terminal and only steam locomotive shop were both on the ex-Old Colony system; more passengers entered Boston on Old Colony lines than entered New York on the New Haven. However, during its 1935–47 bankruptcy proceedings, the New Haven attempted to rid itself of unprofitable portions of the Old Colony. The New Haven's bankruptcy trustees rejected the Old Colony lease in June 1936, but were forced to continue operating it under court order. In the 88 stations case, the railroad abandoned 88 stations in Massachusetts and five in Rhode Island on a single day in 1938. The Supreme Court ruled in November 1939 (Palmer v. Massachusetts) that the railroad had not been given proper permission, and 32 of the stations were reopened in 1940. After several attempts to end Old Colony passenger service - including a 1939–41 plan to outright abandon the Boston-area lines - the New Haven continued to operate the service. Whether to incorporate the Old Colony into the New Haven, and whether the Old Colony should be required to continue passenger service, continued to be argued as part of the reorganization.

Increased passenger and freight traffic during World War II lifted the fortunes of the New Haven. The reorganization continued; the railroad was ultimately required to continue Old Colony passenger service unless losses exceeded $850,000 in a single calendar year. The New Haven emerged from bankruptcy on September 11, 1947, and fully acquired the Old Colony a week later; the B&P was kept as a separate New Haven-owned company. Palmer v. Massachusetts had been just one of eight Supreme Court cases generated by the reorganization. Losses on the Old Colony reached the critical value in October 1948; after threatening to discontinue all service, the New Haven cut back to a 26-train peak-only schedule on the Boston Group in March 1949.

Under the 1951–1954 presidency of Frederic C. Dumaine Jr., the New Haven increased passenger service, using new Budd Rail Diesel Cars to reduce costs. Boston service reached 86 trains in April 1954. As losses mounted, Boston-area railroads made major cuts in the late 1950s. All service to Taunton, Fall River, and New Bedford (which used the B&P rather than the Old Colony mainline) ended in 1958. All remaining year-round Old Colony Division service ended on June 30, 1959, after the completion of the Southeast Expressway, though limited seasonal service continued for several more years. The NYNH&H merged into Penn Central in 1969, which in turn merged into Conrail in 1976.

History since 1969
Since the early 1970s, Amtrak has provided passenger service from South Station in Boston over the former Boston and Providence lines of the Old Colony Railroad. Since December 2000, Amtrak has also used this line for the Acela Express high-speed passenger rail service to Washington, D.C. Between 1986 and 1996 Amtrak also operated regular passenger service between New York City and Hyannis on Cape Cod during the summer months.

With the establishment of Conrail, freight service continued over various portions of the former Old Colony network after 1976. Beginning in 1982, the Bay Colony Railroad provided freight service on various lines which the Commonwealth of Massachusetts had purchased from Conrail, including lines on Cape Cod and in Middlesex County. Since 1999, CSX has provided freight service over several portions of the former Old Colony Railroad network, including lines in Taunton, Fall River, New Bedford and Leominster. Since 2008, the Massachusetts Coastal Railroad has taken over operation of the state-owned freight lines on Cape Cod from the Bay Colony Railroad.

The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) currently operates passenger service on portions of the network, including the Red Line rapid transit service to Quincy and Braintree, and the Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line. The MBTA also currently operates commuter rail service over portions of the former Old Colony Railroad network, including its Providence/Stoughton Line and portions of the Needham Line. The MBTA also restored service on the Plymouth/Kingston Line and Middleborough/Lakeville Line in the 1990s, and the Greenbush Line (part of the South Shore Branch) opened in 2007.

Two portions of the OC network are also currently used for tourist trains during certain parts of the year, including the Cape Cod Central Railroad and the Newport and Narragansett Bay Railroad.

Between 1986 and 2016, the Old Colony & Fall River Railroad Museum operated in Fall River. The museum had four train cars and exhibits.

Presidents of the Old Colony Railroad

 * John Sever (June 1844 to December 1845)
 * Nathan Carruth (December 1845 to January 1848)
 * Elias Hasket Derby (January 1848 to April 1850)
 * Francis B. Crowninshield (April 1850 to June 1854)
 * Alexander Holmes (June 1854 to July 1866)
 * Onslow Stearns (July 1866 to November 1877)
 * Charles F. Choate (November 1877 to April 1907)

Lines and branches
The following is a description of the Old Colony Railroad lines and branches at about the time of the 1893 lease to the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, and shortly thereafter.

