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Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America

The Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America (Die Evangelisch-lutherischen Synodal-Conferenz von Nord-Amerika), often known simply as the Synodical Conference, was an association of Lutheran synods that professed a complete adherence to the Lutheran Confessions and doctrinal unity with each other. Founded in 1872, its membership fluctuated as various synods joined and left it. Due to doctrinal disagreements with the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) left the conference in 1963. It was dissolved in 1967 and the other remaining member, the Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, merged into the LCMS in 1971.

Background
The 1860s and early 1870s was a period of realignment within American Lutheranism. In 1860, the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States of North America was the only federation of Lutheran synods in the country. During the previous 20 years a number of new synods had emerged, the result of immigration from the Lutheran regions of Europe. The General Synod had, under Samuel Simon Schmucker, espoused an "American Lutheranism" which downplayed the role and authority of the Lutheran Confessions. In 1864, the General Synod admitted the Frankean Synod, a synod that was notably indifferent to the Lutheran Confessions or to any Lutheran identity. In protest, the Pennsylvania Ministerium and four other synods left the General Synod and issued a call to the various independent synods to form a new and confessionally-based federation. Meetings in Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1866 and Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 1867 led to the formation of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America.

Despite its professed confessional stance, the General Council allowed divergent teaching regarding millennialism, altar fellowship, sharing of pulpits with non-Lutheran pastors, and lodge membership in an attempt to include the largest number of synods as possible. The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and Other States (Iowa Synod) and the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio and Adjacent States (Ohio Synod) requested satisfactory responses to those Four Points; failing to receive acceptable answers, the Ohio Synod declined to join and the Iowa Synod joined as only a non-voting associate member. The failure of the General Council to adequately address those issues also caused the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Wisconsin and Other (Adjacent) States (Wisconsin Synod), the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Minnesota and Other States (Minnesota Synod), and the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Illinois and Other (Adjacent) States (Illinois Synod), all charter members, to withdraw from membership by 1872.

Meanwhile, the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other States (Missouri Synod) had been in doctrinal discussions with various Midwestern synods and had reached fellowship agreements with several of them: the Synod of the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (Norwegian Synod) in 1857, the Wisconsin Synod in 1869, the Ohio Synod in 1868-1872, and the Illinois Synod and the Minnesota Synod in 1872.

Organization

In October 1870 the Ohio Synod contacted the Illinois, Missouri, Norwegian, and Wisconsin synods to see if they would be interested in a union of Midwestern confessional synods. The synods (except for the Illinois Synod, whose president attended unofficially because that synod was still a member of the General Council) met on January 11–13, 1871, in Chicago to explore the formation of a federation that would be confessional in both profession and practice. A second meeting was held on November 14–16, 1871, in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The Illinois and Minnesota synods, who had by this time both left the General Council, were also in attendance.

The Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America was formally organized on July 10–16, 1872, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, by the Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Norwegian, Ohio, and Wisconsin synods as an expression of their unity of faith. The member synods agreed to work together in matters relating to Christian evangelism. Included in this was a sharing of clergy, sharing of educational facilities, and co-operation on evangelism and mission work. Conventions were held every two years, with each synod having at two clergy and two lay representatives with an additional clergy and lay representative for each district in a synod.

In 1876, the Synodical Conference recommended that all congregations using a particular language (e.g., German or Norwegian) be organized into state-specific synods. Therefore, the Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Synod of Virginia, which had joined the Synodical Conference that same year, merged in 1877 into the Ohio Synod. Likewise, the Illinois Synod merged into the Illinois District of the Missouri Synod in 1880.

In 1878, the Wisconsin Synod withdrew its demand that the state synods had to be independent of the Missouri or Ohio Synods. The Missouri Synod needed to build a new seminary due to overcrowding at its campus in St. Louis. Despite considerable planning to build a new joint Synodical Conference seminary near Chicago, the project failed because of hesitance of the part of the Wisconsin Synod and the inability of any of the other members besides the Missouri Synod to contribute financially.

The 1878 convention voted in favor of establishing state synods. These state synods were to organize into two or three larger synods, one for the east (corresponding to the Ohio Synod), one for the southwest (corresponding to the Missouri Synod), and one for the northwest (which would include all congregations in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas and all parts west). This plan would solve the longstanding concern that if either the Missouri or Ohio synods were allowed to keep their identity, they would dominate the rest of the Synodical Conference, or, even worse, the Minnesota or Wisconsin synods would be forced to join one of them. This new organization did not apply to congregations speaking Norwegian, and English speaking congregations were to organize as separate district synods within one of the larger synods.

Predestinarian Controversy
Shortly thereafter a dispute known as the Predestinarian Controversy or Election Controversy arose among member synods regarding the cause of election to eternal life. The Ohio and Norwegian synods contended that God elects people in view of the faith (intuitu fidei) he foresaw they would have, while the Missouri and Wisconsin synods held that the cause is wholly due to God's grace. As a result of the controversy, the Ohio Synod withdrew from membership in 1881, and the Norwegian Synod in 1883.

Some of the pastors and congregations in the Ohio Synod disagreed with the stance of that synod and broke away to form the Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Synod of Pennsylvania and Other States. It joined the Synodical Conference in 1882 and merged with the Missouri Synod in 1886.

The chief opponent to C.F.W. Walther during the Predestinarian Controversy was Frederick William Stellhorn.

Growth and consolidation
In 1890, the English Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri and Other States (English Synod) joined the Synodical Conference. About 20 years later, in 1911, it merged into the Missouri Synod as its non-geographical English District.

The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Michigan and Other States joined the Conference in 1892. That same year it joined with the Wisconsin and Minnesota synods to form the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and Other States, which eventually became the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod of the present time.

The German Evangelical Lutheran District Synod of Nebraska and Other States (Nebraska Synod) and the Slovak Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Augsburg Confession in the United States of America (Slovak Synod) both joined in 1906, but with final acceptance of their membership delayed until 1910. The Nebraska Synod merged into the Joint Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan as that body's Nebraska District in 1917.

Meanwhile, the various Norwegian-language synods were undergoing a series of mergers which led, in 1917, to the Norwegian Synod joining with the United Norwegian Lutheran Church of America and the Hauge Synod to form the Norwegian Lutheran Church of America. A group of pastors and congregations in the Norwegian Synod declined to join the merger due to doctrinal disagreements; instead, they formed the Norwegian Synod of the American Evangelical Lutheran Church (known as the Little Norwegian Synod) in 1918 and joined the Synodical Conference in 1920.

After 1920 there were no changes in the membership of the Synodical Conference until its breakup and dissolution in the 1950s and 1960s. Each of the four synods did, however, take on new names. The Missouri Synod became the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) in 1947, the Little Norwegian Synod became the Evangelical Lutheran Synod (ELS) in 1958, the Wisconsin Synod became the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) in 1959, and the Slovak Synod became the Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (SELC), also in 1959.

In 1934, the conference began to look into starting mission work in Africa, and later established a mission in Nigeria.

Breakup and dissolution
Doctrinal differences among the synods of the Synodical Conference, especially concerning the doctrine and practice of fellowship, surfaced during the 1940s and 1950s. Disagreements began when the LCMS began exploratory talks with leaders of the American Lutheran Church (ALC). The ALC, which had been formed in 1930 by the merger of the Ohio, Iowa, and Buffalo synods, differed with the Synodical Conference on the doctrine of predestination. Since there had been no recent change on the ALC's doctrinal position, the LCMS was charged by some within the Synodical Conference of changing its position on church fellowship.

After years of continued talks, the ELS severed its fellowship relations with the LCMS in June 1955. Two years later, the WELS publicly recognized the same doctrinal disagreements with the LCMS, but did not officially break fellowship with the LCMS until August 1961. During that time period, the WELS officially admonished the LCMS to return to its former doctrine and practice.

Dissatisfaction over the WELS decision led about 70 pastors and a similar number of congregations to leave that body in the mid- to late-1950s and, along with former congregations of the ELS and the LCMS, to form the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) in 1961. The CLC maintained that both the WELS and ELS had misapplied the principles of Christian fellowship themselves by not breaking away from the Synodical Conference and the LCMS when doctrinal differences had first been perceived. This issue remains a matter of contention between the CLC and the WELS and ELS.

The Synodical Conference held a series of discussions on the issues, but the divisions were not resolved, leading the ELS and WELS to finally leave the conference in 1963. With the LCMS and the much smaller SELC being the only remaining members, the conference became inactive in 1966 and was officially dissolved in 1967. The SELC merged into the LCMS in 1971 as the non-geographic SELC District.

Southern field
In 1877, the Synodical Conference had just severed ties with the two German mission societies it had previously supported, the Leipzig Society and the Hermannsburg Society. Its 1877 convention appointed a committee of three pastors to decide whether the Synodical Conference should devote attention to "heathen mission among the Negroes or Indians". The committee recommended launching this mission this way, "If we make no use of the desire of our Lutheran Christians to do something for heathen missions, they will surely apply their money where we would not like to see it go." The Synodical Conference created a mission board to oversee its "Colored Missions" called "The Mission Board of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America, for Mission Work Among the Heathen and the Negro," which was often referred to simply as "The Mission Board". The conference elected three members to oversee the mission work, and on October 16 of that same year, John Frederick Doescher was commissioned as a missionary to African-Americans. From October to April, Doescher toured the states of Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, and Florida to organize local mission committees to serve those who became interested in his work until a missionary pastor or teacher could be sent.

