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Grace Williams

Grace Mary Williams (19 February 1906 – 10 February 1977) was a Welsh composer, generally regarded as Wales's most notable female composer, and the first British woman to score a feature film.

Early life
Williams was born in Barry, Glamorgan, the daughter of William Matthews Williams and Rose Emily Richards Williams. Both of her parents were teachers; her father was also a noted musician. She learned piano and violin as a girl, playing piano trios with her father and her brother Glyn, and accompanying her father's choir. At the County School she began to develop her interest in composition under the guidance of the music teacher Miss Rhyda Jones, and in 1923 she won the Morfydd Owen scholarship to the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire (now Cardiff University), where she studied under Professor David Evans. In 1926 she began studying at the Royal College of Music, London, where she was taught by Gordon Jacob and Ralph Vaughan Williams. Other notable female composers studying with Vaughan Williams at the RCM were Elizabeth Maconchy, Dorothy Gow and Imogen Holst, the daughter of Gustav Holst. In 1930 she was awarded a travelling scholarship, and chose to study with Egon Wellesz in Vienna, where she remained till 1931.

Teaching and World War II
From 1932 Williams taught in London, at Camden Girls' School and the Southlands College of Education. During the Second World War, the students were evacuated to Grantham in Lincolnshire, where she composed some of her earliest works, including the Sinfonia Concertante for piano and orchestra, and her First Symphony. One of her most popular works, Fantasia on Welsh Nursery Tunes (1940) was written during this period. Sea Sketches for string orchestra, written in 1944 is the first work in her mature style. This music is vividly evocative of the sea, in all its variety of moods. In 1945, she returned to her home town, remaining there for the rest of her life, dedicating herself more or less full-time to composition.

In 1949, she became the first British woman to score a feature film, with Blue Scar. In 1960–61 she wrote her only opera, The Parlour, which was not performed until 1966. In the 1967 New Year's Honours, she turned down an offer of the OBE for her services to music.

Works
Williams' most enduringly popular work is Penillion, written for the National Youth Orchestra of Wales in 1955. She revisited some of the same ideas in her Trumpet Concerto of 1963. Despite the tradition of choral music in Wales, Williams' portfolio of compositions were largely orchestral or instrumental pieces. Ballads for Orchestra of 1968, written for the National Eisteddfod, held that year in her home town, has all the colour and swagger of a mediaeval court.

Outstanding amongst her vocal works are her setting of the Latin hymn, Ave Maris Stella, for unaccompanied SATB (1973), and Six Poems by Gerard Manley Hopkins, for contralto and string sextet (1958). The cycle is book-ended by two of Hopkins' best-known poems, Pied Beauty and Windhover, her music perfectly matching the rhythmic subtlety of the texts. These are amongst her most beautiful pieces, the soft melodic and harmonic undulations in Ave Maris Stella (Hail, Star of the Sea) suggesting as so often in her music the swelling of the ever-present sea. Welsh-language settings include Saunders Lewis's carol Rhosyn Duw, for SATB, piano and viola (1955), which she later incorporated into her large-scale choral work, Missa Cambrensis (1971).

Her last completed works (1975) were settings of Kipling and Beddoes for the unusual combination of SATB, harp and two horns. The last music she wrote is actually in her Second Symphony, originally composed in 1956, and substantially revised in 1975.

Legacy
BBC Radio 3 devoted their "Composer of the Week" segment to her during the second week of August 2006, the year of the centenary of her birth. This resulted in several new performances of long-unperformed works, including her Violin Concerto (1950) and her Sinfonia Concertante for piano and orchestra (1941).

March 2016 saw both the premiere modern performances of her large-scale Missa Cambrensis for soloists, chorus and orchestra (1971) and of her symphonic suite Four Illustrations for the Legend of Rhiannon (1939–40).

Recordings
Only a handful of Williams' works have been recorded. The Symphony No 1 (1943) was performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales conducted by Owain Arwel Hughes in a 3rd March 2008 broadcast. Her Second Symphony, Penillion, Sea Sketches and Fantasia on Welsh Nursery Tunes have been included in two Lyrita compilations, and several choral works, including Ave Maris Stella, were recorded for a Chandos Records collection. Ballads for Orchestra (1969) was recorded by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Baldur Brönnimann and was included in volume 15 issue number 3 of BBC Music Magazine.

An album of Williams' chamber music played by the violinist Madeleine Mitchell and the London Chamber Ensemble was released 2019. In January 2024 the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra under conductor John Andrews made the first studio recordings of Legend of Rhiannon (1939), Ballads for Orchestra and Castel Caenarfon (1969), for release later in 2024 on Resonus Classics. Also in 2024 an album of 29 of her songs was released in premiere recordings, including Stand forth, Seithenin, Fairground and her setting of Lights Out by Edward Thomas.

Principal works

 * Two Psalms for contralto, harp and strings (1927)
 * Phantasy Quintet for piano and string quartet (1928 ; 2nd prize at the Cobbett Competition 1928 )
 * Hen Walia, Overture for orchestra (1930)
 * Sonata for violin and piano (1930 ; rev. 1938)
 * Sextet for oboe, trumpet, violin, viola, cello and piano (c. 1931)
 * Sonatina for flute and piano (1931)
 * Suite for orchestra (1932)
 * Concert Overture (c. 1932)
 * Movement for Trumpet and chamber orchestra (1932)
 * Suite for nine instruments (flute, clarinet, trumpet, piano, two violins, viola, cello and double bass) (c. 1934)
 * Theseus and Ariadne, ballet (1935)
 * Elegy for String orchestra (1936 ; rev. 1940)
 * Four Illustrations for the Legend of Rhiannon, for orchestra (1939)
 * Fantasia on Welsh Nursery Tunes, for orchestra (1940)
 * Sinfonia Concertante for piano and orchestra (1941)
 * Symphony No. 1, in the form of Symphonic Impressions of the Glendower Scene in "Henry IV Part 1" (1943)
 * Sea Sketches, for String orchestra (1944)
 * Piano Concerto (unfinished ; one movement only) (1949)
 * The Dark Island, Suite for string orchestra (1949)
 * Violin Concerto (1950)
 * Variations on a Swedish Tune The Shoemaker for Piano and Orchestra (1950)
 * The Dancers, Choral Suite (1951)
 * Hiraeth, for harp (1951)
 * Three Nocturnes, for two pianos (1953)
 * Seven Scenes for Young Listeners, for orchestra (1954)
 * Penillion, for orchestra (1955)
 * Symphony No. 2 (1956 ; rev. 1975)
 * All Seasons shall be Sweet (1959)
 * The Parlour, opera (after Guy de Maupassant ) (1961)
 * Processional for orchestra (1962 ; rev. 1968)
 * Trumpet Concerto (1963)
 * Carillons, for oboe and orchestra (1965 ; rev. 1973)
 * Severn Bridge Variations (collective work) : Variation V (1966)
 * Ballads for Orchestra (1968)
 * Castell Caernarfon, for orchestra (1969)
 * Missa Cambrensis (1971)
 * Ave Maris Stella, for SATB chorus a cappella (1973)
 * Fairest of Stars, for soprano and orchestra (1973)

Personal life
During and after World War II, Williams experienced depression and other stress-related health problems. Grace Williams died at the age of 70 in February 1977, in Barry.

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User:John Godden/Sandbox

 * Sir John Watson Gibson OBE, civil engineer, worked in Sudan on the construction of the Sennar Dam and its associated canalization as part of the Gezira Irrigation Scheme and the Gebel Aulia Dam between 1922 and 1937 and during the war directed the construction of the breakwaters for the Mulberry harbours

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title: User:John Godden/Sandbox


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Rizal Park

Rizal Park (Liwasang Rizal), also known as Luneta Park or simply Luneta, is a historic urban park located in Ermita, Manila. It is considered one of the largest urban parks in the Philippines, covering an area of 58 ha. The site on where the park is situated was originally known as Bagumbayan during the Spanish colonial period. It is adjacent to the historic Walled City of Intramuros.

Situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay, the park plays a significant role in shaping the history of the Philippines. The execution of Filipino patriot José Rizal on December 30, 1896 in the same area fanned the flames of the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Kingdom of Spain. The park was officially named in his honor, and the monument enshrining his remains serves as the park's symbolic focal point. The declaration of Philippine independence from the United States was held here on July 4, 1946, as well as later political rallies, including those of Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino, the latter having culminated in the People Power Revolution of 1986.

Spanish colonial period
Rizal Park's history began in 1820 when the Paseo de Luneta was completed just south of the walls of Manila on a marshy patch of land next to the beach during the Spanish rule. Prior to the park, the marshy land was the location of a small town called Barrio Nuevo ("New Borough" or Bagumbayan in Tagalog) that dates back to 1601. The town and its churches, being close to the walled city, were strategically used as cover by the British during their attack. The Spanish authorities anticipated the danger posed by the settlements that immediately surrounded Intramuros in terms of external attacks, yet Church officials advocated for these villages to remain. Because of the part they played during the British Invasion, they were cleared after the short rule of the British from 1762 to 1764. The church of Bagumbayan originally enshrined the Black Nazarene. Because of the order to destroy the village and its church, the image was then transferred to San Nicolas de Tolentino inside Intramuros, with a copy then translated to Quiapo Church. This has since been commemorated by the Traslación of the relic every January 9, which is more commonly known as the Feast of the Black Nazarene. This is why the processions of 9/11 January 9 have begun there in the park beginning in 2007. After the clearing of the Bagumbayan settlement, the area later became known as Bagumbayan Field where the Cuartel la Luneta (Luneta Barracks), a Spanish Military Hospital (which was destroyed by one of the earthquakes of Manila), and a moat-surrounded outwork of the walled city of Manila, known as the Luneta (lunette) because of its crescent shape.