Archives and records

 * Old Colony Railroad Company records at Baker Library Special Collections, Harvard Business School.

title: Old Colony Railroad


text:
Gendarmerie General Command

The Gendarmerie General Command (Jandarma Genel Komutanlığı) is the national gendarmerie force of the Republic of Turkey. It is a service branch of the Turkish Ministry of Interior responsible for the maintenance of the public order in areas that fall outside the jurisdiction of police forces (generally in rural areas), as well as assuring internal security along with carrying out other specific duties assigned to it by certain laws and regulations. In wartime, some of its elements can be subordinated to Turkish Land Forces by the President of Turkey.

The Commander of the Gendarmerie reports to the Minister of the Interior.

The Gendarmerie has its roots in the Ottoman Empire military law enforcement organization "Subaşı" (later known as the "Zaptiye"). A similar, earlier force called "Şurta" existed during the medieval Seljuq Empire.

Ottoman era
After the abolition of the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire in 1826, military organizations called Asâkir-i Muntazâma-i Mansûre, Asâkir-i Muntazâma-i Hâssa, and, in 1834, Asâkir-i Redîfe were established for security and public order in Anatolia and in some provinces of Rumelia.

As the first use of the term Gendarmerie was in the Assignment Decrees published in the years following the 1839 Edict of Gülhane, it is assumed that the Gendarmerie organization was founded after that year, but the exact date of foundation has not yet been determined. Therefore, the date on which the name Asâkir-i Zaptiye Nizâmnâmesi was adopted, June 14, 1839, is usually considered the foundation date of the Turkish Gendarmerie.

After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, Ottoman prime minister Mehmed Said Pasha decided to bring police officers from Britain and France to establish a modern law enforcement organization. The Gendarmerie was used to great effect after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, particularly in Rumelia. In 1909, the Gendarmerie was affiliated with the Ministry of War, and its name was changed to the Gendarmerie General Command (Umûm Jandarma Kumandanlığı).

Gendarmerie units continued their internal security duties as well as taking part in the conflict at various fronts as a part of the Armed Forces during World War I and the Turkish War of Independence.

20th century

The Gendarmerie organization achieved its current legal status on June 10, 1930. In 1939, the Gendarmerie organization was restructured, having three groups: Fixed Gendarmerie Units, Mobile Gendarmerie Units, and Gendarmerie Training Units and Schools.

In 1956, the Gendarmerie General Command was assigned the duties of protecting borders, coasts and territorial waters, and fighting smuggling, which had been previously carried out by the Gümrük Umum Kumandanlığı, under the Ministry of Customs and Monopoly. In 1957, Gendarmerie Border Units were transformed into brigades, and Gendarmerie Training Brigades were established.

In 1961, Gendarmerie Regional Commands were established. In 1968, the first Gendarmerie Aviation Unit was established in Diyarbakır under the name of Light Helicopter Company Command.

In 1974, Gendarmerie Commando Units and Gendarmerie Aviation Units took part in the Turkish military operations in Cyprus.

In 1988, the duty of protecting the land borders and ensuring their security was assigned to the Land Forces Command, but Gendarmerie General Command still holds the responsibility for some parts of the Iranian and Syrian borders and the whole Iraqi border.

The Gendarmerie Criminal Department was founded in Ankara in 1993 and from 1994, Gendarmerie Regional Criminal Laboratory Superiorities were founded. Crime Scene Examination Teams, Explosive Material Disposal Units, Fingerprints and Palm Prints Branches and Crime Scene Examination Units were also established.

21st century
In 2016, the Gendarmerie General Command was affiliated to the Ministry of Interior.

In 2018, Gendarmerie Special Operations participated in Operation Olive Branch, part of the Turkish involvement in the Syrian Civil War. According to the Syrian Observatory of Human Rights, Turkish Gendarmerie killed 500 Syrian civilians at the Turkish-Syrian border.

The Gendarmerie General Command currently has a total of 3,600 units, including 3,056 Internal Security Units, 218 Commando Units, 162 Prison Units, 160 Protection Units and four Aviation Units.

Duties
The duties of the gendarmerie according to the Law No. 2803 on the Organization, Duties and Powers of the Gendarmerie; It is categorized under four main titles as judicial, military, civil and other duties.