The first congregation resulting from these efforts was organized in 1878 in Little Rock, Arkansas, as St. Paul's Colored Lutheran Church. Several churches and schools were opened in New Orleans and other towns in Louisiana in the 1880s. By 1890 there were a total of seven mission stations in place—four in New Orleans, one in Little Rock, one in Meherrin, Virginia, and one in Springfield, Illinois.

In 1879, Doescher left the employ of the Mission Board under controversy over his willingness to preach in non-Lutheran churches, and Friederick Berg was called as his replacement. The Mission Board sent him to Little Rock to build on Doescher's work there. Berg was frustrated in his effort when he found that three-fifths of the African Americans to whom he was sent already belonged to Protestant churches. Berg spent most of his time teaching at the Lutheran school, St. Paul Lutheran Academy, but the work drained him. After two years of frustration, Berg left for a white congregation in Indiana in 1881. Several missionaries joined the work and left after only a few years until Nils J. Bakke came, who served from 1880 to 1920.

Eastern field
In North Carolina, a group of five African-American Lutheran congregations had been associated with the Synod of North Carolina. On May 8, 1889, with the consent and promised support of that synod, the congregations organized the Alpha Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Freedmen in America. However, the financial support from the North Carolina Synod did not materialize, so the Alpha Synod appealed to the Synodical Conference for help. After an investigation, the Mission Board agreed to work with the Alpha Synod and sent Bakke to help. While he was there, they planted several congregations, and by 1900, there were 12 mission stations in North Carolina. By 1927, there were 23 congregations and preaching stations in North and South Carolina, with 1,328 baptized members. The Immanuel Conference, as it came to be called, expanded to include all outreach to African-Americans in Alabama and Louisiana. In 1932, the Immanuel Conference had 37 congregations or preaching stations, 3,263 members, 2,124 Sunday school students, and 604 day school students.

In 1940, the Immanuel Conference, now called The Eastern Field, began to shrink. The population in the rural areas in which the Eastern Field was focused shrank as more people moved to cities. The quality of public education for African-American students also rose, so Lutheran day schools became less popular. In 1944, a report to the Synodical Conference stated that the Eastern Field had declined to 23 churches and preaching stations ranging from New York to South Carolina.

Alabama field
Meanwhile, in Rosebud, Alabama, Rosa Young, an African-American and the daughter of a Methodist minister, had started a school in 1912 to give African-American children in the area a good Christian education. The Rosebud Literary and Industrial School soon had over 200 students, but in 1914 the cotton boll weevil infested Wilcox County, and the resulting economic hardship meant that students' families were unable to afford the tuition. Desperate to keep the school open, she requested aid from the Methodist Church, but to no avail. She wrote to Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute, and he suggested she contact the Synodical Conference. Upon receiving her letter dated October 27, 1915, the Mission Board sent missionary Bakke to Rosebud in January 1916 to investigate. They agreed to support the school and pay Young $20 per month to teach.

Word of the school and resulting Lutheran church in Rosebud spread among the African-American communities in Alabama and neighboring states, with requests being made to the Synodical Conference to start additional schools and churches. By 1927 there were 27 congregations with their associated schools. The number of congregations peaked in the 1930s, and the Great Migration led to the decline of rural communities generally and Lutheran churches in particular. The exodus of African-American Lutherans from Alabama seeded Lutheran congregations across the country. In 1977, 35 African-American pastors in the LCMS could trace their roots to the Alabama Field.

In the 1960s, as the Synodical Conference was breaking up, the African-American congregations and schools were absorbed by the respective geographical districts of the LCMS. In 1961, there were 54 congregations with 33 pastors and 8,600 members, the numbers having declined from 108 congregations with 72 pastors and 16,579 members in 1950.

Higher education
The Synodical Conference opened Immanuel Lutheran College in Concord, North Carolina, in 1903 to train African-American teachers and pastors for the schools and churches that had been established. In 1905 the college was relocated to a 14.5 acre campus in Greensboro that cost $28,394 to construct. Initially the college consisted of three departments, namely, a four-year high school, a one-year normal school for teachers, and a three-year theological seminary for pastors. By 1951 it had a faculty of ten and a student body of about 100, with about 30 graduates each year from the three departments. Nevertheless, Immanuel struggled to maintain its enrollment, and multiple resolutions to close it were made at Synodical Conference conventions in the 1940s and 1950s. Those resolutions failed to pass, and attempts to increase enrollment were made. Eventually the integration of the colleges and seminaries of the member synods of the Synodical Conference led to the passage of a resolution at the 1960 convention to close Immanuel as of June 30, 1961. The campus was sold to the state of North Carolina, and the library was transferred to the Alabama Lutheran Academy in Selma.

Also in 1903, the conference opened Luther College in New Orleans, Louisiana, in a new two-story building costing $4,007. Originally it had the same three departments as Immanuel, but in 1910 the seminary department was closed, having graduated only one pastor. The entire college was closed in 1925, in part because the lack of the seminary department prevented the school from meeting its primary purpose, but also because the conference decided the funds needed to erect new buildings would be better spent supporting Immanuel and the new college in Alabama.

In 1919, the African-American congregations in Alabama petitioned the Synodical Conference for funds to open a high school and college to train church workers. The school opened in 1922 in a rented cottage, and the Mission Board soon purchased 13 acre in northeast Selma, Alabama, as the site of the Alabama Luther College. A recitation hall and a dormitory were erected at a cost of $36,000 and opened in 1925. The college was forced to close during the Great Depression and the remaining high school was renamed the Alabama Lutheran Academy. Eventually the college was reopened, resulting in the name Alabama Lutheran Academy and College. The institution was renamed Concordia College Alabama in 1981 and was part of the Concordia University System of the LCMS. However, due to financial difficulties and declining enrollment, it closed in 2018.

Successor organizations
The WELS and ELS remained in fellowship with each other after leaving the Synodical Conference. Those two church bodies formed the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC) in 1993 with 13 Lutheran church bodies in other countries.

The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (SELC) joined with the Lutheran Church in America (LCA) and the American Lutheran Church (ALC) in 1967 to form the Lutheran Council in the United States of America (LCUSA). In 1971 the SELC merged into the LCMS as the SELC District. LCUSA itself ceased operations in 1988 upon the merger of the LCA and ALC that created the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA).

The LCMS and its partner churches worldwide formed the International Lutheran Conference (ILC) in 1993 after holding informal conferences periodically since the 1950s. Two other Lutheran denominations in the U.S. have joined the ILC since 2000: the American Association of Lutheran Churches and the Lutheran Ministerium and Synod – USA.

Presidents
The Synodical Conference had 12 presidents:

 * C. F. W. Walther (1872–1873)
 * W. F. Lehmann (1873–1876, 1877–1880)
 * Herman Amberg Preus (1876–1877)
 * P. L. Larsen (1880–1882)
 * J. Bading (1882–1912)
 * C. Gausewitz (1912–1927)
 * Ludwig E. Fuerbringer (1927–1944)
 * E. B. Schlueter (1944–1950)
 * G. C. Barth (1950–1952)
 * W. A. Baepler (1952–1956)
 * J. S. Bradac (1956–1960)
 * J. Daniel (1960–1967)


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User:Oblivious/SlashImages

Following images are uploaded by me. Best effort is practiced in giving the deserved credits for the source of these images. While images of people, places, things and artwork may be uploded, it does not reflect my personal views of any matter. The purpose of each and every action by me, here, is in the best interest of improving wikipedia and it's accuracy.

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title: Category:Folk rock groups


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Lucien Cuénot

Lucien Claude Marie Julien Cuénot (21 October 1866 – 7 January 1951) was a French biologist. In the first half of the 20th century, Mendelism was not a popular subject among French biologists. Cuénot defied popular opinion and shirked the “pseudo-sciences” as he called them. Upon the rediscovery of Mendel's work by Correns, De Vries, and Tschermak, Cuénot proved that Mendelism applied to animals as well as plants.

Cuénot's experiments
Cuénot spent two years working on mice and came to the conclusion that three “mnemons” (genes) are responsible for the production of one “chromogen” or pigment and two “distases” enzymes. The pigment (if present) is acted upon by the enzymes to produce black or yellow colour. If no pigment is present the result is an albino mouse. Cuénot studied the offspring of various crosses between mice and concluded that these “mnemons” or genes were inherited in a Mendelian fashion. Subsequently, Cuénot was the first person to describe multiple allelism at a genetic locus.

He also described a lethal mutation in the mouse agouti locus at a time when such a mutation was unheard of.

Recognition
There is some argument over the degree of recognition of Cuénot's pioneering work in his own day, and up until the present.