West of Bagumbayan Field was the Paseo de la Luneta (Plaza of the Lunette) named after the fortification, not because of the shape of the plaza which was a long 100 x rectangle ended by two semicircles. It was also named Paseo de Alfonso XII (Plaza of Alfonso XII), after Alfonso XII, King of Spain during his reign from 1874 to 1885. Paseo de la Luneta was the center of social activity for the people of Manila in the early evening hours. This plaza was arranged with paths and lawns and surrounded by a wide driveway called "La Calzada" (The Road) where carriages circulate.

During the Spanish period from 1823 to 1897 most especially in the latter part, the place became notorious for public executions. A total of 158 political enemies of Spain were executed in the park. On February 17, 1872, three Filipino priests, Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, collectively known as Gomburza, were executed by garrote, accused of subversion arising from the 1872 Cavite mutiny.

American colonial period

It was during the American colonial period in the Philippines, when the Rizal Park's main landmark, the Rizal Monument was built. On September 28, 1901, the United States Philippine Commission approved Act No. 243, which would erect a monument in Luneta to commemorate the memory of José Rizal, Filipino patriot, writer and poet. The shrine was inaugurated on December 30, 1913, coinciding with Rizal's 17th death anniversary.

The park, particularly the area that was then called Wallace Field (formerly Paseo de San Carlos, ), was also chosen as the site of a national government center by Daniel Burnham, architect and city planner, who was commissioned by William Howard Taft to do the city plan of Manila in 1902. According to Burnham's plan, government buildings to be built in the park will have Neo-classical edifices with Greco-Roman columns. A large Capitol building, which was envisioned to be the Philippine version of the United States Capitol, was to become its core. It was to be surrounded by other government buildings, but only two of those buildings were built around Agrifina Circle, facing each other. They are the Department of Agriculture (now the National Museum of Anthropology) and the Department of Finance (later became the Department of Tourism and now the National Museum of Natural History). These two buildings were completed before the Second World War. The park was also intended to become a Philippine version of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., with the planned building of the government offices.

The site also served as a venue of the Manila Carnival and various expositions prior to the outbreak of World War II.

Post-Commonwealth era

In August 1954, President Ramon Magsaysay created the Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission to organize and manage the celebrations for the centennial of José Rizal's birth. Its plans include building a grand monument of José Rizal and the Rizal Memorial Cultural Center that would contain a national theater, a national museum, and a national library at the Luneta. The site was declared a national park on December 19, 1955, by virtue of Proclamation No. 234 signed by Magsaysay. The Luneta National Park spans an area of approximately 16.24 ha covering the area surrounding the Rizal Monument. The Commission of Parks and Wildlife (now Biodiversity Management Bureau) managed the site upon its establishment as a protected area.

In 1957, President Carlos P. Garcia issued Proclamation No. 470 transferring the administration of the national park to the Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission. In 1961, in commemoration of Rizal's birth centennial, the National Library was inaugurated at the park. Its management was then handed over to the National Parks Development Committee, an attached agency of the Department of Tourism, created in 1963 by President Diosdado Macapagal.

In 1967, the Luneta National Park was renamed to Rizal Park with the signing of Proclamation No. 299 by President Ferdinand Marcos. Through donations by the Taiwanese and Japanese governments, the Chinese and Japanese Gardens were set up during Marcos' administration. The Rizal Park under NPDC executive director Teodoro Valencia was expanded. Valencia introduced the "Concert at the Park" event series during his management.

On June 12, 1998, the park hosted many festivities which capped the 1998 Philippine Centennial, the event commemorating a hundred years since the Declaration of Independence from Spain and the establishment of the First Philippine Republic. The celebrations were led by then President Fidel V. Ramos.

Contemporary history

Rizal Park was renovated by the National Parks Development Committee in 2011. The German-Filipino William Schaare, who built the old musical dancing fountain at the 40 x pool in the 1960s, handled its restoration. Among the other things that were restored were the Flower Clock (now known as the World-Class Filipino Bloom), the Noli Me Tangere Garden and the Luzviminda Boardwalk, which were opened just in time for the 150th birthday celebration of Jose Rizal.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Rizal Park was temporarily closed to the public in March 2020. The COVID-19 community quarantine measures allowed the NDPC to rehabilitate the park. Select sites within the park were later opened. The Manila COVID-19 Field Hospital was also built in the park's Burnham Green, as a temporary facility.

Notable events

 * February 18, 1981 – The beatification mass of Saint Lorenzo Ruiz and companions, it is considered the first beatification ceremony ever held outside the Vatican in the church history during the apostolic visit of Pope John Paul II.
 * February 16, 1986 – Various mass protests like the Tagumpay ng Bayan rally were held in the park as opposition to the rule of Ferdinand Marcos. This culminated into the People Power Revolution.
 * January 15, 1995 – The closing Mass of the 10th World Youth Day 1995 was held here attended by more than 4 million people. This is the record gathering of the Roman Catholic Church.
 * June 12, 1998 – The Philippine Centennial Celebrations featured a Grand Centennial Parade culminating in a fireworks display emanating from ships in Manila Bay that was the most expensive ever produced in the country at the time. Rizal Park had over five million celebrating the one hundredth anniversary of the Philippine Declaration of Independence
 * December 31, 1999 – January 1, 2000 – The turn-of-the-century celebration was held here attended by more than 500,000 people.
 * October 10, 2004 – The special episode of SOP for the Kapuso Victory Party was held here and aired on GMA Network.
 * November 27, 2005 – Rizal Park was the venue of the opening ceremony for the 2005 Southeast Asian Games at the Quirino Grandstand. It was held at an open-air park instead of a stadium, a historic first for a Southeast Asian games' opening ceremony. It was again used on December 5, 2005, for the games' closing ceremony.
 * August 23, 2010 – The park was the site of the 11-hour hostage crisis where a Hong Thai Travel Services tour group on a coach was hijacked by Rolando Mendoza, causing 9 casualties (including Mendoza) and 9 injuries.
 * August 22–26, 2013 – The Million People March was held in the park, and other different locations, to protest against the improper use of Priority Development Assistance Fund.
 * January 18, 2015 – The concluding mass of the papal visit of Pope Francis was held here attended by more than 6 million people, making it the largest papal gathering in history.
 * January 28, 2024 – The launching of Bagong Pilipinas campaign was held here attended by 3,100 people.
 * March 16, 2024 – The park was the site of the historic Guinness World Record for the largest human lung formation, with 5,596 participants attending an event to mark World Tuberculosis Day.

Recurring events

 * Monthly Flag-Raising Ceremony held every first Monday of the month at the Independence Flagpole for public – started October 2019.
 * The annual Independence Day (June 12), Rizal Day (December 30) and New Year's Eve (December 31) celebrations are held at the park.
 * The park was the traditional end of the Marlboro Tour (now known as the Tour de Filipinas), the national road bicycle racing event every April or May. Recently, the tour has ended in Baguio.
 * The park is also the host of the National Milo Marathon.
 * Presidential inaugurations are usually held in the park every June 30, six years starting from 1992.

Management
Rizal Park is managed, developed, and administered by the National Parks Development Committee.

Park layout

The park is divided into three sections:

Northeastern Section: This 16 ha section is designated as the National Museum Complex which includes the Agrifina Circle, and where the National Museum of Natural History and the National Museum of Anthropology are located.

Central Section: Located south of Maria Orosa Street is the 22 ha park proper that extends down up to Roxas Boulevard. This is where the Rizal Monument and several attractions such as the Open-Air Auditorium, Independence Flagpole, Central Musical and Dancing Fountain are located.

Southwestern Section: Includes the Burnham Green, a 10 ha open field, the Quirino Grandstand and the Manila Ocean Park along Manila Bay.

Gardens

 * Children's Playground, the section of the park built for kids, is located at the southeastern corner of the Rizal Park. The playground was also renovated in 2011.
 * Chinese Garden. An ornate Chinese-style gate, carved with swirling dragons, leads you into this whimsical garden which looks like it has been transported from old Peking. Along the lagoon constructed to simulate a small lake, are pagodas and gazebos that are set off by red pillars and green-tiled roofs and decorated with a profusion of mythical figures.
 * Japanese Garden. The gardens were built to promote friendship between Japan and the Philippines. Inside is nice place for pleasant walks around the Japanese style gardens, lagoon and bridge.
 * Noli me Tangere Garden, recently unveiled, It features the Heidelberg fountain where Rizal used to drink from when he was staying in Germany. It was donated as a symbol of Filipino-German friendship, The bust of Ferdinand Blumentritt can be found at the garden.
 * Orchidarium and Butterfly Pavilion, established in 1994, was a former parking lot developed into a one-hectare rainforest-like park. The Orchidarium showcases Philippines' rich collection of orchid species and butterflies. The pavilion is a favorite venue for weddings.

Event venues

 * Open-Air Auditorium, designed by national artist for architecture, Leandro Locsin, features performances provided for free to the general public by the National Parks Development Committee, Department of Tourism and People's Television. Free entertainment is also provided elsewhere in the park. Featured shows are a mix of performances from dance, theatre, to musical performances by local and foreign artists. This is also the venue for the Cinema in the Open-Air, which provides free showing of critically acclaimed films.
 * Quirino Grandstand, Originally called grand Independence Grandstand. It was designed by architect Juan M. Arellano, in preparation for the proclamation of Independence on July 4, 1946, and to avoid overcrowding in front of the Legislative Building during the inauguration of the Third Philippine Republic. It was designed in Neoclassical style. However, in 1949 Federico Illustre, chief architect at the Bureau of Public Works, modify the some designs of Arellano. It was completed on the reclaimed area along Manila Bay where President Elpidio Quirino was sworn in after winning the presidential election. Since then, newly elected Presidents of the Philippines traditionally take their oath of office and deliver their inaugural address to the nation in the grandstand, which was later renamed after President Quirino. Many important political, cultural and religious events in the post-war era have been held here.