Judicial duties

 * Finding crimes and criminals,
 * Capturing suspects,
 * Transferring evidence judicial authorities,
 * Conduct preparatory investigations when instructed to by the public prosecutor,
 * Transporting prisoners between jails and courthouses.

Civil duties

 * To ensure that the services for general safety and security are carried out in accordance with the relevant legislation,
 * To carry out the services of informing the public about how to protect the society from public order crime, directing children and young people to crime and taking precautionary measures,
 * To evaluate the information and statistics about public order crimes, to conduct or have an analysis of the crime and to determine the methods of combating crime to prevent public order crimes by evaluating them,
 * Carrying out activities to prevent crime,
 * Preventing, pursuing and investigating smuggling,
 * External protection of penal institutions and detention centers.

Military duties

 * To perform military services provided by law

Other duties

 * These are duties other than judicial, military and civil duties, such as facility and personal protection and transport security, which must be carried out in accordance with laws and regulations, orders and decisions.

Commands
Gendarmerie General Command Headquarters (Ankara)

 * Gendarmerie Security Corps Command (Van)
 * 23. Gendarmerie Border Division (Şırnak)
 * 21. Gendarmerie Border Brigade (Yüksekova)
 * 1. Gendarmerie Commando Brigade (Çakırsöğüt, Şırnak)
 * 2. Gendarmerie Commando Brigade (Bornova, İzmir)
 * Gendarmerie Training Command (Ankara, İncek, Gölbaşı)
 * 1. Gendarmerie Training Battalion Command (Aydın)
 * 2. Gendarmerie Training Battalion Command (Bilecik)
 * 3. Gendarmerie Training Battalion Command (Ezine, Çanakkale)
 * 5. Gendarmerie Training Regiment Command (Gölköy, Kastamonu)
 * 6. Gendarmerie Commando Training Regiment Command (Kırkağaç, Manisa)
 * 7. Gendarmerie Commando Training Regiment Command (Yenifoça, İzmir)
 * Gendarmerie Combat Training Battalion Command (Seferihisar, İzmir)
 * Gendarmerie Transport Battalion Command (Söğüt, Bilecik)
 * 10. Gendarmerie Training Regiment Command (Bornova, İzmir)
 * 116. Gendarmerie Private Training Regiment Command (Çanakkale)
 * 121. Gendarmerie Training Regiment Command (Serinyol, Antakya)
 * 125. Gendarmerie Training Regiment Command (Safranbolu, Karabük)
 * Işıklar Gendarmerie NCO High School (Bursa) ( was established in 1845 as "Mekteb-i Fünun-u İdadi"')
 * Gendarmerie Horse and Dog Training Center Command (Nevşehir) (JAKEM)
 * Gendarmerie Logistics Command (Güvercinlik, Ankara)
 * Gendarmerie Aviation Command (Güvercinlik, Ankara)
 * Gendarmerie UAV Command (Elazığ)
 * Gendarmerie Special Public Security Command (JÖAK)
 * Gendarmerie Special Operations (JÖH)
 * Gendarmerie Search and Rescue Battalion Command (JAK)
 * Gendarmerie Underwater Search and Rescue Teams (SAK)
 * Gendarmerie Public Security Boat Commands (Security and public order services at inland waters are carried out by the Gendarmerie Public Order Boat Commands.)
 * Village guards
 * Prison Gendarmerie Division Commands (There are garrison stations appointed in every prison)
 * The Gendarmerie Band Command

Criminal units

 * Provincial Gendarmerie Commands in 81 provinces & in 388 districts.
 * The Crime Scene Investigation Teams (CSIT) (Working under the Provincial and District Gendarmerie Commands systematically examine the crime scene by means of technical and scientific methods; properly gather physical evidences; pack and send them to forensic laboratories.)
 * Explosive Ordnance Disposal Teams ( which have been established in tourism regions, regions with a concentration of terror incidents and big cities, dispose of explosive ordnances.)
 * Crime scene investigation units
 * Anti-Smuggling and Organized Crime Department (ASOCD)
 * Gendarmerie Intelligence Organization

Other units

 * Gendarmerie Traffic Teams
 * The Gendarmerie Motorcycled Public Order Teams (Round-the-clock at the highways established by the protocols in the responsibility areas of the Gendarmerie General Command.)
 * Gendarmerie Dog Teams
 * Gendarmerie Environmental Protection Teams (Environmental Protection Teams have been established in order to protect environment, ecological balance and natural life, to protect living species and areas protected by national legislation and international conventions and to prevent environmental pollution.)
 * The Gendarmerie Mounted Units (Used in performing patrolling services at resort areas, forestlands, recreation spots and museums (Topkapı Palace), and in performing preventive law enforcement services.)