Some scientists who were famous in Cuénot's day such as William Bateson, the man credited the "one gene one enzyme" hypothesis never recognized Cuénot's discovery that certain traits arose due to the presence or absence of an enzyme. Bateson did receive a letter from Charles Chamberlain Hurst in which he was urged to "read and digest the new Cuénot", work which explained some results in the field of mouse genetics, results which had been confusing for Bateson.

Other scientists who were well known in Cuénot's own day and still into the present day, such as Clarence Little and Sewall Wright, and William E. Castle did credit Cuénot with pioneering work in genetics.

For example, Clarence Little and William E. Castle did credit Cuénot with the discovery of the first lethal mutation.

The mouse geneticist Clarence Little credited Cuénot with the idea and first evidence for multiple allelism, and recognizing that the inheritance of white spotting in the mouse did not breed true.

The mouse and population geneticist Sewall Wright credited Cuénot with the discovery of multiple alleles and the one-gene one-enzyme hypothesis.

When writing Cuénot's obituary in 1951, Richard Goldschmidt credits Cuénot with the gene controlling enzyme hypothesis: "In 1903 he [Cuénot] already understood the genic (genetic) control of pigment in terms of chromogen (genes were responsible for the chromogen) and oxydase (enzyme)."

John Cairns as recently as 2003 credited Lucien Cuénot with the one-gene one-enzyme hypothesis.

The entry on "Albino" in the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th, 1911) does fully appreciate Cuénot's work on the relationship between determinants (genes) and ferments (enzymes): "Before we can inquire into the cause and meaning of albinism it will be necessary first to consider the nature Of pigmentation... Subsequently (1903) L. Cuénot, in order to explain certain features in the hereditary transmission of coat colour in mice, postulated the hypothesis that the grey colour of the wild mouse (which is known to be a compound of black, chocolate and yellow pigments) may be due either to the interaction of a single ferment and three chromogens, or vice versa, to one chromogenic substance and three ferments... In spite of the inquiry being only in its initial stages, there is already good evidence to believe that Cuénot's theory is correct, and that an albino is an individual whose skin lacks the power to secrete either the ferment or the chromogen. It forms one but not both of these substances... Not only do albinos thus carry the determinants (genes) for pattern, but it has been known for some time that they also carry gametically, but never visible somatically, the determinants (genes) for either the ferment (enzyme) or the chromogen (substrate) for one or more colours. L. Cuénot was the first to show this for albino mice."

Cuénot's studies on mice were cut short when German troops invaded the town of Nancy, where he kept his mouse colony. After the First World War he never returned to his studies on mice and moved on to designing a theory of evolution, halfway between en vogue French Lamarckism and Darwinism.

Selected publications

 * L'Adaptation (1925)
 * Le Transformisme [with Élie Gagnebin, Louis Marius Vialleton] (1927)
 * La Genèse des espèces animals (1932)
 * Variation et mutation en bactériologie (1932)

title: Lucien Cuénot


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Ringstead Bay

Ringstead Bay, with the small village of Ringstead at the eastern end and the prominent headland of White Nothe at the western end, is located on the coast in Dorset, southern England. The area lies on the Jurassic Coast and is known for its natural environment and fossils.

Ringstead Bay has a pebble and shingle beach with some sand. There are offshore reefs approximately 0.6 km in length at the western end opposite the village that are uncovered at low tide. This forms is intertidal zone between the low cliffs to the north and the English Channel to the south.

The Ringstead Coral Bed a geological formation exposed at Ringstead Bay, hence the name. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.

Immediately to the east are the white chalk cliffs of White Nothe, dominating the bay. Below is Burning Cliff. It is possible to walk to the top of White Nothe and back, with views of the bay and across to the Isle of Portland. It is also possible to walk to Ringstead Bay on a circular walk from Lulworth Cove to the east, via Durdle Door and White Nothe.

Ringstead Bay also has a nudist beach that is a 20-minutes walk east of the main Ringstead beach.

Access
Ringstead Bay is accessible by way of a private road with a car park at the end near the sea and Ringstead village. There is an alternative free car park in the National Trust area further inland, with footpath access to the sea via a 15–20 minute walk.

title: Ringstead Bay


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Gliadorphin

Gliadorphin (also known as gluteomorphin) is an opioid peptide that is formed during digestion of the gliadin component of the gluten protein. It is usually broken down into amino acids by digestion enzymes. It has been hypothesized that children with autism have abnormal leakage from the gut of this compound. This is partly the basis for the gluten-free, casein-free diet. Abnormally high levels of gliadorphin have been found in the urine of autistic children via mass spectrometry testing.

title: Gliadorphin


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Clement Hodgkinson

Clement Hodgkinson (1818 – 5 September 1893) was an English naturalist, explorer and surveyor of Australia. He was Victorian Assistant Commissioner of Crown Lands and Survey from 1861 to 1874.

Exploration in New South Wales
Qualified as a civil engineer, Hodgkinson left England in 1839 intending to become a pastoralist. After his arrival, he bought into a cattle station near Kempsey on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales. A year later, the Government of New South Wales hired Hodgkinson to survey and explore the northeastern areas of New South Wales as far as Moreton Bay. In March 1841 he explored the upper reaches of the Nambucca and Bellinger rivers, becoming in the process the first European to make contact with the local Aborigines there. He then followed the Macleay, Clarence, Hastings, Richmond and Tweed river valleys, visiting Port Macquarie, Brisbane and Moreton Bay. After returning to England, he published an account of his explorations, Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay, in 1845. In it he included observations about the Aboriginal tribal life he had witnessed and the natural history of the areas he had explored, such as this description of rainforest:

"... the peculiar appearance of the brush is principally caused by the countless species of creepers, wild vines, and parasitical plants of singular conformation, which, interlaced and intertwined in inextricable confusion, bind and weave together the trees almost to their summits, and hang in rich and elegant flowering festoons from the highest branches. The luxuriant and vigorous character of the brush, on alluvial land, in the northern part of the territory of New South Wales, cannot be surpassed in any tropical region. When this brushland is cleared, and cultivated, its fertility seems inexhaustible ..."

Hodgkinson concluded the chapter on his encounter with the Aborigines with the following observation:

"... indeed I think that all endeavours to make them adopt more settled habits will be useless, for what great inducement does the monotonous and toilsome existence of the labouring classes in civilized communities offer, to make the savage abandon his independent and careless life, diversified by the exciting occupations of hunting, fighting, and dancing."

He described the Bellinger River valley as "contain[ing] the finest cedar and rosewood I have ever seen" and noted the fierce defence local Aboriginal tribes would put up against encroachment from timber cutters. When Hodgkinson later returned to the valley, members of the Yarrahappinni accompanied him to assure the locals that his intentions were benign.

After exploring the southwest region of Sydney, He was able to secure a foothold in the Kirkham Rise Estate, to which, after a long drawn out tender process construction of a Bazyaric home will begin.

Landscape design of Melbourne's gardens
Hodgkinson must have appreciated his first stint exploring Australia. In the 1850s he again journeyed from England to the young colony of Victoria. In 1854 his wife, Amelia Diana Hunt, gave birth to a son. A year later his first wife was dead at the age of 26. In 1857 he married Anne Smart and they subsequently had several children, although not without the sadness of the death of a child.

In 1852, Hodgkinson joined the Survey Office as a draftsman and was appointed as District Surveyor for Victoria in 1855. As part of his surveying duties, the township of Warrandyte was laid out in 1856. In 1857-1858 he was the Surveyor General of Victoria.

St Vincent Gardens in Albert Park, now a nationally significant park, is an example of nineteenth century residential development around a landscaped square which Hodgkinson initially designed in 1857 and developed in 1864-1870.

In 1860 responsibility for the government reserves was exercised by Clement Hodgkinson, the new administrative head of the Lands Department, who took a detailed interest in the planning and development of the city parks, including Fitzroy Gardens. This started an extensive period of landscape design of Melbourne's parks and gardens including:

 * Prepared a plan in 1862 for the Flagstaff Gardens.
 * Designed and oversaw the development of the Fitzroy Gardens.
 * Queen Victoria provided the grant of land in 1865 for the Edinburgh Gardens, in Fitzroy North, which were subsequently laid out by Clement Hodgkinson
 * Designed the Treasury Gardens in 1867 as a pattern of diagonally crossing paths lined with trees, to emulate the Union Jack. Willow trees were planted around an ornamental pond.
 * Awarded the task of designing the St Kilda recreational reserve, known today as Alma Park in 1867.
 * Made minor changes to Edward La Trobe Bateman's design of the Carlton Gardens after the colonial government resumed control of the site from the Melbourne City Council. Soon afterwards, the gardens were drastically redesigned for the 1880 Melbourne International Exhibition by the Melbourne architect Joseph Reed and horticulturalist William Sangster. Areas cleared by demolition of temporary buildings from the Exhibitions (including the 1888 Centennial Exhibition), were designed by Hodgkinson, his bailiff Nicholas Bickford, and the later City of Melbourne curator of parks and gardens John Guilfoyle. The Carlton Gardens are now a listed World Heritage Site.
 * Other notable parks include Princes Park in Maryborough, which was a combined effort by a trio of important landscape designers in Victoria, Clement Hodgkinson, William Guilfoyle and Hugh Linaker.