 * Parade grounds and the Burnham Green, Parade grounds is a popular venue for fun run, races, motorcades and parades. The Burnham Green, named after American architect Daniel Burnham is a large open space in front of the Quirino grandstand, Designed to accommodate large crowd gatherings at the park, It also serves as picnic grounds and venue for different sports activities. The Narra tree planted by Pope Paul VI and the bronze statue of San Lorenzo Ruiz that was given by Pope John Paul II can be found in this area.

 * Valor's Hall/Bulwagan ng Kagitingan, situated at the light and sound complex, Its artistic landscape and design made it one of the top-pick venues for event and cocktail receptions.

Educational establishments

 * National Planetarium
 * National Museum of Natural HistoryThe_Philippine_National_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg]]
 * National Museum of Anthropology, on the building north of Agrifina Circle, are the Anthropology and Archeology collections of the National Museum of the Philippines.
 * National Library of the Philippines is the country's premier public library. The library has a history of its own and its rich Filipiniana collections are maintained by the librarians to preserve the institution as the nations fountain of local knowledge and source of information for thousands of students and everyday users in their research and studies.
 * National Museum of Fine Arts, located on the northeastern tip of Rizal Park, is an art museum of the National Museum of the Philippines.
 * Manila Ocean Park is an oceanarium located in the westernmost part of Luneta behind the Quirino Grandstand and along Manila Bay. The complex opened on March 1, 2008.

Rizal Monument

The bronze-and-granite Rizal monument is among the most famous sculptural landmarks in the country. It is almost protocol for visiting dignitaries to lay a wreath at the monument. Located on the monument is not merely the statue of Rizal, but also his remains.

On September 28, 1901, the United States Philippine Commission approved Act No. 243, which would erect a monument in Luneta to commemorate the memory of José Rizal, Filipino patriot, writer and poet. The committee formed by the act held an international design competition between 1905 and 1907 and invited sculptors from Europe and the United States to submit entries with an estimated cost of ₱100,000 using local materials.

The first-prize winner was Carlos Nicoli of Carrara, Italy for his scaled plaster model titled "Al Martir de Bagumbayan" (To the Martyr of Bagumbayan), besting 40 other accepted entries. The contract though, was awarded to second-placer Swiss sculptor named Richard Kissling for his "Motto Stella" (Guiding Star).

After more than twelve years of its approval, the shrine was finally unveiled on December 30, 1913, during Rizal's 17th death anniversary. His poem Mi último adiós ("My Last Farewell") is inscribed on the memorial plaque. The site is continuously guarded by ceremonial soldiers of Philippine Marine Corps’ Marine Security and Escort Group

Others

 * Artist's Haven/Kanlungan ng Sining. A site of artistic and natural artworks, It houses the gallery run by the Arts Association of the Philippines (AAP), in collaboration with the NDPC.
 * Artworks in the Park. The Rizal park features different artworks of some renowned Filipino artists:
 * Dancing Rings. A replica of Joe Datuin's Dancing Rings, The original sculpture is the Grand Prize winner of the 2008 International Olympic Committee Sports and Arts Contest in Lausanne, Switzerland.
 * The New Filipino/Ang Bagong Pinoy. A sculpture by Joe Dautin, It features intertwined rings resemble a human figure that represents a new Filipino.
 * Ang Pagbabago (The Change) Mosaic Murals. It represents the Filipino ideals of peace, love, unity and prosperity. It serves as a call to national renewal and change.

 * Diorama of Rizal's Martyrdom. On an area north of Rizal monument stands a set of statues depicting Rizal's execution, situated on the spot where he was actually martyred, contrary to popular belief that the monument is the spot where he was executed. In the evenings, a light & sound presentation titled "The Martyrdom of Dr. Jose Rizal" features a multimedia dramatization of the last poignant minutes of the life of the Filipino patriot. Rizal's poem Mi Ultimo Adios, engraved in black granite, can also be found here.
 * Filipino-Korean Soldier Monument. This monument of two Filipino soldiers aiding a Korean soldier is dedicated to the Filipino combat soldiers who fought with the Korean troops during the Korean War.
 * Soul waves. It represents sea waves as a tribute to Filipino who died during the World War II, It is placed in the park by Korea, as a sign of mutual respect.

 * The Flower Clock. It features a clock on a flower bed. A feature of the park since the 1960s, it was restored in 2011. The clock's hand was sculpted by Filipino artist Jose Datuin.
 * The Gallery of Heroes. This is a row of bust sculpture monuments of historical Philippine Heroes. There are 2 rows on both sides of the Central Lagoon, one row on the North Promenade and another row on the South Promenade
 * Statue of the Sentinel of Freedom (or the Lapu-Lapu Monument). The monument was a gift from the people of Korea as appreciation and to honor the memory of freedom-loving Filipinos who helped during the Korean War in the early 1950s (as inscribed in the plaque). Lapu-Lapu was a native Visayan chieftain in Mactan, Cebu and representative of the Sultan of Sulu, and is now known as the first native of the archipelago to resist Spanish colonization. He is retroactively regarded as the first hero of the Philippines. On the morning of April 27, 1521, Lapu-Lapu and the men of Mactan, armed with spears and kampilan, faced Spanish soldiers led by Portuguese captain Ferdinand Magellan in what would later be known as the Battle of Mactan. Magellan and several of his men were killed. As of 2024, the statue was dismantled for "restoration and re-erection" during the park's eastern redevelopment since 2023, with the project expected to be completed within the year.

Former

 * La Madre Filipina. The sculpture was transferred back to its original site in Jones Bridge in November 2019 after 73 years of staying at the Park. Its plinths were reconstructed using the original neoclassic design during the 2019 redevelopment of the bridge.
 * Relief map of the Philippines. Built in the 1960s and designed by Filipino sculptor Jose M. Mendoza, this was a giant raised-relief map of the country, including the Scarborough Shoal, Kalayaan, and eastern part of Sabah, in the middle of a small man-made lake. It was demolished by the National Museum of the Philippines in 2023 as it would be replaced by an exhibition hall.

Other features

 * Independence Flagpole, standing at 105 ft, is the highest flagpole in the Philippines. On this spot in front of Rizal Monument, at 9:15 am July 4, 1946, the full independence of the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed as authorized by the United States President Harry S. Truman. As of August 2013, the flagpole was restored and increased its height to 150 ft. The government is expected to spend ₱7.8 million, in preparation for the centennial of Rizal Monument
 * Kilometer Zero is located within the Park on Roxas Boulevard, in front of the Rizal Monument. It serves as the point from which all road distances from Manila are measured.
 * Musical Dancing Fountain. Deemed as the biggest and most vibrant dancing fountain in the country, the central lagoon present a show with waters soaring up to 88 feet, fireballs, exploding water rockets and peacock spray water screen.

Flora

According to the inventory made by the National Parks Development Committee, there are 3,497 trees in Rizal Park belonging to 112 species as of 2015. 527 of the individual trees are narra.

Security
In 2012, 30 high-definition closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras were installed to make the area safer for local and foreign tourists. The National Parks Development Committee have stationed police and security officers in the key places in the park for added security.

In popular culture

 * The Amazing Race 5, the fifth installment of the American reality television show The Amazing Race, featured the Rizal Monument at the start of Leg 12. The park was revisited again 27 installments later on The Amazing Race 32 with Lapu Lapu Circle serving as the starting and finishing point of the tenth leg.
 * The Port Malaya patch in Ragnarok Online, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMOPPG), features a replica of the Rizal Monument as one of the town's attractions.
 * HaMerotz LaMillion 8, the eighth installment of the Israeli version of The Amazing Race, concluded at Rizal Park.

Rizal Parks elsewhere
Like Rizal Avenues, most Philippine towns and cities have a Rizal Park (or a Plaza Rizal), usually its central square. This is also where its Rizal monument is located. Seattle also has its own Rizal Park. Additionally, a statue and monument of Jose Rizal was erected in Luneta Park, located along Rizal Ave in the city of Markham, ON Canada in 2019.

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Category:Doctor Who spin-offs

This category contains articles on various spin-offs and tie-ins of the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. The canonicity of some of these spin-offs is unclear.

See also Category:Works based on Doctor Who for Doctor Who in media other than television.

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Competitive intelligence

Competitive intelligence (CI) is the process and forward-looking practices used in producing knowledge about the competitive environment to improve organizational performance.

Definition
CI involves the systematic collection and analysis of information from multiple sources, and a coordinated CI program. It is the action of defining, gathering, analyzing, and distributing intelligence about products, customers, competitors, and any aspect of the environment needed to support executives and managers in strategic decision making for an organization.

CI means understanding and learning what is happening in the world outside the business to increase one's competitiveness. It means learning as much as possible, as soon as possible, about one's external environment including one's industry in general and relevant competitors.

Key points

 * 1) Competitive intelligence is a legal business practice, as opposed to industrial espionage, which is illegal.
 * 2) The focus is on the external business environment.
 * 3) There is a process involved in gathering information, converting it into intelligence, and then using it in decision-making. Some CI professionals erroneously emphasize that if the intelligence gathered is not usable or actionable, it is not intelligence.

Another definition of CI regards it as the organizational function responsible for the early identification of risks and opportunities in the market before they become obvious ("early signal analysis"). This definition focuses attention on the difference between dissemination of widely available factual information (such as market statistics, financial reports, newspaper clippings) performed by functions such as libraries and information centers, and competitive intelligence which is a perspective on developments and events aimed at yielding a competitive edge.

The term CI is often viewed as synonymous with competitor analysis, but competitive intelligence is more than analyzing competitors; it embraces the entire environment and stakeholders: customers, competitors, distributors, technologies, and macroeconomic data. It is also a tool for decision making.