The Gendarmerie Museum
The Gendarmerie Museum is established in order to reflect the developments in periodical order beginning with the foundation of the Gendarmerie organization; to exhibit its activities, heroic deeds, services in the history; to protect all kinds of military cultural assets related to the Gendarmerie by collecting them and to transfer them to the future generations. The Gendarmerie Museum in the Beytepe Lieutenant General İsmail SELEN Quarters in Ankara and is open to public.

Handguns

 * Yavuz 16
 * Glock 19
 * SAR 9
 * TP9
 * K2000 Mega
 * M1911
 * Zigana T and F
 * Beretta 92FS
 * Browning Hi-Power
 * Girsan Regard Compact
 * Girsan Regard MC

Shotguns

 * SPAS-12
 * Sarsılmaz Cobra & Baba
 * Armsan Armtac RS A2/A3

Submachine guns

 * HK MP5
 * P90
 * SAR-109T
 * Uzi

Assault and battle rifles

 * AKM
 * HK G3
 * HK G41
 * HK33A4
 * M16A1
 * M4A1
 * MKEK MPT-76
 * MKEK MPT-55
 * Kale KCR-556 New primary rifle of Gendarmerie 43.500 Rifles delivered late 2019
 * Galil MAR used by Turkish Gendarmarie commando's
 * SAR 223P
 * SAR 308 used by Village guards.

Machine guns

 * HK23E
 * RPK
 * M249 SAW
 * M2
 * MG3
 * PKM
 * MAG 58
 * SAR 762 MT
 * Canik M2 QCB
 * Type 80
 * KMG556

Sniper rifles

 * Arctic Warfare
 * SVD
 * Tac-50
 * SR-25
 * SR-15 Match
 * HK G28
 * Armalite M-15T
 * IMI Galatz
 * Accuracy International AWM
 * LMT MWS 308
 * MKEK JNG-90
 * Robar RC-50
 * MacMillan M87R
 * PSL (rifle)
 * KNT-76

Rocket and grenade launchers

 * HK 69
 * HK 79
 * HK GLM
 * M203
 * Milkor MGL
 * Mk 19
 * RPG-7 7B
 * AK-40GL
 * Kale KGL40
 * MKEK 40mm
 * MKEK T40

Mortars

 * M19
 * M29
 * Mortier 120mm Rayé Tracté Modèle F1
 * Aselsan Alkar

Directed energy weapon

 * JARMOL -Laser weapon

Anti-drone system

 * ASELSAN IHTAR KARTAL-2

Unmanned ground vehicles

 * COŞKUN - EOD robot
 * ASLAN - Medium class UGV with integrated AVAZ long-range sonic weapon

Vehicles and Aerial vehicles
Additional info : Gendarmerie also acquired 130 basic and 5 professional Micro UAV systems. It is also planned acquisition of new liaison and utility aircraft.

Retired/Reserve

Vehicles : Otokar Akrep - 250+, BTR-60 - 180, BTR-80 - 295 , Condor - 25

Aircraft : Cessna O-1E Bird Dog, Dornier Do-28D - 2

Helicopters : Bell 212 - 1, Bell 206 - 8

title: Gendarmerie General Command


text:
Antipathy

Antipathy is a dislike for something or somebody, the opposite of sympathy. While antipathy may be induced by experience, it sometimes exists without a rational cause-and-effect explanation being present to the individuals involved.

Thus, the origin of antipathy has been subject to various philosophical and psychological explanations, which some people find convincing and others regard as highly speculative. The exploration of a philosophical aspect for antipathy has been found in an essay by John Locke, an early modern 17th century philosopher.

Interpersonal antipathy
Interpersonal antipathy is often irrationally ascribed to mannerisms or certain physical characteristics, which are perceived as signs for character traits (e.g., close, deep set eyes as a sign for dullness or cruelty ). Further, the negative feeling sometimes takes place rapidly and without reasoning, functioning below the level of attention, thus resembling an automatic process.