In 1873, Hodkingson accepted the position of Inspector General of Metropolitan Parks and Reserves and a year later he retired. During his retirement he landscaped the Melbourne General Cemetery and in March 1882, joined the Melbourne Public Parks and Gardens Committee.

Managing Victoria's forests
During Hodgkinson's final years as Victorian Assistant-Commissioner of Crown Lands and Survey he established a programme of reservation, regulation, administration and education to control the use of Victoria's forests. The Central Forest Board was established to oversee the entire system on 6 March 1874, with Hodgkinson on the board. On 11 March 1874 Clement Hodgkinson retired from public service. In 1883 he briefly came out of retirement to sit on a new Committee of Management to inspect the City Gardens he had done so much to create.

Royal Society of Victoria
Hodgkinson was involved in what would become the Royal Society of Victoria, which discussed and advised the colonial government on scientific issues. One of his papers discussed at the Philosophical Institute held at the Museum of Natural History was titled On the favourable geological and chemical nature of the principal rocks and soils of Victoria, in reference to the production of ordinary cereals and wine. Other papers presented included on Hydrometry, and the Geology of the Upper Murray area. Historian Georgina Whitehead has argued that his most notable contribution as a member was to argue, along with Secretary for Mines, Robert Brough Smyth, the need to use Australian rather than European calculations of evaporation and precipitation to site Melbourne’s first reservoir, leading the government to choose Yan Yean.

Hodgkinson was Vice-President of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria in 1856 and again in 1858, and Council Member of the Royal Society of Victoria in 1859-1860.

Hodgkinson 1860 he was a member of the Royal Society's Exploration Committee which organised the Burke and Wills expedition.

Tributes
Hodgkinsonia ovatiflora, commonly referred to as Hodgkinsonia or Golden ash was named after Clement Hodgkinson. The species is found from the Hastings River, NSW to Mackay, Queensland. It grows in Subtropical, dry and littoral rainforest, and also open forest.

In 1858, John Hardy named Olinda creek after Alice Olinda Hodgkinson, the daughter of Clement Hodgkinson. Subsequently the suburb of Olinda was named after the creek.

title: Clement Hodgkinson


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Lustreware

Lustreware or lusterware (the respective spellings for British English and American English) is a type of pottery or porcelain with a metallic glaze that gives the effect of iridescence. It is produced by metallic oxides in an overglaze finish, which is given a second firing at a lower temperature in a "muffle kiln", or a reduction kiln, excluding oxygen.

The technique of lustreware on pottery was first developed in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) in the early 9th century. Initially mostly decorated with geometric patterns, by the 10th century an Iraqi style with the design dominated by one or two large figures developed. After the Fatimid conquest of Egypt in 969, it became a great centre of lustreware production until the Fatimid Caliphate fell in 1171, soon after the potter's quarter of the capital Fustat (Cairo) was burned in 1169. It is thought that the Fustat potters dispersed to both Syria and Persia, and lustreware appears there about this time; later the devastating conquests of the Mongols and Timur disrupted these industries. The technique had spread to al-Andalus (the Islamic Iberian Peninsula). Hispano-Moresque ware in lustre was mostly produced in Christian Spain, especially in the region of Valencia – in particular Manises – and later Barcelona.

Lustre appears in Italian maiolica around 1500, and became a speciality of two relatively minor pottery towns, Gubbio, noted for a rich ruby-red, and Deruta. Around 1550 an even smaller town, Gualdo Tadino, also began to make some, for about a century, which was the last Renaissance lustre, Gubbio having stopped about 1570, and Deruta around 1630. There was a revival in England and other European countries in the late 18th century, when the techniques had largely to be reinvented, continuing into the 19th and beyond. Meanwhile Persian lustre, after very little production since the 14th century, revived under the Safavids between about 1650 and 1750, for elegant vessels, especially vases and bottles, densely painted with plant-based designs.

The lustreware effect is a final coating applied over the ceramic glaze, and fixed by a light second firing, applying small amounts of metallic compounds (generally of silver or copper) mixed with something to make it paintable (clay or ochre). This is then fired in a reducing atmosphere at a temperature high enough to "soften" the glaze from the first firing, and break down the metallic compounds, leaving a very thin ("perhaps 10 or 20 atoms thick") layer that is fused with the main glaze, but is mainly metal. Lustreware normally only uses one colour per piece, and the range is limited – a "gold" derived from silver compounds was historically the most common.

Process
In the classical process to make lustreware, a preparation of metal salts of copper or silver, mixed with vinegar, ochre, and clay is applied on the surface of a piece that has already been fired and glazed. The pot is then fired again in a kiln with a reducing atmosphere, at about 600 °C. The salts are reduced to metals and coalesce into nanoparticles. Those particles give the second glaze a metallic appearance.

The process has always been expensive and rather unpredictable, always requiring two firings, and often the use of expensive materials such as silver and platinum. The very thin layer of lustre is often delicate, and many types of lustreware are easily damaged by scratching removing the metallic layer, or by contact with acids, probably over time even the mild acids in food. Lustreware has therefore always been for display and occasional rather than heavy regular use, although by the 19th century it could be relatively cheap. Many pieces show the lustre effect only working correctly on parts of the surface, or not at all. Apparently these were still regarded as fit for sale.

Precedents in glass
Lustre decoration was first used as a glass-painting technique. Lamm (1941) and Clairmont (1977) placed the origin of motifs appearing on lusterware decoration in Coptic Egypt, however, this hypothesis is disputed. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD, although lustreware technology probably began sometime between the 8th and 9th centuries AD. The earliest recipe for luster production appeared in 8th century AD "Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuzna" by Jabir ibn Hayyan. Much of the knowledge of the behaviours of metallic compounds in turn came from metalworking, where cheaper substitutes for gold in gilding had been developed much earlier.

A fragment of lustre glass from Fustat is dated to the 779–780, and a bowl (Corning Museum of Glass) was made in Damascus between 718 and 814; otherwise we know little of the history of the technique on glass. Lustre was used in Islamic glass only briefly, and never spread to other areas as lustre on pottery did. A similar technique was used to make iridescent Art Nouveau glass, with more of a "rainbow" effect than a single shiny colour, from the late 19th century.

Mesopotamia
The first lustreware pottery was probably made under the Abbasid Caliphate in modern Iraq in the early 9th century, around Baghdad, Basra and Kufa. Most pieces were small bowls, up to about 16 cm wide, but fragments of larger vessels have been found, especially at the ruins of the Caliph's palace at Samarra, and in Fustat (modern Cairo). Fragments have been found as far away as Spain, North Africa, and Pakistan. Unlike the great majority of later lustreware, these very early pieces used three or four different lustre colours, from silver and copper compounds.

The earliest forms of lustreware were decorated with three to four colours, but as time went on the colours used was reduced to two. Recent studies have argued that the preference between polychrome and monochrome has to do with the price and availability of materials. This leads to more monochrome wares being produced over polychrome.

Early Islamic lustreware ceramics were predominately produced in Lower Mesopotamia during the ninth and tenth centuries. In the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, the upper part of the mihrab is adorned with polychrome and monochrome lustreware tiles; dating from 862 to 863, these tiles were most probably imported from Mesopotamia. The reminiscence of shining metal, especially gold, made lustreware especially attractive. The bowls were painted with ornamental patterns and designs. Some pieces were signed by their makers, this acted as an indication of the admiration towards each craftsman. Trading in the Middle East was very popular.

Abbasid lustreware was traded within the Islamic world. The city of Baghdad, Iran and surrounding cities were part of the Silk Road economic system of trading during this period. There was a movement of goods generated between Iraq and China which triggered artistic emulations both ends, as well as some transfers of technologies, notably in the realm of ceramics.

Some Abbasid lustreware can be differentiated by figural vs. vegetal design where some include icons and others show plant life. Some displayed both plants and figures. At this point in time, there was an aesthetic preference for completely covering the surface of objects with ornamental decoration, and this is also the case for lustreware ceramics. As lustreware made appearances in other cultures and countries, less decoration was introduced. Abbasid lustreware can either be polychrome, monochrome or bi-chrome when it comes to the colours featured in the ceramics. The polychrome and bi-chrome types are generally associated with the ninth century, while the monochrome type is associated with the late ninth or tenth century. The different colour types share the quality of the surfaces changing under different conditions. Abbasid potters would normally decorate polychrome bowls with vegetal and geometric patterns, while the monochrome bowls usually had large, centrally placed figures. They are visually sensitive and their appearance can change dramatically in particular conditions.

Fatimid Egypt
The Fatimid court in Egypt was large, rich, and extravagant, producing one of the great periods for lustreware, which was the only luxury type of pottery at the time. The clay-bodied earthenware used was "made from coarse clays" and mostly "fairly roughly made", but the best painting was very fine, and in the mature Fatimid style, characterised by "extraordinary liveliness". The painters may well have bought in standard glazed vessels made by others. The decoration was very varied, partly reflecting the mix of influences from the earlier Mesopotamian tradition, and the Fatimids' own origins to the West, in North Africa and Sicily, as well as the existence of a number of different workshops.