Historic development
CI literature can be exemplified by the bibliographies that were published in the Strategic Consortium of Intelligence Professionals' academic journal The Journal of Competitive Intelligence and Management. Although elements of organizational intelligence collection have been a part of business for many years, the history of competitive intelligence arguably began in the U.S. in the 1970s, although the literature on the field pre-dates this time by at least several decades. In 1980, Michael Porter published the study Competitive-Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors which is widely viewed as the foundation of modern competitive intelligence. This has since been extended most notably by the pair of Craig Fleisher and Babette Bensoussan, who through several popular books on competitive analysis have added 48 commonly applied competitive intelligence analysis techniques to the practitioner's tool box. In 1985, Leonard Fuld published in one of his best selling book dedicated to competitor intelligence. However, the institutionalization of CI as a formal activity among American corporations can be traced to 1988, when Ben and Tamar Gilad published the first organizational model of a formal corporate CI function, which was then adopted widely by US companies. The first professional certification program (CIP) was created in 1996 with the establishment of The Fuld-Gilad-Herring Academy of Competitive Intelligence in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

In 1986, the Strategic Consortium of Intelligence Professionals (SCIP) was founded in the United States and grew in the late 1990s to around 6,000 members worldwide, mainly in the United States and Canada, but with large numbers especially in the UK and Australia. Due to financial difficulties in 2009, the organization merged with Frost & Sullivan under the Frost & Sullivan Institute. SCIP has since been renamed "Strategic & Competitive Intelligence Professionals" to emphasize the strategic nature of the subject, and also to refocus the organization's general approach, while keeping the existing SCIP brand name and logo. A number of efforts have been made to discuss the field's advances in post-secondary (university) education, covered by several authors including Blenkhorn & Fleisher, Fleisher, Fuld, Prescott, and McGonagle. Although the general view would be that competitive intelligence concepts can be readily found and taught in many business schools around the globe, there are still relatively few dedicated academic programs, majors, or degrees in the field, a concern to academics in the field who would like to see it further researched. These issues were widely discussed by over a dozen knowledgeable individuals in a special edition of the Competitive Intelligence Magazine that was dedicated to this topic. In France, a Specialized Master in Economic Intelligence and Knowledge Management was created in 1995 within the CERAM Business School, now SKEMA Business School, in Paris, with the objective of delivering a full and professional training in Economic Intelligence. A Centre for Global Intelligence and Influence was created in September 2011 in the same School.

Practitioners and companies regard professional accreditation as important in this field. In 2011, SCIP recognized the Fuld-Gilad-Herring Academy of Competitive Intelligence's CIP certification process as its global, dual-level (CIP-I and CIP-II) certification program.

Global developments have also been uneven in competitive intelligence. Several academic journals, particularly the Journal of Competitive Intelligence and Management in its third volume, provided coverage of the field's global development. For example, in 1997 the  (School of economic warfare) was founded in Paris, France. It is the first European institution which teaches the tactics of economic warfare within a globalizing world. In Germany, competitive intelligence was unattended until the early 1990s. The term "competitive intelligence" first appeared in German literature in 1997. In 1995, a German SCIP chapter was founded, which is now second in terms of membership in Europe. In 2004, the Institute for Competitive Intelligence was founded, which provides a postgraduate certification program for Competitive Intelligence Professionals. Japan is currently the only country that officially maintains an economic intelligence agency (JETRO). It was founded by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1958.

Accepting the importance of competitive intelligence, major multinational corporations, such as ExxonMobil, Procter & Gamble, and Johnson and Johnson, have created formal CI units. Organizations execute competitive intelligence activities not only as a safeguard to protect against market threats and changes, but also as a method for finding new opportunities and trends.

Organizations use competitive intelligence to compare themselves to other organizations ("competitive benchmarking"), to identify risks and opportunities in their markets, and to pressure-test their plans against market response (business wargaming), which enable them to make informed decisions.

One of the major activities involved in corporate competitive intelligence is use of ratio analysis, using key performance indicators (KPI). Organizations compare annual reports of their competitors on certain KPI and ratios, which are intrinsic to their industry. This helps them track their performance, vis-à-vis their competitors.

The actual importance of these categories of information to an organization depends on the contestability of its markets, the organizational culture, the personality and biases of its top decision makers, and the reporting structure of competitive intelligence within the company.

Strategic Intelligence (SI) focuses on the longer term, looking at issues affecting a company's competitiveness over the course of a couple of years. The actual time horizon for SI ultimately depends on the industry and how quickly it's changing. The general questions that SI answers are, ‘Where should we as a company be in X years?' and 'What are the strategic risks and opportunities facing us?' This type of intelligence work involves among others the identification of weak signals and application of methodology and process called Strategic Early Warning (SEW), first introduced by Gilad,  followed by Steven Shaker and Victor Richardson, Alessandro Comai and Joaquin Tena,  and others. According to Gilad, 20% of the work of competitive intelligence practitioners should be dedicated to strategic early identification of weak signals within a SEW framework.

Tactical Intelligence: the focus is on providing information designed to improve shorter-term decisions, most often related with the intent of growing market share or revenues. Generally, it is the type of information that a person would need to support the sales process in an organization. It investigates various aspects of a product/product line marketing.

With the right amount of information, organizations can avoid unpleasant surprises by anticipating competitors' moves and decreasing response time. Examples of competitive intelligence research is evident in daily newspapers, such as The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, and Fortune. Major airlines change hundreds of fares daily in response to competitors' tactics. They use information to plan their own marketing, pricing, and production strategies.

Resources, such as the Internet, have made gathering information on competitors easy. Analysts can discover future trends and market requirements. However, competitive intelligence is much more than this, as the ultimate aim is to lead to competitive advantage. As the Internet is mostly public domain material, information gathered is less likely to result in insights that will be unique to the company. There is a risk that information gathered from the Internet will be misinformation and mislead users, so competitive intelligence researchers are often wary of using such information.

As a result, although the Internet is viewed as a key source, most CI professionals should spend their time and budget gathering intelligence using primary research—networking with industry experts, from trade shows and conferences, from their own customers and suppliers, and so on. Where the Internet is used, it is to gather sources for primary research as well as information on what the company says about itself and its online presence (in the form of links to other companies, its strategy regarding search engines and online advertising, mentions in discussion forums and on blogs, etc.). Online subscription databases and news aggregation sources, which have simplified the secondary source collection process, are also used.

Recent trends
The technical advances in massively parallel processing offered by the Hadoop "big data" architecture has allowed the creation of multiple platforms for named-entity recognition such as the Apache Projects OpenNLP and Apache Stanbol. The former includes pre-trained statistical parsers that can discern elements key to establishing trends and evaluating competitive positions and responding appropriately. Public information mining from SEC.gov, Federal Contract Awards, social media, vendors, and competitor websites now permits real-time counterintelligence as a strategy for horizontal and vertical market expansion and product positioning. This occurs in an automated fashion on massive marketplaces such as Amazon.com and their classification and prediction of product associations and purchase probability. A new industry emerged of tech companies with tools that simplify and automate the way companies conduct competitive intelligence. With technology responsible for scraping billions of pieces of data and pulling it into a central platform, this new trend of competitive intelligence tools has effectively reshaped how competitor analysis is performed and intelligence gathered.

Similar fields
Competitive intelligence has been influenced by national strategic intelligence. Although national intelligence was researched 50 years ago, competitive intelligence was introduced during the 1990s. Competitive intelligence professionals can learn from national-intelligence experts, especially in the analysis of complex situations. Competitive intelligence may be confused with (or seen to overlap) environmental scanning, business intelligence, and market research. Craig Fleisher questions the appropriateness of the term, comparing it to business intelligence, competitor intelligence, knowledge management, market intelligence, marketing research, and strategic intelligence.

Fleisher suggests that business intelligence has two forms. Its narrow (contemporary) form is more focused on information technology and internal focus than CI, while its broader (historical) definition is more inclusive than CI. Knowledge management (KM), when improperly achieved, is seen as an information-technology driven organizational practice relying on data mining, corporate intranets and mapping organizational assets to make it accessible to organization members for decision-making. CI shares some aspects of KM; they are human-intelligence- and experience-based for a more-sophisticated qualitative analysis. km is essential for effective change. A key effective factor is a powerful, dedicated IT system executing the full intelligence cycle.

Market intelligence (MI) is industry-targeted intelligence developed in real-time aspects of competitive events taking place among the four Ps of the marketing mix (pricing, place, promotion and product) in the product (or service) marketplace to better understand the market's attractiveness. A time-based competitive tactic, MI is used by marketing and sales managers to respond to consumers more quickly in the marketplace. Fleisher suggests it is not distributed as widely as some forms of CI, which are also distributed to non-marketing decision-makers. Market intelligence has a shorter time horizon than other intelligence areas, and is measured in days, weeks, or (in slower-moving industries) months.

Market research is a tactical, method-driven field consisting of neutral, primary research of customer data (beliefs and perceptions) gathered in surveys or focus groups, and is analyzed with statistical-research techniques. CI draws on a wider variety (primary and secondary) of sources from a wider range of stakeholders (suppliers, competitors, distributors, substitutes and media) to answer existing questions, raise new ones and guide action.

Ben Gilad and Jan Herring lay down a set of prerequisites defining CI, distinguishing it from other information-rich disciplines such as market research or business development. They show that a common body of knowledge and a unique set of tools (key intelligence topics, business war games and blindspots analysis) distinguish CI; while other sensory activities in a commercial firm focus on one segment of the market (customers, suppliers or acquisition targets), CI synthesizes data from all high-impact players (HIP).

Gilad later focused his delineation of CI on the difference between information and intelligence. According to him, the common denominator among organizational sensory functions (whether they are called market research, business intelligence or market intelligence) is that they deliver information rather than intelligence. Intelligence, says Gilad, is a perspective on facts rather than the facts themselves. Unique among corporate functions, competitive intelligence has a perspective of risks and opportunities for a firm's performance; as such, it (not information activities) is part of an organization's risk-management activity.