Chester Alexander’s empirical findings suggest that an important characteristic of antipathies is that they are "marginal to reflective consciousness". Alexander based this conclusion on the fact that many of the subjects of the study reported to have never thought much about their antipathies, have not tried to analyze them or discuss them with others.

Sympathy and antipathy modify social behavior. Although it is generally assumed that antipathy causes avoidance, some empirical studies gathered evidence that an antipathetic reaction to objects was not followed by any effort to avoid future encounters.

Personality psychology
In personality psychology, antipathy may be related to low agreeableness.

Pseudo-antipathy
Sophie Bryant observed the occurrence of pseudo-antipathy which consists in "the careless and arbitrary interpretation of another person's acts and expressions in accordance with the worst side of one's self". In other words, people tend to project their own faults onto others and dislike or hate them. Pseudo-antipathy is based on the (implicit) knowledge about the negative sides of a person's own character. Bryant compares the resulting feeling with "a certain wrong-headed sense of cleansing".

title: Antipathy


text: File:Empire Earth.jpg

title: File:Empire Earth.jpg


text:
User talk:Tom5760

Welcome to the Wikipedia
I noticed you were new, and wanted to share some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library

For more information click  here . You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Sam Spade 12:15, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tom5760


text:
Boue

Boue may refer to:

 * Boué, a commune in the Aisne department of France
 * Ami Boué, Austrian geologist
 * Anier Boué (born 1984), Cuban javelin thrower
 * Stella Boué (1836–1925), French writer and feminist
 * Valentine Boué (1898–1978), French writer and artist

title: Boue


text:
Ma'an

Ma'an (مَعان) is a city in southern Jordan, 218 km southwest of the capital Amman. It serves as the capital of the Ma'an Governorate. Its population was approximately 41,055 in 2015. Civilizations with the name of Ma'an have existed at least since the Nabatean period—the modern city is just northwest of the ancient town. The city is an important transport hub situated on the ancient King's Highway and also on the modern Desert Highway.

History
Ma'an was founded by the Minaeans (known as "Ma'in" in Arabic), an ancient Arab people based in Yemen, between the 2nd and 4th century BCE. The site was located on a major trade route and was settled by Minaean traders and merchants. Local tradition has it that the city was named after "Ma'an", the son of Lot.

During the Byzantine era in Syria, Ma'an was part of the territory of the Arab Christian tribe of Banu Judham who served as vassals for the Byzantines in Transjordan. In the early 7th century, the Christian governor of Ma'an, Farwa ibn Amr al-Judhami, converted to Islam and sent Muhammad a wide array of presents including a white mule and gold. When the Byzantine authorities learned of his conversion he was ordered to repent his new religion, but refused. Consequently, the Byzantine emperor ordered his imprisonment and subsequent execution by crucifixion. In retaliation the Muslim state in Medina, sent an army led by Usama ibn Zayd to conquer Ma'an.

Islamic era
When the Umayyads took control of the Caliphate, Ma'an entered a period of relative prosperity. In 951 the Persian geographer Istakhri described it as "a small town on the border of the desert." He claimed that most of its inhabitants belonged the Umayyad family or their clients even though by that time the Umayyads had been overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate. Istakhri further noted that Ma'an served as a fortress in the Sharat district (today southern Jordan) and "travelers were well received." A market was organized in the city where pilgrims could store their unessential possessions.

When Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi visited in the early 13th century, during Ayyubid rule, Ma'an was a mostly ruined town in the Balqa district of Bilad al-Sham (Islamic province of Syria.) The Hajj pilgrimage route to Mecca still passed through the town which also contained a resting station. By the end of the 13th-century Syria's new rulers, the Bahri Mamluks, designated Ma'an and its surroundings as one of four districts of the al-Karak province. According to al-Dimashqi, during that time period, it grew to become a "small city", with a khan ("caravanserai") that included a "market for provisions" and a hostel. Muslim traveler Ibn Batutah noted Ma'an was "the last place in Syria" before reaching Aqaba as-Sawan in the Hejaz.