Only two pieces are datable, by inscriptions naming the patrons, both to early in the period, to the reign of Caliph al-Hakkim, 996–1021, for whom one piece was made. At this period the style was still developing from earlier pieces, but a new style with brighter, warmer, colours was probably established by the mid-century. Gold, red and orange colours evoked the sun and were regarded as auspicious, as were some of the animals who were painted.

Persia
Lustreware began to be made in Persia when it was part of the Seljuk Empire, whose ruling dynasty and top elite were ethnically Turkish. But Persia was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty, initially as vassals of the Seljuk, until in 1190 they severed these ties and ruled independently until the devastating Mongol conquest beginning in 1219. The fifty years from 1150 saw great developments in Iranian ceramics. Firstly the fritware body and the glazes used on it were greatly improved, which allowed thinner walls and some of the translucency of Chinese porcelain, which was already imported into Persia, and represented the main competition for local fine wares. This "white ware" body was used for a variety of styles of decoration, all showing great advances in sophistication. Apart from lustreware, the most luxurious type was mina'i ware, which used polychrome overglaze enamelling, the first pottery to do so. This also required a light second firing; some pieces combined the two techniques. The earliest dated Persian piece with lustre is from 1179. Although an influx of craftsmen from Fustat is usually predicated, these may have been painters rather than potters, as local vessel shapes and the Seljuk "white ware" body are always used. The main colour of lustre paint used was gold; this needs to be distinguished from the overglaze application of gold leaf found in many later mina'i pieces.

Lustreware was certainly made in Kashan, and this may well be the only place of production (as it probably was for mina'i ware). Though the Mongol invasion, reaching Kashan in 1224, seems to have greatly reduced production until the 1240s, to judge by dated pieces, it continued, initially with little change in style. This was not the case for mina'i ware, which virtually disappears after 1219.

A large part of Persian lustreware production was in the form of tiles, usually star-shaped, with central animal or human figures, mostly single or in pairs, and ornament around the edges, and sometimes inscriptions. An eight-pointed star was the norm, made in effect of two rectangles with one rotated, but six-pointed stars are also common. To fill a space with tiles, eight-pointed stars fitted with crosses with pointed arms. These lacked a large central area and contained either just ornament, or a number of small figures, usually birds of animals. Square tiles and other shapes are also found. The tiles were evidently produced in large numbers (and cemented to walls have no doubt survived better than vessels in use), and kashi or kashani "became the usual Persian word for a tile". The painting usually combined cobalt blue underglaze painting with overglaze lustre, and that of the figures is often rather slapdash on tiles compared to that on vessels.

Tile and vessel production continued under the Mongol Ilkhanids, with some decline in the quality of the body, glaze, lustre finish and painting, the "drawing became slightly heavier, and the mood less lyrical". There is a gap in dated tiles between 1224 and 1250, and examples cease in 1339, around when lustre production seems to have ceased, perhaps partly because of the arrival of the Black Death in Persia. Lustre on vessels was already in decline from about 1300. The Ilkhanids were by then treating lustre "more as a rich accompaniment to other colours than as a dominant pigment on its own".

After a gap of several centuries in Persian production, it was revived in the Safavid period from about the 1630s, in a rather different style, typically producing small pieces with designs often in a dark copper colour over a dark blue (cobalt) background. Unlike other Persian wares of the period, these use traditional Middle Eastern shapes and decoration rather than Chinese-inspired ones, and also do not take their shapes from metalware. Designs featured plant forms and animals, and generally flowed freely over the whole surface, typically taking up over half the surface area. Production, which was never large, appears to have mostly been from about 1650 to 1750, but with rather inferior wares produced into the 19th century. It is often thought to have been centred in Kirman, though firm evidence is lacking.

Syria
As in Persia, lustreware begins with the dispersal of Egyptian ceramic painters around 1170. The painting style continues to develop Fatimid styles and subjects, while the clay body and the vessel shapes are different, suggesting local potters worked with immigrant painters. This first type is known as Tell Minis ware, after the site where they were first excavated (but not necessarily where they were made). They begin near the end of the reign of Nur ad-Din of Aleppo (d. 1174), and the court may have deliberately fostered the bringing together of the craftsmen, perhaps including some from Persia. The designs are "mostly freely painted flowing compositions based on themes of good omen: sun-faces, fishes, crescent moons, figures of courtiers" and others.

Tell Minis ware ceases around 1200, which is about when a new and very different production began at Raqqa, lasting until the Mongols destroyed the city in 1259. Lustre was just one type of finish applied to some vessels from the usual types made there. In Raqqa ware the painting is mostly plant-based forms and inscriptions or "mock-lettering", geometrically structured to give "a dignified, monumental character". The wares do not seem to have a context in court patronage. The glazes were either clear, revealing an off-white body or white slip, or given various rather dark colours, usually thought to show later wares. The interplay between these dark glazes and lustre "made a world of shifting half-light, quiet and mysterious" that was probably influential on later Spanish and Italian wares with lustre over blue underglaze; some Syrian examples have been found in Europe.

After the fall of Raqqa the lustre technique later appeared in Damascus, until Timur sacked the city in 1401, bringing Syrian lustreware to an end. Damascus wares also reached Europe and in both Spain and Italy there are 15th-century documentary records describing local lustre wares by terms such as "a la domasquina... dauratos et de cafre argentatos" (a commission for a Manises potter, 1414). The similarities between Syrian and Spanish painting styles suggest some refugee painters may have reached Europe.

Islamic Spain
The expansion of lustreware to Western Europe can be attributed to the artisans of the Nasrid kingdom of Andalucía, the last Islamic stronghold in Western Europe situated in Spain. At the start of the thirteenth century, the differences in pottery between Christian and Muslim territories in Spain were drastically different. While the Muslim potters used techniques such as glazing, sgraffito, and lustreware, Christian pottery had minimal to no surface design. Additionally, the Muslim potters created a wide variety of ceramic goods ranging from toys to highly decorated jars, and the Christian potters stuck to plain vessel forms. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, Christian territories began adopting Muslim pottery techniques, including lustreware. Originating from Murcia and Malaga, Muslim lustreware potters in Spain had expanded their market across Europe by the late 14th century and were running a complex market of local, regional and exported goods. Referred to as obra de malica, or "Malaga work", their creations found a dedicated clientele among affluent families in Florence, Italy.

By the 15th century, Italian artisans acquired the techniques of lustreware production, yet the imported Islamic-Spaniard lustreware remained sought after, as Italian renditions were perceived as imitative of the Spanish imports. Nevertheless, towards the onset of the 16th century, Italian potters began infusing their own motifs and stylistic elements, beginning the golden era of Italian lustreware, known as Maiolica.

Modern lustreware
Metallic lustre of another sort produced English lustreware, which imparts to a piece of pottery the appearance of an object of silver, gold or copper. Silver lustre employed the new metal platinum, whose chemical properties were analyzed towards the end of the 18th century, John Hancock of Hanley, Staffordshire invented the application of a platinum technique, and "put it in practice at Mr Spode's manufactory, for Messrs. Daniels and Brown", about 1800. Very dilute amounts of powdered gold or platinum were dissolved in aqua regia and added to spirits of tar for platinum and a mixture of turpentine, flowers of sulfur and linseed oil for gold. The mixture was applied to the glazed ware and fired in an enameling kiln, depositing a thin film of platinum or gold.

Platinum produced the appearance of solid silver, and was employed for the middle class in shapes identical to those uses for silver tea services, ca. 1810–1840. Depending on the concentration of gold in the lustring compound and the under slip on which it was applied, a range of colours could be achieved, from pale rose and lavender, to copper and gold. The gold lustre could be painted or stenciled on the ware, or it could be applied in the resist technique, in which the background was solidly lustred, and the design remained in the body colour. In the resist technique, similar to batik, the design was painted in glue and size in a glycerin or honey compound, the lustre applied by dipping, and the resist washed off before the piece was fired.

Lustreware became popular in Staffordshire pottery during the 19th century, where it was also used by Wedgwood, who introduced pink and white lustreware simulating mother of pearl effects in dishes and bowls cast in the shapes of shells, and silver lustre, introduced at Wedgwood in 1805. In 1810 Peter Warburton of the New Hall porcelain factory patented a method of transfer-printing in gold and silver lustre. Sunderland lustreware in the North East is renowned for its mottled pink lustreware, and lustreware was also produced in Leeds, Yorkshire, where the technique may have been introduced by Thomas Lakin.

Wedgwood lustreware made in the 1820s spawned the production of mass quantities of copper and silver lustreware in England and Wales. Cream pitchers with appliqué-detailed spouts and meticulously applied handles were most common, and often featured stylized decorative bands in dark blue, cream yellow, pink, and, most rare, dark green and purple. Raised, multicoloured patterns depicting pastoral scenes were also created, and sand was sometimes incorporated into the glaze to add texture. Pitchers were produced in a range of sizes from cream pitchers to large milk pitchers, as well as small coffeepots and teapots. Tea sets came a bit later, usually featuring creamers, sugar bowls, and slop bowls.