Ethics
Ethics has been a long-held issue of discussion among CI practitioners. The questions revolve around what is and is not allowable in terms of CI activity. Several scholarly treatments have been generated on this topic, most prominently addressed through Strategic Consortium of Intelligence Professionals publications. The book Competitive Intelligence Ethics: Navigating the Gray Zone provides nearly twenty separate views about ethics in CI, as well as another 10 codes used by various individuals or organizations. Combining that with the over two dozen scholarly articles or studies found within the various CI bibliographic entries,  it is clear that no shortage of study has gone into better classifying, understanding, and addressing CI ethics.

Competitive information may be obtained from public or subscription sources, from networking with competitor staff or customers, disassembly of competitor products or from field research interviews. Competitive intelligence research is distinguishable from industrial espionage, as CI practitioners generally abide by local legal guidelines and ethical business norms.

Outsourcing
Outsourcing has become a big business for competitive intelligence professionals. There are many different companies in this field, including market research and consulting firms.

title: Competitive intelligence


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Talk:Nautilus (fictional submarine)

Untitled
This page should contain a comparison of verne's vision to actual submarine technology. Many of his predictions came true. And many others did not. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.201.160.2 (talk) 16:42, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

"The Nautilus was designed and commanded by Captain Nemo, removed spoiler on who Nemo is "

That's not in the Novel! Wasn't it an invention of Alan Moore for his "League" graphic novel? -- 81.136.174.68 22:01, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Read Captain Nemo, there is more than one novel. --Error 22:48, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I'll do that :) --81.136.174.68

 * What a shame. I had planned on reading "Mysterious Island" to find out more about Nemo, and this article totally spoiled it :( There was no reason to spoil who Nemo is in an article about the submarine, much less without a spoiler warning. -- Stbalbach 04:09, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Poor boy. Better you don't read Wikipedia or you read Encyclopedia first in order to realize what Wikipedia is all about? :p The spoiler warning in en.wikipedia is one of the most childish elements we should get rid ASAP (at least one other large language section did and is very happy about that). Arnomane 14:29, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I dislike spoiler tags as well, but there is no reason to blow the central plot in this article - even professional encyclopedias are sensitive to that kind of stuff. Other articles cover the plot details. -- Stbalbach 20:39, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

Shouldn't the LXG Nautilus be shown? It's a good image and I don't think it's copyrighted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.247.244.120 (talk) 18:49, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

The picture sucks. Someone should put a different one up. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.71.166.34 (talk) 15:15, 24 March 2009 (UTC) Yeah the picture is a peice of shit.

In the novel Captain Nemo shows the professor a blue print of the vessel and tells the professor that he had the parts built all over the world and either sent to or he transported them to a deserted island. Also Nemo Says that he and his crew assembled the vessel thus making it his and it is continually said that he in fact is the commander of the vessel. Also since he goes into the details of the vessel he is arguably the designer of the vessel. Just read the book. CaptianNemo (talk) 03:07, 14 October 2011 (UTC)

Under the "Appearances" heading, it says "In the 1954 film and The Return of Captain Nemo...". That date is incorrect. It should read "In the 1978 film and The Return of Captain Nemo..." WadeWonline (talk) 23:55, 21 September 2018 (UTC)

Nautilus model at Anaheim Disneyland?
In the late 1950's the Disneyland at Anaheim, CA, had a superb large (circa 5-foot) model of the Nautilus used in making the movie "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1954). Does that still exist? An image of it would be a great addition to this article.

BMJ-pdx (talk) 17:55, 8 May 2018 (UTC)

Answer: Between 1955 and 1966 Disneyland featured an exhibit of sets and props used in the 1954 Disney film. It included the 11 foot Hero model used for shooting all undewater scenes. That model is the only known production model remaining from the film. Disney stores it most of the time, but occasionally exhibits it in public, though it is very fragile. WadeWonline (talk) 23:55, 21 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nautilus (fictional submarine)


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Talk:The Big Fat Kill

Synopsis?
How about a short spoiler-free synopsis about this comic? It would serve good, I believe. cun 22:01, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This synopsis presumes too much knowledge on the part of the reader. Who are Dwight and Shelley, and why does Dwight have a new face? --4.246.3.84 06:50, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I agree about the new face - although there's certainly no explanation of it in the movie (I've not read the comic). As far as who Dwight and Shelley are - well, the story kind of starts in medias res, at least in the movie - we know Shelley is a waitress at the strip club from the other stories, but not from this one. Dwight we really have no idea who he is. (And my understanding is that the movies follow the comics pretty closely) john k 06:57, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

!WARNING SPOILERS! I just wondered about one thing. Jack was chased by some cop, and girls knew that it has to be cop and they were prepared to kill him and it would be nothing, but when they killed Jack, killing cop starts to be a big problem that can end this treatment with police to not interfere (Sorry for Mistakes, English is not my first language.

title: Talk:The Big Fat Kill


text:
Nick Todd

Cecil Altman Boone (June 1, 1935 – January 20, 2023), known as Nick Todd, was an American pop singer. He had two hit records called "Plaything" and "At The Hop", which reached No. 41 and No. 21, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Plaything" debuted in October 1957 and "At The Hop" debuted in December 1957, the same month Danny & the Juniors' version reached No. 1 on the chart.

The president of Dot Records, Randy Wood, did not want him using the same last name as his brother, so he made up "Todd", which is basically "Dot" (Records) spelled backwards. Both recordings were backed by Billy Vaughn and his Orchestra.

Nick Todd earned a master's degree in social work from the University of Tennessee and during the 1970s was executive director of West Tennessee AGAPE, a family service organization. He later moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where he continued work as a social worker, song leader among the churches of Christ, and instructor in Social Work at David Lipscomb University.

Personal life and death
Nick Todd was born in Jacksonville, Florida, and was the younger brother of pop singer Pat Boone who was born a year earlier to the date.

Todd died on January 20, 2023, at the age of 87.

title: Nick Todd


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Franco Cesana

Franco Cesana (20 September 1931 – 14 September 1944) was an Italian Jew, born in the northern city of Bologna. He is said to have been youngest partisan to die in the Italian Resistance.

His father was Felice, and his mother was Ada Basevi. Franco had two brothers: Ermanno, born in 1918, and Lelio, born in 1920. The family moved to Roma, then to Bologna. In 1938 Mussolini's "racial laws" were introduced and Franco was expelled from public school, and had to go instead to a "Jewish school" jury-rigged in a local synagogue. He did not understand why he had to leave his friends just because he was Jewish. His father died in 1939 and he moved in with relatives.

Soon after Mussolini was overthrown, the Nazis invaded Italy, and Italian Jews had to go into hiding or be sent to the concentration camps. The Cesana family hid in the Apennine Mountains, next to Modena. Franco's family had to move from hut to hut in the mountains in order to evade the German soldiers. Franco, who was twelve at the time, joined one of the Justice and Liberty partisan group with his brother Lelio. Their group was brigata Scarabelli. Not much later, on 14 September 1944, he was shot by Germans on a scouting mission in the mountains, next to Gombola, and his body was returned to his mother on his thirteenth birthday. He received the Bronze Medal of Military Valor in memory.

title: Franco Cesana


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Footmen Frenzy

Footmen Frenzy
This appears to be a specific map created by fans of a videogame. I don't think it is even remotely encyclopedic. CDC  (talk)  22:02, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

(Above unsigned vote by User:71.107.12.38)
 * Delete Amateurish ad. Pavel Vozenilek 22:14, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Not enough notability for its own page. Perhaps add it as a small section (i.e. a little less detail) in the game's page.  --Fuzzball! (talk) 02:14, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * This isn't related to Footmen frenzy, is it? If so, doesn't it qualify for speedy deletion? --Calton | Talk 05:25, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Just in case I wasn't clear, I vote speedy delete, on the assumption it's recreated content. --Calton | Talk 00:38, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Article created after seeing a empty link under the main game's page
 * Delete or merge with game's article. More likely, delete. Asriel86 05:46, Apr 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * Carlton is correct. Delete as recreation, or merge into game article and fix all redirects. Mgm|(talk) 07:55, Apr 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * Actually, it's "Calton", not Carlton. --Calton | Talk 00:38, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep For any Warcraft Players, this article is highly relevant. There are several other entries on custom games too. All information can be verified by simply visiting the clan website. Note - writer is not part of the clan, and article is not intended as an advertisement.
 * Remark by User:Zhangman960, four edits and author of the article.
 * Delete fanmade maps. Radiant_* 09:39, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)


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Advisory Council on Historic Preservation

The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), an independent United States federal agency, is charged with the mission to promote the preservation of the nation's diverse historic resources. The ACHP advises the President and Congress on national historic preservation policy and also provides a public forum for stakeholders and the public to influence federal agency decisions regarding federal projects and programs that affect historic properties. The ACHP promotes the importance of historic preservation to foster an understanding of the nation's heritage and the contribution that historic preservation can make to contemporary communities, along with their economic and social well-being.

The ACHP was created by the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, which sets forth most of the ACHP's duties and authorities. Passage of the NHPA was a watershed event that launched a transformation of the federal government from an agent of indifference—frequently responsible for the needless loss of historic resources—to a facilitator, an agent of thoughtful change, and a responsible steward of historic properties for future generations.

The ACHP, created by the NHPA, is the only federal agency whose sole mission is promoting the preservation of the nation's diverse historic resources.

In keeping with these concepts, the ACHP is responsible for overseeing the federal historic preservation review process established by Section 106 of the NHPA (now codified as 54 U.S.C. 306108). Section 106 requires federal agencies to consider the effects of federal projects on historic properties and to provide the ACHP an opportunity to weigh in on project impacts.

Based on authority granted by the NHPA, the ACHP has issued regulations (36 CFR Part 800) that spell out how agencies should meet their Section 106 responsibilities efficiently and effectively while giving due consideration to the historic places that communities value. Administering application of the Section 106 review process is a major ACHP responsibility.