Ottoman rule

Because of its geographic isolation from the rest of Syria and a low frequency of travelers (with the exception of Mecca-bound pilgrims), the history of Ma'an was the least well-documented of the Transjordanian districts of Ottoman Syria—at least until direct rule was attempted in the late 19th century. The Ottomans annexed Transjordan in 1517 and in 1559, during the tenure of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottomans built a fort in Ma'an to safeguard the pilgrimage route (see Qal'at al-Ma'an at "External links"). The governor of Damascus put down a revolt by Ma'an and other cities in south Damascus Eyalet in 1656, although Ottoman troops were later routed as a result of a revolt by the Banu Tamim tribe. Since then, the Ottomans had struggled to maintain full control of the area.

Ma'an was divided into two distinct quarters since the Umayyad period: Ma'an al-Shamiyya and Ma'an al-Hijaziyya. The latter served as the main town, while the former was a small neighborhood inhabited by Syrians from the north. The city continued to be a major town on the Hajj pilgrimage route and its economy was entirely dependent on it. Its principal trade partner was the coastal city of Gaza in southern Palestine, from where supplies were brought to Ma'an for resale to pilgrims. Provisions were also imported from Hebron. In addition to provisions, Ma'an's outward caravan was dominated by the sale of livestock, particularly camels for transport and sheep for ritual sacrifice. The incoming caravan was a buyer's market for goods coming from across the Muslim world. Ma'an's culture was highly influenced by its role on the Hajj route and unlike many other desert towns, most of its residents were literate and many served as imams or religious advisers for the Bedouin tribes in the area. Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt noted that the people of Ma'an "considered their town an advanced post to the sacred city of Medina." The townspeople's relationship with Bedouin was also unique. While most Transjordanian towns had uneasy relationships with the nomadic tribes to whom they paid regular tribute (khuwwa), Ma'an's residents and the Bedouin enjoyed positive relations. Finnish explorer Georg August Wallin wrote the level of economic interdependence between the two groups was unlike anywhere else in Syria's desert regions. As a testament to their relationship of mutual trust, Ma'an's inhabitants were able to bargain down or withhold payment of the khuwwa during tough economic years. The major tribes around the city were the 'Anizzah and the Huwaytat.

During the late 19th century, there were numerous attempts by the Ottoman authorities to elevate Ma'an's political status at over al-Karak, although most attempts failed or were short-lived. In 1868 the Ottoman governor of Syria, Rashid Pasha, succeeded in designating Ma'an as its own kaza (subdistrict) of the al-Balqa sanjak (district), part of Damascus Vilayet. Four years later, Governor Abdulletif Subhi Pasha proposed that Ma'an become a sanjak that would include al-Karak, as-Salt and al-Jawf. This proposal was popular with much of the Ottoman government in Istanbul, but was ultimately rejected after strong opposition from Midhat Pasha, a leading Tanzimat reformer, who argued the administrative expenses of having Ma'an as district capital would not be feasible.

Following the British occupation of Egypt, Ottoman politicians began serious initiatives to form a new vilayet out of Damascus Vilayet that would combine the districts of Ma'an, al-Balqa and Jerusalem to serve as a buffer against a potential British invasion of Syria. This effort failed, although a new proposal in 1886 would see Ma'an serve as the capital of a district including the kazas of al-Karak and Tafilah and the nahiyas (subdistricts smaller than kazas) of Amman, Bani Hamida and Wadi Musa. Governor Osman Nuri Pasha's goal in this respect was to establish a government center in southern Transjordan to "avoid the alienation of the people." Sultan Abdulhamid II approved the plan in 1892. However, the establishment of the new sanjak was delayed and eventually scrapped after the leading sheikh of al-Karak offered the Ottoman authorities his full services. Al-Karak was deemed more suitable as district capital due to its larger population, proximity to Palestine and the established relationships between the Majali notables of the city and the authorities in Damascus and Istanbul.

Between 1897 and 1899, two primary schools for boys and a secondary school were founded by the Ottomans in Ma'an. In 1902 the Ma'an train station connected the city to Damascus and Medina.

Modern era
Following the Battle of Aqaba during the Arab Revolt, the Turkish army fortified Maan with 6000 infantry, a regiment of cavalry and mounted infantry, and an aerodrome, all under the command of Behjet Pasha. This important Ottoman military base and communications hub was under 5-day siege by the Arab Northern Army during the Battle of Maan, 13–17 April 1918. Though failing to capture the city, the Hejaz railway southwards was wrecked.