Large pitchers with transfer printed commemorative scenes appear to have arrived around the middle of the 19th century. These were purely decorative and today command high prices because of their historical connections. Delicate lustre imitating mother of pearl was produced by Wedgwood and at Belleek in the mid-century, derived from bismuth nitrate.

Under the impetus of the Aesthetic Movement, William de Morgan revived lustrewares in art pottery, drawing from lustred majolica and Hispano-Moresque wares, with fine, bold designs.

In the United States, copper lustreware became popular because of its lustrousness. As gaslights became available to the rich, the fad was to place groupings of lustreware on mirror platforms to be used as centrepieces for dinner parties. Gaslights accentuated their lustrousness.

title: Lustreware


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Virginia and Tennessee Railroad

The Virginia and Tennessee Railroad was an historic gauge railroad in the Southern United States, much of which is incorporated into the modern Norfolk Southern Railway. It played a strategic role in supplying the Confederacy during the American Civil War.

Founding and early history
Built in the 1850s, the V&T ran completely through southwestern Virginia along a portion of the Great Valley of Virginia. The railroad extended westward from Lynchburg, through a gap in the Blue Ridge Mountains near the town of Big Lick (the present-day city of Roanoke); there, it turned southwestward and followed the Great Valley to Bristol, a total distance of 204 mi.

After the Virginia government refused to fund its construction (in part because it could adversely affect the James River Canal), the city of Lynchburg incorporated the railroad on March 24, 1848, as the Lynchburg and Tennessee Railroad. John R. McDaniel, who had previously put together the Lynchburg Gas Light Company and who had pledged his fortune to get it built, was its first president. Construction of the road bed began in 1850, and on February 18, 1852, the railroad's first locomotive (the "Virginia") was tested when it steamed out of Lynchburg's James River basin, climbing the nearby low mountains. Regular freight service was initiated not long afterwards. Construction of the railroad's entire length to Bristol was completed on October 1, 1856.

The Virginia and Tennessee stimulated rapid economic growth in the counties through which it ran, and also changed their political alignment to more closely resemble that in Richmond and the Tidewater area, rather than of other Virginia counties in the Appalachian mountain region (much less those in the Ohio River watershed where slavery was much less common and that became West Virginia during the Civil War). Bristol, formerly a small town on the Tennessee border, became a communication and commercial hub. During the 1850-1860 decade, southwest Virginia's population increased, and the proportion of those living in slavery increased 15%. Thus, while northwestern Virginia elected almost all firm opponents of secession to the Virginia Secession Convention of 1861, the Abingdon Democrat editorialized for secession, only to be disappointed at the number of "wait-a-bit" delegates elected from surrounding counties.

During the Civil War, Robert L. Owen Sr., who had been one of the engineers surveying for the railroad and who had risen through the ranks, succeeded McDaniel as president. The railroad became a key supply, food and troop movement route for the Confederate States Army, particularly from the capital of Richmond to the interior at Chattanooga, Tennessee. The V&T moved also key raw materials: copper from mines near Cleveland, Tennessee, lead from mines near Bristol, salt from Saltville, Virginia and saltpeter from caves throughout the region. Union forces finally captured much of the railroad and destroyed tracks and rolling stock in late 1864, although service was periodically interrupted by a series of cavalry raids earlier in the war.

The Mahone years
After the war, the road was rebuilt and came under the control of former Confederate general William Mahone, who was already leading the Southside Railroad and the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad. He was named president of the V&T by the end of 1867. Mahone desired to consolidate the three roads and build further west, and he worked for several years lobbying to get the needed legislation through the Virginia General Assembly.

In 1870, it became part of Mahone's Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad. The letters A, M & O were said to stand for "All Mine and Otelia's." The Mahones lived in Lynchburg during this time, but moved to Petersburg in or before 1880.

The A, M & O was initially profitable, but fell victim to the Financial Panic of 1873, like many other southern railroads. Mahone was initially able to placate the English and Scottish bondholders, but the relationship soured in 1875. After several years of operating under receiverships, Mahone's role as a railroad builder ended in 1881 when Northern interests purchased the A, M, & O and renamed it Norfolk and Western.

Mahone was able to arrange for a portion of the state's proceeds of the sale to help found a school to prepare teachers to help educate black children and former slaves. The Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute near Petersburg was forerunner of Virginia State College, which expanded to become Virginia State University.

20th Century and modern
Norfolk & Western Railway (N&W) was expanded west into the coalfields and eventually into a much larger system. One hundred years later, the N&W was combined with the Southern Railway, another profitable carrier, to form Norfolk Southern Corporation (NS) in 1982.

Today, much of the former Virginia and Tennessee Railroad remains in service for Norfolk Southern (NS). The Fortune 500 company, headquartered in Norfolk, transports bituminous coal, intermodal freight transport/shipping containers, automobile parts and completed vehicles, and other commodities in the 21st century global transportation markets.

title: Virginia and Tennessee Railroad


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title: User talk:138.253.184.200


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Recolouring of Image:Five color map.png.

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Saat Hindustani

Saat Hindustani is a 1969 Indian Hindi-language action film written, directed, and produced by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas. The film portrays the heroic story of seven Indians who attempt to liberate Goa from the Portuguese colonial rule. The film stars an ensemble cast led by Madhu, Utpal Dutt, Jalal Agha, Anwar Ali, Madhukar, Amitabh Bachchan (in his film debut), and Shehnaaz.

Plot
A Muslim poet, Anwar Ali, from Bihar and five other men, all belonging to different religions and parts of India, join their seventh comrade Maria, a native of the Portuguese-occupied Goa, to raise nationalist sentiments in the state by hoisting Indian flags on Portuguese forts and buildings.

Cast

 * Madhu as Shubodh Sanyal
 * Utpal Dutt as Joginder Nath
 * Jalal Agha as Sakharam Shinde
 * Anwar Ali as Ram Bhagat Sharma
 * Madhukar as Mahadevan
 * Amitabh Bachchan as Anwar Ali
 * Shehnaaz as Maria (as Shahnaz)
 * A. K. Hangal as Doctor
 * Dina Pathak as Mrs. J. Nath
 * Prakash Thapa as Tax Inspector
 * Kanu Sarswat

Soundtrack
The film's music was composed by J. P. Kaushik and Kaifi Azmi was the lyricist. Songs were sung by Mahendra Kapoor.

Awards

 * National Film Awards
 * Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration
 * National Film Award for Best Lyrics - Kaifi Azmi

title: Saat Hindustani


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Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi

Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi ( – Muštāq Ẹḥmad Yoūsufi, 4 September 1923 – 20 June 2018) was a Pakistani Urdu satirist and humourist. Yousufi also served as the head of several national and international governmental and financial institutions. He received the Sitara-i-Imtiaz Award in 1999 and the Hilal-i-Imtiaz Award in 2002, the highest literary honour given by the Government of Pakistan.

Early life and career
Yusufi was born in a learned family of Jaipur, Rajasthan, on 4 September 1923. From his paternal side, he was Pashtun of the Yusufzai clan, while from his maternal side he was a Rajput of the Rathore clan. His father, Abdul Karim Khan Yusufi, was chairman of the Jaipur Municipality, and later Speaker of the Jaipur Legislative Assembly. Yusufi completed his early education in Rajputana and earned BA from Agra University while MA Philosophy and LL.B. from Aligarh Muslim University. After the partition of India and formation of Pakistan, his family migrated to Karachi, Pakistan.

He joined Muslim Commercial Bank in 1950, became deputy general manager. Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi joined Allied Bank Ltd in 1965 as managing director. In 1974, he became president of United Bank Ltd. In 1977, he became chairman of the Pakistan Banking Council.

He was awarded Quaid-i-Azam Memorial Medal for distinguished services in banking.

Works
His Urdu novel Aab-e-Gum was translated in English as 'Mirages of the Mind' by Matt Reeck and Aftab Ahmad.

Other famous Urdu books of his are Chiragh Talay (چراغ تلے), Khakam Badahan (خاکم بدہن), Zarguzasht (زرگزشت), Sham e Shair Yaran (شام شعر یاراں).

Considering the standard of previous works of Yousafi, Sham e Shair Yaran turned out to be a great disappointment for many Yousafi lovers. Mr Yusufi himself mentioned that he was not satisfied yet with the book but due to his frail health, everyone insisted on having it published on as is basis.

Contemporary comments
Ibn-e-Insha, himself an Urdu satirist and humorist, wrote about Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi: "...if ever we could give a name to the literary humour of our time, then the only name that comes to mind is that of Yusufi!" Another scholar, Dr Zaheer Fatehpuri, wrote, "We are living in the 'Yousufi era' of Urdu literary humour..." The Yousufi era started in 1961 when Yousufi's first book Chiragh Talay was published. So far 11 editions of this book have appeared. It has a foreword titled 'Pehla pathhar' written by the author himself plus 12 satirical and humorous articles. In 2008, he was living in Karachi and often appeared on TV programmes as well as seminars. His fifth book Shaam-e-Shair-e-Yaaran (2014) was launched at the Arts Council of Pakistan in Karachi in 2014 at a ceremony presided over by a well-known writer Zehra Nigah who said at the event, "Neither Yousufi sahib nor any of his books will ever get old". Another distinguished writer from Pakistan, Iftikhar Arif, also spoke on this occasion. A major English-language daily newspaper in Karachi called him "a wordsmith par excellence".