Mission
In January 2011, ACHP membership adopted the following Mission Statement:

The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation promotes the preservation, enhancement, and sustainable use of our nation's diverse historic resources, and advises the President and the Congress on national historic preservation policy.

Membership
The ACHP's 24 statutorily designated members, including the chairman who heads the agency, address policy issues, direct program initiatives, and make recommendations regarding historic preservation to the President, Congress, and heads of other federal agencies. Members meet several times per year to conduct business. ACHP members are from various federal agencies, local and state government, the public, and historic preservation organizations.
 * Four members of the general public and four historic preservation experts are appointed by the President, including the chairman and vice chairman.
 * A member of an Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian organization, a governor, and a mayor are appointed by the President.
 * Two federal agency heads and the Architect of the Capitol are permanent members of ACHP.
 * Seven federal agency heads are designated by the President to terms on ACHP.
 * Ex-officio representatives of national preservation organizations round out ACHP's membership.

Chairman
In March 2018, Aimee Jorjani was nominated by President Donald Trump as the first full-time chairman of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), earning Senate confirmation in June 2019. Jorjani has nearly 20 years of experience in the fields of government and cultural resources from a variety of perspectives including both executive and legislative branches, as well as the non-profit sector. Her career began on Capitol Hill working as a legislative aide to Rep. Paul Ryan (R-WI). She later moved to the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) and had several positions, including serving as the Deputy Secretary's Special Assistant for Historic Preservation. A native of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Ms. Jorjani is a graduate of Northern Michigan University and Goucher College, with a Masters in Historic Preservation. Jorjani's term of office was due to end on June 10, 2021. President Joe Biden asked for Jorjani's resignation on February 5, 2021.

President Joe Biden nominated Sara Bronin as the next chair of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation on June 24, 2021. Bronin was confirmed by the Senate on 22 December, 2022.

List of chairmen of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
This is an incomplete list of chairmen since 1966. Until 2019, all chairmen were appointed directly by the president. From 2018 the chairman has been nominated by the president and confirmed with the advice and consent of the Senate:

Activities
The ACHP's major program offices are reflected in its organizational structure.

The Office of Federal Agency Programs participates in Section 106 reviews, develops and implements program improvement initiatives, provides technical assistance and guidance for Section 106 users, and works to improve federal agency and stakeholder understanding of Section 106. It also oversees implementation of Section 3 of Executive Order 13287, "Preserve America," and develops and administers the ACHP's training program, including delivery of classroom courses, webinars, and e-learning.

The Office of Native American Affairs advises the ACHP leadership and staff on policy and program matters related to Native American issues, and offers technical assistance and outreach for tribal and Native Hawaiian Organization consultation under the Section 106 review process.

The Office of Preservation Initiatives (OPI) analyzes legislation, develops policy recommendations, oversees special studies and reports, and implements programs related to national preservation benefits such as community development, economic impacts, sustainability, and tourism. It oversees the Preserve America Program.

The Office of Communications, Education, and Outreach creates and conveys the ACHP's message to partners, stakeholders, and the general public via print and electronic media, meets information requests from citizens and Congress, handles media relations, and manages ACHP outreach, awards and publications.

A professional staff, which supports ACHP's daily operations, is headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Terms
The ACHP members who are the heads of other Federal agencies serve on the ACHP as long as they hold their head of agency positions. The president of the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, the Chairman of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and the Architect of the Capitol are ex officio members of the ACHP, and therefore serve on the ACHP as long as they hold their mentioned positions. Mayors and governors serve for terms that last as long as they are serving in an elected capacity as mayor or governor but no longer than four years. The citizen (including the chairman), expert, and Indian tribe/Native Hawaiian organization members of the ACHP all serve four year terms.


text:
Jacques Levy

Jacques Levy (July 29, 1935 – September 30, 2004) was an American songwriter, theatre director and clinical psychologist.

Early life and education
Levy was born in New York City in 1935 and graduated from the City College of New York in 1956. He then received his M.A. (1958) and Ph.D. (1961) in psychology from Michigan State University and was certified by the Menninger Institute for Psychoanalysis in Topeka, Kansas. After returning to New York, he practiced as a clinical psychologist while pursuing his avocation in the city's experimental theatre scene.

Career
In 1965, Levy directed Sam Shepard's play Red Cross at the Judson Poets Theater, New York City. The following year he directed two of the short plays in Jean-Claude van Itallie's America Hurrah. In 1969, Levy directed the successful off-Broadway erotic revue Oh! Calcutta!

During this period, Levy approached Roger McGuinn of The Byrds to collaborate on Gene Tryp, a project inspired by Henrik Ibsen's Peer Gynt. While development of the musical stalled (a revised iteration was eventually performed at Colgate University in 1993), one song, "Chestnut Mare," became the single released from the album (Untitled) in 1970. Although it only peaked at #121 in the United States, the song reached #19 in the United Kingdom and ultimately became an enduring FM radio staple in America. Many further Levy-McGuinn songs appeared on Byrds and McGuinn albums during the 1970s. In 1973, Levy and Van Itallie reunited for Mystery Play, which starred Judd Hirsch and ran for 14 performances off-Broadway at the Cherry Lane Theatre. The songwriting partnership between McGuinn and Levy endured until 1977's Thunderbyrd, a McGuinn solo album.

In the mid-seventies, Levy met Bob Dylan through McGuinn. Shortly thereafter, the two collaborated on "Isis" and another six songs which appeared on Dylan's 1976 album Desire. These included "Hurricane" (about imprisoned boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter) and "Joey" (an ode to the American Mafia gangster and hitman Joe Gallo). Levy was the stage director of both the 1975 and 1976 legs of Dylan's Rolling Thunder Revue.

In 1980, he staged Stephen Poliakoff's play American Days at Manhattan Theatre Club, which featured David Blue, one of the performers in the Rolling Thunder Revue. Frank Rich in his review for The New York Times wrote: "Jacques Levy, the director, matches the crackling energy of the text blow for blow." In 1983 he staged Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy (based on Garry Trudeau's Pulitzer Prize-winning comic strip Doonesbury) on Broadway. In 1988 he provided the lyrics for the stage musical of the film Fame. Later came Marat/Sade (1994), Bus Stop (1997), and Brecht on Brecht (2000, in New York City).

In the early 1990s he taught acting at Hunter College in Manhattan. From 1993 until his death from cancer in 2004, he was a professor of English and director of the drama program at Colgate University in upstate New York.

Personal life
He had two children, Maya and Julien, with his wife Claudia.

Theatrical credits
Broadway
 * Oh! Calcutta! (1969) – revue – director
 * Oh! Calcutta! (1976 revival) – revue – director and contributing songwriter
 * Almost an Eagle (1982) – play – director
 * Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy (1983) – musical – director

Note: Fame, the stage musical, was not presented on Broadway, but has been playing in London's West End since 1995.

Off Broadway
 * America Hurrah (1966) – play – director – Pocket Theatre – American premiere
 * Mystery Play (1973) – play – director – Cherry Lane Theatre – American premiere
 * American Days (1980) – play – director – Manhattan Theatre Club – American premiere
 * TRYP (2005) – play – dramaturge

title: Jacques Levy


text:
Ernest Palmer (American cinematographer)

Ernest George Palmer (December 6, 1885 – February 22, 1978) was a Hollywood cinematographer for more than 160 films. His earliest known credit was for a 1912 adaptation of Ivanhoe.

Biography
Palmer was born in Kansas City, Missouri. In 1941, he won an Oscar for Best Cinematography (in collaboration with Ray Rennahan) for Blood and Sand. Palmer was nominated on several other occasions—in 1928 for Four Devils, in 1929 for Street Angel, and in 1950 for Broken Arrow.

Palmer died in Pacific Palisades, California. He is sometimes confused with a British cinematographer of the same name (1901–1964) who worked on various UK films and television programmes until the early 1960s.

Selected filmography

 * The Miracle Man (1919)
 * Prisoners of Love (1921)
 * Ladies Must Live (1921)
 * Always the Woman (1922)
 * One Clear Call (1922)
 * The Song of Life (1922)
 * The Dancers (1925)
 * Wages for Wives (1925)
 * Fine Clothes (1925)
 * Champion of Lost Causes (1925)
 * Honesty – The Best Policy (1926)
 * Early to Wed (1926)
 * Seventh Heaven (1927)
 * Street Angel (1928)
 * No Other Woman (1928)
 * Four Devils (1928)
 * Women Everywhere (1930)
 * Six Cylinder Love (1931)
 * Cavalcade (1933)
 * The Great Hotel Murder (1935)
 * Gentle Julia (1936)
 * Flying Fifty-Five (1939)
 * Public Deb No. 1 (1940)
 * Chad Hanna (1940)
 * Blood and Sand (1941)
 * Sweet Rosie O'Grady (1943)
 * Three Little Girls in Blue (1946)
 * Broken Arrow (1950)


text:
Talk:Tom Regan

Influences
I added W. D. Ross, who is one of the influences behind Regan's harm principle, and G. E. Moore, who has influenced his theory of inherent value.

The edit of 08:58, 8 Apr 2005 was mine, I forgot to log in.