In 1920, The Hashemite emir Abdullah I arrived in Ma'an in with several hundred fighters mostly from the 'Utaybah tribe in an attempt to restore the Sharifian throne in Damascus following its overthrow by France. He addressed the French colonization of Syria by stating to Ma'an's residents "The colonialist has come to you to rob you of the three graces: faith, freedom and masculinity." Following the British capture of the area during World War I, the British Mandate of Palestine was established in 1922 and included Transjordan which was semi-autonomous from British administration in Palestine. Ma'an was annexed to the Transjordanian state in 1925. The British Army had an armored car regiment based in the city.

A railway building at Ma'an station was used by Abdullah I as the site of the first government of the Kingdom of Jordan. It is now called the Ma'an Palace and is depicted on the reverse of the 5 Jordanian dinar note.

The 1989 Jordanian protests started in Ma'an, in protest against government cuts to food subsidies. The protests left eight dead and dozens injured, and spurred King Hussein to dismiss his prime minister, Zaid Al-Rifai.

In 1998 a large demonstration in Ma'an protesting the threat of an American attack against Iraq turned into a miniature uprising. The flags of Saudi Arabia were flown by some protesters. Jordanian Special Forces and police attempted to quell the protests, resulting in the death of a demonstrator and the injury of 25 people, including police officers. King Hussein had the Jordanian Army deployed and Ma'an was placed under curfew and had its phone lines cut. Hussein arrived in the city afterward to meet with army units and local tribal leaders in order to placate the city. He stated the "riots" were an insult to the country, that foreign "infiltrators" provoked the protests and stressed Ma'an's importance in Jordanian history, referring to the city as "Ma'an the origin" and "Ma'an the history."

Ma'an was the site of clashes between the Jordanian army and Islamist groups in 2002 after the death of a US diplomat.

The city has been described as a "hotbed of IS support" by The Economist. A 2014 Al Jazeera article about IS sympathies in Ma'an stated that the governorate is "a reputed hotbed of unrest, known for high crime rates, low employment and anti-government sentiment," and noted the presence of pro-IS graffiti in the city.

In December 2022, demonstrations against high fuel prices that broke out in Ma'an; one policeman was killed in the ensuing violence.

Climate
Ma'an has a cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWk), with hot summers and mild to cold winters due to its high altitude (above 1000 meters). Rainfall is extremely rare with an average of 44 mm a year only.

Demographics
In 1845 Ma'an al-Hijaziyya had a population of 200 households and Ma'an al-Shamiyya 20 families. Karl Baedeker estimated its population to be around 3,000 in 1912 and the same number was recorded in Guide Bleu's survey in 1932. By 1956 Ma'an's population reached 4,500 and in 1973 it was 9,500. Ma'an has now 75000 with 5 large tribes (Kreshan, Shamiah, Bazaia, Hararah, Fanatsah). In 1961, the population of Maan was 6,643 persons.

The city had a population of 22,989 in the 1994 census. The gender makeup was 54.3% male 45.7% female. There were 4,871 housing units and 3,862 households. According to Ma'an Municipality, Ma'an's population was estimated as being about 50,000 as of 2007. The majority of the city's inhabitants are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school.

Education
Al-Hussein Bin Talal University is the only university in Ma'an, it offers a range of 38 undergraduate degrees, these being across the disciplines of engineering, arts, science, business administration, archaeology, education and nursing. It also offers postgraduate diplomas in education and in higher administration.

Economy
Ma'an is home to the Ma'an Development Area (MDA), a special economic zone with reduced income taxes, no other taxes (including taxes on income from exports), and streamlined regulatory procedures. Construction of the MDA's industrial park began in 2008 and is set to be completed in 2030. The Shams Ma'an Solar Power Plant is located in the MDA.

Notable people
Former diplomat worker.
 * jaser Almaani (1947-2007),

 * Talal Abu Tayeh, Deputy Prime Minister
 * Omar Maani, former mayor of Amman
 * Bahjat Talhouni, former Prime Minister
 * Nabil Talhouni, ambassador of Jordan to Kuwait (1987–90), Austria (1991–93), U.A.E (1997–99), India (2001–05)
 * Habis Majali (1914-2001), military figure.

title: Ma'an