Death
On 20 June 2018, after a protracted illness he died in Karachi aged 94. On 21 June 2018, he was laid to rest after his funeral prayer was offered in Sultan masjid in DHA, Karachi.

Awards and recognition

 * Sitara-i-Imtiaz (Star of Excellence) Award in 1999 by the President of Pakistan
 * Hilal-i-Imtiaz (Crescent of Excellence) Award in 2002 by the President of Pakistan
 * Quaid-i-Azam (Memorial Medal)
 * Pakistan Academy of Letters Award for 'Best Book' in 1990
 * Hijra Award
 * Adamjee Literary Award for 'Best Book'

title: Mushtaq Ahmad Yusufi


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Talk:Lonsdale (clothing)

Date ambiguity
The term "mid 2000s" can refer to any of 3 things:

• around 2005

• around 2050

• around 2500

Although the latter two do not make any sense yet in relation to the article, it may be better to refer to "the mid 2000s decade" for the sake of disambiguation. Alastair.callum (talk) 11:14, 12 March 2010 (UTC) Alastair.callum

Reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alastair.callum (talk • contribs) 11:28, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

Netherlands

 * It is far not only in the Netherleands (for example it is the same in Hungary).--84.0.240.4 20:23, 6 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I'll be extending the article by translating extended information from the Dutch article (Lonsdale). This should be complete sometime within the next 24 hours. --Hooloovoo 13:56, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Done --Hooloovoo 15:09, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't know why there's no reference to Dutch neo-Nazi's in this article. It seems to me to be a well known connection and should be mentioned so I've put it in--Charlie Perry 23:34, 4 November 2005 (UTC).--143.238.78.177 23:33, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

Overall improvements
I am just wondering about this article as a whole. To be honest, it is quite curious and in my opinion, grossly misleading or unbalanced.

After all, Lonsdale is a boxing equipment manufacturer. Actually, one of the very few manufacturers who can provide everything form whole boxing rings to hand wraps. Certainly, it is not a clothing company who just happens to manufacture boxing equipment, but a boxing equipment manufacturer, who happens to manufacture clothing.

However, this article appears to emphasise subjective and geographically limited cultural aspects of the brand, links to neo-nazis and the like, while simply overlooking boxing equipment.

I would like to suggest that this article is divided in two or three sections. One discussing origins of the brand, one related to boxing equipment and one to cultural aspects. Or perhaps, one discussing boxing equipment, one related cultural aspects.

How would that be? --Thermos (talk) 15:16, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I think those proposed edits sound suitable. I agree that the entry is misleading, especially as it appears to be very heavily skewed towards the Neo-Nazi adoption of the brand.
 * With regards to whether or not Lonsdale should be classed as a boxing brand as opposed to a clothing brand, it would be in line with their primary focus of being a boxing equipment company. It seems that their clothing is manufactured in the context of it being sold to boxers as "equipment" (for training sessions and so on), rather than as a fashion item. Although it is likely that people are buying Lonsdale clothing for fashion purposes. A point of comparison would be Everlast_(boxing), a similar company whose output also covers professional boxing equipment. It would probably make sense to have the company listed under boxing as opposed to clothing.
 * As you suggested. The entry also definitely needs to have clearer defined sections. There needs to be a distinction made between the descriptive information regarding Lonsdale that covers them as a company and the cultural and social issues surrounding the brand.
 * I think the biggest issue with the page is the references to the Neo-Nazi use of the brand; as it stands the mention of the "Lonsdale Youth" seems to be very poorly dealt with and quite one-sided. It's definitely an issue that should be covered given the magnitude of the association especially in parts of Europe where the issue has received a lot of public attention. I feel that the entire Neo-Nazi link needs to be dealt with in a separate section as it can be considered an isolated issue separate from the brand itself. I also feel that more research needs to be done on what Lonsdale's reaction to this link is. It appears that Lonsdale has tried to take steps to publicly condemn the associations with Neo-Nazi groups and, in the interests of objectivity, their response needs to be covered as well.
 * Generally, the article needs developing. I think the 'Lonsdale Youth' section would be a good place to start. What does everyone else think? --Brother Kaif (talk) 16:42, 18 December 2009 (UTC)

 * I have separated the entry into clearer sections. This should give the entry a bit more structure to work with whilst developing this article. I'm not sure what to call the section that deals with the Neo-Nazi association. I have named the section "Lonsdale Youth" association so as to differentiate that social issue from the information regarding the brand itself. Any suggestions for how the section should be named are welcome. I'm going to do some research and develop the History section next. --Brother Kaif (talk) 11:42, 21 December 2009 (UTC)

 * I've made a number of changes to the article, mostly focussed on the area regarding the neo-nazi controversy. Added a few more sources for citation and also consolidated a few sections together. Would like to develop the history section a bit more but there seems to be a serious lack of sources available for that which is a shame. I think that my references might need tidying up (I'm still new to this!).--Brother Kaif (talk) 18:13, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Added slightly more detailed company info. Information has already been sourced from the citations referred in the article. --Brother Kaif (talk) 10:29, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lonsdale (clothing)


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Reginald Scot

Reginald Scot (or Scott) (c. 1538 – 9 October 1599) was an Englishman and Member of Parliament, the author of The Discoverie of Witchcraft, which was published in 1584. It was written against the belief in witches, to show that witchcraft did not exist. Part of its content exposes how (apparently miraculous) feats of magic were done, and the book is often deemed the first textbook on conjuring.

Life
He was son of Richard Scot, second son of Sir John Scott (died 1533) of Scots Hall in Smeeth, near Ashford in Kent. His mother was Mary, daughter of George Whetenall, sheriff of Kent in 1527. His father died before 1544, and his mother remarried Fulk Onslow, clerk of the parliament; dying on 8 October 1582, she was buried in the church of Hatfield, Hertfordshire. Reginald or Reynold (as he signed his name in accordance with contemporary practice) was born about 1538.

When about seventeen, Scot entered Hart Hall, Oxford, but left the university without a degree. His writings show some knowledge of law, but he is not known to have joined any inn of court. Marrying in 1568, he seems to have spent the rest of his life in his native county. His time was mainly passed as an active country gentleman, managing property which he inherited from his kinsfolk about Smeeth and Brabourne, or directing the business affairs of his first cousin, Sir Thomas Scot, who proved a generous patron, and in whose house of Scots Hall he often stayed. He was collector of subsidies for the lathe (county subdivision) of Shepway in 1586 and 1587, and he was perhaps the Reginald Scot who acted in 1588 as a captain of untrained foot-soldiers at the county muster. He was returned to the parliament of 1588–89 as member for New Romney, and he was probably a justice of the peace. He describes himself as "esquire" in the title-page of his Discoverie, and is elsewhere designated "armiger".

Scot married at Brabourne, on 11 October 1568, Jane Cobbe of Cobbes Place, in the parish of Aldington. By her he had a daughter Elizabeth, who married Sackville Turnor of Tablehurt, Sussex. Subsequently, Scot married a second wife, a widow named Alice Collyar, who had a daughter called Mary by her former husband.

Scot made his own will (drawing it with his own hand) on 15 September 1599. He died at Smeeth on 9 October following, and was probably buried in the church of St. Mary the Virgin, Brabourne, with his first wife Jane. His small properties about Brabourne, Aldington, and Romney Marsh he left to his widow. The last words of his will run: "Great is the trouble my poor wife hath had with me, and small is the comfort she hath received at my hands, whom if I had not matched withal I had not died worth one groat."

Doctrine and espoused belief
In the Discoverie, Scot aligns himself with Reformed Protestantism, quoting John Calvin more than a dozen times. Calvin in turn was echoing the skepticism toward superstitions of early English reformer John Wycliffe. Scot expresses what is often called the Providential view in stating that "it is neither a witch, nor devil, but glorious God that maketh the thunder...God maketh the blustering tempests and whirlwinds..." This doctrine was also aligned with the tenth-century Canon Episcopi and Scot quotes from it. In the last half of the sixteenth century, an active theological debate continued from various pulpits throughout Europe – Calvinist, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic – between those who supported the skeptical Episcopi/Providential tradition and those who believed that witches could obtain real supernatural powers through an agreement or pact with the devil. The latter belief in the power of witches, and an intense phobia toward them, was associated by Scot with the book Malleus Maleficarum by the German inquisitor Heinrich Kramer, and upon this book Scot focuses the most criticism, and lumps others aligned with the same view of witchcraft: "...from whom [Jean] Bodin and all the other writers... do receive their light..."