"Radical New Theories" of Ethics?
Just a query, is it really true that other animal rights / animal liberation campaigners need to "invent radical new theories of ethics"? Isn't Peter Singer's version merely a simple extension of utilitarianism to include not only rational beings but any being that can suffer? How does this differ from Regan's extension of Kantianism to grant moral status to non-rational animals? (didn't want to edit it out though since I'm not sure .. anyone?) -- Rkundalini 22:05, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 16:38, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

On Veganism
A section on Tom Regan would be appropriate for the Veganism article, but I don't have access to any of his writings which mention veganism. Perhaps somebody who does could either link these writings or could write a section about Regan in the "ethics" section of the Veganism article. KellenT 02:32, 12 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Anybody? KellenT 14:41, 26 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I did this a long time ago. KellenT 20:14, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

Isn't he a vegan?
I thought Tom Regan was a vegan, but he's in the category "American vegetarians." Is he not vegan? --N-k, 00:11, 13 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I have been unable to find any sources which say directly that he's a vegan. He says in The Case for Animal Rights that he's a vegetarian, but it's unclear whether that's vegan vegetarianism or not. Based on his theories, it's probably reasonable to assume he's vegan, but we'll still need a citation. KellenT 20:14, 3 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Talk is that Peter Singer is vegetarian but not strict about veganism except when he's being honored by animal advocates in public events. Then the food is vegan.  The 1990 movie honoring Peter Singer's philosophy showed him as a vegetarian.  MaynardClark (talk) 15:21, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

Cause of death
Is there news about the cause of his death? MaynardClark (talk) 23:08, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
 * pneumonia, the same cause of death as French philosopher Rene Descartes, whose philosophy Tom Regan and a number of other animal advocates have long criticized. MaynardClark (talk) 14:47, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

Intellectual lineage
Somewhere, in this article, or in a different article (linked to this article) should be a brief or extended lineage of these prima facie duties to animals arguments in the development of animal rights theory, as in the work of W. D. Ross and Steven M. Wise and Gary Francione. This article merely discusses Regan's view on G. E. Moore. MaynardClark (talk) 14:47, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Tom Regan


text:
Gothic Protestant Church of Avas

The Gothic Protestant Church of Avas is the oldest building in the centre of the city of Miskolc in Northern Hungary. It was built in the 13th century as a small, Romanesque style church, and later it was expanded to a larger Gothic style church. In 1544, during the Ottoman occupation of Hungary the Turks set the church on fire. Because it was already a Protestant church, the Catholic owner of the Diósgyőr estate, Borbála Fánchy, didn't give her permission to use the wood from the nearby forests to rebuild the church, and it was rebuilt only more than twenty years later.

The organ of the church was built by József Angster in 1895. The acoustics of the church is very good, and concerts are held quite often.

The belfry was built in 1557. The bells have played a version of the Westminster Chimes every 15 minutes since 1941. Because of the noisy traffic, the chimes cannot be heard from too far away, however it is one of the best known sounds of the city. The National Theatre of Miskolc signals the beginning of a play with this sound.

The church is surrounded by a cemetery, where many famous sons of the city were buried, including the politicians Bertalan Szemere and László Palóczy, members of the Latabár actor dynasty, and the father of the poet Mihály Tompa.

title: Gothic Protestant Church of Avas


text:
Bernese German

Bernese German (Standard German: Berndeutsch, Bärndütsch) is the dialect of High Alemannic German spoken in the Swiss plateau (Mittelland) part of the canton of Bern and in some neighbouring regions. A form of Bernese German is spoken by the Swiss Amish affiliation of the Old Order Amish in Adams County, Indiana, United States, as well as and other settlements in the US, primarily in Indiana.

Varieties
There is a lot of regional variation within Bernese German dialects. However, with the increasing importance of the big agglomeration of Bern, the variety of Bern is spreading out, levelling the old village dialects.

Until the second half of the 20th century, there was a considerable range of sociolects in the city of Bern where four different groups could be distinguished:

 * The patrician Bernese German of the high society. It has neither l-vocalisation nor nd-velarisation, it does not employ the alveolar trill but the French uvular trill, and it has more French loanwords than the other varieties.
 * The variety of the native city population.
 * The varieties of the countryside people who moved into the city.
 * The variety of the – generally poor – people living in the part of the old town called Matte, known as Mattenenglisch (Matte-English), even though it has little relation with English, but has a number of loans from Jenisch, Rotwelsch and Yiddish. In addition to it, there was also a special kind of Pig Latin which is the proper Mattenenglisch according to some people.

Phonology
Bernese German is distinguished from other Swiss German dialects by the following characteristics:

 * The shortening of many high vowels, e.g. Zyt 'time', Lüt  'people', lut  'loud' instead of the long vowel typical in other Alemannic dialects, e.g. Zurich German Ziit, Lüüt , luut  (Standard German Zeit, Leute, laut).
 * The l-vocalization, e.g. Hauue 'hall', Esu  'donkey' instead of Halle, Esel. This has led to an expanded repertoire of diphthongs and triphthongs, e.g. euter  'older', Seeu  'soul', Schueu  'school'.
 * The velarization of nd to ng, e.g. angers 'different' (compare Standard German anders). The many words ending with -ng created the joke that Bernese sounds almost like Chinese: Schang gang hei, d Ching wei Hung  'Schang (Jean) go home, the kids want honey(bread)'.
 * As in other Western High Alemannic dialects, words such as Fleisch 'flesh' and Oug  'eye' are pronounced with the diphthongs  and, and not  and.

Pragmatics
As in other Western Swiss German dialects and as in French, the polite form of address is the second person plural and not the third person plural as in German.

Grammar
Like other Swiss German dialects, but unlike modern standard German, Bernese German typically keeps the original grammatical gender distinction in the numerals 'two' (2) and 'three' (3):
 * zwe Manne (two men), masculine
 * zwo Froue (two women), feminine
 * zwöi Ching (two children), neuter

... but only 2 words for "three" (3):

 * drei Manne u drei Fraue (three men and three women)
 * drü Ching (three children) neuter

Vocabulary
A lot of the vocabulary known as typical to Bernese German comes from the Mattenenglisch, e.g. Gieu 'boy', Modi 'girl'. The best known shibboleths of Bernese German may be the words äuä 'no way' or 'probably', (j)ieu 'yes', geng (or ging, gäng) 'always', Miuchmäuchterli 'Milk can'. Bernese typically say mängisch for the German manchmal (sometimes). An often used word at the end of a sentence is a question tag, "gäu" (2nd person singular) or "gäuet" (2nd person plural, polite form) meaning 'isn't it?', whereas other Swiss German dialects prefer "oder", like 'or what?'.

Äuä
Äuä (pronounced, other possible spellings include äuää, äuuä, äuwä, ällwä) is a typical shibboleth of Bernese German. There are two different uses:

‘(I'm quite certain that) she is going to come soon.’ The modal particle is also used in the following sequences of modal particles: äuä scho, äuä de scho. Both sequences give more emphasis to the certainty of the speaker. ‘Edmund Hillary was the first to climb Mount Everest without auxiliary oxygen. – No way! Reinhold Messner was the first to do that.’ ‘Did you hear? AC/DC split up! – No, really?’
 * Modal particle: Within a declarative sentence, this word can be used as a German modal particle, connoting that the speaker is only assuming what they are telling, but still quite certain about it. This is very similar to the meaning of the German modal particle wohl. Example:
 * Si chunt äuä gly.
 * Pro-sentence: Like many German modal particles, this word can also be used as a pro-sentence (similar to English words like yes or no). Originally, it was used as an affirmative response with similar connotations to the modal particle. However, this meaning is hardly ever used any more. It is almost exclusively used to give a negative answer connoting subjective disbelief. This meaning has developed from an ironic use. Depending on the intonation, the meaning can vary from very strong disbelief to surprised slight disbelief. Examples:
 * Dr Edmund Hillary isch aus Erschte ohni Suurstoff-Fläsche ufe Mount Everest. – Äuä! Der Reinhold Messner isch der Erscht gsy, wo das het gmacht.
 * Hesch ghört? AC/DC hei sech ufglöst! – Äuä!?

Bernese comedian Massimo Rocchi used äuä as the title for one of his shows, which derives much of its comical effect from the bewilderment an outsider experiences (in this case, Italian-born Rocchi) when first confronted with the idiosyncrasies of Bernese German.

Bernese German literature
Although Bernese German is mainly a spoken language (for writing, the standard German language is used), there is a relatively extensive literature which goes back to the beginnings of the 20th century.

Bernese German grammars and dictionaries also exist.

Bernese German cinema
The 2014 film Der Goalie bin ig (English title: I Am the Keeper), whose dialogue is in Bernese German, was a major winner at the 2014 Swiss Film Awards with seven nominations from which it won four trophies including Best Feature Film. The film, directed by Sabine Boss, was adapted from the novel Der Goalie bin ig by Pedro Lenz (which was translated into Glasgow patter by Pedro Lenz and Donal McLaughlin under the title Naw Much of a Talker ). The film played at the Locarno Film Festival in August 2014.

In the 2012 Swiss film, More Than Honey, two Swiss beekeepers describe beekeeping techniques between each other about limiting bee swarms in "As we say in Bernese German: No more beekeeping with a ladder on my back".

Bernese German music
Many Bernese German songs have become popular all over the German-speaking part of Switzerland, especially those of Mani Matter. This may have influenced the development of Bernese German rock music, which was the first Swiss German rock music to appear and continues to be one of the most important ones.

Today, notable bands singing in Bernese German include Patent Ochsner, Züri West and Stiller Has.

Translations into Bernese German

 * Hans, Ruth und Benedikt Bietenhard: Ds Alte Teschtamänt bärndütsch - en Uswahl. Bern: Berchtold Haller Verlag, 1991.
 * Hans und Ruth Bietenhard: Ds Nöie Teschtamänt bärndütsch. Bern: Berchtold Haller Verlag, 1984
 * Albert Meyer: Homer Bärndütsch - Odyssee. Muri bei Bern: Edition Francke im Cosmos Verlag, 1960 (weitere Auflagen 1963, 1978, 1988).
 * Walter Gfeller: Homer Bärndütsch - Ilias. Bern: Francke Verlag, 1981.
 * Walter Gfeller: Vergil Bärndüsch - Aeneis. Bern: Francke Verlag, 1984.
 * Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: Der Chly Prinz. Bärndütsch vom Lorenz Pauli. Bern: Lokwort Buchverlag, 2004
 * Dominik Meli: Dante Alighieri: Di Göttlechi Komödie. D Höll - Der Lüterigsbärg - Ds Paradys. Bärndütsch. 2021 (academia.edu)

title: Bernese German


text:
Double monastery

A double monastery (also dual monastery or double house) is a monastery combining separate communities of monks and of nuns, joined in one institution to share one church and other facilities. The practice is believed to have started in the East at the dawn of monasticism. It is considered more common in the monasticism of Eastern Christianity, where it is traceable to the 4th century. In the West the establishment of double monasteries became popular after Columbanus and sprang up in Gaul and in Anglo-Saxon England. Double monasteries were forbidden by the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, though it took many years for the decree to be enforced. Double monasteries were revived again after the 12th century in a significantly different way when a number of religious houses were established on this pattern among Benedictines and possibly the Dominicans. The 14th-century Bridgittines were purposely founded using this form of community.