A late twentieth-century historian argues that Scot was likely influenced by, and perhaps a member of, the Family of Love. An intriguing clue to this theory is the name Abraham Fleming written backwards (Gnimelf Maharba) in Scot's lengthy bibliography in the front pages of the Discoverie.

About hops cultivation
In 1574 he published his Perfect Platform of a Hop-garden, and necessary instructions for the making and maintenance thereof, with Notes and Rules for Reformation of all Abuses. The work, which is dedicated to Serjeant William Lovelace of Bethersden in Kent, is the first practical treatise on hop culture in England; the processes are illustrated by woodcuts. Scot, according to a statement of the printer, was out of London while the work was going through the press. A second edition appeared in 1576, and a third in 1578.

About witchcraft and magic
His work on witchcraft was The Discoverie of Witchcraft, wherein the Lewde dealing of Witches and Witchmongers is notablie detected, in sixteen books … whereunto is added a Treatise upon the Nature and Substance of Spirits and Devils, 1584. Scot enumerates 212 authors whose works in Latin he had consulted, and twenty-three authors who wrote in English. He studied the superstitions respecting witchcraft in courts of law in country districts, where the prosecution of witches was constant, and in village life, where the belief in witchcraft flourished. He set himself to prove that the belief in witchcraft and magic was rejected alike by reason and religion, and that spiritualistic manifestations were either wilful impostures or illusions due to mental disturbance in the observers. The book also includes several chapters describing conjuring and sleight of hand tricks in detail.

title: Reginald Scot


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Talk:University of Warwick Students' Union

Students' Union / Association sabs list deletion

 * I've started a discussion on Chriscf's Talk Page as this involve all the union's page. Please go there to provide your opinion if you're interested. -- KTC 16:04, 12 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I will be removing the above discussion from my talk page. User talk pages are for personal communication.  They are not for conducting general content debates.  Feel free to start a discussion in the Wikipedia namespace, but this is not an appropriate discussion for user pages. Chris talk back 16:01, 19 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Discussion was needed because of your unilateral deletion on multiple pages. So in a sense, your talk page does fit for purpose. Anyhow, it's now at Talk:Students Union -- KTC 03:46, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

Warwick Student Cinema
Firstly, it being the 'largest' society in the Union is somewhat contentious, as its 'members' are in practice 'users'. Thoughts?

Also, this section is about the Union's buildings, and WSC (as stated) isn't in them. So is its inclusion irrelevant? -- CyberCD 13th April 2006

Societies
I have added some more information, linking to the full list of Societies and Clubs running at present.--Shastrix 13:58, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Updated the number of socities and sports clubs as well as correcting the links for each. --Shastrix 19:27, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Somebody really has an axe to grind, don't they?
Why should the "criticism" section go into such detail on points that can be and are leveled (rightly or wrongly) at pretty much any student political organisation? Low turnout, the rather odd nature of Sabb positions, and so on are hardly unique to Warwick. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.82.83.149 (talk • contribs) 22:20, 25 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree. It's a bit ridiculous to have such a long list, especially as none of the gripes have been cited. If it doesn't get sorted out soon, I'll trim the section. 82.3.220.150 (talk) 20:30, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

large amount of content removed
Large amount of content removed by JamesBWatson] "(Removing content which is of interest perhaps to members, but not of general encyclopaedic value. This is an encyclopaedia article, not a prospectus or brochure for the union.)"

I feel that some of this content was encyclopaedic and should be reinstated.

John Cross (talk) 22:28, 15 November 2012 (UTC)
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Warwick_Students%27_Union&curid=389846&diff=523209262&oldid=523153551


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Talk:Congress

disambig
Considering that this page talks about a number of different things, perhaps this should be rewritten as a disambiguation page, and a main article about the political ones.DGG 04:09, 11 October 2006

Cost of buying congress
Has anyone put together a cost analysis for buying votes in congress? How much does it cost? Is it dependent on how controversial the vote is? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.109.195.126 (talk) 22:57, 14 February 2009 (UTC)

Huh?
Can someone please explain what this means: "A congress is different from a president (Westminster System of Government) in that legislative initiative is vested into it."

I also note that Congressional system is a Redirect to Presidential system: should it be? --Mais oui! 08:41, 13 October 2006 (UTC)

Diagrams
The article on Parliament added a map of the world highlighting countries that have a parliament. Something similar for Congress would be good. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 63.87.213.98 (talk) 20:53, 29 December 2006 (UTC).

HOLA
Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.131.76.130 (talk) 19:23, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

Hey
—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned] comment added by 67.131.76.130 (talk) 19:25, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

Bipartisan Congress
I've noticed there isn't anything here about bipartisan congresses which are common in presidential systems. --Trrri333 (talk) 23:42, 30 January 2010 (UTC)

Does congress people make one law? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.138.203.97 (talk) 01:33, 4 March 2010 (UTC)

Parliamentary Systems
When a national legislature is referred to as a "Congress" does that necessarily refer to a presidential system? In other words, is the term "Congress" necessarily distinct from the term "Parliament"? If so, it should be the first thing mentioned in this article. If not, this article should be deleted and replaced with a disambiguation page. The generic term would then be "legislature" not "Congress." Bostoner (talk) 03:28, 21 March 2011 (UTC)

Future/scope of this article
I have reverted the bold removal of virtually all the content. Such established articles merit discussion first. Please offer arguments in this section. The article is, admittedly, a mess and something does need to be done. My preferred action would be a move to List of congresses with a definition of scope and the consequential significant editing. An alternative would be to cut down into List of political congresses, for example, if having all congresses together is considered too broad in scope. TerriersFan (talk) 19:03, 1 December 2012 (UTC)

baboons
Isn't this also a older name for the social gathering of baboons? --41.151.210.218 (talk) 18:41, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Congress


text:
John Heysham Gibbon

John Heysham Gibbon (September 29, 1903 – February 5, 1973) was an American surgeon best known for inventing the heart–lung machine and performing subsequent open-heart surgeries which revolutionized heart surgery in the twentieth century. He was the son of Dr. John Heysham Gibbon Sr., and Marjorie Young Gibbon (daughter of General Samuel Young), and came from a long line of medical doctors including his father, grandfather Robert, great-grandfather John and great-great grandfather.

Early years and education
Gibbon was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 29, 1903. Descended from the Gibbon family, who first arrived in Philadelphia from Wiltshire, England in 1684, his father was a surgeon at Pennsylvania Hospital and the Hospital of Jefferson Medical College.

Gibbon was the second oldest of four children and grew up attending the Penn Charter School in Philadelphia. He entered Princeton University at 16 and received his AB in 1923. He went to medical school at Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia and received his MD in 1927. He completed his internship at Pennsylvania Hospital from 1927 to 1929.

Research and the heart-lung machine
Gibbon completed a research fellowship in surgery at Harvard Medical School under Edward Delos Churchill from 1930–31 and 1933–34 and became an assistant surgeon from 1931-1942 at Pennsylvania Hospital and Bryn Mawr Hospital. It was during his research fellowship at Harvard in 1931 when he first developed the idea for a heart-lung machine. A patient had developed a massive pulmonary embolism following a cholecystectomy. The team, under Dr. Churchill, performed a pulmonary embolectomy on her but she did not survive. Gibbon believed that a machine that would have taken her venous blood, oxygenated it and returned it to her arterial system would have saved her. He began work on this machine experimenting on cats at Harvard and continued this research at the University of Pennsylvania. He was successful at maintaining cardiorespiratory function of cats for nearly four hours and published these results in 1937.

During World War II, Gibbon served as a surgeon in the Burma China India Theater, achieving the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and becoming chief of surgery at Mayo General Hospital.

Gibbon continued his research upon his return and on May 6, 1953, he was able to perform the first successful open heart procedure, an ASD closure, on an 18-year-old patient using total cardiopulmonary bypass. The patient lived for over 30 more years. For this achievement, he was awarded the Lasker Award in 1968 and the Gairdner Foundation International Award in 1960, the second and third most prestigious awards in medicine, respectively.

Career
After the war, Gibbon was appointed assistant professor at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945 before accepting the title of Professor of Surgery and Director of Surgical Research at Jefferson Medical College. In 1956, he was appointed the Samuel D Gross Professor of Surgery and Chief of Surgery of Jefferson Medical College and its hospital.

Gibbon retired in 1967 and died after a game of tennis in 1973 of a heart attack. His papers are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.

Personal life
Gibbon married Mary Hopkinson, daughter of painter Charles Hopkinson. His wife Mary was an assistant to his development of the heart-lung machine. They had four children: Mary, John, Alice and Marjorie. After his surgical career he retired in Lynnfield Farm in Media, PA, where he devoted himself to his hobbies - painting and poetry.

Titles and achievements

 * President of the American Surgical Association - 1954
 * President of the American Association of Thoracic Surgeons - 1960-61
 * President of the Society for Vascular Surgery - 1964-65
 * National Academy of Sciences - (elected, 1972)
 * Chairman of Annals of Surgery - 1947-57

Awards

 * Gairdner Foundation International Award - 1960
 * Lasker Award in clinical research - 1968
 * Dickson Prize - 1973

title: John Heysham Gibbon