In the Catholic Church, monks and nuns would live in separate buildings but were usually united under an Abbess as head of the entire household. Examples include the original Coldingham Priory in Scotland, Barking Abbey in London, and also Einsiedeln Abbey and Fahr Convent in separate cantons of Switzerland, controlled by the male abbot of Einsiedeln without a converse arrangement for the prioress of Fahr. More commonly, however, a woman, termed an abbess, ruled over the two communities. In most English and many Continental instances the abbess not rarely was a princess or widowed queen.

Origins
The double monasteries of the 7th and 8th centuries had their roots in early Christian religious communities. Early female monasticism, while not as well-documented as that of its male counterpart, is known by the fifth century in the case of a convent founded in Marseille in 410 by John Cassian. This preceded several convents in Rome. St. Basil and Pachomius both established female religious communities in close proximity to those of men in the East. In 512, Bishop St Caesarius of Arles founded the convent of St. John the Baptist for his sister and her religious community of women. It is this latter convent, and the Rule with which Caesarius endowed it, that served as the framework for the evolution of the double monastery.

Caesarius laid down that individual convents were to be governed by women. The abbess or prioress was to be "superior in rank" and "obeyed without murmuring". Caesarius ensured that the abbesses of the convents would be free of forced obedience to the local diocesan bishop by obtaining a Papal letter exempting the convent from episcopal authority. He also wrote the Regula sanctarum virginum, the first known rule specifically created for a convent. This rule featured a combination of old and new restrictions on monastic life, including the individual renunciation of private property, obedience to God through the abbess, and chastity for life, which served the dual purpose of protecting the enclosure of the convent's members and limiting intrusion by the secular world.

Rise
By the 7th century, the Irish missionary St. Columbanus had established the most famous convent in Gaul, Luxeuil Abbey. Following the death of her husband Clovis II in 657, St. Balthild, the Queen Regent of Neustria and Burgundy became patron of the community, thereby promoting the example of Luxeuil's mixed rule — a combination of Benedictine and Columbanian monasticism — throughout medieval Europe. Balthild was responsible for the foundation of an abbey of nuns at Chelles around 659, a double monastery, where she retired following her vacation of the regency of the Merovingian throne. Around this same time, the brother of the bishop Audoens, Ado, formed the famous double monastery of Jouarre, also in Gaul. These two monasteries shared many of the same features: they both housed male and female religious communities within the same enclosure, though these groups lived apart, and they shared a common church for liturgical offices. Both monasteries were administered by a single head, typically an abbess, a reflection of Caesarius of Arles’ view about the management of female houses. While these religious houses were influenced by Columbanus’ missions in Gaul, he himself never established female religious institutions. The degree of influence which Irish monasticism might have had in the foundation of these Frankish double houses is unclear. In the 5th century, the monastery of St. Brigit of Kildare was a community of men and women living together without strict separation, but there is little evidence as to whether it was traditional or an anomaly.

The involvement of Columbanus’ successors as abbots of Luxeuil, Eustace and Waldebert, is well-documented. The Rule of a Father for Virgins, attributed to Waldebert, established the mother role of the abbess on terms very similar to those of an abbot. In this Rule, Walbert asserts that abbesses share many of the powers of an abbot, including the ability to hear confessions from their nuns and absolve them of their sins. These abbesses were often of noble birth, either direct or distant descendants of the family that founded the monastery. Between the start of the 6th century and the mid-8th century, when double monasteries went into decline, over one hundred double monasteries or convents had been founded in Gaul.

The double monasteries of Anglo-Saxon England were heavily influenced by the monastic system of Gaul. Hilda of Whitby, abbess of the most famous double house in England, had originally intended to join her sister at Chelles in 647, where many other daughters of the English nobility were educated. Instead, she remained in England, where Bishop Aidan of Lindisfarne, later Saint, trained her in monasticism. She continued the Gaulish tradition of noble female heads of double monasteries at Whitby Abbey, which she directly modelled drawing both upon Aidan’s teaching and the Rule followed by her contemporaries at Chelles and Jouarre. By order of King Oswiu, in 664 Hilda hosted the Synod of Whitby, which brought together representatives from the Celtic and Roman churches to resolve ecclesiastical differences between them, including the Easter Controversy. Whitby became known as a school for bishops, and produced five during Hilda’s time as abbess, according to Bede's Historia. The prominent position occupied in England by double monasteries emerges further from the fact that Whitby served in the seventh century as a place of retirement and burial for several Anglo-Saxon kings. It also fostered significant cultural achievements, such as the poems of Cædmon.

Beyond Whitby, Anglo-Saxon England cultivated double monasteries including Ely, which was founded by Queen (and later Saint) Etheldreda of Northumbria. After spending twelve years refusing to consummate her marriage, Etheldreda was granted the land for Ely by her husband, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Another renowned double house, Barking Abbey, followed the Gallic tradition of separation of the sexes with one exception: after death, under Hildelith, abbess of Barking, both male and female burials were combined into a single mass grave. Anglo-Saxon missionaries to the Continent founded double houses there, one example is the double monastery of Heidenheim, Bavaria, founded by Saint Willibald around 742, and later led by his sister, Saint Walpurga.

A characteristic unique to Anglo-Saxon religious establishments was the simultaneous institution of double monasteries along with double minsters. Although both institutions housed both sexes, a double minster served as a church, often founded by a royal or a magnate, with an attached community of priests, nuns, and monks, rather than an enclosed religious community, to carry out welfare and pastoral work in the local area. This distinction was exemplified in the dichotomy between sanctimoniala, a professed nun, and a canonica- a woman living under a religious rule, but without necessarily having taken personal religious vows, as in the case of Beguines and Beghards

Double monasteries were not exclusively found in the West, however. During the 8th century, some cases of double monasteries were documented in the Byzantine Empire. These monasteries were not physically enclosed communities, and featured separate churches for nuns and monks. The most notable of these establishments is the monastery of Mantineion, founded by Anthusa of Constantinople during the reign of the patriarch Nicephorus. Mantineon featured a school for boys in the male monastery, and unlike its Gallic and Anglo-Saxon counterparts, the male and female sections of the monastery featured very different lifestyles. They did, however, rely upon each other, and established a centre of activity between the two churches that allowed both monks and nuns to exchange skills and goods. Like Western double monasteries, the establishment of medieval Byzantine double houses peaked by the mid-eighth century.

Decline and revival
By the end of the 8th century, the double monastery as an institution entered a steep decline. The most obvious doctrinal explanation for this shift lies in the twentieth canon of the seventh ecumenical synod declared at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. This canon reads, in part:

“Double monasteries are henceforth forbidden. If a whole family wishes to renounce the world together, the men must go into convents for men, the female members of the family in convents for women. The double monasteries already existing may continue … but must observe the following ordinance: Monks and nuns may not reside in one building, for living together gives occasion for incontinence. No monk may enter the nun’s quarter, and no nun converse apart with a monk."

By banning further establishment of double monasteries and limiting their applicant pool, the Second Council of Nicaea effectively ensured that double monasteries throughout both England and Gaul would not exist within a century. This ecclesiastical ordinance was not the only limit on the expansion of the double house system. In England, the effects of constant Viking raids combined with the general decline of a cloistered life during the early 9th century all led to a sharp decrease in the populations and activities of these double houses. The Danish invasions of the 9th century led to the destruction of the double monasteries of Whitby, Barking, and Ely by 870. Often, former double monasteries were eventually converted into all-female convents.

Beginning in the late 10th century, Anglo-Saxon England experienced a revival of monasticism. Alfred the Great and his queen, Elswitha, both established convents, though by the time of the Norman Conquest there remained only a few convents and no double monasteries in England. In this new wave, the Regularis Concordia was compiled, which was a form of standardized monastic rule. This rule contained explicit instructions regarding the separation of the sexes, forbidding men to enter convents or disturb a nun at prayer. By the twelfth century, double monasteries experienced a faint resurgence, especially in England under Gilbert of Sempringham’s rule. He established a total of thirteenth mixed houses by the end of that century. These new monasteries were not without controversy, however. On canonical grounds, Pope Alexander threatened Gilbert with excommunication for promoting a banned form of religious community, and only the intervention of King Henry and prominent English bishops allowed Gilbert to continue his double monasteries. There were also allegedly more mundane causes of scandal, pregnant nuns.

Double monasteries continued in Frankish society, but both sections, male and female, eventually shifted into more separate communities of canons and canonesses. In Sweden, on the other hand, double monasteries experienced a great revival during the late fourteenth century with the spread of the Order of the Holy Saviour, also known as the Bridgettines after their founder, Birgitta of Sweden. While double monasteries never again reached the heights of influence and ubiquity they had achieved during the mid-seventh century, the later Middle Ages saw a re-emergence and evolution of double houses and a spread across Europe.

A more recent Eastern Orthodox example emerged in England at Tolleshunt Knights in Essex where the Patriarchal Stavropegic Monastery of St. John the Baptist was established in 1959.

title: Double monastery


text:
The Grand Wizard

The Grand Wizard may refer to:

 * Ernie Roth
 * Grand Wizard, a title in the hierarchy of the Ku Klux Klan

title: The Grand Wizard